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Territorial disputes of India

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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}

[[File:India disputed areas map.svg|thumb|Map showing disputed territories of India.]]

There are several '''disputed territories of India'''. A [[territorial dispute]] is a disagreement over the possession or control of land between two or more sovereign states or over the possession or control of land by a new state and [[occupying power]] after it has conquered the land from a former state no longer currently recognized by the new state.

India faces territorial issues with some of its neighbours – the [[China|People's Republic of China]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Nepal]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://dw.com/en/new-road-rouses-territorial-dispute-between-india-and-nepal/a-53383342 |title=New road rouses territorial dispute between India and Nepal |last=Vaid |first=Darvi |date=10 May 2020 |newspaper=Deutsche Welle}}.</ref> The dispute with China also involves the [[Republic of China]] based in [[Taiwan]].<ref name="book"/> India has resolved its un-demarcated border with [[Bhutan]], which included multiple irregularities. India also resolved its border disputes with [[Bangladesh]] and [[Sri Lanka]].

== Current disputes ==
=== China ===
{{Main|Territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China}}

The territorial disputes between India and China result from the [[History of colonialism|historical consequences of colonialism]] in Asia and the lack of clear historical boundary demarcations. There was one historical attempt to set a proposed boundary, the [[McMahon Line]], by [[Great Britain]] during the [[Simla Convention|1913-1914 Simla Convention]]. The [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] rejected the proposed boundary. The unresolved dispute over the boundary became contentious after India gained its independence and the People's Republic of China was established. The disputed borders are complicated by the lack of administrative presence in the disputed areas, which are remote.<ref name=":Wang2">{{Cite book |last=Wang |first=Frances Yaping |title=The Art of State Persuasion: China's Strategic Use of Media in Interstate Disputes |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2024 |isbn=9780197757512 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197757505.001.0001}}.</ref>{{Rp|page=251}}

==== Sino-Indian border ====
{{Main|Line of Actual Control}}

Two governments claim to be the legitimate Chinese government, the [[China|People's Republic of China]] (PRC) and the [[Republic of China]] (ROC; commonly called "[[Taiwan]]"). They do not recognise the legitimacy of each other. The PRC has actual control of its areas on the India-China border, while the ROC currently has no shared land or maritime border with India. Their views are presented below. The [[Line of Actual Control]] (LAC) is presently the operational border between India and the PRC.

==== People's Republic of China's position ====
{{Main|Sino-Indian border dispute}}

The [[Depsang Plains]] are located on the border of the Indian union territory of [[Ladakh]] and the disputed zone of [[Aksai Chin]]. The [[People's Liberation Army|Chinese Army]] controls most of the plains,<ref name="depsangincursion">{{Cite web |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/making-sense-of-the-depsang-incursion/article4689838.ece |title=Making sense of the Depsang incursion |author=Manoj Joshi |date=7 May 2013 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=15 March 2014}}.</ref> while India controls the western portion of the plains.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/newdelhi/khurshid-to-visit-china-on-may-9-no-date-for-flag-meet/article1-1050021.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425101646/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Khurshid-to-visit-China-on-May-9-no-date-for-flag-meet/Article1-1050021.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 April 2013 |title=Khurshid to visit China on May 9, no date for flag meet |date=25 April 2013 |newspaper=Hindustan Times |access-date=15 March 2014}}.</ref> The dispute remains unresolved.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/china-withdraws-troops-from-ladakh-161850-2013-05-04 |title=Let's shake hands: 20 days on, China withdraws troops from Ladakh: India Today |date=5 May 2013 |website=indiatoday.in |access-date=15 March 2014}}.</ref>

[[Arunachal Pradesh]] is a state of India created on 20 January 1972, located in the far northeast. It borders the states of [[Assam]] and [[Nagaland]] to the south, and shares international borders with [[Burma]] in the east, [[Bhutan]] in the west, and China in the north. The majority of the territory is claimed by China, by whom it [[South Tibet]]. The northern border of Arunachal Pradesh reflects the [[McMahon Line]], a line demarcated by the 1914 [[Simla Convention]] between the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Tibet (1912–1951)|Tibetan]] government. The Simla Convention was never accepted by the Chinese government, and it was also considered invalid by Tibetans due to unmet conditions specified in the treaty.<ref name="Shakya1999">{{Cite web |author=Tsering Shakya |title=The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dosnYnxzTD4C&pg=PA279 |year=1999 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-11814-9 |page=279}}.</ref> The boundary was not broadly enforced by the Indian government until 1950. Currently, this territory is administered by India.<ref name="Territorial Disputes and Resource Management: A Global Handbook">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z5Le627xQLgC&q=arunachal+pradesh+territory+claimed+by+china+as+part+of+south+tibet&pg=PA51 |title=Territorial Disputes and Resource Management: A Global Handbook |last=Guo |first=Rongxing |publisher=Nova Publishers |year=2006 |isbn=9781600214455 |page=51}}.</ref><ref name="History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in South Asia / Indian Subcontinent (1656-2010): Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4IyQSjlObs8C&q=arunachal+pradesh+territory+is+claimed+by+china+as+part+of+south+tibet&pg=PA952 |title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in South Asia/Indian Subcontinent (1656–2010): Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook |last1=Shurtleff |first1=William |last2=Aoyagi |first2=Akiko |publisher=Soyinfo Center |year=2010 |isbn=9781928914310 |edition=illustrated |page=952}}.</ref>

==== Republic of China's position ====
Throughout the Cold War, the [[Government of the Republic of China]] had the same understanding of the China-India border dispute as the PRC. In 1962, the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Taiwan)|ROC's Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] stated that they did not recognise the legality of the [[McMahon Line]]. The same year western countries increased pressure on the ROC leader [[Chiang Kai-shek]] to recognise the legality of the McMahon Line in order to isolate [[Beijing]]. However, Chiang dismissed the McMahon Line as an "imperialist imposition on China". In February 1987, India's move to elevate the status of "[[North-East Frontier Agency|Arunachal centrally administered region]]" to the state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] was declared null and void by the ROC's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Ministry, in a formal statement, stated that it did not recognise the "illegal occupation" of ROC territory south of the McMahon Line and that the establishment of "Arunachal Pradesh state" was an illegal act. In 1995, Ambassador [[Teng Pei-Yin]] (the ROC's first representative to India) in response to an Indian member of parliament, stated that the ROC did not recognise the McMahon Line. However, the ROC has not made any statement on the China-India dispute since.<ref name="book">{{Cite book |title=India and China in Asia: Between Equilibrium and Equations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HJ6RDwAAQBAJ&q=India-China+boundary+dispute+a+Taiwanese+perspective |publisher=Routledge |last=P. Panda |first=Jagannath |date=8 April 2019 |isbn=9780429755163}}.</ref>

==== Disputed areas ====
{{Main|Disputed|China|India-China Border Roads|Quadrilateral Security Dialogue|QUAD|Western Theater Command|List of People's Liberation Army Air Force airbases|List of Indian Air Force stations}}
[[File:Map_of_Western_Theatre_of_PLA.svg|thumb|China's integrated [[Western Theater Command]] area.]]



The [[People's Liberation Army|Chinese Military]] has an integrated [[Western Theater Command]] across the entire border with India.<ref name="lac1">{{Cite web |url=http://tibet.net/2016/05/eye-on-india-china-raises-tibet-military-command-rank/ |title=Eye on India, China raises Tibet military command rank {{!}} Central Tibetan Administration |website=tibet.net |access-date=1 October 2016 |archive-date=7 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107071553/http://tibet.net/2016/05/eye-on-india-china-raises-tibet-military-command-rank/ |url-status=dead}}.</ref> The [[Indian Armed Forces|Indian Military]] has divided the Line of Actual Control into 3 sectors – the ''western sector'' across [[Ladakh]] and the Chinese-held Aksai Chin, the ''central sector'' across [[Himachal Pradesh]] and [[Uttarakhand]], and the ''eastern sector'' across [[Sikkim]] and Arunachal Pradesh.<ref name=lac2>{{Cite web |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/twisting-india-s-chicken-s-neck |title=Twisting India's Chicken's Neck |website=lowyinstitute.org |access-date=18 July 2020}}.</ref> Similarly, the [[Indian Airforce]] has a [[New Delhi]]-based [[Western Air Command]], a [[Prayagraj]]-based [[Central Air Command (India)|Central Air Command]], and a [[Shillong]]-based [[Eastern Air Command (India)|Eastern Air Command]] with several AFS (Air Force Stations/Bases), AGL (Advanced Landing Ground airports) and helipads to cover the LAC.

List of disputed areas from west to east along the India-China border:<ref name="lac4">{{Cite web |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/indias-border-dispute-with-neighbors/1859854 |title=India's border dispute with neighbors |website=aa.com.tr |access-date=18 July 2020}}.</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! style="text-align:center;", ! rowspan="2" | Disputed area
! colspan="2" | Administrative
! rowspan="2" | Controlled by
! colspan="2" | Airbases / AGLs
! rowspan="2" | Comments / Geostrategic context
|-
! India
! China
! India
! China
|-
| [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] (Shaksgam)
| rowspan="4" | [[Ladakh]] ([[Leh district]])
| rowspan="2" | [[Xinjiang|Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region]]
| China (since 1963)
| [[Daulat Beg Oldi#Advanced Landing Ground|Daulat Beg Oldi]]
|
| Ceded to China in 1963 by Pakistan subject to the resolution of the Kashmir dispute with India.<ref name="lac4"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/world-affairs/article30211220.ece |title=Facing the truth |date=20 October 2006 |quote=The Shaksgam Valley was never part of Kashmir and the northern and eastern boundaries of Kashmir were undefined}}.</ref><ref name="Time">{{Cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,870184,00.html |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081222085356/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,870184,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 December 2008 |title=Signing with the Red Chinese |magazine=Time (magazine) |date=15 March 1963 |access-date=28 October 2019}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cenjows.gov.in/pdf/Layout_THE-GILGIT-AND-BALTISTAN-REGIONS-OF-J&K_%20Inside_28-11-17.pdf |title=THE GILGIT AND BALTISTAN REGIONS OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR STATE |date=2017 |website=Center for Joint Warfare Studies |publisher=Xtreme Office Aids |author=R. Chandrashekhar |isbn=978-93-84492-36-6 |page=63}}{{Dead link |date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}.</ref><ref name="3rdedition">{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/CompleteAtlasOfTheWorld3rdEdition2016 |title=Complete Atlas Of The World |edition=3 |publisher=[[Penguin Random House]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/CompleteAtlasOfTheWorld3rdEdition2016/page/n239 239] |quote=(claimed by India) |via=[[Internet Archive]] |date=2016}}.</ref>
|-
| [[Aksai Chin]]
| China
| Daulat Beg Oldi AGL, [[Kushok Bakula Rimpochee Airport|Leh Airport]]
|
| <ref name="padum1"/><ref name="lac4"/>
|-
| [[Demchok sector]]
| [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] ([[Ngari Prefecture]])
| India and China south and north of the [[Indus River]] respectively.
| [[Fukche]]<ref name="padum1">[https://www.deccanherald.com/content/387892/india-plans-advanced-landing-strips.html India plans AGL strips], Deccan Herald, 2014.</ref>
|
| rowspan="3" | <ref name="lac4"/>
|-
| [[Chumar]] (2 separate noncontiguous ''Chumur North'' and ''Chumur South'' subsectors)
| rowspan="6" | Tibet Autonomous Region
| rowspan="6" | India<ref name="lac4" />
| [[Nyoma]], [[Padum]] AGL,<ref name="padum1" /> helipad at Chumur.
|
|-
| [[Kaurik]]
| [[Himachal Pradesh]] ([[Lahaul and Spiti district]])<ref name="lac4"/>
| rowspan="3" | [[Chinyalisaur Airport]] AGL, [[Pathankot Airport]]
|
|-
| [[Tashigang, Himachal Pradesh|Tashigang]]-[[Shipki La]]
| Himachal Pradesh ([[Kinnaur district]])
|
| Shipki La, with an Indian military post, is an important pass for trade.<ref name="lac4"/><ref name="lac3">{{Cite web |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/india-news-believe-it-or-not-china-has-been-grabbing-land-for-forty-years-say-ladakh-residents/303357 |title=Believe It Or Not, China Has Been Grabbing Land For Forty Years, Say Ladakh Residents |website=outlookindia.com |access-date=18 July 2020}}.</ref>
|-
| [[Sang, Uttarakhand|Sang]]-[[Nelang]]-[[Pulam Sumda]]
| [[Uttarakhand]] ([[Uttarkashi district]])
|
| Area also covers Jadhang village.<ref name="lac4"/>
|-
| [[Barahoti]]
| Uttarakhand ([[Chamoli district]])
| Chinyalisaur AGL, [[Pithoragarh Airport]] AGL
|
| Area also covers [[Lapthal]], Sangcha Malla, Silakang villages.<ref name="lac4"/>
|-
| [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
| Arunachal Pradesh
| [[Tawang Air Force Station|Tawang AFS]] and 7 AGLs<ref name="Arun1">[https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/iaf-to-have-7-operational-advanced-landing-grounds-in-arunachal-pradesh-in-a-month/articleshow/49809013.cms?from=mdr IAF to have seven AGL in Arunachal Pradesh], Economic Times, 2018.</ref> ([[Aalo]], [[Mechuka Advanced Landing Ground|Mechuka]], [[Pasighat]], [[Tuting]], [[Vijaynagar, Changlang|Vijoynagar]], [[Walong Advanced Landing Ground|Walong]], [[Ziro]]).
|
| Most of the state is claimed by China.<ref name="lac4"/>
|}

Within the geostrategic context of disputes between India and China, the disputes over [[Doklam]] and the [[Ten Degree Channel]] and [[South China Sea]] shipping lanes are also relevant. Doklam is a dispute between Bhutan and China near the India-Bhutan-China tri-junction. India has sided with Bhutan in the dispute.<ref name="Banyan">{{Citation |author=Banyan |url=https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21725588-xi-jinping-and-narendra-modi-must-tread-warily-himalayan-spat-between-china-and-india-evokes |title=A Himalayan spat between China and India evokes memories of war |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808195239/https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21725588-xi-jinping-and-narendra-modi-must-tread-warily-himalayan-spat-between-china-and-india-evokes |archive-date=8 August 2017 |newspaper=The Economist |date=27 July 2017}}</ref><ref name="Natl_Assembly">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nab.gov.bt/assets/uploads/docs/resolution/2014/82nd_Session.pdf |title=Translation of the Proceedings and Resolutions of the 82nd Session of the National Assembly Of Bhutan |date=June–August 2004 |access-date=20 July 2017 |page=84 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007072910/http://www.nab.gov.bt/assets/uploads/docs/resolution/2014/82nd_Session.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2015}}.</ref> The area is of strategic importance to all three countries.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/people-say-in-doklam-india-is-better-placed-why-do-we-think-chinese-could-only-act-here-shyam-saran-4794147/ |title=People say in Doklam, India is better placed. Why do we think the Chinese could only act here? says Shyam Saran |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813055849/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/people-say-in-doklam-india-is-better-placed-why-do-we-think-chinese-could-only-act-here-shyam-saran-4794147/ |archive-date=13 August 2017 |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=12 August 2017}}.</ref> Doklam lies close to India's [[Siliguri Corridor|Siliguri "Chickenneck" Corridor]] where a Chinese military advance of less than {{convert|130|km}} would cut off Bhutan, part of [[West Bengal]] and all of [[Northeast India]], an area containing almost 50 million people. This scenario arose during the war between India and China in 1962.<ref>Partha S. Ghosh, "Cooperation and Conflict in South Asia", UPL, Dhaka, 1989, p. 43.</ref><ref name="lac3" /> India has embarked on a slew of [[Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region#Northeast India connectivity projects|Northeastern India connectivity]] projects to create multiple alternatives to the Silliguri corridor, including through Bangladesh, National Waterways and seaports, to mitigate the risk of being cut off.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

The world's busiest [[Sea lines of communication|Sea line of communication]] (SLOC) passes through the [[Strait of Malacca]] and the [[Ten Degree Channel]] in the [[exclusive economic zone of India]], a region protected by India's [[Andaman and Nicobar Command]]. It is a geostrategic [[choke point]] for China since over 94,000 merchant ships travel through every year, carrying 40% of the world's freight trade between China and other nations.<ref name="stra2">{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200706233421/http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publication/growing-strategic-importance-andaman-nicobar-islands/ The Growing Strategic Importance of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands]}}, Future Directions org, 15 June 2017.</ref> US$5 trillion in annual shipping trade passes through the SLOC and choke points of [[Southeast Asia]] and the South China Sea (SCS).<ref name="stra3">[https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/more-muscle-for-india-s-andaman-and-nicobar-defence-posts-to-counter-hawkish-china/story-8YkEo28c3WZM9Lqq2iiJnK.html More muscle for India's Andaman and Nicobar defence posts to counter hawkish China], [[Hindustan Times]], 26 August 2017.</ref><ref name="stra12" /> 80% of global trade passes through the Indian Ocean SLOC in the form of oil and natural gas critical for advanced economies.<ref name="stra12">[https://www.defenceconnect.com.au/key-enablers/4124-australia-s-own-indo-pacific-fortress-the-case-for-redeveloping-cocos-islands Australia's own Indo-Pacific fortress – The case for redeveloping Cocos Islands], Defence Connect, 28 May 2019.</ref> India, [[Australia]], [[Japan]] and the [[United States]] have comprised the [[Quadrilateral Security Dialogue]] (QUAD) to contain China as part of their [[Indo-Pacific]] strategy.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |first=James |last=Griffiths |title=A border dispute with China may push India closer to some of Beijing's top rivals |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/18/asia/china-india-border-dispute-quad-us-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=18 June 2020 |website=cnn.com |date=18 June 2020 |language=en}}.</ref><ref name="Chellaney">Chellaney, Brahma. [http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/eo20081103bc.html "Different playbooks aimed at balancing Asia's powers"]. ''[[The Japan Times]]'', 3 November 2008 (originally published by the BBC Monitoring South Asia).</ref><ref>Ching, Frank, [https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/opinon/2008/04/171_19480.html "Asian Arc of Democracy"].</ref><ref name="Tanning">Twining, Daniel, [http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/29d6bc30-6bc9-11dc-863b-0000779fd2ac.html "The new Asian order's challenge to China"], ''[[Financial Times]]'', 26 September 2007.</ref>

=== Pakistan ===
{{Main|India–Pakistan border}}

==== Kashmir ====
{{Main|Kashmir conflict}}
[[File:Kashmir_map.svg|thumb|The divisions of the disputed [[Kashmir region]] administered by the republics of Pakistan, India, and China.]]

The conflict over [[Kashmir]] is primarily between India and [[Pakistan]], with China largely playing a third-party role.<ref>{{Cite web |title=China and the Kashmir crisis |publisher=BBC |last=Yahuda |first=Michael |date=2 June 2002 |access-date=22 March 2019 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2020788.stm}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=China's Kashmir Policies and Crisis Management in South Asia |publisher=United States Institute of Peace |last=Chang |first=I-wei Jennifer |date=9 February 2017 |access-date=22 March 2019 |url=https://www.usip.org/publications/2017/02/chinas-kashmir-policies-and-crisis-management-south-asia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310180512/https://www.usip.org/publications/2017/02/chinas-kashmir-policies-and-crisis-management-south-asia |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 March 2017}}.</ref> Conflict started after the [[partition of India]] in 1947, as both India and Pakistan initially claimed the entirety of the former princely state of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. In 1963, Pakistan [[Sino-Pakistan Agreement|recognized Chinese sovereignty]] over the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] and Aksai Chin.<ref name=Time/> India controls 70% of Kashmir's population and approximately 55% of its land area including [[Jammu]], [[Kashmir Valley]], most of Ladakh, and [[Siachen Glacier]].<ref name="Kargil from Surprise to Victory">{{Cite book |title=Kargil from Surprise to Victory |last=Malik |first=V. P. |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers India |year=2010 |isbn=9789350293133 |edition=paperback |page=54}}.</ref> Pakistan controls approximately 30% of the land including [[Azad Kashmir|Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]]. China controls the remaining 15% of the land, including Aksai Chin and the mostly uninhabited Trans-Karakoram Tract, as well as part of the [[Demchok sector]].<ref name=britannica-intro>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=16 July 2016 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.efsas.org/topics/jammu-and-kashmir.html |title=Jammu and Kashmir |publisher=European Foundation for South Asian Studies |access-date=4 May 2020}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/09/analysis-why-kashmir-matters/ |title=Analysis: Why Kashmir Matters |date=19 September 2016 |last=Snow |first=Shawn |publisher=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |access-date=4 May 2020}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World Regional Geography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yAgGHnENHjoC&pg=PA314 |page=314 |publisher=CengageBrain |first=Joseph J. |last=Hobbs |isbn=978-0495389507 |date=13 March 2008}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Ie Ess Wor Reg Geog W/Cd|publisher=Thomson Learning EMEA |year=2002 |isbn=9780534168100 |quote=India now holds about 55% of the old state of Kashmir, Pakistan 30%, and China 15%}}.</ref><ref name="War Top of the World">{{Cite book |title=War at the Top of the World: The Struggle for Afghanistan, Kashmir and Tibet |last=Margolis |first=Eric |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=9781135955595 |page=56}}.</ref>

==== Sir Creek ====
[[Sir Creek]] is a 96 km (60 mi) [[estuary|tidal estuary]] in the uninhabited marshlands of the [[Indus River|Indus River Delta]] on the border between India and Pakistan. It flows into the [[Arabian Sea]] and separates [[Gujarat]] state in [[India]] from [[Sindh]] province in [[Pakistan]]. The long-standing India-Pakistan Sir Creek border dispute stems from the demarcation "from the mouth of Sir Creek to the top of Sir Creek, and from the top of Sir Creek eastward to a point on the line designated on the Western Terminus".<ref name="refute1">{{Cite web |title=The troubled waters of Sir Creek: Gujarat CM's demand for a freeze on the disputed creek complicates issue, dated 16 December 2012 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/sir-creek-dispute-gujarat-chief-minister-narendra-mod-rann-of-kutchmaritime-boundary-124418-2012-12-16 |newspaper=India Today |date=16 December 2012 |access-date=29 December 2019}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-pakistan-security-experts-declare-sir-creek-dispute-technically-resolved-1885667 |title=Pakistan security experts declare Sir Creek dispute "technically resolved" |date=7 September 2013 |work=dna}}.</ref> From this point onward, the boundary is unambiguously fixed as defined by the Tribunal Award of 1968.<ref name="tribune">{{cite web |title=Kargilisation of Sir Creek |newspaper=The Tribune, Chandigarh |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000307/edit.htm#1 |access-date=21 May 2006}}.</ref>

==== Junagadh and Manavadar ====
In a new political map released in 2020, Pakistan claimed the former princely states of [[Junagadh State|Junagadh]] and [[Bantva Manavadar|Manavadar]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Why Pakistan has claimed Junagadh in its new political map |newspaper=India Today |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/why-pakistan-has-claimed-junagadh-in-its-new-political-map-1708515-2020-08-06 |date=7 August 2020 |access-date=27 May 2021}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Pakistan unveils new political map of country; shows Junagarh, Manavdar and Sir Creek areas of Gujarat as Pakistani territory |newspaper=DeshGujarat |url=https://www.deshgujarat.com/2020/08/04/pakistan-unveils-new-political-map-of-country-shows-junagadh-manavdar-and-sir-creek-areas-of-gujarat-as-pakistani-territory/ |date=4 August 2020 |access-date=27 May 2021}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=After Nepal, Pakistan unveils new political map; Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh claimed, India retorts |newspaper=The Himalayan Times |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/world/pakistan-unveils-new-political-map-claiming-jammu-india-retorts/ |date=4 August 2020 |access-date=27 May 2021}}.</ref>

=== Nepal ===
{{Main|India–Nepal border}}

Major areas of dispute between India and Nepal are [[Kalapani territory|Kalapani]], Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh, [[Susta territory|Susta]], Mechi, and Tanakpur.<ref name="diplo">{{Cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/01/india-and-nepals-slow-motion-border-dispute/ |title=India and Nepal's Slow-Motion Border Dispute |date=4 January 2020 |newspaper=The Diplomat}}.</ref> An estimated 60,000 hectares of border land is currently disputed between India and Nepal.<ref name="scroll">{{Cite news |url=https://scroll.in/article/831576/as-a-river-changed-its-course-a-village-on-the-india-nepal-border-became-disputed-territory |title=As a river changed its course, a village on the India-Nepal border became disputed territory |date=19 March 2017 |website=scroll.in}}</ref>

==== Kalapani territory ====
Although claimed by Nepal, [[Kalapani territory|Kalapani]] has been administered by the Indian army since the [[Sino-Indian War|1962 border war with China]] and Indian maps have been showing Kalapani as part of India since then.<ref name="diplo"/> The 1816 [[Treaty of Sugauli]] signed by [[Kingdom of Nepal]] and [[British India]] in 1816 utilizes the [[Sharda River|Kali River]] as Nepal's western boundary with India. However, lack of consensus on what is the precise location of the river Kali has resulted in dispute over whether the land consisting of Kalapani, [[Kuthi Valley|Limpiyadhura]] and [[Lipulekh Pass|Lipulekh]] is part of India or Nepal. Some scholars suggest that the lack of consensus is because of British cartographers who kept on shifting the line demarcating the river eastwards for strategic reasons. However, there are also some scholars who believe that the lack of consensus is due to the shift in the course of the river over time.<ref name="express">{{Cite news |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/research/mapping-the-history-of-kalapani-dispute-between-india-and-nepal-6423687/ |title=Mapping the history of Kalapani dispute between India and Nepal |newspaper=Indian Express |date=13 June 2020}}.</ref>

In November 2019, India issued a new political map of the country which, like earlier maps, showed Kalapani as part of India. This new map was rejected by Nepal, and mass protests against India took place across the country and outside the Indian embassy in Nepal. Protesters accused India of occupying their land.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/11/india-updated-political-map-stirs-controversy-nepal-191108130802391.html |title=India's updated political map stirs controversy in Nepal |date=8 November 2019 |website=aljazeera.com}}.</ref> In May 2020, the Indian Defence minister, [[Rajnath Singh]] inaugurated an 80 km road from [[Dharchula]] to Lipulekh pass. Nepal protested against the construction of the road.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/india-news/nepal-summons-indian-envoy-to-protest-opening-of-road-to-lipulekh/story-OXCVKTo0Mgewms66pOVU2J.html |title=Nepal summons Indian envoy to protest opening of road to Lipulekh |date=11 May 2020 |newspaper=Hindustan Times}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}.</ref> The Lipulekh area is currently under India's control. On 20 May 2020, Nepal launched its own map showing Kalapani, Limpiyadhura and Lipulekh as parts of its own territory.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/nepals-new-political-map-claims-indias-territories/article31632033.ece |title=Nepal's new political map claims India's territories |first=Kallol |last=Bhattacherjee |newspaper=The Hindu |date=20 May 2020 |via=thehindu.com}}.</ref> The new map was subsequently approved by the [[Federal Parliament of Nepal|Nepali parliament]] on 18 June 2020. India opposed the move, claiming that the decision to include Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh and Kalapani is not based on evidence or historical facts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/06/nepal-parliament-approves-map-includes-land-india-claims-200618074902407.html |title=Nepal Parliament approves new map that includes land India claims |website=aljazeera.com |date=18 June 2020}}.</ref>

On 15 June 2020, the Indian border police, [[Sashastra Seema Bal]] (SSB), reported that [[Boundary marker|border pillars]], which served as demarcation, were missing along the India-Nepal border. SSB also reported that Nepali border police had established five new [[border outpost]]s near the disputed area.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-nepal-border-posts-missing-ssb/articleshow/76377340.cms |title=India-Nepal border posts missing: SSB |date=15 June 2020 |newspaper=Times of India}}.</ref> On 19 June, Nepal started deploying troops near the disputed areas. The troops had established camps and they were working on building a [[helipad]] in the area.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/india-china-standoff-first-nepal-deploys-troops-border-india-1690499-2020-06-19 |title=In a first, Nepal deploys its troops at border with India |date=19 June 2020 |newspaper=India Today}}.</ref> In the same month Nepali Army Chief, General [[Purna Chandra Thapa]], after visiting the Kalapani border area, stated that the [[Nepali Army]] will start building army barracks and border outposts near the Kalapani area.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://theprint.in/diplomacy/nepal-to-set-up-army-barrack-border-outpost-near-kalapani-after-getting-controversial-new-map/445200/ |title=Nepal to set up army barrack, border outpost near Kalapani after getting controversial new map |date=19 June 2020 |newspaper=theprint.in}}.</ref> On 21 June, Indian residents in border villages of Dharchula and Jhoolaghat in [[Pithoragarh district]] claimed that radio stations in Nepal were conducting a propaganda campaign against India by playing anti-India songs and biased news bulletins showing India in a bad light.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/nepal-stations-play-anti-india-songs/articleshow/76488425.cms |title=Nepal stations bombard Uttarakhand villages with anti-India |date=21 June 2020 |newspaper=Times of India}}.</ref>

==== Susta territory ====
[[Susta territory|Susta]] is another territory that is disputed between Nepal and India. It is currently controlled by India as a part of the [[Bihar]] state. The 1816 [[Treaty of Sugauli]] defined [[Gandaki River]] as the international boundary between India and Nepal. The right bank of the river was under Nepal's control while the left bank was under India's control. Susta village was initially on the right bank when the treaty was signed and it was a part of Nepal. However, over the years, the Gandaki River changed its course and Susta moved to the left bank and is now under India's control.<ref name="susta">{{Cite news |url=https://scroll.in/article/831576/as-a-river-changed-its-course-a-village-on-the-india-nepal-border-became-disputed-territory|title=As a river changed its course, a village on the India-Nepal border became disputed territory |date=19 March 2017 |newspaper=scroll.in}}.</ref> The [[Government of Nepal]] has repeatedly stated that Susta belongs to Nepal and that the Indian government should return the area.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

== Resolved disputes ==
=== Sri Lanka ===
{{Main|India–Sri Lanka maritime boundary agreements}}

The dispute on the status of the island of [[Katchatheevu]] was settled in 1974 by an agreement between both countries.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 August 2013 |title=Kachchatheevu was not ceded to Sri Lanka, Centre tells court |language=en |newspaper=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kachchatheevu-was-not-ceded-to-sri-lanka-centre-tells-court/article5076961.ece |access-date=26 September 2021}}.</ref> But still some cases are ongoing in [[Madras High Court|High Court of Madras]] which are filed earlier regarding this dispute stating as illegally issued to [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 August 2018 |title=HC wants to know status of case filed by Jayalalithaa to retrieve Katchatheevu |language=en |newspaper=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/hc-wants-to-know-status-of-case-filed-by-jayalalithaa-to-retrieve-katchatheevu/article24748091.ece |access-date=31 May 2021}}.</ref> Several actions were still taken by the [[Government of India|Union Government of India]] to retrieve that island back to Indian territory once again.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 February 2021 |title=Centre making sincere efforts to retrieve Katchatheevu: V. K. Singh |language=en |newspaper=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/centre-making-sincere-efforts-to-retrieve-katchatheevu/article33775766.ece |access-date=16 April 2022}}.</ref>

=== Bangladesh ===
{{Main|Bangladesh–India border|India–Bangladesh enclaves}}

[[South Talpatti]] (as it was known internationally) or Sheikh Mujib Island (as it was known by Bangladeshi [[Awami League]] supporters) was a small uninhabited offshore sandbar landform in the [[Bay of Bengal]], off the coast of the [[Ganges Delta|Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta]] region. In the aftermath of the [[Bhola cyclone]] in 1970, it emerged in the Bay of Bengal on the [[Bangladesh]]i side of the dividing river, and disappeared before or during [[Cyclone Aila]] in 2009. In March 2010, Sugata Hazra of the School of Oceanographic Studies at [[Jadavpur University]], [[Kolkata]], said that the island had disappeared and that [[current sea level rise|sea level rise]] caused by climate change was a factor.<ref name=Wade>{{Cite web |url=http://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/rising-sea-level-settles-border-dispute-20100324-qwum.html |title=Rising sea level settles border dispute |last1=Wade |first1=Matt |date=25 March 2010 |newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref>

The enclaves were reputedly part of a high stake card or chess games centuries ago between two regional kings, the Maharaja of [[Cooch Behar]] and the Nawab of [[Rangpur, Bangladesh|Rangpur]] and the result of a confused outcome of a treaty between the Kingdom of Cooch Behar and the [[Mughal Empire]]. After the [[partition of India]] in 1947, [[Cooch Behar district]] joined India and Rangpur went to [[East Pakistan]], which became Bangladesh in 1971. The prime ministers of India and Bangladesh signed a Land Boundary Agreement in 1974 to exchange enclaves and simplify the international border. In 1974, Bangladesh approved a proposed treaty to exchange all enclaves within each other's territories, but India did not ratify it. Another agreement was made in 2011 to exchange enclaves and adverse possessions. A revised version of the agreement was finally adopted by the two countries 41 years after negotiations began, when the Parliament of India passed the 100th Amendment Act to the Indian Constitution on 7 May 2015.<ref>"The Constitution (119th Amendment) Bill, 2013" PRS India. Accessed 10 May 2015.[http://www.prsindia.org/billtrack/the-constitution-119th-amendment-bill-2013-3049/]</ref> Inside the main part of [[Bangladesh]], there were 111 Indian enclaves (17,160.63 acres), while in the main part of India, there were 51 Bangladeshi enclaves (7,110.02 acres). In respect of adverse possessions, India received 2,777.038 acres of land and transferred 2267.682 acres to Bangladesh. India ratified the agreement by constitutional amendment in May 2015.<ref name="India 2014">{{Cite web |title=Everything you need to know: Land swap in offing with Bangladesh to end disputes |website=indianexpress.com |date=2 December 2014 |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/explained-land-swap-in-offing/ |access-date=29 May 2015}}.</ref> Under this agreement, the enclave residents could continue to reside at their present location or move to the country of their choice.<ref name="Sougata Mukhopadhyay">{{Cite news |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/indiabangladesh-sign-pact-on-border-demarcation/181937-3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622024224/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/indiabangladesh-sign-pact-on-border-demarcation/181937-3.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 June 2012 |title=India-Bangladesh sign pact on border demarcation |author=Sougata Mukhopadhyay |publisher=CNN-IBN |date=7 September 2011 |access-date=20 September 2011}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Parliament-passes-historic-land-accord-bill-to-redraw-border-with-Bangladesh/articleshow/47190401.cms |title=Parliament passes historic land accord bill to redraw border with Bangladesh |newspaper=The Times Of India |date=7 May 2015 |access-date=7 May 2015}}.</ref> The [[adverse possession]] of Berubari went to Bangladesh.<ref>{{Cite web |author=MANOJ ANAND |url=http://www.asianage.com/india/bangladesh-land-swap-deal-agp-calls-bandh-says-pm-modi-betrayed-people-374 |title=Bangladesh land swap deal: AGP calls bandh, says PM Modi betrayed people |publisher=The Asian Age |date=8 May 2015 |access-date=8 May 2015 |archive-date=18 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150718172037/http://www.asianage.com/india/bangladesh-land-swap-deal-agp-calls-bandh-says-pm-modi-betrayed-people-374 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The unmarked borders between the nations were also finally solved regarding Daikhata-Dumabari, Muhurichar river island<ref name="Shubhajit Roy">{{Cite web |author=Shubhajit Roy |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/explained-land-swap-in-offing/ |title=Everything you need to know: Land swap in offing with Bangladesh to end disputes |publisher=Indian Express |date=2 December 2014 |access-date=2 December 2014}}.</ref> and Pyrdiwah.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1150507/jsp/frontpage/story_18745.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507093650/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1150507/jsp/frontpage/story_18745.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 May 2015 |title=Meghalaya groups flay land-swap deal |publisher=Calcutta Telegraph |date=6 May 2015 |access-date=6 May 2014}}.</ref>

In 2009, Bangladesh initiated arbitration proceedings against India under the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|United Nations Convention on Law of Sea]]. In 2014 it was awarded a large part of the Bay of Bengal, ending the maritime dispute between the two countries.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 July 2014 |title=Bangladesh wins maritime dispute with India |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/bangladesh-wins-maritime-dispute-with-india/article6191797.ece |access-date=14 June 2024 |newspaper=The Hindu |language=en |issn=0971-751X}}.</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[Climate of India]]
* [[Borders of India]]
* [[Extreme points of India]]
* [[Exclusive economic zone of India]]
* [[Geography of India]]
* [[Outline of India]]
* [[Separatist movements of India]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://cdn.static-economist.com/sites/default/files/imagecache/full-width/images/2014/04/blogs/banyan/himalayan_201034fbc949.gif Disputed territories of India]

{{DEFAULTSORT:List Of Disputed Territories Of India}}
[[Category:Territorial disputes of India]]

Devikulam Assembly constituency

2026-05-06T00:27:20Z

SAWANTRAJ: Made a bio from scratch

{{short description|Constituency of the Kerala legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Devikulam
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 88
| state = Kerala
| map_image = Mattupetty Dam reservoir, near Munnar, Kerala.jpg
| map_caption = [[Mattupetty Dam]] near [[Munnar]]
| established = 1957
| reservation = SC
| electors = 1,64,803 (2016)
| mla = [[A. Raja (Kerala politician)|A. Raja]]
| party = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPIM]]
| district = [[Idukki district|Idukki]]
}}
'''Devikulam State assembly constituency''' is one of the 140 [[Kerala Legislative Assembly|state legislative assembly]] constituencies in [[Kerala]] in southern [[India]]. It is also one of the seven [[Kerala Legislative Assembly|state legislative assembly]] constituencies included in [[Idukki Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref name="idk">{{cite web
|url = http://www.ceo.kerala.gov.in/idukki.html
|website = www.ceo.kerala.gov.in
|title = State Assembly constituencies in Idukki district
|access-date =16 March 2020
}}</ref> Since 2011, the constituency has been reserved for members of the Scheduled Castes (SC). In the [[2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|2021 assembly elections]], [[A. Raja (Kerala politician)|A. Raja]] of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] was elected as the [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]. However, he was subsequently disqualified by [[Kerala High Court]] on 20 March 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kerala HC calls off Devikulam Assembly election result,disqualifies CPM MLA A Raja |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/kerala-hc-calls-off-devikulam-assembly-election-result-cpm-mla-disqualified-1.8407119 |access-date=2023-03-20 |website=English.Mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=High Court Annuls Election Results of Devikulam Constituency |url=https://www.deshabhimani.com/english/news/kerala/high-court-annuls-assembly-election-results-of-devikulam-constituency/8007 |access-date=2023-03-20 |website=Deshabhimani |language=en}}</ref> The Kerala High Court order was challenged in the Supreme Court, which subsequently stayed the High Court order. The final ruling is pending as on 3 January 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sebastian |first=Sheryl |date=2023-04-29 |title=Supreme Court Stays Order Of Kerala High Court That Annuled CPM MLA A Raja's Election From Reserved Constituency |url=https://www.livelaw.in/top-stories/supreme-court-stays-order-of-kerala-high-court-that-annuled-cpm-mla-a-rajas-election-from-reserved-constituency-227509 |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=www.livelaw.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-09-26 |title=Supreme Court reserves verdict on Devikulam MLA A. Raja’s appeal against Kerala HC invalidation of his 2021 poll victory |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme-court-reserves-verdict-on-devikulam-mla-a-rajas-appeal-against-kerala-hc-invalidation-of-his-2021-poll-victory/article68685665.ece |access-date=2025-01-03 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Local self-governed segments==
Devikulam Assembly constituency is composed of the following local self-governed segments:<ref name="idk"/>
{{srn}}
{|class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-hash"
! width="100px" | Name
! width="130px" | Status ([[Gram panchayat|Grama panchayat]]/[[Municipality]])
! width="100px" | [[Tehsil|Taluk]]
|-
| [[Devikulam]]
| Grama panchayat
| [[Devikulam taluk|Devikulam]]
|-
| [[Adimali]]
| Grama panchayat
| [[Devikulam taluk|Devikulam]]
|-
| [[Edamalakkudy, Idukki|Edamalakkudy]]
| Grama panchayat
| [[Devikulam taluk|Devikulam]]
|-
| [[Kanthalloor]]
| Grama panchayat
| [[Devikulam taluk|Devikulam]]
|-
| [[Mankulam (Kerala)|Mankulam]]
| Grama panchayat
| [[Devikulam taluk|Devikulam]]
|-
| [[Marayur]]
| Grama panchayat
| [[Devikulam taluk|Devikulam]]
|-
| [[Munnar]]
| Grama panchayat
| [[Devikulam taluk|Devikulam]]
|-
| [[Pallivasal]]
| Grama panchayat
| [[Devikulam taluk|Devikulam]]
|-
| [[Vattavada]]
| Grama panchayat
| [[Devikulam taluk|Devikulam]]
|-
| [[Vellathuval]]
| Grama panchayat
| [[Devikulam taluk|Devikulam]]
|-
| [[Bisonvalley]]
| Grama panchayat
| [[Udumbanchola]]
|-
| [[Chinnakanal]]
| Grama panchayat
| [[Udumbanchola]]
|}

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
The following list contains all members of [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] who have represented the constituency:<ref>{{Cite web|title=Devikulam (SC) Assembly Election Results 2016, Winning MLA List, Constituency Map|url=https://www.mapsofindia.com/assemblypolls/kerala/devikulam-sc-assembly-constituency-map.html|access-date=2020-08-29|website=www.mapsofindia.com}}</ref>

'''Key'''

{{Party index link|Communist Party of India}}{{Party index link|Indian National Congress}}{{Party index link|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="50%"
! style="background-color:#666666; color:white" |Election
! style="background-color:#666666; color:white" |Niyama
Sabha
! style="background-color:#666666; color:white" |Member
! colspan="2" style="background-color:#666666; color:white" |Party
! style="background-color:#666666; color:white" |Tenure
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[1957 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
| rowspan="3" |1st
|[[Rosamma Punnoose|Rosammma Punnose]]
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|1957 – 1958
|-
|N. Ganapathy
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|1957 – 1960
|-
|1958*
|Rosammma Punnose
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India|rowspan=2}}
|1958 – 1960
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[1960 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|1960]]
| rowspan="2" |2nd
|[[M. M. Sundaram]]
|1960 – 1965
|-
|Murugesan Thiruvengadan
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|1960 – 1965
|-
|[[1967 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|3rd
|N. Ganapathy
|1967 – 1970
|-
|[[1970 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|1970]]
|4th
|G. Varadan
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|1970 – 1977
|-
|[[1977 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|5th
|Kittappanarayanaswamy
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|1977 – 1980
|-
|[[1980 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|6th
| rowspan="2" |G. Varadan
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=3}}
|1980 – 1982
|-
|[[1982 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|1982]]
|7th
|1982 – 1987
|-
|[[1987 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|1987]]
|8th
|Sundaram Manickam
|1987 – 1991
|-
|[[1991 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|9th
| rowspan="3" |A. K. Moni
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|1991 – 1996
|-
|[[1996 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
|10th
|1996 – 2001
|-
|[[2001 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
|11th
|2001 – 2006
|-
|[[2006 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
|12th
| rowspan="3" |[[S. Rajendran (CPI(M) politician)|S. Rajendran]]
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=4}}
|2006 – 2011
|-
|[[2011 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
|13th
|2011 – 2016
|-
|[[2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
|14th
|2016 – 2021
|-
|[[2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
|15th
|[[A. Raja (Kerala politician)|A. Raja]]
|2021-2023
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki> by-election

== Election results ==
Percentage change (±%) denotes the change in the number of votes from the immediate previous election.

===2026===

{{Election box begin | title=[[2026 Kerala Legislative Assembly election]]: Devikulam}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = F Raja
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = CPI(M)
|candidate = [[A. Raja (Kerala politician)|A.Raja]]
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = BJP
|candidate = [[S. Rajendran (Keralite politician)|S.Rajendran]]
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Rajendran V B
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent politician
|candidate = Chelladurai M
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent politician
|candidate = Selvi
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the above
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box margin of victory|
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2021 ===
{{Election box begin|title=[[2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election]]: Devikulam}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate=[[A. Raja (Kerala politician)|Adv A.Raja]]
|votes=59,049
|percentage=51.00
|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party=Indian National Congress
|candidate= D. Kumar
|votes=51,201
|percentage=44.22
|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party=National Democratic Alliance
|candidate= Ganesan. S
|votes=4,717
|percentage=4.07
|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party=None of the above
|candidate=None of the above
|votes=921
|percentage=0.78
|change=}}
{{Election box margin of victory|
|votes=7,848
|percentage=
|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes=1,15,774
|percentage=68.34
|change=}}

{{Election box hold with party link|winner=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|swing=}}{{Election box end}}

=== 2016 ===
There were 1,64,803 registered voters in the constituency for the 2016 Kerala Assembly election.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kerala Niyamasabha Election Results 2016, Election commission of India|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3767-kerala-general-legislative-election-2016|website=eci.gov.in}}</ref>
{{Election box begin|title=[[2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election]]: Devikulam}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|candidate=S. Rajendran|votes=49,510|percentage=42.18|change={{decrease}}6.25}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Indian National Congress|candidate=A. K. Mony|votes=43,728|percentage=37.25|change={{decrease}}7.37}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|candidate=R. M. Dhanalakshmy|votes=11,613|percentage=9.89|change={{increase}}9.29}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=N. Chandran|votes=9,592|percentage=8.17|change={{increase}}4.82}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|party=None of the above|candidate=None of the above|votes=921|percentage=0.78|change=-}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent politician|candidate=J. Rajeshwary|votes=650|percentage=0.55|change=-}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Peoples Democratic Party (India)|candidate=Rajendran R.|votes=485|percentage=0.41|change=-}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent politician|candidate=C. K. Govindhan|votes=303|percentage=0.26|change=-}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent politician|candidate=K. Manikandan|votes=267|percentage=0.23|change={{decrease}}0.03}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent politician|candidate=Pandiraj|votes=184|percentage=0.16|change=-}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent politician|candidate=K. P. Ayyapan|votes=129|percentage=0.11|change=-}}{{Election box margin of victory||votes=6,232|percentage=4.93|change={{increase}}1.12}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=1,17,382|percentage=71.23|change={{decrease}}1.18}}

{{Election box hold with party link|winner=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|swing={{decrease}}6.25}}{{Election box end}}

=== 2011 ===
There were 1,47,855 registered voters in the constituency for the 2011 election.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kerala Niyamasabha Election Results 2011, Election commission of India|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3763-kerala-2011|access-date=11 March 2020|website=eci.gov.in}}</ref>

{{Election box begin|title=[[2011 Kerala Legislative Assembly election]]: Devikulam}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|candidate=S. Rajendran|votes=51,849|percentage=48.43|change=-}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Indian National Congress|candidate=A. K. Mony|votes=47,771|percentage=44.62|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=S. Rajagopal|votes=3,582|percentage=3.35|change=-}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent politician|candidate=Selvaraj Madaswami|votes=1,060|percentage=0.99|change=-}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=T. C. Thankappan|votes=913|percentage=0.85|change=}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|candidate=Mallika|votes=646|percentage=0.60|change=-}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Social Democratic Party of India|candidate=Raju Ayyapan|votes=628|percentage=0.59|change=-}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent politician|candidate=P. K. Mani|votes=336|percentage=0.31|change=-}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent politician|candidate=K. Manikandan|votes=274|percentage=0.26|change=-}}{{Election box margin of victory||votes=4,078|percentage=3.81|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=1,07,059|percentage=72.41|change=}}

{{Election box hold with party link|winner=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|swing=}}{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Devikulam]]
* [[Idukki district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Kerala Legislative Assembly]]
* [[2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Kerala Assembly Constituencies}}

{{Kerala Niyamasabha elections}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Kerala]]
[[Category:State assembly constituencies in Idukki district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1957]]
[[Category:1957 establishments in Kerala]]

Meenal Choubey

2026-05-05T06:59:07Z

SAWANTRAJ: creating new info

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{notability|1=Biographies|date=February 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Meenal Choubey
| image =
| caption = Choubey in 2025
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1972|10|16}}
| birth_place = [[Raipur]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] {{small|(present-day [[Raipur]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[India]])}}
| birth_name =
| office = 10th [[Raipur Municipal Corporation|Mayor of Raipur]]
| term_start = 27 February 2025
| term_end =
| predecessor = Dr. Gaurav K. Singh, [[Indian Administrative Services|IAS]] ([[District Magistrate|Administrator]])
| successor =
| office1 = [[Leader of Opposition]], [[Raipur Municipal Corporation]]
| term_start1 = 26 March 2021
| term_end1 = 7 January 2025
| deputy1 = Manoj Verma, [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| predecessor1 = Suryakant Rathore, [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| successor1 = Sandeep Sahu, [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| office2 = [[Councillor]], [[Raipur Municipal Corporation]]
| term_start2 = 5 January 2010
| term_end2 = 7 January 2025
| constituency2 = Khubchand Baghel Ward
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 = Durga Sahu, [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| occupation = Politician
| spouse = Chagan Choubey
| children =
| education = [[Pandit Ravishankar Shukla University]]
| website =
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| source =
}}

'''Meenal Chagan Choubey''' is an Indian politician from [[Chhattisgarh]], presently serving as the Mayor of [[Raipur Municipal Corporation|Raipur]], capital city of [[Chhattisgarh]] since 2025. Belonging to [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], she is a senior politician in the city who served as [[Leader of Opposition]] in [[Raipur Municipal Corporation]] and [[Councillor]] (''Parshad'') from [[Khubchand Baghel]] Ward of Raipur for three consecutive terms.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-16|title=Chhattisgarh Municipal Election Result LIVE: BJP registers landslide victory, CM Sai calls it 'historic moment' |url= https://www.livemint.com/politics/chhattisgarh-municipal-election-result-live-bjp-leads-in-nikay-chunav-results-counting-underway-congress-11739603359696.html|access-date=2025-02-16|website= Live Mint|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-16|title=BJP sweeps urban body polls in Chhattisgarh , wins all 10 mayor posts
|url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/raipur/bjp-sweeps-urban-body-polls-in-chhattisgarh-wins-all-10-mayor-posts/articleshow/118292642.cms|access-date=2025-02-16|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Choubey was born in 1972 in a [[Brahmin]] family. She has done his post graduation from Pandit [[Ravishankar Shukla University]]. She entered student politics through [[Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad|ABVP]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-15|title=Raipur Nikay Chunav Results 2025: BJP's bumper victory in Raipur Nagar Panchayats, huge votes in favor of Madam Mayor Meenal!|url= https://mpcg.ndtv.in/chhattisgarh-news/chhattisgarh-news-cg-nagar-nikay-election-result-2025-live-updates-bjp-congress-winner-candidate-raipur-nagar-nigam-meenal-choubey-7715937 |access-date=2025-02-16|website= NDTV MP-CG|language=hi}}</ref>

== Political career ==
She has been continuously active in the [[BJP Mahila Morcha]] in the form of agitations, sit-ins and demonstrations. She had earlier been the Leader of Opposition in the [[Raipur Municipal Corporation|Municipal Corporation]] Council. She has worked on many posts in the Councillor, District and State Women BJP Front. She has also been a BJP councilor three times. Meenal is also active in the organization. Along with this, she is one of the senior councilors of Raipur Municipal Corporation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chhattisgarh urban body polls: BJP declares candidates for all 10 mayoral seats |url=https://bansalnews.com/cg-bjp-raipur-mayor-candidate-meenal-choubey-snj/ |access-date=2025-02-16 |website=Bansal News |language=hi}}</ref>

== Mayor of Raipur (2025–present) ==
She became the mayor of Raipur in February 2025 by defeating the Congress candidate by 1,53,290 votes. She is the second woman and non-Congress mayor of Raipur to be elected.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-15|title= Raipur Nikay Chunav Results: BJP's record win in Raipur, Meenal Chaubey defeated Deepti Dubey by 1 lakh 53 thousand votes, Ejaz Dhebar also lost.|url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/state/chhattisgarh/raipur/chhattisgarh-raipur-nikay-chunav-result-2025-bjp-meenal-choubey-vs-congress-deepti-dubey-who-wins-in-mayor-and-raipur-nagar-nigam-election-news/articleshow/118264052.cms |access-date=2025-02-16|website= Navbharat Times|language=hi}}</ref>

==Elections contested==
===Raipur Municipal Corporation===
{{Main|Raipur Municipal Corporation}}
{|class="sortable wikitable"
|-
!width=50|Year
!width=50|Post
!width=50|Result
!width=70|Vote Percentage
!width=200|Opposition Candidate
!width=70|Opposition Party
!width=70|Opposition Vote Percentage
|-
|[[2025 Raipur Municipal Corporation election|2025]] || [[Mayor of Raipur|Mayor]] || {{Won}} || 62.03 || Deepti Dubey|| [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || 31.92
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

{{DEFAULTSORT:Choubey, Meenal}}
[[Category:1972 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Raipur]]
[[Category:Mayors by populated place in India|Raipur]]
[[Category:Women mayors of places in Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women politicians]]
[[Category:21st-century mayors of places in India]]
[[Category:Mayors of Raipur]]
[[Category:Politicians from Raipur]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Pandit Ravishankar Shukla University alumni]]

Jatoth Ram Chander Naik

2026-04-28T07:18:46Z

SAWANTRAJ: added the article w/ sources

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Jatoth Ram Chander Naik
| Image =
| 2blankname = Speaker
| 2namedata = Gaddam Prasad Kumar
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| office = 3rd [[List of speakers of the Telangana Legislative Assembly#List of Deputy Speakers|Deputy Speaker of the Telangana Legislative Assembly]]<ref name="Ram Chander Naik to be Deputy Speaker">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Ram Chander Naik to be Deputy Speaker |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/ram-chander-naik-to-be-deputy-speaker/article69672374.ece |access-date=9 June 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |date=8 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250609052754/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/ram-chander-naik-to-be-deputy-speaker/article69672374.ece |archive-date=9 June 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref>
| term_start = 8 June 2025
| term_end =
| successor =
| 1blankname = Chief Minister
| 1namedata = Revanth Reddy
| predecessor = [[T. Padma Rao Goud]]
| office1 = Member of [[Telangana Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start1 = 2023
| predecessor1 = Dharamsoth Redya Naik
| constituency1 = [[Dornakal Assembly constituency|Dornakal]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1974|05|06}}
| birth_place = Bommakal, [[Peddavangara mandal]], [[Mahabubabad district]], [[Telangana]]
| spouse = Dr Prameela
| children = Shiva Tarun, Shiva Saketh
}}
'''Jatoth Ram Chander Naik''' (born 1975) is an Indian politician from [[Telangana State|Telangana state]]. He is currently & 3rd deputy speaker. He is an MLA from [[Dornakal Assembly constituency|Dornakal]] which is reserved for ST community [[Mahabubabad district]]. He represents [[Indian National Congress]] Party and won the [[2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly election]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jatoth Ram Chander Naik Telangana Dornakal candidate Profile,Candidates Net Worth, Education News |url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/jatoth-ram-chander-naik-telangana-dornakal-candidate-profile.html |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=News ABP Live |language=en|date=2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-03 |title=Dornakal Assembly Election Results 2023 Highlights: INC's Jatoth Ram Chander Naik wins Dornakal with 115587 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/dornakal-assembly-election-results-2023-live-2471014-2023-12-03 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Naik is from Dornakal in [[Mahabubabad district]]. He is a medical doctor. He completed his [[M.B.B.S]]. in 1998 and later did his M.S. (General) at [[Osmania Medical College]] in 2001. His wife is also a doctor.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jatoth Ram Chander Naik(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- DORNAKAL (ST)(MAHABUBABAD) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://myneta.info/Telangana2023/candidate.php?candidate_id=74 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Naik won from [[Dornakal Assembly constituency]] representing [[Indian National Congress]] in the [[2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly election]]. He polled 115, 587 votes, and defeated his nearest rival Dharamsoth Redya Naik of [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|Bharath Rashtra Samithi]] by a margin of 53,131 votes.<ref name="Telangana Assembly Election Results 2023: Dornakal">{{cite news |title=Telangana Assembly Election Results 2023: Dornakal |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/candidateswise-S29101.htm |access-date=9 June 2025 |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250609152424/https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/candidateswise-S29101.htm |archive-date=9 June 2025}}</ref><ref name="Dornakal Constituency Election Results 2023">{{cite news |title=Dornakal Constituency Election Results 2023 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/telangana/constituency-show/dornakal |access-date=9 June 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250609152642/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/telangana/constituency-show/dornakal |archive-date=9 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

He was appointed as [[List of speakers of the Telangana Legislative Assembly#List of Deputy Speakers|Deputy Speaker of the Telangana Legislative Assembly]] on 8 June 2025.<ref name="Dornakal MLA Naik appointed Deputy Speaker">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Dornakal MLA Naik appointed Deputy Speaker |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/telangana/dornakal-mla-naik-appointed-deputy-speaker-1884130 |access-date=9 June 2025 |work= |publisher=Deccan Chronicle |date=9 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250609151833/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/telangana/dornakal-mla-naik-appointed-deputy-speaker-1884130 |archive-date=9 June 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ram Chander Naik, Jatoth}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1957 births]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Telangana]]
[[Category:Telangana MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:Telugu politicians]]

{{Telangana-INC-politician-stub}}

E. Sundaramoorthy

2026-04-23T02:14:01Z

SAWANTRAJ: Made new entry initial version

{{Short description|Tamil scholar}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image = Dresundaramoorthy.jpg
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1942}}
| birth_place = [[Vellalur]], [[Coimbatore district]], [[Madras Province]], [[British Raj|British India]] (now [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| occupation =
| office = 7th [[Vice-Chancellor]] of [[Tamil University]], [[Thanjavur]]
| 1blankname = [[List of governors of Tamil Nadu|Chancellor(s)]]
| 1namedata = [[C. Rangarajan]] (2001-02) [[P. S. Ramamohan Rao]] (2002-04) [[Surjit Singh Barnala]] (2004-11)
| term = 19 December 2001 - 18 December 2004
| predecessor = [[Kadir Mahadevan]]
| successor = C. Subramaniam
| order =
| alma_mater =
| main_width = 24em
| blank1 = Workplace
| data1 = [[University of Madras]] (? -2001)
| image_size = 220px
| caption =
| honorific_prefix =
| spouse =
| children =
| native_name = இ. சுந்தரமூர்த்தி
| native_name_lang = ta
}}
'''E. Sundaramoorthy''' is a Tamil scholar, professor and writer.

== Birth ==
He was born in 1942 in Vellalur in [[Coimbatore district]], Tamil Nadu, India.<ref name=dinamani>[https://www.dinamani.com/tamilnadu/2021/sep/22/appointment-of-prof-e-sundaramoorthy-as-vice-president-of-the-classical-tamil-institute-3703763.html செம்மொழி நிறுவனத்தின் துணைத்தலைவராக பேராசிரியர் இ.சுந்தரமூர்த்தி நியமனம், தினமணி, 22 செப்டம்பர் 2021]</ref>

== Academic career ==
He worked in the departments of [[Tamil language]],<ref>[https://www.unom.ac.in/index.php?route=department/department/deptpage&deptid=67 Department of Tamil Language, University of Madras]</ref> [[Tamil literature]] and publication of [[University of Madras]] in various capacities for 32 years. From December 19, 2001, to December 18, 2004, he was the Vice chancellor of [[Tamil University]] in [[Thanjavur]]. He worked in [[Central Institute of Classical Tamil]] from 2008 to 2014 as Senior Fellow. Now he is appointed as the Vice Chairperson of CICT.<ref name=dinamani/><ref>[https://www.dinamalar.com/news/tamil-nadu-news/news/2850811 செம்மொழி நிறுவனம் இ.சுந்தரமூர்த்தி நியமனம், தினமலர், 22 செப்டம்பர் 2021]</ref><ref>[https://www.cict.in/index_english.php Central Institute of Classical Tamil, Chennai]</ref>

== Works ==
He wrote more than 70 books on various subjects including [[manuscriptology]], publishing, grammar, and [[stylistics]]<ref name=dinamani/> and 260 articles. He got more than 20 awards including the Tirukkural Award from the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]].<ref>[https://www.hindutamil.in/news/tamilnadu/719073-e-sundaramoorthy-assume-as-the-vice-president-of-the-central-institute-of-classical-tamil-1.html மத்திய செம்மொழி நிறுவனத்தின் துணைத்தலைவராக இ.சுந்தரமூர்த்தி இன்று பொறுப்பேற்பு, இந்து தமிழ் திசை, 23 செப்டம்பர் 2021]</ref>

==Overseas trips==
In connection with the Tamil research works he went to United States of America, Germany, Sri Lanka and Malaysia. He presented a research paper in the [[World Tamil Conference]] held at Chicago.<ref name=dinamani/>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sundaramoorthy, E.}}
[[Category:1942 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Scholars from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Indian Tamil academics]]
[[Category:Heads of universities and colleges in India]]
[[Category:People from Coimbatore district]]

P. Krishna Prasad

2026-04-21T12:46:10Z

SAWANTRAJ: Made A Post

{{Infobox officeholder
| name =
| image = Comrade Krishnaprasad (2).jpg
| constituency = [[Sulthan Bathery (State Assembly constituency)]]
| legislature = Former [[Member of the Legislative Assembly|M.L.A]] at [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]]
| leader = Former MLA, Finance Secretary of [[All India Kisan Sabha (36 Canning Lane)]]
| monarch2 =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1967|5|25}}
| awards =
| alma_mater = [[St. Joseph's College, Devagiri]], [[Kozhikode]]
| party = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
| committees =
}}

'''P. Krishna Prasad''' is the finance secretary of [[All India Kisan Sabha (36 Canning Lane)]] and the former [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Sulthan Bathery (State Assembly constituency)|Sulthan Bathery]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=P KRISHNA PRASAD(CPM):Constituency- Sultans Battery(Wayanad) – Affidavit Information of Candidate|url=https://myneta.info/ker2006/candidate.php?candidate_id=207|website=myneta.info|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Krishnaprasad wants Revenue Dept to publish ‘fac|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2010/feb/12/krishnaprasad-wants-revenue-dept-to-publish-fac-130767.html|website=The New Indian Express|access-date=2020-05-09}}{{dead link|date=February 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref name="elections">{{Cite web|title=Kerala Assembly Election Results in 2006|url=https://www.elections.in/kerala/assembly-constituencies/2006-election-results.html|website=www.elections.in|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref> He is also the chairman of Brahmagiri Development Society, a worker – peasant cooperative in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2018-05-14|title=BDS to open 1000 outlets in Kerala in a year|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/agriculture/bds-to-open-1000-outlets-in-kerala-in-a-year/articleshow/64161717.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref>

== Life ==
P. Krishna Prasad was born on 25 May 1967 to Kuttikrishnan Nair and Devakiamma in [[Sulthan Bathery]].<ref name="niyamasabha">{{Cite web|title=Krishna Prasad (MLA)|url=http://www.niyamasabha.org/codes/members/krishnaprasadp.pdf|date=2006|website=Kerala Legislative Assembly|access-date=2020-04-20}}</ref> He did his bachelor's degree from St. Joseph's College, Devagiri. His wife A. R. Sindu is a prominent political activist.{{fact|date=November 2025}} She is the General Secretary of the All India Federation of Anganwadi Workers and Helpers.<ref name="manoramaonline">{{Cite web|title=Delhi-based Kerala woman in CPM central body|url=https://english.manoramaonline.com/news/kerala/2018/06/24/ar-sindhu-in-cpm-central-committee.html|website=OnManorama|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref> She is one among the 15 women in the Central Committee of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]].<ref name="manoramaonline"/>

== Political career ==

=== Student politics ===
P. Krishna Prasad entered politics through Students' Federation of India. He became the Calicut University Union Chairman in 1987–88.<ref name="niyamasabha"/> He was later elected as the All India President of [[Students' Federation of India|Student' Federation of India]] in 2000 at Chennai Conference.<ref name="niyamasabha"/><ref>{{Citation|title=Students' Federation of India|date=2020-05-09|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Students%27_Federation_of_India&oldid=955769347|work=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref>

=== Electoral politics ===
In 2006, P. Krishna Prasad defeated N. D. Appachan, the sitting MLA of [[Sulthan Bathery (State Assembly constituency)|Sulthan Bathery]] and won by a margin of 25,540 votes.<ref name="elections"/> He therefore became the only CPI(M) leader to get elected after [[P. V. Varghese Vaidyar]]. As per the political history of [[Sulthan Bathery (State Assembly constituency)|Sulthan Bathery]], except for 1996–2001 and 2006–11, the tenure of P.V. Varghese Vaidyar and P. Krishna Prasad respectively, Bathery constituency remains a confident hold of [[Indian National Congress]].

{| class="sortable wikitable"
|-
! No. !! Year !! Constituency !! Winner !! Votes !! Political Party !! Runner-up !! Votes !! Political Party || Margin
|- style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"
| 1 || 2006–2011 || [[Sulthan Bathery (State Assembly constituency)]] || P Krishna Prasad || 63092 || CPI(M)|| N D Appachan || 37552 || [[Democratic Indira Congress (Karunakaran)|Democratic Indira Congress]] || 25540
|}

=== Peasant leader ===
P. Krishna Prasad is associated with '''[[All India Kisan Sabha (36 Canning Lane)]]''' and '''Bhumi Adhikar Andolan (BAA).'''<ref name="thehindubusinessline">{{Cite web|title=‘Trade curbs, attacks on dairy farmers hit cattle economy’|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/trade-curbs-attacks-on-dairy-farmers-hit-cattle-economy/article23304835.ece|website=@businessline|language=en|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref> He came out strongly against the violence of cow vigilante groups and argued that their actions badly affected the livelihood of small and marginal farmers.<ref name="thehindubusinessline"/> After visiting the body of Gajendra Singh, a distressed Rajasthani farmer who committed suicide in front of [[Arvind Kejriwal]] (Delhi Chief Minister), Prasad and his organisation demanded Rs 10 lakh compensation for farmer's family in 2015.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-04-22|title=Farmer suicide: All India Kisan Sabha asks government to provide Rs 10 lakh to kin|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/farmer-suicide-all-india-kisan-sabha-asks-government-to-provide-rs-10-lakh-to-kin/articleshow/47019684.cms|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref> He was part of the two-day colloquium on "Corporate Concentration in Agriculture and Food", organized by [[Rosa Luxemburg Foundation|Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung]], Focus on Global South and Alternative Law Forum.<ref name="newsclick">{{Cite web|title=Battling Corporate Concentration in Agriculture|url=https://www.newsclick.in/battling-corporate-concentration-agriculture|date=2019-07-15|website=NewsClick|language=en|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref> He is a proponent of value addition in agrarian sector to combat the crisis faced by farmers, so that farmers get better price for their labour.<ref name="newsclick"/> He blames Congress party for the high rates of farmers' suicide in Wayanad during their rule.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wayanad hopeful to shed the ‘backward’ tag |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/wayanad-hopeful-to-shed-the-backward-tag/articleshow/68661424.cms|date=April 1, 2019|first=K. R. |last=Rajeev |website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref> He was one of the major organisers of '''Kisan-Mazdoor Sangharsh rally''' which culminated at [[Ramlila Maidan]], New Delhi on 5 September 2018.

== Cooperative movement ==
P. Krishna Prasad is one of the major proponents of the [[cooperative movement in India]]. He is the chairman of the Wayanad-based Brahmagiri Development Society (BDS), a cooperative aiming to combat the agrarian crisis in Kerala by organising solidarity economy among peasants and workers. BDS is a social cooperative of more than 13,000 farmers.<ref name="indiatimes">{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/export-in-tatters-farmers-brew-up-own-coffee-brand/articleshow/75511639.cms|title=Kerala: Export in tatters, farmers brew up own coffee brand | Kozhikode News|website=The Times of India|date=2020-05-03|accessdate=2020-12-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Kerala’s Communists Are Showing India a Path Out of Poverty|url=https://jacobinmag.com/2021/11/kerala-india-communist-party-farmers-cooperatives-bds-wayanad|access-date=2021-11-10|website=jacobinmag.com|language=en-US}}</ref> In agriculture, meat production and dairy, the BDS has enhanced significant self-sufficiency.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Innovative Solutions: How poultry farming is alleviating farm distress in Kerala|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/governance/innovative-solutions-how-poultry-farming-is-alleviating-farm-distress-in-kerala-6225141/|date=2020-01-20|website=The Indian Express|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Brahmagiri Development Society: Society gets Rs 10 crore government aid to up meat output|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/society-gets-rs-10cr-govt-aid-to-up-meat-output/articleshow/57008790.cms|date=February 7, 2017|website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref> The brain behind Brahmagiri Development Society (BDS) is P.V. Varghese Vaidyar, the former CPI(M) MLA from Sulthan Bathery. Both in the electoral politics and cooperative movement Krishna Prasad is true successor to Varghese Vaidyar.

In 2010, Krishna Prasad initiated a ten day long agricultural expo by organizing cooperatives.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Staff Reporter|date=2011-02-25|title=Brahmagiri Fest begins|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/Brahmagiri-Fest-begins/article15458419.ece|access-date=2020-05-09|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He was one of the important organizers of the National Workshop for Agrarian Crisis and Alternative Policies which was held on 11 and 12 July 2019 in Hyderabad. The workshop explored the potential for Cooperatives in the battle against agrarian crisis.<ref>{{Cite news|date=10 July 2019|title=Hyderabad to host 2-day national meet on agrarian crisis from July 11|work=The Hindu Business Line}}</ref> His study along with Jose George on "[[Agrarian distress|Agrarian Distress]] and Farmers' Suicides in the Tribal District of Wayanad" has set a pathway to understand the Agrarian society of rural Wayanad.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=George|first=Jose|last2=Krishnaprasad|first2=P.|date=2006|title=Agrarian Distress and Farmers' Suicides in the Tribal District of Wayanad|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/27644155|journal=Social Scientist|volume=34|issue=7/8|pages=70–85|issn=0970-0293}}</ref> Under his leadership BDS has recently launched comprehensive projects to help out Coffee Farmers in distress.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Staff Reporter|date=2019-11-01|title=Project to enhance income of coffee farmers in Wayanad|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/project-to-enhance-income-of-coffee-farmers-in-wayanad/article29857627.ece|access-date=2020-05-09|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The branding of Wayanad Coffee was part of this initiative.<ref name="indiatimes"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Wayanad coffee to hit the market in March 2020|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/wayanad-coffee-to-hit-the-market-in-march-2020/articleshow/71765384.cms|date=October 25, 2019|first=K. R.|last=Rajeev|website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Prasad, P Krishna}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Indian communists]]
[[Category:Students' Federation of India All India presidents]]

Pradeep Shukla

2026-04-20T20:36:41Z

SAWANTRAJ: Made A Details - done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Pradeep Shukla
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| office1 = Member of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency1 = [[Sahajanwa (Assembly constituency)|Sahajanwa]]
| term_start1 = March 2022
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = [[Sheetal Pandey]]
| successor1 =
| birth_date = {{birth based on age as of date|40|2022|03|10}}<ref name="MyNeta"/>
| birth_place =
| birth_name =
| spouse =
| children =
| father =
| relatives =
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| occupation =
| profession = Businessperson
| alma_mater = Shri Guru Ji Golanalkar School Khorabar, Gorakhpur, 2005
| relations =
}}
'''Pradeep Shukla''' is an Indian politician and a member of [[18th Uttar Pradesh Assembly|18th Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh]] representing [[Sahajanwa (Assembly constituency)|Sahajanwa]].<ref name="MyNeta"/><ref>{{cite news |title=Sahajanwa Uttar Pradesh Election 2022 Final Results LIVE: BJP Candidate Pradeep Shukla wins from Sahajanwa, Details Inside |url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/sahajanwa-election-2022-results-live-updates-constituency-vote-counting-winner-loser-tally-who-will-win-uttar-pradesh-assembly-election-2022-latest-news-1518834 |access-date=14 March 2022 |work=ABP |date=10 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref> He is a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref name="MyNeta"/><ref name="News18"/>

==Personal life==
Shukla was born to Satyadev and hails from [[Gorakhpur]] city of [[Uttar Pradesh]]. He completed his graduation from Shri Guru Ji Golanalkar School Khorabar, Gorakhpur in 2005 and is a businessperson.<ref name="MyNeta">{{cite web |title=Pradeep Shukla (Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- Sahajanwa (Gorakhpur) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://myneta.info/uttarpradesh2022/candidate.php?candidate_id=3668 |website=myneta.info |access-date=14 March 2022}}</ref>

==Political career==
As a [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] candidate from [[Sahajanwa (Assembly constituency)|Sahajanwa]] in the [[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]], Shukla received 105,981 votes, defeating rival Yashpal Singh Rawat of [[Samajwadi Party]] and succeeding party member [[Sheetal Pandey]] in the process.<ref name="News18">{{cite news |title=Sahajanwa Election Result 2022 LIVE Updates: Pradeep Shukla of BJP Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/sahajanwa-election-result-2022-live-updates-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-4852160.html |access-date=14 March 2022 |work=News18 |date=11 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sahajanwa Assembly Seat Result: सहजनवां सीट से BJP प्रत्याशी प्रदीप शुक्ला 22 हजार से अधिक वोटों से जीते |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/uttar-pradesh/gorakhpur-sahajanwa-assembly-seat-result-live-update-win-loss-sudhir-singh-pradeep-shuklayashpal-singh-rawat-manoj-yadav-nodrss-4040854.html |work=News18 |language=hi |date=10 March 2022 |access-date=14 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Uttar Pradesh-Sahajanwa |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMar2022/ConstituencywiseS24324.htm?ac=324 |website=Election Commission of India |access-date=14 March 2022}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shukla, Pradeep}}
[[Category:1980s births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:Politicians from Gorakhpur]]

Manmadha Bullets

2026-04-18T10:14:26Z

SAWANTRAJ:

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Manmadha Bullets.jpg
| caption =
| genre = {{ubl|[[Comedy film|Comedy]]|[[Science fiction film|Science fiction]]|[[Fantasy film|Fantasy]]}}
| creator =
| writer = Martin R. Chantheran
| director = Martin R. Chantheran (S1–2)
| screenplay =
| starring = {{ubl|Thevaguru Suppiah|Shabby|Ravin Rao|Parvin|Hamsni|Chandni Nagadurga|Kavitha|Akshara|Huumesh|Cellina Jay|Irfan Zaini|Thasha Krishnakumar|Jayashree Vijayan}}
| opentheme =
| theme_music_composer = Kash Villanz
| editor = Eswaran Nallathambi
| country = Malaysia
| language = Tamil
| num_seasons = 2
| num_episodes = 44
| list_episodes =
| cinematography = Nileshkumar Rajendran
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime = approx.20-22 minutes per episode
| first_aired = {{Start date|df=yes|2021|05|3}}
| last_aired = {{End date|df=yes|2023|04|13}}
| network = [[Astro Vinmeen HD]]
| related =
| company = {{ubl|Keris Media Networks|Warriors Entertainment}}
| producer = {{ubl|Elena Sumitra Thomas|Sean Abbarow}}
}}

'''''Manmadha Bullets''''' is a [[Malaysia]]n [[Tamil television drama|Tamil-language]] television series starring Thevaguru Suppiah, Shabby, Ravin Rao, Parvin, Hamsni, Chandni Nagadurga, Kavitha, Akshara, Huumesh, Cellina Jay, Irfan Zaini, Thasha, Krishnakumar and Jayashree Vijayan.

The first season aired on [[Astro Vinmeen HD]] from 3 May to 31 May 2021, on Monday to Friday at 21:00 ([[Time in Malaysia|MST]]) and ended with 22 Episodes.<ref name="Premieres">{{cite web |title='Manmadha Bullets' Premieres on 3 May; First Local Tamil Series to Offer Alternate Ending|url=https://astroulagam.com.my/lifestyle/manmadha-bullets-premieres-3-may-first-local-tamil-series-offer-alternate-ending-189121|website=astroulagam.com|language=en}}</ref> This drama is available for worldwide streaming on [[Astro (television)|Astro Ulagam]].

The second season was aired on [[Astro Vinmeen HD]] from 8 March – 13 April 2022, on Monday to Thursday at 21:00 ([[Time in Malaysia|MST]]) and ended with 22 Episodes.<ref name="Manmadha Bullets Reloaded">{{cite web |title='Manmadha Bullets Reloaded' premieres 8 March on Astro Vinmeen (Ch 202)|url=https://corporate.astro.com.my/mediaroom-releases/manmadha-bullets-reloaded-premieres-8-march-on-astro-vinmeen-ch-202|website=corporate.astro.com|language=en}}</ref> It is available for streaming on via TV, Astro GO and On Demand with English and Malay subtitle.<ref>{{cite web |title=Manmadha Bullets on Astro |url=https://content.astro.com.my/search?q=Manmadha%20Bullets|website=content.astro.com|language=en}}</ref>

==Series overview==
{{series overview
| infoA = Time slot

| color1 = #2E97FC
| link1 = Manmadha Bullets#Season 1
| episodes1 = 22
| start1 = {{Start date|df=yes|2021|05|3}}<ref name="Premieres" />
| end1 = {{End date|df=yes|2021|05|31}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Finale of first-ever audience-picked ending for local Tamil TV series on May 31 |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2021/05/23/first-ever-audience-picked-ending-for-local-tamil-tv-series-to-air-on-may-31|website=www.thestar.com|date=23 May 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
| infoA1 = Monday to Friday at 21:00 ([[Time in Malaysia|MST]])

| color2 = #C4E7F0 
| link2 = Manmadha Bullets Reloaded#Season 2
| episodes2 = 22
| start2 = {{Start date|df=yes|2023|03|8}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Wait Is Over As 'Manmadha Bullets Reloaded' Is Premiering 8 March On Astro Vinmeen|url=https://varnam.my/72965/wait-is-over-as-manmadha-bullets-reloaded-is-premiering-8-march-on-astro-vinmeen/|website=varnam.my|date=7 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
| end2 = {{End date|df=yes|2023|04|13}}
| infoA2 = Monday to Thursday at 21:00 ([[Time in Malaysia|MST]])
}}
==Cast==
===Season 1===
* Thevaguru Suppiah as [[Kamadeva|Manmadhan]] (S1–2)
* Huumeesh Gunaseelan as Ambu (based off Vasantha, the assistant of Kamadeva and personifaction of spring season, according to [[Hinduism]]) (S1–2)
* Akshara Nair as Sara
* Ravin Rao Santheran as Krishnan
* Shabby as Gautham
* Vicky Rao as John
* Santeinii Chandra Bos as Swathi
* Kavitha Sinniah as Rebecca
* Hamsni Perumal as Bhavani
* Saharudin Bin Jamaludin as Chittu
* Mitchell R. Chantheran as Kamadhevan
* Martin R. Chantheran as Dharma

===Season 2===
* Cellina Jay
* Chandni Nagadurga
* [[Irfan Zaini]]
* Thasha Krishnakumar
* Jayashree Vijayan
* Parvin Nair
* Riknaveen

==Production==
"'''Manmadha Bullets'''" directed and written by '''Martin R. Chantheran''', produced by '''Elena Sumitra Thomas''' and co-produced by '''Sean Abbarow'''.<ref name="Manmadha Bullets Reloaded" />

==Original soundtrack==
===Season 1===
====Part 1====
{{tracklist
| headline = Released on {{start date|df=yes|2021||}}
| extra_column = Artist
| title1 = Manmadha Bullets<ref>{{cite AV media|people=Kash Villanz and Shamini Shradha|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8a11Y3-RPw|title=Manmadhan Bullet Theme Song {{!}} Kash Villanz and Shamini Shradha {{!}} Astro Vinmeen HD}}</ref>
| note1 =
| lyrics1 = Maney Villanz
| music1 = Kash Villanz
| extra1 = {{hlist|Kash Villanz|Shamini Shradha}}
| length1 = 2:23
}}

===Season 2===
====Part 1====
{{tracklist
| headline = Released on {{start date|df=yes|2023||}}
| extra_column = Artist
| title1 = Manmathan (Theme Song)<ref name="Songs">{{cite web |title=Manmadha Bullets Reloaded Songs|url=https://uk.7digital.com/artist/various-artists/release/manmadha-bullets-reloaded-28470409|website=uk.7digital.com|language=en}}</ref>
| note1 =
| lyrics1 = Kash Villanz
| music1 = Kash Villanz
| extra1 = Kash Villanz
| length1 = 2:29
| title2 = Manthira Vizh<ref>{{cite AV media|people=Kash Villanz|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ejSf2Y2130|title=Manthira Vizh Song {{!}} Kash Villanz {{!}} Astro Vinmeen HD}}</ref>
| note2 =
| lyrics2 =
| music2 = Shane Xtreme
| extra2 = {{hlist|Parvin Nair Surendran|Usha Chandran|Shane Xtreme}}
| length2 = 3:37
| title3 = Urutture Nee<ref>{{cite AV media|people=Shane Xtreme|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FLr8xHmU_g4|title=Urutture Nee Song {{!}} Shane Xtreme {{!}} Astro Vinmeen HD}}</ref>
| note3 =
| lyrics3 =
| music3 = Neroshan Thanaseharan
| extra3 = Neroshan Thanaseharan
| length3 = 1:34
| title4 = Now I can Dance<ref>{{cite AV media|people=Neroshan Thanaseharan|url=https://varnam.my/41598/manmadha-bullets-a-series-where-fans-get-to-choose-an-alternate-ending/|title=Now I can Dance Song {{!}} Neroshan Thanaseharan {{!}} Astro Vinmeen HD}}</ref>
| note4 =
| lyrics4 =
| music4 = Neroshan Thanaseharan
| extra4 = {{hlist|Neroshan Thanaseharan|Amos Paul}}
| length4 = 2:57
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://content.astro.com.my/search?q=Manmadha%20Bullets Manmadha Bullets] at astro.com
* {{IMDb title|tt14798720}}

[[Category:Astro Vinmeen original programming]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television shows in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Tamil-language fantasy television series]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romance television series]]
[[Category:Tamil-language comedy television series]]
[[Category:2021 Tamil-language television series debuts]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television shows]]
[[Category:2023 Tamil-language television seasons]]
[[Category:2023 Tamil-language television series endings]]

Melmalayanur Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:48:48Z

SAWANTRAJ: creating new details

{{Short description|One of the 234 State Legislative Assembly Constituencies in Tamil Nadu, in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = SLA
| map_image =
| established = 1967
| district = [[Villupuram district|Villupuram]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Villupuram (Lok Sabha constituency)|Villupuram]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| party = Pattali Makkal Katchi
| mla = Senthamizhselvan. P
| name = Melmalayanur
| electors= 1,74,724
| reservation =
| abolished= 2008
}}
'''Melmalayanur''' is a state assembly constituency in [[Viluppuram district]] in [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/Const_map/map.htm |title=Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly Constituency Map |website=Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly |access-date=25 January 2017 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614070155/http://www.assembly.tn.gov.in/const_map/map.htm |archivedate=14 June 2012 }}</ref> Elections and winners in the constituency are listed below. Elections were not held in the years 1957 and 1962. It is one of the 234 State Legislative Assembly Constituencies in Tamil Nadu in India.

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Winner
! colspan="2"| Party
|-
| [[1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| V. Gopala Gounder
| {{Full party name with color|Tamil Nadu Toilers Party}}
|-
| [[1967 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| [[R. R. Munusamy]]
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1971]]
| [[R. R. Munusamy]]
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1977 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
| [[P. Thangavelu Gounder]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1980 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| [[A. Chinnadurai]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1984 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1984]]
| [[P. U. Shanmugam]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1989 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| [[R. Panchatcharam]]
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[1991 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
| [[G. Janakiraman]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1996 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
| [[A. Gnanasekar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2001 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
| [[Tamilmozhi Rajadattan]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2006 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
| [[P. Senthamizhselvan]]
| {{Full party name with color|Pattali Makkal Katchi}}
|}

==Election results==
===2006===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2006 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Melmalayanur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = 2006 Election Statistical Report | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_TN_2006.pdf | access-date = 12 May 2006 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007200819/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_TN_2006.pdf | archive-date = 7 Oct 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=P. Senthamizh Selvan |party=Pattali Makkal Katchi |votes=56,758 |percentage=45.81% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Tamilmozhi Rajadathan |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=45,457 |percentage=36.69% |change=-14.33% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=C. Chandira Dass |party=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam |votes=15,265 |percentage=12.32% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Mariyappan |party=Independent politician |votes=1,850 |percentage=1.49% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Anthony Mary |party=Independent politician |votes=973 |percentage=0.79% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. R. Manimaran |party=Independent politician |votes=743 |percentage=0.60% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=T. Duraikkannu |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=721 |percentage=0.58% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=B. Bhaskaran |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=698 |percentage=0.56% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Kannan |party=Independent politician |votes=676 |percentage=0.55% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=C. Chandrasekaran |party=Samajwadi Party |votes=325 |percentage=0.26% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Thangavelu |party=Independent politician |votes=245 |percentage=0.20% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=11,301 |percentage=9.12% |change=-13.56% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=123,907 |percentage=70.92% |change= 7.03% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 174,724 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Pattali Makkal Katchi |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -5.21% }}
{{Election box end}}
===2001===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2001 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Melmalayanur<ref>{{cite web |title = Statistical Report on General Election 2001 |url= http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/Stat_Rep_TN_2001.pdf |date = 12 May 2001 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006173934/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/Stat_Rep_TN_2001.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=R. Tamilmozhi |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=55,309 |percentage=51.02% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Dr. A. Gnanasekaran |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=30,722 |percentage=28.34% |change=-17.34% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. K. Mani |party=Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=17,462 |percentage=16.11% |change=6.73% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Thenmozhi |party=Independent politician |votes=2,206 |percentage=2.03% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=G. Gnanasekar |party=Independent politician |votes=1,166 |percentage=1.08% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Jayaraman |party=MNK(PLP) |votes=651 |percentage=0.60% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Krishanamurthy |party=Independent politician |votes=522 |percentage=0.48% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=D. Ayyasamy Gounder |party=Independent politician |votes=375 |percentage=0.35% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=24,587 |percentage=22.68% |change=-2.82% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=108,413 |percentage=63.89% |change= -5.51% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 169,696 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 5.34% }}
{{Election box end}}
===1996===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1996 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Melmalayanur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = 1996 Election Statistical Report | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-TN96.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007221700/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-TN96.pdf | archive-date = 7 October 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[A. Gnanasekar]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=50,905 |percentage=45.68% |change=17.40% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Dharmarasan |party=Indian National Congress |votes=22,491 |percentage=20.18% |change=-32.77% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Murthi |party=Pattali Makkal Katchi |votes=21,634 |percentage=19.41% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Panchatcharan |party=Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=10,451 |percentage=9.38% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=E. Karunanidhi |party=Independent politician |votes=1,206 |percentage=1.08% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Thangavol |party=Independent politician |votes=1,158 |percentage=1.04% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=K. Subramania Gounder |party=Independent politician |votes=1,004 |percentage=0.90% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. Sankar |party=Independent politician |votes=389 |percentage=0.35% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Maninaran |party=Janata Party |votes=379 |percentage=0.34% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=G. Ravichandran |party=Independent politician |votes=369 |percentage=0.33% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. A. Koothan |party=Independent politician |votes=353 |percentage=0.32% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=28,414 |percentage=25.50% |change=0.83% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=111,439 |percentage=69.40% |change= 0.49% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 169,264 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= -7.27% }}
{{Election box end}}
===1991===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1991 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Melmalayanur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = Statistical Report on General Election 1991 | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-Tamil%20Nadu91.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007161404/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-Tamil%20Nadu91.pdf | archive-date = 7 October 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=G. Janakiramam |party=Indian National Congress |votes=56,864 |percentage=52.95% |change=47.98% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Panchatcharam |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=30,372 |percentage=28.28% |change=-18.37% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=G. Anbalagan |party=Pattali Makkal Katchi |votes=18,029 |percentage=16.79% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Balasundaram |party=Independent politician |votes=1,069 |percentage=1.00% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Arumugam |party=Independent politician |votes=663 |percentage=0.62% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Annadurai |party=Tharasu Makkal Mandram |votes=387 |percentage=0.36% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=26,492 |percentage=24.67% |change=11.88% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=107,384 |percentage=68.91% |change= -3.37% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 160,282 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 6.30% }}
{{Election box end}}
===1989===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1989 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Melmalayanur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = Statistical Report on General Election 1989 | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/StatisticalReportTamilNadu89.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101006153620/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/StatisticalReportTamilNadu89.pdf | archive-date = 6 October 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=R. Panchatcharam |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=46,653 |percentage=46.66% |change=16.49% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[P. U. Shanmugam]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=33,866 |percentage=33.87% |change=-33.76% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=V. Elumalai |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=11,607 |percentage=11.61% |change=-56.02% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Rajadurai |party=Indian National Congress |votes=4,975 |percentage=4.98% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Gurusami |party=Independent politician |votes=940 |percentage=0.94% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. A. Koothan |party=Independent politician |votes=711 |percentage=0.71% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Chandrasekaran |party=Independent politician |votes=503 |percentage=0.50% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Pachaippan |party=Independent politician |votes=475 |percentage=0.48% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Elumalai |party=Independent politician |votes=182 |percentage=0.18% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=H. Kothandam |party=Independent politician |votes=82 |percentage=0.08% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=12,787 |percentage=12.79% |change=-24.67% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=99,994 |percentage=72.28% |change= -3.54% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 141,778 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -20.97% }}
{{Election box end}}
===1984===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1984 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Melmalayanur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = Statistical Report on General Election 1984 | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1984/StatisticalReportTamilNadu84.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120117121208/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1984/StatisticalReportTamilNadu84.pdf | archive-date = 17 Jan 2012}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[P. U. Shanmugam]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=61,289 |percentage=67.63% |change=18.79% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. R. Aranganathan |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=27,343 |percentage=30.17% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. James |party=Independent politician |votes=793 |percentage=0.87% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=H. Kothandam |party=Independent politician |votes=415 |percentage=0.46% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Chinnadurai |party=Independent politician |votes=412 |percentage=0.45% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Jayaraman |party=Independent politician |votes=377 |percentage=0.42% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=33,946 |percentage=37.46% |change=37.21% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=90,629 |percentage=75.81% |change= 6.67% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 126,800 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 18.79% }}
{{Election box end}}
===1980===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1980 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Melmalayanur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = Statistical Report on General Election 1980 | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu%201980.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101006231656/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu%201980.pdf | archive-date = 6 Oct 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=A. Chinnadurai |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=39,572 |percentage=48.84% |change=9.91% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=V. Perumal Nainar |party=Indian National Congress |votes=39,374 |percentage=48.59% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=T. S. Rathinaswamy |party=Republican Party of India |votes=1,750 |percentage=2.16% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=H. Kothandam |party=Independent politician |votes=331 |percentage=0.41% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=198 |percentage=0.24% |change=-18.83% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=81,027 |percentage=69.14% |change= 4.66% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 118,992 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 9.91% }}
{{Election box end}}
===1977===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1977 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Melmalayanur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = Statistical Report on General Election 1977 | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu77.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007141448/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReportTamil%20Nadu77.pdf | archive-date = 7 Oct 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=P. Thangavelu Gounder |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=27,673 |percentage=38.93% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Vijayaraghavan |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=14,110 |percentage=19.85% |change=-33.70% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=K. Gopala Gounder |party=Independent politician |votes=12,064 |percentage=16.97% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. V. Ayyakannnu Gounder |party=Janata Party |votes=6,543 |percentage=9.20% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. A. Kuthan |party=Independent politician |votes=5,327 |percentage=7.49% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Murugesan |party=Communist Party of India |votes=1,828 |percentage=2.57% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Sadagopan |party=Independent politician |votes=1,755 |percentage=2.47% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=H. Kothandam |party=Independent politician |votes=988 |percentage=1.39% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=N. Vinayagam |party=Independent politician |votes=804 |percentage=1.13% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=13,563 |percentage=19.08% |change=3.84% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=71,092 |percentage=64.48% |change= -4.57% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 112,185 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -14.62% }}
{{Election box end}}
===1971===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Melmalayanur<ref>{{cite web | last = Election Commission of India | title = Statistical Report on General Election 1971 | url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1971/StatReport_TN_71.pdf | access-date = 19 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101006131227/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1971/StatReport_TN_71.pdf | archive-date = 6 Oct 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=R. R. Munusamy |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=31,166 |percentage=53.54% |change=2.86% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=K. Gopal Gounder |party=Indian National Congress |votes=22,294 |percentage=38.30% |change=11.83% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Thangavel Kander |party=Independent politician |votes=3,745 |percentage=6.43% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. A. Kuthan |party=Independent politician |votes=1,002 |percentage=1.72% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,872 |percentage=15.24% |change=-8.97% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=58,207 |percentage=69.05% |change= -5.27% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 94,704 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 2.86% }}
{{Election box end}}
===1967===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1967 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: Melmalayanur<ref>{{Cite web| last = Election Commission of India|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Madras%201967.pdf |title= Statistical Report on General Election 1967 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320175222/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Madras%201967.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2012 |access-date= 19 April 2009}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=R. R. Munusamy |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=33,115 |percentage=50.68% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=K. G. Gounder |party=Indian National Congress |votes=17,295 |percentage=26.47% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=K. Aranganathan |party=Independent politician |votes=11,756 |percentage=17.99% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. A. Kuthan |party=Independent politician |votes=2,051 |percentage=3.14% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=A. Anthonisamy |party=Independent politician |votes=1,120 |percentage=1.71% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=15,820 |percentage=24.21% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=65,337 |percentage=74.32% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 92,089 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |title=Statistical reports of assembly elections |accessdate=8 July 2010 |publisher=Election Commission of India |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005110118/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp |archivedate=5 October 2010 }}

{{Defunct assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu}}
{{coord|12.34|79.33|display=title}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Viluppuram district]]
[[Category:Politics of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Madras State]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2008]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in India]]

Paalai

2026-04-15T09:02:09Z

SAWANTRAJ:

{{No plot|date=March 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Paalai poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Senthamizhan
| producer = T. Ravi
| starring = Sunil Kumar [[Shammu]]
| cinematography = [[Abinandhan Ramanujam]]
| music = [[Ved Shankar]]
| studio = Semmai Productions
| released = {{Film date|2011|11|25|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Paalai''''' ({{translation|Desert}})<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 April 2014 |title=It looks advantage DMK in Tirunelveli |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/loksabha2014/it-looks-advantage-dmk-in-tirunelveli/article5906068.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260331100621/https://www.thehindu.com/elections/loksabha2014/it-looks-advantage-dmk-in-tirunelveli/article5906068.ece |archive-date=31 March 2026 |access-date=31 March 2026 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref> is a 2011 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[historical drama]] written and directed by Senthamizhan, who had previously assisted director [[Ram (director)|Ram]] in ''[[Kattradhu Thamizh]]''. Set in the [[Sangam literature|Sangam period]], the film stars debutant Sunil Kumar and [[Shammu]] in pivotal roles. It was released on 25 November 2011.

== Cast ==
*Sunil Kumar as Valan
*[[Shammu]] as Kaayampoo
*Prof. V. Natarajan
*Jayan
*Krishnagiri
*Julu

== Production ==
The film was shot extensively in the forests of [[Thanjavur]], [[Mysore]] and [[Sathyamangalam]]. [[Shammu]] was the only professional actress to be cast in the film, which featured mostly newcomers, including Sunil, the lead actor.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 May 2011 |title=Shammu in a pre-historic film |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/shammu-in-a-pre-historic-film-news-tamil-lffmrQhcffe.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110508125103/http://www.sify.com/movies/shammu-in-a-pre-historic-film-news-tamil-lffmrQhcffe.html |archive-date=8 May 2011 |access-date=9 August 2022 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 May 2011 |title=Shammu's journey to the past |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/others/news-interviews/Shammus-journey-to-the-past/articleshow/8176480.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241228094223/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/others/news-interviews/Shammus-journey-to-the-past/articleshow/8176480.cms |archive-date=28 December 2024 |access-date=19 September 2019 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> It became the actress's final signed film before she left the film industry to complete her education.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 August 2011 |title=Shammu bids adieu to Kollywood, flies back to U.S. |url=http://www.tamilkey.com/shammu-bids-adieu-to-kollywood-flies-back-to-u-s.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415110308/http://www.tamilkey.com/shammu-bids-adieu-to-kollywood-flies-back-to-u-s.html |archive-date=15 April 2014 |access-date=14 April 2014 |work=Tamilkey}}</ref> Members of the [[Irula people|Irula tribe]] also acted in the film.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paalai is the first pre-historic film |url=http://www.vnmusicdreams.com/page.html?lang=&artid=1314 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415044952/http://www.vnmusicdreams.com/page.html?lang=&artid=1314 |archive-date=15 April 2014 |access-date=14 April 2014 |work=VN Music Dreams}}</ref> [[Ved Shankar]], in his debut, composed the music.<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 July 2012 |title=Audio Beat: Naduvula Konjam Pakkatha Kaanom |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/audio-beat-naduvula-konjam-pakkatha-kaanom/article3666067.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250225134330/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/audio-beat-naduvula-konjam-pakkatha-kaanom/article3666067.ece |archive-date=25 February 2025 |access-date=31 March 2026 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref>

== Release ==
''Paalai'' was released in theatres on 25 November 2011.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 November 2011 |title=Friday Fury- November 25 |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/friday-fury-november-25-news-tamil-llzkU9hdgbj.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128030207/http://www.sify.com/movies/friday-fury-november-25-news-tamil-llzkU9hdgbj.html |archive-date=28 November 2011 |access-date=17 March 2026 |website=[[Sify]] |language=en}}</ref> The film was privately screened in Norway on 18 December and was prepared for a general release in the country shortly after, with the makers claiming it would be the first Tamil film to be released in regular cinema halls across Norway.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 December 2011 |title=Paalai set for release in Norway |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news-interviews/Paalai-set-for-release-in-Norway/articleshow/11178489.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241228093835/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news-interviews/Paalai-set-for-release-in-Norway/articleshow/11178489.cms |archive-date=28 December 2024 |access-date=14 April 2014 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> ''[[Dinamani]]'' praised almost all aspects of the film, including the direction, cinematography, music and cast performances.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 December 2011 |title=விமர்சனம்: பாலை |url=http://www.dinamani.com/cinema/article635398.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728183550/http://www.dinamani.com/cinema/article635398.ece |archive-date=28 July 2014 |access-date=5 February 2016 |website=[[Dinamani]] |language=ta}}</ref> ''[[Ananda Vikatan]]'' praised the film for authentically recreating the [[Sangam literature|Sangam period]] with minimal costs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 December 2011 |title=சினிமா விமர்சனம் : பாலை |url=https://www.vikatan.com/humour-and-satire/cinema/13319--2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260331101016/https://www.vikatan.com/humour-and-satire/cinema/13319--2 |archive-date=31 March 2026 |access-date=31 March 2026 |website=[[Ananda Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}

[[Category:2010s historical drama films]]
[[Category:2011 films]]
[[Category:2011 Indian films]]
[[Category:2011 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ved Shankar]]
[[Category:Films set in ancient India]]
[[Category:Films shot in Mysore]]
[[Category:Films shot in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Indian historical drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language historical drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Ravish Siddiqi

2026-04-14T15:58:29Z

SAWANTRAJ: Made New Entry - done

{{Short description|Urdu Poet}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox poet
|name = Ravish Siddiqi
|birth_date = 1911
|birth_place = [[Saharanpur]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|1971|1|24|1911}}
|death_place = [[Shahjahanpur]]
|occupation = [[Urdu poet]]
|genre = Urdu ghazal, Urdu nazam
}}
'''Ravish Siddiqi''' ({{langx|ur|{{Nastaliq|روش صدیقی}}}}, 1911–1971)<ref>Urdu Authors: Date list corrected up to May 31, 2006- S.No. 74 – Ravish Siddiqi > maintained by National Council for Promotion of Urdu, [[Govt of India]], [[Ministry of Human Resource Development]] {{cite web |url=http://www.urducouncil.nic.in/urdu_wrld/u_auth/index_r.htm |title=National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language |accessdate=2011-05-15 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20130825055446/http://web.archive.org/web/20071211163323/http%3A//www.urducouncil.nic.in/urdu_wrld/u_auth/index_r.htm |archivedate=2013-08-25 }}</ref><ref>Rise of Prose – [[Ministry of HRD]] para.2.69 http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/u/47/3Y/4730Y0303.htm{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> born Shahid Aziz at [[Jwalapur]] in District [[Saharanpur]] of [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh]] on 11 July 1911 was a renowned [[Urdu]] [[Ghazal]] and [[Nazm]] writer whose forte was [[Romantic Poetry]] and [[Patriotic Poetry]]. A self-educated person he had studied and gained fluency in [[Urdu]], [[Arabic]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Hindi]], [[Sanskrit]] and [[English language|English]].

==Career==
Ravish Siddiqi worked in the [[All India Radio]] at the time when [[Prem Nath Dar]], [[Saghar Nizami]] and [[Salaam Machhalishahari]] were also working in the same institution. Ravish Siddiqi wrote both romantic and patriotic poetry, but most of his widely acclaimed poems were written on the beauty of the Kashmir valley and people of '''Kashmir''', a collection of these poems, called '''''Khayabaan Khayabaan"'''''''' was published in late 1970s. His collection of ghazals titled '' Mehrab-e-Ghazal '' was published in 1956.<ref>Urdu Sahitya Kosa by Kamala Nasima 1988 Ed. p.266 https://books.google.com/books?isbn=817055134X</ref>

==Death==
He died in [[Shahjahanpur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] on 24 January 1971.{{fact|date=July 2025}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siddiqi, Ravish}}
[[Category:Urdu-language poets]]
[[Category:1911 births]]
[[Category:1971 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century poets]]
[[Category:People from Saharanpur]]
[[Category:Indian male poets]]
[[Category:Romantic poets]]

{{india-poet-stub}}

Nambiyath Puthansurayil Balakrishnan

2026-04-09T23:12:04Z

SAWANTRAJ: creating a entry

'''Nambiyath Puthansurayil Balakrishnan''' (1935{{snd}}2024) was an Indian botanist.<ref name = ipni>{{cite web |title=Balakrishnan, Nambiyath Puthansurayil (1935-2024) |url=https://www.ipni.org/a/415-1 |website=[[International Plant Names Index]] |access-date=9 April 2026}}</ref> He served with the [[Botanical Survey of India]] (BSI), where he was a plant collector, researcher, administrator, and author and editor of numerous articles and books on Indian flora.<ref name = global>{{cite web |title=Balakrishnan, Nambiyath Puthansurayil (1935-) |url=https://plants.jstor.org/stable/10.5555/al.ap.person.bm000150263 |website=Global Plants |publisher=JSTOR |access-date=9 April 2026}}</ref>

Balakrishnan received an MA in botany from the [[University of Madras]] in 1958. In 1967 he received an MSc in plant taxonomy from the [[University of Liverpool]] in England. He received a PhD in 1972 from [[Gauhati University]], India for his work on the ''Flora of [[Jowai]]'', published in 1981.<ref name = global/>

He joined the Botanical Survey of India in 1958 and served until his retirement in 1993. He worked in the BSI offices at Allahabad, Coimbatore, Howrah, [[Port Blair]], and Shillong. During his 11 years at Port Blair in the [[Andaman Islands]] he oversaw the creation of India's first air-conditioned [[herbarium]] and helped establish the Andaman-Nicobar Circle of the Botanical Survey of India. At the time of his retirement he was Joint Director of the BSI, based at the [[Madras Herbarium]] in Coimbatore. After retirement he served as an Emeritus Scientist at the BSI.<ref name = global/>

Balakrishnan was an authority on the [[Eriocaulaceae]] and [[Euphorbiaceae]] plant families in India. He published nearly 200 scientific articles and authored six books. He has contributed to floras of Tamil Nadu (1989) and Madhya Pradesh (1992), and was an editor of volumes 1, 2 and 23 of the ''Flora of India''. His associates and co-authors include [[Francis Raymond Fosberg]] and [[Tapas Chakrabarty]]. He continued his research as an emeritus scientist, particularly on the taxonomy of Indian Euphorbiaceae.<ref name = global/>

Balakrishnan is responsible for collecting about 12,000 herbarium specimens, with significant collections from central and peninsular India, Assam, Maghalaya, Bhutan, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.<ref name = global/> He published 346 [[botanical name]]s.<ref name = ipni/>

In 2003 he served as President of Indian Association for Angiosperm Taxonomy. In 2006 Balakrishnan was awarded the EK Janaki Ammal National Award in Plant Taxonomy by the Indian government's [[Ministry of Environment and Forests]].<ref name = global/>

{{Botanist|N.P.Balakr.|Balakrishnan, Nambiyath Puthansurayil}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Balakrishnan, Nambiyath Puthansurayil}}
[[Category:1935 births]]
[[Category:2024 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian botanists]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian botanists]]

Inderjeet Kesar

2026-04-08T00:33:47Z

SAWANTRAJ: added initial details v1.

{{Short description|Indian Dogri writer}}

{{Infobox writer
| name = Inderjeet Kesar
| image =File:Dogri novel writer Inderjeet Kesar Sahitya Akademi award winner IMG 5221.jpg
| birth_date = {{birth date|1946|10|9}}
| birth_place = Katra, Reasi district, Jammu and Kashmir, India
| occupation = Writer
| language = Dogri
| nationality = Indian
| genre = Novel, poetry, short story, essay
| notable_works = ''Bhagirath''
| awards = [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] (2018)
}}

'''Inderjeet Kesar''' (born 9 October 1946) is a [[Dogri literature|Dogri]]-language Indian writer. He received [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] in 2018 for his Dogri novel ''Bhagirath''.<ref name="tribune">{{cite web |title=Dogri writer’s ‘Bhagirath’ gets Sahitya Akademi award |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/jammu-kashmir/dogri-writer-s-bhagirath-gets-sahitya-akademi-award-694555/ |website=The Tribune |date=7 December 2018 |access-date=31 March 2026}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Kesar was born on 9 October 1946 in Katra in [[Reasi district]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[India]].<ref name="mission">{{cite web |title=A writer with a mission |url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/a-writer-with-a-mission/ |website=Daily Excelsior |date=29 September 2019 |access-date=31 March 2026}}</ref>

==Awards==
* [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] in 2018 for ''Bhagirath''.<ref name="press">{{cite web |title=Sahitya Akademi Awards 2018 |url=https://culture.gov.in/files/press_release_document/Sahitya_Akademi_Award_2018_English_06_12_2018_compressed.pdf |website=Ministry of Culture, Government of India |date=5 December 2018 |access-date=31 March 2026}}</ref><ref name="tribune" />

He has also received the ''Shri Bandhu Sharma Smriti Puraskar''.<ref name="bandhu">{{cite web |title=Shri Bandhu Sharma Smriti Puraskar conferred upon Inderjeet Kesar |url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/shri-bandhu-sharma-smriti-puraskar-conferred-upon-inderjeet-kesar/ |website=Daily Excelsior |access-date=31 March 2026}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Sahitya Akademi Award]]
* [[Dogri literature]]
* [[List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Dogri]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kesar, Inderjeet}}
[[Category:1946 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Dogri-language writers]]
[[Category:Indian male writers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award]]
[[Category:People from Reasi district]]
[[Category:Writers from Jammu and Kashmir]]

Puthumugangal Thevai

2026-04-05T06:56:50Z

SAWANTRAJ: Made Page - done

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Puthumugangal Thevai
| image =
| caption =
| director = Manish Babu
| producer = S. A. Abhiman
| writer =
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Shivaji Dev]]
*[[Rajesh Yadav (cinematographer)|Rajesh Yadav]]
*[[Muktha (actress)|Banu]]
}}
| music = Twinz Chan(Twinz Tunes)
| cinematography = Rajesh Yadav Saravanan
| editing =
| studio = Winner Bulls Film
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2012|12|28}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Puthumugangal Thevai''''' ({{Translation|New faces needed}}) is a 2012 Indian [[drama film|drama]] film directed by Manish Babu and starring [[Shivaji Dev]], [[Rajesh Yadav (cinematographer)|Rajesh Yadav]], and [[Muktha (actress)|Banu]].<ref>{{cite web|author=V Lakshmi, TNN |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-11/news-interviews/32619476_1_sivaji-ganesan-film-industry-rajesh |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131017211650/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-11/news-interviews/32619476_1_sivaji-ganesan-film-industry-rajesh |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-10-17 |title=Bhanu is back with Sivaji now! |date=2012-07-11 |work=[[The Times of India]] |accessdate=}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{Expand section|December 2025|date=December 2025}}

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Shivaji Dev]] as Anand
*[[Rajesh Yadav (cinematographer)|Rajesh Yadav]] as Mani
*[[Muktha (actress)|Banu]] as Bindutara
*[[Vishnupriya (actress)|Vishnupriya]]
*[[M. S. Bhaskar]]
*[[Crane Manohar]]
*[[Raj Kapoor (director)|Raj Kapoor]]
*[[Kadhal Dhandapani]]
*[[Delhi Ganesh]]
}}

==Soundtrack==
The soundtrack was composed by Twinz Chan(Twinz Tunes).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://music.apple.com/ca/album/pudhumughangal-thevai-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/541902762 | title=Pudhumughangal Thevai (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) by Twinz Chan(Twinz Tunes)| access-date=26 October 2020 | archive-date=5 June 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240605004556/https://music.apple.com/ca/album/pudhumughangal-thevai-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/541902762 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/pudhumughangal-thevai/R2KLt2RcDOs_ | title=Pudhumughangal Thevai - Twinz Chan (Twinz Tunes), Shweta Mohan, Haricharan - Download or Listen Free - JioSaavn | date=6 July 2012 | access-date=26 October 2020 | archive-date=29 October 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029081653/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/pudhumughangal-thevai/R2KLt2RcDOs_ | url-status=live }}</ref>
*"Karuvizhi" - [[Haricharan]], [[Swetha Mohan]]
*"En Uyiril" - [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]], Anup (Twinz Chan)
*"Adicha Ghilli" - [[Mukesh Mohamed]], Senthildas, [[Priya Himesh]]
*"Kollywood Kanavu" - [[Suchith Suresan]], Sricharan, [[Achu Rajamani|Achu]]

== Reception ==
A critic from ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave the film a rating of two out of five stars and stated that "With no great performance from any of the actors, Puthumugangal Thevai ends up just reiterating its name".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/puthumugangal-thevai/movie-review/17818918.cms|title=Puthumugangal Thevai Movie Review {2/5}: Critic Review of Puthumugangal Thevai by Times of India|newspaper=The Times of India }}</ref> A critic from ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote that "PT isn’t exactly slipshod. Yet, because of a story and screenplay that could have been better devised, it doesn’t appeal".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/pudhumugangal-thevai-needed-not-just-new-faces/article4276451.ece|title=Pudhumugangal Thevai: Needed, not just new faces|newspaper=The Hindu|first=Malathi|last=Rangarajan|date=5 January 2013|accessdate=12 June 2021|archive-date=17 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417132023/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/pudhumugangal-thevai-needed-not-just-new-faces/article4276451.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/479740218705952/photos/a.479935558686418/552417561438217/ |title=A film within a film |work=The New Indian Express |access-date=25 November 2023 |archive-date=5 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240605004655/https://www.facebook.com/479740218705952/photos/a.479935558686418/552417561438217/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|13387710}}

[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:2012 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:2012 films]]
[[Category:Films about filmmaking]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:2012 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2012 Indian films]]

William Gyfford

2026-04-05T00:12:55Z

SAWANTRAJ: New A Post

{{For|[[William Gyfford (MP)]]|Gloucestershire (UK Parliament constituency)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = William Gyfford
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| office = Agent of Madras
| term_start = 3 July 1681
| term_end = 8 August 1684
| predecessor = [[Streynsham Master]]
| successor = [[Elihu Yale]]
| office2 = President of Madras
| term_start2 = 26 January 1685
| term_end2 = 25 July 1687
| predecessor2 = [[Elihu Yale]]
| successor2 = [[Elihu Yale]]
| birth_date = 
| birth_place =
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| citizenship =
| education =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = [[lawyer]], administrator
| profession =
| known_for =
| awards = 
| signature = Gyfford_sign.JPG
| signature_alt =
| website =
}}
[[File:A group of Madras Native Soldiers.jpg|thumb|A group of Madras Native Soldiers]]
'''William Gyfford''' was an [[English colonial empire|English]] factor and Agent of Madras from 3 July 1681 to 8 August 1684 and the President of Madras from 26 January 1685 to 25 July 1687.<ref name="Tenure">[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/India_BrProvinces.htm#Madras List of Governors of Madras, from ''worldstatesmen.org'']</ref>

William Gyfford was associated with the [[East India Company]]'s factory at Madras right from the time of its inception. He was made a factor of the East India Company in December 1657 and in 1662 became also a member of Council of Fort St George.<ref>Works Issued by the Hakluyt Society by Hakluyt Society - 1888, pp clxxxv</ref>

== Tenure as Agent of Madras ==

On the removal of [[Streynsham Master]] on charges of private trade in the year 1681, William Gyfford was made the Agent of Madras. He was more or less a puppet of the authorities in England, most importantly, [[Josiah Child]].

=== Peace with Lingappa ===

Gyfford ended hostilities with Lingappa, the Naik of Poonamallee by proposing peace with him. Lingappa seeing his chance demanded a huge amount in return for his friendship and help in curbing private trade and other criminal activities. The Company agreed and paid him 7,000 pagodas. A ''[[firman]]'' was signed by the Naik of Poonamallee on behalf of the Sultan of [[Golconda]] providing a new cowle for the district of Madraspatnam at the rate of 1,200 pagodas per annum.

On 12 November 1683, a messenger from the Sultan of Golconda arrived at the Company's garden house and was greeted by a volley of gunshots. Amidst celebration and excitement the ''firman'' was signed.

=== Reforms ===

Under extreme pressure from Josiah Childe, William Gyfford introduced reforms to increase the revenues of the East India Company. The '''Madras Bank''' was established on 21 June 1683 with a capital of one hundred thousand pounds sterling. This bank lent money to the citizens of Madras at six percent interest. The Madras Bank, which later became the [[Bank of Madras]] in 1843 and eventually merged with the [[Bank of Bengal]] and the [[Bank of Bombay]] to form the [[Imperial Bank of India]] in 1921 is the oldest European-style banking institution in India<ref>[http://www.hindu.com/br/2007/04/03/stories/2007040300301600.htm ''Insight into the progress of banking''], [[Kanakalatha Mukund]], ''The Hindu'', 3 April 2007</ref><ref>{{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20060906061720/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2005/07/11/stories/2005071100210500.htm From Carnatic Bank to State Bank, ''The Hindu'', 11 July 2005]}}</ref><ref>{{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20021022100858/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2002/06/03/stories/2002060300110300.htm Paper promise, ''The Hindu'' Metro Plus, 3 June 2002]}}</ref>

Gyfford also introduced a law to curb the [[History of slavery|slave trade]] in the Agency of Fort St George. The trade in slaves was made punishable by law and a Court of Admiralty was established to try offenders on 10 July 1684 thereby replacing the Court of Judicature that had been established by Streynsham Master in which the Agent passed judgement over interlopers and slave traders.

On 8 August 1684, Madras was elevated to a Presidency and [[Elihu Yale]] made its First President.

== Tenure as second President of Madras ==

William Gyfford succeeded Elihu Yale was the second President of Madras on 26 January 1685. Under pressure from Josiah Child and the Board of Directors of the East India Company, he imposed stringent taxes on the inhabitants of the settlement. The house tax which had been in vogue since the times of Streynsham Master was standardized and strictly enforced and defaulters punished.

=== Rebellion against taxation ===

In January 1686, a rebellion broke out amongst the disgruntled people of Madras over the stringent taxation. The clerks, weavers and dubashes under the pay of the Company revolted and threatened to boycott their jobs. William Gyfford responded sternly and placed all the entrances to the city under heavy guard. A proclamation was issued and read out to the public. According to this proclamation, the administration threatened to banish all those who refused to pay the taxes. The grain merchants of the city were threatened with confiscation of their goods if they did not sell their grain. The next day (4 January 1686), a compromise was reached by which the inhabitants of Madras submitted and agreed to pay the taxes.

=== Mutiny of the army ===

On 4 August 1686 the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] soldiers in the service of the East India Company deputed to serve in the war in Bengal refused to embark on their journey under the suspicion that the factors actually intended to send them to revive an abandoned settlement in [[West Sumatra]] which had fallen to a mysterious epidemic. When the authorities tried to force them, a mutiny broke out. The administration responded by arresting the ringleaders and executing them. The rebellion eventually subsided within a few days.

=== Famine ===

In 1686, a terrible famine broke out in Madras. Out of an estimated population of 300,000, 35,000 died and over 6,000 families were forced to migrate from the city.<ref name="Tercentenary">''Madras Tercenternary Celebration Committee Commemoration Volume'' by Tercentenary Madras Staff, Madras Tercentenary Celebration Committee, Madras Tercentenary Celebration
Committee, Asian Educational Services, 1994, Pp 73-75</ref>

=== Mughal conquest of Golconda ===

With death of [[Shivaji]] in 1680, [[Maratha]] power in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] began to decline and the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Aurangzeb]] lead a huge expedition to the [[South India|South]] to recover lost territories. In 1686, Aurangazeb's son [[Bahadur Shah I|Muazzam]] launched an invasion of Golconda culminating in the siege and the eventual conquest of the capital in September 1687. The forces of Golconda, however, defended stoutly for over seven months, during which the whole of Golconda was gripped by fear of invasion and carnage.

The factors of Madras, who had been faithful allies of Golconda, anticipating an invasion, applied to England for help. They also persuaded the factory at Calcutta, which had a stronger contingent and greater influence, to negotiate with Aurangazeb. However, even before the siege of Golconda came to an end and before Aurangazeb was free to direct his energies towards minor allies of the Sultan of Golconda, Gyfford was recalled and replaced by Elihu Yale as the President of Madras.

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Wheeler, J. T. (1861). Madras in the olden time: being a history of the presidency from the first foundation. Madras, Printed for J. Higginbotham by Graves and co., Ch VI and VII.
* ''The English Historical Review'', Vol 70, No 277, (1955), pp670–671
* ''Early Records of British India: A History of the English Settlements in India'', James Talboys Wheeler, 1878, p. 79.

{{s-start}}
{{succession box | before= [[Streynsham Master]] | title=[[Agencies of British India|Agent]] of [[Madras]] | after=[[Elihu Yale]] [[Madras Presidency|President]]| years=3 July 1681 – 8 August 1684}}
{{succession box|title=[[Madras Presidency|President of Madras]]|before=[[Elihu Yale]]|after=[[Elihu Yale]]|years=26 January 1685 – 25 July 1687}}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gyfford, William}}
[[Category:British East India Company people]]
[[Category:17th-century English businesspeople]]
[[Category:Presidents of Madras]]

Malar (2023 TV series)

2026-03-29T14:29:09Z

SAWANTRAJ: creating a post

{{More citations needed|date=December 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Malar.jpg
| caption =
| genre = [[Drama (film and television)|Drama]]
| creator =
| writer = '''Dialogue''' Karthik Yuvaraj
| director = A. Jawahar
| screenplay = Iyyappan Sabapathy
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* Ashwathy Ash
* VJ Surendhar Raj
}}
| opentheme = ''Malare Malare'' by [[Anuradha Sriram]]
| theme_music_composer = Visu
| editor = Ashok Anthony
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 585<ref>{{cite news |title=Popular TV show 'Malar' completes 100 episodes|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/popular-tv-show-malar-completes-100-episodes/articleshow/101299314.cms|newspaper=The Times of India|date=27 June 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
| list_episodes =
| cinematography = P. Chellapandi
| producer = Vaidehi Ramamurthy
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime = approx.20-22 minutes per episode
| company = [[Sun Network|Sun Entertainment]] Vision Time India Private Limited
| first_aired = {{Start date|2023|02|27|df=y}}
| last_aired = {{End date|2025|02|01|df=y}}
| network = [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
| related =
}}

'''''Malar''''' ({{Translation|[[Flower]]}}) is an Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil-language]] television series that aired from 2023 to 2025. The series stars Ashwathy Ash,<ref>{{cite web |title=சன் டிவியில் அடுத்த சீரியலுக்கு தயாராகும் சித்தி 2 நாயகி ப்ரீத்தி ஷர்மா.. விரைவில் துவக்கம்!|url=https://tamil.filmibeat.com/news/serial-actress-preeth-sharma-going-to-act-new-serial-in-sun-tv-105198.html|website=tamil.filmibeat.com|date=16 February 2023 |language=ta}}</ref> VJ Surendhar Raj, Sunitha Srinivasan, and Varun Udhay. It was directed by A. Jawahar and produced under the banner of [[Sun Network|Sun Entertainment]] and Vision Time India Private Limited.

The series premiered on 27 February 2023 on [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]], replacing the serial ''[[Abhiyum Naanum (TV series)|Abhiyum Naanum]]''. It was broadcast from Monday to Saturday and concluded on 1 February 2025, after which it was replaced by the serial ''Poongodi''. The show is also available for streaming on the digital platform [[Sun NXT]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Malar on Sun TV Launch Date is 27th February, Every Monday to Saturday at 03:00 PM|url=https://www.indiantvinfo.com/malar-sun-tv-serial-online/|website=www.indiantvinfo.com|date=21 February 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=பெப்ரவரி 27 ஆம் திகதி முதல் மலர் புதிய தொடர் |url=https://www.dinamani.com/cinema/cinema-news/2023/feb/21/sun-tv-new-serial-malar-telecaste-from-feb-27-chiththi-2-serial-fam-venba-acts-lead-4004856.html|website=www.dinamani.com|date=21 February 2023 |language=ta}}</ref>

==Cast==
===Main===
* [[Preethi Sharma]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Actress Preethi Sharma quits Tamil daily soap 'Malar'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/actress-preethi-sharma-quits-tamil-daily-soap-malar/articleshow/111459125.cms|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=3 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref> (2023–2024) / Ashwathy Ash (2024–2025) as Malar Arjun: Parvathi's sister; Arjun's wife
* VJ Agni Natchathiram (2023–2024) / VJ Surendhar Raj (2024–2025) as Arjun Vishwanathan: Malar's husband

===Recurring ===
* Nivisha Kingkon (2023) / Sunitha Srinivasan (2023–2025) as Parvathi Santhosh: Malar's sister; Santhosh's wife
* Varun Udhay as Santhosh: Parvathi's husband (2023–2025)
* Akhila Prakash as Durga Anand: Anand's wife; Prathap's love interest (2023–2025) (Main antagonist)
* Niharika Harshu as Senbagavalli Vishwanathan: Arjun's mother (2023–2025)
* [[Ravikanth (actor)|Ravikanth]]/Auditor Sridhar as Vishwanathan: Senbagavalli's husband; Arjun's father
* Dev Anand Sharma as Anand: Durga's husband (2023–2025)
* Sekar Raja in dual roles as:
** Prathap: Prakash's elder brother; Durga's love interest
** Prakash: Prathap's younger brother
* V. M. Rajesh Kanna as Krishnamurthy (2023–2025)
* Bavithran as Siva: Durga's brother (2023–2025) (Antagonist)
* Divya Dharmaraj as Nikitha: Arjun's ex-fiancée (2023–2025)
* Srilekha Rajendran as Lakshmi: Parvathi and Malar's aunt (2023–2025)
* Indiran as Katterumbu: Malar's friend (2023–2025)
* Meenakshi Muruha as Sakuntala (2023–2025)
* Bala as Vasu: Parvathi and Malar's cousin; Sakuntala's son (2023–2025)
* Usha Elizabeth Suraj as Suseela: Santhosh and Aishwarya's mother (2023–2025)
* Jayashree as Aishwarya: Santhosh's sister (2023)
* D. S. R. Seenivasan (2023)
* Kalaivel (2023)

==Production==
===Casting===
{{Multiple image
| image1 = Malar Serial.jpg
| alt1 = Malar serial old cover photo
| total_width = 200
}}

[[Preethi Sharma]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Tamil TV serial 'Malar' to premiere soon; here's what actress Preethi Sharma has to say|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/tamil-tv-serial-malar-to-premiere-soon-heres-what-actress-preethi-sharma-has-to-say/articleshow/97977337.cms?from=mdr|newspaper=The Times of India| date=16 February 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=வெண்பா டூ மலர் : மீண்டும் சன் டி.வி சீரியலில் ரீ-என்டரி ஆகும் ப்ரீத்தி சர்மா|url=https://tamil.indianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil-serial-actress-preethi-sharma-re-entry-in-malar-serial-594826/|website=tamil.indianexpress.com|language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=சன் டிவி-யில் மலர் என்ற புதிய சீரியல் ஒளிபரப்பாக விருக்கிறது. |url=https://tamil.news18.com/news/entertainment/television-sun-tv-launches-new-serial-titled-as-malar-preethi-sharma-893455.html|website=tamil.news18.com|date=17 February 2023 |language=ta}}</ref> was initially cast in the female lead role as Malar,<ref>{{cite web |title=மலராக ரீ என்ட்ரி கொடுக்கும் வெண்பா... திங்கள் முதல் ஒளிபரப்பாகும் 'மலர்' சீரியலில் ப்ரீத்தி சர்மா|url=https://tamil.abplive.com/entertainment/chithi-2-fame-venba-gives-re-entry-in-sun-tv-new-serial-malar-to-be-telecast-from-february-27-preethi-sharma-103744|website=tamil.abplive.com|date=25 February 2023 |language=ta}}</ref> marking her return to Tamil television after a brief hiatus. However, on 3 July 2024,<ref>{{cite web |title=Actress Preethi Sharma quits Tamil daily soap 'Malar'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/actress-preethi-sharma-quits-tamil-daily-soap-malar/articleshow/111378351.cms|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=30 June 2024|language=en}}</ref> she was replaced by actress Ashwathy Ash.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ashwathy joins the cast of TV show 'Malar'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/ashwathy-joins-the-cast-of-tv-show-malar/articleshow/111397373.cms|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=1 July 2024|language=en}}</ref> VJ Agni Natchathiram played the male lead alongside her.<ref>{{cite web |title=Malar Serial on Sun TV Starring Preethi Sharma and Indran in Lead – Latest Tamil Fiction|url=https://www.indiantvinfo.com/malar-serial-on-sun-tv-cast/|website=www.indiantvinfo.com|date=18 February 2023 |language=en}}</ref> In early January 2024, he exited the show citing an injury,<ref>{{cite news |title=Actor Agni quits daily soap 'Malar'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/actor-agni-quits-daily-soap-malar/articleshow/106721408.cms|newspaper=The Times of India|date=11 January 2024 |language=en}}</ref> and was subsequently replaced by VJ Surendhar Raj, who took over the role of Arjun.<ref>{{cite news |title=Television actor Surendar joins the cast of 'Malar'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/television-actor-surendar-joins-the-cast-of-malar/articleshow/106757267.cms|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=12 January 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

Actress Nivisha Kingkon was originally cast as Parvathi, Malar's elder sister,<ref>{{cite news |title=Actress Nivisha announces her exit from TV show 'Malar'; Sunitha to replace her as Parvathi?|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/actress-nivisha-announces-her-exit-from-tv-show-malar-sunitha-to-replace-her-as-parvathi/articleshow/103778172.cms|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=19 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> but was replaced by Sunitha Srinivasan in September 2023.<ref>{{cite news |title=Television actress Sunitha Srinivasan joins the cast of 'Malar'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/television-actress-sunitha-srinivasan-joins-the-cast-of-malar/articleshow/103782520.cms|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=19 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

===Release===
The first promotional teaser was released on 15 February 2023, featuring [[Preethi Sharma]], Nivisha Kingkon, and Srilekha Rajendran.<ref>{{cite AV media|people=[[Preethi Sharma]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mK1R8fk4IJk|title=Malar {{!}} Sun TV}}</ref> The second promo was unveiled on 20 February 2023, featuring lead actress Preethi Sharma and Niharika Harshu, and also revealed the release date.<ref>{{cite AV media|people=[[Preethi Sharma]] and Niharika Harshu|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qkawrf3vu24|title=Malar promo 2 {{!}} Sun TV}}</ref>

The series premiered on [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]] on 27 February 2023, replacing the time slot previously occupied by ''[[Abhiyum Naanum (TV series)|Abhiyum Naanum]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=எண்டு கார்டு போடப்படும் சன் டிவி சீரியல்கள்... புதிய சீரியல்களின் வருகைதான் காரணமா?|url=https://tamil.abplive.com/entertainment/sun-tv-popular-serials-abiyum-nannum-and-kannana-kanne-is-being-replaced-by-new-serials-malar-aand-mister-manaivi-103581|website=tamil.abplive.com|date=24 February 2023 |language=ta}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [https://www.sunnxt.com/suntv-tamil-serial-malar-Feb27-2023/detail/159392/0 ''Malar''] at [[Sun NXT]]
* {{IMDb title|tt29888290}}

{{Sun TV shows}}
{{Works by Vision Time Tamil}}

[[Category:Sun TV original programming]]
[[Category:Tamil-language melodrama television series]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romance television series]]
[[Category:2023 Tamil-language television series debuts]]
[[Category:Television shows set in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television shows]]
[[Category:Television series by Sun Entertainment]]
[[Category:2025 Tamil-language television series endings]]

Morarji Desai

2026-03-29T10:16:24Z

SAWANTRAJ: slightly improved references for accuracy and cleaned formatting

{{short description|Prime Minister of India from 1977 to 1979}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Morarji Desai
| birth_name = Morarji Ranchhodji Desai
| honorific_prefix =
| image = Morarji Desai 1978b.jpg
| caption = Desai {{circa|1978}}
| alt = Morarji Desai
| office = [[Prime Minister of India]]
| president = [[B. D. Jatti]] (''interim'') [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]]
| vicepresident = B. D. Jatti
| term_start = {{Start date|1977|03|24|df=yes}}
| term_end = {{End date|1979|07|28|df=yes}}
| predecessor = [[Indira Gandhi]]
| successor = Charan Singh
| deputy = {{Unbulleted_list|[[Charan Singh]] (24 January 1979 to 16 July 1979)|[[Jagjivan Ram]]}} (from 24 January 1979)
| office5 = [[Minister of Home Affairs (India)|Union Minister of Home Affairs]]
| primeminister5 = ''Himself''
| term_start5 = {{Start date|1978|07|01|df=yes}}
| term_end5 = {{End date|1979|01|24|df=yes}}
| predecessor5 = Charan Singh
| successor5 = [[Hirubhai M. Patel]]
| office2 = [[Deputy Prime Minister of India]]
| primeminister2 = Indira Gandhi
| term_start2 = {{Start date|1967|03|13|df=yes}}
| term_end2 = {{End date|1969|07|16|df=yes}}
| predecessor2 = [[Vallabhbhai Patel]]
| successor2 = {{Unbulleted_list|Charan Singh|Jagjivan Ram}}
| office6 = [[Minister of Finance (India)|Union Minister of Finance]]
| primeminister7 = ''Himself''
| term_start7 = {{Start date|1977|03|24|df=yes}}
| term_end7 = {{End date|1977|03|26|df=yes}}
| predecessor7 = [[Chidambaram Subramaniam]]
| successor7 = Hirubhai M. Patel
| primeminister6 = ''Himself''
| term_start6 = {{Start date|1979|07|16|df=yes}}
| term_end6 = {{End date|1979|07|28|df=yes}}
| predecessor6 = Charan Singh
| successor6 = [[Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna]]
| primeminister8 = Indira Gandhi
| term_start8 = {{Start date|1967|03|13|df=yes}}
| term_end8 = {{End date|1969|07|16|df=yes}}
| predecessor8 = [[Sachindra Chaudhuri]]
| successor8 = Indira Gandhi
| primeminister9 = [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]
| term_start9 = {{Start date|1958|03|13|df=yes}}
| term_end9 = {{End date|1963|08|29|df=yes}}
| predecessor9 = [[T. T. Krishnamachari]]
| successor9 = T. T. Krishnamachari
| office10 = [[List of Chief Ministers of Maharashtra|Chief Minister of Bombay State]]
| term_start10 = {{Start date|1952|04|21|df=yes}}
| term_end10 = {{End date|1956|10|31|df=yes}}
| predecessor10 = [[B. G. Kher]]
| successor10 = [[Yashwantrao Chavan]]
| office11 = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]], [[Lok Sabha]]
| term_start11 = {{Start date|1957||}}
| term_end11 = {{End date|1980||}}
| constituency11 = [[Surat (Lok Sabha constituency)|Surat]], [[Gujarat]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1896|02|29|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Valsad district|Bhadeli]], [[Bombay Presidency]], [[British Raj|British India]] (present-day [[Valsad]], [[Gujarat]], India)
| death_date = {{death date and age|1995|04|10|1896|02|29|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Bombay]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]] (present-day Mumbai)
| party = [[Janata Party]] (1977-1988)
| otherparty = {{ubl|[[Indian National Congress]] (1934–1969)|[[Indian National Congress (Organisation)]] (1969–1977)|[[Janata Dal]] (1988–1995)}}
| alma_mater = [[University of Mumbai]]
| profession = {{hlist|Activist|politician}}
| spouse = {{married|Gujraben Desai|1911|25 October 1981|end=died}}
| signature = Morarji Desai signature.svg
| awards = [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]] [[Bharat Ratna]]
| children = 5
| order = 
| order2 = 
| order1 = 
}}

'''Morarji Ranchhodji Desai''' (29 February 1896 – 10 April 1995) was an Indian politician and [[Indian independence activist|independence activist]] who served as the [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister of India]] between 1977 and 1979 leading the [[Premiership of Morarji Desai|government formed by the Janata Party]]. During his long career in politics, he held many important posts in government such as the [[Chief Minister|chief minister]] of [[Bombay State]], the [[Minister of Home Affairs (India)|home minister]], the [[Minister of Finance (India)|finance minister]], and the [[Deputy Prime Minister of India|deputy prime minister]].

Following the death of Prime Minister [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]], Desai was a strong contender for the position of Prime Minister, only to be defeated by [[Indira Gandhi]] in 1966. He was appointed as [[Minister of Finance (India)|Minister of Finance]] and [[Deputy Prime Minister of India|Deputy Prime Minister]] in Indira Gandhi's cabinet, until 1969. When Indian National Congress split in 1969 he became a part of the [[Indian National Congress (Organisation)|INC (O)]]. After the [[The Emergency (India)|controversial emergency]] was lifted in 1977, the political parties of the opposition fought together against the [[Indian National Congress#Formation of Congress (I)|INC (I)]], under the umbrella of the [[Janata Party]], and won the [[1977 Indian general election|1977 election]]. Desai was elected prime minister, and became the first non-Congress prime minister of India. Desai was the second and the last prime minister to have been born in the nineteenth century.

Desai was known for his pro-American stance and called out for his collution with the American intelligence agency [[CIA]]. He unsuccessfully sued a journalist for it. He was also known for his [[Peace activist|peace activism]] and created efforts to initiate peace between India and rival [[Pakistan]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Choudhary |first1=Ratnadeep |title=Morarji Desai, the prime minister for whom time in PMO was 'tougher than prison' |url=https://theprint.in/theprint-profile/morarji-desai-the-prime-minister-for-whom-time-in-pmo-was-tougher-than-prison/218716/ |access-date=26 February 2020 |work=ThePrint |date=10 April 2019}}</ref> After India's first [[Smiling Buddha|nuclear test in 1974]], Desai helped restore friendly [[China–India relations|relations with China]] and Pakistan, and vowed to avoid armed conflict such as the [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1971]]. He was honoured with the highest civilian award of Pakistan, the [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]] on 19 May 1990.

He is the oldest person to hold the office of prime minister in the history of Indian politics, at the age of 81.<ref>{{cite book|title=Limca Book of Records 1991|year=1991|publisher=Bisleri Beverages Ltd.|isbn=81-900115-1-0|location=Bombay|page=40}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia |author-link=The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia |title=Desai, Morarji Ranchhodji |url=https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Desai,+Morarji+Ranchhodji |access-date=8 September 2018 |work=TheFreeDictionary.com |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Darpan |first=Pratiyogita |date=1 December 2006 |title=Pratiyogita Darpan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fugDAAAAMBAJ&q=Morarji+Desai+29+feb+1896&pg=PT88 |publisher=Pratiyogita Darpan |via=Google Books}}</ref> He was also the first former deputy prime minister to occupy the primary post. He subsequently retired from all political posts, but continued to campaign for the Janata Party in [[1980 Indian general election|1980]]. He was conferred with India's highest civilian honour, the [[Bharat Ratna]]. He died at the age of 99 in 1995.

== Early life ==
===Birth===
Morarji Desai was born in [[British Raj|British ruled India]] on February 1896 into a well-to-do [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]] [[Anavil Brahmin]] family.<ref>{{cite news|title=Gujarati Prime Ministers Morarji Desai & Narendra Modi share similarities|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/gujarati-prime-ministers-morarji-desai-narendra-modi-share-similarities/articleshow/35612370.cms|first=DP|last=Bhattacharya|date=26 May 2014|access-date=23 March 2018|location=[[Gandhinagar]]|work=[[The Economic Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Studies in British Imperial History: Essays in Honour of A.P. Thornton|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BgKxCwAAQBAJ|first1=Gordon|last1=Martel|first2=Wayne|last2=Lavender|publisher=Springer|date=16 June 1986|page=204|isbn=978-1349182442}}</ref> His father's name was Ranchhodji Nagarji Desai and his mother's name was Vajiaben Desai. He was born in Bhadeli village, [[Valsad district|Bulsar district]], [[Bombay Presidency]], [[British Raj|British India]] (present-day [[Valsad district, Gujarat]], India) on 29 February 1896, the eldest of eight children. His father was a school teacher.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-morarji-desai-1615165.html|title=Obituary: Morarji Desai|author=Kuldip Singh|work=[[The Independent]]|date=10 April 1995|access-date=23 March 2018}}</ref>

===School education and early career===
Desai underwent his primary schooling in The Kundla School (now called J.V. Modi school), [[Savarkundla]] and later joined Bai Ava Bai High School, [[Valsad]]. Desai resigned as deputy collector of [[Godhra]] in May 1930 after being found guilty of going soft on Hindus during the riots of 1927–28 there.<ref name="ET-2013-06-10">{{cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/can-narendra-modi-follow-in-morarji-desais-footsteps/articleshow/20517337.cms |title=Can Narendra Modi follow in Morarji Desai's footsteps? |newspaper=The Economic Times |date=10 June 2013|access-date=10 June 2013 |author=Ajay Umat & Harit Mehta}}</ref>

===Freedom fighter===
Desai then joined the freedom struggle under [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and joined the [[civil disobedience]] movement against [[British Raj|British]] rule in India. He spent many years in jail during the [[Indian independence movement|freedom struggle]] and owing to his sharp leadership skills and tough spirit, he became a favourite among freedom-fighters and an important leader of the [[Indian National Congress]] in the Gujarat region. When provincial elections were held in 1934 and [[1937 Indian provincial elections|1937]], Desai was elected and served as the Revenue Minister and Home Minister of the [[Bombay Presidency]].

==In government==
===Chief Minister of Bombay and Partition into two state===
[[File:Desai1937.jpg|thumb|left|Desai in 1937, as [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] Home Minister of [[Bombay Presidency]]]]
Before the independence of India, he became Bombay's Home Minister and was later elected Chief Minister of [[Bombay state]] in 1952. It was a period when movements for linguistic states were on the rise, particularly in South India. Bombay was a bi-lingual state, home to [[Gujarati people|Gujarati-speaking]] and [[Marathi people|Marathi-speaking]] people. Since 1956, activist organisation [[Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti]] led a movement for a Marathi-speaking state of [[Maharashtra]]. Desai was opposed to such movements, including the [[Mahagujarat Movement]] led by [[Indulal Yagnik]] demanding a new state of [[Gujarat]].<ref name="DesaiD'Costa1994">{{cite book|author1=Akshayakumar Ramanlal Desai|author2=Wilfred D'Costa|title=State and Repressive Culture: A Case Study of Gujarat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ubk4qXLI9AQC&pg=PR7|year=1994|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7154-702-9|page=20}}</ref> Desai proposed that the metropolitan [[Mumbai]] be made a Union territory. His logic was that a separate development region would suit the city's cosmopolitan nature, with citizens from diverse settings across various linguistic, cultural, and religious backgrounds living there for generations. The movement led to violence across the city and state, and Desai ordered the police to open fire on the [[Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti]] demonstrators who had gathered at [[Flora Fountain]]. The protesters were led by [[Senapati Bapat]]. In the carnage that followed, 105 protesters were killed. The issue escalated and is believed to have forced the Central Government to agree to two separate states based on language. After the formation of the present State of Maharashtra, Bombay, now [[Mumbai]], became its state capital. Flora Fountain was renamed "[[Hutatma Chowk]]" ("Martyrs' Square" in English) to honour the people killed in the firing. Later Desai moved to Delhi when he was inducted as finance Minister in the cabinet of Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]].

===Nehru cabinet===
Desai was socially conservative, pro-business, and in favour of free enterprise reforms, as opposed to Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]'s socialistic policies.

Rising in Congress leadership, as a fierce nationalist with anti-corruption leanings, Desai was at odds with Prime Minister Nehru and his allies, and with Nehru's age and health failing, he was considered as a possible contender for the position of Prime Minister.

===Congress party leadership contest===
After Nehru's death in 1964, Desai was outflanked in the leadership contest by Nehru's protege, [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]]. Shastri invited Desai to join his short-lived cabinet, but Desai did not join.<ref name="HaqqiAssociation1986">{{cite book|author1=Anwarul Haque Haqqi|author2=Indian Political Science Association|title=Indian Democracy at the Crossroads|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk7c6O2XlGwC&pg=PA150|year=1986|publisher=Mittal Publications|page=123|id=GGKEY:X2U27GYQ2L1}}</ref>
In early 1966, Shastri passed away suddenly after only 18 months in power, and Desai again became a contender for the top position. However, he was defeated by Nehru's daughter, [[Indira Gandhi]], in the Congress party leadership election by a big margin.<ref name="Singh1981a">{{cite book|author=Mahendra Prasad Singh|title=Split in a Predominant Party: The Indian National Congress in 1969|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOQRWuMXyRMC&pg=PAPR5|year=1981|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-140-9|page=50}}</ref>

===Indira Gandhi cabinet===
Desai served as deputy prime minister and Finance Minister in the Indira Gandhi government until July 1969, when Gandhi took over the finance portfolio but asked Desai to stay on as deputy prime minister. However, to save his self-respect, Desai tendered his resignation from the Gandhi cabinet.<ref name="Singh1981b">{{cite book|author=Mahendra Prasad Singh|title=Split in a Predominant Party: The Indian National Congress in 1969|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOQRWuMXyRMC&pg=PAPR5|year=1981|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-140-9|pages=67–68}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/archives/from-the-archives-july-17-1969-morarji-desai-resigns/article28491110.ece|title=From the Archives (July 17, 1969): Morarji Desai resigns|work=The Hindu|date=17 July 2019|access-date=24 July 2019|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Gandhi also nationalised the fourteen largest banks in India at the same time. There was some difference of opinion between Gandhi and Desai related to Congress candidate for Presidency in India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://theprint.in/pageturner/excerpt/morarji-desai-saw-this-letter-from-indira-gandhi-as-a-brazen-attack-on-his-self-respect-and-resigned/372939|title=Morarji Desai saw this letter from Indira Gandhi as a brazen attack on his self-respect and resigned|work=The Print|date=29 February 2020|access-date=29 February 2020}}</ref>

===In opposition===
When the Congress Party split in 1969, Desai joined the [[Indian National Congress (Organisation)]] faction of the party, whereas Gandhi formed a new faction called Indian National Congress (Requisitionists). Alternatively, the two factions of Desai and Gandhi were called Syndicate and Indicate respectively. Gandhi's faction won the [[1971 Indian general election|1971 general elections]] in a landslide. Desai, however, was elected as a member of the [[Lok Sabha]]. Desai went on indefinite hunger strike on 12 March 1975 to support [[Nav Nirman]] movement of Gujarat.<ref name="avk">{{Cite book|last=Krishna|first=Ananth V.|title=India Since Independence: Making Sense of Indian Politics|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn= 9788131734650|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8v7Vr2iQUHkC&q=navnirman+gujarat&pg=PA120|access-date=22 November 2012|page=117|year=2011}}</ref>

In 1975, Gandhi was [[State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain|convicted of electoral fraud]] by the Allahabad High Court, after opponents alleged she had used government civil servants and equipment during the campaign for the 1971 general elections.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/indira-gandhi-convicted-of-election-fraud |title=Indira Gandhi convicted of election fraud – History.com This Day in History – 6/12/1975 |publisher=History.com |access-date=10 July 2013}}</ref> During the subsequent [[The Emergency (India)|Emergency rule]] in 1975–77, Desai and other opposition leaders were jailed by the Gandhi government as part of a massive crackdown.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/06/26/archives/many-opponents-of-mrs-gandhi-arrested-in-india-narayan-and-desai.html|title=MANY OPPONENTS OF MRS. GANDHI ARRESTED IN INDIA - 26/06/1975|work=[[The New York Times]] }}</ref>

===Janata wave of 1977===
The popular anti-corruption movement led by [[Jayaprakash Narayan]] and the Janata-wave in 1977 led to the complete routing of the Congress party in Northern India, and a landslide victory for the opposition Janata alliance in the National elections held in March 1977. Desai was selected by the Janata alliance, later [[Janata Party]] as their parliamentary leader, and thus became the first non-Congress Prime Minister of India.<ref name="Mirchandani2003">{{cite book|author=G.G. Mirchandani|title=320 Million Judges|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5xj0g8euumQC&pg=PA11|date=June 2003|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-061-7|pages=177–178}}</ref>

==Prime Minister of India (1977–1979)==
{{Main|Premiership of Morarji Desai}}
[[File:Officials of India welcome Jimmy Carter and Rosalynn Carter during an arrival ceremony in New Delhi, India - NARA - 177371.jpg|thumb|Desai (third from right, front row) with the US President [[Jimmy Carter]] during his January 1978 visit to India.|247x247px]]
[[File:Nicolae Ceaușescu and Morarji Desai in Delhi.jpg|thumb|Desai with the Romanian President [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]] in [[Delhi]] in May 1978.|246x246px]]
[[File:Jimmy Carter with Prime Minister of India, Morarji Desai - NARA - 179821.jpg|thumb|Desai and Carter in the [[Oval Office]] in June 1978.|243x243px]]
[[File:Morarji Desai 1996 stamp of India.jpg|thumb|150px|Desai on Indian Postal Stamp 1996]]
[[File:Morarji Desai 1997 stamp of India.jpg|thumb|150px|Desai on Indian Postal Stamp 1997]]

In January 1977, Indira Gandhi advised the President dissolve the Lok Sabha, which he did, and Gandhi declared that elections to the body were to be held during March 1977. Opposition leaders were also released and promptly formed the Janata alliance to fight the elections. The alliance registered a landslide victory in the election. On the urging of [[Jayaprakash Narayan]], the Janata alliance selected Desai as their parliamentary leader and thus the Prime Minister.<ref name="Mirchandani2003"/><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Prasad|first=Ravi Visvesvaraya Sharada |date=22 March 2021|title=How Morarji Desai outwitted Jagjivan Ram and Charan Singh|url=https://openthemagazine.com/columns/morarji-desai-outwitted-jagjivan-ram-charan-singh/ |magazine=Open The Magazine|access-date=25 December 2021}}</ref> He is the first indian former chief minister to become Prime Minister of Country.

===Foreign policy===
{{main|List of international prime ministerial trips made by Morarji Desai}}
Desai restored normal relations with China, for the first time since [[Sino-Indian War|the 1962 war]]. He also communicated with the military ruler of Pakistan, General [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq|Zia-ul-Haq]] and established friendly relations. Despite his pacifist leanings, he refused to sign the nuclear non-proliferation treaty despite the threat of stopping supply of uranium for power plants by the USA Congress.<ref name="Alam1988">{{cite book |author=Mohammed Badrul Alam |title=India's Nuclear Policy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RM5LtfsT3z8C&pg=PR7 |year=1988 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-079-6 |pages=34–35}}</ref>

Noted for his pro-American stance,<ref name="o984">{{cite book | last1=Basu | first1=Dipak | last2=Miroshnik | first2=Victoria | title=India as an Organization: Volume Two: The Reconstruction of India | publisher=Springer | date=3 October 2017 | isbn=978-3-319-53369-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=23k4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA106AF6BAgJEAM#v=onepage&q=Desai%2520morarji%2520%2522pro%2520American%2522&f=false| page=10}}</ref> throughout his reign, he had been called a CIA agent. American journalist [[Semour Hersh]], Congress leader [[Sanjay Gandhi]] and others further accused Desai of colluding with the United States.<ref name="e925">{{cite book | last=Sharma | first=Piare Lal | title=World's Wisest Wizard: A Psychography of Sanjay Gandhi's Cosmic Mind | publisher=Sagar Publications | date=1977 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJABAAAAMAAJ | page=78-82}}</ref><ref name="e937">{{cite book | last=McGarr | first=Paul M. | title=Spying in South Asia: Britain, the United States, and India's Secret Cold War | publisher=Cambridge University Press | date=12 September 2024 | isbn=978-1-108-91156-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qt4aEQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PT326 | access-date=9 March 2026 | page=326}}</ref> Hersh revealed that Desai was paid $20,000 per year for exposing the secrets of Indian politics to the United States, including about the [[1971 India Pakistan war]]. Desai sued Hersh in the US over these allegations, however, the lawsuit was rejected by the American court.<ref name="v893">{{cite book | title=Sûrya India | publisher=A. Anand. | date=1983 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=InpDAAAAYAAJ& | page=12}}</ref><ref name="c708">{{cite book | last=Mehta | first=Vinod | title=Lucknow Boy: A Memoir | publisher=Penguin Books Limited | date=15 November 2013 | isbn=978-93-5118-396-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTInAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT100 | page=100}}</ref>

===Nuclear programme===
Domestically, Desai played a crucial role in the [[Indian nuclear programme|Indian nuclear program]] after it was targeted by major nuclear powers after India conducted a [[Smiling Buddha|surprise nuclear test in 1974]]. Desai kept India's nuclear reactors stating "they will never be used for atomic bombs, and I will see to it if I can help it".<ref name="The World: Morarji Desai: The Ascetic Activist">{{cite magazine |title=The World: Morarji Desai: The Ascetic Activist |magazine=Time |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947858-2,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001014914/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947858-2,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 October 2007 |access-date=19 March 2014 |date=4 April 1977}}</ref> Internationally, he reaffirmed India's stand that it would not manufacture nuclear weapons and would refrain from conducting even peaceful nuclear explosions.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/pm-moraji-desai-holds-talks-with-carter/article6446146.ece|title=PM Moraji Desai holds talks with Carter (From The Hindu's archives: 14.06.1978)|work=The Hindu|date=26 September 2014|access-date=16 February 2020|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In 1977, the [[Presidency of Jimmy Carter|Carter administration]] offered to sell [[heavy water]] and [[uranium]] to India for its nuclear reactors but required American on-site inspection of nuclear materials. Desai declined, seeing the American stance as contradictory, in light of its own nuclear arsenal.<ref name="Nation: Jimmy's Journey: Mostly Pluses">{{cite magazine|date=16 January 1978|title=Nation: Jimmy's Journey: Mostly Pluses|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,919248-3,00.html|url-status=dead|magazine=Time|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001014935/https://time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,919248-3,00.html|archive-date=1 October 2007|access-date=19 March 2014}}</ref>

===Decimation of R&AW===
Desai had described the [[Research and Analysis Wing]] (R&AW), India's external intelligence agency, as the [[praetorian guard]] of [[Indira Gandhi]] and had promised to stop all activities of the R&AW after becoming prime minister. He closed down much of the agency, and reduced its budget and operations,<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 =Shaffer| first1 = Ryan| s2cid = 157714194| title = Significant Distrust and Drastic Cuts: The Indian Government's Uneasy Relationship with Intelligence | doi = 10.1080/08850607.2017.1263529 | journal = International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 522–531 | year = 2017 }}</ref> such as closing its Information Division.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Shaffer| first1 = Ryan| s2cid = 157485301| title = Indian intelligence revealed: an examination of operations, failures and transformations | doi = 10.1080/02684527.2017.1327135 | journal = Intelligence and National Security | volume = 32 | issue = 4| pages = 598–610| year = 2018 }}</ref> [[B. Raman]], the former head of the Counter-Terrorism Division of R&AW and noted security analyst, revealed that in an informal discussion, Desai indiscreetly told Pakistan's [[Chief Martial Law Administrator]] General [[General Zia-ul-Haq|Zia ul-Haq]] that his government was well aware of Pakistan's [[Pakistan and its Nuclear Deterrent Program|nuclear development]].<ref name="ReferenceA">"Kaoboys of R&AW: Down Memory Lane" by [[B. Raman]]</ref>

===Intra-party squabbles and collapse of Janata government===
His government undid many [[Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India|amendments made to the constitution during emergency]] and made it more difficult for any future government to impose a national emergency. However, the Janata Party coalition was full of personal and policy friction and thus failed to achieve much, owing to continuous in-wrangling and much controversy.<ref name="Singh1981c">{{cite book|author=Mahendra Prasad Singh|title=Split in a Predominant Party: The Indian National Congress in 1969|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOQRWuMXyRMC&pg=PAPR5|year=1981|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-140-9|pages=8–9}}</ref> With no party in leadership of the coalition, rival groups vied to unseat Desai. Controversial trials of prominent Congress leaders, including [[Indira Gandhi]] over Emergency-era abuses worsened the fortunes of his administration.
In 1979, [[Raj Narain]] and [[Choudhary Charan Singh|Charan Singh]] pulled out of the Janata Party, forcing Desai to resign from office and retire from politics. The chief reason for the collapse was the demand by the duo and other left-leaning members, like [[Madhu Limaye]], [[Krishan Kant]], and [[George Fernandes]] that no member of the Janata party could simultaneously be a member of an alternative social or political organisation. This attack on "dual membership" was directed specifically at members of the Janata Party who had been members of the [[Jan Sangh]], and continued to be members of [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]], the Jan Sangh's ideological parent.<ref>Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne H. Rudolph, ''In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State'' (1987), University of Chicago Press, pp 457–459.</ref>

==Retirement and death==
Desai campaigned for the [[Janata Party]] in [[1980 Indian general election|1980 General Election]] as a senior politician but did not contest the election himself. In retirement, he lived in [[Mumbai]]. When former French [[List of Prime Ministers of France|Prime Minister]] [[Antoine Pinay]] died on 13 December 1994, Desai became the world's oldest living former head of government. He was much honoured in his last years as a freedom-fighter of his generation. On his 99th birthday, he was visited by Prime Minister [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]], and soon after began to fall ill.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Morarji Desai Dies at age 99 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1995/04/11/morarji-desai-dies-at-age-99/ef130273-ac56-41b0-acf6-34409ef2ce81/ |access-date=22 June 2022 |newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref> He was treated in a hospital in Mumbai due to low blood pressure and a chest infection. He died on 10 April 1995, aged 99, after he underwent surgery for a blood clot in his brain.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/11/obituaries/morarji-desai-dies-at-99-defeated-indira-gandhi-to-become-premier-of-india.html|title=Morarji Desai Dies at 99; Defeated Indira Gandhi to Become Premier of India|first=Sanjoy|last=Hazarika|date=11 April 1995|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref>

Desai was a [[morality|moralist]]. He was a [[Vegetarians|vegetarian]] "both by birth and by conviction."<ref>Shri Morarji Desai, ''In my view'', 1966, pp. 234–235.</ref>

==Social service==
Desai was a Gandhian follower, social worker, institution builder and a great reformer. He was the chancellor of Gujarat Vidyapith. Even during his term as the prime minister he used to visit and stay at Vidyapith during the month of October. He lived simply and used to write post cards himself even when he held the office of Prime Minister. Sardar Patel deputed him to conduct meetings of farmers in Kaira district which finally led to the establishment of the [[Amul]] Cooperative movement. During his rule, he withdrew intervention in [[Public Distribution System]] and rationing shops were literally lost due to cheap sugar and oil available in the market.

==Personal life==
Desai married Gujraben in 1911, at the age of 15.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dubey|first1=Scharada|title=Movers and Shakers Prime Minister of India|date=2009|publisher=Westland|page=Morarji Desai Section Page 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2dgqNH6uKUsC&pg=PT39|access-date=26 August 2014|isbn=9788189975548}}</ref> Gujraben lived to see her husband become prime minister. She died on 25 October 1981 at the age of 81.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gajraben Desai, wife of India's former prime minister, died... - UPI Archives |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1981/10/25/Gajraben-Desai-wife-of-Indias-former-prime-minister-died/8794372830400/ |website=UPI |date=25 October 1981 |access-date=15 April 2023}}</ref> Out of his five children, only three survived infancy: his daughters Virumati and Indu and his son Kantilal.<ref name="auto1">{{cite news|title=Of Many Shades{{!}}Morarji Desai: A Profile in Courage | url=http://www.millenniumpost.in/book-reviews/morarji-desai-a-profile-in-courage-18061}}</ref>

Virumati, who was married to Ramanlal Desai, died in the early 2000s. Indu, a medical student, died by suicide in 1953. Kantilal Desai, who was married to Padma Kirloskar, died in 2014.<ref name="auto1"/>

Desai has two grandsons, Bharat Desai and Jagdeep Desai, through his son Kantilal, and one granddaughter, Varsha Desai Naik. One of Desai's great-grandsons, [[Madhukeshwar Desai]], is the National Vice-President of the [[Bharatiya Janata Yuva Morcha]], the youth wing of the [[BJP]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Morarji Desai's great grandson Madhukeshwar joins BJP's youth wing as vice-president | url= http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-05-30/news/39629167_1_youth-wing-bharatiya-janata-yuva-morcha-bjp-fold | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130613193028/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-05-30/news/39629167_1_youth-wing-bharatiya-janata-yuva-morcha-bjp-fold | url-status= dead | archive-date= 13 June 2013 | newspaper=The Economic Times | date=30 May 2013}}</ref> Madhukeshwar is married to Sneha Menon, a celebrity talk show host. Of his great-granddaughters, Kalayani is a celebrity stylist and designer.

Desai's eldest great-grandson, Vishaal Desai, is a film director and editor known for his documentary on the renowned yoga guru [[B.K.S. Iyengar]], titled ''Yogacharya B.K.S. Iyengar: Uniting Through Yoga''.<ref>{{cite news|title=healing-the-spirit-through-film|url=https://depauliaonline.com/68617/artslife/healing-the-spirit-through-film-depaul-grad-student-celebrates-distribution-of-documentary-feature|newspaper=The DePaulia|date=25 February 2024}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite news|title=A lightly carried legacy|url=http://www.afternoondc.in/interview/a-lightly-carried-legacy/article_23612|newspaper=The Afternoon|access-date=10 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510182053/http://www.afternoondc.in/interview/a-lightly-carried-legacy/article_23612|archive-date=10 May 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Yogacharya B. K. S. Iyengar: Uniting Through Yoga |url=https://www.amazon.com/Yogacharya-B-K-S-Iyengar/dp/B07ZG24BX7/ref=sr_1_1?crid=2HQVM8D3141DY&keywords=uniting+through+yoga&qid=1645050000&sprefix=uniting+through+y%2Caps%2C342&sr=8-1|website=[[Amazon Prime]]|date=18 September 2019 }}</ref>

Desai, a [[teetotalism|teetotaler]] and longtime practitioner of '[[urine therapy]]',<ref>{{cite web|last=Lal|first=Vinay|title=Coca-Cola in India|work=AsiaMedia|date=1 September 2006|url=https://southasia.ucla.edu/history-politics/current-affairs/coca-cola-india/|access-date=26 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180521141002/https://southasia.ucla.edu/history-politics/current-affairs/coca-cola-india/|archive-date=21 May 2018}}</ref> spoke in 1978 to [[Dan Rather]] on ''[[60 Minutes]]'' about the benefits of drinking urine.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/4822621.cms |title=Curative Elixir: Waters Of India |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=27 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112082228/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/4822621.cms |archive-date=12 November 2017 |first1=Prasenjit |last1=Chowdhury |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tietze |first=Harald |title=Urine the Holy Water |year=1996 |isbn=0846451905 |page=16 |publisher=Harald Tietze Publishing P/ |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lc1jn7SLRaoC&pg=PA8}}</ref><ref>Wasson, R.G., 1979. Soma brought up-to-date. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 99(1), pp.100-105.</ref> He also attributed his longevity to drinking urine.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=Kuldip |title=OBITUARY: Morarji Desai |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-morarji-desai-1615165.html |issue=Monday 10 April 1995 |work=The Independent |date=1995}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Raman |first1=B. |title=The Kaoboys of R&AW: Down Memory Lane |year=2007 |publisher=Lancer Publishers LLC |isbn=978-1-935501-48-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nsBerwgsf38C&q=Kaoboys+of+R%26AW:+Down+Memory+Lane |access-date=26 February 2020}}</ref>

== Awards and honours ==
=== National honours ===
*{{flag|India}}:
**[[File:Bharat Ratna Ribbon.svg|50px]] [[Bharat Ratna]] (1991)<ref>{{cite news |title=Morarji Desai was Conferred by the Bharat Ratna Award on 24th Aug, 1991 |publisher=eparlib.nic.in|url=https://eparlib.nic.in/handle/123456789/7756?view_type=search }}</ref>

=== Foreign honours ===
*{{flag|Pakistan}}:
**[[File:Nishan-e-Pakistan ribbon bar.svg|50px]] [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]], (19 May 1990)<ref>{{cite news |author=Shyam Bhatia |date=11 July 2001 |title=When India nd Pakistan almost made peace |publisher=Rediff |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2001/jul/11spec.htm |access-date=28 May 2016}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
''Morarji'', an Indian television series about the life of Desai from his days as an independence activist till his tenure as prime minister, aired on the national public broadcaster [[Doordarshan]]'s [[DD National]] channel.<ref>{{Citation|last=Doordarshan National|title=Morarji (मोरारजी) : EP #01|date=28 June 2019 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mgzp-TC28do| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/Mgzp-TC28do| archive-date=30 October 2021|access-date=10 June 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The [[Films Division of India]] made ''For Peace and Friendship'', a 1978 [[Short film|short]] [[documentary film]] directed by C. Ramani about Desai's campaign for nuclear disarmament.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FOR PEACE AND FRIENDSHIP {{!}} Films Division|url=https://filmsdivision.org/shop/for-peace-and-friendship|access-date=10 June 2021|website=filmsdivision.org}}</ref> [[Govind Namdeo]] appeared as Desai in the 2019 [[conspiracy thriller]] film ''[[The Gandhi Murder]]'', by Karim Traïdia and Pankaj Sehgal, which explores a British abetment in the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Govind Namdeo plays Morarji Desai in Solar Eclipse |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/govind-namdeo-plays-morarji-desai-in-solar-eclipse/ |website=[[The Indian Express]] |date=11 March 2016}}</ref> [[Avijit Dutt]] appears as Desai in [[Mission Majnu]].

''[[Pradhanmantri]]'' ({{Literal translation|Prime Minister}}), a 2013 Indian docudrama television series which aired on [[ABP News]] and covers the various policies and political tenures of Indian PMs, dedicated the thirteenth episode – "Story of Morarji Desai and Janata Party" – to his term as the country's leader.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pradhanmantri – Episode 13: India after emergency, Janata Party wins general election |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QMTXTPAvfxk | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/QMTXTPAvfxk| archive-date=30 October 2021|publisher=ABP News |language=en |date=6 October 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

He was depicted in a 2024 Indian movie [[Main Atal Hoon]]. His character was played by Rajesh Khatri.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|display=Morarji Desai|wikt=no|c=Morarji Desai|commonscat=yes|n=no|q=Morarji Desai|s=no|author=no|b=no|voy=no|v=no|d=Q218661|species=no|species_author=no|m=no|mw=no|position=right}}

* {{IMDb name|id=1531487}}
* {{OL author}}

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Thakur (title)

2026-03-28T08:10:46Z

SAWANTRAJ: update lead per standard format and added references after review

{{short description|Feudal title of the Indian subcontinent}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}

'''Thakur''' (Anglicized as '''Tagore'''<ref>https://www.thedailystar.net/news/from-thakur-to-tagore</ref>) is a historical [[Indian feudalism|feudal]] [[Indian honorifics|title]] of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It is also used as a surname in the present day. The female variant of the title is '''Thakurani''' or '''Thakurain''', and is also used to describe the wife of a Thakur.
[[File:Portrait of Thakur Raja Bakhtawar Singh, standing in a European-style interior..jpg|thumb|Portrait of ''Thakur Bakhtawar Singh Rajput'' made by ''Fateh Muhammad'' around 1880 in western Rajasthan, probably Bikaner.]]
There are varying opinions among scholars about its origin. Some scholars suggest that it is not mentioned in the [[Sanskrit]] texts preceding 500 [[Common Era|BCE]], but speculates that it might have been a part of the vocabulary of the dialects spoken in [[North India|northern India]] before the [[Gupta Empire]]. It is viewed to have been derived from word ''Thakkura'' which, according to several scholars, was not an original word of the Sanskrit [[Languages of India|language]] but a borrowed word in the Indian lexis from the Tukharistan region of [[Uzbekistan]]. Another view-point is that ''Thakkura'' is a loan word from the [[Prakrit]] language.

Scholars have suggested differing meanings for the word, i.e. "god", "lord", and "master of the estate". Academics have suggested that it was only a title, and in itself, did not grant any authority to its users "to wield some power in the state".

In India, this title is widely used by the people belonging to the [[Rajputs|Rajput]] community<ref>{{cite book|quote=Thakur and rajput have been used interchangeably to refer to castes of Kshatriya rank.|title=Dominance and State Power in Modern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7whuAAAAMAAJ |page=137 |first1=Francine R. |last1=Frankel |first2=M. S. A. |last2=Rao |last3=Madhugiri |first3=Shamarao |first4=Ananthapadmanabha |last4=Rao |year=1989 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-562098-6 |access-date=22 January 2023 |archive-date=10 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410214540/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Dominance_and_State_Power_in_Modern_Indi/7whuAAAAMAAJ?hl=en |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Dipankar “Pandit or Baman for Brahmin and Thakur for Rajput. These are common north Indian appellations for the members of these castes.” |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bgpEIb4tNjgC&dq=thakur+caste&pg=PA2056 |title=Caste in Question: Identity Or Hierarchy? |date=2004-12-08 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-7619-3324-3 |language=en}}</ref> while few people of other communities also use this title include communities such as, [[Bengali Brahmins]],<ref name="SKD"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/from-thakur-to-tagore|title=From Thakur to Tagore|author=Syed Ashraf Ali|date=4 May 2013|newspaper=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]|access-date=22 January 2023|archive-date=6 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706133756/https://www.thedailystar.net/news/from-thakur-to-tagore|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Bhumihars]],<ref>{{cite book|title=India's Communities vol 6|page=471|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jw9uAAAAMAAJ&q=bhumihars+use+thakur+title|author=KS Singh|date=1998 |publisher=OUP|isbn=978-0-19-563354-2 |quote=In Bihar , the Babhan are also known as Bhumihar Brahman . They have titles such as Rai , Singh , Pandey , Tiwari , Chaudhry and Thakur.}}</ref> [[Charan]]s<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Saksena |first=B. S. |date=1965 |title=The Phenomenon Of Feudal Loyalty : A Case Study In Sirohi State |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41854129 |journal=The Indian Journal of Political Science |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=121–128 |issn=0019-5510 |jstor=41854129 |quote=Among jagirdars, all were not Rajputs. Jagirs were also granted to Charans and Brahmins. They were also known as thakurs.}}</ref> and [[Koli people|Kolis]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mishra |first=Kuldeep |date=18 December 2017 |title=गुजरात और उत्तर प्रदेश की राजनीति कैसे अलग है? |url=https://www.bbc.com/hindi/india-42386072 |work=BBC News हिंदी |access-date=19 December 2021 |language=hi |archive-date=14 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214151952/https://www.bbc.com/hindi/india-42386072|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=bkb>{{Cite book |last=Misra |first=Bankey Bihari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BE8LAQAAIAAJ |title=The Administrative History of India, 1834-1947: General Administration |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-19-560134-3 |location=New Delhi, India, Asia |pages=468: Similar to these were certain estates held on payment of rentals settled in the lump with their heads called Koli thakurs|language=en |access-date=24 January 2023 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218044258/https://books.google.com/books?id=BE8LAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Banerjee |first1=Supurna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h6xvDwAAQBAJ&dq=thakur+caste&pg=PT116 |title=Caste and Gender in Contemporary India: Power, Privilege and Politics |last2=Ghosh |first2=Nandini |date=2018-09-17 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-429-78395-1 |language=en}}</ref>

== Etymology and meaning ==
[[Sisir Kumar Das]] stated that the word ''Thakur'' is derived from the "late [[Sanskrit]]" word ''Thakkura''.<ref name="SKD">{{cite journal |journal=[[Anthropological Linguistics (journal)|Anthropological Linguistics]] |volume=10 |issue=4 |date=April 1968 |publisher=Trustees of Indiana University |title=Forms of Address and Terms of Reference in Bengali |first=Sisir Kumar |last=Das |pages=19–31 |jstor=30029176 |jstor-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|28}}

[[Harka Gurung|Harka Bahadur Gurung]] noted that the [[Nepali language|Nepalese]] version of the word ''Thakur'' is ''Thakuri''.<ref name="HBG">{{cite book |title=Faces of Nepal |year=1996 |page=29 |publisher=Himal |first=Harka Bahadur |last=Gurung |others=illustrated by [[Jan Salter]] |isbn=978-9993343509 |quote=The term Thakuri is a Nepali variation of the Hindi word thakur, which means 'master of the estate'. Indeed, Thakuris of Nepal are associated with some territory inherited from the days of Baisi and Chaubisi principalities; the term thakurai actually refers to 'fiefdom'. It is said that among those Rajputs fleeing to the hills after the Muslim invasion in India, successful adventurers among them were given the name and status of Thakuri by their Brahman followers.}}</ref>

The meaning of the word ''Thakur'' was suggested to be "god" by S. K. Das;<ref name="SKD"/>{{rp|31}} "lord" by Blair B. Kling;<ref>{{cite book |title=Partner in Empire: Dwarkanath Tagore and the Age of Enterprise in Eastern India |chapter=The Home and the World |year=1976 |page=10 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |first=Blair B. |last=Kling |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KVBKeqaYeVwC&pg=PA10 |isbn=978-0520029279 |access-date=26 September 2020 |archive-date=10 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410214529/https://books.google.com/books?id=KVBKeqaYeVwC&pg=PA10 |url-status=live }}</ref> and "master of the estate" by H. B. Gurung.<ref name="HBG"/>

== Origin ==
[[Nirmal Chandra Sinha]] stated that the word ''Thakura'' is "unknown" to the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit and finds no mention in the Sanskrit literature preceding 500 BCE. He suggests, however, that "the word was possibly current in many north Indian dialects before the Imperial Guptas". Sinha notes that many scholars, such as Buddha Prakash, [[Frederick William Thomas (philologist)|Frederick Thomas]], [[Harold Bailey]], [[Prabodh Chandra Bagchi|Prabodh Bagchi]], [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji|Suniti Chatterji]], and [[Sylvain Lévi]], have suggested that ''Thakura'' is a borrowed word in the Indian lexis from the Tukhara regions of Current Uzbekistan.<ref name="NCS">{{cite journal |journal=Bulletin of Tibetology |series=New |volume=23 |number=1 |year=1987 |page=18 |publisher=Sikkim Research Institute of Tibetology |place=Gangtok, India |title=Inner Asia and India Through the Ages |first=Nirmal Chandra |last=Sinha |url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/bot/pdf/bot_1987_01_full.pdf |via=[[University of Cambridge]] |access-date=26 September 2020 |archive-date=17 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117002441/http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/bot/pdf/bot_1987_01_full.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Sinha observed:
{{blockquote|"It may be noted that in South India among orthodox Brahmins, Thakura or Thakur is not a popular term obviously because of its Tukhara or Turuska background."<ref name="NCS"/>}}

[[Byomkes Chakrabarti]] noted that the Sanskrit word ''Thakkura'' finds mention in "late Sanskrit". He doubted, however, that ''Thakkura'' is "an original Sanskrit word" and was of the opinion that ''Thakkura'' is probably a loan word from the Prakrit language.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali |year=1992 |page=14 |publisher=K. P. Bagchi & Company |first=Byomkes |last=Chakrabarti |isbn=978-8170741282 |quote=Mr. Risley has also drawn attention to the fact that the supreme God "Thakur" of the Santali traditions bears a Hindi name derived from the Sanskrit origin "thakkura". But there is much doubt whether "thakkura" itself is an original Sanskrit word. The word occurs in late Sanskrit possibly being borrowed from Prakrit. But if we make a careful analysis of the different languages of the western regions of Asia from Turkish to Bengali we would surely find out traces of similarities of most of these languages with Santali and this will go to show that the tribes had their historical wanderings from the Western part of Asia to the Eastern part of India.}}</ref>

== Usage ==
[[File:Lakhajirajsinhji_II_Bavajirajsinhji.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Lakhajirajsinhji II Bavajirajsinhji|''Thakur'' Lakhajirajsinhji II Bavajirajsinhji]] of Rajkot]]
[[Susan Snow Wadley]] noted that the title ''Thakur'' was used to refer to "a man of indeterminate but mid-level caste, usually implying a landowning caste". Wadley further notes that ''Thakur'' was viewed as a "more modest" title in comparison to "''[[Raja|Rājā]]''" (King).<ref name="SSW">{{cite book |title=Raja Nal and the Goddess: The North Indian Epic Dhola in Performance |edition=illustrated |year=2004 |page=60 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |place=Bloomington, Indiana |first=Susan S. |last=Wadley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UbsgVL4AGkoC&pg=PA60 |isbn=978-0253217240 |lccn=2004009434 |quote=Eventually he was awarded the title of ''rājā'' (king), although he preferred the more modest "Thakur" (a man of indeterminate but mid-level caste, usually implying a landowning caste, often Rajput). |access-date=26 September 2020 |archive-date=10 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410214540/https://books.google.com/books?id=UbsgVL4AGkoC&pg=PA60 |url-status=live }}</ref>

S. K. Das noted that while the word ''thakur'' means "god".

In India, this title is widely used by the people belonging to the [[Rajput]] caste<ref name="Rajput">{{cite web|last=Ellinwood|first=DeWitt C.|date=January 2002|title=A Perspective on the Western Front by an Indian Army Office on the Western Front|url=https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/world-war-i-articles/a-perspective-on-the-western-front-by-an-indian-army-office-on-the-western-front-by-dr-dewitt-c-ellinwood/|access-date=9 November 2020|website=[[Western Front Association]]|quote=...Thakur (title of respect for Rajput aristocrats whose father is deceased; usually a landowner)...|archive-date=10 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201110034942/https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/world-war-i-articles/a-perspective-on-the-western-front-by-an-indian-army-office-on-the-western-front-by-dr-dewitt-c-ellinwood/|url-status=live}}</ref>while few people of some other caste groups using it include castes such as, [[Bengali Brahmin]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kanitkar |first1=Helen A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1fig6r-cktgC&dq=Forms+of+Address+and+Terms+of+Reference+in+Bengali&pg=PA76 |title=1965–1969 |last2=Fürer-Haimendorf |first2=Elizabeth |date=2012-05-07 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-080704-2 |language=en}}</ref> [[Bhumihar]], [[Koli people|Koli]]<ref name="bkb" /> and [[Charan]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Yadav |first1=Kripal Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6v5tAAAAMAAJ |title=Arya Samaj and the Freedom Movement: 1875–1918 |last2=Arya |first2=Krishan Singh |date=1988 |publisher=Manohar Publications |isbn=978-81-85054-41-4 |language=en |quote=Thakur Kesari Singh was born on 21 November 1872 at Devpura, a small village near Shahpura in Udaipur state (Rajasthan) in a patriotic Charan family. His father, Thakur Kishan Singh a follower of Swami Dayananda was one of the chief counsellors of the ruler of Udaipur. |access-date=28 April 2022 |archive-date=10 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410214536/https://books.google.com/books?id=6v5tAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Some academics have suggested that "''Thakur'' was merely a title and not an office whereby a holder was entitled to wield some power in the state".<ref>{{cite book |title=Rajput Polity: A Study of Politics and Administration of the State of Marwar, 1638–1749 |year=1977 |page=18 |publisher=Manohar |first=Ghanshyam Datt |last=Sharma |quote=Bose agrees with Dr. Kane (History of the Dharmasastras, iii, 984) that thakur was merely a title and not an office whereby a holder was entitled to wield some power in the state. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5-YeAAAAMAAJ&q=%22thakur+was+merely+a+title+and+not+an+office%22 |isbn=978-0883868874 |access-date=26 October 2020 |archive-date=10 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410214531/https://books.google.com/books?id=5-YeAAAAMAAJ&q=%22thakur+was+merely+a+title+and+not+an+office%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, some other academics have noted that this title had been used by "petty chiefs" in the western areas of [[Himachal Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite book |title=History and Culture of the Chamba State, a Western Himalayan Kingdom: Collected Papers of the Seminar Held at Chamba in 1983 |section=Influence of Rajasthani on Pahari |page=131 |publisher=Books & Books |first1=Vishwa Chander |last1=Ohri |first2=Amar Nath |last2=Khanna |year=1989 |quote=...in the hills refer to a time when petty chiefs bearing the title of Rana or Thakur exercised authority over their iminutive domains... |isbn=9788185016252}}</ref> Examples include the Thakurs of Kolong, Gumrang, and [[Gondhla]] in [[Lahaul and Spiti district|Lahaul]], who governed hereditary [[Jagir|jagirs]] in Lahaul under the Rajas of Kullu, and later under British rule.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Diack |first=Alexander Henderson |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.pahar.1425/page/26/mode/2up?q=gumrang |title=Gazetteer of the Kangra District / 2/4 Kulu, Lahul and Spiti : 1897 |date=1994 |publisher=New Delhi : Indus Publ. Co. |isbn=978-81-7387-016-3 |pages=26}}</ref>

The title was used by rulers of several [[princely state]]s, including [[Ambliara State|Ambliara]], [[Vala State|Vala]], [[Morvi State|Morbi]], [[Varsoda State|Barsoda]], and [[Rajkot State]]. Sons of thakurs were given the Sanskrit title of ''[[Kumar (title)|Kumara]]'' ('prince'), popular usage being ''[[Kunwar (title)|Kunwar]]'' in the North and ''[[Kumar (title)|Kumar]]'' in [[Bengal]] and [[South India|southern India]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Vadivelu|first=A.|title=The Aristocracy of Southern India, Volume 2|date=24 August 2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oFwDWt2N29cC|access-date=28 September 2018|archive-date=10 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410214453/https://books.google.com/books?id=oFwDWt2N29cC|url-status=live}}</ref>

The territory of land under the control of a ''Thakur'' was called ''thikana''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dynamics of State Formation: India and Europe Compared |year=1997 |page=81 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications|SAGE]] |first1=Martin |last1=Doornbos |first2=Sudipta |last2=Kaviraj |isbn=978-8170365747 |quote=Rights to land within any particular Thakur domain, the thikana, became complicated by the 1600s.}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Sardar]]
* [[Chaudhary]]
* [[Mankari]]
* [[Thakkar]]
* [[Thakuri]]
* [[Thakor]]
* [[Purshotamdas Thakurdas|Thakurdas]]
* [[Rajputs in Bihar]]
* [[Dharmathakur]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Titles in India]]
[[Category:Rajput titles]]
[[Category:Surnames of Indian origin]]
[[Category:Indian feudalism]]
[[Category:Titles in Bangladesh]]

Madhepura Lok Sabha constituency

2026-03-20T03:06:35Z

SAWANTRAJ: creating a data.

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Short description|Lok Sabha constituency in Bihar}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = LS
| name = Madhepura
| state = [[Bihar]]
| district = [[Madhepura]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Madhepura]]
| constituency_no = 40
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| assembly_coms =
| established = 1967
| reservation = None
| mp = [[Dinesh Chandra Yadav (Indian politician)|Dinesh Chandra Yadav]]
| incumbent_image = Dinesh Chandra Yadav.jpg
| party = {{Party index link|Janata Dal (United)}}
|alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = 2019
| preceded_by = {{ Party index link |Rashtriya Janata Dal }} [[Pappu Yadav ]]
}}
'''Madhepura''' is one of the 40 [[Lok Sabha]] constituencies in [[Bihar]] state in eastern [[India]].

[[Sharad Yadav]] started his political innings in his home state of Madhya Pradesh in 1970s, but he later made Madhepura his base, winning from here 4 times and losing 4 times. He won from here in 1991, 1996, (lost to Lalu Prasad Yadav in 1998), 1999 (defeating Lalu), (lost to Lalu in 2004), won again in 2009. He lost in 2014 and then again 2019, both times falling to Modi wave.

==Vidhan Sabha segments==
After the delimitation in 2009, presently Madhepura constituency comprises the following six Vidhan Sabha segments:

{|class="wikitable"
!#
!Name
!District
!Member
!colspan="2"| Party
!colspan="2"| 2024 lead
|-
|70
|[[Alamnagar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Alamnagar]]
|rowspan="3"| [[Madhepura district|Madhepura]]
|[[Narendra Narayan Yadav]]
|{{party name with color|Janata Dal (United)|rowspan=2}}
|{{party name with color|Janata Dal (United)|rowspan=2}}
|-
|71
|[[Bihariganj (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Bihariganj]]
|[[Niranjan Kumar Mehta|Niranjan Mehta]]
|-
|73
|[[Madhepura (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Madhepura]]
|[[Chandrashekhar Yadav]]
|{{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|{{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|-
|74
|[[Sonbarsha, Saharsa (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Sonbarsha]] (SC)
|rowspan="3"| [[Saharsa district|Saharsa]]
|[[Ratnesh Sada]]
|{{party name with color|Janata Dal (United)}}
|{{party name with color|Janata Dal (United)|rowspan=3}}
|-
|75
|[[Saharsa (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Saharsa]]
|[[Indrajeet Prasad Gupta]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian Inclusive Party}}
|-
|77
|[[Mahishi (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Mahishi]]
|[[Gautam Krishna| Gautam Krishna Yadav]]
|{{Party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|-
|}

== Members of Parliament ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Name
!colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1967 Indian general election|1967]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Bindheshwari Prasad Mandal|B. P. Mandal]]
|{{Full party name with color|Samyukta Socialist Party}}
|-
|1968^
|{{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
|[[1971 Indian general election|1971]]
|[[Rajendra Prasad Yadav (Madhepura politician)|Rajendra Prasad Yadav]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
|[[B. P. Mandal]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
|[[Rajendra Prasad Yadav (Madhepura politician)|Rajendra Prasad Yadav]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress (U)}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress (U)]]
|-
|[[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
|Mahabir Prasad Yadav
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
|[[Ramendra Kumar Yadav]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Sharad Yadav]]
|-
|[[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
|-
|[[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
|[[Lalu Prasad Yadav]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
|[[Sharad Yadav]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Dal (United)}}" |
|[[Janata Dal (United)]]
|-
|[[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
|[[Lalu Prasad Yadav]]
| {{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal|rowspan=2}}
|-
|2004^
|[[Pappu Yadav]]
|-
|[[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
|[[Sharad Yadav]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Dal (United)}}" |
|[[Janata Dal (United)]]
|-
|[[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
|[[Pappu Yadav]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|rowspan=2|[[Dinesh Chandra Yadav (Indian politician)|Dinesh Chandra Yadav]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal (United)|dab=yes|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2024 lok sabha election|2024]]
|}
^ by-poll

==Election results==
===2024===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Indian general elections]]: [[Madhepura]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Janata Dal (United)|candidate=[[Dinesh Chandra Yadav (Indian politician)|Dinesh Chandra Yadav]]|votes=6,40,649|percentage=52.96|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Kumar Chandradeep|party=Rashtriya Janata Dal|votes=4,66,115|percentage=38.53|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[None of the Above]]|party=None of the above|votes=32,625|percentage=2.70|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=1,74,534|percentage=14.43|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=12,09,822|percentage=58.34|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Janata Dal (United)
|loser = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|swing =
}}

{{Election box end}}

===2019===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Indian general elections]]: Madhepura}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Janata Dal (United)|candidate=[[Dinesh Chandra Yadav (Indian politician)|Dinesh Chandra Yadav]]|votes=6,24,334|percentage=54.42|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[Sharad Yadav]]|party=Rashtriya Janata Dal|votes=3,22,807|percentage=28.14|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[Pappu Yadav]]|party=Jan Adhikar Party Loktantrik|votes=97,631|percentage=8.51|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[None of the Above]]|party=None of the above|votes=38,450|percentage=3.35|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=3,01,527|percentage=26.28|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=11,47,652|percentage=60.89|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Janata Dal (United)
|loser = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2014 Lok Sabha Election===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general elections]]: [[Madhepura]] }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Pappu Yadav]]
|party = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|votes = 3,68,937
|percentage = 35.65
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|candidate = [[Sharad Yadav]]
|votes = 3,12,728
|percentage = 30.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Vijay Kumar Singh
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 2,52,534
|percentage = 24.40
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = 21,924
|percentage = 2.11
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Gulzar Kumar
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 18,084
|percentage = 1.74
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Rajo Sah
|party = Independent (politician)
|votes = 12,247
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 56,209
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 10,34,799
|percentage = 59.96
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|loser = Janata Dal (United)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2009 Lok Sabha Election===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Indian general elections]]: [[Madhepura]] }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|candidate = [[Sharad Yadav]]
|votes = 3,70,585
|percentage = 48.99
|change = +9.56
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Prof. Ravindra Charan Yadav
|party = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|votes = 1,92,964
|percentage = 25.51
|change = -23.98
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Dr. Tara Nand Sada
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 67,803
|percentage = 8.96
|change = +8.96
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Om Prakash Narayan
|party = Communist Party of India
|votes = 28,112
|percentage = 3.72
|change = +3.72
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Kishor Kumar
|party = Independent (politician)
|votes = 19,946
|percentage = 2.46
|change = +2.46
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Mahadeo Yadav
|party = Independent (politician)
|votes = 12,657
|percentage = 1.67
|change = +1.67
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Saakar Suresh Yadav
|party = Independent (politician)
|votes = 9,206
|percentage = 1.22
|change = +1.22
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Dhanoj Kumar Tanti
|party = Rashtravadi Janata Party
|votes = 9,180
|percentage = 1.21
|change = +1.21
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Binod Kumar Jha
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 8,467
|percentage = 1.12
|change = -1.92
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = N.K. Singh
|party = Samata Party
|votes = 6,667
|percentage = 0.88
|change = -0.51
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 1,77,621
|percentage = 23.48
|change = +13.42
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 7,56,450
|percentage = 50.17
|change = +4.98
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Janata Dal (United)
|loser = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|swing = +9.56
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2004 Lok Sabha Election===

{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Indian general elections]]: [[Madhepura]] }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Lalu Prasad Yadav]]
|party = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|votes = 3,44,301
|percentage = 49.49
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|candidate = [[Sharad Yadav]]
|votes = 2,74,314
|percentage = 39.43
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Arvind Sah
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 21,152
|percentage = 3.04
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Satto Mandal
|party = Independent (politician)
|votes = 11,673
|percentage = 1.68
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = N.K. Singh
|party = Samata Party
|votes = 9,685
|percentage = 1.39
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Anant Lal Sada
|party = Samajwadi Party
|votes = 8,493
|percentage = 1.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Prasanna Kumar
|party = Independent (politician)
|votes = 6,475
|percentage = 0.93
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 69,987
|percentage = 10.06
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 6,95,674
|percentage = 45.19
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

====2004 bye-election====
*[[Pappu Yadav]] (RJD) : 365,948 votes<ref>{{Cite web|title=2004 India General (14th Lok Sabha) Elections Results|url=https://www.elections.in/parliamentary-constituencies/2004-election-results.html|access-date=2021-09-20|website=www.elections.in}}</ref>
*Rajendra Prasad Yadav (JD-U) : 157,088

===1999 Lok Sabha Election===
* [[Sharad Yadav]] ([[Janata Dal (United)|JD(U)]]) : 328,761 votes<ref>{{Cite web|title=Madhepura Lok Sabha Election Result - Parliamentary Constituency|url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/madhepura-lok-sabha|access-date=2021-09-20|website=resultuniversity.com}}</ref>
* [[Lalu Prasad Yadav]] ([[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]]) : 298,441

==See also==
* [[Khagaria district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Bihar}}
{{Kosi Division topics}}
{{coord|25.9|86.8|display=title}}

[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Bihar]]
[[Category:Politics of Madhepura district]]
[[Category:Politics of Saharsa district]]

V. S. Narasimhan

2026-03-15T06:34:56Z

SAWANTRAJ: New Stub

{{Short description|Indian violinist and composer}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = V. S. Narasimhan
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 1943
| birth_place = [[Mysore]], [[Kingdom of Mysore]], [[British Raj|British India]] (now [[Mysuru]], [[Karnataka]], [[India]])
| death_date =
| death_place =
| other_names =
| known_for =
| education =
| employer =
| occupation = Violinist, composer
| title =
| father = Gottuvadyam Seenivasa Iyengar
| signature =
| website =
}}
'''V. S. Narasimhan''' (born 1943)<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 May 2011 |title=Memories of Madras – String of thoughts |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/memories-of-madras-string-of-thoughts/article2045243.ece |url-status=live |access-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111115339/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/memories-of-madras-string-of-thoughts/article2045243.ece |archive-date=11 January 2023}}</ref> is an Indian violinist and composer who worked in [[Cinema of South India|South Indian films]]. He is also the founder of the Madras String Quartet.

== Life ==
V. S. Narasimhan was born in Mysore.<ref>{{Cite web |last=John |date=2024-04-25 |title=இளையராஜாவின் வலதுகையாக விளங்கிய இசைக்கலைஞர்.. இந்த சூப்பர் ஹிட் பாட்டெல்லாம் இவரோட இசைதானா? |url=https://tamilminutes.com/ilayaraja-group-musician-vs-narasimman-composed-super-hit-songs/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511102846/https://tamilminutes.com/ilayaraja-group-musician-vs-narasimman-composed-super-hit-songs/ |archive-date=11 May 2024 |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=Tamil Minutes |language=ta}}</ref> He is the son of the violinist Gottuvadyam Srinivasa Iyengar. He studied [[Carnatic music]] from age four under his father. Narasimhan also learnt Western classical music and entered [[Tamil cinema]] as a violinist, playing for all leading composers except [[G. Ramanathan]]. He even briefly tutored under [[Master Dhanraj]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Balasubramanian |first=V. |date=21 July 2016 |title=V.S. Narasimhan's tryst with a capella |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/A-capella-twist-to-Tyagarja-kriti/article14500956.ece |url-status=live |access-date=11 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011124024/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/A-capella-twist-to-Tyagarja-kriti/article14500956.ece |archive-date=11 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=okETXmSXj6E |title="ஆவரம்பூவு ஆறேழு நாளா" புகழ் இசையமைப்பாளர் வி.எஸ்.நரசிம்மன் பேட்டி |date=27 April 2020 |language=ta |publisher=videospathy |access-date=11 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011124120/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=okETXmSXj6E |archive-date=11 October 2022 |url-status=live |via=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kolappan |first=B. |date=28 August 2015 |title=Trinity of western classical music |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/trinity-of-western-classical-music/article7592623.ece |url-status=live |access-date=11 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170605235352/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/trinity-of-western-classical-music/article7592623.ece |archive-date=5 June 2017}}</ref> Narasimhan debuted as a composer with ''[[Achamillai Achamillai]]'' (1984),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dhananjayan |first=G. |title=The Best of Tamil Cinema, 1931 to 2010: 1977–2010 |publisher=Galatta Media |year=2011 |pages=87 |oclc=733724281 |author-link=G. Dhananjayan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=சேவியர் செல்வகுமார் |date=2025-05-28 |title=இளையராஜா உச்சத்தில் இருந்த காலத்தில் அவர் சாயலில் ஹிட் கொடுத்த 10 இசையமைப்பாளர்கள் |url=https://www.bbc.com/tamil/articles/cgkdzvp1rn3o.amp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250606025957/https://www.bbc.com/tamil/articles/cgkdzvp1rn3o.amp |archive-date=6 June 2025 |access-date=2025-06-06 |work=BBC News |language=Ta}}</ref> and also contributed to [[Ilaiyaraaja]]'s studio album ''[[How to Name It?]]''. In 1993, he founded the Madras String Quartet.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vipin |date=28 July 2015 |title=In Conversation with V S Narasimhan (Madras String Quartet) |url=https://www.musicaloud.com/2015/07/28/in-conversation-with-v-s-narasimhan-madras-string-quartet/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905033833/https://www.musicaloud.com/2015/07/28/in-conversation-with-v-s-narasimhan-madras-string-quartet/ |archive-date=5 September 2022 |access-date=11 October 2022 |website=Music Aloud}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Pillai |first=Karan |date=5 July 2019 |title=VS Narasimhan and the Madras String Quartet to perform in Chennai after five years |work=[[Indulge Express]] |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/culture/music/2019/jul/05/vs-narasimhan-and-the-madras-string-quartet-to-perform-in-chennai-after-five-years-16183.html |url-status=live |access-date=11 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011124027/https://www.indulgexpress.com/culture/music/2019/jul/05/vs-narasimhan-and-the-madras-string-quartet-to-perform-in-chennai-after-five-years-16183.html |archive-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> In 2010, Narasimhan was awarded the Gotuvadyam Narayana Iyengar Award for Excellence.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 December 2010 |title="Take Carnatic music to schools" |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/quotTake-Carnatic-music-to-schoolsquot/article15582938.ece |url-status=live |access-date=9 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209065741/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/quotTake-Carnatic-music-to-schoolsquot/article15582938.ece |archive-date=9 February 2023}}</ref> In 2024 he released a book ''Carnatic and Western Music- Blending the two Classical Music Systems''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-27 |title=Famed violinist V. S. Narasimhan to release his book 'Carnatic and Western Music'- Blending the two Classical Music Systems' |url=https://www.mylaporetimes.com/2024/01/famed-violinist-v-s-narasimhan-to-release-his-book-carnatic-and-western-music-blending-the-two-classical-music-systems/ |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=Mylapore Times |language=en-US |archive-date=31 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331063236/https://www.mylaporetimes.com/2024/01/famed-violinist-v-s-narasimhan-to-release-his-book-carnatic-and-western-music-blending-the-two-classical-music-systems/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! Year !! Title
!Language
!{{abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1984 || ''[[Achamillai Achamillai]]''
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Achamillai Achamillai |url=https://avdigital.in/products/achamillai-achamillai |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120214000/https://avdigital.in/products/achamillai-achamillai |archive-date=20 January 2021 |access-date=9 February 2023 |website=AVDigital}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Pudhiavan]]''
|Tamil
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pudhiyavan Tamil Film LP Vinyl Record |url=https://macsendisk.com/product/pudhiyavan-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012044359/https://macsendisk.com/product/pudhiyavan-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record/ |archive-date=12 October 2022 |access-date=21 November 2023 |website=Macsendisk}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Eeran Sandhya]]''
|[[Malayalam]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=ഈറന്‍ സന്ധ്യ (1985) |url=https://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?628 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928194923/https://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?628 |archive-date=28 September 2022 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=malayalasangeetham.info |language=ml}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1985 || ''[[Yaar? (film)|Yaar?]]''
|Tamil
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yaar Tamil Film EP Vinyl Record by V.S.Narasimhan |url=https://mossymart.com/product/yaar-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-v-s-narasimhan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222100158/https://mossymart.com/product/yaar-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-v-s-narasimhan/ |archive-date=22 February 2022 |access-date=9 February 2023 |website=Mossymart}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Kalyana Agathigal]]''
|Tamil
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kalyana Agathigal Tamil Film LP Vinyl Record by V S Narasimhan |url=https://mossymart.com/product/kalyana-agathigal-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record-by-v-s-narasimhan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015040013/https://mossymart.com/product/kalyana-agathigal-tamil-film-lp-vinyl-record-by-v-s-narasimhan/ |archive-date=15 October 2021 |access-date=9 February 2023 |website=Mossymart}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Mugila Mallige]]''
|[[Kannada]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mugila Mallige (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) - EP |url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/mugila-mallige-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1331008712 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209081657/https://music.apple.com/us/album/mugila-mallige-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1331008712 |archive-date=9 February 2023 |access-date=9 February 2023 |website=[[Apple Music]]}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1986 || ''[[Kadaikan Parvai]]''
|Tamil
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kadaikan Parvai Tamil Film EP Vinyl Record by V.S.Narasimhan |url=https://tv.apple.com/us/movie/kadaikan-parvai/umc.cmc.tl792qnkkem64cexhuaa4lot }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Aayiram Pookkal Malarattum]]''
|Tamil
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 July 2016 |title=மணிரத்னம் டைரக்ஷனில் இதயக்கோயில் |url=https://www.maalaimalar.com/Cinema/CineHistory/2016/07/03221613/1023195/cine-history-mani-ratnam.vpf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190103061350/https://www.maalaimalar.com/Cinema/CineHistory/2016/07/03221613/1023195/cine-history-mani-ratnam.vpf |archive-date=3 January 2019 |access-date=9 February 2023 |website=[[Maalai Malar]] |language=ta}}</ref>
|-
| 1987 || ''[[Vanna Kanavugal]]''
|Tamil
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=சுரா |date=20 March 2015 |title=அஞ்சலி {{!}} அமீர்ஜான் - வைரமுத்துவைக் கதாசிரியராக அறிமுகப்படுத்தியவர்! |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/hindu-talkies/35155-.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225114613/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/hindu-talkies/35155-.html |archive-date=25 February 2022 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta}}</ref>
|-
|1988
| ''[[Kan Simittum Neram]]''
|Tamil
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kan Simittum Neram Tamil Film EP Vinyl Record |url=https://mossymart.com/product/kan-simittum-neram-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024170018/https://mossymart.com/product/kan-simittum-neram-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record/ |archive-date=24 October 2021 |access-date=9 February 2023 |website=Mossymart}}</ref>
|-
| 1990 || ''[[Oru Veedu Iru Vaasal]]''
|Tamil
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 September 1990 |title=Oru Veedu Iru Vaasal |pages=7 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19900907&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=7 February 2023}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
|-
| 1994 || ''[[Paasamalargal]]''
|Tamil
|<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=11 February 1994 |title=Fun with orphans |pages=6 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19940211&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=9 February 2023}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb person|1459614}}

[[Category:1943 births]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian violinists]]
[[Category:Carnatic violinists]]
[[Category:Indian film score composers]]
[[Category:Tamil film score composers]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Mambaram, Malappuram

2026-03-13T09:57:08Z

SAWANTRAJ: creating a entry

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Mampuram
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Pilgrim Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|11.05595|N|75.92231|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Malappuram]]
}}
[[File:മമ്പുറം തങ്ങളുടെ വീട്.jpg|thumb|Mampuram Thangal's Antique House]]
[[File:Mamburam.jpg|thumb|Valiya Jumaeth Palli]]

'''Mampuram''' is a [[Muslim]] [[pilgrimage]] centre located 26 km east of [[Tirur]], [[Malappuram district]], [[Kerala]], [[South India]] on the [[Malabar Coast]]. Malappuram is on the banks of the river [[Kadalundipuzha]]. The [[Mampuram Mosque|Mamburam Makham]], which is the shrine intended and used primarily as a receptacle for the dead bodies of the principle [[Thangal]]s is located there. The Malappuram Nercha, is held every year in the month of [[Muharram]] near the tomb of [[Sayyid Alavi Thangal]].

== History ==
Mampuram was an active center of the Khilafath movement as well as the national movement. The Thirurangadi Juma Masjid, from where the local khilafath leader Ali Musliyar operated, is situated in Mampuram.

==Image gallery==
<gallery>
File:Mambram Dargah from the old bridge.jpg|View from the bridge
File:Mambram.2.jpg|Mambaram Dargah
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Malabar Muslims|Mappila]]
* [[Thangal]]
* [[Sayid Fasal Pookoya Thangal]]
* [[Kondotty]]
* [[Murder of Collector Connolly]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Mambaram, Malappuram}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110801004436/http://www.tirurangadi.net/ www.tirurangadi.net]
{{Malappuram district}}
[[Category:Villages in Malappuram district]]
[[Category:Islam in Kerala]]
[[Category:Parappanangadi area]]

{{Malappuram-geo-stub}}

Left-wing politics

2026-03-12T01:15:46Z

SAWANTRAJ: fixes

{{Short description|Political ideologies favouring social equality and egalitarianism}}
{{redirect|Leftism|the album by the group Leftfield|Leftism (album){{!}}''Leftism'' (album)}}
{{redirect|Left wing|the sports position|Winger (sports)}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{use British English|date=August 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{party politics}}

'''Left-wing politics''' or '''leftism''' is the range of [[Ideology#Political ideologies|political ideologies]] that support and seek to achieve [[social equality]] and [[egalitarianism]], often in opposition to [[social hierarchy]] either as a whole,<ref name="Smith">{{cite book|author-last1=Smith |author-first1=T. Alexander |author-first2=Raymond |author-last2=Tatalovich |title=Cultures at War: Moral Conflicts in Western Democracies |url=https://archive.org/details/culturesatwarmor0000smit |url-access=registration |location=Toronto, Canada |publisher=Broadview Press |year=2003 |page=[https://archive.org/details/culturesatwarmor0000smit/page/30 30] |isbn=9781551113340}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-last1=Bobbio |author-first1=Norberto |author-first2=Allan |author-last2=Cameron |title=Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction |url=https://archive.org/details/leftrightsignifi00bobb |url-access=limited |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1997 |page=[https://archive.org/details/leftrightsignifi00bobb/page/n58 37]}}</ref><ref name="Lukes">{{cite book|author-last1=Ball |author-first1=Terence |title=The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought |date=2005 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780521563543 |edition=Reprint. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1h4_NqTOFoC&q=The+Cambridge+History+of+Twentieth-Century+Political+Thought |access-date=15 November 2016 |pages=612–614}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-last1=Thompson |author-first1=Willie |title=The Left In History: Revolution and Reform in Twentieth-Century Politic |date=1997 |publisher=[[Pluto Press]] |location=London |isbn=978-0745308913}}</ref> or to certain social hierarchies, to varying extents.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=The Desk Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7394-7809-7 |editor-last=Wright |editor-first=Edmund |location=New York |pages=370}}</ref> Left-wing politics typically involve a concern for those in society whom its adherents perceive as disadvantaged relative to others as well as a belief that there are unjustified inequalities that need to be reduced or abolished,<ref name="Lukes"/> through radical means that change the nature of the society they are implemented in.<ref name=":0" />

Ideologies considered to be ''left-wing'' vary greatly depending on the placement along the [[left–right political spectrum|political spectrum]] in a given time and place. At the end of the 18th century, upon the founding of the first [[Liberal democracy#Origins|liberal democracies]], the term ''Left'' was used to describe [[liberalism]] in the United States and [[republicanism]] in France, supporting a lesser degree of [[Social stratification|hierarchical decision-making]] than the ''right-wing politics'' of the [[Traditional conservatism|traditional conservatives]] and [[monarchists]]. In [[Modernism|modern]] politics, the term ''Left'' typically applies to ideologies and movements to the left of [[classical liberalism]], supporting some degree of [[Economic democracy|democracy in the economic sphere]].

Today, ideologies such as [[social liberalism]] and [[social democracy]] are considered to be [[centre-left]], while ''the Left'' is typically reserved for movements more [[Criticism of capitalism|critical of capitalism]],<ref>{{cite book|author-first1=Alan |author-last1=Maass |author-first2=Howard |author-last2=Zinn |author-link2=Howard Zinn |title=The Case for Socialism |quote=The ''International Socialist Review'' is one of the best left-wing journals around... |page=164 |publisher=[[Haymarket Books]] |edition=Revised |year=2010 |isbn=978-1608460731}}</ref> including the [[labour movement]], [[socialism]], [[anarchism]], [[communism]], [[Marxism]], [[Leninism]] and [[syndicalism]], each of which rose to prominence in the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|author-first1=Michael |author-last1=Schmidt |author-first2=Lucien |author-last2=Van der Walt |author-link2=Lucien van der Walt |title=Black Flame: The Revolutionary Class Politics of Anarchism and Syndicalism |series=Counter-Power |volume=1 |publisher=[[AK Press]] |year=2009 |page=128 |quote=[...] anarchism is a coherent intellectual and political current dating back to the 1860s and the First International, and part of the labour and left tradition. |isbn=978-1-904859-16-1}}</ref> In addition, the term ''left-wing'' has also been applied to a broad range of [[Cultural liberalism|culturally liberal]] and [[Progressivism|progressive]] social movements,<ref>{{cite book|author-first=Jean Francois |author-last=Revel |title=Last Exit to Utopia |quote=In the United States, the word liberal is often used to describe the left wing of the Democratic party. |page=[https://archive.org/details/lastexittoutopia0000reve/page/24 24] |publisher=Encounter Books |year=2009 |isbn=978-1594032646 |url=https://archive.org/details/lastexittoutopia0000reve/page/24}}</ref> including the [[civil rights movement]], [[feminist movement]], [[LGBTQ movements|LGBTQ rights movement]], [[abortion-rights movements]], [[multiculturalism]], [[anti-war movement]], and [[environmental movement]],<ref>{{cite journal |author-first=Eric |author-last=Neumayer |title=The environment, left-wing political orientation, and ecological economics |journal=Ecological Economics |volume=51 |year=2004 |issue=3–4 |pages=167–175 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.06.006 |bibcode=2004EcoEc..51..167N |url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/714/1/EE_51%283-4%29.pdf |access-date=20 April 2018 |archive-date=21 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921200052/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/714/1/EE_51%283-4%29.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-first=John |author-last=Barry |title=International Encyclopedia of Environmental Politics |quote=All surveys confirm that environmental concern is associated with green voting...[I]n subsequent European elections, green voters have tended to be more left-leaning...the party is capable of motivating its core supporters as well as other environmentally minded voters of predominantly left-wing persuasion... |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0415202855 |url=https://archive.org/details/internationalenc0000unse_a2h7}}</ref> as well as a [[List of left-wing political parties|wide range of political parties]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.econ.ohio-state.edu/Fleisher/courses/econ508winter06/docs/Democratic_socialism.pdf |title=Democratic socialism |access-date=3 June 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902085146/http://www.econ.ohio-state.edu/Fleisher/courses/econ508winter06/docs/Democratic_socialism.pdf |archive-date=2 September 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author-link=Fiona Harvey |date=5 September 2014 |title=Green party to position itself as the real left of UK politics |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/sep/05/green-party-left-uk-politics-caroline-lucas |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213003036/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/sep/05/green-party-left-uk-politics-caroline-lucas |archive-date=13 February 2017 |access-date=12 December 2016 |work=[[The Guardian]] |author-first=Fiona |author-last=Harvey}}</ref><ref name="sarnold">{{cite book|author-last=Arnold |author-first=N. Scott |title=Imposing values: an essay on liberalism and regulation |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordclinicalda00libg |url-access=limited |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2009 |location=Florence |isbn=978-0-495-50112-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordclinicalda00libg/page/n15 3] |quote=Modern liberalism occupies the left-of-center in the traditional political spectrum and is represented by the Democratic Party in the United States, the Labor Party in the United Kingdom, and the mainstream Left (including some nominally socialist parties) in other advanced democratic societies.}}</ref>‌

== Name ==
Within the [[left–right political spectrum]], ''left'' and ''[[right-wing politics|right]]'' were coined during the [[French Revolution]], referring to the seating arrangement in the French [[National Constituent Assembly (France)|National Assembly]] as the political groups opposed to the royal veto privilege ([[The Mountain|Montagnard]] and [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobin]] deputies from the [[Estates-General of 1789|Third Estate]]) generally sat to the left of the presiding member's chair in parliament while the ones in favour of the royal veto privilege sat on its right.<ref name="Knapp">{{cite book |author-last1=Knapp |author-first1=Andrew |url=https://archive.org/details/governmentpoliti0000knap |title=The government and politics of France |author-last2=Wright |author-first2=Vincent |date=2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-35732-6 |edition=5th |location=London [u.a.] |quote=the government and politics of france. |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>[[Michel Winock]], La Droite, hier et aujourd'hui, tempus, 2012, p. 12.</ref>

Usage of the term ''left'' became more prominent after the restoration of the French monarchy in 1815, when it was applied to the ''Independents''.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Gauchet |author-first=Marcel |title=Realms of memory: conflicts and divisions |date=1996 |editor-last=Nora |editor-first=Pierre |pages=248 |chapter=Right and Left}}</ref> The word ''wing'' was first appended to left and right factions in the late 19th century, usually with disparaging intent, and ''left-wing'' was applied to those who were unorthodox in their religious or political views.{{Citation needed|date=December 2025}}

== Positions ==
Political philosopher [[Marius Ostrowski]] argues that, despite various differences among factions, the left is primarily concerned with who wields power in society and with fighting for "those
without" against "those with" who harm "those without".<ref name="Ostrowski p11">{{cite book |last=Ostrowski |first=Marius |others=[[Policy Network]] |date=2020 |title=Left Unity: Manifesto for a Progressive Alliance |location=London |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield International]] |pages=11–13 |isbn=978-1-78661-295-3 |url=https://policynetwork.progressivebritain.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Ostrowski-Left-Unity-2020.pdf}}</ref> Ostrowski argues that the central value of the left is [[social equality]], which is expressed in fighting for [[empowerment]] and against [[oppression]], for parity and against [[hierarchy]], for [[social recognition]] of marginalized groups and against [[discrimination]], and for [[cooperation]] and against [[competition]]. Related concepts include [[justice]], [[solidarity]], [[cultural pluralism]], [[social progress]], and [[freedom]] from forceful control or coercion.{{r|Ostrowski p11}}

=== Economics ===
{{see also|Anarchist economics|Comparison of Marxian and Keynesian economics|Socialist economics}}
[[File:Aitucallepeytoddyworkers (33).jpg|thumb|Members of the [[All India Trade Union Congress]] demonstrating in [[Alappuzha]], [[Kerala]] ]]
Left-leaning economic beliefs range from [[Keynesian]] economics and the [[welfare state]] through [[industrial democracy]] and the [[social market]] to the [[nationalization|nationalisation]] of the economy and [[Planned economy|central planning]],<ref>{{cite book|author-first=Andrew |author-last=Glyn |title=Social Democracy in Neoliberal Times: The Left and Economic Policy since 1980 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-924138-5}}</ref> to the [[anarcho-syndicalist]] advocacy of a council-based and self-managed [[anarchist communism]]. Left-wing politics are typically associated with popular or state control of major political and economic institutions.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |date=2009-04-15 |title=Left |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/left |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127205533/https://www.britannica.com/topic/left |archive-date=27 January 2016 |access-date=2022-05-22 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |language=en |quote=}}</ref> According to emeritus professor of economics Barry Clark, supporters of left-wing politics "claim that human development flourishes when individuals engage in cooperative, mutually respectful relations that can thrive only when excessive differences in status, power, and wealth are eliminated."<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Clark |author-first=Barry |title=Political Economy: A Comparative Approach |date=1998 |publisher=[[Praeger Press]] |isbn=9780275958695 |location=Westport, Connecticut}}</ref>

During the [[Industrial Revolution]], leftists supported [[trade union]]s. At the beginning of the 20th century, many leftists advocated strong government intervention in the economy.<ref>{{cite book|author-last1=Beinhocker |author-first1=Eric D. |title=The Origin of Wealth: Evolution, Complexity, and the Radical Remaking of Economics |date=2006 |publisher=[[Harvard Business Press|Harvard Business School Press]] |location=Boston, Mass. |isbn=978-1-57851-777-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/originofwealthev00bein/page/316 316] |url=https://archive.org/details/originofwealthev00bein/page/316}}</ref> Leftists continue to criticise the perceived exploitative nature of [[globalization|globalisation]], the "[[race to the bottom]]" and unjust lay-offs and exploitation of workers. In the last quarter of the 20th century, the belief that the government (ruling in accordance with the interests of the people) ought to be directly involved in the day-to-day workings of an economy declined in popularity amongst the [[centre-left]], especially [[social democrats]] who adopted the [[Third Way]].<ref name=":1" />

Other leftists believe in [[Marxian economics]], named after the economic theories of [[Karl Marx]], but drawing from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist sources. Some distinguish Marx's economic theories from his political philosophy, arguing that Marx's approach to understanding the economy is independent of his advocacy of [[revolutionary socialism]] or his belief in the inevitability of a [[proletarian revolution]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Neo-Marxian Schools |publisher=[[The New School]] |url=http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/schools/neomarx.htm |access-date=23 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416234151/http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/schools/neomarx.htm |archive-date=16 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author-last=Munro |author-first=John |title=Some Basic Principles of Marxian Economics |publisher=[[University of Toronto]] |url=http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~munro5/MARXECON.htm |access-date=23 August 2007 |archive-date=20 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020054744/http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~munro5/MARXECON.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The political relevance of farmers has divided the left. In {{Lang|de|[[Das Kapital]]}}, Marx scarcely mentioned the subject<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,939251-2,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206174159/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,939251-2,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 February 2009 |title=Communists: Marxism Fails on the Farm |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=13 October 1961 |access-date=3 June 2017}}</ref>, though posthumous studies of his notebooks indicate that he was interested in studying the works of agricultural chemists to critique international agricultural trade and natural resource exploitation under capitalism<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Saito |first1=Kohei |title=The Emergence of Marx's Critique of Modern Agriculture: Ecological Insights from His Excerpt Notebooks |journal=Monthly Review |date=October 2014 |volume=66 |issue=5 |url=https://monthlyreview.org/articles/the-emergence-of-marxs-critique-of-modern-agriculture/#fn69 |access-date=28 January 2026}}</ref>. In other works, including [[The Communist Manifesto]], the [[Critique of the Gotha Programme]], and [[The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte]], Marx asserts the revolutionary potential of the peasant class through a transfer into the proletariat<ref>{{cite web |last1=Finn |first1=Daniel |title=Marxism and the Agrarian Question |url=https://jacobin.com/2024/07/marxism-and-the-agrarian-question |website=Jacobin |access-date=28 January 2026}}</ref>. [[Mikhail Bakunin]] thought the [[lumpenproletariat]] was a revolutionary class, while [[Mao Zedong]] believed that it would be rural peasants, not urban workers, who would bring about the [[proletarian revolution]].

[[Left-libertarians]], [[anarchists]] and [[libertarian socialists]] believe in a [[decentralized|decentralised]] economy run by [[trade unions]], [[workers' councils]], [[cooperatives]], [[municipalities]] and communes, opposing both [[State ownership|state]] and [[Private property|private]] control of the economy, preferring [[social ownership]] and local control in which a nation of decentralised regions is united in a [[confederation]]. The [[global justice movement]], also known as the [[anti-globalisation movement]] and the [[alter-globalisation]] movement, protests against [[corporate]] [[economic globalisation]] due to its negative consequences for the poor, workers, the environment, and small businesses.<ref>{{cite book|author-first=Tom |author-last=Mertes |title=A Movement of Movements |location=New York |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |date=2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-last=Krishna-Hensel |author-first=Sai |year=2006 |title=Global Cooperation: Challenges and Opportunities in the Twenty-first Century |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |page=202}}</ref><ref name="Juris">{{cite book|author-last=Juris |author-first=Jeffrey S. |year=2008 |title=Networking Futures: The Movements against Corporate Globalization |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |location=Durham |isbn=978-0-8223-4269-4 |page=2}}</ref>

=== Environment ===
{{see also|Eco-socialism|Green anarchism|Green politics}}
One of the foremost left-wing advocates was [[Thomas Paine]], one of the first individuals since ''left'' and ''right'' became political terms to describe the collective human ownership of the world, which he speaks of in ''Agrarian Justice''.<ref>{{cite web |author-last1=Paine |author-first1=Thomas |title=Agrarian Justice |url=http://thomaspaine.org/major-works/agrarian-justice.html |publisher=Thomas Paine National Historical Association |access-date=13 July 2019 |archive-date=27 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527075134/http://thomaspaine.org/major-works/agrarian-justice.html |url-status=live }}</ref> This principle is reflected in much of the historical left-wing thought and literature that came afterwards, although there were disagreements about what this entailed. Karl Marx and the early socialist philosopher and scholar [[William Morris]] had a concern for environmental matters.<ref name="Foster2000">{{cite book|author-last=Foster |author-first=J. B. |title=Marx's Ecology |year=2000 |location=New York |publisher=Monthly Review Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-last=Burkett |author-first=P. |title=Marx and Nature |year=1999 |location=New York |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0312219406}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://leonora.fortunecity.co.uk/WilliamMorris.html |title=William Morris: The First Green Socialist |publisher=Leonora.fortunecity.co.uk |date=14 December 2007 |access-date=13 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413181212/http://leonora.fortunecity.co.uk/WilliamMorris.html |archive-date=13 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author-last=Moore |author-first=J. W. |year=2003 |url=http://www.jasonwmoore.com/uploads/Moore__Capitalism_as_World-Ecology__Braudel_and_Marx_on_Environmental_History__O_E__2003_.pdf |title=Capitalism as World-ecology: Braudel and Marx on Environmental History |journal=[[Organization & Environment]] |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=431–458 |doi=10.1177/1086026603259091 |bibcode=2003OrgEn..16..514M |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713090801/http://www.jasonwmoore.com/uploads/Moore__Capitalism_as_World-Ecology__Braudel_and_Marx_on_Environmental_History__O_E__2003_.pdf |archive-date=13 July 2011 |citeseerx=10.1.1.472.6464 |s2cid=145169737}}</ref> According to Marx, "[e]ven an entire society, a nation, or all simultaneously existing societies taken together, are not the owners of the earth. They are simply its possessors, its beneficiaries, and have to bequeath it in an improved state to succeeding generations".<ref name="Foster2000" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/art.php?id=13676 |title=Marx and ecology |publisher=[[Socialist Worker#United Kingdom]] |date=8 December 2007 |access-date=13 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326154510/http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/art.php?id=13676 |archive-date=26 March 2010}}</ref> Following the Russian Revolution, environmental scientists such as revolutionary [[Alexander Bogdanov]] and the [[Proletkult]] organisation made efforts to incorporate environmentalism into Bolshevism and "integrate production with natural laws and limits" in the first decade of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] rule, before [[Joseph Stalin]] attacked ecologists and the science of ecology, purged environmentalists and promoted the [[pseudoscience]] of [[Trofim Lysenko]] during his rule up until his death in 1953.<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Gare |author-first=A. |chapter=Soviet Environmentalism: The Path Not Taken |editor-last=Benton |editor-first=E. |title=The Greening of Marxism |year=1996 |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=978-1572301184 |pages=111–128}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-last=Kovel |author-first=J. |title=The Enemy of Nature |year=2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-first=Arran |author-last=Gare |title=The Environmental Record of the Soviet Union |journal=[[Capitalism Nature Socialism]] |volume=13 |year=2002 |issue=3 |pages=52–72 |doi=10.1080/10455750208565489 |hdl=1959.3/1924 |s2cid=144372855 |url=https://researchbank.swinburne.edu.au/file/e3c56de5-1863-4df1-a825-b18c351f40c3/1/PDF%20(Accepted%20manuscript).pdf |access-date=20 September 2019 |archive-date=14 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314063154/https://researchbank.swinburne.edu.au/file/e3c56de5-1863-4df1-a825-b18c351f40c3/1/PDF%20(Accepted%20manuscript).pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Similarly, [[Mao Zedong]] rejected environmentalism and believed that based on the laws of historical materialism, all of nature must be put into the service of revolution.<ref>{{cite book|author-first=Judith |author-last=Shapiro |title=Mao's War against Nature: Politics and the Environment in Revolutionary China |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2001}}</ref>

From the 1970s onwards, environmentalism became an increasing concern of the left, with social movements and several unions campaigning on environmental issues and causes. In Australia, the left-wing [[Builders Labourers Federation]], led by the communist Jack Mundy, united with environmentalists to place [[green ban]]s on environmentally destructive development projects.<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Burgman |author-first=Meredith |title=Green Bans, Red Union: Environmental Activism and the New South Wales Builders Labourers' Federation |publisher=[[UNSW Press]] |location=Sydney |date=1998}}</ref> Several segments of the socialist and Marxist left consciously merged environmentalism and anti-capitalism into an [[eco-socialist]] ideology.<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Wall |author-first=D. |title=Babylon and Beyond: The Economics of Anti-Capitalist, Anti-Globalist and Radical Green Movements |date=2005}}</ref> [[Barry Commoner]] articulated a left-wing response to ''[[The Limits to Growth]]'' model that predicted catastrophic [[resource depletion]] and spurred environmentalism, postulating that capitalist technologies were the key cause responsible for environmental degradation, as opposed to human population pressures.<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Commoner |author-first=B. |title=[[The Closing Circle]] |date=1972}}</ref> Environmental degradation can be seen as a class or equity issue, as environmental destruction disproportionately affects poorer communities and countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blacksmithinstitute.org/articles/file/The+Argentimes.pdf |title=Poor Bear Burden of Industrialisation |work=[[Blacksmith Institute]] |date=19 October 2007 |access-date=16 April 2016 |author-first=Sanra |author-last=Ritten |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184856/http://www.blacksmithinstitute.org/articles/file/The+Argentimes.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Ms. magazine Cover - Spring 2007.jpg|thumb|Global warming was the cover story of this 2007 issue of the ''[[Ms. (magazine)|Ms.]]'' magazine.]]
Several left-wing or socialist groupings have an overt environmental concern and several green parties contain a strong socialist presence. For example, the [[Green Party of England and Wales]] includes an eco-socialist group, the [[Green Left (UK)|Green Left]], founded in June 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gptu.net/gleft/greenleft.shtml |title=Green Left homepage |publisher=Gptu.net |access-date=13 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311004501/http://gptu.net/gleft/greenleft.shtml |archive-date=11 March 2009}}</ref> In Europe, several [[green left]] political parties such as the [[European United Left–Nordic Green Left]] combine traditional social-democratic values such as a desire for greater economic equality and workers rights with demands for environmental protection. Democratic socialist [[Bolivian president]] [[Evo Morales]] has traced [[environmental degradation]] to capitalist [[consumerism]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cc.com/video-clips/7qwmpn/the-daily-show-with-jon-stewart-president-evo-morales |title=President Evo Morales |work=[[The Daily Show]] |publisher=[[Comedy Central]] |date=25 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923114559/http://www.cc.com/video-clips/7qwmpn/the-daily-show-with-jon-stewart-president-evo-morales |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> stating that "[t]he Earth does not have enough for the North to live better and better, but it does have enough for all of us to live well". [[James Hansen]], [[Noam Chomsky]], [[Raj Patel]], [[Naomi Klein]], [[The Yes Men]] and [[Dennis Kucinich]] hold similar views.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.thenation.com/article/how-solve-climate-problem|title=How to Solve the Climate Problem|author=James Hansen|magazine=[[The Nation]]|date=31 December 2009|author-link=James Hansen|access-date=6 October 2010|archive-date=9 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109011949/http://www.thenation.com/article/how-solve-climate-problem|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chomsky|first1=Noam|title=Profit Over People: Neoliberalism and Global Order|date=1999|publisher=Seven Stories Press|location=New York|isbn=9781888363821|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrLv4surz7UC&q=profit+over+people|access-date=3 June 2017|language=en}}{{page needed|date=June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Trisha |url=http://rajpatel.org/2010/08/06/we-have-yet-to-see-the-biggest-costs-of-the-bp-spill |title=The Nation: We Have Yet to See The Biggest Costs of the BP Spill |publisher=Raj Patel |date=6 August 2010 |access-date=15 November 2016 |archive-date=26 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326124941/http://rajpatel.org/2010/08/06/we-have-yet-to-see-the-biggest-costs-of-the-bp-spill/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2FtrSql3vss |last1=((policyalternatives)) |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211028/2FtrSql3vss |archive-date=28 October 2021 |title=Naomi Klein- Climate Debt (Part 1) |publisher=[[YouTube]] |date=26 February 2010 |access-date=15 November 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://scrutinyhooligans.us/2010/07/26/the-yes-men-fix-the-world/ |title=The Yes Men Fix the World |publisher= Scrutiny Hooligans |date=27 July 2011 |access-date=3 June 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727110443/http://scrutinyhooligans.us/2010/07/26/the-yes-men-fix-the-world/ |archive-date=27 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S4ph9rSRY3Q |last1=DJKucinich |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211028/S4ph9rSRY3Q |archive-date=28 October 2021 |title=Kucinich responds to BP Oil Spill |publisher=[[YouTube]] |date=26 May 2010 |access-date=15 November 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

In [[climate change mitigation]], the Left is also divided over how to effectively and equitably reduce [[carbon emissions]] as the center-left often advocates a reliance on market measures such as [[emissions trading]] and a [[carbon tax]] while those further to the left support direct government regulation and intervention in the form of a [[Green New Deal]], either alongside or instead of market mechanisms.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.greenleft.org.au/node/41735 |title=Rudd's carbon trading — locking in disaster |newspaper=Green Left Weekly |date=23 May 2009 |access-date=15 November 2016 |archive-date=20 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160320062310/https://www.greenleft.org.au/node/41735 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.solidarity.net.au/22/carbon-tax-not-the-solution-we-need-on-climate |first1=Chris |last1=Breen |title=Carbon tax not the solution we need on climate |publisher=Solidarity Online |date=10 March 2010 |access-date=15 November 2016 |archive-date=21 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130421110723/http://www.solidarity.net.au/22/carbon-tax-not-the-solution-we-need-on-climate/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.greenleft.org.au/node/43410 |first1=Simon |last1=Butler |title=James Hansen and climate solutions |newspaper=Green Left Weekly |date=13 March 2010 |access-date=16 October 2017 |archive-date=19 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319033414/https://www.greenleft.org.au/node/43410 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Nationalism, anti-imperialism and anti-nationalism ===
{{Main|Left-wing nationalism|Anti-imperialism}}
{{See also|Anarchism and nationalism|Internationalism (politics)|Proletarian internationalism|Anti-Stalinist left}}
The question of [[nationality]], [[imperialism]] and [[nationalism]] has been a central feature of political debates on the Left. During the French Revolution, nationalism was a key policy of the Republican Left.<ref>{{cite book|author-last1=Doyle |author-first1=William |title=The Oxford History of the French Revolution |date=2002 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-925298-5 |edition=2nd |quote="An exuberant, uncompromising nationalism lay behind France's revolutionary expansion in the 1790s...", "The message of the French Revolution was that the people are sovereign; and in the two centuries since it was first proclaimed, it has conquered the world." |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryoff00doyl}}</ref> The Republican Left advocated for [[civic nationalism]]<ref name="Knapp" /> and argued that the nation is a "daily plebiscite" formed by the subjective "will to live together". Related to [[revanchism]], the belligerent will to take revenge against Germany and retake control of [[Alsace-Lorraine]], nationalism was sometimes opposed to [[imperialism]]. In the 1880s, there was a debate between leftists such as the [[Radical Party (France)|Radical]] [[Georges Clemenceau]], the [[French Section of the Workers' International|Socialist]] [[Jean Jaurès]] and the nationalist [[Maurice Barrès]], who argued that colonialism diverted France from liberating the "blue line of the [[Vosges]]", in reference to Alsace-Lorraine; and the "[[French colonial empire|colonial lobby]]" such as [[Jules Ferry]] of the [[Moderate Republicans (France, 1871–1901)|Moderate Republicans]], [[Léon Gambetta]] of the [[Republican Union (France)|Republicans]] and [[Eugène Etienne]], the president of the Parliamentary Colonial Group. After the [[antisemitic]] [[Dreyfus Affair]] in which officer [[Alfred Dreyfus]] was falsely convicted of sedition and exiled to a penal colony in 1894 before being exonerated in 1906, nationalism in the form of [[Boulangism]] increasingly became associated with the far-right.<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Winock |author-first=Michel |author-link=Michel Winock |title=Histoire de l'extrême droite en France |language=fr |trans-title=History of the extreme right in France |date=1993}}</ref>

The Marxist [[social class]] theory of [[proletarian internationalism]] asserts that members of the [[working class]] should act in solidarity with working people in other countries in pursuit of a common [[class interest]], rather than only focusing on their own countries. Proletarian internationalism is summed up in the slogan: "[[Workers of the world, unite!]]", the last line of ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]''. Union members had learned that more members meant more bargaining power. Taken to an international level, leftists argued that workers should act in solidarity with the international proletariat in order to further increase the power of the working class. Proletarian internationalism saw itself as a deterrent against war and international conflicts, because people with a common interest are less likely to take up arms against one another, instead focusing on fighting the [[bourgeoisie]] as the [[ruling class]]. According to Marxist theory, the [[antonym]] of proletarian internationalism is [[bourgeois nationalism]]. Some Marxists, together with others on the left, view [[nationalism]],<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Szporluk |author-first=Roman |title=Communism and Nationalism |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=1991}}</ref> [[racism]]<ref>{{cite journal |author-first1=John |author-last1=Solomos |author-first2=Les |author-last2=Back |title=Marxism, Racism, and Ethnicity |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |year=1995 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=407–420 |doi=10.1177/0002764295038003004 |url=http://maxweber.hunter.cuny.edu/pub/eres/SOC217_PIMENTEL/solomos.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.602.5843 |s2cid=39984567 |access-date=25 October 2017 |archive-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810135237/http://maxweber.hunter.cuny.edu/pub/eres/SOC217_PIMENTEL/solomos.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> (including antisemitism)<ref>{{cite web |author-last=Lenin |author-first=Vladimir |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Anti-Jewish Pogroms |work=Speeches On Gramophone Records |year=1919 |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1919/mar/x10.htm |access-date=29 April 2009 |archive-date=19 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319172258/https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1919/mar/x10.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[religion]] as [[Divide and rule|divide and conquer]] tactics used by the ruling classes to prevent the [[working class]] from uniting against them in solidarity with one another.

Anarchism has developed a critique of nationalism that focuses on nationalism's role in justifying and consolidating state power and domination. Through its unifying goal, nationalism strives for [[centralisation]] (both in specific territories and in a ruling elite of individuals) while it prepares a population for capitalist exploitation. Within anarchism, this subject has been extensively discussed by [[Rudolf Rocker]] in his book titled ''[[Nationalism and Culture]]'' and by the works of [[Fredy Perlman]] such as ''[[Against His-Story, Against Leviathan]]'' and ''The Continuing Appeal of Nationalism''.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Continuing Appeal of Nationalism|first=Fredy|last=Perlman|location=Detroit|publisher=Black & Red|year=1985|isbn=978-0317295580}}</ref>

The failure of revolutions in [[German Revolution|Germany]] and [[Hungarian Soviet Republic|Hungary]] in the 1918–1920 years ended [[Bolshevik]] hopes for an imminent [[world revolution]] and led to the promotion of the doctrine of [[socialism in one country]] by [[Joseph Stalin]]. In the first edition of his book titled ''Osnovy Leninizma'' (''Foundations of Leninism'', 1924), Stalin argued that revolution in one country is insufficient. By the end of that year in the second edition of the book, he argued that the "[[proletariat]] can and must build the socialist society in one country". In April 1925, [[Nikolai Bukharin]] elaborated on the issue in his brochure titled ''Can We Build Socialism in One Country in the Absence of the Victory of the West-European Proletariat?'', whose position was adopted as state policy after Stalin's January 1926 article titled ''On the Issues of Leninism'' (К вопросам ленинизма) was published. This idea was opposed by [[Leon Trotsky]] and his supporters, who declared the need for an international "[[permanent revolution]]" and condemned Stalin for betraying the goals and ideals of the socialist revolution. Various [[Fourth International]]ist groups around the world who describe themselves as [[Trotskyist]] see themselves as standing in this tradition while [[Maoist China]] formally supported the theory of socialism in one country.

European social democrats strongly support [[Europeanism]] and [[Supranational union|supranational]] integration within the [[European Union]], although there is a minority of nationalists and [[Eurosceptics]] on the left. Several scholars have linked this form of left-wing nationalism to the pressure generated by economic integration with other countries, often encouraged by [[neoliberal]] [[free trade]] agreements. This view is sometimes used to justify hostility towards supranational organisations.{{cn|date=January 2026}}

Left-wing movements have often taken up [[anti-imperialist]] positions. [[Left-wing nationalism]] also can refer to any form of nationalism which emphasises a leftist working-class [[populism|populist]] agenda that seeks to overcome exploitation or oppression by other nations. Many Third World [[Decolonization|anti-colonialist movements]] have adopted leftist and socialist ideas. [[Third-Worldism]] is a tendency within leftist thought that regards the division between [[First World]] and [[Second World]] [[developed country|developed countries]] and [[Third World]] [[developing countries]] as being of high political importance. This tendency supports [[decolonization|decolonisation]] and [[national liberation movements]] against imperialism by capitalists. Third-Worldism is closely connected with [[African socialism]], [[Latin American socialism]], [[Maoism]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://anti-imperialism.org/2012/11/02/what-is-maoism-third-worldism/ |title=What is Maioism-Third Worldism? |publisher=Anti-Imperialism.org |date=2 November 2011 |access-date=16 October 2017 |archive-date=16 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016070235/https://anti-imperialism.org/2012/11/02/what-is-maoism-third-worldism/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{third-party-inline|date=November 2012}} [[pan-Africanism]] and [[pan-Arabism]]. Several left-wing groups in the developing world such as the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation]] in Mexico, the [[Abahlali baseMjondolo]] in [[South Africa]] and the [[Naxalites]] in India have argued that the First World and the Second World Left takes a racist and paternalistic attitude towards liberation movements in the Third World.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}}

=== Religion ===
{{see also|Anarchism and religion|Buddhist socialism|Christian anarchism|Christian communism|Christian left|Christian socialism|Jewish left|Islamic socialism}}
The original [[French Left]] was firmly [[anti-clerical]], strongly opposing the influence of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and supporting [[atheism]] and the [[separation of church and state]], ushering in a policy known as ''[[laïcité]]''.<ref name="Knapp" /> [[Karl Marx]] asserted that "religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the [[opium of the people]]".<ref>Marx, Karl. 1976. ''Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right''. Collected Works, vol. 3. New York.</ref> In Soviet Russia, the [[Bolsheviks]] under [[Vladimir Lenin]] originally embraced an ideological principle which professed that all religion would eventually atrophy and resolved to eradicate organised [[Christianity]] and other religious institutions. In 1918, 10 [[Russian Orthodox]] hierarchs were summarily executed by a firing squad, and children were deprived of any religious education outside of the home.<ref>[[Michael Burleigh]], ''Sacred Causes'' HarperCollins (2006), p. 41–43.</ref>

Today in the [[Western world]], those on the Left generally support [[secularization|secularisation]] and the separation of church and state. However, religious beliefs have also been associated with many left-wing movements such as the [[progressive movement]], the [[Social Gospel]] movement, the [[civil rights movement]], the [[anti-war movement]], the anti-[[capital punishment]] movement and [[Liberation Theology]]. Early [[utopian socialist]] thinkers such as [[Robert Owen]], [[Charles Fourier]] and the [[Comte de Saint-Simon]] based their theories of socialism upon Christian principles. Other common leftist concerns such as [[pacifism]], [[social justice]], [[racial equality]], [[human rights]] and the rejection of capitalism and excessive [[wealth]] can be found in the [[Bible]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,1533448,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070112223942/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,1533448,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 January 2007 |title=Does God Want You To Be Rich? |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |author-first1=David van |author-last1=Biema |author-first2=Jeff |author-last2=Chu |date=10 September 2006 |access-date=20 April 2011}}</ref>

In the late 19th century, the [[Protestant]] Social Gospel movement arose in the United States which integrated [[Progressivism|progressive]] and [[socialist]] thought with [[Christianity]] through faith-based social activism. Other left-wing religious movements include Buddhist socialism, Jewish socialism and Islamic socialism. There have been alliances between the left and anti-war [[Muslims]], such as the [[Respect Party]] and the [[Stop the War Coalition]] in Britain. In France, the left has been divided over moves to ban the [[hijab]] from schools, with some leftists supporting a ban based on the separation of church and state in accordance with the principle of ''[[laïcité]]'' and other leftists opposing the prohibition based on personal and religious freedom.

=== Social progressivism and counterculture ===
{{see also|Counterculture|New Left|Socialism and LGBT rights|Socialist feminism}}
{{Globalize|section|United States|date=August 2021}}
[[File:We March With Selma cph.3c35695.jpg|thumb|Protestors in [[Harlem]], New York City, express solidarity with the [[Selma to Montgomery marches]] against [[racial segregation in the United States]], 1965]]
[[Social progress]]ivism is another common feature of modern leftism, particularly in the United States, where social progressives played an important role in the [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolition of slavery]],<ref>James Brewer Stewart, ''Abolitionist Politics and the Coming of the Civil War'', [[University of Massachusetts Press]], 2008, {{ISBN|978-1-55849-635-4}}. "[...] the progressive assumptions of 'uplift'." (page 40).</ref> the enshrinement of [[women's suffrage]] in the [[United States Constitution]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/learn/features/timeline/progress/suffrage/suffrage.html |title=For Teachers (Library of Congress) |publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov |access-date=13 May 2010 |archive-date=10 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090110213539/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/learn/features/timeline/progress/suffrage/suffrage.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and the protection of [[civil rights]], [[LGBTQ rights]], [[women's rights]] and [[multiculturalism]]. Progressives have both advocated for [[alcohol prohibition]] legislation and worked towards its repeal in the mid to late 1920s and early 1930s. Current positions associated with social progressivism in the [[Western world]] include strong opposition to the [[death penalty]], [[torture]], [[mass surveillance]], and the [[war on drugs]], and support for [[abortion]] rights, [[cognitive liberty]], LGBTQ rights including legal recognition of [[same-sex marriage]], [[same-sex adoption]] of children, the [[Gender reassignment|right to change one's legal gender]], distribution of [[contraceptives]], and public funding of embryonic [[stem-cell research]]. The desire for an expansion of social and civil liberties often overlaps that of the [[libertarian]] movement. Public education was a subject of great interest to groundbreaking social progressives such as [[Lester Frank Ward]] and [[John Dewey]], who believed that a democratic society and system of government was practically impossible without a universal and comprehensive nationwide system of education.

Various counterculture and anti-war movements in the 1960s and 1970s were associated with the New Left. Unlike the earlier leftist focus on [[labour union]] activism and a proletarian revolution, the New Left instead adopted a broader definition of political activism commonly called [[social activism]]. The New Left in the United States is associated with the [[hippie movement]], mass protest movements on school campuses and a broadening of focus from protesting [[Social class|class]]-based oppression to include issues such as [[gender]], [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]] and [[sexual orientation]]. The British New Left was an intellectually driven movement which attempted to correct the perceived errors of the [[Old Left]]. The New Left opposed prevailing authoritarian structures in society which it designated as "[[The Establishment]]" and became known as the "Anti-Establishment". The New Left did not seek to recruit industrial workers en masse, but instead concentrated on a social activist approach to organization, convinced that they could be the source for a better kind of [[social revolution]]. This view has been criticised by several [[Marxists]], especially [[Trotskyists]], who characterised this approach as "substitutionism" which they described as a misguided and non-Marxist belief that other groups in society could "substitute" for and "replace" the revolutionary agency of the working class.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1960/xx/trotsub.htm |title=Tony Cliff: Trotsky on substitutionism (Autumn 1960) |publisher=Marxists.org |access-date=13 May 2010 |archive-date=15 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615002815/http://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1960/xx/trotsub.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/4662049/Against-Substitutionism |title=Against Substitutionism |publisher=Scribd.com |date=6 November 2006 |access-date=13 May 2010 |archive-date=20 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220003148/http://www.scribd.com/doc/4662049/Against-Substitutionism |url-status=live }}</ref>

Many early [[feminists]] and advocates of women's rights were considered a part of the Left by their contemporaries. Feminist pioneer [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] was influenced by [[Thomas Paine]]. Many notable leftists have been strong supporters of gender equality such as [[Marxist]] philosophers and activists [[Rosa Luxemburg]], [[Clara Zetkin]] and [[Alexandra Kollontai]], [[anarchist]] philosophers and activists such as [[Virginia Bolten]], [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Lucía Sánchez Saornil]] and [[democratic socialist]] philosophers and activists such as [[Helen Keller]] and [[Annie Besant]].<ref>{{cite book|author-last1=Campling |author-first1=Jo |editor-last1=Bryson |editor-first1=Valerie |title=Feminist Political Theory: An Introduction |date=2003 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire [u.a.] |isbn=978-0-333-94568-1 |edition=2nd}}</ref> However, Marxists such as Rosa Luxemburg,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1912/05/12.htm |title=Rosa Luxemburg: Women's Suffrage and Class Struggle (1912) |publisher=Marxists.org |access-date=15 November 2016 |archive-date=13 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113123614/https://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1912/05/12.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Clara Zetkin,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/draper/1976/women/3-zetkin.html |title=Clara Zetkin: On a Bourgeois Feminist Petition |publisher=Marxists.org |date=28 December 2008 |access-date=15 November 2016 |archive-date=17 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717034055/http://www.marxists.org/archive/draper/1976/women/3-zetkin.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/zetkin/1920/lenin/zetkin1.htm |title=Clara Zetkin: Lenin on the Women's Question – 1 |publisher=Marxists.org |date=29 February 2004 |access-date=15 November 2016 |archive-date=30 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030154957/http://www.marxists.org/archive/zetkin/1920/lenin/zetkin1.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and Alexandra Kollontai,<ref>{{cite web |author-first=Alexandra |author-last=Kollontai |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/kollonta/1909/social-basis.htm |title=The Social Basis of the Woman Question by Alexandra Kollontai 1909 |publisher=Marxists.org |access-date=15 November 2016 |archive-date=28 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028195319/http://www.marxists.org/archive/kollonta/1909/social-basis.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author-first=Alexandra |author-last=Kollontai |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/kollonta/1919/women-workers/ch01.htm |title=Women Workers Struggle For Their Rights by Alexandra Kollontai 1919 |publisher=Marxists.org |access-date=15 November 2016 |archive-date=12 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212181444/http://www.marxists.org/archive/kollonta/1919/women-workers/ch01.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> who are supporters of radical social equality for women and have rejected and opposed [[liberal feminism]] because they considered it to be a capitalist [[bourgeois]] ideology. Marxists were responsible for organising the first [[International Working Women's Day]] events.<ref>{{cite web |author-first=Alexandra |author-last=Kollontai |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/kollonta/1920/womens-day.htm |title=1920-Inter Women's Day |publisher=Marxists.org |date=26 August 1920 |access-date=13 May 2010 |archive-date=23 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180523044541/https://www.marxists.org/archive/kollonta/1920/womens-day.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[women's liberation movement]] is closely connected to the New Left and other [[new social movements]] which openly challenged the orthodoxies of the Old Left. Socialist feminism as exemplified by the [[Freedom Socialist Party]] and [[Radical Women]] and [[Marxist feminism]], spearheaded by [[Selma James]], saw themselves as a part of the Left that challenges male-dominated and [[sexist]] structures within the Left. The connection between left-wing ideologies and the struggle for LGBTQ rights also has an important history. Prominent socialists who were involved in early struggles for LGBTQ rights include [[Edward Carpenter]], [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Harry Hay]], [[Bayard Rustin]] and [[Daniel Guérin]], among others. The New Left is also strongly supportive of LGBTQ rights and liberation, having been instrumental in the founding of the [[LGBTQ rights movement]] in the aftermath of the [[Stonewall riots|Stonewall Riots]] of 1969. Contemporary leftist activists and socialist countries such as Cuba are actively supportive of LGBTQ+ people and are involved in the struggle for LGBTQ+ rights and equality.

== History ==
{{see also|American Left|French Left|Left–right political spectrum|History of political thought}}
[[File:Estatesgeneral.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The 5 May 1789 opening of the [[Estates General of 1789]] in Versailles]]
Throughout the 19th century, the main line dividing [[Politics of France|Left and Right]] was between supporters of the French [[republic]] and those of the [[monarchy]]'s privileges.<ref name="Knapp"/>{{rp|2}} The [[June Days uprising]] during the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]] was an attempt by the Left to re-assert itself after the [[1848 Revolution (France)|1848 Revolution]], but only a small portion of the population supported this.

In the mid-19th century, [[nationalism]], [[socialism]], [[democracy]] and [[anti-clericalism]] became key features of the French Left. After [[Napoleon III]]'s [[French coup of 1851|1851 coup]] and the subsequent establishment of the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]], [[Marxism]] began to rival radical republicanism and [[utopian socialism]] as a force within left-wing politics. The influential ''[[Communist Manifesto]]'' by [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]], published amidst the wave of [[revolutions of 1848]] across Europe, asserted that all of human history is defined by [[class struggle]]. They predicted that a [[proletarian]] revolution would eventually overthrow [[bourgeois]] [[capitalism]] and create a [[Stateless society|stateless]], [[Post-capitalism|moneyless]] and [[classless]] [[communist society]]. It was in this period that the word ''wing'' was appended to both Left and Right.<ref name="oed.com">{{cite dictionary|title=Home: Oxford English Dictionary |dictionary=Oxford English Dictionary |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/107000?redirectedFrom=left-wing#eid |access-date=3 June 2017}}</ref>

The [[International Workingmen's Association]] (1864–1876), sometimes called the First International, brought together delegates from many different countries, with many different views about how to reach a classless and stateless society. Following a split between supporters of Marx and [[Mikhail Bakunin]], anarchists formed the [[Saint-Imier International]] and later the [[International Workers' Association – Asociación Internacional de los Trabajadores|International Workers' Association (IWA–AIT)]].<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Marshall |author-first=Peter |title=Demanding the Impossible — A History of Anarchism |title-link=Demanding the Impossible |publisher=[[Fontana Press]] |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-00-686245-1 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/demandingimpossi00mars_782/page/n545 9]}}</ref> The [[Second International]] (1888–1916) became divided over the issue of [[World War I]]. Those who opposed the war, among them [[Vladimir Lenin]] and [[Rosa Luxemburg]], saw themselves as further to the left.

In the United States, leftists such as [[social liberals]], [[Progressivism in the United States|progressives]] and [[trade unionists]] were influenced by the works of [[Thomas Paine]], who introduced the concept of [[asset-based egalitarianism]] which theorises that [[social equality]] is possible by a redistribution of resources. After the [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] era in the aftermath of the [[American Civil War]], the phrase "the Left" was used to describe those who supported trade unions, the [[civil rights movement]] and the [[anti-war movement]].<ref name="Van Gosse 2005">{{cite book|author-last=Van Gosse |title=The Movements of the New Left, 1950–1975: A Brief History with Documents |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4039-6804-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-last=Reuss |author-first=JoAnne C. |title=American Folk Music and Left-Wing Politics |publisher=[[The Scarecrow Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8108-3684-6}}</ref> More recently, ''left-wing'' and ''right-wing'' have often been used as synonyms for the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] parties, or as synonyms for [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberalism]] and [[Conservatism in the United States|conservatism]], respectively.<ref>{{cite magazine|date=3 March 2009 |title=Steel to gop fight for Coleman |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=http://thepage.time.com/2009/03/03/steele-to-gop-fight-for-coleman/?xid=rss-page |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722030847/http://thepage.time.com/2009/03/03/steele-to-gop-fight-for-coleman/?xid=rss-page |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 July 2011 |access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |date=7 May 2009 |title=Is it Spain's place to investigate Gitmo? |url=http://www.theweek.com/article/index/96256/Is_it_Spains_place_to_investigate_Gitmo |magazine=The Week |access-date=3 June 2017 |archive-date=25 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425012717/http://theweek.com/article/index/96256/Is_it_Spains_place_to_investigate_Gitmo |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Reported in ''Mother Jones'', 29 April 2009.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=June 2017}}<ref>{{cite news |author-last=Gellene |author-first=Denise |date=10 September 2007 |title=Study finds left-wing brain, right-wing brain |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/science/la-sci-politics10sep10,0,5982337.story |access-date=2 May 2010 |archive-date=12 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412144317/http://www.latimes.com/news/science/la-sci-politics10sep10,0,5982337.story |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the 20th century, war resulted in a dramatic intensification of the pace of social changes, and was a crucial catalyst for the growth of left-wing politics.<ref name = "Kolko 1994 xviitoxviii">{{Harvnb|Kolko|1994|p=xvii–xviii}}: "War in this century became an essential precondition for the emergence of a numerically powerful Left, moving it from the margins to the very center of European politics during 1917–18 and of all world affairs after 1941".</ref> Since the Right was populist, both in the [[Western Bloc|Western]] and the [[Eastern Bloc]], anything viewed as avant-garde art was called leftist across Europe, thus the identification of Picasso's ''[[Guernica (Picasso)|Guernica]]'' as "leftist" in Europe<ref>{{cite book|author-last1=Werckmeister |author-first1=Otto Karl |title=Icons of the Left: Benjamin and Eisenstein, Picasso and Kafka After the Fall of Communism |date=1999 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0226893563 |location=Chicago}}</ref>{{page needed|date=January 2017}} and the condemnation of the Russian composer [[Shostakovich]]'s opera (''[[Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk (opera)|The Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District]]'') in ''[[Pravda]]'' as follows: "Here we have 'leftist' confusion instead of natural, human music".<ref>{{cite book|author-last1=Gutman |author-first1=David |title=Prokofiev |date=1996 |publisher=Omnibus Press |isbn=978-0711920835 |edition=New |location=London}}</ref>{{page needed|date=November 2016}}

== Types ==
The spectrum of left-wing politics ranges from [[centre-left]] to [[far-left]]. The term ''centre-left'' describes a position within the political mainstream that accepts capitalism and a market economy. The term ''far-left'' is used for positions that are more [[Radical politics|radical]], strongly rejecting [[capitalism]] and mainstream [[representative democracy]], instead advocating for a socialist society based on [[economic democracy]] and [[direct democracy]], representing economic, political and social democracy. The centre-left includes [[social democrats]], [[social liberals]], [[Progressivism|progressives]] and [[Green politics|greens]]. Centre-left supporters accept market allocation of resources in a [[mixed economy]] with an empowered [[public sector]] and a thriving [[private sector]]. Centre-left policies tend to favour limited [[state intervention]] in matters pertaining to the [[public interest]].

In several countries, the terms ''far-left'' and ''radical left'' have been associated with many varieties of [[anarchism]], [[autonomism]] and [[communism]]. They have been used to describe groups that advocate [[anti-capitalism]] and [[eco-terrorism]]. In France, a distinction is made between the centre-left and the left represented by the [[Socialist Party (France)|Socialist Party]] and the [[French Communist Party]] and the far-left as represented by [[anarcho-communists]], [[Maoists]] and [[Trotskyists]].<ref>Cosseron, Serge (ed.). ''Le dictionnaire de l'extrême gauche''. Paris: [[Éditions Larousse|Larousse]], 2007. p. 20.</ref> The [[United States Department of Homeland Security]] defines "left-wing extremism" as groups that "seek to bring about change through violent revolution, rather than through established political processes".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theplumline.whorunsgov.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/hsa-leftwing-extremists-increase-in-cyber-attacks-dated-26-january-2009.pdf |title=Leftwing Extremists Increase in Cyber Attacks |access-date=3 June 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419052505/http://theplumline.whorunsgov.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/hsa-leftwing-extremists-increase-in-cyber-attacks-dated-26-january-2009.pdf |archive-date=19 April 2009}}</ref> Similar to [[far-right politics]], extreme far-left politics have motivated [[political violence]], [[radicalization|radicalisation]], [[genocide]], [[terrorism]], sabotage and damage to property, the formation of [[militant]] organisations, [[political repression]], [[conspiracism]], [[xenophobia]], and [[nationalism]].<ref name="Rossi 2021">{{cite journal |last=Rossi |first=Federica |date=April 2021 |editor-last=Treiber |editor-first=Kyle |title=The failed amnesty of the 'years of lead' in Italy: Continuity and transformations between (de)politicization and punitiveness |journal=[[European Journal of Criminology]] |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=381–400 |location=[[Los Angeles]] and [[London]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] on behalf of the [[European Society of Criminology]] |doi=10.1177/14773708211008441 |issn=1741-2609 |quote=The [[Years of Lead (Italy)|1970s in Italy]] were characterized by the persistence and prolongation of political and social unrest that many Western countries experienced during the late 1960s. The decade saw the multiplication of far-left [[Terrorism in Italy|extra-parliamentary organizations]], the presence of a [[militant]] [[Far-right politics in Italy|far right movement]], and an upsurge in the use of [[Political violence|politically motivated violence]] and state repressive measures. The increasing militarization and the use of political violence, from [[sabotage]] and damage to property, to [[kidnapping]]s and [[Targeted killing|targeted assassinations]], were justified by left-wing groups both as necessary means to achieve a revolutionary project and as defences against the threat of a neo-fascist coup. |doi-access=free |s2cid=234835036}}</ref><ref name="Ojeili-Taylor 2018">{{cite journal |last1=el-Ojeili |first1=Chamsy |last2=Taylor |first2=Dylan |date=September 2018 |editor1-last=Cheng |editor1-first=Enfu |editor2-last=Schweickart |editor2-first=David |editor3-last=Andreani |editor3-first=Tony |title=The Revaluation of All Values: Extremism, The Ultra-Left, and Revolutionary Anthropology |journal=International Critical Thought |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] on behalf of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=410–425 |doi=10.1080/21598282.2018.1506262 |issn=2159-8282 |eissn=2159-8312 |s2cid=158719628}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McClosky |first1=Herbert |last2=Chong |first2=Dennis |date=July 1985 |title=Similarities and Differences Between Left-Wing and Right-Wing Radicals |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0007123400004221/type/journal_article |journal=British Journal of Political Science |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=329–363 |doi=10.1017/S0007123400004221 |issn=0007-1234 |quote=Once one adjusts for superficial differences, Shils contended, communists and other radicals of the far left resemble right-wing radicals in zealotry, susceptibility to Manichean interpretations of human events, implacable hatred of opponents, intolerance toward dissenters and deviants, and an inclination to view public affairs as the outcome of conspiracies and secret plots. |s2cid=154330828|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kopyciok |first1=Svenja |last2=Silver |first2=Hilary |date=2021-06-10 |title=Left-Wing Xenophobia in Europe |journal=Frontiers in Sociology |volume=6 |article-number=666717 |doi=10.3389/fsoc.2021.666717 |issn=2297-7775 |pmc=8222516 |pmid=34179182 |quote=We find that a surprisingly large share of those who identify as far left do express extremely xenophobic attitudes, and we profile them in contrast to far right xenophobes. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Cheng |last2=Lee |first2=Ji-Yong |date=2007-12-01 |title=Making sense of North Korea: "National Stalinism" in comparative-historical perspective |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/cpcs/article/40/4/459/77/Making-sense-of-North-Korea-National-Stalinism-in |journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies |language=en |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=459–475 |doi=10.1016/j.postcomstud.2007.10.003 |issn=0967-067X |quote=the role of strong anti-liberal ideology that combined both far left and far right nationalist elements was highly significant in sustaining the regime and therefore should not be underestimated...the DPRK regime was able to hold on to power by using imagined and real external threats, such as the nuclear and missile crises, to justify continuing domestic repression and reinforce its nationalist claims|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In China, the term ''[[Chinese New Left]]'' denotes those who oppose the [[Economic reform in the People's Republic of China|economic reforms]] enacted by [[Deng Xiaoping]] in the 1980s and 1990s, favour instead the restoration of Maoist policies and the immediate transition to a socialist economy.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.ft.com/cms/s/74029202-a389-11da-83cc-0000779e2340,s01=1.html |title=China launches 'New Deal' for farmers |newspaper=[[Financial Times]] |date=22 February 2006}}</ref> In the [[Western world]], the term ''New Left'' is used for social and cultural politics.

In the United Kingdom during the 1980s, the term ''[[hard left]]'' was applied to supporters of [[Tony Benn]] such as the [[Campaign Group]] and those involved in the ''[[Labour Briefing|London Labour Briefing]]'' newspaper as well as Trotskyist groups such as [[Militant (Trotskyist group)|Militant]] and the [[Alliance for Workers' Liberty]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/1054337.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |title=Benn's golden anniversary |date=4 December 2000 |access-date=4 April 2010 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301121545/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/1054337.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In the same period, the term ''[[soft left]]'' was applied to supporters of the British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] who were perceived to be more moderate and closer to the centre, accepting [[Keynesianism]]. Under the leadership of [[Tony Blair]] and [[Gordon Brown]], the Labour Party adopted the [[Third Way]] and rebranded itself as [[New Labour]] in order to promote the notion that it was less left-wing than it had been in the past to accommodate the [[neoliberal]] trend arising since the 1970s with the [[displacement of Keynesianism]] and [[post-war social democracy]]. One of the first actions of [[Ed Miliband]], the Labour Party leader who succeeded Blair and Brown, was the rejection of the New Labour label and a promise to abandon the Third Way and turn back to the left. However, Labour's voting record in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] from 2010 to 2015 indicated that the Labour Party under Miliband had maintained the same distance from the left as it did under Blair.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-26743802 |work=[[BBC News]] |title=MPs approve annual welfare cap in Commons vote |date=26 March 2014 |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-date=30 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130234519/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-26743802 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author-first=John |author-last=Kampfner |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/nov/05/labour-back-on-the-right |title=Labour's return to the right |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=5 November 2012 |access-date=15 November 2016 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202114513/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/nov/05/labour-back-on-the-right |url-status=live }}</ref> In contrast, the election of [[Jeremy Corbyn]] as the Labour Party leader was viewed by scholars and political commentators as Labour turning back toward its more classical socialist roots, rejecting neoliberalism and the Third Way whilst supporting a [[democratic socialist]] society and an end to [[austerity]] measures.

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
* [[Conflict theories]]
* [[Left-conservatism]]
* [[Left-wing populism]]
* [[Left-wing terrorism]]
* [[List of left-wing internationals]]
* [[List of left-wing political parties]]
* [[Post-left anarchy]]
* [[Red-baiting]]
* [[Red Scare]]
* [[Redwashing]]
* [[Right-wing politics]]
* [[Social criticism]]
* ''[[Woke]]''
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |last=Kolko |first=Gabriel | author-link = Gabriel Kolko |year=1994 |title=Anatomy of a War: Vietnam, the United States, and the Modern Historical Experience |publisher=New Press |isbn=9781565842182 }}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last1= Best|first1=Steven|date=2014 |title=The Politics of Total Liberation: Revolution for the 21st Century|chapter=Rethinking Revolution: Veganism, Animal Liberation, Ecology, and the Left|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|pages=79–106|isbn=978-1137471116|doi=10.1057/9781137440723_4|author-link=Steven Best}}
* ''Encyclopedia of the American Left'', ed. by [[Mari Jo Buhle]], [[Paul Buhle]], [[Dan Georgakas]], Second Edition, Oxford University Press 1998, {{ISBN|0-19-512088-4}}.
* Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri. "Changes in the Nomenclature of the American Left" ''Journal of American Studies'' (2010) 44#1 pp. 83–100; how the term "socialism" was replaced by "left" in USA.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/40648690 online]
* Lin Chun, ''The British New Left'', Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press, 1993.
* Geoff Eley, ''Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850–2000'', Oxford University Press 2002, {{ISBN|0-19-504479-7}}.
* "Leftism in India, 1917–1947", [[Satyabrata Rai Chowdhuri]], Palgrave Macmillan, UK, 2007, {{ISBN|978-0-230-51716-5}}.
*{{cite book |last1=Winlow|first1=Simon|last2=Hall|first2=Steve|date=2022 |title=The Death of the Left: Why We Must Begin from the Beginning Again|url=https://policy.bristoluniversitypress.co.uk/trade/the-death-of-the-left|location= |publisher=[[Policy Press]]|page= |isbn=978-1447354154|access-date=}}

{{Clear}}
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{{political ideologies}}
{{subject bar|portal1=Politics|portal2=Communism|portal3=Socialism|portal4=Society|wikt=yes|commons=yes|commons-search=Category:Left-wing politics|n=yes|n-search=yes|q=yes|s=yes|s-search=Portal:Socialism|b=yes|d=yes|d-search=Q164597}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Left-Wing Politics}}
[[Category:Left-wing politics| ]]
[[Category:Political spectrum]]
[[Category:Political terminology]]

Geography of India

2026-03-10T10:31:39Z

SAWANTRAJ: minor update

{{Short description|none}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Country geography
|name =India
|image =India 78.40398E 20.74980N.jpg
|image caption=Satellite view of the [[Indian subcontinent|subcontinent]]
|continent =[[Asia]]
|region =[[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]] {{small|([[Indian subcontinent]])}}
|coordinates ={{Coord|21|N|78|E|type:country}}
|area ranking =7th
|km area = 3287263
|percent land= 91
|km coastline =7516.6
|borders =[[Land borders|Total land borders]]:<ref name="DBM"/> {{convert|15200|km|mi|abbr=on}} [[Bangladesh]]: {{convert|4096.70|km|mi|abbr=on}} [[People's Republic of China|China (PRC)]]: {{convert|3488|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} [[Pakistan]]: {{convert|3323|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} [[Nepal]]: {{convert|1751|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} [[Myanmar]]: {{convert|1643|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} [[Bhutan]]: {{convert|699|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}
|highest point= [[Kangchenjunga]] {{convert|8586|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
|lowest point= [[Kuttanad]] {{convert|-2.2|m|ft|1|abbr=on}}
|longest river=[[Ganges]] (or Ganga) {{convert|2525|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}
|largest lake=[[Loktak Lake]] (freshwater) {{convert|287|to|500|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} [[Chilika Lake]] (brackish water) {{convert|1100|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
|exclusive economic zone={{convert|2305143|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}}}

[[India]] is situated north of the equator between 8°4' north (the [[Mainland India|mainland]]) to 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' east to 97°25' east longitude.<ref name="yearbook">[[#Yearbook|India Yearbook]], p. 1</ref> It is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|seventh-largest country in the world]], with a total area of {{convert|3287263|km2|mi2|0}}.<ref name=indiaEB>{{cite encyclopedia|title=India|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India|access-date=17 July 2012|archive-date=8 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508084916/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India|url-status=live}} Total area includes disputed territories not under Indian control.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2001|title=India at a Glance: Area|url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_Glance/area.aspx|access-date=9 September 2020|website=Ministry of Home Affairs: Government of India|archive-date=31 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201231115452/https://censusindia.gov.in/census_data_2001/india_at_glance/area.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2002|title=Jammu and Kashmir - CIA|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/abbottabad-compound/37/374CB8CF12C9742A9133BE7CEED44E13_%D9%83%D8%B4%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1.doc.pdf|access-date=9 September 2020|website=Central Intelligence Agency|archive-date=30 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630181609/https://www.cia.gov/library/abbottabad-compound/37/374CB8CF12C9742A9133BE7CEED44E13_%D9%83%D8%B4%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1.doc.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> India measures {{convert|3214|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} from north to south and {{convert|2933|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} from east to west. It has a land frontier of {{convert|15200|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and a coastline of {{convert|7516.6|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="DBM">{{cite web |title=Annual Report 2016-17, Ministry of Home Affairs |url=https://mha.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/anual_report_18082017.pdf|access-date=7 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307151308/https://mha.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/anual_report_18082017.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On the south, India projects into and is bounded by the [[Indian Ocean]]—in particular, by the [[Arabian Sea]] on the west, the [[Lakshadweep Sea]] to the southwest, the [[Bay of Bengal]] on the east, and the [[Indian Ocean]] proper to the south. The [[Palk Strait]] and [[Gulf of Mannar]] separate India from [[Sri Lanka]] to its immediate southeast, and the [[Maldives]] are some {{convert|125|km}} to the south of India's [[Lakshadweep Islands]] across the [[Maliku Kandu|Eight Degree Channel]]. India's [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], some {{convert|1200|km}} southeast of the mainland, share [[maritime boundary|maritime borders]] with [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]] and [[Indonesia]]. The southernmost tip of the Indian mainland (8°4′38″N, 77°31′56″E) is just south of [[Kanyakumari]], while the southernmost point in India is [[Indira Point]] on [[Great Nicobar Island]]. The northernmost point which is under Indian administration is Indira Col, Siachen Glacier.<ref name="manorama">{{cite journal| title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 (India – The Country) | journal = Manorama Year Book | publisher = Malayala Manorama | year = 2006 | page = 515 | issn = 0542-5778}}</ref> India's [[territorial waters]] extend into the sea to a distance of {{convert|12|nmi|mi km|1|lk=in}} from the coast baseline.<ref name="waters_extent">{{cite web|title=Territorial extent of India's waters |publisher=The International Law of the Sea and Indian MaritimeLegislation |date=30 April 2005 |url=http://www.irfc-nausena.nic.in/irfc/ezine/Trans2Trimph/chapters/27_law%20of%20the%20sea1.htm |access-date=16 May 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928140322/http://www.irfc-nausena.nic.in/irfc/ezine/Trans2Trimph/chapters/27_law%20of%20the%20sea1.htm |archive-date=28 September 2007}}</ref> India has the 18th largest [[Exclusive Economic Zone]] of {{convert|2305143|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}.

The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the [[Himalayas|Himalayan mountain range]], where the country borders [[China]], [[Bhutan]], and [[Nepal]]. Its [[Indo-Pakistani border|western border with Pakistan]] lies in the [[Karakoram range|Karakoram]] and [[Western Himalayas|Western Himalayan range]]s, [[Punjab Plain]]s, the [[Thar Desert]] and the [[Rann of Kutch]] salt marshes. In the far northeast, the [[Chin Hills]] and [[Kachin Hills]], deeply forested mountainous regions, separate India from [[Myanmar]]. On the east, [[Bangladesh–India border|its border]] with [[Bangladesh]] is largely defined by the [[Khasi Hills]] and [[Mizo Hills]], and the watershed region of the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].{{clarify|date=May 2011|reason=not clear how the "watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic Plain" defines the India-Bangladesh border; most rivers of the region flow right across the border, no?}}

The [[Ganges]] is the longest river originating in India. The [[Ganges]]–[[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]] system occupies most of northern, central, and eastern India, while the [[Deccan Plateau]] occupies most of southern India. [[Kangchenjunga]], in the Indian state of [[Sikkim]], is the highest point in India at {{convert|8586|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} and the [[list of highest mountains|world's third highest peak]]. The climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, to [[Alpine climate|alpine]] and [[Tundra climate|tundra]] in the upper regions of the Himalayas. Geologically, [[India]] lies on the [[Indian Plate]], the northern part of the [[Indo-Australian Plate]].

==Geological development==
{{Main|Geology of India}}
[[File:Indian_subcontinent_collision.jpg|left|thumb|Proposed model of the collision of the Indian subcontinent with Asia to form the Himalayas. The area in green represents the hypothetical [[subducted]] and underthrust "Greater India"]]
India is situated entirely on the [[Indian Plate]], a major [[tectonic plate]] that was formed when it split off from the ancient continent [[Gondwanaland]] (ancient landmass, consisting of the southern part of the supercontinent of [[Pangaea|Pangea]]). The [[Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian plate]] is subdivided into the Indian and [[Australian Plate|Australian plates]]. About 90 million years ago, during the late [[Cretaceous|Cretaceous Period]], the Indian Plate began moving north at about 15 cm/year (6 in/yr).<ref name="AII">{{cite book|title=Age of Initiation of the India-Asia Collision in the East-Central Himalaya|url=http://geosci.uchicago.edu/~rowley/Rowley/Collision_Age_files/J%20Geol%202005%20Zhu.pdf|author=Zhu, Bin|publisher=Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, [[University at Albany]]|pages=281|access-date=19 November 2008|display-authors=etal|archive-date=17 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217025622/http://geosci.uchicago.edu/~rowley/Rowley/Collision_Age_files/J%20Geol%202005%20Zhu.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> About 50 to 55 million years ago, in the [[Eocene|Eocene Epoch]] of the [[Cenozoic|Cenozoic Era]], the plate collided with Asia after covering a distance of {{convert|2000|to|3000|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}, having moved faster than any other known plate. In 2007, German geologists determined that the Indian Plate was able to move so quickly because it is only half as thick as the other plates which formerly constituted Gondwanaland.<ref name="EUREKA">{{cite journal|title=The Fastest Continent: India's truncated lithospheric roots|author=Kind, Rainer |publisher=Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres|date=September 2007}}</ref> The collision with the [[Eurasian Plate]] along the modern border between India and Nepal formed the [[orogeny|orogenic belt]] that created the [[Tibetan Plateau]] and the [[Himalayas]]. {{As of|2009}}, the Indian Plate is moving northeast at 5 cm/yr (2 in/yr), while the [[Eurasian Plate]] is moving north at only 2 cm/yr (0.8 in/yr). India is thus referred to as the "fastest continent".<ref name="EUREKA" /> This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the Indian Plate to compress at a rate of 4 cm/yr (1.6 in/yr).

==Political geography==
{{Main|States and union territories of India}}
India is divided into 28 States (further subdivided into [[List of Indian districts|districts]]) and 8 [[union territories]] including the National capital territory (i.e., [[Delhi]]).
India's borders run a total length of {{convert|15200|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="DBM"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://knowindia.gov.in/states-uts/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818054533/http://knowindia.gov.in/states-uts/|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 August 2017|title=States and Union Territories|last=DelhiAugust 5|publisher=[[Know India Programme]]|language=en|access-date=2020-04-21}}</ref>

Its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh were delineated according to the [[Radcliffe Line]], which was created in 1947 during [[Partition of India]]. Its western border with Pakistan extends up to {{convert|3323|km|mi|abbr=on}}, dividing the [[Punjab region]] and running along the boundaries of the Thar Desert and the [[Rann of Kutch]].<ref name="DBM"/> This border runs along the Indian states and union territories of [[Ladakh]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Rajasthan]], and [[Gujarat]].<ref>http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BM_MAN-IN-PAKS-060513.pdf{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Both nations delineated a [[Line of Control]] (LoC) to serve as the informal boundary between the Indian and Pakistan-administered areas of the [[Kashmir region]]. India claims the whole of the former princely state of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], which includes areas now administered by Pakistan and China, which according to India are illegally occupied areas.<ref name="DBM"/>

India's border with Bangladesh runs {{convert|4096.70|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="DBM"/> [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]], [[Meghalaya]], [[Tripura]] and [[Mizoram]] are the states which share the border with Bangladesh.<ref>http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BM_MAN-IN-BANG-270813.pdf{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Before 2015, there were 92 enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India were on Bangladeshi soil.<ref name=HINDU>{{cite journal|title=The Nowhere People |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1912/19120600.htm |journal=Frontline Magazine, the Hindu |author=Naunidhi Kaur |volume=19 |issue=12 |date=June 2002 |access-date=19 November 2008 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208161351/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1912/19120600.htm |archive-date=8 December 2008 }}</ref> These [[India–Bangladesh enclaves|enclaves]] were eventually exchanged in order to simplify the border.<ref>{{Cite news|title = India, Bangladesh ratify historic land deal, Narendra Modi announces new $2 billion line of credit to Dhaka|url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-Bangladesh-ratify-historic-land-deal-Narendra-Modi-announces-new-2-billion-line-of-credit-to-Dhaka/articleshow/47567164.cms|website = The Times of India|date = 6 June 2015|access-date = 1 January 2016|archive-date = 8 November 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201108095810/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-Bangladesh-ratify-historic-land-deal-Narendra-Modi-announces-new-2-billion-line-of-credit-to-Dhaka/articleshow/47567164.cms|url-status = live}}</ref> After the exchange, India lost roughly {{convert|40|km2|acre|abbr=on}} to Bangladesh.<ref>{{Cite web|title = India-Bangla land swap: was the world's strangest border created by a game of chess?|url = http://scroll.in/article/725804/india-bangla-land-swap-how-the-worlds-strangest-border-was-created-by-a-game-of-chess|website = Scroll.in|access-date = 1 January 2016|first = Shoaib|last = Daniyal|date = 8 May 2015|archive-date = 9 January 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160109180051/http://scroll.in/article/725804/india-bangla-land-swap-how-the-worlds-strangest-border-was-created-by-a-game-of-chess|url-status = live}}</ref>

The [[Line of Actual Control]] (LAC) is the effective border between India and the People's Republic of China. It traverses 4,057 km along the Indian states and union territories of [[Ladakh]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[Sikkim]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]].<ref name="ONE">{{cite web| title = Another Chinese intrusion in Sikkim| url = https://www.oneindia.com/2008/06/19/another-chinese-intrusion-in-sikkim.html| work = Oneindia| date = 19 June 2012| access-date = 19 November 2008| archive-date = 28 September 2011| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110928154816/http://news.oneindia.in/2008/06/19/another-chinese-intrusion-in-sikkim.html| url-status = live}}</ref> The border with Burma (Myanmar) extends up to {{convert|1643|km|mi|abbr=on}} along the eastern [[borders of India]]'s northeastern states viz. [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Nagaland]], [[Manipur]] and [[Mizoram]].<ref>http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/Indo-Myanmar-1011.pdf{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Located amidst the Himalayan range, India's border with Bhutan runs {{convert|699|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="DBM"/> [[Sikkim]], [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]] are the states which share the border with Bhutan.<ref>http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/Indo-Bhutan-1011.pdf{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The border with [[Nepal]] runs {{convert|1751|km|mi|abbr=on}} along the foothills of the Himalayas in northern India.<ref name="DBM"/> [[Uttarakhand]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[West Bengal]] and [[Sikkim]] are the states which share the border with Nepal.<ref>http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/Indo-Nepal-270813.pdf{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The [[Siliguri Corridor]], narrowed sharply by the borders of Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh, connects peninsular India with the northeastern states.

==Physiographic regions==
[[File:Physical Map of India.jpg|thumb|Physical map of India with various physiographic divisions]]

===Regions===
{{anchor | Physiographic regions of India | Physiographic regions | }}
India can be divided into six [[Physiographic regions of the world|physiographic regions]]. They are:
* Northern Mountains: [[Himalayas]]
* Peninsular Plateau: contains mountain ranges ([[Aravalli Range|Aravalli]], Vindhayachal and [[Satpura Range|Satpura]] ranges), [[ghat]]s (Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats) and plateaus (Malwa Plateau, Chhota Nagpur Plateau, Southern Garanulite terrain, [[Deccan Plateau]] and Kutch Kathiawar plateau).
*[[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] or The Northern Plains
*[[Thar Desert]]
* Coastal Plains: Eastern Ghat folds and Western Ghats folds
* Islands- The [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands|Andaman and Nicobar islands]] and the [[Lakshadweep]] islands.

===The Himalayas===
[[File:KedarRange.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A shining white snow-clad range, framed against a turquoise sky. In the middle ground, a ridge descends from the right to form a saddle in the centre of the photograph, partly in shadow. In the near foreground, a loop of a road is seen.|The [[Kedarnath (mountain)|Kedarnath range]] in the [[Garhwal Himalayas]] in India.]]
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 350
| caption_align = center
| align = right
| title = [[Kangchenjunga]]
| image1 = Kangch-Goechala.jpg
| image2 = Kangchenjunga East Face from Zemu Glacier.jpg
| footer_align = center
| footer = [[Kangchenjunga]], the third [[List of highest mountains|highest mountain in the world]], near the [[Zemu Glacier]] in [[Sikkim, India]].
}}
{{Main|Himalayas}}
An arc of mountains consisting of the Himalayas, [[Hindu Kush]], and [[Patkai]] ranges define the northern frontiers of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{citation|last1=Baker|first1=Kathleen M.|last2=Chapman|first2=Graham P.|title=The Changing Geography of Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G-KIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10|date=11 March 2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-93384-6|pages=10– |quote=This greater India is well defined in terms of topography; it is the Indian sub-continent, hemmed in by the Himalayas on the north, the Hindu Khush in the west and the Arakanese in the east.}}</ref> These were formed by the [[destructive boundary|ongoing tectonic plates collision]] of the Indian and [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian plates]]. The mountains in these ranges include some of the world's tallest mountains which act as a barrier to cold polar winds. They also facilitate the [[monsoon]] winds which in turn influence the climate in India. Rivers originating in these mountains flow through the fertile Indo–Gangetic Plain. These mountains form the boundary between two [[biogeographic realm]]s: the [[temperate]] [[Palearctic realm]] that covers most of Eurasia, and the tropical and subtropical [[Indomalayan realm]] which includes South Asia, [[Southeast Asia]] and Indonesia.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}

The Himalayas in India extend from [[Ladakh]] in the north to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east. Several Himalayan [[List of mountains in India|peaks in India]] rise above {{convert|7000|m|ft||abbr=on}}, including [[Kanchenjunga]] ({{convert|8598|m|ft||abbr=on}}) on the [[Sikkim]]–[[Nepal]] border, and [[Nanda Devi]] ({{convert|7,816|m|ft||abbr=on}}) in the [[Garhwal Himalayas]] of Uttarakhand. The [[snow line]] ranges between {{convert|6000|m|ft||abbr=on}} in Sikkim to around {{convert|3000|m|ft||abbr=on}} in Ladakh. The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid [[katabatic wind]]s flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, northern India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}
* The [[Karakoram]] range runs through Ladakh. The range is about {{convert|500|km|mi||abbr=on}} in length and the most heavily [[glacier|glaciated]] part of the world outside of the polar regions. The [[Siachen Glacier]] at {{convert|76|km|mi||abbr=on}} ranks as the world's second longest glacier outside the polar regions.<ref name="Measurements">Measurements are from recent imagery, generally supplemented with Russian 1:200,000 scale topographic mapping as well as Jerzy Wala, ''Orographical Sketch Map: Karakoram: Sheets 1 & 2'', Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research, Zurich, 1990.</ref> The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed by the [[Indus River|Indus]] and [[Shyok River|Shyok]] rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalayas.
*The [[Patkai]], or Purvanchal, are situated near India's eastern border with Burma. They were created by the same tectonic processes which led to the formation of the Himalayas. The physical features of the Patkai mountains are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: the Patkai–Bum, the [[Garo Hills|Garo]]–[[Khasi Hills|Khasi]]–[[Jaintia Hills|Jaintia]] and the [[Lushai hills]]. The Garo–Khasi range lies in Meghalaya. [[Mawsynram]], a village near [[Cherrapunji]] lying on the [[windward]] side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nios.ac.in/SecSoccour/English/Lesson07.pdf|title= Physical divisions|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041212061106/http://www.nios.ac.in/SecSoccour/English/Lesson07.pdf |archive-date=12 December 2004}}</ref>

[[Image:Manduvalley1 coolspark.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Vindhyas]] in central India]]

===The Peninsular Plateau===

[[Image:Western-Ghats-Matheran.jpg|thumb|right|[[Western Ghats]] near Matheran]][[File:Dry deciduous Jungles at Ramatheertham 03.jpg|thumb|Dry deciduous and thorny forests of plateau regions in India]]{{Further|Peninsular India}}
This is a large region of the [[Indian subcontinent]] located between the [[Western Ghats]] and the [[Eastern Ghats]], and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the [[Narmada River]].Having once constituted a segment of the ancient continent of [[Gondwanaland]], this land is the oldest and most stable in India.

* Mountain ranges (clockwise from top-left)
** '''[[Aravali Range]]''' is the oldest mountain range in India, running across Rajasthan from northeast to southwest direction, extending approximately {{convert|800|km|mi||abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Dale Hoiberg|author2=Indu Ramchandani|title=Students' Britannica India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kpd9lLY_0-IC&pg=PA92|year=2000|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|pages=92–93}}</ref> The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into [[Haryana]], ending near [[Delhi]]. The highest peak in this range is [[Guru Shikhar]] at [[Mount Abu]], rising to {{convert|1722|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, lying near the border with Gujarat.<ref>{{cite book|title=Deccan Heritage |last=Gupta|first=Harsh K |author2=Aloka Parasher-Sen |author3=Dorairajan Balasubramanian |year=2000 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=81-7371-285-9 |page=28}}</ref> The Aravali Range is the eroded stub of an ancient [[fold mountain]] system.<ref>{{cite book |title=Tropical geomorphology: a morphogenetic study of Rajasthan |last=Sharma |first=Hari Shanker|year=1987 |publisher=Concept |isbn=81-7022-041-6 |page=295}}</ref> The range rose in a [[Precambrian]] event called the Aravali–Delhi [[orogen]]. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian [[craton]], the [[Marwar]] segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast.
** '''[[Vindhya]] range''', lies north of Satpura range and east of Aravali range, runs across most of central India, extending {{convert|1050|km|mi||abbr=on}}.<ref name="manorama2">{{cite journal|title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 (India – The Country)| journal = Manorama Year Book | publisher = Malayala Manorama | year = 2006 | page = 516 | issn = 0542-5778}}</ref> The average elevation of these hills is from {{convert|300|to|600|m|abbr=on}} and rarely goes above {{convert|700|m}}.<ref name="manorama2" /> They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created by the weathering of the ancient Aravali mountains.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Indian geographical journal|year=1971 |publisher=Indian Geographical Society |volume=46 |page=52}}</ref> Geographically, it separates [[North India|Northern]] India from [[South India|Southern]] India. The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with Madhya Pradesh, and runs east and north, almost meeting the Ganges at [[Mirzapur]].
**'''[[Satpura Range]]''', lies south of Vindhya range and east of Aravali range, begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast and runs east across [[Maharashtra]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Chhattisgarh]]. It extends {{convert|900|km|mi||abbr=on}} with many peaks rising above {{convert|1000|m|ft||abbr=on}}.<ref name="manorama2" /> It is triangular in shape, with its apex at [[Ratnapuri, India|Ratnapuri]] and the two sides being parallel to the [[Tapti River|Tapti]] and [[Narmada River|Narmada]] rivers.<ref name="manorama3">{{cite book| title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 (India – The Country)| page = 517}}</ref> It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east–west ranges divide the Indo–Gangetic plain from the Deccan Plateau located north of River Narmada.
* Plateaus (clockwise from top-left)
**'''[[Malwa Plateau]]''' is spread across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The average elevation of the Malwa plateau is 500 metres, and the landscape generally slopes towards the north. Most of the region is drained by the [[Chambal River]] and its tributaries; the western part is drained by the upper reaches of the [[Mahi River]].
** '''[[Chhota Nagpur Plateau]]''' is situated in eastern India, covering much of Jharkhand and adjacent parts of Odisha, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. Its total area is approximately {{convert|65000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and is made up of three smaller plateaus—the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the largest, with an average elevation of {{convert|700|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the [[Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forest|Chhota Nagpur dry deciduous forest]]s. Vast reserves of metal ores and [[coal]] have been found in the Chota Nagpur plateau.
** '''Southern Garanulite terrain''': Covers South India especially [[Tamil Nadu]] excluding western and eastern ghats. The '''Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT)''' is one of the most geologically significant regions of the Indian Shield. It represents the southernmost part of the Indian peninsula, situated south of the stable '''Dharwar Craton'''.Unlike the lower-grade metamorphic rocks found further north, the SGT is composed of '''high-grade metamorphic rocks''' (granulites) that were formed deep within the Earth's crust under extreme pressure and temperature.
*** '''Northern Boundary:''' It is separated from the Dharwar Craton by a transition zone often referred to as the '''"Fermor Line."'''
*** '''Major Shear Zones:''' These act as the "boundaries" between different blocks within the SGT:
**** '''Moyar-Bhavani Shear Zone:''' Separates the Dharwar Craton from the Nilgiri Block.
**** '''Palghat-Cauvery Shear Zone (PCSZ):''' A massive tectonic boundary that many geologists consider the "suture" where different ancient landmasses joined.
**** '''Achankovil Shear Zone (ASZ):''' Located further south, separating the Madurai Block from the Trivandrum Block.
** '''[[Deccan Plateau]]''', also called Deccan Trapps, is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of {{convert|1.9|e6km2|sqmi|abbr=unit}}. It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from {{convert|300|to|600|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The average elevation of the plateau is {{convert|2000|ft|m}} above sea level. The surface slopes from {{convert|3000|ft|m}} in the west to {{convert|1500|ft|m}} in the east.<ref name="HSW">{{cite web|title=The Deccan Plateau|url=http://geography.howstuffworks.com/asia/the-deccan-plateau.htm|publisher=How Stuff Works|access-date=14 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108230839/http://geography.howstuffworks.com/asia/the-deccan-plateau.htm|archive-date=8 January 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> It slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular rivers such as the [[Godavari River|Godavari]], the [[Krishna River|Krishna]], the [[Kaveri]] and the [[Mahanadi River|Mahanadi]] which drain into the Bay of Bengal. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of [[deciduous]] broadleaf forest. Climate in the Deccan ranges from hot summers to mild winters.
** '''Kutch Kathiawar plateau''' is located in [[Gujarat]] state. The [[Kathiawar]] peninsula in western Gujarat is bounded by the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Khambat. The natural vegetation in most of the peninsula is [[xeric scrub]], part of the [[Northwestern thorn scrub forests]] ecoregion.

==== Ghats ====
[[File:Kollimalai Kundrugal.JPG|thumb|right|Kolli Hills of the [[Eastern Ghats]], [[Tamil Nadu]]]]
[[File:Konkan - Western Ghats - Scenes from India's Konkan Railway 104.JPG|right|thumb|Western Ghats]][[File:Pond at Punyagiri temple.jpg|thumb|right|Dry Evergreen Forests along the [[Eastern Ghats]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]]]The word ''ghati'' ({{Langx|hi|घाटी}}) means valley.<ref name="ghatimean1">[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/hindi-english/%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80 Ghati meaning], Hindi-English Collins dictionary.</ref> In [[Marathi language|Marathi]], Hindi, [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] and [[Kannada]], ''ghat'' is a term used to identify a difficult passage over a mountain.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Navneet Marathi English Dictionary |publisher=Navneet Publications (India) Limited |location=Mumbai 400028 |url=http://www.navneet.com/mainpage/contactus.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124025354/http://navneet.com/mainpage/contactus.asp |archive-date=2009-01-24 |url-status=dead}}</ref> One such passage is the [[Bhor Ghat]] that connects the towns [[Khopoli]] and [[Khandala]], on [[National Highway 4 (India, old numbering)|NH 4]] about {{convert|80|km}} north of [[Mumbai]]. [[Charmadi]] Ghat of Karnataka is also notable. In many cases, the term is used to refer to a mountain range itself, as in the ''[[Western Ghats]]'' and ''[[Eastern Ghats]]''. 'Ghattam' in Malayalam also refers to mountain ranges when used with the name of the ranges being addressed (e.g., paschima ghattam for Western Ghats), while the passage road would be called a 'churam'. [[Eastern Ghats]] on the east coast of India and [[Western Ghats]] on the west coast of India are the largest ghats in pensular India.<ref name="RWH" />

*[[Western Ghats]] also known as ''Sahyadri'' (Benevolent Mountains) run along the western edge of India's [[Deccan Plateau]] and separate it from a narrow coastal plain along the [[Arabian Sea]]. The range covers an area of 140,000 km2 in a stretch of {{convert|1600|km|mi||abbr=on}} parallel to the western coast of the [[India]]n [[peninsula]],<ref name="manorama3" /> from south of the [[Tapti River]] near the Gujarat–Maharashtra border and across [[Kerala]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]], [[Goa]], [[Maharashtra]] and [[Gujarat]]. to the southern tip of the Deccan peninsula.<ref name="Western Ghats">{{cite web |title=Western Ghats |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704212953/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342 |archive-date=4 July 2018 |access-date=5 September 2023}}</ref> The average elevation is around {{convert|1000|m|ft||abbr=on}}.<ref name="manorama3" /> [[Anai Mudi]] in the [[Anaimalai Hills]] {{convert|2695|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clayton |first=Pamela |date=November 2006 |title=Introduction |url=https://www.hindimetyari.com/2018/10/drishti-ias-geography-notes-free-pdf.html |url-status=dead |journal=Literacy in Kerala |publisher=[[Hindimetyari]] |isbn=0-86389-068-7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123154240/https://www.hindimetyari.com/2018/10/drishti-ias-geography-notes-free-pdf.html |archive-date=23 November 2018 |access-date=22 November 2018}}</ref> It is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] and is one of the eight "hottest hot-spots" of biological diversity in the world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=Norman |last2=Mittermeier |first2=Russell A. |last3=Mittermeier |first3=Cristina G. |last4=Da Fonseca |first4=Gustavo A. B. |last5=Kent |first5=Jennifer |year=2000 |title=Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities |journal=Nature |volume=403 |issue=6772 |pages=853–858 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..853M |doi=10.1038/35002501 |pmid=10706275 |s2cid=4414279}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=2 July 2012 |title=UN designates Western Ghats as world heritage site |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/flora-fauna/UN-designates-Western-Ghats-as-world-heritage-site/articleshow/14595602.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131192257/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-02/flora-fauna/32507340_1_world-heritage-list-western-ghats-border-town |archive-date=31 January 2013 |access-date=2 July 2012 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> It is sometimes called the Great [[Escarpment]] of India.<ref>{{cite book |last=Migon |first=Piotr |title=Geomorphological Landscapes of the World |date=12 May 2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-90-481-3054-2 |page=257}}</ref> It is a biodiversity hotspot that contains a large proportion of the country's flora and fauna; many of which are only found here and nowhere else in the world.<ref>{{citation |title=A biodiversity hotspot |url=http://wwf.panda.org/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/western_ghats/ |access-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190118005548/http://wwf.panda.org/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/western_ghats/ |archive-date=18 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[UNESCO]], Western Ghats are older than Himalayan mountains. It also influences Indian monsoon weather patterns by intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that sweep in from the south-west during late summer.<ref name="Western Ghats" /> A total of thirty-nine properties including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserve forests were designated as world heritage sites - twenty in [[Kerala]], ten in [[Karnataka]], five in [[Tamil Nadu]] and four in [[Maharashtra]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Western Ghats |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342/multiple%3D1%26unique_number%3D1921 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118010253/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342/multiple%3D1%26unique_number%3D1921 |archive-date=18 January 2013 |access-date=3 January 2013 |work=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Lewis |first=Clara |date=3 July 2012 |title=39 sites in Western Ghats get world heritage status |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/39-sites-in-Western-Ghats-get-world-heritage-status/articleshow/14622091.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707023508/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-03/mumbai/32523277_1_radhanagari-wildlife-world-heritage-centre-western-ghats |archive-date=7 July 2012 |access-date=21 February 2013 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> [[Marathi people#Ghati people|Ghati people]], literally means the ''people of hills or ghats (valleys)'', is an [[exonym]] used for the marathi people specially those from the villages in [[Western Ghats]], often in pejorative terms.<ref name="ghati2">[https://books.google.com/books?id=bBG_QmivOWgC&dq=ghati+people&pg=PA110 >Bombay Teachers and the Cultural Role of Cities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905035554/https://books.google.com/books?id=bBG_QmivOWgC&dq=ghati+people&pg=PA110|date=5 September 2023}}, Page 110.</ref><ref name="ghati1">[https://www.firstpost.com/living/of-ghati-bhaiyya-and-yandu-gundu-mumbai-has-huge-diversity-in-its-pejoratives-2640836.html Of 'ghati', 'bhaiyya' & 'yandu gundu': Mumbai has huge diversity in its pejoratives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905035556/https://www.firstpost.com/living/of-ghati-bhaiyya-and-yandu-gundu-mumbai-has-huge-diversity-in-its-pejoratives-2640836.html|date=5 September 2023}}, First Post, 26 Feb 2019.</ref><ref name="ghati3">Guruprasad Datar, 2018, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zcxYDwAAQBAJ&dq=ghati+people&pg=PT90 Stereotypes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905035559/https://books.google.com/books?id=zcxYDwAAQBAJ&dq=ghati+people&pg=PT90|date=5 September 2023}},</ref>
* [[Eastern Ghats]] are a discontinuous range of mountains along [[India]]'s eastern coast, which have been eroded and quadrisected by the four major rivers of southern India, the [[Godavari River|Mahanadi, Godavari]], [[Krishna River|Krishna]], and [[Kaveri River|Kaveri]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Pullaiah |first=Thammineni |title=Flora of Eastern Ghats: Hill ranges of south east India |author2=D.Muralidhara Rao |publisher=Daya Books |year=2002 |isbn=81-87498-49-8 |volume=1 |page=1 |chapter=Preface}}</ref> These mountains extend from West Bengal to [[Odisha]] through [[Andhra Pradesh]] to [[Tamil Nadu]] in the south passing some parts of [[Karnataka]] and in the [[Wayanad district|Wayanad region]] of Kerala. Parts of the [[coastal plain]]s, including the [[Coromandel Coast]] region, lie between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, some of its peaks are over {{convert|1000|m|ft||abbr=on}} in height.<ref name="manorama3" /> The [[Nilgiri mountains|Nilgiri]] hills in Tamil Nadu lies at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats. [[Arma Konda]] ({{convert|1690|m|abbr=on}}) in Andhra Pradesh is the tallest peak in Eastern Ghats.<ref name="Pletcher2013">{{cite book |author=Kenneth Pletcher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mjr0X-8jrLAC&pg=PA28 |title=The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places |date=2010 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-16-1530-142-3 |pages=28}}</ref> The Eastern Ghats are older than the Western Ghats, and have a complex geologic history related to the assembly and breakup of the ancient [[supercontinent]] of [[Rodinia]] and the assembly of the [[Gondwana]] supercontinent. The Eastern Ghats are made up of [[charnockite]]s, [[granite]] [[gneiss]], [[khondalite]]s, [[metamorphic]] [[gneiss]]es and [[quartzite]] rock formations. The structure of the Eastern Ghats includes [[Thrust fault|thrusts]] and [[strike-slip fault]]s<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sriramadas |first1=A. |date=November 1967 |title=Geology of Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2FBF03052185.pdf#page-1 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Section B |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=200–205 |doi=10.1007/BF03052185 |s2cid=126925893}}</ref> all along its range. [[Limestone]], [[bauxite]] and [[iron ore]] are found in the Eastern Ghats hill ranges.

===Indo-Gangetic plain===
[[Image:IndoGangeticPlain Map.png|thumb|right|Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia]]
[[File:Kalinagar Floods B.JPG|thumb|right|Many areas remain flooded during the heavy rains brought by [[monsoon]] in the Indian state of [[West Bengal]].]]
{{Main|Indo-Gangetic plain}}

The Indo-Gangetic<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vEy6tcU6eLU| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/vEy6tcU6eLU| archive-date=2021-12-11 | url-status=live|title=Geography Now! India|website=Youtube| date=19 July 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> plains, also known as the ''Great Plains'' are large [[alluvial plain]]s dominated by three main rivers, the [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Ganges River|Ganges]], and [[Brahmaputra]]. They run parallel to the Himalayas, from [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] in the west to [[Assam]] in the east, drain most of northern and eastern India and extend into Pakistan. The plains encompass an area of {{convert|700000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. The major rivers in this region are the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra along with their main tributaries—[[Yamuna River|Yamuna]], [[Chambal River|Chambal]], [[Gomti River|Gomti]], [[Ghaghara River|Ghaghara]], [[Kosi River|Kosi]], [[Sutlej River|Sutlej]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Beas River|Beas]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], and [[Tista River|Tista]]—as well as the rivers of the [[Ganges Delta]], such as the [[Meghna River|Meghna]].

The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions:
* The [[Bhabar]] belt is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by streams. As the [[porosity]] of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground. The Bhabar is generally narrow with its width varying between {{convert|6|and|15|km|abbr=on}}.
* The [[Tarai]] belt lies south of the adjacent Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. The underground streams reappear in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife.
* The '''Bangar''' belt consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains. In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits.
* The '''Khadar''' belt lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt. It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain.

The '''Indo-Gangetic belt''' is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted [[alluvium]] formed by the deposition of [[silt]] by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat making it conducive for [[irrigation]] through [[canal]]s. The area is also rich in [[ground water]] sources. The plains are one of the world's most [[intensive farming|intensely farmed]] areas. The main crops grown are [[rice]] and [[wheat]], which are grown in [[Crop rotation|rotation]]. Other important crops grown in the region include [[maize]], [[sugarcane]] and [[cotton]]. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas.

===Thar Desert===
[[File:Thar desert Rajasthan India.jpg|thumb|Thar desert, [[Rajasthan]]]]
{{Main|Thar Desert}}

The Thar Desert (also known as ''the deserts'') is by some calculations the world's seventh largest desert, by some others the tenth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://geology.com/records/largest-desert.shtml|title=The World's Largest Desert|publisher=geology.com|access-date=14 May 2011|archive-date=17 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070817025305/http://geology.com/records/largest-desert.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> It forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of {{convert|200000|to|238700|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/590028/Thar-Desert|title=Thar Desert|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=14 May 2011|archive-date=2 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110502033249/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/590028/Thar-Desert|url-status=live}}</ref> The desert continues into Pakistan as the [[Cholistan Desert]]. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in [[Rajasthan]], covering 61% of its geographic area.

About 10 percent of this region consists of sand dunes, and the remaining 90 percent consist of craggy rock forms, compacted salt-lake bottoms, and interdunal and fixed dune areas. Annual temperatures can range from {{convert|0|C}} in the winter to over {{convert|50|C}} during the summer. Most of the rainfall received in this region is associated with the short July–September southwest monsoon that brings {{convert|100|to|500|mm|abbr=on}} of precipitation. Water is scarce and occurs at great depths, ranging from {{convert|30|to|120|m}} below the ground level.<ref name="KAUL">{{cite book|title=Afforestation in Arid zones|author=Kaul, R.N.|publisher=N.V. Publishers, [[The Hague]]|year=1970}}</ref> Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below {{convert|120|mm|in|abbr=on}} in the extreme west to {{convert|375|mm|in|abbr=on}} eastward. The only river in this region is Luni. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary as per the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier may have a hard pan of clay, [[calcium carbonate]] or [[gypsum]].

In western India, the Kutch region in Gujarat and Koyna in Maharashtra are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk) for earthquakes. The Kutch city of [[Bhuj]] was the [[epicentre]] of the [[2001 Gujarat earthquake]], which claimed the lives of more than 1,337 people and injured 166,836 while destroying or damaging near a million homes.<ref name="USGS">{{cite web
|title=Preliminary Earthquake Report
|publisher=USGS Earthquake Hazards Program
|url=https://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2001/eq_010126/
|access-date=21 November 2007
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071120094220/http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2001/eq_010126/
|archive-date=20 November 2007
}}</ref> The [[1993 Latur earthquake]] in Maharashtra killed 7,928 people and injured 30,000.<ref name="IIRS">{{cite thesis | title= Earthquake Risk Assessment of Buildings: Applicability of HAZUS in Dehradun, India | url= https://www.iirs.gov.in/iirs/sites/default/files/StudentThesis/brijesh_thesis2005.pdf | author= Brijesh Gulati | date= January 2006 | type= MS thesis | publisher= International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation | access-date= 17 March 2023 | archive-date= 24 May 2022 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220524165339/https://www.iirs.gov.in/iirs/sites/default/files/StudentThesis/brijesh_thesis2005.pdf | url-status= live }}</ref> Other areas have a moderate to low risk of an earthquake occurring.<ref>{{cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 (India – The Country)|page = 519}}</ref>

===Coastal plains ===
[[File:(Bay of Bengal) Beach View from Tenneti Park 07.JPG|thumb|right|[[Visakhapatnam]] beach view, Bay of Bengal, [[Andhra Pradesh]].]]
[[Image:Varkala beach.JPG|thumb|right|[[Varkala]] beach on [[Kerala]]'s coast, [[Arabian Sea]]]]{{Main|Coastal India}}
The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the [[Eastern Ghats]] and the oceanic boundary of India. It stretches from [[Tamil Nadu]] in the south to [[West Bengal]] in the east. The [[Mahanadi river|Mahanadi]], Godavari, Kaveri, and [[Krishna River|Krishna]] rivers drain these plains. The temperature in the coastal regions often exceeds {{convert|30|°C|°F}}, and is coupled with high levels of [[humidity]]. The region receives both the [[Monsoon#Northeast monsoon|northeast monsoon]] and [[Southwest monsoon#Southwest monsoon|southwest monsoon]] rains. The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. The Bay of Bengal branch moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea branch moves northwards and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Annual rainfall in this region averages between {{convert|1000|and|3000|mm|in|abbr=on}}. The width of the plains varies between {{convert|100|and|130|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="RWH">{{cite web|title=The Eastern Coastal Plain|url=http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/eco/ecp.htm|publisher=Rainwaterharvesting.org|access-date=19 November 2008|archive-date=16 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216102319/http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/eco/ecp.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The plains are divided into six regions—the Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna-Godavari deltas, the [[Kanyakumari]] coast, the [[Coromandel Coast]], and sandy coastal.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}

The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the [[Western Ghats]] and the Arabian Sea, ranging from {{convert|50|to|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} in width. It extends from Gujarat in the north and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. Numerous rivers and backwaters inundate the region. Mostly originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers are fast-flowing, usually perennial, and empty into [[estuary|estuaries]]. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapti, Narmada, [[Mandovi]] and [[Zuari]]. Vegetation is mostly deciduous, but the [[Malabar Coast moist forests]] constitute a unique ecoregion. The Western Coastal Plain can be divided into two parts, the [[Konkan]] and the [[Malabar Coast]].

=== Islands ===
[[Image:Andaman.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the Andaman Islands]]
{{See also|List of islands of India}}
The [[Lakshadweep]] and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] are India's two major island formations and are classified as [[Union Territory|union territories]].

The '''Lakshadweep''' Islands lie {{convert|200|to|440|km|mi|abbr=on}} off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian sea with an area of {{convert|32|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. They consist of twelve atolls, three reefs, and five submerged banks, with a total of about 35 islands and islets.

The '''Andaman and Nicobar''' Islands are located between 6° and 14° north latitude and 92° and 94° east longitude.<ref name="ani1">{{cite web|title=National Portal of India: Know India: State of UTs |url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/ut_andaman.php |publisher=Government of India |access-date=19 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619045535/http://www.india.gov.in/knowindia/ut_andaman.php |archive-date=19 June 2010 }}</ref> They consist of 572 islands, lying in the Bay of Bengal near the [[Myanmar]] coast running in a north–south axis for approximately 910 km. They are located {{convert|1255|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Kolkata]] (Calcutta) and {{convert|193|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Cape Negrais]] in Burma.<ref name="ani1" /> The territory consists of two island groups, the [[Andaman Islands]] and the [[Nicobar Islands]]. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands consist of 572 islands which run in a north–south axis for around 910 km. The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of {{convert|6,170|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} while the Nicobar group has only 247 islands with an area of {{convert|1,765|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. India's only active volcano, [[Barren Island (Andaman Islands)|Barren Island]] is situated here. It last erupted in 2017. The [[Narcondum]] is a [[dormant volcano]] and there is a [[mud volcano]] at [[Baratang]]. [[Indira Point]], India's southernmost land point, is situated in the Nicobar islands at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E, and lies just {{convert|189|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Indonesian island of [[Sumatra]], to the southeast. The highest point is [[Mount Thullier]] at {{convert|642|m|ft|abbr=on}}.

Other significant islands in India include [[Diu, India|Diu]], a former [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colony; [[Majuli]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Majuli|first1=River Island|title=Largest river island|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/largest-river-island-|website=Guinness World Records|access-date=6 September 2016|archive-date=28 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128092620/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/largest-river-island-|url-status=live}}</ref> a river island of the Brahmaputra; [[Elephanta Island|Elephanta]] in [[Bombay Harbour]]; and [[Sriharikota]], a [[barrier island]] in Andhra Pradesh. [[Salsette Island]] is India's most populous island on which the city of [[Mumbai]] (Bombay) is located. Forty-two islands in the Gulf of Kutch constitute the [[Marine National Park, Gulf of Kutch|Marine National Park]].

==Natural resources==
{{main|Natural resources of India}}

[[Image:Bhagirathi River at Gangotri.JPG|thumb|[[Bhagirathi River]] at [[Gangotri]], source river of the [[Ganges]]]]Major resource-based industries of India are [[Fishery|fisheries]], agriculture, mining, and [[petroleum product]]s . [[India]] has the 18th-largest [[exclusive economic zone]] (EEZ) in the world with a total size of 2,305,143 km2 (890,021 sq mi). It includes the [[Lakshadweep]] island group in the [[Laccadive Sea]] off the southwestern coast of India and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] in the [[Bay of Bengal]] and the [[Andaman Sea]].

===Ecological resources ===
[[India]] was ranked seventh among the list of countries most affected by [[climate change]] in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Eckstein |first1=David |last2=Künzel |first2=Vera |last3=Schäfer |first3=Laura |date=January 2021 |title=Global Climate Risk Index 2021 |url=https://www.germanwatch.org/sites/default/files/Global%20Climate%20Risk%20Index%202021_2.pdf |website=GermanWatch.org}}</ref> Temperature rises on the [[Tibetan Plateau]] are causing [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|Himalayan glaciers to retreat]], threatening the flow rate of the [[Ganges]], [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Yamuna]] and other major rivers. A 2007 [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF) report states that the [[Indus River]] may run dry for the same reason.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |last= |date=1 Feb 2007 |title=How climate change hits India's poor |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6319921.stm |access-date=10 June 2021 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> Severe landslides and floods are projected to become increasingly common in such states as [[Assam]].<ref name=":4">{{cite news |date=3 February 2007 |title=Warmer Tibet can see Brahmaputra flood Assam {{!}} India News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/warmer-tibet-can-see-brahmaputra-flood-assam/articleshow/1556649.cms |access-date=2021-03-11 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> Temperatures in India have risen by {{convert|0.7|C-change|1|abbr=on}} between 1901 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sharma |first=Vibha |date=15 June 2020 |title=Average temperature over India projected to rise by 4.4 degrees Celsius: Govt report on impact of climate change in country |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/average-temperature-over-india-projected-to-rise-by-4-4-degrees-celsius-govt-report-on-impact-of-climate-change-in-country-99583 |access-date=30 November 2020 |website=[[Tribune India]]}}</ref> According to some current projections, the number and severity of [[Drought in India|droughts in India]] will have markedly increased by the end of the present century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gupta |first1=Vivek |last2=Jain |first2=Manoj Kumar |date=2018 |title=Investigation of multi-model spatiotemporal mesoscale drought projections over India under climate change scenario |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002216941830773X |journal=[[Journal of Hydrology]] |volume=567 |pages=489–509 |bibcode=2018JHyd..567..489G |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.10.012 |issn=0022-1694 |s2cid=135053362|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ecological disasters, such as a 1998 [[coral bleaching]] event that killed off more than 70% of corals in the reef ecosystems off [[Lakshadweep]] and the [[Andaman Islands|Andamans]] and was brought on by elevated ocean temperatures tied to global warming, are also projected to become increasingly common.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Normile |first=D. |date=2000-05-12 |title=GLOBAL WARMING:Some Coral Bouncing Back From El Niño |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.288.5468.941a |journal=Science |volume=288 |issue=5468 |pages=941a–942 |doi=10.1126/science.288.5468.941a |pmid=10841705 |s2cid=128503395|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>Aggarwal, D., Lal, M. Vulnerability of the Indian Coastline to Sea Level Rise (SURVAS Flood Hazard Research Centre)</ref>

====Water bodies====
{{Main|Rivers of India}}
[[File:Teestavalley.jpg|thumb|[[National highways of India|National Highway]] [[List of National Highways in India|31A]] winds along the banks of the [[Teesta River]] near [[Kalimpong]] ([[West Bengal]]), in the [[Darjeeling]] Himalayan hill region.]]
India has around 14,500 km of inland navigable waterways.<ref name="IWAI">{{cite web |title=Introduction to Inland Water Transport |url=http://iwai.gov.in/introduction.htm |publisher=Government of India |access-date=19 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120709231653/http://iwai.gov.in/introduction.htm |archive-date=9 July 2012}}</ref> There are twelve rivers which are classified as major rivers, with the total catchment area exceeding {{convert|2528000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="manorama3" /> All major rivers of India [[Source (river or stream)|originate]] from one of the three main [[water divide|watersheds]]:<ref name="manorama3" />
* The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges
* Vindhya and Satpura range in central India
* Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India

The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a perennial supply throughout the year. The other two river systems are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season. The Himalayan rivers that flow westward into [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] are the [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Beas River|Beas]], and [[Sutlej]].<ref name="manorama4" />

The [[Ganges]]-[[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]]-[[Meghna River|Meghana]] system has the largest catchment area of about {{convert|1600000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Elhance1999">{{cite book|last=Elhance|first=Arun P.|title=Hydropolitics in the Third World: conflict and cooperation in international river basins|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uB0ZSZjTECsC&pg=PA156|year=1999|publisher=US Institute of Peace Press|isbn=978-1-878379-91-7|pages=156–158}}</ref> The [[Ganges Basin]] alone has a catchment of about {{convert|1100000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="manorama3" /> The Ganges originates from the [[Gangotri Glacier]] in Uttarakhand.<ref name="manorama4" /> It flows southeast, draining into the Bay of Bengal.<ref name="manorama3" /> (The [[Yamuna]] and [[Gomti]] rivers also arise in the western Himalayas and join the Ganges in the plains.<ref name="manorama3" /> The Brahmaputra originates in [[Tibet]], [[China]], where it is known as the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River]]) (or "Tsangpo"). It enters India in the far-eastern state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]], then flows west through [[Assam]]. The Brahmaputra merges with the Ganges in Bangladesh, where it is known as the [[Jamuna River (Bangladesh)|Jamuna River]].<ref name="manorama3" /><ref name="britannica">[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77154/Brahmaputra-River/48053/Physical-features Brahmaputra River] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125101600/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77154/Brahmaputra-River/48053/Physical-features |date=25 January 2012 }}, Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>

The [[Chambal River|Chambal]], another tributary of the Ganges, via the Yamuna, originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward-flowing rivers from this watershed are the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] and [[Tapti River|Tapi]], which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total outflow.{{clarify|date=May 2011|reason=10% of the what total outflow? paragraph also a bit confusing—easy to read it as saying the Narmada and Tapi are tributaries of the Chambal.}}

[[File:Papikondalu view 04.jpg|thumb|The [[Godavari River]] at [[Papi Hills]]]]
(The Western Ghats are the source of all Deccan rivers, which include the through [[Godavari River]], [[Krishna River]] and [[Kaveri River]], all draining into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers constitute 20% of India's total outflow).<ref name="manorama4">{{cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 ''(India – The Country)''| pages =518}}</ref>

The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, such floods have killed thousands of people and tend to cause displacements of people in such areas.

Major gulfs include the [[Gulf of Cambay]], [[Gulf of Kutch]], and the [[Gulf of Mannar]]. Straits include the [[Palk Strait]], which separates India from Sri Lanka; the [[Ten Degree Channel]], which separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands; and the Eight Degree Channel, which separates the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from the Minicoy Island to the south. Important capes include the [[Kanyakumari]] (formerly called Cape Comorin), the southern tip of mainland India; [[Indira Point]], the southernmost point in India (on [[Great Nicobar]] Island); [[Rama's Bridge]], and [[Point Calimere]]. The Arabian Sea lies to the west of India, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean lie to the east and south, respectively. Smaller seas include the [[Laccadive Sea]] and the [[Andaman Sea]]. There are four [[coral reef]]s in India, located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, and the Gulf of Kutch.<ref name="manorama5" /> Important lakes include [[Sambhar Lake]], the country's largest saltwater lake in Rajasthan, [[Vembanad Lake]] in Kerala, [[Kolleru Lake]] in Andhra Pradesh, [[Loktak Lake]] in [[Manipur]], [[Dal Lake]] in Kashmir, [[Chilka Lake]] (lagoon lake) in Odisha, and [[Sasthamkotta Lake]] in Kerala.

==== Wetlands ====
[[Image:Sunderbans map.png|thumb|A map of the Indian [[Sunderbans]] in [[West Bengal]]]]
[[File:Pichavaram Mangrove.jpg|thumb|[[Pichavaram]] Mangroves, [[Tamil Nadu]]]]
India's [[wetland]] ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid located in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, and those with the wet and humid climate of peninsular India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to river networks. The Indian government has identified a total of 71 wetlands for conservation and are part of sanctuaries and national parks.<ref name="yearbook1">[[#Yearbook|India Yearbook]], p. 306</ref> Mangrove forests are present all along the Indian coastline in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. The mangrove area covers a total of {{convert|4461|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}},<ref name="yearbook2">[[#Yearbook|India Yearbook]], p. 309</ref> which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover. Prominent mangrove covers are located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the [[Sundarbans]] delta, the [[Gulf of Kutch]] and the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers. Parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala also have large mangrove covers.<ref name="manorama5">{{cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 ''(India – Environment)''|pages =580}}</ref>

The [[Sundarbans]] delta is home to the largest mangrove forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and spreads across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal. The Sundarbans is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], but is identified separately as the Sundarbans (Bangladesh) and the [[Sundarbans National Park]] (India). The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The area is known for its diverse fauna, being home to a large variety of species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. Its most famous inhabitant is the [[Bengal tiger]]. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.

The [[Rann of Kutch]] is a marshy region located in northwestern Gujarat and the bordering [[Sindh]] province of Pakistan. It occupies a total area of {{convert|27900|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="NG">{{NatGeo ecoregion|name=Rann of Kutch|id=im0901|access-date=19 November 2008}}</ref> The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces such as earthquakes resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large saltwater lagoon. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the monsoons, the area turn into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched.

==== Arable land ====
India's arable land area of 1,597,000 km2 (394.6 million acres) is the second largest in the world, after the United States. Its gross irrigated crop area of 826,000 km2 (215.6 million acres) is the largest in the world, followed by US and China.<ref>{{cite web |title=India outranks US, China with world's highest net cropland area |url=http://www.indiawaterreview.in/Story/Features/india-outranks-us-china-with-worlds-highest-net-cropland-area/2096/2#.W_A_iOgzZPY |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118011104/http://www.indiawaterreview.in/Story/Features/india-outranks-us-china-with-worlds-highest-net-cropland-area/2096/2#.W_A_iOgzZPY |archive-date=18 November 2018 |access-date=17 November 2018}}</ref> Of the 160 million hectares of cultivated land in India, about 39 million hectare can be irrigated by groundwater wells and an additional 22 million hectares by irrigation canals.<ref>[http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/irrigationmap/ind/IND-gmia.pdf Global map of irrigated areas: India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023195405/http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/irrigationmap/ind/IND-gmia.pdf |date=23 October 2020 }} FAO-United Nations and Bonn University, Germany (2013)</ref> In 2010, only about 35% of agricultural land in India was reliably irrigated.<ref name="wbirrig">[http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.IRIG.AG.ZS/countries Agricultural irrigated land (% of total agricultural land)] The World Bank (2013)</ref> About 2/3rd cultivated land in India is dependent on [[Monsoon of South Asia|monsoons]].<ref>[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/opinion/special-report/how-to-solve-the-problems-of-indias-rain-dependent-agricultural-land/articleshow/8845170.cms Economic Times: ''How to solve the problems of India's rain-dependent agricultural land'']</ref>

===Economic resources ===

==== Minerals and ores ====
[[Image:Coal mine in Dhanbad, India.jpg|thumb|Coal mine in [[Jharkhand]].]]
India is the world's biggest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings.<ref name="MINES">{{cite web |title=India's Contribution to the World's Mineral Production |url=http://mines.nic.in/imsene.html#INDIA’S%20CONTRIBUTION%20TO%20THE%20WORLD’S%20MINERAL%20PRODUCTION |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216005817/http://mines.nic.in/imsene.html#INDIA’S%20CONTRIBUTION%20TO%20THE%20WORLD’S%20MINERAL%20PRODUCTION |archive-date=16 December 2008 |access-date=20 November 2008 |publisher=Ministry of Mines, Government of India}}</ref> India ranks second amongst the world's largest producers of barite and chromite.<ref name="MINES" /> The Pleistocene system is rich in minerals. India is the third-largest coal producer in the world and ranks fourth in the production of [[iron ore]].<ref name="EE2" /><ref name="MINES" /> It is the fifth-largest producer of bauxite, second largest of crude steel as of February 2018 replacing Japan, the seventh-largest of [[manganese ore]] and the eighth-largest of aluminium.<ref name="MINES" /> India has significant sources of titanium ore, diamonds and limestone.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |title=India |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318202107/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india |archive-date=18 March 2021 |access-date=16 June 2007 |work=CIA Factbook}}</ref> India possesses 24% of the world's known and economically viable [[thorium]], which is mined along shores of Kerala.<ref name="WNA">{{cite web |title=Information and Issue Briefs – Thorium |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf62.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107083059/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf62.htm |archive-date=7 November 2006 |access-date=1 June 2006 |publisher=[[World Nuclear Association]]}}</ref> Gold had been mined in the now-defunct [[Kolar Gold Fields]] in Karnataka.<ref name="Rediff">{{cite web |title=Death of the Kolar Gold Fields |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2000/may/08gita.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210131307/http://www.rediff.com/news/2000/may/08gita.htm |archive-date=10 December 2008 |access-date=21 November 2008 |work=Rediff.com}}</ref>

==== Renewable water ====
India's total renewable water resources are estimated at 1,907.8 km3 a year.<ref name="EE">{{cite web|title=Water profile of India|url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Water_profile_of_India#Water_Resources|publisher=[[Encyclopedia of Earth]]|access-date=20 November 2008|archive-date=8 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108101729/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Water_profile_of_India#Water_Resources|url-status=live}}</ref> Its annual supply of usable and replenishable groundwater amounts to 350 billion cubic metres.<ref name="OT">{{cite journal|title=India's Underground Water Resources|author=Jain, J.K. |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|pages=507–22|date=May 1977|volume=278|issue=962|doi=10.1098/rstb.1977.0058|last2=Farmer|first2=B. H.|last3=Rush|first3=H.|last4=West|first4=H. W.|last5=Allan|first5=J. A.|last6=Dasgupta|first6=B.|last7=Boon|first7=W. H.|bibcode=1977RSPTB.278..507J |doi-access=free}}</ref> Only 35% of groundwater resources are being utilised.<ref name="OT" /> About 44 million tonnes of cargo is moved annually through the country's major rivers and waterways.<ref name="IWAI" /> Groundwater supplies 40% of water in India's irrigation canals. 56% of the land is arable and used for agriculture. Black soils are moisture-retentive and are preferred for dry farming and growing cotton, linseed, etc. Forest soils are used for tea and coffee plantations. Red soils have a wide diffusion of iron content.<ref name="krishi" />

====Energy====
Most of India's estimated {{convert|5.4|Goilbbl|m3}} in oil reserves are located in the [[Mumbai High Field|Mumbai High]], [[Upper Assam division|upper Assam]], [[Cambay Shale Formation|Cambay]], the [[Krishna Godavari Basin|Krishna-Godavari]] and [[Kaveri|Cauvery]] basins.<ref name="EE2">{{cite web|title=Energy profile of India|url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Energy_profile_of_India|publisher=Encyclopedia of Earth|access-date=20 November 2008|archive-date=8 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208163826/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Energy_profile_of_India|url-status=live}}</ref> India possesses about seventeen trillion cubic feet of [[natural gas]] in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha.<ref name="EE2" /> [[Uranium]] is mined in Andhra Pradesh. India has 400 medium-to-high enthalpy [[thermal spring]]s for producing [[geothermal energy]] in seven areas—the Himalayas, Sohana, Cambay, the Narmada-Tapti delta, the Godavari delta and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (specifically the volcanic [[Barren Island, Andaman Islands|Barren Island]].)<ref name="IIT">{{cite web|title=Geothermal Energy Resources of India |url=http://www.geos.iitb.ac.in/geothermalindia/pubs/IBC/IBCTALKweb.htm |author=Chandrasekharam, D. |publisher=[[Indian Institute of Technology Bombay]] |access-date=2 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217033017/http://www.geos.iitb.ac.in/geothermalindia/pubs/IBC/IBCTALKweb.htm |archive-date=17 December 2008}}</ref>

== Climate ==
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map IND present.svg|thumb|370x370px|India's [[Köppen climate classification]] map<ref name="Peel">{{cite journal | author=Peel, M. C. and Finlayson, B. L. and McMahon, T. A. | year=2007 | title= Updated world map of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification | journal=Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. | volume=11 | issue=5 | pages=1633–1644 |doi=10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007 | bibcode=2007HESS...11.1633P | url=http://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1633/2007/hess-11-1633-2007.html | issn = 1027-5606| doi-access=free }} ''(direct: [http://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1633/2007/hess-11-1633-2007.pdf Final Revised Paper])''</ref> is based on temperature, precipitation and their seasonality.]]
{{Main|Climate of India|Climatic regions of India}}

Based on the [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen system]], India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west, [[alpine tundra]] and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. The nation has four seasons: winter (January–February), summer (March–May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June–September) and a post-monsoon period (October–December).<ref name="manorama4" />

The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid [[katabatic wind]]s flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, northern India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Although the [[Tropic of Cancer]]—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical.<ref>{{cite book|title=Climate Change: Myths and Realities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_GMTXRtxJ8C&pg=PA65|publisher=Jeevananda Reddy|page=65|id=GGKEY:WDFHBL1XHK3}}</ref>

Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures can exceed {{convert|40|°C|°F}} during the day. The coastal regions exceed {{convert|30|°C|°F}} coupled with high levels of [[humidity]]. In the Thar desert area temperatures can exceed {{convert|45|°C|°F}}. The rain-bearing [[monsoon]] clouds are attracted to the low-pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea arm moves northwards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is plagued by fog during this season. The highest temperature recorded in India was {{convert|51|°C|°F|abbr=on}} in Phalodi, Rajasthan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asiapacific/india-sets-new-heat/2802184.html|title=India sets new heat record as temperatures soar|website=Channel NewsAsia|access-date=2016-05-20|archive-date=21 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521162220/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asiapacific/india-sets-new-heat/2802184.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> And the lowest was {{convert|-60|°C|°F|abbr=on}} in Dras, Jammu and Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Binayak|first=Poonam|title=Dras: The World's Second Coldest Inhabited Place|url=https://theculturetrip.com/asia/india/articles/dras-the-worlds-second-coldest-inhabited-place/|access-date=2020-11-23|website=Culture Trip|date=30 August 2017|archive-date=18 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118072154/https://theculturetrip.com/asia/india/articles/dras-the-worlds-second-coldest-inhabited-place/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Geology ==
{{Main|Geology of India}}

[[File:Detrital rocks of Tirumala Hills Ghatroad Tirupati.JPG|thumb|[[Eparchaean Unconformity]] of Detrital rocks of Tirumala Hills, [[Eastern Ghats]]]]
India's geological features are classified based on their era of formation.<ref name="manorama6" /> The [[Precambrian]] formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this period is spread over western and central India.<ref name="manorama6" /> The [[Paleozoic]] formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.<ref name="manorama6" /> The [[Mesozoic]] [[Deccan Traps]] formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan; they are believed to be the result of [[subaerial|sub-aerial]] volcanic activity.<ref name="manorama6" /> The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture. The Carboniferous system, Permian System and Triassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas. The Jurassic system is seen in the western Himalayas and Rajasthan.
[[Image:India-geology-map.png|thumb|Geological regions of India]]
[[Tertiary (period)|Tertiary]] imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt. The Cretaceous system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the Indo-Gangetic plains.<ref name="manorama6" /> The Gondwana system is seen in the Narmada River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is seen in the western Himalayas and Assam. Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and Assam.<ref name="manorama6" /> The [[Pleistocene]] system is found over central India. The Andaman and Nicobar Island are thought to have been formed in this era by volcanoes.<ref name="manorama6">{{cite book | title = Manorama Yearbook 2006 ''(India – Geology)'' |pages =521}}</ref> The Himalayas were formed by the convergence and deformation of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued convergence raises the height of the Himalayas by one centimetre each year.

Soils in India can be classified into eight categories: alluvial, black, red, laterite, forest, arid and desert, saline and alkaline and peaty and organic soils.<ref name="IA">{{cite web|title=India Agronet – Soil Management|url=http://www.indiaagronet.com/indiaagronet/soil_management/Soil_mgmt.htm|publisher=Indiagronet.com|access-date=18 July 2007|archive-date=25 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070625143107/http://www.indiaagronet.com/indiaagronet/soil_management/Soil_mgmt.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="fao">{{cite web|title=Fertilizer use by crop in India|work=U.S. Food and Agriculture Organization|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0257e/A0257E02.htm|access-date=2 August 2007|archive-date=5 November 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105080712/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0257e/A0257E02.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Alluvial soil constitute the largest soil group in India, constituting 80% of the total land surface.<ref name="fao" /> It is derived from the deposition of silt carried by rivers and are found in the Great Northern plains from Punjab to the Assam valley.<ref name="fao" /> Alluvial soil are generally fertile but they lack nitrogen and tend to be phosphoric.<ref name="fao" /> [[National Disaster Management Authority (India)|National Disaster Management Authority]] says that 60% of Indian landmass is prone to [[earthquake]]s and 8% susceptible to cyclone risks.

Black soil are well developed in the Deccan lava region of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.<ref name="krishi">{{cite web|title=Krishi World website |url=http://www.krishiworld.com/html/soils10.html |publisher=Krishiworld.com |access-date=18 July 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609175008/http://www.krishiworld.com/html/soils10.html |archive-date= 9 June 2007}}</ref> These contain high percentage of clay and are moisture retentive.<ref name="fao" /> Red soils are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka plateau, Andhra plateau, Chota Nagpur plateau and the Aravallis.<ref name="krishi" /> These are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus.<ref name="fao" /><ref name="krishi" /> Laterite soils are formed in tropical regions with heavy rainfall. Heavy rainfall results in leaching out all soluble material of top layer of soil. These are generally found in Western ghats, Eastern ghats and hilly areas of northeastern states that receive heavy rainfall. Forest soils occur on the slopes of mountains and hills in Himalayas, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. These generally consist of large amounts of dead leaves and other organic matter called [[humus]].

===Cratons===
[[File:India topo big.jpg|thumb|Topography of India]]
{{anchor | Craton | Cratons of India | Indian Craton | Indian Shield}}
[[File:Malani Igneous Suite Jodhpur near Mehrangarh Fort.jpg|thumb| Malani Igneous Suite, largest in India and third largest igneous suite in the world, at Jodhpur near [[Mehrangarh Fort]].]]

[[Craton]]s are a specific kind of [[continental crust]] made up of a top layer called [[Platform (geology)|platform]] and an older layer called [[Basement (geology)|basement]]. A [[Shield (geology)|shield]] is the part of a craton where basement rock crops out of the ground, and it is relatively the older and more stable section, unaffected by [[plate tectonics]].<ref name="cratonm2">[https://www.slideshare.net/pramodgpramod/cratons-of-india Cratons of India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912162139/https://www.slideshare.net/pramodgpramod/cratons-of-india|date=12 September 2021}}.</ref><ref name="cratonm1">[http://mem.lyellcollection.org/content/43/1/151 Cratons of India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116100217/http://mem.lyellcollection.org/content/43/1/151|date=16 January 2019}}, lyellcollection.org.</ref>

The Indian Craton can be divided into five major cratons as such:
* Aravalli Craton (Marwar-Mewar Craton or Western Indian Craton): Covers [[Rajasthan]] as well as [[Tosham Hill range|western]] and [[South Haryana|southern]] [[Haryana]]. It comprises Mewar Craton in the east and Marwar Craton in the west. It is limited by the ''Great Boundary Fault'' in the east, sandy Thar Desert in the [[Thar desert]] in the west, Indo-ganetic alluvium in the north, [[Son River|Son]]-[[Narmada River|Narmada]]-[[Tapti River|Tapti]] in the south. It mainly has [[quartzite]], [[marble]], [[pelite]], [[greywacke]] and extinct volcanos exposed in [[Aravalli-Delhi Orogen]]. [[Jodhpur Group – Malani Igneous Suite Contact|Malani Igneous Suite]] is the largest in India and third largest [[Igneous rock|igneous]] suite in the world.
* Bundelkand Craton, covers 26,00 km2 in the [[Bundelkhand]] region of [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]] and forms the basis of the Malwa Plateau. It is limited by the [[Aravalli Range|Aravalli]] in the west, Narmada river and Satpura range in the south, and Indo-Gantetic alluvium in the north. It is similar to the Aravali Craton, which used to be a single craton before being divided into two with the evolution of [[Hindoli]] and [[Mahakoshal]] belts at the margins of two cratons.
* [[Dharwar craton|Dharwar Craton]] (Karnataka Craton), 3.4 - 2.6 Ga, [[granite]]-[[Greenstone belt|greenstone]] terrain covers the state of [[Karnataka]] and parts of eastern and southern [[Maharashtra]] state, and forms the basis of the southern end of the Deccan Plateau. In 1886 it was divided into two tectonic blocks, namely Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) and Western Dharwar Craton (WDC).
* Singhbhum Craton, 4,000 km2 area which primarily covers [[Jharkhand]] as well as parts of [[Odisha]], northern [[Andhra Pradesh]], northern [[Telangana]] and eastern Maharashtra. It is limited by the Chhota Nagpur Plateau to the north, Eastern Ghats to the southeast, Bastar Craton to southwest and alluvium plain to the east.
* Bastar Craton (Bastar-Bhandara Craton), primarily covers [[Chhattisgarh]] and forms the basis of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau. It is a remnant of 3.4-3.0 Ga old [[Tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite|TTG]] [[gneiss]]es of five types. It is subdivided into Kotri-Dongagarh [[Orogeny|Orogen]] and the Rest of Bastar Craton. It is limited by three [[rift]]s, [[Godavari]] rift in southwest, [[Narmada]] rift in northwest and [[Mahanadi]] rift in northeast.

==See also ==
{{portal | India }}

* [[Geology of India]]
* [[Borders of India]]
* [[Climate change in India]]
* [[List of disputed territories of India|Disputed territories of India]]
* [[List of extreme points of India]]
* [[Exclusive economic zone of India]]
* [[List of disputed territories of India]]
* [[Outline of India]]
* [[:Category:Lists of villages in India|Category:Lists of villages in India]]

{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |ref=Yearbook|title=India Yearbook 2007 |publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. Of India | isbn = 978-81-230-1423-4 |year=2007 }}

==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Geography of India}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Singh |first1=R.L. |year=1971 |title=India A Regional Geography |publisher=National Geographical Society of India |isbn=978-8185273181 |url=https://www.indianculture.gov.in/india-regional-geography |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-date=9 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109181953/https://www.indianculture.gov.in/india-regional-geography |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Nag |given1=Prithvish |last2=Sengupta |given2=Smita |year=1992 |title= Geography of India |publisher=Concept Publishing Co |isbn=978-8170223849 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Spate |given1=O.H.K.|last2=Learmonth |given2=A.T.A.|year=1967 |title=India and Pakistan: A General and Regional Geography |publisher=Methuen Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1138290723 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Pal |given1=Saroj K. |year=1998 |title=Physical Geography of India: A Study in Regional Earth Sciences |publisher=Sangam Books Ltd |isbn=978-0863117510 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Kale |given1=Vishwas S. |year=2014 |title=Landscapes and Landforms of India (World Geomorphological Landscapes) |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9402400298 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Sanyal |given1=Sanjeev |year=2015 |title=The Incredible History of India's Geography |publisher=Penguin Books Ltd |isbn=978-0143333661 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Balfour |given1=E |title= Encyclopaedia Asiatica: Comprising Indian Subcontinent, Eastern and Southern Asia |year=1976 |publisher=Cosmo Publications |isbn=81-7020-325-2 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Allaby |first1=M |title=Floods |year=1998 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=0-8160-3520-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/floods00alla }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Nash |first1=JM |year=2002 |title=El Niño: Unlocking the Secrets of the Master Weather Maker |publisher=Warner |isbn=0-446-52481-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/elniounlocking00nash }}
* {{cite web |title=Land and Natural Resources |work=Terrain |url=http://library.thinkquest.org/28853/terrain.htm |access-date=6 June 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222060614/http://library.thinkquest.org/28853/terrain.htm |archive-date=22 February 2006 }}
{{refend}}

{{Geography of India by state or territory}}
{{Geography of India}}
{{India topics}}

{{GeoSouthAsia}}
{{Geography of Asia}}

[[Category:Geography of India| ]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

[[de:Indien#Geographie und Landesnatur]]

Faridkot, India

2026-03-08T04:13:18Z

SAWANTRAJ:

{{Other uses|Faridkot (disambiguation){{!}}Faridkot}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Faridkot
| native_name = {{lang|pa|Farīdkōṭ}} ([[Punjabi language|Punjabi]])
| native_name_lang = pa
| other_name =
| settlement_type = [[City]]
| image_skyline = {{photomontage
| photo1a = Its pic of Govt.Brijindra College Faridkot.jpg
| photo2a = House in Faridkot.jpg
| photo2b = Investiture Gate, Faridkot.jpg
| photo3a = Military station, Faridkot.jpg
| border = 0
| size = 260
| color = transparent
}}
| image_alt = Photo of main building of Government Brijindra College, Faridkot
| image_caption = Clockwise from top: Government Brijindra College in Faridkot, House in faridkot, Investiture Gate, Military Station
| nickname =
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 13
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Punjab#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|30.67|74.76|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Faridkot district|Faridkot]]
| established_title = 
| established_date = 13th Century
| founder = Raja Mokalsi
| government_type = [[Municipal Council]]
| governing_body =
| leader_title = [[Deputy Commissioner]]
| leader_name = ''' Vineet Kumar, IAS '''
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 18.14
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 196
| population_total = 87,695
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = 4842
| population_demonym = Faridkotian
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 151203
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = +91-1639
| registration_plate = PB-04
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 1000/890 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = Literacy
| blank2_info_sec1 = 72%
| website = {{URL|www.faridkot.nic.in}}
}}
[[File:Mural depicting Baba Farid, dated to 1295 by G. B. Singh.jpg|thumb|Mural depicting Baba Farid, dated to 1295 by G. B. Singh]]
'''Faridkot''' is a city in the south-western part of the state of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[India]]. It serves as the headquarters for both the [[Faridkot district]] and the Faridkot Division. The division was established in 1995 at Faridkot which includes Faridkot, [[Bathinda]], and [[Mansa district, Punjab|Mansa]] district.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Pletcher |first=Kenneth |last2=Goldberg |first2=Maren |date=2 July 2015 |title=Faridkot |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Faridkot |access-date=24 December 2025 |website=Brittanica}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The city is named in the honor of [[Baba Farid]], a revered 13th century [[Sufi]] saint [[Shrine of Baba Farid|whose shrine]] is located in [[Pakpattan]], [[Pakistan]]. The town of Faridkot was founded during this century as Mokalhar (also spelt as Mokulhar<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |title=Know Your State Punjab |date=Jun 4, 2019 |publisher=Arihant Publications India limited |isbn=9789313167662 |pages=175 |chapter=Tourism in Punjab: Faridkot}}</ref>) by Raja Mokalsi (also spelt as 'Moalsi'<ref name=":4" />), the grandson of Rai Munj, a Bhatti Chief of [[Bhatnair]], [[Rajasthan]]. According to a popular folklore, the Raja renamed Mokalhar to Faridkot after [[Baba Farid]] paid a visit to the town.

==History==

=== Early history ===
Raja Mokalsi Manj,{{efn|The name of Raja Mokalsi is alternatively rendered as 'Moalsi' or 'Mokulsi'.}} a Bhatti Rajput chief from Rajasthan, established the town of Mokalhar in around 1200, which later became Faridkot after a visit to the locality by [[Baba Farid]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Aggarwal |first=Raj Kumar |date=October 12, 2002 |title=Faridkot Fort stands defenceless |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20021012/windows/sites.htm |access-date=25 December 2025 |work=The Tribune}}</ref> possibly after an incident where Farid was briefly detained and then released by Raja Mokalsi's soldiers. The historic fort of [[Qila Mubarak, Faridkot|Quila Mubarak]] has existed since the times of [[Baba Farid]]. Faridkot remained the capital during the reign of Mokalsi's son Jairsi and Wairsi.

An alternative theory is that the settlement of Faridkot was established by Bhallan of the Burai clan of the Jats during the reign of Akbar in the 16th century.<ref name=":0" />

=== Faridkot State ===
{{Main|Faridkot State}}
Mughal authority in the Punjab region experienced a decline in the 18th century, which allowed for powerful Sikh chiefs to carve out their own kingdoms, with some of the ones in the Malwa region of Punjab being [[Patiala State|Patiala]], Faridkot, and [[Nabha State|Nabha]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Parihar |first=Subhas |date=February 11, 2012 |title=The Sikh Kingdom of Faridkot |url=https://sikhchic.com/architecture/the_sikh_kingdom_of_faridkot |access-date=26 December 2025 |website=sikhchic}}</ref> The foundation of the modern city as a princely state was laid in 1763 by Hamir Singh. Sometime in 1803–1808, the city was briefly under the rule of Maharaja [[Ranjit Singh]] till 1809. It was restored to the reigning Brar family through British intervention via the [[Treaty of Amritsar (1809)]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1"/><ref name=":2" /> Due to the Sikh Empire's attempted annexation of Faridkot State, many of the Sikh states located in the cis-Sutlej region of Punjab began allying themselves with the British East India Company to keep their powerful northern rival in-check.<ref name=":2" /> The Sikh chiefs believed that the Sikh Empire was their immediate threat and only recognized the British as a long-term threat that could be handled at a later time.<ref name=":2" /> Faridkot was restored to its local ruler Gulab Singh on 3 April 1809 as a result of the treaty.<ref name=":2" /> The town started to expand more earnestly beginning in the year 1837, when it became a capital of the state.<ref name=":1" /> During the First Anglo-Sikh war, the ruler of Faridkot, [[Pahar Singh]], aided the British against the Lahore State, who in-turn gifted him the ''[[raja]]'' title and territory.<ref name=":2" /> When the policy of lapse was abolished in 1857, the princely-states were assigned a resident, however Faridkot did not have a resident assigned to it owing to its diminutive size, rather it was part of a provincial circle under a British representative.<ref name=":2" />

Raja Harinder Singh, last ruler of Faridkot, established many educational institutions and constructed many prominent structures within the city.<ref name=":1" /> During the reign of the Faridkot rulers, many structures of various types were built in the city, such as the [[Qila Mubarak, Faridkot|Faridkot Fort]] (including its decorated Shish Mahal), Raj Mahal, Clock Tower, and Grand Secretariat building.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Faridkot : Architectural Heritage of a Sikh State |url=https://apnaorg.com/prose-content/english-articles/page-55/article-7/index.html |access-date=24 December 2025 |website=Academy of the Punjab in North America}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Parihar |first=Subhash |date=13 July 2008 |title=Splendour of Sheesh Mahal |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2008/20080713/spectrum/main2.htm |access-date=24 December 2025 |work=The Tribune}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Some other historical buildings in the city are the Civil Secretariat, Darbar Gunj, Raj Mahal, Shahi Samadhan, Panchvati, Thakur Dwara, Gurudwara Godri Sahib, and Tilla Baba Farid.<ref name=":1" /> The last two rulers of the state came to the throne when they were minors, therefore affairs of the state were vested in a Council of Regency (1906–16) and Council of Administration (1918–34) until the monarch came of age.<ref name=":2" /> The arid region's economy relied mainly on rainwater to support is limited agriculture and the state's income was small compared to others.<ref name=":2" /> The economic fortunes of the region improved when the British constructed an irrigation system in 1885 by creating a branch of the [[Sirhind Canal]] that was fed by the Sutlej River.<ref name=":2" />

=== Post-independence ===
After the merger between Faridkot State with [[Patiala & East Punjab States Union]] (PEPSU) in 1948, the city went into decline as it no longer was a capital of a princely-state but now an administrative headquarter of a subordinate unit.<ref name=":1" /> After the death of Raja Harinder Singh, his properties came to be managed by the Maharawal Khewaji Trust.<ref name=":1" />

==== Creation of district ====
During the tenure of Giani Zail Singh, Faridkot was carved out as a separate district on 7 August 1972 out of the areas of erstwhile Bathinda District (Faridkot Tehsil) and Ferozepur District (Moga and Muktsar Tehsils), becoming the 12th district of the state.<ref name=":1" /> Further, in November 1995 the Faridkot District was trifurcated when two of its sub divisions viz. [[Muktsar]] and [[Moga, Punjab|Moga]] were given the status of independent districts under the leadership of CM Harcharan Singh Brar of [[Muktsar]]. On 26 January 1996, Faridkot became the fourth revenue division of Punjab.<ref name=":1" />

==Government body==
The [[Municipal Council]] Faridkot came into existence in the year 1948 and now has a Class -I status. Uma Grover is the current President of the council and [[Gurdit Singh Sekhon]] of [[Aam Aadmi Party|AAP]] is the member of [[Legislative Assembly]] from the town elected in 2017 headed by Mla Jastaj singh and rano maaj

==Geography==
The average elevation of the city is 196 metres (643 ft). The town is located on the Punjab Plains, which in a macro regional context forms a part of greater Satluj Ganga plain. It is a low-lying flat area. The surface of the district is depositional plain which was formed by alleviation by the rivers flowing in these plains. Sirhind Feeder and [[Indira Gandhi Canal]] pass through the district.
The topography of the district is plain, with only 1.4% of its area under forest cover.

==Demographics==
{{As of|2011}} India [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Faridkot had a population of 618,008 which constitute about 2% of the total population of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. Males constitute 327,121 of the population and females 290,887.The [[population density]] in this district is 424 persons per km2. Faridkot has an average literacy rate of 70.6%: male literacy is 75.9%, and female literacy is 64.8%.

{| class="wikitable collapsible sortable"
|+ Religious groups in Faridkot City (1881–2011){{efn|1881–1941: Data for the entirety of the town of Faridkot, which included Faridkot Municipality.<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|32}}|name="TemplateCity1881to1941"}}
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057656 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057656 |access-date=14 January 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. I. |year=1881 }}</ref><ref name="Census1881B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057657 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057657 |access-date=14 January 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. II. |year=1881 }}</ref>{{rp|520}}<ref name="Census1881C">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057658 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057658 |access-date=20 January 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. III. |year=1881 }}</ref>{{rp|250}}
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25352838 |jstor=saoa.crl.25352838 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1901. Vol. 1A, India. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1901}}</ref>{{rp|44}}<ref name="Census1901B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25363739 |jstor=saoa.crl.25363739 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1901. [Vol. 17A]. Imperial tables, I-VIII, X-XV, XVII and XVIII for the Punjab, with the native states under the political control of the Punjab Government, and for the North-west Frontier Province. |year=1901}}</ref>{{rp|26}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25393779 |jstor=saoa.crl.25393779 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India, 1911. Vol. 1., Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1911 |last1=Edward Albert Gait |first1=Sir |author2=India Census Commissioner |volume=2 |publisher=Calcutta, Supt. Govt. Print., India, 1913. }}</ref>{{rp|23}}<ref name="Census1911B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25393788 |jstor=saoa.crl.25393788 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1911}}</ref>{{rp|19}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25394121 |jstor=saoa.crl.25394121 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 1, India. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921}}</ref>{{rp|25}}<ref name="Census1921B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430165 |jstor=saoa.crl.25430165 |access-date=9 January 2024 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 15, Punjab and Delhi. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921}}</ref>{{rp|21}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1931-26575928/|title=CENSUS OF INDIA, 1931 VOLUME XVII PUNJAB PART II TABLES|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref>{{rp|26}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/south-asia-open-archives/saoa/censusofindia1941-28216851/|title=CENSUS OF INDIA, 1941 VOLUME VI PUNJAB|access-date=9 January 2024}}</ref>{{rp|32}}
! colspan="2" |2011<ref name="Census2011B">{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11389/download/14502/DDW03C-01%20MDDS.XLS |title=C −1 POPULATION BY RELIGIOUS COMMUNITY – 2011 |website=census.gov.in |access-date=20 January 2024}}</ref>
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
| [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 3,241
| {{Percentage | 3241 | 6593 | 2 }}
| 5,109
| {{Percentage | 5109 | 10405 | 2 }}
| 5,464
| {{Percentage | 5464 | 11673 | 2 }}
| 6,261
| {{Percentage | 6261 | 12304 | 2 }}
| 8,605
| {{Percentage | 8605 | 16759 | 2 }}
| 10,228
| {{Percentage | 10228 | 20375 | 2 }}
| 470
| {{Percentage | 470 | 87695 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]
| 1,862
| {{Percentage | 1862 | 6593 | 2 }}
| 3,358
| {{Percentage | 3358 | 10405 | 2 }}
| 4,027
| {{Percentage | 4027 | 11673 | 2 }}
| 3,649
| {{Percentage | 3649 | 12304 | 2 }}
| 3,830{{efn|name=ad-dharmi|1931–1941: Including [[Ad-Dharmi]]s}}
| {{Percentage | 3830 | 16759 | 2 }}
| 4,742{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| {{Percentage | 4742 | 20375 | 2 }}
| 43,112
| {{Percentage | 43112 | 87695 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 1,226
| {{Percentage | 1226 | 6593 | 2 }}
| 1,626
| {{Percentage | 1626 | 10405 | 2 }}
| 1,854
| {{Percentage | 1854 | 11673 | 2 }}
| 2,024
| {{Percentage | 2024 | 12304 | 2 }}
| 3,865
| {{Percentage | 3865 | 16759 | 2 }}
| 4,608
| {{Percentage | 4608 | 20375 | 2 }}
| 42,652
| {{Percentage | 42652 | 87695 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 264
| {{Percentage | 264 | 6593 | 2 }}
| 306
| {{Percentage | 306 | 10405 | 2 }}
| 327
| {{Percentage | 327 | 11673 | 2 }}
| 354
| {{Percentage | 354 | 12304 | 2 }}
| 434
| {{Percentage | 434 | 16759 | 2 }}
| 740
| {{Percentage | 740 | 20375 | 2 }}
| 741
| {{Percentage | 741 | 87695 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 6
| {{Percentage | 6 | 10405 | 2 }}
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 11673 | 2 }}
| 16
| {{Percentage | 16 | 12304 | 2 }}
| 25
| {{Percentage | 25 | 16759 | 2 }}
| 50
| {{Percentage | 50 | 20375 | 2 }}
| 415
| {{Percentage | 415 | 87695 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 10405 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 11673 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 12304 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 16759 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 65
| {{Percentage | 65 | 87695 | 2 }}
|-
| Others
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 6593 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 10405 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 11673 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 12304 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 16759 | 2 }}
| 7
| {{Percentage | 7 | 20375 | 2 }}
| 240
| {{Percentage | 240 | 87695 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population
! 6,593
! {{Percentage | 6593 | 6593 | 2 }}
! 10,405
! {{Percentage | 10405 | 10405 | 2 }}
! 11,673
! {{Percentage | 11673 | 11673 | 2 }}
! 12,304
! {{Percentage | 12304 | 12304 | 2 }}
! 16,759
! {{Percentage | 16759 | 16759 | 2 }}
! 20,375
! {{Percentage | 20375 | 20375 | 2 }}
! 87,695
! {{Percentage | 87695 | 87695 | 2 }}
|}

==Transport==
Faridkot city is well connected by road through [[National Highway 54 (India)|National Highway 54]]. [[Faridkot railway station]], located in the city lies on Bhatinda – Firozpur line. Many trains connect Faridkot to other major cities in Punjab and other states. The nearest airport, [[Bathinda Airport]] is located near [[Bathinda]].<ref>{{cite web|title=How to reach Faridkot|url=https://faridkot.nic.in/tourism/how-to-reach/|access-date=25 August 2020|publisher=Faridkot district official website}}</ref>

==Climate==
The climate of Faridkot is mostly dry, characterized by a very hot summer, a short rainy season and a bracing winter. The cold season is from November to March. it is followed by the summer season which lasts up to the end of June. The period from July to the middle of September constitutes the southwest monsoon season. The later half of September and October is the post-monsoon or transition period. The temperature increases rapidly beginning with the end of March till June, which is the hottest month, with the mean daily minimum temperature about {{convert|41|°C|1|disp=or}} and the mean daily minimum about {{convert|26.5|°C|1|disp=or}}. The temperature is intensively hot during this period. The maximum temperature can go beyond {{convert|47|°C|1|disp=or}} on some days. With the onset of the monsoon by the end of June or early July, there is an appreciable drop in the day temperature. After October, both the day and night temperatures decrease rapidly till January which is the coolest month. The mean daily maximum temperature in January is about {{convert|20|C|disp=or}} and the mean daily minimum about {{convert|4.5|°C|1|disp=or}}.

The average annual rainfall in the district is {{convert|433|mm|inch|0|disp=or}}; about 71 percent of the annual rainfall in the district is received during the monsoon months July to September. Some rainfall occurs during the pre-monsoon months, mostly in the form of thundershowers. Weather is moderately cloudy during the monsoon season. During the rest of the year the skies are mostly clear. Wind speed is normally slow and flows in north to northwest, some times in southeast direction, throughout the year.

==Festivals==
Every year, a Farid Mela festival, Aagman Purab, is held to commemorate the arrival of [[Baba Farid]] in Faridkot.<ref name=":1" /> The festival is held every year from 15–23 September by the Faridkot District Cultural Society.<ref name=":1" /> On 23 September, a grand parade departs from Tilla Baba Farid ([[Sikh]] Temple) and reaches Godari Sahib ([[Sikh]] Temple).

==Education==
The city houses [[Baba Farid University of Health Sciences]], which is the premier medical university of Punjab.<ref name=":1" /> [[Guru Gobind Singh Medical College|Guru Gobind Singh Medical College and Hospital]] was established in the year 1978.Dasmesh Institute of Research & Dental Sciences is another medical school in the city. Government Brajindra College was set-up in 1942 and Desh Bhagat Pandit Chetan Dev Government College of Education<ref>Cited May 2022 http://www.northhilleducation.com/college/punjab/faridkot/44775-desh-bhagat-pandit-chetan-dev-govt-college-dbpcdgc/department-of-education</ref> established in 1945 by the Faridkot Royalty. [http://dasmeshschoolfdk.com/ Dasmesh Public School, Faridkot], Baba Farid Public School, St. Mary's Convent School, Mount Litera Zee School, Dashmesh Global School, [[Baba Farid Law College]], Delhi International School, Sangat Sahib Bhai Pheru Khalsa Sr. Sec. School, Balbir School and Dr. Mohinder Brar Sambhi Government Girls Sr. Sec. School are prominent schools in the town besides several other educational institutes.
[[Kendriya Vidyalaya]] and New Model Sen. Sec School is also located in the town. Adesh Institute of Engineering and Technology is also situated in the city.

There are 96 private English language schools in the city.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/out-of-eden-walk/articles/2018-07-walking-through-youthful-exodus-india/ |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |quote=Faridcot has a battered three-star hotel called the Trump Plaza and 96 private English language schools. |title=Walking Through a Youthful Exodus in India |date=12 July 2018 |first=Paul |last=Salopek}}</ref>

== Economy ==
The local economy consists of industries like cotton ginning and baling, power-loom weaving, steel rolling, and metal founding. Manufacturing consists of agricultural implements, machine tools, bicycles, and sewing machines.<ref name=":0" />

== Religious sites ==

* Gurdwara Tilla (Chilla) Baba Farid<ref name=":4" /> – believed to have been the resting place of Farid for forty days when he was going to Pakpattan.<ref name=":4" />

==Hospitals==
* [[Guru Gobind Singh Medical College]], Faridkot<ref name=":1" />
* Sant Baba Karnail Dass Medical Charitable Hospital, Vivek Ashram
* Dasmesh Institute of Research & Dental Sciences, Faridkot<ref name=":1" />
* Civil Hospital, Faridkot
* Madhu Nursing Home, Faridkot
* Balbir Hospital, Faridkot
* Preet Hospital, Faridkot
* Sukhmani Hospital and Heart Care Centre

==Notable people==
* [[Giani Zail Singh]], a former [[President of India]]
* [[Sukhbir Singh Badal]], a former [[List of deputy chief ministers of Punjab, India|Deputy Chief Minister of Punjab]]
* [[Muhammad Sadiq (singer)|Muhammad Sadiq]], a [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha)]]
* [[Sadhu Singh]], a [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha)]]
* [[Kushaldeep Singh Dhillon]], a former [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]
* [[Mantar Singh Brar]], a former [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]
* [[Rupinder Pal Singh]], a hockey player
* [[Ihana Dhillon]], an actress

<gallery>

File:Entrance of Farmer's House Faridkot 02.jpg|Entrance of Farmer's House Faridkot
File:Foundation Stone of Harindra - Civil Hospital Faridkot 04.jpg|Foundation Stone of Harindra - Civil Hospital Faridkot
File:Foundation Stone of Harindra - Civil Hospital Faridkot 05.jpg|Foundation Stone of Harindra - Civil Hospital Faridkot
File:Foundation stone of Govt. School of Bargari.jpg|Foundation stone of Govt. School of Bargari (Faridkot)
File:Entrance of District Court Faridkot.jpg|Entrance of District Court Faridkot
File:Foundation Stone of Davies Model Agricultural Farm and Farmers's House Faridkot 03.jpg|Foundation Stone of Davies Model Agricultural Farm and Farmers's House Faridkot
File:Govt. Brijindra College Faridkot.jpg|Govt. Brijindra College Faridkot
File:Its pic of Govt.Brijindra College Faridkot.jpg|Govt.Brijindra College Faridkot
</gallery>

== See also ==

* [[Faridkot State]]
* [[Patiala State]]
* [[Bathinda]]
* [[Bathinda district]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.faridkot.nic.in Official website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116213334/https://faridkot.nic.in/ |date=16 January 2021 }}
*[http://www.apnafaridkot.com Faridkot district]
*[http://www.bfuhs.ac.in Baba Farid University of Health Sciences, Faridkot]
*[http://gbcfdk.org/ Govt. Brijindra college] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625124723/http://www.gbcfdk.org/ |date=25 June 2019 }}
*[http://www.dasmeshinstitutes.com/ Dasmesh Institute Of Research And Dental Sciences, Faridkot]
*[http://www.punjabitis.gov.in/WebsitePages/ITIHome.aspx?enc=vPJ5dKgSvWHPMJmBludukRmwk4/HMZorLvG9pCrfMYk= GOVT. INDUSTRIAL TRAINING INSTITUTE, FARIDKOT]
*[http://www.bflc.ac.in/ BABA FARID LAW COLLEGE, FARIDKOT]

{{Wikivoyage|Faridkot}}
{{Commons category|Faridkot}}
{{Geographic location
|Centre = [[Faridkot district]]
|North =
|Northeast =
|East = [[Moga district]]
|Southeast = [[Bathinda district]]
|South =
|Southwest = [[Muktsar district]]
|West =
|Northwest = [[Firozpur district]]
}}
{{Faridkot district}}
{{Punjab (India)}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Faridkot, India| ]]
[[Category:1972 establishments in Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Faridkot district]]

Trataka (film)

2026-03-04T04:39:18Z

SAWANTRAJ: correct section and improved wording

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Trataka
| image =
| caption = Theatrical Poster
| director = [[Shiva Ganesh]]
| producer = Rahul Ainapur
| screenplay = Shiva Ganesh
| story = Naru Naarayanan Maha Keerthi Shiva Ganesh
| starring = Rahul Ainapur Ajith Jayraj Hridaya Avanti Yash Shetty Bhavani Prakash Akshatha Nandhagopal M K Ajay Shivraj Pradeep Poojary
| music = Arun suradha
| cinematography = [[A. Vinod Bharathi]]
| editing = Suresh Arumugam
| studio = Aastha Cinemas
| distributor = N.R. SUDHIR N M Entertainment
| released = {{Film date|2018|08|31|df=y|ref1=}}
| runtime = 127 minutes
| country = India
| language = Kannada
}}

'''''Trataka''''' is a 2018 Indian [[Kannada Language|Kannada]] film written and directed by Shivaganesh.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kannada.filmibeat.com/movies/trataka.html |title=Trataka: Celebrities Heap Praises On The Trailer |website=Filmibeat.com |date=2018-08-31 |accessdate=2018-08-31}}</ref> ''Trataka'' is a story about an [[Assistant Commissioner of Police|ACP]] who suffers from Complex Partial Seizure. His brother is murdered. He has two close friends and a love interest who are helping him in finding the killer. The film has loads of blood and goriness attached to it. ''Trataka'' was released on 31 August 2018. The film released to negative reviews.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/reviews/kannada/2018/aug/31/trataka-review-too-much-bloodshed-makes-this-an-unpleasant-watch-7684.html | title=Trataka Review: Too much bloodshed makes this an unpleasant watch | website=[[Cinema Express]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/trataka/movie-review/65618166.cms | title=Trataka Movie Review | newspaper=The Times of India }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/trataka-review-kannada-thriller-falls-flat-due-its-slow-pace-87581 | title='Trataka' review: This Kannada thriller falls flat due to its slow pace | date=31 August 2018 }}</ref>

== Cast ==
*Rahul Ainapur as Jaidev aka Deva
*Ajith Jayraj as Ravi
*Yash Shetty as Sharath
*Hridaya Avanthi as Dr Pavithra Radhakrishna

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2018 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:2018 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Shiva Ganesh]]

{{2010s-Kannada-film-stub}}

Neenello Naanalle

2026-03-03T21:45:41Z

SAWANTRAJ: improved information and corrected details after review

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Neenello Naanalle
| image = Neenello Naanalle.jpg
| director = [[Dinesh Babu]]
| producer = K. Manju D. K. Devendra G. Chandrashekar
| story = [[Veeru Potla]]
| screenplay = Dinesh Babu
| based_on = ''[[Nuvvostanante Nenoddantana]]'' (Telugu)
| starring = [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] [[Aniruddha Jatkar|Aniruddh]] [[Rakshita]]
| music = Ramesh Krishna
| cinematography = H. C. Venu
| editing = P. R. Soundar Raj
| studio = Lakshmishree Combines
| released = {{film date|2006|07|28|df=yes}}
| runtime = 157 minutes
| country = India
| language = Kannada
}}

'''''Neenello Nanalle''''' ({{translation|I am where you are}}) is 2006 Indian [[Kannada]]-language [[romance film]] directed by [[Dinesh Babu]], and is a remake of the 2005 [[Telugu cinema|Telugu film]] ''[[Nuvvostanante Nenoddantana]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Warrier |first=Shobha |author1-link=Shobha Warrier |last2=Rajamani |first2=Radhika |last3=Vijayasarathy |first3=R. G. | author3-link=R. G. Vijayasarathy |date=14 June 2006 |title=Anirudhdh riding high |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/jun/14spice.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504074414/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/jun/14spice.htm |archive-date=4 May 2022 |access-date=19 October 2022 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> It stars [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]], [[Aniruddha Jatkar|Aniruddh]] and [[Rakshita]] in pivotal roles. [[Anant Nag]], [[Srinivasa Murthy]], [[Ramakrishna (Kannada actor)|Ramakrishna]] and [[Chitra Shenoy]] feature in supporting roles. The title of the film comes from a track of the same name of the 1982 Kannada film ''[[Chalisuva Modagalu]]'' starring [[Dr. Rajkumar|Rajkumar]].<ref name="rediff">{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/nee/20060728.htm|title=Neenello Naanalle: Great film!|work=Rediff.com|accessdate=2014-07-12|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190214/http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/nee/20060728.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> This movie was the 2500th Kannada movie to be released.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/south-masala/karnataka-film-chamber-of-commerce-gets-set-to-let-the-secret-out/articleshow/64484219.cms|title=Karnataka Film Chamber of Commerce gets set to let the secret out|work=[[Bangalore Mirror]]|date=7 Jun 2018|last=S.|first=Shyam Prasad|access-date=10 June 2018|archive-date=31 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201231191801/https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/south-masala/karnataka-film-chamber-of-commerce-gets-set-to-let-the-secret-out/articleshow/64484219.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

The film tells the story of an [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|NRI]] on returning to India falls in love with a village girl and how he goes about winning over her and her overprotective farmer brother. The plot of the film also drew comparisons to the [[Bollywood film]]s, ''[[Maine Pyar Kiya]]'' (1989) and ''[[Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya (1998 film)|Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya]]'' (1998). Upon theatrical release, the film was received well by critics, who mainly praised the performances. The film was a box office success.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/sevanthi-scores-a-century/story-CkTqvtYsREMUsaIhASWQ6O.html|title=Sevanthi scores a century|date=24 August 2006|work=[[The Hindustan Times]]}}</ref>

==Plot==
Santosh ([[Aniruddha Jatkar|Aniruddh]]) is a rich, city boy, born to billionaire parents and brought up in London. On the other hand, Siri ([[Rakshita]])is a traditional, simple desi girl from Karnataka who was brought up by her only brother, Veera ([[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]]). He is heartbroken when their father marries another woman and throws them out of the house, humiliating them on the way. Their mother dies and her tomb is built on the small land which they own until the zamindar tells them that it is his land, since their mother had taken a loan from the man. Veera volunteers to work day and night, to pay off the loan as long as they don't tear down his mother's tomb. The Zamindar agrees and the local station master helps them. Veera and Siri grow up. One day, Lalitha, Siri's best friend invites Siri to their house as she is getting married. Lalitha's cousin, Santosh also arrives on the same day with his mother, Janaki ([[Chitra Shenoy]]).

Slowly Santosh and Siri fall in love but Janaki does not approve as Siri is not rich. She wants Santosh to marry her brother's business partner's daughter Dolly. Janaki humiliates Siri as well as Veera, who arrives there and both are thrown out of the house after Janaki accuses them of trying to entice and trap Santosh. When Santosh learns of this, he goes to Siri's house and pleads with her brother to accept him. Veera gives him a chance, just like he was given a chance by the Zamindar when he was little. Santosh is tasked with taking care of the cows, cleaning up after them and growing more crops than Veera by the end of the season; if he does not, Santosh will be thrown out of the village and can never see Siri again. The Zamindar and his son are not happy as the Zamindar's son wanted to marry Siri. With them and Maya and her father trying to get Santosh to lose the competition, Santosh has to work hard for his love, eating red chilies and rice every day, even though he can't bear it. Through many antics from the Zamindar's side and Maya's side, Santosh eventually proves his love for Siri to Veera, and succeeds in growing more grains. However the Zamindar kidnaps Siri and then his son tries to rape her. A fight takes place in which Santosh kills the Zamindar's son. Veera, realizing that Santosh and Siri should be together, takes the blame for this and spends 5 years in prison. The movie ends with Veera's release from prison which is also when Siri and Santosh get married, in everyone's presence. Janaki then accepts Siri as her daughter-in-law.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
* [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] as Veera
* [[Aniruddha Jatkar|Aniruddh]] as Santosh
* [[Rakshita]] as Siri
* Ruthu as Lalitha "Lalli"
* [[Anant Nag]] as Santosh's father
* [[Chitra Shenoy]] as Santosh's mother
* [[Ramakrishna (Kannada actor)|Ramakrishna]] as Lalitha's father
* [[Komal (actor)|Komal]] as Gunda
* [[Ruchitha Prasad]] as Maya
* [[Rangayana Raghu]] as Jayaprakash
* [[Shivaram]] as police inspector
* [[Srinivasa Murthy]] as "Maashtru"
* [[Bank Janardhan]] as Lalitha's father-in-law
* [[B. Jaya (actress)|B. Jaya]] as Subbamma "Subby"
* [[Ravichandran (Kannada actor)|V. Ravichandran]] in a special appearance
}}

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Neenello Naanalle
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = Ramesh Krishna
| cover =
| border = yes
| alt =
| caption = Soundtrack cover
| released = June 2006
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 29:26
| label = Arjun Music
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

Ramesh Krishna scored the film's background music and music for its soundtrack reusing all tunes from the original Telugu film, with its lyrics penned by [[K. Kalyan]] and [[Kaviraj (lyricist)|Kaviraj]]. The soundtrack album consists of six tracks.<ref>{{cite web|title=Neenello Naanalle (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) - EP|url=https://itunes.apple.com/in/album/neenello-naanalle-original/id983228852|website=iTunes|publisher=[[iTunes]]|access-date=26 July 2015|archive-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306035726/https://itunes.apple.com/in/album/neenello-naanalle-original/id983228852|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was released in the form of [[Compact Cassette]]s and [[Compact disc|CD]]s in June 2006 in [[Bangalore]].<ref>{{cite news|title='Ninello Naanalle' Audio Launch|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/kannada/gallery/Events/9809.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713191935/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/kannada/gallery/events/9809.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 July 2006|accessdate=26 July 2015|work=Indiaglitz.com|date=7 June 2006}}</ref> All tunes were reused from original except "Sankranthi".

===Track listing===
{{Track listing
| total_length = 29:26
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Akasha Bhumiya
| extra1 = [[Rajesh Krishnan]]
| lyrics1 = [[K. Kalyan]]
| length1 = 5:26
| title2 = Jeevanave Railu Payana
| extra2 = [[Hemanth Kumar]]
| lyrics2 = [[Kaviraj (lyricist)|Kaviraj]]
| length2 = 4:18
| title3 = Nooraru Hrudayaglu
| extra3 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], Sumangali
| lyrics3 = K. Kalyan
| length3 = 5:28
| title4 = Onti Hakki
| extra4 = Rajesh Krishnan, Hemanth Kumar
| lyrics4 = Kaviraj
| length4 = 3:41
| title5 = Sankranthi
| extra5 = [[Shankar Mahadevan]]
| lyrics5 = Kaviraj
| length5 = 5:27
| title6 = Something
| extra6 = [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]]
| lyrics6 = Kaviraj
| length6 = 5:06
}}

== Reception ==
A critic from ''[[Rediff.com]]'' wrote that "If you have not seen the Prabhu Deva directed Telugu film, ''Neenello Naanalle'' will be the perfect choice for a good viewing experience".<ref name="rediff"/> A critic from ''[[Sify]]'' wrote that "On the whole, the film is packaged and presented well with enough masalas and is sure to grab your attention".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/neenello-naanalle-review-kannada-14260047.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716005746/http://www.sify.com/movies/neenello-naanalle-review-kannada-14260047.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-07-16|title=Movie Review : Neenello Naanalle|website=[[Sify]]|accessdate=2014-07-12}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links ==
*{{IMDb title|3412778}}

{{Nuvvostanante Nenoddantana and its remakes}}
{{Dinesh Baboo}}

[[Category:Indian romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Kannada remakes of Telugu films]]
[[Category:2006 films]]
[[Category:2006 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Dinesh Baboo]]
[[Category:2006 romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ramesh Krishna]]

Samsaram Oka Chadarangam

2026-03-03T20:16:39Z

SAWANTRAJ: small enhance layout for consistency

{{short description|1987 Indian Telugu-language drama film}}
{{Long plot|date=August 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Samsaram Oka Chadarangam
| native_name = {{infobox name module|te|సంసారం ఒక చదరంగం}}
| image = Samsaram Oka Chadarangam.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[S. P. Muthuraman]]
| writer = [[Ganesh Patro]] {{small|(dialogues)}}
| screenplay = S. P. Muthuraman
| story = [[Visu]]
| based_on = ''[[Samsaram Adhu Minsaram]]'' (Tamil) by [[Visu]]
| producer = [[M. Saravanan (producer)|M. Saravanan]] M. Balasubramanian
| starring = [[Sarath Babu]] [[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]] [[Sowcar Janaki]] [[Gollapudi Maruthi Rao]] [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]]
| cinematography = T. S. Vinayakam
| editing = R. Vital C. Lancy
| music = [[K. Chakravarthy|Chakravarthy]]
| studio = [[AVM Productions]]
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1987|1|14}}
| runtime = 156 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Samsaram Oka Chadarangam''''' ({{translation|Family, a chess game}}) is a 1987 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[Drama (film and television)|drama film]] produced by [[M. Saravanan (producer)|M. Saravanan]] and M. Balasubramanian of [[AVM Productions]] and directed by [[S. P. Muthuraman]]. The film stars [[Sarath Babu]], [[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]], [[Sowcar Janaki|Shavukaru Janaki]], [[Gollapudi Maruti Rao|Gollapudi Maruthi Rao]] and [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]], with music composed by [[K. Chakravarthy|Chakravarthy]]. It is a remake of the studio's own Tamil film ''[[Samsaram Adhu Minsaram]]'' (1986).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Muthuraman |first=S. P. |author-link=S. P. Muthuraman |date=11 May 2016 |title=சினிமா எடுத்துப் பார் 57: 'கம்முன்னு கெட'! |language=ta |trans-title=Try making a film 57: Keep Quiet |work=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/hindu-talkies/82458-57.html |url-status=live |access-date=25 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006161939/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/hindu-talkies/82458-57.html |archive-date=6 October 2019}}</ref> The film won three [[Nandi Awards]].

== Plot ==
The film begins with a middle-class family. The father Appala Narsayya, a simple clerk resides with his loving wife, Godavari, and their four children: Prakash, a junior officer; Raghava, a mechanic; Sarojini, a vainglory, a steno; & Kalidasu, a futile who frequently fails 10th examinations. Above all, the brave maid Chilakamma is in the longtime household and amicably mingles with them. Prakash is calculative & tight-fisted in nature who counts every penny and feels that spending on his joint family is a burden. He knits a generous Uma who receives tunes of affection from everyone.

Once a marriage broker, Neelakantham arranges Sarojini's matchmaking with the promising alliance with a garment shop owner, Jaganatham's son. He approaches with his son Eeswar Rao & daughter Vasantha, but Sarojini denies it because of her conceit, which makes the bridegroom party quit. The next day, Appala Narsayya sets foot to apologize to Jaganatham. Consequently, Jaganatham forwards Raghava & Vasantha's bridal connections by igniting a spark for Appala Narsayya that Vasantha will always accept his decision. Appala Narsayya instantly approves it to be outdone by his credence on Raghava. After reaching home, Sarojini affirms her option to knit a Catholic Peter Samuel—an unthinkable notion for Appala Narsayya & Godavari. Despite this, Appala Narsayya acquits Peter's father, Edmund Samuel, who meekly provides his assent. However, Prakash opposes it to avoid unnecessary expenses, but Uma sways him, and the two weddings take place.

Afterward, Uma conceives and walks to her nucleus for delivery. As a glimpse, Kaalidasu gets into an infatuation with a mate, Meena. She arrives from [[Bombay]] on her father's transfer and mocks at Kaalidasu as a silly fellow. Today, a rift arises between Raghava & Vasantha since she is tutoring Kaalidas, obstructing their marital life. Sarojini constantly mortifies her father-in-law, but he tolerates it, accepting her belligerence, whom Peter rebukes. The two quit their in-laws' apartment when Jaganatham tells her to return as he accomplishes her responsibility soon after the conjugial. Raghava also advances to revive her, and Vasantha goes with him. Whereat, Raghava confirms that she should wait until Kaalidasu completes his education—additionally, Sarojini clarifies to remain away from Peter so long as he crawls back to get her.

Following this, a chaotic upheaval arises, which splits the family by Prakash. He reduces his monthly contribution due to Uma's absence; when Appala Narasayya speaks, a debate arises between father & son, which leads to a big fight. He recollects Prakash, saying that he strived for his upbringing and education without a mathematical formula, but Prakash disputes these claims. Appala Narsayya disowns and expels Prakash but refuses to leave until his father clears the loans for Sarojini's espousal. Devastated, Appala Narsayya mandates to draw a line midway through the house by banishing Prakash and forbids everyone from speaking to him. From there, Appala Narasayya performs various side hustles by taking voluntary retirement and strikes day & night to pay that price. Raghava rejects it with an assurance of a refund. However, Appala Narasayya is stubborn as he does not have the strength to be a fool one more time.

Meanwhile, Uma is back with the newborn boy, crashes by knowing the plight, getting an unwelcome reception from the family. Hence, she works with Chilakamma & Godavari to fix these troubles and restore harmony. Uma starts her game by visiting Edmund Samuel, who reaches Appala Narsayya's residence and squabbles with Chilakamma, bringing divorce papers. It shakes Sarojini, but Chilakamma & Godavari compel her to sign the papers. Edmund Samuel completes the charade by inviting Sarojini to Peter's upcoming wedding, enlightening her, and remorsefully pardoning Peter & his father. Secondly, Uma attempts to reconcile Raghava & Vasantha, who gently rebukes him at the workplace and requests him to attend to his wife's needs. Accordingly, he plans a honeymoon. Tragically, Vasantha afflicts smallpox therein when she comprehends the actual meaning of martial life. Kaalidasu triumphs in his exams. In that joy, he walks to propose to Meena, but she returns Bombay heckling, which breaks him down.

Eventually, Uma has mixed feelings: she is glad the trouble is reducing but perturbed because the family is still not speaking with her compliance with Appala Narsayya's word. At one time, Godavari must go beyond her husband's ordinance to shield ailing Uma. Spotting it, Appala Narasayya declares her dead and commands not to speak with him. The same night, he boozes being wrecked and bursts out his grief. Now, Uma tackles the raging conflict between Prakash & Appala Narsayya by exceeding her husband's expenses and making him discern that having a joint family is better. Appala Narasayya remits the funds and commands the Prakash family to quit. Then, he regretfully implores pardon to reunite him with them, which Appala Narasayya declines. Thereupon, Chilakamma reminds him that his family is all he has and that he should consider his legacy, not his adversaries. At last, Appala Narasayya welcomes Prakash back, but Uma bars him just before crossing the line, proclaiming that shattered souls never fasten. She had done this plan to conjoin the people, not the family. It is suitable for everyone who moves out, being cordial and promising to meet on weekends. At last, Prakash & Uma start living separately and regularly visit Appala Narasayya's house. Finally, the movie ends happily with each one of the family eagerly awaiting the weekend for family get together.

== Cast ==
{{div col}}
*[[Sarath Babu]] as Prakash
*[[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]] as Uma
*[[Sowcar Janaki]] as Chilakamma
*[[Gollapudi Maruti Rao|Gollapudi Maruthi Rao]] as Appala Narsayya
*[[Nutan Prasad]] as Edmund Samuel
*[[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]] as Raghava
*[[Hema Sundar]] as Jagannatham
*[[Master Haja Sheriff]] as Kalidasu
*[[R. Dilip (Tamil actor)|Dilip]] as Peter
*[[Omakuchi Narasimhan|Juttu Narasimham]] as Neelakantham
*[[Potti Veerayya]] as Washerman
*Karthik
*Nagabhushan Rao
*Moorthy
*Krishna Chaitanya
*[[Annapoorna (actress)|Annapoorna]] as Godavari
*[[Mucherla Aruna]] as Vasantha
*[[Ilavarasi|Kalpana]] as Sarojani
*Lalitha Sarma
*C. H. Vijaya
{{div col end}}

== Soundtrack ==
Music composed by [[K. Chakravarthy|Chakravarthy]]. Lyrics were written by [[Veturi]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Samsaram Oka Chadarangam |url=https://gaana.com/album/samsaram-oka-chadarangam |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=[[Gaana (music streaming service)|Gaana]] |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228063546/https://gaana.com/album/samsaram-oka-chadarangam |url-status=live }}</ref>
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Song title !!Singers !!length
|-
|"Samsaram Oka Chadarangam"
|[[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
|8:16
|-
|"Jaanki Ramula Kalyanam"
|[[P. Susheela]]
|4:20
|-
|"Siri Ke Simantamanta"
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, P. Susheela
|4:10
|-
|"Laali Jo Jo"
|P. Susheela
|4:28
|-
|"Jagame Maya"
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
|4:05
|}

== Accolades ==
;[[Nandi Awards]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=నంది అవార్డు విజేతల పరంపర (1964–2008) |trans-title=A series of Nandi Award Winners (1964–2008) |url=http://ipr.ap.nic.in/New_Links/Film.pdf |access-date=21 August 2020 |publisher=[[Andhra Pradesh (magazine)|Information & Public Relations of Andhra Pradesh]] |language=Telugu |archive-date=23 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150223135739/http://ipr.ap.nic.in/New_Links/Film.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Nandi Award for Best Story Writer|Best Story Writer]] – [[Visu]]
*[[Nandi Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]] – [[Sowcar Janaki]]
*[[Nandi Award for Best Child Actor|Best Child Actor]] – Master Sravan Kumar

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0271769}}

{{S. P. Muthuraman}}
{{AVM Productions}}

[[Category:1987 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:1987 drama films]]
[[Category:1987 films]]
[[Category:AVM Productions films]]
[[Category:Films directed by S. P. Muthuraman]]
[[Category:Films scored by K. Chakravarthy]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Telugu remakes of Tamil films]]

Tibeto-Burman languages

2026-03-03T19:04:24Z

SAWANTRAJ: improve references for consistency and cleaned formatting

{{Short description|Group of the Sino-Tibetan language family}}
{{Use American English|date=September 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox language family
|name =Tibeto-Burman
|region =[[Southeast Asia]], [[East Asia]], [[South Asia]]
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|protoname=[[Proto-Tibeto-Burman language|Proto-Tibeto-Burman]]
|child1 =''[[Gongduk language|Gongduk]]'', ''[[Lhokpu language|Lhokpu]]'', ''[['Ole language|'Ole]]'', ''[[Lepcha language|Lepcha]]'', [[Tani languages|Tani]]
|child2 ='''[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Western]]''': [[Bodish languages|Bodish]], ''[[Tshangla language|Tshangla]]'', [[Tamangic languages|Tamangic]], [[West Himalayish languages|West Himalayish]], [[Greater Magaric languages|Greater Magaric]], [[Newaric language|Newaric]], [[Kiranti languages|Kiranti]]
|child3 ='''[[Central Tibeto-Burman languages|Central]]''': [[Sal languages|Sal]], ''[[Pyu language (Burma)|Pyu]]'', [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]] ([[Ao languages|Ao]], [[Angami–Pochuri languages|Angami–Pochuri]], ''[[Meitei language|Meitei]]'', [[Tangkhulic languages|Tangkhulic]], [[Zeme languages|Zeme]], [[Kuki-Chin-Mizo languages|Kuki-Chin-Mizo]], ''[[Karbi language|Karbi]]''), [[Mruic languages|Mruic]], ''[[Miju languages|Miju]]''
|child4 ='''Eastern''': [[Burmo-Qiangic languages|Burmo-Qiangic]], [[Karenic languages|Karenic]], [[Nungish languages|Nungish]], ''[[Tujia language|Tujia]]''
|child5 ='''Others''': [[Digaro languages|Digaro]], [[Hrusish languages|Hrusish]], [[Kho-Bwa languages|Kho-Bwa]], ''[[Puroik language|Puroik]]'', [[Siangic languages|Siangic]], [[Miju languages|Miju]]
|iso5 =tbq
|glotto =none
|map =Lenguas tibeto-birmanas.png
|mapcaption=Major branches of Tibeto-Burman:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
{{legend|#32CD32|[[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]]}}
{{legend|#FFD700|[[Burmish languages|Burmish]]}}
{{legend|#FF0000|[[Karenic languages|Karenic]]}}
{{legend|#FF4500|[[Rung languages|Rung]]}}
{{col-3}}
{{legend|#8B4513|[[Tani languages|Tani]]}}
{{legend|#800000|[[Qiangic languages|Qiang]]}}
{{legend|#0000FF|[[Bodo–Garo languages|Bodo–Garo]]}}
{{legend|#1E90FF|[[Konyak languages|Konyak]]}}
{{col-3}}
{{legend|#9400D3|[[Naga languages|Naga]]}}
{{legend|#FF69B4|[[Meitei language|Meitei]]}}
{{legend|#FF1493|[[Kuki-Chin languages|Kuki-Chin-Mizo]]}}
{{col-end}}
}}
The '''Tibeto-Burman languages''' are the non-[[Sinitic languages|Chinese]] members of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan language family]], over 400 of which are spoken throughout the [[Southeast Asian Massif]] ("Zomia") as well as parts of [[East Asia]] and [[South Asia]]. Around 60 million people speak Tibeto-Burman languages.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ethnologue: Languages of the World
| editor-given1 = David M. | editor-surname1 = Eberhard
| editor-given2 = Gary F. | editor-surname2 = Simons
| editor-given3 = Charles D. | editor-surname3 = Fennig
| year = 2019 | edition = 22nd
| location = Dallas, Texas | publisher = SIL International
| url = http://www.ethnologue.com
}}</ref> The name derives from the most widely spoken of these languages, [[Burmese language|Burmese]] and the [[Tibetic languages]], which also have extensive literary traditions, dating from the 12th and 7th centuries respectively. Most of the other languages are spoken by much smaller communities, and many of them have not been described in detail.

Though the division of Sino-Tibetan into Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman branches (e.g. Benedict, Matisoff) is widely used, some [[historical linguist]]s criticize this classification, as the non-Sinitic Sino-Tibetan languages lack any [[shared innovation]]s in [[phonology]] or [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Guillaume |first=Jacques|chapter=The Tangut Kinship System in Qiangic Perspective|title=Medieval Tibeto-Burman Languages IV|date=2012|editor-first=Nathan|editor-last=Hill|page=215}}</ref> to show that they comprise a [[clade]] of the [[phylogenetic tree]].{{sfnp|Handel|2008|p=431}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guillaume |first=Jacques|title=A shared suppletive pattern in the pronominal systems of Chang Naga and Southern Qiang|journal=Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale|date=2007|volume=36|issue=1|page=2|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00200873v2/document}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter=The origins of Sinitic|title=Increased Empiricism: Recent advances in Chinese Linguistics|first=Scott|last= DeLancey|editor-last=Zhuo|editor-first=Jing-Schmidt|page=74|publisher=John Benjamins|date=2013}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:The origin and spread of the Sino-Tibetan language family.png|upright=1.5|thumb|right|A model of dispersal of the Sino-Tibetan languages.{{sfnp|Sagart|Jacques|Lai|Ryder|2019|p=10319–10320}}]]
During the 18th century, several scholars noticed parallels between Tibetan and Burmese, both languages with extensive literary traditions.
In the following century, [[Brian Houghton Hodgson]] collected a wealth of data on the non-literary languages of the Himalayas and northeast India, noting that many of these were related to Tibetan and Burmese.{{sfnp|Hodgson|1853}}
Others identified related languages in the highlands of Southeast Asia and south-west China.
The name "Tibeto-Burman" was first applied to this group in 1856 by [[James Logan (lawyer)|James Logan]], who added [[Karen languages|Karen]] in 1858.{{sfnp|Logan|1856}}{{sfnp|Logan|1858}}
Charles Forbes viewed the family as uniting the Gangetic and Lohitic branches of [[Max Müller]]'s [[Turanian languages|Turanian]], a huge family consisting of all the Eurasian languages except the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], "Aryan" ([[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]) and Chinese languages.{{sfnp|Forbes|1878}}
The third volume of the ''[[Linguistic Survey of India]]'' was devoted to the Tibeto-Burman languages of [[British India]].

[[Julius Klaproth]] had noted in 1823 that Burmese, Tibetan and Chinese all shared common basic [[vocabulary]], but that [[Thai language|Thai]], [[Mon language|Mon]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] were quite different.{{sfnp|van Driem|2001|p=334}}
Several authors, including Ernst Kuhn in 1883 and [[August Conrady]] in 1896, described an "Indo-Chinese" family consisting of two branches, Tibeto-Burman and Chinese-Siamese.{{sfnp|van Driem|2001|pp=341–342}}
The [[Tai languages]] were included on the basis of vocabulary and typological features shared with Chinese.
Jean Przyluski introduced the term ''sino-tibétain'' (Sino-Tibetan) as the title of his chapter on the group in [[Antoine Meillet]] and [[Marcel Cohen]]'s ''Les Langues du Monde'' in 1924.{{sfnp|Sapir|1925}}

The Tai languages have not been included in most Western accounts of Sino-Tibetan since the Second World War, though many Chinese linguists still include them.
The link between Tibeto-Burman and Chinese is now accepted by most linguists, with a few exceptions such as [[Roy Andrew Miller]] and [[Christopher I. Beckwith|Christopher Beckwith]].{{sfnp|Miller|1974}}{{sfnp|Beckwith|1996}}{{sfnp|Beckwith|2002}}
More recent controversy has centred on the proposed primary branching of Sino-Tibetan into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman subgroups.
In spite of the popularity of this classification, first proposed by Kuhn and Conrady, and also promoted by [[Paul K. Benedict|Paul Benedict]] (1972) and later [[James Matisoff]], Tibeto-Burman has not been demonstrated to be a valid subgroup in its own right.{{sfnp|Handel|2008|p=431}}

== Overview ==
Most of the Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken in remote mountain areas, which has hampered their study. Many lack a written standard.
It is generally easier to identify a language as Tibeto-Burman than to determine its precise relationship with other languages of the group.{{sfnp|Handel|2008|pp=424–432}}
The subgroupings that have been established with certainty number several dozen, ranging from well-studied groups of dozens of languages with millions of speakers to several [[language isolate|isolate]]s, some only discovered in the 21st century but in danger of extinction.{{sfnp|van Driem|2011a}}
These subgroups are here surveyed on a geographical basis.

=== Southeast Asia and southwest China ===
[[File:Ethnolinguistic map of Burma 1972 en.svg|thumb|right|upright|Language families of [[Myanmar]]]]

The southernmost group is the [[Karen languages]], spoken by three million people on both sides of the Burma–Thailand border. They differ from all other Tibeto-Burman languages (except Bai) in having a [[subject–verb–object]] word order, attributed to contact with [[Tai–Kadai languages|Tai–Kadai]] and [[Austroasiatic languages]].{{sfnp|Thurgood|2003|p=18}}

The most widely spoken Tibeto-Burman language is [[Burmese language|Burmese]], the national language of Myanmar, with over 32 million speakers and a literary tradition dating from the early 12th century. It is one of the [[Lolo-Burmese languages]], an intensively studied and well-defined group comprising approximately 100 languages spoken in Myanmar and the highlands of Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and [[southwest China]]. Major languages include the [[Loloish languages]], with two million speakers in western [[Sichuan]] and northern [[Yunnan]], the [[Akha language]] and [[Hani language]]s, with two million speakers in southern Yunnan, eastern Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam, and [[Lisu language|Lisu]] and [[Lahu language|Lahu]] in Yunnan, northern Myanmar and northern Thailand. All languages of the Loloish subgroup show significant Austroasiatic influence.{{sfnp|Thurgood|2003|pp=8–9}}
The [[Pai-lang]] songs, transcribed in Chinese characters in the 1st century, appear to record words from a Lolo-Burmese language, but arranged in Chinese order.{{sfnp|Coblin|1979}}

[[File:Ethnolinguistic map of China 1983.png|thumb|right|Language families of China, with Tibeto-Burman in orange{{efn|Source: United States Central Intelligence Agency, 1983. The map shows the distribution of ethnolinguistic groups according to the historical majority ethnic groups by region. Note this is different from the current distribution due to ongoing internal migration and assimilation.}}]]
The Tibeto-Burman languages of south-west China have been heavily influenced by Chinese over a long period, leaving their affiliations difficult to determine. The grouping of the [[Bai language]], with one million speakers in Yunnan, is particularly controversial, with some workers suggesting that it is a sister language to Chinese. The [[Naxi language]] of northern Yunnan is usually included in Lolo-Burmese, though other scholars prefer to leave it unclassified.{{sfnp|Thurgood|2003|p=20}} The hills of northwestern Sichuan are home to the small [[Qiangic languages|Qiangic]] and [[Rgyalrongic languages|Rgyalrongic]] groups of languages, which preserve many archaic features. The most easterly Tibeto-Burman language is [[Tujia language|Tujia]], spoken in the [[Wuling Mountains]] on the borders of Hunan, Hubei, Guizhou and Chongqing.

Two historical languages are believed to be Tibeto-Burman, but their precise affiliation is uncertain. The [[Pyu language (Burma)|Pyu language]] of central Myanmar in the first centuries is known from inscriptions using a variant of the [[Gupta script]]. The [[Tangut language]] of the 12th century [[Western Xia]] of northern China is preserved in numerous texts written in the Chinese-inspired [[Tangut script]].{{sfnp|Thurgood|2003|pp=17, 19–20}}

=== Tibet and South Asia ===
[[File:South Asian Language Families.png|thumb|right|Language families of South Asia, with Tibeto-Burman in orange]]
Over eight million people in the [[Tibetan Plateau]] and neighbouring areas in [[Baltistan]], [[Ladakh]], [[Nepal]], [[Sikkim]] and [[Bhutan]] speak one of several related [[Tibetic languages]]. There is an extensive literature in [[Classical Tibetan]] dating from the 8th century. The Tibetic languages are usually grouped with the smaller [[East Bodish languages]] of Bhutan and [[Arunachal Pradesh]] as the [[Bodish languages|Bodish]] group.

Many diverse Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken on the southern slopes of the Himalayas.
Sizable groups that have been identified are the [[West Himalayish languages]] of [[Himachal Pradesh]] and western Nepal, the [[Tamangic languages]] of western Nepal, including [[Tamang language|Tamang]] with one million speakers, and the [[Kiranti languages]] of eastern Nepal.
The remaining groups are small, with several isolates.
The [[Newar language]] (Nepal Bhasa) of central Nepal has a million speakers and literature dating from the 12th century, and nearly a million people speak [[Magaric languages]], but the rest have small speech communities.
Other isolates and small groups in Nepal are [[Dura language|Dura]], [[Raji–Raute languages|Raji–Raute]], [[Chepangic languages|Chepangic]] and [[Dhimal languages|Dhimalish]].
[[Lepcha language|Lepcha]] is spoken in an area from eastern Nepal to western Bhutan.{{sfnp|van Driem|2007|p=296}}
Most of the languages of Bhutan are Bodish, but it also has three small isolates, [['Ole language|'Ole]] ("Black Mountain Monpa"), [[Lhokpu language|Lhokpu]] and [[Gongduk language|Gongduk]] and a larger community of speakers of [[Tshangla language|Tshangla]].{{sfnp|van Driem|2011a}}

The [[Tani languages]] include most of the Tibeto-Burman languages of Arunachal Pradesh and adjacent areas of Tibet.{{sfnp|Burling|2003|pp=178, 180–181}}
The remaining languages of Arunachal Pradesh are much more diverse, belonging to the small [[Siangic languages|Siangic]], [[Kho-Bwa languages|Kho-Bwa]] (or Kamengic), [[Hruso languages|Hruso]], [[Miju languages|Miju]] and [[Digaro languages]] (or Mishmic) groups.{{sfnp|Burling|2003|pp=178–182}}
These groups have relatively little Tibeto-Burman vocabulary, and Bench and Post dispute their inclusion in Sino-Tibetan.{{sfnp|Blench|Post|2011}}

The greatest variety of languages and subgroups is found in the highlands stretching from northern Myanmar to northeast India.

Northern Myanmar is home to the small [[Nungish languages|Nungish]] group, as well as the [[Jingpho–Luish languages]], including [[Jingpho language|Jingpho]] with nearly a million speakers.
The Brahmaputran or [[Sal languages]] include at least the [[Boro–Garo languages|Boro–Garo]] and [[Konyak languages]], spoken in an area stretching from northern Myanmar through the Indian states of [[Nagaland]], [[Meghalaya]], and [[Tripura]], and are often considered to include the Jingpho–Luish group.{{sfnp|Thurgood|2003|pp=11–12}}{{sfnp|Burling|2003|pp=174–178}}

The border highlands of [[Nagaland]], [[Manipur]] and western Myanmar are home to the small [[Ao languages|Ao]], [[Angami–Pochuri languages|Angami–Pochuri]], [[Tangkhulic languages|Tangkhulic]], and [[Zeme languages|Zeme]] groups of languages, as well as the [[Karbi language]].
[[Meithei language|Meithei]], the main language of Manipur with 1.4 million speakers, is sometimes linked with the 50 or so [[Kuki-Chin languages]] are spoken in [[Mizoram]] and the [[Chin State]] of Myanmar.

The [[Mru language]] is spoken by a small group in the [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]] between Bangladesh and Myanmar.{{sfnp|Thurgood|2003|pp=12–14}}{{sfnp|Burling|2003|pp=182–189}}

==Classification==
There have been two milestones in the classification of Sino-Tibetan and Tibeto-Burman languages, {{harvp|Shafer|1955}} and {{harvp|Benedict|1972}}, which were actually produced in the 1930s and 1940s respectively.

===Shafer (1955)===
Shafer's tentative classification took an agnostic position and did not recognize Tibeto-Burman, but placed Chinese (Sinitic) on the same level as the other branches of a Sino-Tibetan family.{{sfnp|Shafer|1955}} He retained Tai–Kadai (Daic) within the family, allegedly at the insistence of colleagues, despite his personal belief that they were not related.

{{tree list}}
* '''Sino-Tibetan'''
** ''[[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]''
** ?? ''[[Tai–Kadai languages|Daic]]''
** ''Bodic''
*** Bodish ([[Tamangic languages|Gurung]], [[Tshangla language|Tshangla]], [[Rgyalrongic languages|Gyarong]], [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]])
*** [[West Himalayish languages|West Himalayish]] (incl. [[Kinnauri language|Kinnauri]], [[Baram language|Baram]], [[Thangmi language|Thangmi]])
*** West Central Himalayish ([[Magaric languages|Magar]], [[Chepangic languages|Chepang]], [[Wayu language|Hayu]])
*** [[Kiranti languages|East Himalayish]]
*** Newarish ([[Newar language|Newar]], [[Pahari language (Sino-Tibetan)|Pahari]])
*** [[Digarish languages|Digarish]]
*** [[Midzu languages|Midźuish]]
*** [[Hruso languages|Hrusish]]
*** [[Dhimal languages|Dhimalish]]
*** [[Tani languages|Miśingish]]
*** [[Qiangic languages|Dzorgaish]]
** ''Burmic''
*** [[Lolo-Burmese languages|Burmish]]
*** [[Mru language|Mruish]]
*** [[Nungish languages|Nungish]]
*** Katśinish ([[Jingpho language|Jingpho]])
*** Tśairelish
*** [[Luish languages|Luish]]
*** Taman
*** [[Kukish languages|Kukish]]
** ''Baric''
*** [[Boro–Garo languages|Barish]]
*** Nagish
** ''[[Karen languages|Karenic]]''
{{tree list/end}}

===Benedict (1972)===
A very influential, although also tentative, classification is that of {{harvtxt|Benedict|1972}}, which was actually written around 1941. Like Shafer's work, this drew on the data assembled by the Sino-Tibetan Philology Project, which was directed by Shafer and Benedict in turn. Benedict envisaged Chinese as the first family to branch off, followed by Karen.

{{tree list}}
*Sino-Tibetan
** Chinese
** Tibeto-Karen
*** Karen
*** '''Tibeto-Burman'''
{{tree list/end}}

The Tibeto-Burman family is then divided into seven primary branches:

{{tree list}}
* '''Tibeto-Burman'''
** ''[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibetan–Kanauri]]'' (a.k.a. Bodish–Himalayish)
*** Bodish
**** ([[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]], [[Jiarong languages|Gyarung]], [[East Bodish languages|Takpa]], [[Tshangla language|Tsangla]], [[Tamangic languages|Murmi & Gurung]])
*** Himalayish
**** "major" [[West Himalayish languages|Himalayish]]
**** "minor" [[West Himalayish languages|Himalayish]]
***** (Rangkas, Darmiya, Chaudangsi, Byangsi)
*** (perhaps also [[Qiangic languages|Dzorgai]], [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]], [[Magaric languages|Magari]])
** ''[[Kiranti languages|Bahing–Vayu]]''
*** Bahing ([[Sunuwar language|Sunuwar]], [[Khaling language|Khaling]])
*** [[Sampang language|Sampang]], [[Bantawa language|Rungchenbung]], [[Yakha language|Yakha]], and [[Limbu language|Limbu]]
*** [[Wayu language|Vayu]]–[[Chepangic languages|Chepang]]
*** (perhaps also [[Newar language|Newar]])
** ''[[Tani languages|Abor–Miri–Dafla]]''
*** (perhaps also [[Hruso languages|Aka]], [[Digaro languages|Digaro]], [[Midzu languages|Miju]], and [[Dhimal languages|Dhimal]])
** ''[[Jingpho language|Kachin]]''
*** (perhaps including [[Sak languages|Luish]])
** ''[[Lolo–Burmese languages|Burmese–Lolo]]''
*** [[Burmish languages|Burmese–Maru]]
*** Southern [[Loloish languages|Lolo]]
*** Northern [[Loloish languages|Lolo]]
*** [[Ugong language|Kanburi Lawa]]
*** [[Naxi language|Moso]]
*** Hsi-fan ([[Qiangic languages|Qiangic]] and [[Jiarongic languages]] apart from Qiang and Gyarung themselves)
*** [[Tangut language|Tangut]]
*** (perhaps also [[Nungish languages|Nung]])
** ''[[Boro-Garo languages|Boro-Garo]]''
*** Boro
*** Garo ([[A·chik]])
*** [[Kokborok language|Tripuri (Kokborok)]]
*** Dimasa
*** [[Deori language|Deori]]
*** Mech
*** Rava ([[Koch language|Koch]])
*** [[Tiwa people (India)|Tiwa]] (Lalung)
*** Sutiya
*** Saraniya
*** Moran
*** Sonowal
*** Thengal
*** (Perhaps also "[[Konyak languages|Naked Naga]]" a.k.a. Konyak)
** ''[[Kukish languages|Kuki–Naga]]'' (a.k.a. Kukish)
*** (perhaps also [[Karbi language|Karbi]], [[Meithei language|Meithei]], [[Mru language|Mru]])
{{tree list/end}}

===Matisoff (1978)===
[[James Matisoff]] proposes a modification of Benedict that demoted Karen but kept the divergent position of Sinitic.{{sfnp|Namkung|1996|p=455}} Of the 7 branches within Tibeto-Burman, 2 branches (Baic and Karenic) have [[Subject–verb–object|SVO]]-order languages, whereas all the other 5 branches have [[Subject–object–verb|SOV]]-order languages.

{{tree list}}
* Sino-Tibetan
** Chinese
** '''Tibeto-Burman'''
{{tree list/end}}

Tibeto-Burman is then divided into several branches, some of them geographic conveniences rather than linguistic proposals:

{{tree list}}
*'''Tibeto-Burman'''
**Kamarupan (geographic)
***[[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]] (geographic)
***[[Tani languages|Abor–Miri–Dafla]]
***[[Boro–Garo languages|Boro–Garo]]
**[[Himalayish languages|Himalayish]] (geographic)
***[[Mahakiranti languages|Mahakiranti]] (includes [[Newar language|Newar]], [[Magar language|Magar]], [[Kiranti languages|Kiranti]])
***[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibeto-Kanauri]] (includes [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]])
**[[Qiangic languages|Qiangic]]
**Jingpho–Nungish–Luish
***[[Jingpho language|Jingpho]]
***[[Nungish languages|Nungish]]
***[[Sak languages|Luish]]
**[[Lolo–Burmese languages|Lolo–Burmese]]–[[Nakhi|Naxi]]
**[[Karen languages|Karenic]]
**[[Bai language|Bai]]c
**[[Tujia language|Tujia]] (unclassified)
{{tree list/end}}

Matisoff makes no claim that the families in the Kamarupan or Himalayish branches have a special relationship to one another other than a geographic one. They are intended rather as categories of convenience pending more detailed comparative work.

Matisoff also notes that Jingpho–Nungish–Luish is central to the family in that it contains features of many of the other branches, and is also located around the center of the Tibeto-Burman-speaking area.

===Bradley (2002)===
Since Benedict (1972), many languages previously inadequately documented have received more attention with the publication of new grammars, dictionaries, and wordlists. This new research has greatly benefited comparative work, and [[David Bradley (linguist)|Bradley]] (2002) incorporates much of the newer data.{{sfnp|Bradley|2002}}

{{tree list}}
* '''Tibeto-Burman'''
** Western (= [[Bodic languages|Bodic]])
*** [[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibetan–Kanauri]]
**** [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]]
**** [[Tamangic languages|Gurung]]
**** [[East Bodish languages|East Bodic]] (incl. [[Tshangla language|Tsangla]])
**** [[West Himalayish languages|Kanauri]]
*** [[Mahakiranti languages|Himalayan]]
**** Eastern ([[Kiranti languages|Kiranti]])
**** Western ([[Newar language|Newar]], [[Chepangic languages|Chepang]], [[Magaric languages|Magar]], [[Thangmi language|Thangmi]], [[Baram language|Baram]])
** ''[[Sal languages|Sal]]''
*** [[Baric languages|Baric]] ([[Boro–Garo languages|Boro–Garo]]–[[Konyak languages|Northern Naga]])
*** [[Jingpho language|Jinghpaw]]
*** [[Sak languages|Luish]] (incl. [[Pyu language (Burma)|Pyu]])
*** [[Kuki-Chin languages|Kuki-Chin]] (incl. [[Meitei language|Meithei]] and [[Karbi language|Karbi]])
** ''Central'' (perhaps a residual group, not actually related to each other. [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]] may also fit here.)
*** [[Miric languages|Adi–Galo–Mishing–Nishi]]
*** [[Mishmic languages|Mishmi]] ([[Digaro languages|Digarish]] and [[Midzu languages|Keman]])
*** [[Nungish languages|Rawang]]
** ''North-Eastern''
*** [[Qiangic languages|Qiangic]]
*** [[Naxi language|Naxi]]–[[Bai language|Bai]]
*** [[Tujia language|Tujia]]
*** [[Tangut language|Tangut]]
** ''South-Eastern''
*** [[Lolo–Burmese languages|Burmese–Lolo]] (incl. [[Mru language|Mru]])
*** [[Karen languages|Karen]]
{{tree list/end}}

===van Driem===
[[George van Driem]] rejects the primary split of Sinitic, making Tibeto-Burman synonymous with Sino-Tibetan.

===Matisoff (2015)===
The internal structure of Tibeto-Burman is tentatively classified as follows by [[James A. Matisoff|Matisoff]] (2015: xxxii, 1123–1127) in the final release of the ''[[Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus]]'' (STEDT).<ref name="Matisoff2015">Matisoff, James A. 2015. [http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/group/1 ''The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus'']. Berkeley: University of California. ([http://stedt.berkeley.edu/dissemination/STEDT.pdf PDF])</ref><ref name="STEDT2015">Bruhn, Daniel; Lowe, John; Mortensen, David; Yu, Dominic (2015). ''Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus Database Software''. Software, UC Berkeley Dash. {{doi|10.6078/D1159Q}}</ref>

{{tree list}}
*'''Tibeto-Burman'''
**Northeast Indian areal group
***"North Assam"
****[[Tani languages|Tani]]
****[[Digaro languages|Deng]]
***[[Kukish languages|Kuki-Chin]]
***"[[Naga languages|Naga]]" areal group
****Central Naga ([[Ao languages|Ao]] group)
****[[Angami–Pochuri languages|Angami–Pochuri]] group
****[[Zeme languages|Zeme]] group
****[[Tangkhul languages|Tangkhulic]]
***[[Meithei language|Meithei]]
***Mikir / [[Karbi language|Karbi]]
***[[Mruic languages|Mru]]
***[[Sal languages|Sal]]
****[[Boro–Garo languages|Boro–Garo]]
****Northern Naga / [[Konyak languages|Konyakian]]
****[[Kachin–Luic languages|Jingpho–Asakian]]
**Himalayish
***[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibeto-Kanauri]]
****[[West Himalayish languages|Western Himalayish]]
****[[Bodish languages|Bodic]]
****[[Lepcha language|Lepcha]]
****[[Tamangic languages|Tamangish]]
****[[Dhimal languages|Dhimal]]
***[[Newar language|Newar]]
***[[Kiranti languages|Kiranti]]
***[[Kham language|Kham]]-[[Magaric languages|Magar]]-[[Chepangic languages|Chepang]]
**Tangut-Qiang
***[[Tangut language|Tangut]]
***[[Qiangic languages|Qiangic]]
***[[Rgyalrongic languages|rGyalrongic]]
**[[Nungish languages|Nungic]]
**[[Tujia language|Tujia]]
**Lolo-Burmese–Naxi
***[[Lolo-Burmese languages|Lolo-Burmese]]
***[[Naic languages|Naxi]]
**[[Karenic languages|Karenic]]
**[[Bai language|Bai]]
{{tree list/end}}

===Other languages===
The classification of [[Tujia language|Tujia]] is difficult due to extensive borrowing. Other unclassified Tibeto-Burman languages include [[Basum language|Basum]] and the [[Songlin language|Songlin]] and [[Chamdo languages]], both of which were only described in the 2010s. New Tibeto-Burman languages continue to be recognized, some not closely related to other languages. Distinct languages only recognized in the 2010s include [[Koki Naga language|Koki Naga]].

[[Randy LaPolla]] (2003) proposed a [[Rung languages|Rung branch]] of Tibeto-Burman, based on morphological evidence, but this is not widely accepted.

[[Scott DeLancey]] (2015)<ref>DeLancey, Scott. 2015. "Morphological Evidence for a Central Branch of Trans-Himalayan (Sino-Tibetan)." ''Cahiers de linguistique – Asie oriental'' 44(2):122–149. December 2015. {{doi|10.1163/19606028-00442p02}}</ref> proposed a [[Central Tibeto-Burman languages|Central branch]] of Tibeto-Burman based on morphological evidence.

Roger Blench and Mark Post (2011) list a number of divergent languages of [[Arunachal Pradesh]], in northeastern India, that might have non-Tibeto-Burman substrates, or could even be non-Tibeto-Burman [[language isolate]]s:{{sfnp|Blench|Post|2011}}

{{tree list}}
**[[Kamengic languages|Kamengic]]
***[[Bugun language|Bugun]] (Khowa)
***[[Mey language|Mey]] (Sherdukpen) of Shergaon
***[[Mey language|Mey]] (Sherdukpen) of Rupa
***[[Sartang language|Sartang]]
***[[Chug language|Chug]] and [[Lish language|Lish]]
**[[Northern Mishmi languages|[Northern] Mishmi]] (Digarish)
***[[Idu Mishmi language|Idu]] (Luoba)
***[[Digaro Mishmi language|Taraon]] (Digaru)
**[[Siangic languages|Siangic]]
***[[Koro language (India)|Koro]]
***[[Milang language|Milang]]
**[[Puroik language|Puroik]] (Sulung) – [[East Kameng District]]
**[[Hruso language|Hruso]] (Aka) – Thrizino Circle, [[West Kameng District]]
**[[Miji language|Miji]] (Sajolang, Dimai, Dhimmai)
**[[Miju Mishmi language|Miju]]
{{tree list/end}}

Blench and Post believe the remaining languages with these substratal characteristics are more clearly Sino-Tibetan:

{{tree list}}
**East Bodish
***[[Zakhring language|Meyor]] (Zakhring)
***[[Tawang Monpa language|Monpa of Tawang]] – [[Tawang District]]
***[[Kalaktang Monpa language|Monpa of Kalaktang]] (Tshangla)
***[[Zemithang Monpa language|Monpa of Zemithang]]
***Monpa of Mago-Thingbu
**Tani: [[Nah language|Nah]]
{{tree list/end}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{reflist|colwidth=20em}}

'''Bibliography'''
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* {{citation
| last = Beckwith | first = Christopher I. | author-link = Christopher I. Beckwith
| chapter = The Morphological Argument for the Existence of Sino-Tibetan
| title = Pan-Asiatic Linguistics: Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Languages and Linguistics, January 8–10, 1996
| location = Bangkok | publisher = Mahidol University at Salaya | year = 1996
| pages = 812–826
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = Beckwith | first = Christopher I. | author-mask = 3
| chapter = The Sino-Tibetan problem
| title = Medieval Tibeto-Burman languages
| editor1-last = Beckwith | editor1-first = Chris
| editor2-last = Blezer | editor2-first = Henk
| pages = 113–158 | publisher = BRILL | year = 2002
| isbn = 978-90-04-12424-0
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = Benedict | first = Paul K. | author-link = Paul K. Benedict
| title = Sino-Tibetan: A conspectus
| editor-last = Matisoff | editor-first = J. A.
| publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 1972
| isbn = 978-0-521-08175-7
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| editor1-last = Bielmeier | editor1-first = Roland
| editor2-last = Haller | editor2-first = Felix
| title = Linguistics of the Himalayas and Beyond
| location = Berlin and New York | publisher = Mouton de Gruyter | year = 2007
| isbn = 978-3-11-019828-7
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation | first1 = Roger | last1 = Blench | author-link1 = Roger Blench | first2 = Mark | last2 = Post | title = (De)classifying Arunachal languages: Reconsidering the evidence | url = http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/South%20Asia/NEI/General/Lingres/Declassifying%20Arunachal.pdf | year = 2011 | postscript = . | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130526230734/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/South%20Asia/NEI/General/Lingres/Declassifying%20Arunachal.pdf | archive-date = 2013-05-26 }}
* {{citation
| first1 = Roger | last1 = Blench | author-mask1 = 3
| first2 = Mark | last2 = Post | author-mask2 = 3
| chapter = Rethinking Sino-Tibetan phylogeny from the perspective of North East Indian languages
| pages = 71–104
| editor1-first = Nathan W. | editor1-last = Hill
| editor2-first = Thomas | editor2-last = Owen-Smith
| title = Trans-Himalayan Linguistics
| location = Berlin | publisher = Mouton de Gruyter | year = 2013
| isbn = 978-3-11-031083-2
| chapter-url = https://www.academia.edu/627686
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = Bradley | first = David | author-link = David Bradley (linguist)
| chapter = Tibeto-Burman languages and classification
| editor-last = Bradley | editor-first = David
| title = Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas
| series = Papers in South East Asian linguistics | volume = 14
| pages = 1–71
| location = Canberra | publisher = Pacific Linguistics | year = 1997
| isbn = 978-0-85883-456-9
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = Bradley | first = David | author-mask = 3
| chapter = The Subgrouping of Tibeto-Burman
| editor1-last = Beckwith | editor1-first = Chris
| editor2-last = Blezer | editor2-first = Henk
| title = Medieval Tibeto-Burman languages
| pages = 73–112 | publisher = BRILL | year = 2002
| isbn = 978-90-04-12424-0
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| chapter = The Tibeto-Burman languages of northeast India
| last = Burling | first = Robbins | author-link = Robbins Burling
| title = Sino-Tibetan Languages | pages = 169–191
| editor1-last = Thurgood | editor1-first = Graham
| editor2-last = LaPolla | editor2-first = Randy J.
| location = London | publisher = Routledge | year = 2003
| isbn = 978-0-7007-1129-1
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| first = W. South | last = Coblin| author-link = Weldon South Coblin
| title = A New Study of the Pai-lang Songs
| journal = Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies
| year = 1979 | volume = 12 | pages = 179–216
| url = http://nthur.lib.nthu.edu.tw/retrieve/72611/JA01_1979_p179.pdf
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = van Driem | first = George | author-link = George van Driem
| title = Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region
| publisher = BRILL | year = 2001
| isbn = 978-90-04-12062-4
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = van Driem | first = George L. | author-mask = 3
| chapter = Tibeto-Burman Phylogeny and Prehistory: Languages, Material Culture and Genes
| editor1-last = Bellwood | editor1-first = Peter
| editor2-last = Renfrew | editor2-first = Colin
| title = Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis
| year = 2003 | pages = 233–249
| publisher = McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge | isbn = 978-1-902937-20-5
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = van Driem | first = George L. | author-mask = 3
| chapter = South Asia and the Middle East
| title = Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages
| editor-last = Moseley | editor-first = Christopher
| publisher = Routledge | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-7007-1197-0
| pages = 283–347
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation | last = van Driem | first = George L. | author-mask = 3 | title = Tibeto-Burman subgroups and historical grammar | journal = Himalayan Linguistics Journal | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | year = 2011a | pages = 31–39 | url = http://www.linguistics.ucsb.edu/HimalayanLinguistics/articles/2011/HLJ1001B.html | postscript = . | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120112220623/http://www.linguistics.ucsb.edu/HimalayanLinguistics/articles/2011/HLJ1001B.html | archive-date = 2012-01-12 }}
* {{citation
| title = On Tibeto-Burman languages
| first = Charles James | last = Forbes
| journal = [[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland]] | series = New Series
| volume = X | issue = 2 | year = 1878 | pages = 210–227 | jstor = 25196796
| postscript = . | doi=10.1017/s0035869x00016956
| s2cid = 163329316 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1428638 | doi-access = free }}
* {{citation
| first = Zev | last = Handel
| title = What is Sino-Tibetan? Snapshot of a Field and a Language Family in Flux
| journal = Language and Linguistics Compass | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | year = 2008 | pages = 422–441
| doi = 10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x
| url = https://www.academia.edu/2347515
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| first = Brian Houghton | last = Hodgson | author-link = Brian Houghton Hodgson
| title = On the Indo-Chinese Borderers and their connexion with the Himálayans and Tibetans
| journal = Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
| year = 1853 | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–25
| url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/124456#page/21/mode/1up
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = Logan | first = James R. | author-link = James Richardson Logan
| title = The Maruwi of the Baniak Islands
| url = https://archive.org/stream/journalindianar01unkngoog#page/n11
| journal = Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia
| volume = 1 | number = 1 | year = 1856 | pages = 1–42
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = Logan | first = James R. | author-mask = 3
| title = The West-Himalaic or Tibetan tribes of Asam, Burma and Pegu
| journal = Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia
| volume = 2 | number = 1 | year = 1858 | pages = 68–114
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| title = Sino-Tibetan: Inspection of a Conspectus
| last = Miller | first = Roy Andrew | author-link = Roy Andrew Miller
| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| volume = 94 | issue = 2 | year = 1974 | pages = 195–209 | jstor = 600891 | doi = 10.2307/600891
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| title = Phonological Inventories of Tibeto-Burman Languages
| editor-first = Ju | editor-last = Namkung
| series = STEDT Monograph | volume = 3
| publisher = University of California, Berkeley | year = 1996 | isbn = 0-944613-28-4
| url = http://stedt.berkeley.edu/pubs_and_prods/STEDT_Monograph3_Phonological-Inv-TB.pdf
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = Sapir | first = Edward | author-link = Edward Sapir
| title = Review: ''Les Langues du Monde''
| journal = Modern Language Notes | volume = 40 | issue = 6
| year = 1925 | pages = 373–375 | jstor = 2914102
| postscript = .
| doi = 10.2307/2914102 }}
* {{citation
| given = Robert | surname = Shafer
| title = Classification of the Sino-Tibetan languages
| journal = Word (Journal of the Linguistic Circle of New York)
| year = 1955 | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 94–111
| doi = 10.1080/00437956.1955.11659552
| postscript = .
| doi-access = free
}}
* {{citation
| last = Shafer | first = Robert | author-mask = 3
| title = Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 1)
| location = Wiesbaden | publisher = Otto Harrassowitz | year = 1966
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = Shafer | first = Robert | author-mask = 3
| title = Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 2)
| location = Wiesbaden | publisher = Otto Harrassowitz | year = 1967
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = Shafer | first = Robert | author-mask = 3
| title = Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 3)
| location = Wiesbaden | publisher = Otto Harrassowitz | year = 1968
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = Shafer | first = Robert | author-mask = 3
| title = Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 4)
| location = Wiesbaden | publisher = Otto Harrassowitz | year = 1970
| isbn = 978-3-447-01286-7
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| last = Shafer | first = Robert | author-mask = 3
| title = Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 5)
| location = Wiesbaden | publisher = Otto Harrassowitz | year = 1974
| isbn = 978-3-447-01559-2
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| chapter = A subgrouping of the Sino-Tibetan languages
| last = Thurgood | first = Graham | author-link = Graham Thurgood
| title = Sino-Tibetan Languages | pages = 3–21
| editor1-last = Thurgood | editor1-first = Graham
| editor2-last = LaPolla | editor2-first = Randy J.
| location = London | publisher = Routledge | year = 2003
| isbn = 978-0-7007-1129-1
| postscript = .
}}
* {{citation
| surname1 = Sagart | given1 = Laurent | author1-link = Laurent Sagart
| surname2 = Jacques | given2 = Guillaume | author2-link = Guillaume Jacques
| surname3 = Lai | given3 = Yunfan
| surname4 = Ryder | given4 = Robin
| surname5 = Thouzeau | given5 = Valentin
| surname6 = Greenhill | given6 = Simon J.
| surname7 = List | given7 = Johann-Mattis
| title = Dated language phylogenies shed light on the history of Sino-Tibetan
| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
| volume = 116 | issue = 21 | pages = 10317–10322 | year = 2019
| doi = 10.1073/pnas.1817972116 | doi-access = free | pmid = 31061123 | pmc = 6534992
| postscript = .
}}
**{{cite press release |date=May 6, 2019 |title=Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research |website=ScienceDaily |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/05/190506151822.htm}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=[[Wiktionary]] has '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Vocabulary lists of Mainland Southeast Asian languages|Vocabulary lists of Mainland Southeast Asian languages]]'''''}}
* Mann, Noel Walter (1998). ''[https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/10062 A phonological reconstruction of Proto Northern Burmic]''. Unpublished thesis. Arlington: The University of Texas.
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Tibeto-Burman Languages |volume=26 |pages=928–929 |first=Sten |last=Konow}}

==External links==
* [http://stedt.berkeley.edu/ Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus (STEDT)]
* [http://stedt.berkeley.edu/ltba/ ''Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area''] (journal)
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090130020512/http://himalayanlanguages.org/ Himalayan languages site]}} (by [[George van Driem]])
* [https://sites.google.com/site/sinotibetanbranches/ Sino-Tibetan Branches Project (STBP)]
* [http://tibeto-burman.net/ Tibeto-Burman bibliography website]

{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Tibeto-Burman languages| ]]
[[Category:Languages of Tibet]]
[[Category:Languages of Myanmar]]

Dhubri railway station

2026-03-03T17:37:34Z

SAWANTRAJ:

{{Short description|Indian railway station in Assam}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox station
| name = [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|50px]] {{font color|blue|DHUBRI}}
| type = [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|30px]] [[Indian Railways]] station
| style = Indian Railways
| image =
Dhubri railway station sign.jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption =
| address = Ward No.14, Station Road, Bidyapara, [[Dhubri]], Assam
| country = India
| coordinates = {{Coord|26.0230|N|89.9776|E|type:railwaystation_region:IN|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| elevation = {{convert|30|m|ft}}
| line = *[[Fakiragram–Dhubri branch line]]
*New Cooch Behar–Golokganj branch line
| other =
| structure = [[Intersection_(road)#At_grade_railways|At grade]]
| platform = 2
| tracks = 2
| parking = Yes
| bicycle = No
| opened = 1903
| closed = 1988
| rebuilt = 2010
| electrified =
| accessible =
| code = {{Indian railway code
| code = DBB
| zone =
| division = {{rwd|Alipurduar}}
}}
| owned = [[Indian Railways]]
| operator = [[Northeast Frontier Railway zone|Northeast Frontier Railway]]
| status = Functioning
| former = [[Eastern Bengal Railway]]
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| map_type = India Assam#India
| map_dot_label = Dhubri
| map_caption = Location in Assam##Location in India
}}
'''Dhubri''' is the terminal railway station on the [[Fakiragram–Dhubri branch line]]. It also links to the New Cooch Behar–Golokganj branch line. A new line is being laid to connect Dhubri with Jogighopa. It is located on the west bank of the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]] in [[Dhubri district]] in the Indian state of [[Assam]]. Important trains like [[Alipurduar–Silghat Town Rajya Rani Express]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=05418/Silghat Town - Alipurduar Rajya Rani Special|url=http://amp.indiarailinfo.com/train/-train-silghat-town-alipurduar-rajya-rani-special-05418/137944/9057/449|website=indiarailinfo.com}}</ref> [[Siliguri–Dhubri Intercity Express]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Siliguri-Dhubri Intercity Express|url=https://indiarailinfo.com/train/-train-dhubri-intercity-express-15765xx/13867/445/449|website=indiarailinfo.com}}</ref> are available from Dhubri. It lies under [[Alipurduar railway division]] of [[Northeast Frontier Railway zone]].

==Geography==
Dhubri district occupies the south-west corner of Assam. It borders on Bangladesh, and the Indian states of West Bengal and Meghalaya. The Brahmaputra divides the district into two parts. Tributaries of the Brahmaputra such as Gangadhar, Gaurang, Tipkai, Champamoti in the north and Jinjiram, Jinari and Kaloo in the south are all major contributors of floods in the area.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.dhubri.nic.in/ | title = Dhubri district at a glance | publisher = Dhubri district administration | accessdate = 11 May 2013 | archive-date = 12 May 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130512122951/http://dhubri.nic.in/ | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://dhubri.gov.in/DMPLan1_Dhubri_Final_Approved.pdf |title = District Disaster Management Plan of Dhubri|publisher= Dhubri district administration | accessdate = 11 May 2013}}</ref>

==History==
The Fakiragram–Dhubri line was opened in September 2010 after conversion to {{Track gauge|5ft6in|lk=on}} [[broad gauge]]. Dhubri railway station had initially been opened in 1904. Flood waters had washed away the tracks in 1988. The {{convert|66|km|mi}} long line was ready after gauge conversion in 2010.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100914/jsp/northeast/story_12931692.jsp| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130630094651/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100914/jsp/northeast/story_12931692.jsp| url-status = dead| archive-date = 30 June 2013|title = Mamata flags off two trains- Dhubri-Kamakhya link after 22-year wait |work=The Telegraph|date=14 September 2010| accessdate = 11 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100407/jsp/northeast/story_12303319.jsp | archive-url = https://archive.today/20130630095036/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100407/jsp/northeast/story_12303319.jsp | url-status = dead | archive-date = 30 June 2013 |title = 23 yr wait for train to end soon |work=The Telegraph|date=7 April 2010| accessdate = 11 May 2013 }}</ref>

Up to the sixties there was a {{track gauge|1000mm}}-wide [[metre-gauge railway]] link from Cooch Behar to Dhubri via Golokganj. It was then known as the Assam Line Railway Service. It also connected East Pakistan, even after partition. However, collapse of the rail-cum-road bridge over the Gadadhar in the seventies ended that link. The bridge has been rebuilt and the track laid again as broad gauge.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.telegraphindia.com/1111229/jsp/northeast/story_14936704.jsp |archive-url= https://archive.today/20120913212105/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1111229/jsp/northeast/story_14936704.jsp |url-status= dead |archive-date= 13 September 2012 |title= Dhubri-Bengal Link Soon|work=The Telegraph|date=29 December 2011| accessdate= 11 May 2013 }}</ref> Dhubri-New Jalpaiguri Inter-city Express via Alipurduar Jn was introduced in February 2012.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120212/jsp/northeast/story_15123443.jsp#.UYzeD0qDet8 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20130630094316/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120212/jsp/northeast/story_15123443.jsp%23.UYzeD0qDet8 | url-status = dead | archive-date = 30 June 2013 |title = Two new trains flagged off|work=The Telegraph|date=12 February 2012| accessdate = 11 May 2013 }}</ref>

==References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IndiaRailInfo|7429}}
{{Adjacent stations|noclear=y
|system=Indian Railways
|line=Northeast Frontier Railway zone|left=|right=Gauripur|type=[[Fakiragram–Dhubri branch line]]}}

{{Railway stations in Assam}}

[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 1903]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Dhubri district]]
[[Category:Alipurduar railway division]]
[[Category:Transport in Dhubri]]

Anni Manchi Sakunamule

2026-03-03T09:18:07Z

SAWANTRAJ: Started

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Anni Manchi Sakunamule
| image = Anni-Manchi-Sakunamule-Movie-Poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = concept poster
| native_name =
| director = [[B. V. Nandini Reddy]]
| screenplay = Sheik Dawood G.
{{Infobox | decat = yes | child = yes
| label1= Dialogues by
| data1 = {{Ubl |Lakshmi Bhupala}}
}}
| story =
| based_on =
| producer = [[Priyanka Dutt]]
| starring = [[Santosh Sobhan]] [[Malvika Nair]]
| narrator =
| cinematography = Sunny Kurapati Richard Prasad
| editing = Junaid Siddiqui
| music = [[Mickey J. Meyer]]
| studio = Swapna Cinema Mitra Vinda Movies
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2023|05|18|df=yes}}
| runtime = 154 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Anni Manchi Sakunamule''''' ({{translation|'All good omens'}}) is a 2023 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[romantic drama|romantic]] [[Drama (film and television)#Family drama|family drama]] film directed by [[B. V. Nandini Reddy]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Nandini Reddy's next Telugu film is 'Anni Manchi Sakunamule'|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/santosh-sobhan-and-malvika-nair-in-nandini-reddys-film/article35146256.ece|access-date=9 May 2023|work= Thehindu|date=6 July 2021 }}</ref> and produced by [[Priyanka Dutt]] under Swapna Cinema and Mitra Vinda Movies. The film stars [[Santosh Sobhan]], [[Malvika Nair]], [[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]], [[Rao Ramesh]], [[Naresh (actor)|Naresh]], and [[Gautami]] in supporting roles. The music was composed by [[Mickey J. Meyer]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Anni Manchi Sakunamule Telugu Movie 2023 - Cast & Crew Details, Release Date|url=https://www.thetelugufilmnagar.com/2023/03/09/anni-manchi-sakunamule-telugu-movie-2023/|access-date=9 May 2023|work= Thetelugufilmnagar|date=9 March 2023 }}</ref>

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
*[[Santosh Sobhan]] as Rishi Prasad
*[[Malvika Nair]] as Aryani
*[[Rajendra Prasad (actor)|Rajendra Prasad]] as Prasad, Arya’s father, Rishi’s adoptive father
*[[Rao Ramesh]] as Diwakar, Sudhakar’s elder brother
*[[Naresh (actor)|Naresh]] as Sudhakar, Rishi’s father, Arya’s adoptive father
*[[Gauthami]] as Meenakshi, Prasad’s wife, Arya’s mother, Rishi’s adoptive mother
*[[Ashwin Kumar Lakshmikanthan]] as Ram, Prasad’s nephew, Rishi’s cousin, Sravya’s brother (Voice dubbed by [[Rahul Ravindran]])
*[[Sowcar Janaki]] as Janaki, Prasad’s aunt, Rishi's adoptive grandmother
*[[Urvashi (actress)|Urvashi]] as Doctor Jagadamba
*Anju Alva Naik as Vasudha, Sudhakar’s wife, Rishi’s mother, Arya’s adoptive mother
*Venkatesh Kakumanu as Vasu, Rishi's friend
*[[Vasuki Anand]] as Gayathri Prasad, Prasad’s daughter, Rishi's adoptive elder sister
*[[Vennela Kishore]] as Gayathri’s husband, Prasad's son-in-law
*[[Raj Madiraju]] as Ram and Sravya’s father, Prasad’s brother-in-law
*Bindu Chandramouli as Ram and Sravya’s mother, Prasad’s sister
*[[Giri Babu]] as Judge
*[[Chandra Mohan (Telugu actor)|Chandra Mohan]] as Police
*[[Satya (Telugu actor)|Satya]] as Voscar Gangaraju
*[[Ramya Subramanian]] as Divya, Sudhakar’s daughter, Arya’s adoptive elder sister
*Udbhav Raghunandan as Duggu, Divya’s husband, Sudhakar’s son-in-law
*Mahesh Achanta as Compounder
*Sritha Nandiraj as Sravya, Ram’s younger sister, Prasad’s niece, Rishi’s cousin
*Rohith Addanki as Sravya’s fiance
*[[Jhansi (TV anchor)|Jhansi]] as Sravya’s fiance’s mother
*[[Thagubothu Ramesh]] as Ramesh, Sravya’s wedding guest
*R.J. Hemant as Sravya’s wedding guest
*Vadlamani Srinivas as Veeraswamy, a loan shark
}}

==Production==

The entire film was shot at the hill station of [[Coonoor]] and few cities in [[Europe]] and [[United States|USA]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}

==Release==
The film was released on 18 May 2023. The film's [[Copyright|digital rights]] were brought by [[Amazon Prime Video]], while the [[Satellite television|satellite]] rights were brought by [[Zee Telugu]]. The film started streaming on Prime Video from June 17, 2023 in Telugu along with dubbed versions in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Hindi]], [[Malayalam]], and [[Kannada]] languages.<ref>{{cite news |title=Anni Manchi Sakunamule Telugu Movie 2023 - Cast & Crew Details, Release Date|url=https://www.thetelugufilmnagar.com/2023/03/09/anni-manchi-sakunamule-telugu-movie-2023/|access-date=9 May 2023|work= Thetelugufilmnagar|date=9 March 2023 }}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
The [[film score]] and [[soundtrack]] were composed by [[Mickey J. Meyer]]. The audio rights were acquired by [[Sony Music India]].
The first single titled "Anni Manchi Sakunamule" was released on 21 March 2023. The second single titled "Merise Mabbullo" was released on 20 April 2023.<ref>{{cite news |title='Merise Mabbullo' Song Anni Manchi Sakunamule|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/telugu/merise-mabbullo-song-anni-manchi-sakunamule/videoshow/99659895.cms|access-date=9 May 2023|work=Timesofindia|date=22 April 2023 }}</ref> The third single titled "Cheyyi Cheyyi Kalipeddam" was released on 20 April 2023.<ref>{{cite news |title='అన్నీ మంచి శకునములే' నుంచి 'చేయి చేయి కలిపేద్దాం' లిరికల్‌ వీడియో
|url=https://www.eenadu.net/videos/playVideo/cheyyi-cheyyi-kalipeddam-lyric-video-from-anni-manchi-sakunamule-out-now/2/37247|access-date=9 May 2023|work= Eenadu|date=8 May 2023 }}</ref>

{{track listing
| headline = Track list
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 18:40

| title1 = Anni Manchi Sakunamule Title Track
| lyrics1 = Rehman
| extra1 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]]
| length1 = 4:19

| title2 = Sita Kalyanam
| lyrics2 = [[Chandrabose (lyricist)|Chandrabose]]
| extra2 = [[Chaitra Ambadipudi]], [[Sri Krishna (singer)|Sri Krishna]]
| length2 = 2:56

| title3 = Merise Mabbullo
| lyrics3 = Rehman
| extra3 = [[Nakul Abhyankar]], Ramya Bhat Abhyankar
| length3 = 3:37

| title4 = Cheyyi Cheyyi Kalipeddam
| lyrics4 = Chandrabose
| extra4 = Chaitra Ambadipudi, [[Saandip]], Sri Krishna, Venu Srirangam
| length4 = 3:04

| title5 = Yemito
| lyrics5 = [[Ramajogayya Sastry]]
| extra5 = Chaitra Ambadipudi
| length5 = 2:35

| title6 = Hillori
| lyrics6 = Rehman
| extra6 = Ritesh G Rao
| length6 = 2:07
}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|14986032}}

[[Category:2023 films]]
[[Category:2023 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2023 Indian films]]
[[Category:2023 romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Films shot in Ooty]]

Umm al-Faraj

2026-02-28T14:24:18Z

SAWANTRAJ: page...

{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Umm al-Faraj
| native_name = أُم الفرج
| native_name_lang = ar
| other_name = Um el-Faraj, La Fierge
| settlement_type = Former village

| imagesize = 200
| image_caption = Remains at Umm al-Faraj, 2015
| etymology = The ruin with the gap, or chink<ref>Palmer, 1881, p. [https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp00conduoft#page/50/mode/1up 50]</ref>

| pushpin_map = Mandatory Palestine | pushpin_map_caption = Location within [[Mandatory Palestine]] | image_map = {{Historical map series|default=2|date1=1870s|date2=1940s|date3=modern|date4=1940s with modern overlay|width=225}} | map_caption = A series of historical maps of the area around Umm al-Faraj (click the buttons)
| pushpin_mapsize = 200
| coordinates = {{coord|33|00|18|N|35|07|16|E|type:city_region:PS|display=inline,title}}
| grid_name = [[Palestine grid|Palestine grid]]
| grid_position = 162/267

| subdivision_type = [[Geopolitical entity]]
| subdivision_name = [[Mandatory Palestine]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[Districts of Mandatory Palestine|Subdistrict]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Acre Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Acre]]

| established_title1 = Date of depopulation
| established_date1 = 21 May 1948<ref>Morris, 2004, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PR17 xvii], village #83. Morris also gives cause of depopulation.</ref>
| established_title2 = Repopulated dates

| area_footnotes = <ref name=Hadawi41/>
| unit_pref = dunam
| area_total_dunam = 825

| population_as_of = 1945
| population_total = 800<ref name=1945p5>Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics, 1945, p. [http://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/VSpages/VS1945_p05.jpg 5]</ref><ref name=Hadawi41>Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. ''Village Statistics, April, 1945.'' Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20I/Acre/Page-041.jpg 41]</ref>

| blank_name_sec1 = Cause(s) of depopulation
| blank_info_sec1 = Military assault by [[Yishuv]] forces
| blank3_name_sec1 = Current Localities
| blank3_info_sec1 = [[Ben Ami]]<ref name=Khalidi35>Khalidi, 1992, p. 35</ref>
}}
'''Umm al-Faraj''' ({{langx|ar|أم الفرج}}, known to the [[Crusades|Crusaders]] as '''La Fierge'''), was a [[Palestinians|Palestinian]] village, depopulated in 1948.

==Location==
The village was situated on a flat spot in the Acre plain, {{convert|10.5|km|mi|sp=us}} northeast of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]].<ref name=Khalidi34>Khalidi, 1992, p. 34</ref>

==History==
Archaeological remains from the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] eras have been found here.<ref name=Getzov2016>Getzov, Stern and Shapiro, 2016, [http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=25068&mag_id=124 Umm al-Faraj (Moshav Ben Ami)]</ref>

Sugar Moulds found here indicate that sugar productions started in the 11th century, under the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] era.<ref name=Getzov2016/>

===Crusader/Mamluk era===
The village was known to the [[Crusaders]] as ''Le Fierge'', and belonged to the fief of ''[[az-Zeeb|Casal Imbert]]''.<ref name=Khalidi34/> In 1253 [[Henry I of Cyprus|King Henry]] granted the whole estate of Casal Imbert, including ''Le Fierge'', to [[John II of Beirut|John of Ibelin]].<ref name=year1253>Strehlke, 1869, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/tabulaeordinist00stregoog#page/n100/mode/1up 84]-85, No. 105; cited in Röhricht, 1893, RRH, p. [https://archive.org/stream/regestaregnihie00rhgoog#page/n324/mode/1up 318], No. 1208; cited in Frankel, 1988, p. 264</ref><ref>Ellenblum, 2003, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=riHMZiH_Te4C&pg=PA68 68]</ref> Shortly after, in 1256, John of Ibelin leased Az-Zeeb and all its depending villages (including ''Le Fierge'') to the [[Teutonic Order]] for 10 years.<ref name=year1256>Röhricht, 1893, RRH, p. [https://archive.org/stream/regestaregnihie00rhgoog#page/n334/mode/1up 328], No. 1250; cited in Frankel, 1988, p. 264</ref> In 1261, Az-Zeeb, together with ''Le Fierge'' and [[Al-Kabri|Le Quiebre]], were sold to the Teutonic Order, in return for an annual sum for as long as [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] was in Christian hands.<ref name=year1261>Strehlke, 1869, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/tabulaeordinist00stregoog#page/n122/mode/1up 106]-7, No. 119; cited in Röhricht, 1893, RRH, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/regestaregnihie00rhgoog#page/n347/mode/1up 341]-2, No. 1307</ref> In 1283 it was still a part of the Crusader states, as it was mentioned as part of their domain in the [[hudna]] between the Crusaders based in [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] and the [[Mamluk]] sultan [[Qalawun]].<ref>The [[Ahmad al-Qalqashandi|al-Qalqashandi]] version of the ''hudna'', referred in Barag, 1979, p. 204, #24</ref><ref>Khamisy, 2014, p. 93, #31</ref>

According to [[al-Maqrizi]], it had come under [[Mamluk]] rule in 1291, when it was mentioned under the name of ''Farah'' when sultan [[al-Ashraf Khalil]] allocated the village's income to a [[Waqf]] in [[Cairo]].<ref>al-Maqrizi, 1845, vol 2, p. [https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_M7oWAAAAQAAJ#page/n137/mode/1up 131]</ref><ref>Barag, 1979, p. 203</ref>

Sugar production continued here during the Crusader and Mamluk eras.<ref name=Getzov2016/>

===Ottoman era===
Incorporated into the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1517 with all of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], it appeared in the 1596 [[daftar|tax registers]] as ''Farja'', being in the Akka Nahiya (Subdistrict of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]]), part of the [[Safad Sanjak]] (District of Safed), with a population of 24 households and 13 bachelors, all [[Muslim]]. The villagers paid a fixed tax rate of 20% on agricultural products, including wheat, barley, summer crops, cotton, goats and beehives, in addition to "occasional revenues" and a water mill; a total of 1,576 [[akçe]]. Half of the revenues were given to a [[waqf]].<ref>Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 193, has ''not'' identified it</ref><ref>Rhode, 1979, p. 77</ref><ref>Note that Rhode, 1979, p. [https://www.academia.edu/2026845/The_Administration_and_Population_of_the_Sancak_of_Safed_in_the_Sixteenth_Century 6] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420031504/https://www.academia.edu/2026845/The_Administration_and_Population_of_the_Sancak_of_Safed_in_the_Sixteenth_Century |date=2019-04-20 }} writes that the register that Hütteroth and Abdulfattah studied was not from 1595/6, but from 1548/9.</ref> Sugar production continued here to the beginning of the seventeenth century CE.<ref name=Getzov2016/>

In 1799, the village was called ''El Fargi'' on the map of [[Pierre Jacotin]].<ref>Karmon, 1960, p. [http://www.jchp.ucla.edu/Bibliography/Karmon,_Y_1960_Jacotin_Map_(IEJ_10).pdf 160] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201182028/http://jchp.ucla.edu/Bibliography/Karmon,_Y_1960_Jacotin_Map_(IEJ_10).pdf |date=2017-12-01 }}</ref> An inscription in [[marble]], built into the wall above the gate of the village [[mosque]], dates this building to 1254 H, (1838-39 C.E.).<ref>Sharon, 1999, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EPFDU8POrXIC&pg=PA170 170] -171</ref>

In May 1875, the French explorer [[Victor Guérin]] visited the village. He described it as being surrounded by "delightful" gardens, irrigated with water from [[Nahr al-Mafshukh]]. Many houses were built with great care, and some had old pieces of stone built into them. He further noted that "the location of an old demolished church is still to a certain extent recognisable", and that all the 200 villagers were Muslim.<ref>Guérin, 1880, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/descriptiongogr00gugoog#page/n60/mode/2up 45] -46</ref> In 1881, the [[Palestine Exploration Fund|PEF]]'s ''[[PEF Survey of Palestine|Survey of Western Palestine]]'' described it as being built of stone and with a population of 200. The villagers planted [[ficus|fig]], [[olive]], [[mulberry]] and [[pomegranate]] trees.<ref>Conder and Kitchener, 1881, SWP I, [https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp01conduoft#page/147/mode/1up p.147]. Quoted in Khalidi, 1992, p.34</ref>

A population list from about 1887 showed ''Um el Ferj'' to have about 690 inhabitants, all Muslims.<ref>Schumacher, 1888, p. [https://archive.org/stream/quarterlystateme19pale#page/n215/mode/1up 190]</ref>

===British Mandate era===
In the [[1922 census of Palestine]] conducted by the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate authorities]] ''Umm al Faraj'' had a population of 322, all Muslims,<ref name="Census1922">Barron, 1923, Table XI, Sub-district of Acre, p. [https://archive.org/stream/PalestineCensus1922/Palestine%20Census%20%281922%29#page/n38/mode/1up 36]</ref> increasing in the [[1931 census of Palestine|1931 census]] to 415, 2 Christians and 413 Muslims, in a total of 94 houses.<ref name="Census1931">Mills, 1932, p. [https://archive.org/details/CensusOfPalestine1931.PopulationOfVillagesTownsAndAdministrativeAreas 105]</ref>
The older houses in the village were built close together and formed a circle, while the homes build after 1936 were scattered among the orchards.<ref name=Khalidi34/> The population of Umm al-Faraj lived by agriculture.<ref name=Khalidi34/>

In the [[Village Statistics, 1945|1945 statistics]], the population of Umm al-Faraj was 800, all Muslims,<ref name=1945p5/> with a total land area of 825 dunams.<ref name=Hadawi41/> In 1944/45 a total of {{convert|745|dunam|lk=in}} was used for [[citrus]] and [[banana]]s, {{convert|18|dunam}} were used for [[cereal]]s, {{convert|42|dunam}} were irrigated or used for orchards,<ref name=Khalidi34/><ref>Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. Village Statistics, April, 1945. Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20II/Acre/Page-081.jpg 81]</ref> while 15 dunams were built-up (urban) areas.<ref>Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. ''Village Statistics, April, 1945.'' Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. [http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/VillageStatistics/Table%20III/Acre/Page-131.jpg 131]</ref>

===1948 War and aftermath===
{{see also|al-Kabri massacre}}
During the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], Umm al-Faraj was assaulted by [[Israel]]'s [[Carmeli Brigade]] in the second stage of [[Operation Ben'Ami]]. The operational order, issued 19 May 1948, was to "attack with the aim of conquest, the killing of adult males, destruction and torching."<ref>Morris, 2004, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA253 253], note 727</ref> The assault came on the 20–21 May 1948, when Carmeli forces attacked Umm al-Faraj together with [[Al-Kabri|Kabri]], [[Al-Tall, Acre|al Tell]] and [[Al-Nahr|Nahar]], and then "demolished them," according to Morris.<ref>Morris, 2004, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA253 253]-254, note 729</ref>

Following the war the area was incorporated into the [[Israel|State of Israel]]. The [[moshav]] of [[Ben Ami]] was established in 1949, in part on village land.<ref name=Khalidi35/>

The Palestinian historian [[Walid Khalidi]] described the village remains in 1992: "Only the stone mosque remains. It is shut and stands in a state of decay amid tall wild grass. Many trees that might predate the village's destruction can be seen. The nearby lands are cultivated; a banana grove belongs to the Ben Ammi settlement."<ref name=Khalidi35/>

==See also==
*[[Depopulated Palestinian locations in Israel]]

==References==
{{Reflist|25em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |author=Al-Maqrizi |author-link=Al-Maqrizi |title=Histoire des sultans mamlouks, de l'Égypte, écrite en arabe |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_M7oWAAAAQAAJ |volume=2 |others=Translator: [[Étienne Marc Quatremère]] |year=1845 |publisher=Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland |location=Paris |language=fr, la }}
*{{cite journal | author = Barag, Dan | title = A new source concerning the ultimate borders of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem| journal = [[Israel Exploration Journal]] | volume = 29 | issue = 3/4| year = 1979 | pages = 197–217| jstor = 27925726}}
*{{cite book | editor =Barron, J.B. | title =Palestine: Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922 | url =https://archive.org/details/PalestineCensus1922 | publisher =Government of Palestine | year =1923 }}
*{{cite book
|last1=Conder|first1=C.R.|author-link1=Claude Reignier Conder
|last2=Kitchener|first2=H.H.|author-link2=Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener
|year=1881
|url=https://archive.org/details/surveyofwesternp01conduoft|title=The Survey of Western Palestine: Memoirs of the Topography, Orography, Hydrography, and Archaeology|location=London|publisher=[[Palestine Exploration Fund|Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund]]
|volume=1}}
*{{cite book
| last = Dauphin | first = C. | author-link = Claudine Dauphin
| title = La Palestine byzantine, Peuplement et Populations
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FC1mAAAAMAAJ
| volume = III : Catalogue | series = BAR International Series 726 | year = 1998 | publisher = Archeopress | location = Oxford | language = fr | isbn = 978-0-860549-05-5 }}(p. 636)
*{{cite book|first=R.|last=Ellenblum|author-link=Ronnie Ellenblum|title=Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riHMZiH_Te4C|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|isbn=9780521521871}}
*{{cite book|last=Fisk|first=R.|author-link=Robert Fisk|title=Pity the nation: Lebanon at war|url=http://www.archipelago.org/vol6-3/fisk.htm|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0192801302}} (For future expansion: Chapter 2: Mrs Zamzam in the [[Rashidieh]] [[refugee camp]] in southern [[Lebanon]] recalls Umm al-Faraj)
*{{cite journal | first1=Rafael | last1=Frankel | title=Topographical notes on the territory of Acre in the Crusader period| journal= Israel Exploration Journal| volume=38 | number= 4 | year=1988 | pages= 249–272| jstor=27926125 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Getzov |first1=Nimrod |last2=Stern |first2=Edna J. |last3=Shapiro |first3=Anastasia |date=2016-10-02 |url=http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=25068&mag_id=124 |title=Umm al-Faraj (Moshav Ben Ami) |journal=Hadashot Arkheologiyot – Excavations and Surveys in Israel |number=128 }}
*{{cite book|title=Village Statistics, April, 1945|url=http://web.nli.org.il/sites/nli/Hebrew/library/Pages/BookReader.aspx?pid=856390|author=Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics|year=1945}}
*{{cite book|last=Guérin|first=V.|author-link=Victor Guérin|title=Description Géographique Historique et Archéologique de la Palestine|url=https://archive.org/details/descriptiongogr00gugoog|volume=3: Galilee, pt. 2|year=1880|publisher=L'Imprimerie Nationale|location=Paris|language=fr}}
*{{cite book|title=Village Statistics of 1945: A Classification of Land and Area ownership in Palestine|url=http://www.palestineremembered.com/Articles/General-2/Story3150.html|first=S.|last=Hadawi|author-link=Sami Hadawi|year=1970|publisher=Palestine Liberation Organization Research Centre}}
*{{cite book
|last1=Hütteroth |first1=W.-D.|author-link1=Wolf-Dieter Hütteroth
|last2=Abdulfattah|first2=K. |author-link2=Kamal Abdulfattah
|title=Historical Geography of Palestine, Transjordan and Southern Syria in the Late 16th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wqULAAAAIAAJ |year=1977
|publisher=Erlanger Geographische Arbeiten, Sonderband 5. Erlangen, Germany: Vorstand der Fränkischen Geographischen Gesellschaft
|isbn=978-3-920405-41-4 }}
*{{cite journal
| author = Karmon, Y.
| title = An Analysis of Jacotin's Map of Palestine | url = http://www.jchp.ucla.edu/Bibliography/Karmon,_Y_1960_Jacotin_Map_(IEJ_10).pdf | journal = Israel Exploration Journal | volume = 10 | issue = 3,4 | year = 1960 | pages = 155–173; 244–253 | access-date = 2015-03-23 | archive-date = 2017-12-01 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171201182028/http://jchp.ucla.edu/Bibliography/Karmon,_Y_1960_Jacotin_Map_(IEJ_10).pdf | url-status = dead }}
*{{cite book|title=All That Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_By7AAAAIAAJ|first=W.|last=Khalidi|author-link=Walid Khalidi|year=1992|location=[[Washington D.C.]]|publisher=[[Institute for Palestine Studies]]|isbn=978-0-88728-224-9}}
*{{cite journal | author = Khamisy, Rabei G. | title = The Treaty of 1283 between Sultan Qalāwūn and the Frankish Authorities of Acre: A New Topographical Discussion | journal = [[Israel Exploration Journal]] | volume = 64,1| year = 2014 | pages = 72–102}}
*{{cite book | editor = Mills, E. | title = Census of Palestine 1931. Population of Villages, Towns and Administrative Areas | url = https://archive.org/details/CensusOfPalestine1931.PopulationOfVillagesTownsAndAdministrativeAreas | publisher = Government of Palestine | location = Jerusalem | year = 1932 }}
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C |first=B. |last=Morris |author-link=Benny Morris |year=2004 |title=The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited |isbn=978-0-521-00967-6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
*{{cite book|last=Palmer|first=E.H.|author-link=Edward Henry Palmer|year=1881|url=https://archive.org/details/surveyofwesternp00conduoft|title=The Survey of Western Palestine: Arabic and English Name Lists Collected During the Survey by Lieutenants Conder and Kitchener, R. E. Transliterated and Explained by E.H. Palmer|publisher=[[Palestine Exploration Fund|Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund]]}}
*{{cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Rhode |first=H. |author-link=Harold Rhode |date=1979 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2026845 |title=Administration and Population of the Sancak of Safed in the Sixteenth Century |publisher=[[Columbia University]] |access-date=2017-12-13 |archive-date=2020-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301141739/https://www.academia.edu/2026845/The_Administration_and_Population_of_the_Sancak_of_Safed_in_the_Sixteenth_Century |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite book|last=Röhricht|first=R.|author-link=Reinhold Röhricht|title=(RRH) Regesta regni Hierosolymitani (MXCVII-MCCXCI)|url=https://archive.org/details/regestaregnihie00rhgoog|year=1893|publisher=Libraria Academica Wageriana|location=Berlin|language=la}}
*{{cite journal
| last = Schumacher | first = G. | author-link = Gottlieb Schumacher
| title = Population list of the Liwa of Akka
| journal = Quarterly Statement - Palestine Exploration Fund
| volume = 20 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/quarterlystateme19pale/page/169 169]–191 | url = https://archive.org/details/quarterlystateme19pale | year = 1888 }}
*{{cite book
|title=Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae, B-C |volume=2
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EPFDU8POrXIC
|first=M. |last=Sharon |author-link=Moshe Sharon
|year=1999 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-11083-0 }}
*{{cite book
|editor-last=Strehlke | editor-first = E.| editor-link = Ernst Strehlke
|title=Tabulae Ordinis Theutonici ex tabularii regii Berolinensis codice potissimum
|url=https://archive.org/details/tabulaeordinist00stregoog|year=1869|publisher=Weidmanns|location=Berlin}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.palestineremembered.com/Acre/Umm-al-Faraj/ Welcome to Umm-al-Faraj]
*[http://www.zochrot.org/en/village/48995 Umm al-Faraj], [[Zochrot]]
*Survey of Western Palestine, Map 3: [http://www.iaa-archives.org.il/zoom/zoom.aspx?folder_id=93&type_id=6&id=8366 IAA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314231555/http://www.iaa-archives.org.il/zoom/zoom.aspx?folder_id=93&type_id=6&id=8366 |date=2016-03-14 }}, [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Survey_of_Western_Palestine_1880.03.jpg Wikimedia commons]
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120224021646/http://www.jalili48.com/pub/xENShowGallery.aspx?Sub=What_Remained_of_the_destroyed&Sub2=Um_Al-Faraj Um Al-Faraj photos]}}, from Dr. Moslih Kanaaneh
*[http://www.alnakba.org/villages/acre/alfaraj.htm Umm Al-Faraj], at [[Khalil Sakakini Cultural Center]]

{{Palestinian Arab villages depopulated during the 1948 Palestine War}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Umm Al-Faraj}}
[[Category:District of Acre]]
[[Category:Arab villages depopulated during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War]]
[[Category:Teutonic Order]]

Kiruba Munusamy

2026-02-27T00:42:51Z

SAWANTRAJ: added initial details w/ refs

{{Short description|Human Rights Lawyer in India}}
{{Orphan|date=November 2022}}

'''Kiruba Munusamy''' is a human rights lawyer and [[Dalit]] activist. She works on caste discrimination and gender violence cases.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://time.com/5900402/hathras-rape-case-india-violence/ | title=The Fatal Gang Rape of a Young Woman Is Forcing a Reckoning in India Over the Caste System | date=16 October 2020 | publisher=Time Magazine | accessdate=16 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://ca.news.yahoo.com/8-dalit-women-you-must-know-about-025952456.html | title=Dalit Lives Matter: 8 Dalit Women Activists You Must Know About | publisher=Yahoo | work=Geetika Sachdev | date=14 October 2020 | accessdate=15 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://scroll.in/video/975504/our-bodies-as-sites-of-violence-in-conversation-with-legal-experts-kiruba-munusamy-and-saumya-uma | title='Our bodies as sites of violence': In conversation with legal experts Kiruba Munusamy and Saumya Uma | publisher=Scroll | date=11 October 2020 | accessdate=16 November 2020}}</ref><ref name="Chalam2020">{{cite book|author=K S. Chalam|title=Political Economy of Caste in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CjwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA140|accessdate=16 November 2020|date=6 July 2020|publisher=SAGE Publishing India|isbn=978-93-5388-409-3|pages=140–}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://justiceandpeace.nl/en/stories/kiruba/ | title=Kiruba, fighting caste cruelties in India The story of Kiruba Munusamy, human rights lawyer and Dalit women activist from India | publisher=Justice and Peace | accessdate=16 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://magazine.outlookindia.com/story/india-news-the-ghost-of-manu/303805 | title=The Ghost Of Manu | publisher=Outlook | work=Kiruba Munusamy | date=19 October 2020 | accessdate=16 November 2020 | archive-date=1 November 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101130331/https://magazine.outlookindia.com/story/india-news-the-ghost-of-manu/303805 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
She is practising in the Supreme Court of India. She is the founder-executive director of Legal Initiative for Equality.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://theprint.in/opinion/the-nepotism-and-caste-based-discrimination-that-exists-in-indian-judiciary/48542/ | title=The nauseating nepotism and caste-based discrimination that exists in Indian judiciary | publisher=ThePrint | work=Kiruba Munusamy | date=11 April 2018 | accessdate=16 November 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Munusamy, Kiruba}}
[[Category:Indian women activists]]
[[Category:Indian activists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{India-activist-stub}}

Shalin Maria Lawrence

2026-02-24T01:52:28Z

SAWANTRAJ: New A Biography

{{Short description|Indian writer and activist}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{BLP primary sources|date=November 2022}}
'''Shalin Mariya Lawrence''' (born 25 August 1983) is an author, columnist,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rooted in legacy learnings |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2021/apr/20/rooted-in-legacy-learnings-2292179.html |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=The New Indian Express|date=20 April 2021 }}</ref> [[Intersectionality|Intersectional feminist]], [[Ambedkarism|ambedkarite]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Poddar |first=Umang |title=Why the idea of reservations for Dalit Muslims and Christians has divided Ambedkarites |url=https://scroll.in/article/1036024/why-the-idea-of-reservations-for-dalit-muslims-and-christians-has-divided-ambedkarities |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Scroll.in |date=28 October 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> and social activist.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Chennaiites divided over Napier Bridge's chess makeover for Chess Olympiad 2022 – Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/spotlight/chennaiites-divided-over-napier-bridges-chess-makeover-for-chess-olympiad-2022/articleshow/93043663.cms |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=The Times of India |language=en|last1=Joseph |first1=Ashish Ittyerah |last2=Swaminathan |first2=Prakash }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=17 March 2019 |title=Pollachi sexual assault case: In glee to corner AIADMK, DMK tramples survivor's dignity, Nakkheeran fails its duty by leaking rape video |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/pollachi-sexual-assault-case-women-in-tamil-nadu-are-suffering-due-to-political-exploitation-media-bias-6275491.html |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Firstpost |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=சைலபதி |date=26 October 2020 |script-title=ta:எங்கள் வரலாற்றை நாங்கள் எழுதுவோம்! – வடசென்னை படைப்பாளிகள் |url=https://www.vikatan.com/news/literature/conversation-with-bakkiyam-shankar-and-karan-karki-and-shalin-maria-lawrence-about-north-chennai |website=Vikatan.com |language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lawrence |first=Shalin Maria |date=22 August 2022 |title=India Outraged for Nirbhaya – Why Is It Silent for Bilkis Bano? |url=https://www.thequint.com/voices/opinion/india-outraged-for-nirbhaya-why-is-it-silent-for-bilkis-bano |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=TheQuint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bureau |first=ABP News |date=16 November 2022 |title=Tamil Nadu: Three Workers Die Of Asphyxiation In Karur |url=https://news.abplive.com/tamil-nadu/tamil-nadu-three-workers-die-of-asphyxiation-in-karur-1563746 |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lawrence |first=Shalin Maria |date=15 June 2022 |title=How Caste Pride Is Driving The Spate Of Child Marriages In TN |url=https://behanbox.com/2022/06/15/how-caste-pride-is-driving-the-spate-of-child-marriages-in-tn/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=BehanBox |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Discrimination not spared in violence |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2021/apr/27/discrimination-not-spared-in-violence-2295177.html |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=The New Indian Express|date=27 April 2021 }}</ref> She has been active in [[dalitism]], [[feminism]], social activism and literature. She has been giving voice and fighting for various issues like violence against Dalits, injustice towards the natives of Chennai, manual scavenging deaths, social advancement of transgender people, forced displacements of indigenous people of [[chennai]], everyday problems faced by women,<ref>{{Cite web |title=குரல்கள் – மதங்கள் பெண்களை ஒடுக்குகின்றனவா ? – Kungumam Tamil Weekly Magazine |url=http://www.kungumam.co.in/ThArticalinnerdetail.aspx?id=4705&id1=86&issue=20180416 |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=www.kungumam.co.in |archive-date=13 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250513204304/http://www.kungumam.co.in/ThArticalinnerdetail.aspx?id=4705&id1=86&issue=20180416 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lawrence |first=Shalin Maria |date=29 July 2020 |title=பெண்கள் குழாயடி சண்டை போட வேண்டும் ! |url=https://vanakkamfrance.fr/441/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Vanakkam France |language=en-US}}</ref> and human rights abuses.<ref>{{Cite web |title=21-year-old Dalit woman's journey through oppression in Tamil Nadu |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2022/sep/18/21-year-old-dalit-womans-journey-through-oppression-in-tamil-nadu-2499408.html |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=The New Indian Express|date=17 September 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transgender Tasty Hut: Social media saves Chennai transwoman Shaina Banu from third gender stigma |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2022/jan/20/transgender-tasty-hut-social-media-saves-chennaitranswoman-shaina-banu-fromthird-gender-stigma-2408815.html |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=The New Indian Express|date=20 January 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tamil Nadu: Shopkeeper, village head arrested for barring Dalit children from buying candy |url=https://scroll.in/latest/1033078/tamil-nadu-shopkeeper-village-head-arrested-for-barring-dalit-children-from-buying-candies |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Scroll |date=17 September 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> She has written the books 'Vada chenaikkaari,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vadachennaikaari |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/43593009 |website=Goodreads}}</ref> 'Sandaikkaarigal : aangalai punpaduththum pakkanga', and 'Jensy ean kuraivaaga paadinaar'.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ஷாலின் மரிய லாரன்ஸ் – Uyirmmai Pathippagam |url=https://uyirmmaibooks.com/book_author/%E0%AE%B7%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF-%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |language=en-US}}</ref> She is a renowned activist and writer of [[Dalit literature]] in Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 11, 2022 |title=Rahul Gandhi hears out Congress critics & backers alike in Bharat Jodo's short Tamil Nadu leg |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/rahul-gandhi-congress-critics-backers-bharat-jodo-tamil-nadu-8145196/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Shalin Maria Lawrence was born in [[Pattalam, Chennai|Patalam]], [[Chennai|Madras]]. She is based in [[Chennai]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shalin Maria Lawrence on The Quint |url=https://www.thequint.com/author/1685343/shalin-maria-lawrence |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=TheQuint |language=en}}</ref>

== Participation ==

* She was a member of a panel discussion titled 'Penn and Politics' held by Shakti, an organization that rallies for equal political power for women with the [[Madras School of Social Work]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 27, 2021 |title=Penn and politics: A discussion on why women are underrepresented in politics |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/penn-and-politics-discussion-why-women-are-underrepresented-politics-144300 |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=March 2, 2021 |title="Penn & Politics" |url=https://mssw.in/2021/03/02/an-interactive-session-on-penn-politics-and-a-short-film-launch/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=MSSW |language=en-US |archive-date=18 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118185142/https://mssw.in/2021/03/02/an-interactive-session-on-penn-politics-and-a-short-film-launch/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* She was one of the two resource persons in the three days national meet of dalit Christian women for change.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Catholic Bishops' Conference of India |url=https://www.cbci.in/detail_Slide.aspx?id=598&type=1 |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=www.cbci.in}}</ref>

== Special Mentions and Awards ==
Shalin was mentioned as one of the '11 crusaders for gender justice in India' by [[GroundReport]], a [[Online newspaper|digital news]] platform.<ref>{{Cite web |last=pallavvjain |date=15 November 2022 |title=11 Crusaders for Gender Justice in India |url=https://groundreport.in/11-crusaders-for-gender-justice-in-india/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Ground Report |language=en-US |archive-date=18 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118183638/https://groundreport.in/11-crusaders-for-gender-justice-in-india/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Books ==

* Vadachennaikkaari – 2018 – Uyirmmai Pathiagam
* Sandaikaarikal: Aankalai Punpaduthum Pakkangal – 2022<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lawrence |first=Shalin Maria |script-title=ta:சண்டைக்காரிகள்: ஆண்களைப் புண்படுத்தும் பக்கங்கள் |date=1 July 2022 |publisher=Kalachuvadu Publications |language=ta |asin=B0B8F1DTKH}}</ref>
* Jensy ean kuraivaaga paadinaar – 2018<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lawrence |first=Shalin Maria |script-title=ta:ஜென்சி ஏன் குறைவாகப் பாடினார்? |date=1 May 2019 |publisher=Uyirmmai Publications |language=ta |asin=B07R979P7W}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==

== External links ==
* [https://twitter.com/TheBluePen25 Twitter]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lawrence, Shalin Maria}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1983 births]]
[[Category:Indian women activists]]
[[Category:Indian Tamil writers]]
[[Category:Tamil-language writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Chennai]]
[[Category:Women writers from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women writers]]
[[Category:Dalit writers]]
[[Category:Dalit activists]]
[[Category:Dalit feminists]]
[[Category:Indian activists]]
[[Category:Indian women columnists]]

{{India-writer-stub}}

Run It Up (Hanumankind song)

2026-02-21T22:03:45Z

SAWANTRAJ:

{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox song
| name = Run It Up
| cover = Run It Up (Hanumankind song).jpeg
| alt =
| type = single
| artist = [[Hanumankind]]
| album = [[Monsoon Season]]
| released = March 6, 2025
| recorded = 2025
| studio =
| genre = [[Hip hop music|Hip hop]]
| length =
| label = {{hlist|[[Capitol Records]]|[[Universal Music]]}}
| writer = Sooraj Cherukat, Nikhil Kalimireddy
| producer = [[Kalmi]]
| prev_title = The Game Don't Stop - Squid Game 2
| prev_year = 2024
| next_title = [[Holiday - A COLORS SHOW]]
| next_year = 2025
}}
"'''Run It Up'''" is a song recorded by Indian rapper [[Hanumankind]], released on March 6, 2025, through [[Capitol Records]], and [[Universal Music]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hanumankind Returns with Explosive New Single “Run It Up” |url=https://www.universalmusic.ca/press-releases/hanumankind-returns-with-explosive-new-single-run-it-up/ |website=Universal Music Canada |date=March 7, 2025 |access-date=September 1, 2025}}</ref> It is the fourth track to his debut mixtape, ''[[Monsoon Season]]'', and was one of the five promotional singles for the album.

==Background and lyricism==
The track was produced by [[Kalmi]], and invokes [[Theyyam]] rituals by pairing the modern [[hip-hop]] production with [[chenda]] drums.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ganpy |title=Hanumankind's “Run it up”. A Bold Ode to Culture |url=https://ganpy.medium.com/hanumankinds-run-it-up-5d411937f69b |website=Medium |date=March 6, 2025 |access-date=September 1, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title='Run It Up': Hanumankind's 'Big Dawgs' follow-up is another powerful ode to Indian culture |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/music/run-it-up-hanumankinds-big-dawgs-follow-up-is-another-powerful-ode-to-indian-culture-9875130/ |work=The Indian Express |date=March 6, 2025 |access-date=September 1, 2025}}</ref>

Lyrically, the song sees Hanumankind vows to "run it up" for himself, others, and for his ancestors. Despite the negativity he's experienced, he's willing to place a bet on himself and push through, which is something that he doesn't want to lose.<ref>{{cite web |last=Conteh |first=Mankaprr |title=Hanumankind Bets Big On Himself to 'Run It Up' |website=Rolling Stone |date=March 6, 2025 |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/hanumankind-run-it-up-single-music-video-1235290468/ |access-date=September 1, 2025}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |last=Horvath |first=Zachary |title=Hanumankind Vows To "Run It Up" For Himself And Others On Passionate Single |url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/892308-hanumankind-run-it-up-stream |website=HotNewHipHop |date=March 8, 2025 |access-date=September 1, 2025}}</ref>

==Music video==
The music video, directed by Bijoy Shetty, features traditional [[Indian martial arts]] such as the ''[[kalaripayattu]]'', ''[[gatka]]'', ''[[Thang Ta|thang ta]]'' and the ''[[Garudan Thookkam|Garudan thukkam]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Radioandmusic.com |title=Hanumankind returns with explosive new single 'Run It Up' |url=https://www.radioandmusic.com/entertainment/editorial/news/250308-hanumankind-returns-explosive-new-single-run |website=Radioandmusic.com |date=March 8, 2025 |access-date=September 1, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Tekalkote |first=Anirudh |title=Hanumankind Turns Up The Heat In “Run It Up” |url=https://thegarnettereport.com/art/music/hanumankind-run-it-up-tgr/ |website=The Garnette Report |date=March 13, 2025 |access-date=September 1, 2025}}</ref> Additionally to the [[Garuda]] in the latter art, the music video references the tribal deities Kandanar Kelan and [[Muthappan]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Aurelius |first=Marcus |title=Chaos, fire & celebration: Hanumankind gets his 'Big Dawgs' team back together again to 'Run It Up' |url=https://liftedasia.com/article/hanumankind-run-it-up |website=LiFTED Asia |date=March 10, 2025 |access-date=September 1, 2025}}</ref>

==Critical reception==
On their year-end charts, ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' ranked "Run It Up" at #91 out of #100. Reviewer Clayton Purdom wrote about how the track sees Hanumankind go "bigger than "[[Big Dawgs]]", employing a cast of dozens for a martial-arts brawl". Purdom also cites how the beat keeps pace while staying filled with classical [[Chenda|Chenda drums]], which grow more "manic" by the second. The beat sees Hanumankind "stand square in the middle of the chaos, fighting against the beat and winning".<ref name="RollingStone_BestSongs2025_NetonVega_Loco">{{Cite web |first=Clayton |last=Purdom|title=The 100 Best Songs of 2025: #91 - Hanumankind, ‘Run It Up’|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/best-songs-of-2025-1235468614/neton-vega-loco-1235468793/ |publisher=[[Rolling Stone]] |date=2025-12-04 |access-date=2025-12-04}}</ref> Additionally, on their "The 25 Best Hip-Hop Songs of 2025" list, Purdom ranked the song at #18 out of #25.<ref name="RollingStoneBestHipHopSongs2025">{{cite web |title=The 25 Best Hip-Hop Songs of 2025 |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/best-hip-hop-songs-of-2025-1235485822/ |website=Rolling Stone |date=19 December 2025 |access-date=23 December 2025}}</ref>

===Praise elsewhere===
{{Multiple image
| perrow = 1
| total_width = 230
| image1 = Hanumankind meeting Narendra Modi.png
| footer = Hanumankind meeting [[Narendra Modi]].
}}
[[Prime Minister of India]] [[Narendra Modi]] praised Hanumankind and the music video on his radio show [[Mann Ki Baat]], for promoting Indigenous martial arts.<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{cite web |last=Entertainment Desk |title=PM Modi applauds rapper Hanumankind for promoting Indian martial arts globally in 'Run It Up': 'Due to his efforts…' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/music/pm-modi-applauds-rapper-hanumankind-for-promoting-indian-martial-arts-globally-in-run-it-up-due-to-his-efforts-9914710/ |website=The Indian Express |date=March 30, 2025 |access-date=September 1, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9NKZHby2ru8&t=955|title= PM Narendra Modi's 120th Edition of Mann Ki Baat {{!}} 30th March, 2025 |first=Modi|last=Narendra|author-link=Narendra Modi|work=[[Mann Ki Baat]]|time=15:55}}</ref>

[[Fox 11 Los Angeles]] [[meteorologist]] Adam Kreuger referenced the song in social media posts on [[Instagram]]. Hanumankind responded, writing "Legend" under the [[Instagram]] comment section of the post, with Kalmi writing “thank u sir”.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nyayapati |first=Neeshita |title=Hanumankind reacts to US meteorologist sneaking in Run It Up lyrics while reporting weather |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/music/hanumankind-reacts-to-us-meteorologist-sneaking-in-run-it-up-lyrics-while-reporting-weather-101747134479422.html |website=Hindustan Times |date=May 13, 2025 |access-date=September 1, 2025}}</ref>

==Charts==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|+ Chart performance for “Run It Up”
! Chart (2025) !! Peak position !! Debut position !! Weeks on chart
|-
|[[ New Zealand Hot Singles]] (Recorded Music NZ) || 24 || 24 || 1<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hot Singles — 14 March 2025 |url=https://aotearoamusiccharts.co.nz/archive/hot-singles/2025-03-14 |access-date=October 15, 2025 |publisher=Recorded Music NZ}}</ref>
|}

==Credits and personnel==
All credits received from [[Tidal (service)|Tidal]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Run It Up by HanuMankind on TIDAL |url=https://tidal.com/album/420865991/credits |website=TIDAL |access-date=September 1, 2025}}</ref>

*[[Vocals]] - Hanumankind
*[[Record producer|Producer]] - [[Kalmi]]
*[[Composer]] - Hanumankind, Kalmi
*[[Audio engineer|Engineer]] - Amrith Raghunathan, Jordan Rugo
*[[Mixing engineer]] - Akash Sharavan

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Indian hip-hop songs]]
[[Category:Theyyam]]
[[Category:Capitol Records singles]]
[[Category:Universal Music Group singles]]
[[Category:Songs written by Hanumankind]]

{{Hanumankind}}

Barwani tehsil

2026-02-06T13:19:39Z

SAWANTRAJ: Details!

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Barwani
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| settlement_type = [[Tehsil]]
| image_skyline =
| imagesize =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image =

| pushpin_map = India Madhya Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_mapsize =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in [[Madhya Pradesh]]

|coordinates = {{coord|22.036316|N|74.903339|E|display=inline,title}}

| coordinates_footnotes = 
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flagcountry|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Barwani district]]
| government_type = [[Panchayat Samiti (Block)|Janpad Panchayat]]
| governing_body = [[Council]]

| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 501.69
| area_rural_footnotes =
| area_rural_km2 =
| area_rank =
| area_blank1_title =
| area_blank1_km2 =
| area_note =
| width_mi =
| elevation_min_rank =

| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes =
| population_total = 211061

| population_density_km2 =
| population_density_sq_mi=
| population_urban_footnotes =
| population_urban =
| population_density_urban_km2 =
| population_density_urban_sq_mi =
| population_rural_footnotes =
| population_rural =
| population_density_rural_km2 =
| population_density_rural_sq_mi =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]

| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30

| postal_code_type = Postal code (PIN)
| postal_code = 451551
| area_code_type = 
| area_code = 07290
| geocode =
| registration_plate = MP 46

| blank_name_sec1 = No. of Villages
| blank_info_sec1 = 99
| blank1_name_sec1 = Sex ratio
| blank1_info_sec1 = 974

| blank_name_sec2 =
| blank_info_sec2 =

| website = 
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|MP-IN]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Barwani tehsil''' is a fourth-order [[Administrative division|administrative]] and revenue division, a subdivision of third-order administrative and revenue division of [[Barwani district]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref name="DCHB of Barwani, village and town directory">{{cite web|last1=New Delhi|first1=The Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India|year=2011|title=District Census Handbook of Barwani, village and town directory|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/23/2324_PART_A_DCHB_BARWANI.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206123053/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/23/2324_PART_A_DCHB_BARWANI.pdf|archivedate=6 February 2017|accessdate=6 February 2017|format=PDF|page=30,33}}</ref><ref name="DCHB of Barwani, village and townwise primary census abstract (PCA)">{{cite web|last1=New Delhi|first1=The Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India|year=2011|title=District Census Handbook of Barwani, village and townwise primary census abstract (PCA)|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2324_PART_B_DCHB_BARWANI.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206123505/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2324_PART_B_DCHB_BARWANI.pdf|archivedate=6 February 2017|accessdate=6 February 2017|format=PDF|page=12,24}}</ref>

==Geography==
Barwani tehsil has an area of 501.69 sq kilometers. It is bounded by [[Dhar district]] in the northwest and north, [[Anjad tehsil]] in the northeast, [[Rajpur tehsil]] in the east and southeast, [[Niwali tehsil]] in the south, [[Pansemal tehsil]] in the southwest and [[Pati tehsil]] in the west.

== See also ==
*[[Barwani district]]

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Geographic location
|Centre = '''Barwani tehsil'''
|North = [[Dhar district]]
|Northeast = [[Anjad tehsil]]
|East = [[Rajpur tehsil]]
|Southeast = [[Rajpur tehsil]]
|South = [[Niwali tehsil]]
|Southwest = [[Pansemal tehsil]]
|West = [[Pati tehsil]]
|Northwest = [[Dhar district]]
}}

[[Category:Tehsils of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Barwani district]]

{{Indore-geo-stub}}

Mohammad Muslim

2026-02-05T04:37:30Z

SAWANTRAJ: cleanup page for consistency and corrected details for accuracy

{{Short description|Indian politician (died 2019)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Mohammad Muslim
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| residence =
| death_date = 29 August 2019
| death_place =
| office1 = [[Tiloi (Assembly constituency)|MLA of Tiloi]]
| constituency1 =
| salary1 =
| term_start1 = 1996
| term_end1 = 2002
| predecessor1 = [[Mayankeshwar Sharan Singh]]
| successor1 = [[Mayankeshwar Sharan Singh]]
| term_start2 = 2012
| term_end2 = 2017
| predecessor2 = [[Mayankeshwar Sharan Singh]]
| successor2 = [[Mayankeshwar Sharan Singh]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| spouse =
| college =
| children =
| alma_mater =
| faculty =
| website =
| source =
}}

'''Mohammad Muslim''' was an Indian politician belonging to [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{cite web|title=चुनाव से पहले कांग्रेस को झटका, यह बड़ा मुस्लिम नेता हुआ भाजपा में शामिल, दिया यह बयान
|language=hi
|url=https://m.patrika.com/amp-news/amethi-news/big-congress-muslim-leader-and-2-times-mla-joins-bjp-4375063/
|accessdate=9 October 2019|date=13 February 2019|website=Rajasthan Patrika}}</ref> He was elected as a member of [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] from [[Tiloi (Assembly constituency)|Tiloi]] in 1996 and 2012.<ref>[https://resultuniversity.com/election/tiloi-uttar-pradesh-assembly-constituency Tiloi Assembly Constituency Election Result]</ref> He died on 29 August 2019.<ref>{{cite web|title=पूर्व विधायक डॉ मोहम्मद मुस्लिम का निधन, लखनऊ में चल रहा था इलाज
|language=hi
|url=https://www.jagran.com/uttar-pradesh/lucknow-city-former-mla-of-amethi-mohammad-muslim-died-in-lucknow-19528469.html
|access-date=9 October 2019|website=Dainik Jagran}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=रायबरेली : लंबे समय से बीमार चल रहे पूर्व विधायक मोहम्मद मुस्लिम का निधन
|url=https://www.amarujala.com/lucknow/dormer-mla-mohammed-muslim-died-due-to-heart-disease
|accessdate=9 October 2019|website=Amar Ujala|language=hi}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muslim, Mohammad}}
[[Category:2019 deaths]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 1997–2002]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2012–2017]]
[[Category:Samajwadi Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]

Nedumudi Venu

2026-02-02T02:03:27Z

SAWANTRAJ: improved article also

{{short description|Indian actor and screenwriter (1944–2021)}}
{{family name hatnote|Nedumudi|Venu|Indian name|lang=Toponymic}}
{{More citations needed|date= April 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Nedumudi Venu
| image = Nedumudi Venu 2008.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Nedumudi Venu in 2008
| birth_name = Kesavan Venugopal
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1948|05|22|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Nedumudi]], [[Alappuzha]], Kerala
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2021|10|11|1948|05|22|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Thiruvananthapuram]], Kerala
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|screenwriter}}
| years_active = 1972–2021
| works = [[Nedumudi Venu filmography|Full list]]
| alma_mater = [[Sanatana Dharma College|Sanatana Dharma College, Alappuzha]]
| spouse = T. R. Susheela
| children = 2
| parents = 
| website =
}}

'''Kesavan Venugopal''' (22 May 1948 – 11 October 2021), better known by his [[stage name]] '''Nedumudi Venu''', was an Indian actor and screenwriter from [[Kerala]], who predominantly worked in [[Malayalam cinema]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{cite news |author1=Onmanorama Staff |date=11 October 2022 |title=Nedumudi Venu, who acted in 500 movies and won 3 national awards, passes away at 73 |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2021/10/11/nedumudi-venu-health-condition-serious-hospital-icu-covid.html |access-date=11 October 2022 |work=[[Manorama Online]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ലേഖകൻ |first=മാധ്യമം |date=11 October 2022 |title=നെടുമുടി വേണു അന്തരിച്ചു |url=https://www.madhyamam.com/kerala/nedumudi-venu-died-856606 |access-date=11 October 2022 |website=Madhyamam |language=ml}}</ref> He acted in more than 500 films, primarily in [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]] and also in [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]], in a career spanning nearly five decades.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chandran |first=Mangala |date=1987 |title=Cinema in India |volume=3 |publisher=[[National Film Development Corporation of India|National Film Development Corporation]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Parameswaran |first=Biju |date=30 July 2015 |title=Remembering Bharathan's magical trip on celluloid |url=http://english.manoramaonline.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/bharathan-death-anniversary-malayalam-films-padmarajan.html |newspaper=[[Malayala Manorama]] |access-date=18 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150816072737/http://english.manoramaonline.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/bharathan-death-anniversary-malayalam-films-padmarajan.html |archive-date=16 August 2015 |url-status=live }}
</ref> He wrote screenplays and directed one film. Nedumudi Venu won three [[National Film Awards]], three [[Filmfare Award South]] and six [[Kerala State Film Awards]] for his performances in various movies.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/Bring-theatre-to-the-people-Nedumudi-Venu/article15307330.ece|title=Bring theatre to the people: Nedumudi Venu|newspaper=The Hindu|date=21 September 2008|via=www.thehindu.com|access-date=18 April 2019|archive-date=11 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011174237/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/Bring-theatre-to-the-people-Nedumudi-Venu/article15307330.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/votary-of-good-cinema/article2272035.ece|title=Votary of good cinema|newspaper=The Hindu|date=6 April 2007|via=www.thehindu.com|access-date=18 April 2019|archive-date=11 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011174241/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/votary-of-good-cinema/article2272035.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/In-the-role-of-an-actor/article15399045.ece|title=In the role of an actor|newspaper=The Hindu|date=27 June 2008|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/Another-year-of-plenty-for-Malayalam-cinema/article15239687.ece|title=Another year of plenty for Malayalam cinema|newspaper=The Hindu|date=11 June 2008|via=www.thehindu.com|access-date=18 April 2019|archive-date=11 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011174244/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/Another-year-of-plenty-for-Malayalam-cinema/article15239687.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Early life==
Venu was born as K. Venugopal at [[Nedumudi]] in the [[Alappuzha district]] of [[Kerala]] to P. K. Kesava Pillai, a schoolmaster, and P. Kunjikkuttiyamma, on 22 May 1948. He was the youngest of five sons born to his parents.

Venu studied at Nair Samajam School in Nedumudi and at St. Mary's School in Champakulam.<ref>{{cite news |title=Here’s how Nedumudi Venu recalled his journey as an actor |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2021/10/11/becoming-actor-how-nedumudi-venu-recalled-his-journey-as-an-actor.html |work=Here’s how Nedumudi Venu recalled his journey as an actor |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cinidiary.com/people.php?pigsection=Actor&picata=1&no_of_displayed_rows=38&no_of_rows_page=10&sletter=|title=CINIDIARY - A Complete Online Malayalam Cinema News Portal|website=cinidiary.com|access-date=6 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215124720/http://cinidiary.com/people.php?pigsection=Actor&picata=1&no_of_displayed_rows=38&no_of_rows_page=10&sletter=|archive-date=15 February 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> He then did his [[B.A.]] in [[Malayalam]] at [[Sanatana Dharma College]], [[Alappuzha]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=B |first1=Shibu |title=Nedumudi Venu: Hero of character roles |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/amp/story/entertainment/malayalam/2021/Oct/12/nedumudi-venu-hero-of-character-roles-2370512.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=7 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref> After graduation, he worked briefly as a journalist at the [[Kalakaumudi]] magazine and taught at a tutorial college before moving into theater and movies.<ref>{{cite news |last1=B |first1=Shibu |title=Nedumudi Venu: Hero of character roles |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/amp/story/entertainment/malayalam/2021/Oct/12/nedumudi-venu-hero-of-character-roles-2370512.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=7 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Here’s how Nedumudi Venu recalled his journey as an actor |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2021/10/11/becoming-actor-how-nedumudi-venu-recalled-his-journey-as-an-actor.html |work=Here’s how Nedumudi Venu recalled his journey as an actor |language=en}}</ref>

Venu was married to Susheela in 1982. The couple has two sons: Unni and Kannan.<ref name=":1" /> Mereena James and Vrindha Nair are his daughters-in-law.<ref>{{cite news |last1=archive |first1=From our online |title=Veteran actor Nedumudi Venu's son married |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2009/Aug/25/veteran-actor-nedumudi-venus-son-married-80468.html |work=The New Indian Express |date=15 May 2012 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Us |first1=GNFollow |title=നെടുമുടി വേണുവിന്റെ മകൻ കണ്ണൻ വിവാഹിതനായി- വീഡിയോ |url=https://www.asianetnews.com/entertainment-news/nedumudi-venu-son-marriage-qjo2t8 |work=Asianet News Malayalam |language=ml}}</ref>
[[File:Amma_meeting.jpg|thumb|From left '''Nedumudi Venu''', Innocent, Mohanlal and Mukesh, on the main stage of the general body meeting of the Association of Malayalam Movie Artists. ]]

==Death==
Venu died at [[Kerala Institute of Medical Sciences|KIMS Hospital]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram]] on 11 October 2021, at the age of 73. He was receiving treatment for [[liver cancer]] prior to his death and died from [[COVID-19]] complications.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/celebrities/nedumudi-venu-dies-at-73-owing-to-covid-complications-celebs-bid-farewell-to-malayalam-actor-739756 | title=Nedumudi Venu dies at 73 owing to COVID complications; celebs bid farewell to Malayalam actor | date=11 October 2021 }}</ref> He also had [[diabetes]], which complicated his condition.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Jeevan Ravindran|title=Nedumudi Venu, acclaimed Indian film actor, dies aged 73|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/10/11/entertainment/nedumudi-venu-actor-dead-india-scli-intl/index.html|access-date=12 October 2021|website=CNN|date=11 October 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=National Award winning actor Nedumudi Venu passes away|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/thespian-nedumudi-venu-passes-away/articleshow/86934002.cms|access-date=11 October 2021|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=നെടുമുടി വേണു അന്തരിച്ചു; വിടവാങ്ങിയത് അഭിനയത്തിന്റെ അതുല്യ പ്രതിഭ|url=https://www.manoramanews.com/news/breaking-news/2021/10/11/actor-nedumudi-venu-passes-away-11.html|access-date=11 October 2021|website=Manoramanews|language=en|archive-date=11 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011084318/https://www.manoramanews.com/news/breaking-news/2021/10/11/actor-nedumudi-venu-passes-away-11.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> He was cremated with full state honours at Santhikavadam Crematorium in Thiruvananthapuram on 12 October 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Kerala's thespian Nedumudi Venu laid to rest with state honours|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/movie-news/kerala-s-thespian-nedumudi-venu-laid-to-rest-with-state-honours-nedumudivenu-funeral-1.6082194|access-date=7 December 2021|work=Mathrubhumi|language=en|archive-date=7 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207065830/https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/movie-news/kerala-s-thespian-nedumudi-venu-laid-to-rest-with-state-honours-nedumudivenu-funeral-1.6082194|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{{Main article|Nedumudi Venu filmography}}

==Awards==

=== [[National Film Awards]] ===
* 1990 – [[National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] – ''[[His Highness Abdullah]]''
* 2003 – [[National Film Award – Special Mention (Feature Film)|Special Mention]] – ''[[Margam (film)|Margam]]''
* 2006 – [[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film Narration / Voice Over]] – ''Minukku''

=== [[Kerala State Film Awards]] ===
* 1980 – [[Kerala State Film Award for Second Best Actor|Second Best Actor]] – ''[[Chamaram]]''
* 1981 – [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] – ''[[Vida Parayum Munpe]]''
* 1986 - [[Kerala State Film Award for Second Best Actor|Second Best Actor]] - ''[[Thalavattam]]''
* 1987 – [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] – ''[[Oru Minnaminunginte Nurunguvettam]]''
* 1990 – [[Kerala State Film Award (Special Jury Award)|Special Jury Award]] – ''[[Bharatham]]'', ''[[Santhwanam]]''
* 1994 – [[Kerala State Film Award for Second Best Actor|Second Best Actor]] – ''[[Thenmavin Kombath]]''
* 2003 – [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] – ''[[Margam (film)|Margam]]''

=== [[Kerala State Television Award for Best Actor|Kerala State Television Awards]] ===
* 2001 - [[Kerala State Television Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] : ''Avasthatarangal''

=== [[Asianet Film Awards]] ===
* 2005 – [[Asianet Film Awards#Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor Award]] – ''[[Thanmatra]]''
* 2007 – [[Asianet Film Awards#Best Script Writer|Best Script Writer Award]] – ''Thaniye''
* 2011 – [[Asianet Film Awards#Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] – ''[[Best Actor (film)|Best Actor]]'', ''[[Elsamma Enna Aankutty]]''
* 2013 – [[Asianet Film Awards|Best Character Actor]] – ''[[North 24 Kaatham]]''
* 2015 – [[Asianet Film Awards|Best Villain]] – ''[[Oru Second Class Yathra]]'', ''[[Rudra Simhasanam]]''
* 2017 – [[Asianet Film Awards|Asianet Film Award for Lifetime Achievement]]

=== [[Vanitha Film Awards]] ===
2015 – [[Vanitha Film Awards|Best Actor In A Negative Role]] – ''[[Oru Second Class Yathra|Oru Second Class Yatra]]''

=== [[Filmfare Awards South|Filmfare Awards]] ===
* 1981 – [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Malayalam]] – ''[[Vida Parayum Munpe]]''
* 1987 – [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Malayalam]] -''[[Oru Minnaminunginte Nurunguvettam]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/35thAnnualFilmfareAwardsSouthWinners|archive-url=https://archive.today/20170205141932/https://archive.org/details/35thAnnualFilmfareAwardsSouthWinners|url-status=dead|title=35th Annual Filmfare Awards South Winners : Santosh : Free Download &…|date=5 February 2017|archive-date=5 February 2017|website=archive.is}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/NedumudiVenu35thAnnualFilmfareBestActorMalayalamSpecial|archive-url=https://archive.today/20170205141430/https://archive.org/details/NedumudiVenu35thAnnualFilmfareBestActorMalayalamSpecial|url-status=dead|title=Nedumudi Venu 35th Annual Filmfare Best Actor Malayalam Special : san…|date=5 February 2017|archive-date=5 February 2017|website=archive.is}}</ref>
* 1997 – [[Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award – South|Lifetime Achievement Award]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Competition Science Vision|date=August 1998|publisher=Pratiyogita Darpan|pages=791|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MOgDAAAAMBAJ|access-date=24 November 2017}}</ref>

=== [[Kerala Film Critics Association Awards]] ===
* 2007 – Second Best Actor – ''Thaniye<ref>{{cite web |title='Thaniye' awards |url=http://www.artkerala.com/node/5816 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929103750/http://www.artkerala.com/node/5816 |archive-date=29 September 2011 |access-date=11 August 2011 |publisher=ArtKerala.com}}</ref>''
* 2007 – Lifetime Achievement Award/Prathibha Puraskaram

=== Other awards ===
* 2003 – Best Actor Award won in ''Television Gallup Poll'' conducted by [[University of Kerala]] union for ''Ragardram'' ([[Doordarshan]])<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/03/01/stories/2004030102080300.htm | title=TV Award for Nedumudi | date=1 March 2004 | access-date=11 August 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110114101/http://www.hindu.com/2004/03/01/stories/2004030102080300.htm | archive-date=10 November 2012 | work=[[The Hindu]] | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 2006 – [[Sathyanesan Nadar|Sathyan]] Award<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/11/10/stories/2006111020990300.htm | title=Sathyan Award presented | date=10 November 2006 | access-date=11 August 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102051656/http://www.hindu.com/2006/11/10/stories/2006111020990300.htm | archive-date=2 November 2013 | work=[[The Hindu]] | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 2006 – Kalavedi International Prathibha Award was presented at Tagore Theatre, Trivandrum in 2006.
* 2007 – [[Bahadoor]] Award<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/04/22/stories/2007042211290400.htm | title=Bahadur Award for Nedumudi | date=22 April 2007 | access-date=11 August 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110114056/http://www.hindu.com/2007/04/22/stories/2007042211290400.htm | archive-date=10 November 2012 | work=[[The Hindu]] | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 2008 – Kala Ratnam Award of KALA Abu Dhabi
* 2011 – Serve India Media Award
* 2015 – Vanitha Film Award for Best Villain for ''[[Oru Second Class Yathra]]'' and ''[[Rudra Simhasanam]]''
* 2007 – ''[[Saira (film)|Saira]]'' – Best Actor award at the [[Zimbabwe International Film Festival]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Metro Film Society to screen Saira|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/Metro-Film-Society-to-screen-Saira/article14853164.ece|access-date=17 December 2017|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=9 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629052039/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/Metro-Film-Society-to-screen-Saira/article14853164.ece|archive-date=29 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Nedumudi Venu}}
* {{IMDb name|0893449}}
* [http://en.msidb.org/displayProfile.php?category=actors&artist=Nedumudi%20Venu&limit=414 Nedumudi Venu at MSI]

{{NationalFilmAwardBestSupportingActor}}
{{National Film Award Special Mention feature film}}
{{FilmfareMalayalamBestActor}}
{{Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award – South}}
{{Kerala State Film Award for Best Actor}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Venu, Nedumudi}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in India]]
[[Category:Film directors from Alappuzha district]]
[[Category:Filmfare Awards South winners]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:Kerala Film Critics Awards winners]]
[[Category:Kerala State Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Malayalam film directors]]
[[Category:Malayalam screenwriters]]
[[Category:Male actors from Alappuzha]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Actors from Alappuzha district]]
[[Category:Writers from Alappuzha district]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Kerala]]
[[Category:Special Mention (feature film) National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Tamil male actors]]

Sirkazhi Govindarajan discography

2026-02-01T03:30:19Z

SAWANTRAJ: quick cleaned up layout based on references and improved wording based on references

{{Short description|Indian singer discography}}
{{Multiple issues|{{primary sources|date=December 2017}}{{one source|date=December 2017}}}}
{{Infobox artist discography
| Artist = [[Sirkazhi Govindarajan]]
| Image = Sirkazhi Govindarajan.jpg
| Caption =
| Alt =
| Studio =
| Live =
| Compilation =
| Internet =
| Video =
| Music videos =
| EP =
| Singles =
| B-sides =
| Soundtrack =
| Tribute =
}}

This is the discography of Indian male playback singer [[Sirkazhi Govindarajan]], who sang in over 900 songs in [[Tamil films]]. He mostly sang in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] Film Songs and Devotional Songs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gaana.com/artist/drseerkazhi-sgovindarajan|title= Dr. Seerkazhi S. Govindarajan|accessdate=2017-03-27|publisher=gaana}}</ref> He gave his voice to actors and thespians in the [[Tamil film industry]] such as [[M. G. Ramachandran]], [[Gemini Ganesan]], [[S. S. Rajendran]], [[R. Muthuraman]], [[K. A. Thangavelu]], [[V. Nagayya]], [[Prem Nazir]], [[Kalyan Kumar]], [[Nagesh]] In addition to various other known and unknown heroes and supporting actors like [[R. S. Manohar]], [[S. V. Subbaiah]], [[Kannadasan]], Kuladeivam Rajagopal, [[Major Sundarrajan]], [[Thengai Srinivasan]], [[Suruli Rajan]], [[Prabhakar (actor)|Master Prabhakar]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sirkali.org |title=Padmashri Isaimani Dr. Sirkazhi Govindarajan|publisher=sirkali.org}}</ref>

==Collaboration==
===Music composers===
[[A. M. Rajah]], [[S. V. Venkataraman]], [[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]], [[S. Rajeswara Rao]], [[S. Dakshinamurthi]], [[V. Dakshinamoorthy]], [[G. Ramanathan]], C. N. Pandurangan, [[Master Venu]], [[M. S. Viswanathan]], [[T. K. Ramamoorthy]], [[K. V. Mahadevan]], [[Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan]], [[Ghantasala (musician)|Ghantasala]], B. Narasimma Rao, A. Rama Rao, [[T. Chalapathi Rao]], [[T. G. Lingappa]], [[P. Adinarayana Rao]], [[T. R. Pappa]], [[Vedha (composer)|Vedha]], [[G. K. Venkatesh]], [[V. Kumar]], [[C. Ramachandra]], [[Ilaiyaraaja]] and [[Shankar–Ganesh]].

===Playback singers===
He has sung with other male singers such as [[Thiruchi Loganathan]], [[M. S. Viswanathan]], [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[P. B. Sreenivas]], [[Ghantasala (musician)|Ghantasala]], S. C. Krishnan, [[A. L. Raghavan]], S. V. Ponnusamy and [[K. J. Yesudas]].

He has sung duets with many female singers such as [[M. L. Vasanthakumari]], [[P. Leela]], [[Jikki]], [[K. Jamuna Rani]], [[K. Rani (singer)|K. Rani]], [[P. Susheela]], [[L. R. Eswari]], L. R. Anjali, [[M. S. Rajeswari]], [[Soolamangalam Sisters|Soolamagalam Rajalaskhmi]], [[Soolamangalam Sisters|Soolamangalam Jayalaskhmi]], [[R. Balasaraswathi Devi|R. Balasaraswathi]], [[N. L. Ganasaraswathi]], [[A. P. Komala]], [[A. G. Rathnamala]], [[T. V. Rathnam]], Bangalore A. R. Ramani Ammal, [[Vani Jayaram]], [[S. Janaki]], M. R. Vijaya, Sarala and Rohini.

He sang duets with singing actors such as [[N. S. Krishnan]], [[T. R. Mahalingam (actor)|T. R. Mahalingam]], [[S. Varalakshmi]], [[P. Bhanumathi]] and [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]].

==Awards==
===Honorary and major awards===
* ''[[Honorary Doctorate]]'' ([[Honoris Causa]]) by [[Madras University]], Tamil Nadu in 1983.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/profilesmusic/sirkaligovindarajan.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724103853/http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/profilesmusic/sirkaligovindarajan.asp|url-status=usurped|archive-date=July 24, 2009|title=Dr. Sirkazhi Govindarajan|publisher=[[Lakshman Sruthi]]}}</ref>
* ''[[Padmashri]]'' award by Government of [[India]]

===Tamil Nadu State Film Awards===
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|-
! width=5%| Year
! style="width:40%;"| Film
! style="width:30%;"| Category
! style="width:20%;"| Outcome
! style="width:5%;"| Ref
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 1970
| style="text-align:center;"| ''[[Thirumalai Thenkumari]]''
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Male Playback|Best Male Playback]]
| {{won}}
|<ref>{{cite book|last=Film News|first=Anandhan|authorlink=Film News Anandan|title=Sadhanaigal Padaitha Thamizh Thiraippada Varalaru (Tamil Films History and its Achievements|year=2004|publisher=Sivagami Publications|pages=738}}</ref>
|}

==List of films discography==
{{Incomplete list|date=May 2019}}

===1950s===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Song !! Movie !! Year !! Music !! Lyrics !! Co - Singer
|-
| Siripputhaan Varuguthaiyaa || rowspan=2|''[[Ponvayal]]'' || rowspan=2|1954 || rowspan=2|Thuraiyur Rajagopal Sarma & R. Rajagopal || ||
|-
| Maadugalaa Kaalai Maadugalaa || || [[N. L. Ganasaraswathi]]
|-
| Parugidara Jorugaa || rowspan=2|''[[Ponvayal|Bangaru Bhoomi]]'' || rowspan=2|1954 || rowspan=2|Thuraiyur Rajagopal Sarma & R. Rajagopal || [[Malladi Ramakrishna Sastry]] ||
|-
| Bava Mana Pelli || [[Malladi Ramakrishna Sastry]] || [[N. L. Ganasaraswathi]]
|-
| || ''[[Ammaiyappan (film)|Ammaiyappan]]'' || 1954 || [[T. R. Pappa]] || ||
|-
| Vaanameedhil Neendhi Odum Vennilave || rowspan=5|''[[Gomathiyin Kaadhalan]]'' || rowspan=5|1955 || rowspan=5|[[G. Ramanathan]] || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]] ||
|-
| Anbe En Aaruyire Vaaraai || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Thelli Tharum Tinai Maa || [[K. M. Annal Thango|Ku. Mu. Annal Thango]]||
|-
| Minnuvadhellam Ponnendru Enni || [[K. D. Santhanam]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Kongunaattu Sengarumbe || [[K. D. Santhanam]] ||
|-
| Aandavan Kattalaiyai.... Indha Ulagame Naadaga Medaiyadaa || rowspan=2|''[[Guna Sundari]]'' || rowspan=2|1955 || rowspan=2|[[Ghantasala (musician)|Ghantasala]] || rowspan=2|[[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]]|| [[Ghantasala (musician)|Ghantasala]] & [[S. C. Krishnan]]
|-
| Adhuve Edhiril Varuvadharkkulle || [[S. C. Krishnan]]
|-
| Sadhaaram Naadagam || ''[[Kalvanin Kadhali (1955 film)|Kalvanin Kadhali]]'' || 1955 || [[G. Govindarajulu Naidu]] & [[Ghantasala (musician)|Ghantasala]] || || [[Thiruchi Loganathan]] & Shanmugasundharam
|-
| Mandhiram Yaavum Onre || rowspan=6|''[[Kalyanam Seydhukko]]'' || rowspan=6|1955 || rowspan=6|Ramaneekaran || Kalyan ||
|-
| Aasai Venum Kaasu Panam Theda || Kalyan || Paramasivam
|-
| Raajaa En Aasai Machaan || Kalyan || [[A. P. Komala]]
|-
| Vaazhvin Oliye Varuvaai || Kalyan || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Engum Nirai Paramporul Onre || [[Ka. Mu. Sheriff]] ||
|-
| Vaetti Kattina Pombala || [[Ka. Mu. Sheriff]] || [[Soolamangalam Sisters|Soolamangalam Jayalakshmi]]
|-
| Azhagin Dheivam Arivin Sigaram || ''[[Menaka (1955 film)|Menaka]]'' || 1955 || [[C. N. Pandurangan]] & [[Vedha (composer)|Vedha]] || || [[K. R. Ramasamy (actor)|K. R. Ramasamy]]
|-
| ABCD Pdikkiren || ''[[Nalla Thangai]]'' || 1955 || [[G. Ramanathan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Thiruchi Loganathan]]
|-
| Kanne Karumaniye || rowspan=2|''[[Nalla Thangal (1955 film)|Nallathangal]]'' || rowspan=2|1955 || rowspan=2|[[G. Ramanathan]] || || [[A. P. Komala]]
|-
| Thiru Ullam Irangaadha || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Shambho Mahaadeva || ''[[Shivasharane Nambekka]]'' || 1955 || [[T. G. Lingappa]] || ||
|-
| Lady Lady Lady Lady Aasai Lady || ''[[Town Bus]]'' || 1955 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Ka. Mu. Sheriff]] || [[S. C. Krishnan]] & U. R. Chandra
|-
| Nadanam Aadinaar || rowspan=2|''[[Valliyin Selvan]]'' || rowspan=2|1955 || rowspan=2|[[Parur S. Anantharaman]] || [[Kothamangalam Subbu]] ||
|-
| Nallavan Endre || [[Kothamangalam Subbu]] ||
|-
| Nadodi Kottam Nanga Thilelelo || ''[[Amara Deepam (1956 film)|Amara Deepam]]'' || 1956 || [[T. Chalapathi Rao]] & [[G. Ramanathan]] || [[Udumalai Narayana Kavi]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[A. P. Komala]] & [[T. V. Rathnam]]
|-
| Edhu Nijam || ''[[Edi Nijam|Edhu Nijam]]'' || 1956 || [[Master Venu]] || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]] ||
|-
| Naadagamellam Aadalam || rowspan=2|''[[Cherapakura Chedevu|Illarame Inbam]]'' || rowspan=2|1956 || rowspan=2|[[Ghantasala (musician)|Ghantasala]] || || [[K. Rani (singer)|K. Rani]]
|-
| Prema Prema Prema || || [[K. Rani (singer)|K. Rani]]
|-
| Thiruve En Dhevi Nee Vaaraai || rowspan=5|''[[Kokilavani]]'' || rowspan=5|1956 || rowspan=5|[[G. Ramanathan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Azhagodaiyil Neendhum Ila Annam || [[S. D. Sundharam]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Sarasa Mohana Sangeedhaamrudha || [[S. D. Sundharam]] ||
|-
| Anboli Veesi || [[S. D. Sundharam]] ||
|-
| Maalaiyile Manasaanthi || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Abalaiyin Gathi Idhuvo || ''[[Kudumba Vilakku]]'' || 1956 || [[T. R. Pappa]] || Subbu Arumugam ||
|-
| Adiyaargal Ullatthile (Paathar Vellai Kootthu) || ''[[Kula Deivam (1956 film)|Kula Dheivam]]'' ||1956 || [[R. Sudarsanam]] || || [[T. M. Soundararajan]] & M. M. Muthu
|-
| Kannin Oli Paavai Pole || rowspan=4|''[[Manthravadi|Mandhiravathi]]'' || rowspan=4|1956 || rowspan=4|[[Br Lakshmanan]] || || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Vinnil Vaazhum Dhevano || Nagai Mani || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Maha Sakthi Thaaye || ||
|-
| Aadu Paambe || ||
|-
| Bagavaane Un Padaippile || ''[[Moondru Pengal]]'' || 1956 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Hailesa Hailesa Hailesa || ''[[Ondre Kulam]]'' || 1956 || [[S. V. Venkatraman]] & M. V. Ranga Rao || [[Ku. Sa. Krishnamurthy]] || [[Jikki]], Vasantha & Sundaramma
|-
| Kanni Thamizhhnadu || rowspan=2|''[[Pennin Perumai]]'' || rowspan=2|1956 || rowspan=2|B. Narasimma Rao & A. Rama Rao || rowspan=2| [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] ||
|-
| Uththamane Ulagil Nilaippadhu ||
|-
| Gumthala Gummaa Gumaaikkaadhe || [[Prema Pasam]] || 1956 || [[S. Rajeswara Rao]] || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Kaanadha Inbamellaam Kandidalaam || ''[[Raja Rani (1956 film)|Raja Rani]]'' || 1956 || [[T. R. Pappa]] || [[Villipuththan]] || [[T. V. Rathnam]]
|-
| Samarasam Ulaavum Idame || rowspan=3|''[[Rambaiyin Kaadhal (1956 film)|Rambaiyin Kaadhal]]'' || rowspan=3|1956 || rowspan=3|[[T. R. Pappa]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Baagavane Mounam Eno || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Bakthar Pottrum Badharchchalane || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] ||
|-
| Naatukkoru Veeran || ''[[Rangoon Radha]]'' || 1956 || [[T. R. Pappa]] || [[Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram]] || [[A. G. Rathnamala]]
|-
| Laaba Nashtamadaa Naina || ''[[Sadhaaram]]'' || 1956 || [[G. Ramanathan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[V. K. Ramasamy (actor)|V. K. Ramasamy]]
|-
| || ''[[Verum Pechu Alla]]'' || 1956 || [[C. N. Pandurangan]] || ||
|-
| Thirumbi Paaru Thambi || rowspan=6|''[[Aaravalli]]'' || rowspan=6|1957 || rowspan=6|[[G. Ramanathan]] || Villiputhan || [[Thiruchi Loganathan]]
|-
| Sengamma Ithu Angamma || Villiputhan || [[Thiruchi Loganathan]] & [[A. G. Rathnamala]]
|-
| Kumaalam Pottathellam || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Thiruchi Loganathan]]
|-
| Manjal Poosi Varum || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Thiruchi Loganathan]]
|-
| Aadivarum Thendralada || ||
|-
| Pazhakkamillatha Kazhudhaikkitta || [[Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram]] || [[Thiruchi Loganathan]]
|-
| Velga Nin Kotram Manna || rowspan=3|''[[Ambikapathy (1957 film)|Ambikapathy]]'' || rowspan=3|1957 || rowspan=3|[[G. Ramanathan]] || ||
|-
| Aavi Udaigalai Naan Katti Vitten || ||
|-
| Ponaa Iyyanna Ikkanna Kaavanna Loona Kuthiraiyina || || V. T. Rajagopalan
|-
| Atthaanai Engeyum Parrtheengalaa || ''[[Anbe Deivam]]'' || 1957 || H. R. Pathmanabha Sastry & [[Vijaya Bhaskar]] || Sundarakannan || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Kaadhalenum Solaiyile || rowspan=6|''[[Chakravarthi Thirumagal]]'' || rowspan=6|1957 || rowspan=6|[[G. Ramanathan]] || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]] ||
|-
| Aada Vanga Annaththaa || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]] || [[Jikki]] & [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Ellai Illadha Inbathile || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Manidhan Porakkum Podhu || [[Pattukottai Kalyanasundaram]] ||
|-
| Seermevum Gurupaadham || Clown Sundaram || [[N. S. Krishnan]]
|-
| Dhilli Thulukkar Seidha || ||
|-
| Anbe Aandavan Agum || rowspan=4|''[[Karpukkarasi]]'' || rowspan=4|1957 || rowspan=4|[[G. Ramanathan]] || [[Pattukottai Kalyanasundaram]] ||
|-
| Thaththakka Puththakka Naalu Kalu || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Kaayame Idhu Meiyadaa || [[Pattukottai Kalyanasundaram]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Marundho Marundhu.. Naattu Vaithiyar || [[Pattukottai Kalyanasundaram]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Naan Thaan Un Kaadhalan || ''[[Manamagan Thevai]]'' || 1957 || [[G. Ramanathan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Bhanumathi]]
|-
| Dhayai Seiveere Dhayai Seiveere || rowspan=2|''[[Mayabazar|Maya Bajaar]]'' || rowspan=2|1957 || rowspan=2| [[Ghantasala (musician)|Ghantasala]] & [[S. Rajeswara Rao]] || rowspan=2|[[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[S. C. Krishnan]], G. Kasthoori & [[K. Rani (singer)|K. Rani]]
|-
| Baale Baale Dhevaa ||
|-
| || ''[[Mudhalali]]'' || 1957 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Ka. Mu. Sheriff]] ||
|-
| Oho Rani, Oho Raja || rowspan=3|''[[Dongallo Dora|Pakka Thirudan]]'' || rowspan=3|1957 || rowspan=3|[[T. M. Ibrahim]] || rowspan=3|Kuyilan || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Penne Vaa Chinna Raani || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Aasaiye Maarumaa || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Vaaraai Neeye Vaa Potri Vaa || rowspan=2|''[[Naya Daur (1957 film)|Pattaliyin Sabatham]]'' || rowspan=2|1957 || rowspan=2|[[O. P. Nayyar]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Thaainaadu Idhe Veeram Migundhorkke || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Maaraadha Soozhchi || ''[[Pudhumai Pithan (1957 film)|Pudhumai Pithan]]'' || 1957 || [[G. Ramanathan]] || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] ||
|-
| Sigge Sthreelakoka Bhooshaname || rowspan=6|''[[Chakravarthi Thirumagal|Rajaputhri Rahasyamu]]'' || rowspan=6|1957 || rowspan=6|[[G. Ramanathan]] || [[Sri Sri (writer)|Sri Sri]] ||
|-
| Aadvayya Annaji || [[Sri Sri (writer)|Sri Sri]] || [[Jikki]] & P. Ramam
|-
| Theeyani Raga Sampadhale || [[Sri Sri (writer)|Sri Sri]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Kanumoosi Paal Kuduchi || [[Sri Sri (writer)|Sri Sri]] ||
|-
| Srimaha Gurupadham Chintalanu || [[Sri Sri (writer)|Sri Sri]] || [[Pithapuram Nageswara Rao]]
|-
| Shanthagana Vahini Ve || [[Sri Sri (writer)|Sri Sri]] ||
|-
| Idhayam Thannaiye || rowspan=2|''[[Raja Rajan (film)|Raja Rajan]]'' || rowspan=2|1957 || rowspan=2|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[A. P. Komala]]
|-
| Nilavodu Vaanmugil || [[Ku. Sa. Krishnamurthy]] || [[A. P. Komala]]
|-
| Natvaangam || ''[[Rani Lalithangi]]'' || 1957 || [[G. Ramanathan]] || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] ||
|-
| rowspan=7|Panju Mel Adi Endru || rowspan=7|''[[Sati Savitri (1957 film)|Sathiyavan Savithri]]'' || rowspan=7|1957 || rowspan=7|[[S. Rajeswara Rao]] & Babu Rao || Kuyilan ||
|-
| Kuyilan ||
|-
| Kuyilan ||
|-
| Kuyilan ||
|-
| Kuyilan ||
|-
| Kuyilan ||
|-
| Kuyilan ||
|-
| || ''[[Soubhagyavathi]]'' || 1957 || [[Pendyala Nageswara Rao]] & [[M. S. Gnanamani]] || ||
|-
| Malaiye Un Nilaiye || rowspan=2|''[[Vanangamudi]]'' || rowspan=2|1957 || rowspan=2| [[G. Ramanathan]] || Thanjai N. Ramaiah Das ||
|-
| Aatchiyin || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] ||
|-
| Kanirasame En Kanirasame Adhirasame || ''[[Yaar Paiyyan]]'' || 1957 || [[S. Dakshinamurthi]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Ezhaikku Ettaadha Ulagam || rowspan=2|''[[Aalai Kandu Mayangadhe]]'' || rowspan=2|1958 || rowspan=2|[[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]] || ||
|-
| Arasu Andru Kollum || ||
|-
| Enna Saami Ennai Appadi Paarkkire || ''[[Annaiyin Aanai]]'' || 1958 || [[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[S. C. Krishnan]] & [[A. G. Rathnamala]]
|-
| Ella Vilakkum Vilakkalla || ''[[Athisaya Thirudan]]'' || 1958 || [[S. Dakshinamurthi]] & K. Prasad Rao || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] ||
|-
| Vaanmadhi Nee Arivaai|| rowspan=2|''[[Avan Amaran]]'' || rowspan=2|1958 || rowspan=2| [[T. M. Ibrahim]] || Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Kaalanaa Minjaadhaiyaa || A. Maruthakasi || [[A. P. Komala]]
|-
| Aasai Vachchen || ''[[Bommai Kalyanam]]'' || 1958 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Udumalai Narayana Kavi]] || [[T. V. Rathnam]]
|-
| Aalaipaaru Solaikolla Bommai Maari || rowspan=2|''[[Boologa Rambai]]'' || rowspan=2|1958 || rowspan=2|[[C. N. Pandurangan]] || Puratchidasan || S. V. Ponnusamy & [[K. Rani (singer)|K. Rani]]
|-
| Kodagu Malai Koottamunga || Puratchidasan || S. V. Ponnusamy & [[K. Rani (singer)|K. Rani]]
|-
| Paarkadal Thanile Palli Konde Endrum || rowspan=2|''[[Chenchu Lakshmi (1958 film)|Chenchu Lakshmi]]'' || rowspan=2|1958 || rowspan=2| [[S. Rajeswara Rao]] || ||
|-
| Vidha Vidhamaagave Vedanggal Aniyum || ||
|-
| Kadan Vaangi Kalyaana Saadham || rowspan=4|''[[Kadan Vaangi Kalyaanam]]'' || rowspan=4|1958 || rowspan=4|[[S. Rajeswara Rao]] || rowspan=4|[[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] ||
|-
| Sundaraangiyai Paartthadhinaale Sila Per || [[A. M. Rajah]] & [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Thennaadu Mudhal Enaadu Varai ||
|-
| Than Manadhai Nalanukku || [[A. M. Rajah]] & [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Manmadhanai Sivaperuman || ''[[Kanniyin Sabatham]]'' || 1958 || [[T. G. Lingappa]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[A. G. Rathnamala]]
|-
| Naan Porandha Seemaiyile || ''[[Kudumba Gouravam]]'' || 1958 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Akkarai Cheemaikku Pona Macchaan || rowspan=2|''[[Maalaiyitta Mangai]]'' || rowspan=2|1958 || rowspan=2| [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || rowspan=2|[[Kannadasan]] || [[K. Rani (singer)|K. Rani]]
|-
| Vil Enge Kanai Enge ||
|-
| Theynozhugu Senthamizh || ''[[Manamalai]]'' || 1958 || [[Vedha (composer)|Vedha]] || Saravanabavanandhar ||
|-
| Inbam Engey || rowspan=2|''[[Manamulla Maruthaaram]]'' || rowspan=2|1958 || rowspan=2|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Aadaadha Aatamellam Aaduranga Paaduraanga || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Anusuya Kadhaakaalatchebam || rowspan=4|''[[Mangalya Bhagyam]]'' || rowspan=4|1958 || rowspan=4|[[G. Ramanathan]] || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[M. L. Vasanthakumari]], [[K. Jamuna Rani]], [[A. P. Komala]] & [[A. G. Rathnamala]]
|-
| Ondre Maandhar Kulam || [[Udumalai Narayana Kavi]] || [[K. Jamuna Rani]] & [[A. G. Rathnamala]]
|-
| Enaanga Ungalai || [[Udumalai Narayana Kavi]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Kannodu Kann Kalandhaal || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Uzhaippathillaa Uzhaippai || ''[[Nadodi Mannan]]'' || 1958 || [[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]] || Kavi Lakshmanadas ||
|-
| Soalaikkulle Kuyilu Kunji || ''[[Paanai Pidithaval Bhaagyasaali]]'' || 1958 || [[S. V. Venkatraman]] & [[S. Rajeswara Rao]] || || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Poottukku Ettha Saavi Naan || rowspan=4|''[[Peria Koil|Periya Koyil]]'' || rowspan=4|1958 || rowspan=4|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Valai Veesammaa Valai Veesu || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Kollai Kollum Muraiyinile || || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Kaasu Panam Selavalittu || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Podadhaa Marathile... Onne Onnu || rowspan=2|''[[Petra Maganai Vitra Annai]]'' || rowspan=2|1958 || rowspan=2|[[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[Tiruchi Loganathan]] & [[Jikki]]
|-
| Pachaiyilum Neeyum Pachcha || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Pillai Kani Amudhu Onnu || rowspan=4|''[[Pillai Kaniyamudhu]]'' || rowspan=4|1958 || rowspan=4|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Pillai Kani Amudhu Onnu (pathos) || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Odugira Thanniyile || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Seevi Mudichukiddu Singaaram || Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram ||
|-
| Alangara Valliye || ''[[Sabaash Meena]]'' || 1958 || [[T. G. Lingappa]] || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Needhi Thavarathu || rowspan=7|''[[Sampoorna Ramayanam (1958 film)|Sampoorna Ramayanam]]'' || rowspan=7|1958 || rowspan=7|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthaksi]] ||
|-
| Paadhugaiye Thunaiyagum || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Sabarikku Ramanum || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Sree Raamachandra Magudaabishegam || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[S. C. Krishnan]]
|-
| Araneri Marandha Thamayanai || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Azhagiya Ilanga Nagarai || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Atthiri Munivar Raman Lakshmananai || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Mathiyilla Moorkkorukkor || rowspan=2|''[[Sarangadhara (1958 film)|Sarangadhara]]'' || rowspan=2|1958 || rowspan=2|[[G. Ramanathan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Vaazhga Namadhu Naadu || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Sollattumaa Sollattumaa || rowspan=2|''[[Thai Pirandhal Vazhi Pirakkum]]'' || rowspan=2|1958 || rowspan=2|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[K. Jamuna Rani]]
|-
| Amudhum Theanum Edharkku || [[Suratha]] ||
|-
| Poovaadai Nee Enakku || ''[[Thedi Vandha Selvam]]'' || 1958 || [[T. G. Lingappa]] || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[T. V. Rathnam]]
|-
| Thulli Varap Poren || rowspan=3|''[[Thirumanam]]'' || rowspan=3|1958 || rowspan=3|[[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]] & [[T. G. Lingappa]] || [[Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Lavaa Lavaa ... Vai Raja Vai || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[A. G. Rathnamala]]
|-
| Vaa, Oru Saedhi Sollave Odi Vaa || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Pulli Vaikkiraan || rowspan=2|''[[Uthama Puthiran (1958 film)|Uthama Puthiran]]'' || rowspan=2|1958 || rowspan=2|[[G. Ramanathan]] || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Moolai Neranjavanga || [[Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Vetrivel || rowspan=2|''[[Vanjikottai Valiban]]'' || rowspan=2|1958 || rowspan=2|[[C. Ramachandra]] || [[Kothamangalam Subbu]] || [[Thiruchi Loganathan]] & [[T. V. Rathnam]]
|-
| Vaikkal Vandi Baaram || [[Kothamangalam Subbu]] || [[Thiruchi Loganathan]] & [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Ammaa Appaa Yenru || rowspan=3|''[[Alli Petra Pillai]]'' || rowspan=3|1959 || rowspan=3|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Onnum Onnum Serndhaaka || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Nalla Naalu Romba Nalla Naalu || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]] & [[Thiruchi Loganathan]]
|-
| Singaara Vadivamaana Thithikkum || ''[[Amudhavalli]]'' || 1959 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Udumalai Narayana Kavi]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Inai Solla Mudiyaadha Ezhiloviyam || ''[[Arumai Magal Abirami]]'' ||1959 || [[V. Dakshinamoorthy]] || [[Ku. Sa. Krishnamurthy]] ||
|-
| Anipillai Tennampillai || ''[[Athisaya Penn]]'' || 1959 || [[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]] || V. Seetharaman ||
|-
| || ''[[Bala Nagamma (1959 film)|Bala Nagamma]]'' || 1959 || Pamarthi || ||
|-
| Otrumaiyaai Vaazhvadhaale Undu || ''[[Bhaaga Pirivinai]]'' ||1959 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Oh...Vandu Aadaadha Solaiyil || ''[[Engal Kuladevi]]'' || 1959 || |[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Pattanamthaan Pogalaamadi || ''[[Engal Veettu Mahalakshmi]]'' || 1959 || [[Master Venu]] || Udumalai Narayana Kavi || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Dharmaseela Kalaivaanarukkulle || rowspan=2|''[[Kalaivaanan]]'' || rowspan=2|1959 || rowspan=2|[[Pendyala Nageswara Rao]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| En Kannil Ambu Undu || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Tea Tea Tea || ''[[Kalyana Parisu]]'' || 1959 || [[A. M. Rajah]] || [[Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram]] ||
|-
| Mannaadhi Mannarellaam || ''[[Kalyanikku Kalyanam]]'' || 1959 || [[G. Ramanathan]] || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || V. R. Rajagopalan
|-
| Oho Oru Kuraiyum Seiyame.... Irukkum Pozhudhai Rasikkanum || rowspan=4|''[[Kan Thiranthathu]]'' || rowspan=4|1959 || rowspan=4|[[V. T. Rajagopalan]] || [[Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram]] || [[S. C. Krishnan]] & [[K. Jamuna Rani]]
|-
| Kann Thirandhadhu.... Pudhu Vazhvu Pervuvomada || V. Seetharaman || [[S. C. Krishnan]], [[K. Jamuna Rani]] & [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Penngalai Kandaale Manam Pole || V. Seetharaman || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Parandhadhe Unmai Parandhadhe || V. Seetharaman ||
|-
| Thottakkaara Chinnmaamaa || rowspan=2|''[[Madhavi (1959 film)|Madhavi]]'' || rowspan=2|1959 || rowspan=2|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || || [[M. S. Rajeswari]]
|-
| Kaalamadi Kaalam Kalikaalamadi || ||
|-
| Vaazhvinil Kaanum Adhisayame || ''[[Mala Oru Mangala Vilakku]]'' || 1959 || [[C. N. Pandurangan]] || [[Villiputhan]] ||
|-
| Mogana Rangaa Ennai Paaradaa || ''[[Mamiyar Mechina Marumagal]]'' ||1959 || [[R. Sudarsanam]] || Kavi Rajagopal || [[M. L. Vasanthakumari]]
|-
| Thathi Thathi Tavazhum || ''[[Manaiviye Manithanin Manickam]]'' || 1959 || [[S. Hanumantha Rao]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Manadhai Kavarndha Mangai Varuvaalo || rowspan=2|''[[Manimekalai (1959 film)|Manimekalai]]'' || rowspan=2|1959 || rowspan=2|[[G. Ramanathan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Radha Jayalakshmi]]
|-
| Unda Naali Uduttha Naanku Mulam || Kambadasan ||
|-
| Kannodu Kanninai Nokki || ''[[Minnal Veeran]]'' || 1959 || [[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]] || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[Radha Jayalakshmi]]
|-
| Muruga Muruga Muruga || ''[[Naalu Veli Nilam]]'' || 1959 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] & M. K. Athmanathan || [[Subramania Bharati|Mahakavi Subramania Bharathiyar]] ||
|-
| Kaanadha Sorgam Ondru || ''[[Naan Sollum Ragasiyam]]'' || 1959 || [[G. Ramanathan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Vanna Malarodu Konjum || rowspan=3|''[[Naatukoru Nallaval]]'' || rowspan=3|1959 || rowspan=3|[[Master Venu]] || rowspan=3|M. K. Athmanathan || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Kannum Kannum Koodum || [[M. S. Rajeswari]], T. K. Kumaresan & Renuka
|-
| Kaalam Varappogudhu Thannale || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Mali Pugazh Nala Saridhai || ''[[Nala Damayanthi (1959 film)|Nala Damayanthi]]'' || 1959 || [[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]] || [[Papanasam Sivan]] ||
|-
| Kodumai Purivadhe || ''[[Pandithevan]]'' || 1959 || [[C. N. Pandurangan]] & Meenakshi Subramanyam || [[Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram]] ||
|-
| Maa Manakkudhu Thaen Manakkudhu || ''[[Panchaali]]'' || 1959 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Thiruchi Loganathan]]
|-
| Kangal Urangida Marandhidum Naal || ''Penn Kulathin Perumai'' || 1959 || [[G. Ramanathan]] || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Vinodhamaana Ulagathile || rowspan=3|''[[Pennkulathin Ponvilakku]]'' || rowspan=3|1959 || rowspan=3|[[Master Venu]] || Villiputhan ||
|-
| Vizhivaasal Azhagaana Manimandapam || Villiputhan || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Vanakkam Vaanga Maappille || Villiputhan || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Mannit Pirandhaan || ''[[Ponnu Vilaiyum Boomi]]'' || 1959 || K. H. Reddy || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Naan Suhavaasi, Dhinam Kaiveesi || ''[[President Panchatcharam]]'' || 1959 || [[G. Ramanathan]] || [[K. S. Gopalakrishnan]] ||
|-
| Pachai Kuzhandhaiyadi Kannil || rowspan=3|''[[Odi Vilaiyaadu Paapa]]'' || rowspan=3|1959 || rowspan=3|V. Krishnamoorthy || [[Subramania Bharati|Mahakavi Subramania Bharathiyar]] || [[Radha Jayalakshmi]]
|-
| Odi Vilaiyaadu Paapa || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Vaavendru Azhaikkudhe Thennai || Kambadasan || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Vaazhvadhu Endrum Unmaiye || rowspan=3|''[[Raja Malaya Simha|Raja Malaiya Simman]]'' || rowspan=3|1959 || rowspan=3|[[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Maaligaiyilae Vasikkum || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. B. Sreenivas]] & [[G. K. Venkatesh]]
|-
| Jigijigichchaang Kuruvi || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[K. Jamuna Rani]]
|-
| Jeyam Nichayamadaa || ''[[Sabhash Ramudu|Sabash Ramu]]'' || 1959 || [[Ghantasala (musician)|Ghantasala]] || [[Ku. Sa. Krishnamurthy]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]] & A. V. Saraswathi
|-
| Sivagangai Seemai Sivagangai Seemai || ''[[Sivagangai Seemai]]'' ||1959 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T.M. Soundararajan]] & [[A. P. Komala]]
|-
| Panbodu Ennaalume || rowspan=2|''[[Sollu Thambi Sollu]]'' || rowspan=2|1959 || rowspan=2|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Aasai Mozhi Pesuthu || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Manidhanaagave Pirandhadhu Mannil Edhukku Theriyumaa || rowspan=4|''[[Sumangali (1959 film)|Sumangali]]'' || rowspan=4|1959 || rowspan=4|[[M. Ranga Rao]] || rowspan=4|T. S. Nadarajan || [[S. C. Krishnan]]
|-
| Manasum Manasum Onnu Serndhu || [[K. Rani (singer)|K. Rani]]
|-
| Pattikaadu Endru Keli || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Vidhi Seidha Sadhiyo || [[R. Balasaraswathi Devi]]
|-
| Aadivarum Aadangap Porpavai || rowspan=5|''[[Thaai Magalukku Kattiya Thaali]]'' || rowspan=5|1959 || rowspan=5|[[T. R. Pappa]] || [[K. D. Santhanam]] || [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| Kodumaiyaadaa.. Vanampadi Ondru || [[K. D. Santhanam]] ||
|-
| Ondralla Irandalla Thambi || [[Udumalai Narayana Kavi]] ||
|-
| Thanjavoru Bommaiyai Paarungadi || [[Udumalai Narayana Kavi]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[P. Susheela]] & [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Vandhen Vandhaname || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Thalai Koduthaan Thambi || rowspan=3|''[[Thalai Koduthaan Thambi]]'' || rowspan=3|1959 || rowspan=3|[[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[N. L. Ganasaraswathi]] & [[S. C. Krishnan]]
|-
| Panneeril Thalai Muzhugi || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[N. L. Ganasaraswathi]] & [[S. C. Krishnan]]
|-
| Anaivarum Karuthudan || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[N. L. Ganasaraswathi]] & [[S. C. Krishnan]]
|-
| || ''[[Thamarai Kulam]]'' || 1959 || [[H. Padmanabha Sarma]] & [[T. A. Mothi]] || ||
|-
| Vidhi Enum Kuzhandai || ''[[Thanga Padhumai]]'' || 1959 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram]] ||
|-
| Paatti Sollum Kadhai || |''[[Thayapola Pillai Noolapola Selai]]'' || 1959 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Thiruchi Loganathan]], [[Soolamangalam Sisters|Soolamangalam Rajalakshmi]] & [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Sandhoshamthaan Ini Vaazhvile || ''[[Ulagam Sirikkiradhu]]'' || 1959 || [[S. Dakshinamurthi]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| O Singara Pooncholai || ''[[Uzhavukkum Thozhilukkum Vandhanai Seivom]]'' || 1959 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[K. Jamuna Rani]]
|-
| Maattukkara Vela Un || rowspan=4|''[[Vannakili]]'' || rowspan=4|1959 || rowspan=4|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Aathula Thanni Vara Athil || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Kaattu Mallli || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Vandi Urundoda Achchani || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Jakkamma || rowspan=2|''[[Veerapandiya Kattabomman (film)|Veerapandiya Kattabomman]]'' || rowspan=2|1959 || rowspan=2|[[G. Ramanathan]] || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]] ||
|-
| Veeraththin Chinname || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]] ||
|-
| Kanne Vanna Pasungkiliye || ''[[Aana Valarthiya Vanampadi|Yaanai Valartha Vanampadi]]'' || 1959 || [[Br Lakshmanan]] || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]] ||
|}

===1960s===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Song !! Movie !! Year !! Music !! Lyrics !! Co - Singer
|-
| Aasaiyai Kondru Vidu || ''[[Aadavantha Deivam]]'' || 1960 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Kannkallum Kavi Paaduthe || ''[[Adutha Veettu Penn]]'' || 1960 || [[P. Adinarayana Rao]] || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[Tiruchi Loganathan]]
|-
| Raaja Raani Naamiruvar || ''[[Anbukor Anni]]'' || 1960 || [[A. M. Rajah]] || || [[K. Jamuna Rani]]
|-
| Atho Keerathanaa.... Manidhanai Manidhan || ''[[Deivapiravi (1960 film)|Deivapiravi]]'' || 1960 || [[R. Sudarsanam]] || [[K. S. Gopalakrishnan]] ||
|-
| Kalappai Pidikkum Kaiyai Nambi || ''[[Irumanam Kalanthal Thirumanam]]'' || 1960 || [[S. Dakshinamurthi]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Manithadari Manidhar Sari Nigar || rowspan=2|''[[Irumbu Thirai (1960 film)|Irumbu Thirai]]'' || rowspan=2|1960 || rowspan=2|[[S. V. Venkatraman]] || [[Pattukottai Kalyanasundaram]] ||
|-
| Dabbaa Dabbaa Dabbaa || [[Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram]] ||
|-
| Penn Endral Paeyum Manam || ''[[Ivan Avanethan]]'' || 1960 || [[M. Ranga Rao]] || M. S. Subramaniam ||
|-
| Anaithum Andavan Kairasi || ''[[Kairasi]]'' || 1960 || [[R. Govardhanam]] || [[Kothamangalam Subbu]] ||
|-
| Kaadhalai Sodichchu || rowspan=3|''[[Kaithi Kannayiram]]'' || rowspan=3|1960 || rowspan=3|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[K. Jamuna Rani]]
|-
| Saala Misthri || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Sangadam Sangadam || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Virunthaagum Isai Amudham || ''[[Kuzhandhaigal Kanda Kudiyarasu]]'' || 1960 || [[T. G. Lingappa]] || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]] ||
|-
| Kadhar Kozhunan || ''[[Mannadhi Mannan]]'' ||1960 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Aadum Arul Jothi || ''[[Meenda Sorgam]]'' || 1960 || [[T. Chalapathi Rao]] || P. S. Gopalakrishnan || [[M. L. Vasanthakumari]]
|-
| Ungal Azhagai Kanden || rowspan=2|''[[Naan Kanda Sorgam]]'' || rowspan=2|1960 || rowspan=2|[[G. Aswathama]] || || [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| Paar Paar Paar Saambaaru || || [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| Karakaanaathoru || ''Neeli Saali'' || 1960 || [[K. Raghavan]] || [[P. Bhaskaran]] ||
|-
| Kalangadhe Kavalaipadadhe || rowspan=2|''[[Ondrupattal Undu Vazhvu]]'' || rowspan=2|1960 || rowspan=2|[[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram]] || [[K. Jamuna Rani]], [[S. C. Krishnan]] & [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Unmaiyai Sonnavanai Ulagam || [[Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram]] ||
|-
| Engirundho Vandhan || rowspan=2|''[[Padikkadha Medhai]]'' || rowspan=2|1960 || rowspan=2|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Subramania Bharathi|Mahakavi Bharathiyar]] ||
|-
| Thaalamesthri Pista Paaru || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Hat Nagaeregamaana Hattu || rowspan=2|''[[Pattaliyin Vetri]]'' || rowspan=2|1960 || rowspan=2|[[S. Rajeswara Rao]] & [[Master Venu]] || [[Udumalai Narayana Kavi]] ||
|-
| Gama Gama Gamangkudhu || [[Udumalai Narayana Kavi]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Cinema Cinema Cinema || rowspan=3|''[[Petra Manam]]'' || rowspan=3|1960 || rowspan=3|[[S. Rajeswara Rao]] || M. K. Athamanathan ||
|-
| Anbu Thozhaa Odi Vaa || Ku. Mu. Annalthango ||
|-
| Puthiyathor Ulagam Seyvom || [[Bharathidasan]] ||
|-
| Pasandhaina Paata Idhe || ''[[Kuzhandhaigal Kanda Kudiyarasu|Pillalu Techina Challani Rajyam]]'' || 1960 || [[T. G. Lingappa]] || [[Samudrala Sr.]] ||
|-
| Karumbu Villai Eduthu || rowspan=2|''[[Ponni Thirunaal]]'' || rowspan=2|1960 || rowspan=2|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[A. L. Raghavan]], [[Thiruchi Loganathan]], S. V. Ponnusamy & [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Pongi Varum Kaviriye || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Thiruchi Loganathan]], [[Soolamangalam Sisters|Soolamangalam Rajalakshmi]] & [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Aadhi Kadavul Ondruthan || rowspan=5|''[[Raja Desingu]]'' || rowspan=5|1960 || rowspan=5|[[G. Ramanathan]] || ||
|-
| Kanangkuruvi Kaattuppuraa || || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Mannavane Senji || || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Vanamevum Rajakumaraa || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Vandhaan Paaru || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Iravinil Vandhadheno.... Ooredhu Peredhu O Vennilaave || rowspan=2|''[[Raja Makutam|Raja Makudam]]'' || rowspan=2|1960 || rowspan=2|[[Master Venu]] || rowspan=2|[[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Munnale Povanum Thirumbalaama ||
|-
| Sangeetham Paadi Sandhosham || rowspan=3|''[[Thangam Manasu Thangam]]'' || rowspan=3|1960 || rowspan=3|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Sirikkudhu Mullai || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Pongum Azhagu Pootthu || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Manasukkulle Maraichu Vaikka Mudiyale || rowspan=2|''[[Thilakam (1960 film)|Thilakam]]'' || rowspan=2|1960 || rowspan=2|[[R. Sudarsanam]] || M. K. Athmanathan || [[M. L. Vasanthakumari]]
|-
| Ezhaikkum Vaazhvukkum Vegudhooramaa || Kavi Rajagopal || [[M. L. Vasanthakumari]] & [[T. S. Bagavathi]]
|-
| Uyir Illaamal Ulaginile || ''Thozhan'' || 1960 || [[G. Ramanathan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Chithirame Chithirame || rowspan=3|''[[Veerakkanal]]'' || rowspan=3|1960 || rowspan=3|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Kaikal Irandil || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Thanga Kiliye Mozhi Pesu || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Sengani Vaai Thirandhu Sirithiduvai || ''[[Yanai Paagan]]'' || 1960 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| O Maappillai Machaan|| ''[[Anbu Magan]]'' || 1961 || [[T. Chalapathi Rao]] || A. S. Rajagopal || [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| Etramunnaa Etram || rowspan=3|''[[Arasilangkumari]]'' || rowspan=3|1961 || rowspan=3|[[G. Ramanathan]] ||[[Pattukottai Kalyanasundaram]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Kazhugumalai Pazhanimalai || [[Pattukottai Kalyanasundaram]] ||
|-
| Thoondilile Mattikittu Muzhikuthu || N. M. Muthukoothan || [[K. Jamuna Rani]] & [[S. C. Krishnan]]
|-
| Sivasankari Sivanandalahari || ''[[Jagadeka Veeruni Katha|Jagathalaprathapan]]'' || 1961 || [[Pendyala Nageswara Rao]] || [[Pingali Nagendra Rao]] ||
|-
| Nenjil Uramumindri || rowspan=5|''[[Kappalottiya Thamizhan]]'' || rowspan=5|1961 || rowspan=5|[[G. Ramanathan]] || rowspan=5|[[Subramania Bharathiyar]] ||
|-
| Odi Vilaiyaadu Pappaa || [[K. Jamuna Rani]] & Rohini
|-
| Paarukkulle Nalla Naadu ||
|-
| Vandhe Maatharam Enbom ||
|-
| Vellippani Malai || [[Tiruchi Loganathan]], [[L. R. Eswari]] & Rohini
|-
| Kandadhai Kettadhai Nambaadhe || rowspan=3|''[[Kongunattu Thangam]]'' || rowspan=3|1961 || rowspan=3|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Karumbaaga Inikkindra Paruvam || Kovai Kumaradevan || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Nenjinile Enna Veeram || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Kallile Kalai Vannam Kandan || rowspan=2|''[[Kumudham]]'' || rowspan=2|1961 || rowspan=2|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Ennai Vittu Odi Poga Mudiyuma || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Baila Baila Cycle || rowspan=2|''[[Mamiyarum Oru Veetu Marumagale]]'' || rowspan=2|1961 || rowspan=2|[[Pendyala Nageswara Rao]] || rowspan=2|[[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Vaayendru Sonnadhum Vandhaaye || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Aandavn Oruvan Irukkindraan || rowspan=3|''[[Nallavan Vazhvan]]'' || rowspan=3|1961 || rowspan=3|[[T. R. Pappa]] || M. K. Athmanathan ||
|-
| Anbukkarathale.. Kuthala Aruviyile Kulichathu || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Sirikindraal Indru Sirikindraal || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Panam Panthiyile Gunam Kuppaiyile || ''[[Panam Panthiyile]]'' || 1961 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Ka. Mu. Sheriff]] ||
|-
| Maamiyaarukku Oru Seidhi || ''[[Panithirai]]'' || 1961 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. V. Rathnam]]
|-
| Naanillai Endral || ''[[Punar Janmam]]'' || 1961 || [[T. Chalapathi Rao]] || [[Pattukottai Kalyanasundaram]] || [[S. Janaki]] & A. V. Saraswathi
|-
| Jidu Jidu ||rowspan=7|''[[Sabaash Mapillai]]'' || rowspan=7|1961 || rowspan=7|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || rowspan=7|[[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Mappillai || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Manathil Irukuthu Onnu || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Muthu Pole || [[Soolamangalam Sisters|Soolamangalam Rajalakshmi]]
|-
| Sirippavar Silaper ||
|-
| Yaarukku Yaar Sondham - Happy || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Yaarukku Yaar Sondham - Sad ||
|-
| Vigna Vinaayagaa || rowspan=4|''[[Sri Valli (1961 film)|Sri Valli]]'' || rowspan=4|1961 || rowspan=4|[[G. Ramanathan]] || rowspan=4|[[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] ||
|-
| Vanna Thaamaraiyil Minnum Neerkumizhi ||
|-
| Yechuputten Naan Yechuputten || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Thaagam Thanindhadhu Anname || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Vamma Vamma Chinnamma Vayasu || ''[[Thayilla Pillai]]'' || 1961 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Aasey Machchan.... Azhagaana Chinna Ponnu || rowspan=2|''[[Thirudadhe]]'' || rowspan=2|1961 || rowspan=2|[[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]] || Ku. Sa. Krishnamoorthi || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Anbale Thannuyirai || [[M. K. Athmanathan]] ||
|-
| Neethine Gattiga Nammali || ''[[Kongunattu Thangam|Viplava Sthree]]'' || 1961 || Pamarthi || [[Samudrala Jr.]] ||
|-
| Kalanugani Ninnalanuganee || rowspan=3|''[[Sivagangai Seemai|Yodhana Yodhulu]]'' || rowspan=3|1961 || rowspan=3|G. Aswathama || Narapa Reddy || Nirmala
|-
| Bharathveera O Bharatha Veera || Sriramchand || Raghuram & Vijayalakshmi
|-
| Veeranivasam Bharathadesham || Sriramchand ||
|-
| Annaiyin Arule Vaa || ''[[Aadi Perukku (film)|Aadi Perukku]]'' || 1962 || [[A. M. Rajah]] || [[Kothamangalam Subbu]] ||
|-
| Kannana Kannanukku Avasarama || ''[[Aalayamani]]'' || 1962 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Moongil Maarakkattinile || rowspan=3|''[[Azhagu Nila]]'' || rowspan=3|1962 || rowspan=3|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Manithan Ellam Therindhu Kondan || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Kaattu Kuyilukkum Naattu Kuyilukkum || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Nitham Nitham || ''[[Bandha Pasam]]'' || 1962 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Mayavanathan]] ||
|-
| Hrdayamulu Pulakinnchavo || ''[[Mannadhi Mannan|Ekaika Veerudu]]'' || 1962 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] & [[S. P. Kodandapani]] || [[Veturi]] || [[M. L. Vasanthakumari]]
|-
| Vidiyum Varai Kaatthirupen || ''[[Ellorum Vazhavendum]]'' || 1962 || [[Rajan–Nagendra]] || Villiputhan ||
|-
| Odam Nadhiyinile || ''[[Kathiruntha Kangal]]'' || 1962 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Kaalai Pozhudhe Namaskaaram || ''[[Mahaveera Bheeman]]'' || 1962 || [[M. S. Gnanamani]] || T. K. Sundara Vathiyar ||
|-
| Om Sarvam Sakthi Mayam || rowspan=3|''[[Manithan Maravillai]]'' || rowspan=3|1962 || rowspan=3|[[Ghantasala (musician)|Ghantasala]] || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] ||
|-
| Podu Podu Thekka Thillana || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]] || [[Ghantasala (musician)|Ghantasala]], [[P. Susheela]] & [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Kaalathai Mattrinaan (Manithan Maravillai) || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Naagam Kudai Pidikka || ''[[Naagamalai Azhagi]]'' || 1962 || [[S. P. Kodandapani]] & [[T. A. Mothi]] || Elangkavi Muthukoothan ||
|-
| Vengaikku Kurivaithu || ''[[Paasam]]'' || 1962 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Malligai Mullai Narumamanum || rowspan=4|''[[Pirandhanaal]]'' || rowspan=4|1962 || rowspan=4|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[K. Jamuna Rani]]
|-
| Ellam Thirai Maraive || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Sanjalam Theerkkum Marundhu || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Konthu Tharu Kuzhal Irulo Puyalo || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Kannile Neer Edharku || ''[[Policekaran Magal]]'' || 1962 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| Thattu Thadumaari Nenjam || ''[[Sarada (1962 film)|Sarada]]'' || 1962 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Kandathu Ondru Kettadhu Ondru || ''[[Seemaan Petra Selvangal]]'' || 1962 || [[T. R. Pappa]] || Kavi Rajagopal ||
|-
| Mangili Rangammaa || ''[[Vikramaadhithan]]'' || 1962 || [[S. Rajeswara Rao]] || Clown Sundaram || [[Jikki]]
|-
| Pazhatthai Kandey Oru || rowspan=2|''Aasthikoru Aanum Aasaikkoru Pennum'' || rowspan=2|1963 || rowspan=2|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Pirivu Embadhu Endrum Illai || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Anbu Embathu Deivamanathu || rowspan=2|''[[Aasai Alaigal]]'' || rowspan=2|1963 || rowspan=2|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[K. Jamuna Rani]] & [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Anbu Embathu Deivamanthu -2 || [[Kannadasan]] || [[K. Jamuna Rani]] & [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Parthukondirundhale Podhum || rowspan=3|''[[Chittoor Rani Padmini]]'' || rowspan=3|1963 || rowspan=3|[[G. Ramanathan]] || [[Udumalai Narayana Kavi]] ||
|-
| Oho Nila Raani || [[Ku. Ma. Balasubramaniam]] ||
|-
| Chittu Sirippadhu Pole || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Singara Therukku || ''[[Idhu Sathiyam]]'' || 1963 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Nee Iruppadhu Inge Un Ninaiviruppadhu Enge || rowspan=3|''[[Kalai Arasi]]'' || rowspan=3|1963 || rowspan=3|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || N. M. Muthukoothan || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Kalaiye Un Ezhi Meni || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Bhanumathi]]
|-
| Adhisayam Paarthen Mannile || [[Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram]] ||
|-
| Paalaattril Selaadudhu || ''[[Koduthu Vaithaval]]'' || 1963 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[K. Jamuna Rani]]
|-
| Vidhiyennum Kuzhandhai Vilaiyaaduthu || ''[[Kubera Theevu]]'' || 1963 || [[C. N. Pandurangan]] || Veppathur Krishnan ||
|-
| Ponggum Olimayame || ''[[Lava Kusa (1963 film)|Lava Kusa]]'' || 1963 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] & [[Ghantasala (musician)|Ghantasala]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Devan Kovil Mani Osai || ''[[Mani Osai]]'' || 1963 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Gundu Malli Valarndhirukku || rowspan=2|''[[Punithavathi]]'' || rowspan=2|1963 || rowspan=2|Hussein Reddy || Surabhi || [[A. P. Komala]]
|-
| Aann Onru Nalla Penn Onru || Surabhi ||
|-
| Deva Deva Narayana || ''[[Sri Krishnarjuna Yuddhamu|Sri Krishnarjuna Yudham]]'' || 1963 || [[Pendyala Nageswara Rao]] || Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass ||
|-

| Pottu Vachu Poo Mudichu || ''[[Guruvunu Minchina Sishyudu|Veera Thilagam]]'' || 1963 || [[S. P. Kodandapani]] || || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Unmaikku Veliyittu || ''[[Dheiva Thaai]]'' || 1964 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Alangudi Somu]] ||
|-
| Kaadhalikka Neramillai || ''[[Kadhalikka Neramillai]]'' || 1964 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Maranathai Enni || rowspan=4|''[[Karnan (1964 film)|Karnan]]'' || rowspan=4|1964 || rowspan=4|[[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Ullathil Nalla Ullam || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Parithraanaaya Sathunaa || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Aayiram Karangal Neetti ||[[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[Tiruchi Loganathan]] & [[P. B. Sreenivas]]
|-
| Bhuvilo Dehammu || ''[[Karnan (1964 film)|Karna]]'' || 1964 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || ||
|-
| Ellarum Ellamum Pera Vendum || rowspan=3|''[[Karuppu Panam]]'' || rowspan=3|1964 || rowspan=3|[[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] || Chorus
|-
| Irakka Irakka || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Thangachi Chinna Ponnu || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Kottaiyile Oru Aalamaram || ''[[Muradan Muthu]]'' || 1964 || [[T. G. Lingappa]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Ye Deshamuna Nunduvaru || ''[[Ramadasu (1964 Film)|Ramadasu]]'' || 1964 || [[G. Ashwathama]] & [[V. Nagayya]] || || [[V. N. Sundaram]] & [[Madhavapeddi Satyam]]
|-
| Aazham Theriyamaal Kaalai || ''[[Thozhilali]]'' || 1964 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Alangudi Somu]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Arasi Endraal Enna || ''[[Veeranganai]]'' || 1964 || [[Vedha (composer)|Vedha]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Kanden Kanden Unnai || ''[[Veera Pandiyan]]'' || 1964 || [[Rajan–Nagendra]] || Puratchidasan ||
|-
| Laddu Laddu Laddu || ''[[Aggi Pidugu|Veerathi Veeran]]'' || 1964 || [[Rajan–Nagendra]] || Puratchidasan || [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| Sokam Pongenule || ''[[Kathiruntha Kangal|Andhi Andhani Prema]]'' || 1965 || [[K. Chakravarthy]] || Anisetti ||
|-
| Kalaithanil || ''[[Ennathan Mudivu]]'' || 1965 || [[R. Sudarsanam]] || [[Kothamangalam Subbu]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Iyarkkai Annai Thandhadhellam || ''[[Enga Veetu Penn]]'' || 1965 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Alangudi Somu]] ||
|-
| Koothaadum Kondaiyile || ''[[Iravum Pagalum]]'' || 1965 || [[T. R. Pappa]] || [[Alangudi Somu]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Sange Muzhangu || ''[[Kalangarai Vilakkam]]'' || 1965 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Bharathidasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Kalai Manggai Uruvam Kandu || ''[[Maganey Kel]]'' || 1965 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Pattukkottai Kalyanasundaram]] || [[M. L. Vasanthakumari]]
|-
| Aadi Adangum Vaazhkaiyadaa || ''[[Neerkumizhi]]'' || 1965 || [[V. Kumar]] || [[Suratha]] ||
|-
| Aarodum Mannil Engum Neerodum || rowspan=3|''[[Pazhani (1965 film)|Pazhani]]'' || rowspan=3|1965 || rowspan=3|[[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]] & [[P. B. Sreenivas]]
|-
| Vatta Vatta Paarayile || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Annaachi Veeti Kattum Aambalaiyaa Neenga || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[S. C. Krishnan]], [[A. L. Raghavan]] & [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Ven Palingu Medai || ''[[Poojaikku Vandha Malar]]'' || 1965 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Alangudi Somu]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Karuneela Malai || rowspan=2|''[[Thaaye Unakkaga]]'' || rowspan=2|1965 || rowspan=2|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || rowspan=2|[[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Pazhagu Senthamil
|-
| Oru Kodi Paadalukkum || rowspan=2|''Thayin Karunai'' || rowspan=2|1965 || rowspan=2|[[G. K. Venkatesh]] || [[Mayavanathan]] ||
|-
| Thayin Karunai || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Om Namasivaya || ''[[Thiruvilayadal]]'' || 1965 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Pazhani Santhana Vaadai || ''[[Vaazhkai Padagu]]'' || 1965 || [[Viswanathan–Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Paaradi Kanne Konjam || rowspan=3|''[[Vallavanukku Vallavan]]'' || rowspan=3|1965 || rowspan=3|[[Vedha (composer)|Vedha]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]] & [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Kandaalum Kandene || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Maa Manakkuthu Poo || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Yugam Thorum Naan || rowspan=3|''[[Veera Abhimanyu (1965 film)|Veera Abhimanyu]]'' || rowspan=3|1965 || rowspan=3|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Thuvakathil || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Koorayil Neruppinai || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Kaasikku Pogum Sanyasi Un || rowspan=2|''[[Chandhrodhayam]]'' || rowspan=2|1966 || rowspan=2|[[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Pudhiyadhor Ulagam Seivom || [[Bharathidasan]] || Chorus
|-
| Sirippen Sirippen || ''[[Chinnanchiru Ulagam]]'' || 1966 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Cycle Vandi Mele || ''[[Chitthi]]'' || 1966 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| || ''[[Enga Pappa]]'' || 1966 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Kaadhal Undagum Kattazhagi || rowspan=3|''[[Iru Vallavargal]]'' || rowspan=3|1966 || rowspan=3|[[Vedha (composer)|Vedha]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Uravirundhal Pirivirukkum || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Sangadam Sangadam || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Kanagaththai Thedi Indru Pogiraal || ''[[Kodimalar]]'' || 1966 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Yeira Yenkannadora || ''[[Loguttu Perumaallu Keruka]]'' || 1966 || [[S. P. Kodandapani]] || [[Veturi]] || [[S. Janaki]], [[Pithapuram Nageswara Rao]] & Pattabhi
|-
| Thuninthu Nil || ''[[Major Chandrakanth (1966 film)|Major Chandrakanth]]'' || 1966 || [[V. Kumar]] || [[Suratha]] ||
|-
| Penna Maanthartham (Penmai Endra) || ''[[Motor Sundaram Pillai]]'' || 1966 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kothamangalam Subbu]] ||
|-
| Megangal Irundu (Odi Vandhu) || ''[[Naan Aanaiyittal]]'' || 1966 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Alangudi Somu]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Nalla Manaivi Nalla Pillai || rowspan=2|''[[Namma Veettu Lakshmi]]'' || rowspan=2|1966 || rowspan=2|[[M. S. Viswanathan]] || rowspan=2|[[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Panam Irundhaal ||
|-
| Nalla Nalla Pillaigalai || ''[[Petralthan Pillaiya]]'' || 1966 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Kannan Vandhan Ange Kannan || ''[[Ramu (1966 film)|Ramu]]'' || 1966 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Azhagirukkuthu Ulagile Aasai Irukkuthu || ''[[Anubavi Raja Anubavi]]'' || 1967 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Jilukkadi Jilukkadi || ''[[Ethirigal Jakkirathai]]'' || 1967 || [[Vedha (composer)|Vedha]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[P. Susheela]] & [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Ponne Vachaan || ''[[Kadhalithal Podhuma]]'' || 1967 || [[Vedha (composer)|Vedha]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Aarupadai Veedu Konda Thiru Muruga || ''[[Kandhan Karunai]]'' || 1967 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Beautiful Marvelous Excellent || ''[[Manam Oru Kurangu]]'' || 1967 || D. B. Ramachandra || || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Ammano Samiyo Athaiyo Mamiyo || ''[[Naan (1967 film)|Naan]]'' || 1967 || [[T. K. Ramamoorthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Sanyasamendhuku Chalinchu || ''[[Chandhrodhayam|Pellante Bhayam]]'' || 1967 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Sri Sri (writer)|Sri Sri]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Naadi Thudikkudhu || ''[[Seetha (1967 film)|Seetha]]'' || 1967 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Etraan Marakken || rowspan=5|''[[Sundaramurthi Nayanar]]'' || rowspan=5|1967 || rowspan=5|[[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]] || rowspan=5|[[Sundarar]] ||
|-
| Ponnaar Meniyane ||
|-
| Mealaa Adimai Umakke ||
|-
| Verutthen Manai Vaazhkaiyai ||
|-
| Thillai Vaazh Andhanar ||
|-
| Irukkum Idathai Vittu Illadha Idam || rowspan=2|''[[Thiruvarutchelvar]]'' || rowspan=2|1967 || rowspan=2|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Om Namasivaya || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Munthi Munthi Vinayaganeya || ''[[En Thambi]]'' || 1968 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Vetri Venduma Pottu Parada Ethir Neechal || ''[[Ethir Neechal (1968 film)|Ethir Neechal]]'' ||1968 || [[V. Kumar]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Raman Embathu Sindhu (Devan Vandhan) || ''[[Kuzhanthaikkaga]]'' || 1968 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]] & [[P. B. Sreenivas]]
|-
| Thanga Therodrum || ''[[Lakshmi Kalyanam (1968 film)|Lakshmi Kalyanam]]'' || 1968|| [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Mayavanathan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Maampazha Thottam || ''[[Oli Vilakku]]'' || 1968 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Vanathai Kadavul Thalaiyal || ''[[Teacheramma (1968 film)|Teacheramma]]'' || 1968 || [[T. R. Pappa]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Kutrala Malaiyile || ''[[Uyira Maanama]]'' || 1968 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Paattodu Raagam Inge || ''[[Akka Thangai]]'' || 1969 || [[Shankar–Ganesh]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Gopalan Enge Undo || rowspan=2|''[[Anbalippu]]'' || rowspan=2|1969 || rowspan=2|[[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[P. Susheela]], [[L. R. Eswari]] & Tharapuram Sundararajan
|-
| En Vesha Porutham || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Kangalal Pesuthamma || ''[[Deiva Magan]]'' || 1969 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Paaru Paaru Nallaapaaru || ''[[Gurudhakshaneiy]]'' || 1969 || [[Pukazhenthi]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Kudagu Naadu Ponni || rowspan=1|''[[Kuzhandai Ullam]]'' || rowspan=1|1969 || rowspan=1|[[S. P. Kodandapani]] ||rowspan=1|[[Kannadasan]] ||
[[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Azhagu Mayil Kolamenna || ''[[Magane Nee Vaazhga]]'' || 1969 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Tanakku Tanakku Endru || ''[[Magizhampoo]]'' || 1969 || [[D. B. Ramachandra]] || [[Mayavanathan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Ulagam Suzhalgindradhu.... Kadavul Thoongavillai || ''[[Mannippu]]'' || 1969 || [[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Poovaa Thalaiyaa || ''[[Poova Thalaiya (1969 film)|Poova Thalaiya]]'' || 1969 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Naalai Pozhudhu Undhan || ''[[Porchilai]]'' || 1969 || [[R. Govardhanam]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Ammaa Un Maganodu || ''[[Sivandha Mann]]'' || 1969 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Aandukku Aandu Thedhikku Thedhi || rowspan=2|''[[Suba Dhinam]]'' || rowspan=2|1969 || rowspan=2|[[K. V. Mahadevan]] || rowspan=2|[[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Pozhudhu Vidinjaa || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Ooraanda Mannarukkum || ''Thalattu'' || 1969 || M. L. Srikanth || [[Mayavanathan]] ||
|-
| Naan Pirandha Naattu || ''[[Thanga Surangam]]'' || 1969 || [[T. K. Ramamurthy]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Iraivan Padaittha Ulagil Ellaam || rowspan=2|''[[Vaa Raja Vaa]]'' || rowspan=2|1969 || rowspan=2|[[Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan]] || Ulunthurpettai Shanmugam ||
|-
| Kallamilla Pillaiyidam.... Siru Kuzhandhai Vadivile || [[Azha Valliappa|Azha. Valliappa]]||
|-
|}

===1970s===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Song !! Movie !! Year !! Music !! Lyrics !! Co - Singer
|-
| Azhaitthavar Kuralukku || ''[[Anadhai Anandhan]]'' || 1970 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Sakunthalai Dushyanthan || ''[[Engirundho Vandhaal]]'' || 1970 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Un Mela Konda Aasa || rowspan=2|''[[Kaadhal Jothi]]'' || rowspan=2|1970 || rowspan=2|[[T. K. Ramamoorthy]] || [[C. N. Annadurai]] ||
|-
| Sattai Kail Kondu || Subbu Arumugam ||
|-
| Maalaiyittom Pongalittom || ''[[Kalam Vellum]]'' || 1970 || [[Shankar–Ganesh]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| || ''[[Malathi (film)|Malathi]]'' || 1970 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Seethakkalappa || ''[[Namma Kuzhandaigal]]'' || 1970 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Kalaam Kadanthum || ''[[Paadhukaappu]]'' || 1970 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Sri Chamundeshwari || rowspan=2|''[[Sri Krishnadevaraya (film)|Sri Krishnadevaraya]]'' || rowspan=2|1970 || rowspan=2|[[T. G. Lingappa]] || [[K. Prabhakara Shastry]] || [[P. Leela]]
|-
| Makkal Nakkare || ||
|-
| Thirupathi Malai Vaazhum || rowspan=6|''[[Thirumalai Thenkumari]]'' || rowspan=6|1970 || rowspan=6|[[Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan]] || Ulundurpettai Shanmugam ||
|-
| Guruvayurappa Thiruvarul || Poovai Senguttuvan ||
|-
| Madurai Arasalum Meenakshi || Ulundurpettai Shanmugam || [[L. R. Eswari]] & M. R. Vijaya
|-
| Sinthaiyil Medai Katti || Thenkatchi Bharathisami || Sarala
|-
| Thiral Mani Kathirgal || || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Azhage Thamizhe (4 language song) || Sailasri (Kannada), Ramsri (Telugu), Job (Malayalam) || Sarala, M. R. Vijaya, [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]], L. R. Anjali, Dharapuram Sundararajan & [[A. L. Raghavan]]
|-
| Thandhanatthom Endru Solliye || ''[[Yaen?]]'' || 1970 || [[T. R. Pappa]] || Subbu Arumugam ||
|-
| Aathadi Mariyamma Soru || ''[[Aathi Parasakthi]]'' || 1971 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Thenmadhurai Veethiyile || ''[[Anbukkor Annan]]'' || 1971 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Petra Thaaithanai Maga || rowspan=4|''[[Arutperunjothi]]'' || rowspan=4|1971 || rowspan=4|[[T. R. Pappa]] || rowspan=4|[[Ramalinga Swamigal]] ||
|-
| Varuvaar Azhaitthu Vaadi ||
|-
| Paartthaalum Ninaitthaalum ||
|-
| Thaayilaar Ena Nenjagam ||
|-
| Aadhi Mudhale || ''[[Babu (1971 film)|Babu]]'' || 1971 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[L. R. Eswari]] & [[S. C. Krishnan]]
|-
| Agaram Thamizhukku Sigaram || rowspan=2|''[[Iru Thuruvam]]'' || rowspan=2|1971 || rowspan=2|[[M. S. Viswanathan]] || rowspan=2|[[Kannadasan]] || Chorus
|-
| Thullivarum Sooraikkatru ||
|-
| Idhu Neerodu Selgindra Odam || ''[[Justice Viswanathan]]'' || 1971 || [[Vedha (composer)|Vedha]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Aaya Kalaigal || ''Kankatchi'' || 1971 || [[Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan]] || ||
|-
| Tirupathi Sendru Thirumbi Vandhaal || ''[[Moondru Dheivangal]]'' || 1971 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Paalam Boomi Naduvinil || rowspan=2|''[[Naangu Suvargal]]'' || rowspan=2|1971 ||rowspan=2| [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || rowspan=2|[[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Paalam Boomi Naduvinil (Bit) ||
|-
| Boologama || ''[[Nootrukku Nooru]]'' || 1971 || [[V. Kumar]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Kodaiyile Mazhai Pozhinju || ''[[Needhi Dhevan]]'' || 1971 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Ninaippadhu Nadappadhillai || ''Pattondru Ketten'' || 1971 || [[C. Ramchandra]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Nenjukku Neethi Undu || ''[[Sabatham]]'' || 1971 || [[G. K. Venkatesh]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Thaipoosa Kaavadiyattam || ''Thulli Odum Pullimaan'' || 1971 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Kondu Vaa Needhi || ''[[Veettukoru Pillai]]'' || 1971 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]] [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Ulagam Samanilai Pera Vendum || rowspan=5|''[[Agathiyar]]'' || rowspan=5|1972 || rowspan=5|[[Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan]] || Ulundurpettai Shanmugam ||
|-
| Vedriduven Unnai Vedriduven || Ulundurpettai Shanmugam || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Nadanthaai Vaazhi Kaviri || [[K. D. Santhanam]] ||
|-
| Isaiyaai Thamizhaai Iruppavane || [[K. D. Santhanam]] || [[T. R. Mahalingam (actor)|T. R. Mahalingam]]
|-
| Namachivayam Ena Solvome || Era. Pazhanisamy || [[T. R. Mahalingam (actor)|T. R. Mahalingam]]
|-
| Thanga Radham || ''Appa Tata'' || 1972 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || ||
|-
| Kelliro Anbu Kattum Pillaiyellam || ''Ashirvadham'' || 1972 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Dharmam Engey || ''[[Dharmam Engey]]'' || 1972 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Thiruchendoorin Kadalorathil || ''[[Dheivam]]'' || 1972 || [[Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Kaattradikkum Thisaiyinile || ''[[Dhikku Theriyadha Kaattil]]'' || 1972 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Anbukondu Paarpadharku || ''Ellai Kodu'' || 1972 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Naattukkulle Pala Sathi || ''[[Kurathi Magan]]'' || 1972 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Udumalai Narayana Kavi]] || [[L. R. Eswari]]
|-
| Angamellam Thangamo || ''[[Vazhaiyadi Vazhai]]'' || 1972 || [[Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan]] || [[Udumalai Narayana Kavi]] ||
|-
| Aadhi Baghavan || ''[[Ganga Gowri (1973 film)|Ganga Gowri]]'' || 1973 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Yaenda Dai || ''[[Kattila Thottila]]'' || 1973 || [[V. Kumar]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Muruganukku Mootthavane || ''[[Malligai Poo]]'' || 1973 || [[V. Kumar]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[P. Leela]], K. Swarna. [[S. C. Krishnan]] & S. V. Ponnusamy
|-
| Than Seemaiyile Oru || ''[[Manipayal]]'' || 1973 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Pulamaipithan]] ||
|-
| Aadu Raatte || ''[[Nathayil Muthu]]'' || 1973 || [[Shankar–Ganesh]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[Radha Jayalakshmi]]
|-
| Thanjavooru Seemaiyile || ''[[Ponnukku Thanga Manasu]]'' || 1973 || [[G. K. Venkatesh]] || Muthulingam || [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| Hari Hari Giridhari || ''[[Radha (1973 film)|Radha]]'' || 1973 || [[Shankar–Ganesh]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Thanjai Periya Kovil || rowspan=3|''[[Rajaraja Cholan]]'' || rowspan=3|1973 || rowspan=3|[[Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. R. Mahalingam (actor)|T. R. Mahalingam]] & [[S. Varalakshmi]]
|-
| Eadu Thanthanaadi Thillaiyile || [[Kannadasan]] || [[S. Varalakshmi]]
|-
| Unkaiyil En Pillai || Ulundurpettai Shanmugam ||
|-
| Vetriyai Naalai || ''[[Ulagam Sutrum Valiban]]'' || 1973 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || Pulavar Vedha ||
|-
| Thunivae Thunai || rowspan=2|''[[Vandhaale Magaraasi]]'' || rowspan=2|1973 ||rowspan=2| [[Shankar–Ganesh]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Raakkamma Raani Ava || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Ennai Paartthu || ''[[Gumasthavin Magal]]'' || 1974 || [[Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan]] || Poovai Senguttuvan ||
|-
| Neenga Nalla Irukkanum Naadu || ''[[Idhayakkani]]'' || 1975 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Pulamaipithan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]] & [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| Kaavalukku Velundu || rowspan=3|''[[Manidhanum Dheivamagalam]]'' || rowspan=3|1975 || rowspan=3|[[Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Vetrivel Vellumada || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Ennada Thamizh Kumara || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Malaikalil Sirandha Malai Maruthamalai || ''[[Thiruvarul]]'' || 1975 || [[Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Oru Kodi Aasaigal || rowspan=2|''[[Uravukku Kai Koduppom]]'' || rowspan=2|1975 || rowspan=2|[[D. B. Ramachandra]] || rowspan=2|[[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Vani Jayaram]]
|-
| Koduppom Kai Koduppom ||
|-
| Odugindral Urulugindral Edhaiyo || ''[[Bhadrakali (film)|Bhadrakali]]'' || 1976 || [[Ilaiyaraaja]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Santhaakaaram Pujaga Sayanam || rowspan=7|''[[Dasavatharam (film)|Dasavatharam]]'' || rowspan=7|1976 || rowspan=7|[[S. Rajeswara Rao]] || ||
|-
| Hari Narayana Ennum || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Narayana Ennum Naamam || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Moovadi Mann Kettu || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Thaayinum Paaramal || [[A. Maruthakasi]] ||
|-
| Thanthai Sol Mikka || || [[Vani Jayaram]]
|-
| Ambai Eduthaan || || [[Vani Jayaram]] & [[K. J. Yesudas]]
|-
| Aasai Alaikalil Aadum || ''[[Kula Gouravam]]'' || 1976 || [[S. M. Subbaiah Naidu]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Velai Vanthathadaa || ''[[Payanam (1976 film)|Payanam]]'' || 1976 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Aayiram Sumaigal || ''[[Gaslight Mangamma]]'' || 1977 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Sugamaana Raagam || ''[[Madhurageetham]]'' || 1977 || [[Chandrabose (composer)|Chandrabose]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Varaverpu Varaverpu Vaa || ''[[Rowdy Rakkamma]]'' || 1977 || [[Shankar-Ganesh]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Thitukoyil Katta Enni || ''[[Suprabadham]]'' || 1977 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[Vani Jayaram]]
|-
| Enga Ooru Maariamma || rowspan=2|''[[Panchamirdham]]'' || rowspan=2|1978 || rowspan=2|[[Shankar-Ganesh]] ||rowspan=2|[[Pulamaipithan]] || L. R. Anjali & Krishnamoorthy
|-
| Pollaadga Kaasu Vaali ||
|-
| Om Sakthi Om Sakthi || rowspan=2|''[[Sri Kanchi Kamakshi]]'' || rowspan=2|1978 || rowspan=2|K. S. Raghunathan || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[T. L. Maharajan]] & [[S. C. Krishnan]]
|-
| Manmathan Kai Karumbin ||
|-
| Kannukku Nee Oru || ''[[Ullathil Kuzhanthaiyadi]]'' || 1978 || [[Shankar-Ganesh]] || [[A. Maruthakasi]] || [[Vani Jayaram]]
|-
| Vinnaagi Mannaagi.... Nalla Vaakku Sonaal || ''[[Vanakkatukuriya Kathaliye]]'' || 1978 || [[Shankar–Ganesh]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Oorai Thiruttha Vaa || ''[[Vandikaran Magan]]'' || 1978 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[Vani Jayaram]] & Kovai Soundarajan
|-
| Neeyindri Yaarumillai || rowspan=2|''[[Varuvan Vadivelan]]'' || rowspan=2|1978 || rowspan=2|[[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] || [[Vani Jayaram]]
|-
| Batthu Malai || [[Kannadasan]] || [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[M. S. Viswanathan]], [[P. Susheela]], [[L. R. Eswari]] & Bangalore A. R. Ramani Ammal
|-
| Aadum Naadhane Ambalavaanane || ''[[Gnana Kuzhandhai]]'' || 1979 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || ||
|-
| Avalidam Kelungal || ''[[Velli Ratham]]'' || 1979 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || A. L. Narayanan ||
|-
| Aatharam Neeye Ganapathi || ''[[Velum Mayilum Thunai]]'' || 1979 || [[Shankar–Ganesh]] || [[Kannadasan]] || Bangalore A. R. Ramani Ammal
|-
|}

===1980s===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Song !! Movie !! Year !! Music !! Lyrics !! Co - Singer
|-
| Aalayam Endraal || ''[[Devi Dharisanam]]'' || 1980 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Swami Thimthagathom || ''[[Saranam Ayyappa]]'' || 1980 || [[Chandrabose (composer)|Chandrabose]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Unakku Pani || ''[[Deiva Thirumanangal]]'' || 1981 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]], [[M. S. Viswanathan]] & [[G. K. Venkatesh]] || [[Kannadasan]] ||
|-
| Amma Un Karunaikku || ''Deviyin Thiruvilaiyadal'' || 1982 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[Vani Jayaram]]
|-
| Thaaye Mookambikai || ''[[Thaai Mookaambikai]]'' || 1982 || [[Ilayaraaja]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[M. Balamuralikrishna]], [[M. S. Viswanathan]] & [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| Aashritha valsalane || ''[[Mahabali (film)|Mahabali]]'' || 1983 || [[M. K. Arjunan]] || [[Pappanamkodu Lakshmanan]] ||
|-
| Skantha Sashti Viratham || ''[[Shasti Viratham]]'' || 1983 || [[Shankar–Ganesh]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[P. Susheela]]
|-
| Yaar Purindha || ''[[Amma Irukka]]'' || 1984 || [[Shankar–Ganesh]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Simma Soppanam || ''[[Simma Soppanam]]'' || 1984 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Om Sakthi Om Sakthi || ''[[Mel Maruvathoor Athiparasakthi]]'' || 1985 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Navagraha Naayagiye Karumaari || rowspan=2|''[[Navagraha Nayagi]]'' || rowspan=2|1985 || rowspan=2|[[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Pulamaipithan]] ||
|-
| Udhayathin Oli Thandhu || K. R. Arivanantham || B. S. Sasirekha, [[Vani Jairam]], [[T. M. Soundararajan]], [[Rajkumar Bharathi]] & Kovai Kamala
|-
| Samapurathu Nayagiye || ''Samaya Purathale Satchi'' || 1985 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Ore Thaai Ore Kulam || ''[[Mel Maruvathoor Arpudhangal]]'' || 1986 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] ||
|-
| Swaamiye Saranam.... Aiyappan Kadhai || ''[[Nambinar Keduvathillai]]'' || 1986 || [[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Pulamaipithan]] ||
|-
| Naanga Varom Sabari || ''[[Arul Tharum Ayyappan]]'' || 1987 || Dasarathan || Dasarathan
|-
| Arivil Aathavan Naan || rowspan=2|''[[Mupperum Deviyar]]'' || rowspan=2|1987 || rowspan=2|[[M. S. Viswanathan]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || [[Vani Jayaram]]
|-
| Kaali Purapattaal || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || B. S. Sasirekha, [[Vani Jairam]], [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
|-
| Karpagame Karpagame || ''Kai Koduppal Karpagambal'' || 1988 || [[Shankar–Ganesh]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]]||
|-
| Singgaara Velanuku Arupadai Veedu || ''Murugane Thunai'' || 1990 || [[K. V. Mahadevan]] || Kulamagan ||
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|4252486}}
*[http://www.kalyanamalaimagazine.com/Content/Thiraichuvai/Jan11_16_31/Potpourri_of_titbits_about_Tamil_cinema_Sirkazhi_Govindarajan.html Article on Seerkazhi Govindarajan in Kalyana Malai]
*[https://mymovieminutes.blogspot.sg/2013/01/three-gifted-voices-of-golden-era.html Three Gifted Voices of a Golden Era in My Movie Minutes]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Govindarajan, Sirkazhi}}
[[Category:Discographies of Indian artists]]
[[Category:Lists of songs recorded by Indian singers]]

Rajshahi Raj

2026-01-18T10:36:08Z

SAWANTRAJ:

{{Short description|Moitra Royal Family}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Royal house
| image = Natore Rajbari1 (Palace).JPG
| image_size =
| image_caption = The palace of Natore
| parent_family = [[Puthia Raj family]]
| country = [[East Bengal]]
| titles = {{plainlist|
* [[Raja]]
* [[Rai (Indian)|Rai-Raiyan]]
* [[Raja Bahadur]]
* [[Rai Bahadur]]
* [[Rai Sahib]]
}}
| founder = [[Raja]] Kamdev
| current head =
| founding year = 18th century
}}
{{Bengal Zamindars series}}
'''Rajshahi Raj''' was the largest ''[[zamindari]]'' (feudatory kingdom) during the British Raj which occupied a vast position of [[Bengal]] (present-day [[Rajshahi Division]], Bangladesh, and Bihar). The Royal Family of Rajshahi used the title Ray/Rai.

==History==

Many old aristocrats and landlords lost their estates during the reign of the Nawab of Bengal, [[Murshid Quli Khan]]. Besides, many zamindars lost their zamindari on account of their disobedience and rebellion. Murshid Quli Khan settled these zamindaries with his trusted followers. In this process of replacement the most fortunate beneficiary was the Rajshahi zamindari. The family also benefited by another feature of nawab's revenue policy of encouragement to the formation of big zamindaries.

The [[Rajshahi Raj family]] traced its origin to Kamdev Rai, a [[tahsildar]] of the [[Puthia Raj family]]. Kamdev had three sons Ramjivan, Raghunandan and Bishnuram. Raghunandan was the very promising and enterprising. Raja Darpanarain, the [[zamindar]] of [[Puthia]], and Murshid Quli Khan had significant contributions behind Raghunandan's rise to prominence. Raghunandan sided with Murshid Quli Khan in his entanglement with the [[Subahdar]], the Prince [[Azim-us-Shan]], the grandson of Emperor Aurangzeb and thus won the confidence of the [[nawab]].

Again, when the diwani was transferred to [[Murshidabad]], he was appointed in a similar capacity as his master's representative there. During this time he came in close contact of Murshid Quli Khan and secured his confidence. Which is why the ''naib'' (later ruler of Bengal) trusted him and let him set up the dynasty. Just a few zamindars controlled half of the total landed property of Bengal and in 1793 British East India company has abolished Nizamat (local rule by nawabs appointed y the Mughal emperor) and has taken complete control of the province of Bengal. The colonial state viewed these princely zamindaris as potential threats to the security of the new state, because their power were so great that they could at any opportune moment combine and put the colonial state in great jeopardy. Hence it became a policy of the government to weaken these estates, if not destroy them altogether. One of the strategies to implement this design was the ruthless operation of the [[sunset law]] (law which required the lords to submit their revenues by sunset).<ref>{{Cite book |title=History of Bangladesh: 1704 - 1971 |date=1997 |publisher=Asiatic Civil Military Press |isbn=978-984-512-337-2 |editor-last=Islam |editor-first=Sirajul |location=Dhaka |editor-last2=Asiatic Society of Bangladesh}}</ref> The family continued to rule from the [[Natore Palace|natore palace]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Book Review: More than just a game |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GC05Df04.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050407220059/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GC05Df04.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=7 April 2005 |newspaper=Asia Times |date=5 March 2005}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* ''Jamini Kanta Bhaduri'' (1912) A Short History of Natore Raj {{ISBN|0-04-394204-0}}
* {{Cite Banglapedia |article=Rajshahi Raj |author= Mahmood, ABM; Islam, Sirajul }}

{{Bengal Zamindars}}
{{Nobility of the Raj}}

[[Category:Bengali zamindars]]
[[Category:Zamindari estates]]
[[Category:Quasi-princely estates of India]]
[[Category:1710 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:1950 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Rajshahi District]]
[[Category:Bengali Hindus]]
[[Category:Bengali families]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi Hindus]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi families]]
[[Category:Hindu families]]
[[Category:Indian families]]

Painkulam

2026-01-11T12:56:24Z

SAWANTRAJ:

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Painkulam
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Kerala#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kerala, India
| coordinates = {{coord|10|44|15|N|76|18|45|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Thrissur district|Thrissur]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 9517
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 679531
| registration_plate = KL- 48
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Painkulam''' is a village in [[Panjal]] Grama Panchayat in [[Thrissur district]] in the state of [[Kerala]], India.<ref name="censusindia">{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/Population_data/Population_5000_and_Above.aspx|title=Census of India : in the bakns of the river Bharathapuzha. Villages with population 5000 & above|publisher=Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|accessdate=2008-12-10}}</ref> The village, situated on the shores of [[Bharathappuzha]], is the birthplace of Late [[Ramanchakyar|Raman Chakyar]], who was a leader with a vision and a mission to the world of art. He taught the temple arts Koodiyattam and Chakyar Koothu to non Chakyar castes and democratized the art form.

Painkulam village has a government upper primary school, several preschool nurseries and a local library (Grameena Vayanasala).

An aqueduct, built in 1960s by the irrigation department, is a major attraction in the village.

Vazhalikkavu Temple is situated in Painkulam, this evergreen location (One side forest area, one side Bharathapuzha, and vayal) provide a good situation to pilgrims. The festival is basically the birthday of Devi and this is the event which is celebrated by all the localities irrespective of caste and race. When the elephants are decorated with 'Caparison', it will become a charm of the festival. The 'Panchavadhyam' and fireworks is really fabulous. A very old "Kootharangu" is also located near to the temple.

The limits of the village are Thozhuppadam, Killimangalam, Panjal and Cheruthuruthy villages.

Annual fest of Vazhalikkavu temple during February-March of every year is a major event in Painkulam.
Short story writer Manoj Painkulam hails from this village. His works include Abhayasthanam, Kotterumakal, Muhammad Nabiyum Mustafayum, and Point Blank.

==Demographics==
{{As of|2011}} India [[census]], Painkulam had a population of 9517 with 4551 males and 4966 females.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Painkulam Village Population - Talappilly - Thrissur, Kerala |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/village/627722-painkulam-kerala.html |access-date=2026-01-11 |website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref><ref name="censusindia" />

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Thrissur district}}
[[Category:Villages in Thrissur district]]

{{Thrissur-geo-stub}}

Xenophrys oropedion

2025-12-18T04:15:21Z

SAWANTRAJ: New Details...

{{Short description|Species of frog}}
{{speciesbox
| image =
| image_caption =
| status = EN
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn |author=IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group. |year=2023 |title=''Megophrys oropedion'' |volume=2023 |article-number=e.T79080668A166116648 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T79080668A166116648.en |access-date=17 July 2024}}</ref>
| taxon = Xenophrys oropedion
| authority = (Mahony, Teeling, and Biju, 2013)
| synonyms = ''Megophrys oropedion'' Mahony, Teeling, and Biju, 2013
}}

'''''Xenophrys oropedion''''' is a species of [[frog]] in the family [[Megophryidae]] from [[East Khasi Hills District]], [[Meghalaya]], India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=''Xenophrys oropedion'' (Mahony, Teeling, and Biju, 2013) {{!}} Amphibian Species of the World |url=https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/Amphibia/Anura/Megophryidae/Megophryinae/Xenophrys/Xenophrys-oropedion |access-date=2022-09-03 |website=amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org |archive-date=2022-09-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220903152429/https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/Amphibia/Anura/Megophryidae/Megophryinae/Xenophrys/Xenophrys-oropedion |url-status=live }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q17000338}}

[[Category:Xenophrys|oropedion]]
[[Category:Endemic amphibians of India]]
[[Category:Amphibians described in 2013]]

{{Megophryidae-stub}}

Foreigners Registration Office

2025-12-17T16:19:52Z

SAWANTRAJ:

{{Short description|Indian government agency}}
{{Infobox government agency
| agency_name = Foreigners Registration Office (FRO)
| nativename =
| nativename_a =
| nativename_r =
| logo =
| logo_width =
| logo_caption =
| seal =
| seal_width = 150
| seal_caption =
| formed =
| preceding1 =
| preceding2 =
| dissolved =
| superseding =
| jurisdiction = {{flagicon|India}} [[Republic of India]]
| headquarters =
| employees =
| budget =
| minister1_name = [[Amit Shah]]
| minister1_pfo = [[Minister of Home Affairs (India)|Minister of Home Affairs]]
| minister2_name =
| minister2_pfo =
| chief1_name =
| chief1_position =
| chief2_name =
| chief2_position =
| parent_agency = [[Bureau of Immigration (India)|Bureau of Immigration]]
| child1_agency =
| child2_agency =
| website = https://indianfrro.gov.in/eservices/home.jsp
| footnotes =
}}
The '''Foreigners Registration Office (FRO)''' is an Indian government agency responsible for administering foreigner registration and immigration related functions for visitors to India.<ref>{{Cite web|title=General Instructions|url=https://indianfrro.gov.in/frro/|access-date=2021-07-10|website=indianfrro.gov.in}}</ref>

==Foreigner registration in India==
{{Main|Foreigner registration in India}}
Foreigner registration is a mandatory requirement by the [[Government of India]]. Some [[foreign nationals]] (excluding [[Overseas Citizenship of India|overseas citizens of India]]) in India are required to register with the FRO at a specific timeframe.

==Regional officers==
===Foreigners Regional Registration Offices (FRRO)===
Foreigners Regional Registration Offices (FRRO) are established in various regions for ease of registration. Offices are located in Kolkata, Mumbai, New Delhi, Chennai, Amritsar, Bangalore and Hyderabad. In regions without offices, the District Superintendents of Police serve as Registration Officers.<ref name="BoI2">{{cite web|title=General Instructions for Registration by the Foreigners|url=http://boi.gov.in/sites/default/files/ForeigD-FRRO_version223.6.11.pdf|website=Bureau of Immigration|accessdate=25 February 2017}}</ref>
===e-FRRO===
In April 2018, the Union Government launched the e-FRRO scheme which allows foreigners to register and avail visa and immigration related services online. Under the new scheme, a foreign citizen is no longer required to appear in-person at an FRRO, unless specifically required to do so. Around 360,000 foreign citizens visited FRRO offices across India in 2017.<ref>{{cite web|title=Govt launches e-FRRO scheme to provide hassle-free travel for foreigners |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/govt-launches-e-frro-scheme-to-provide-hassle-free-travel-for-foreigners/articleshow/63750376.cms |date=13 April 2018 |website=The Times of India|accessdate=10 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=e-FRRO to offer paperless, cashless services to foreigners|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/e-frro-to-offer-paperless-cashless-services-to-foreigners/article23543680.ece|website=The Hindu|accessdate=10 May 2018|language=en-IN|date=14 April 2018}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Home Ministry (India)}}

[[Category:Immigrant services organizations]]
[[Category:Immigration to India]]
[[Category:Immigration services]]

{{India-gov-stub}}

Ghanghu

2025-12-10T18:36:09Z

SAWANTRAJ: expanded section additionally and added references for clarity

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Ghanghu
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = 
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Rajasthan, India
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Rajasthan]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = Churu
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 331001
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = +911562
| registration_plate = RJ 10
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Churu, Rajasthan|Churu]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank2_info_sec1 = 50/50 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| blank3_name_sec1 = Literacy
| blank3_info_sec1 = 81%%
| blank4_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank4_info_sec1 = Churu
| blank5_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank5_info_sec1 = Churu
| blank1_name_sec2 = [[Climate of India|Climate]]
| blank1_info_sec2 = [[Climatic regions of India|hot and cold]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]])
| website =
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|RJ-IN]]
| footnotes =

}}

'''Ghanghu''' (official name: '''Ghanghoo''')<ref>https://www.openstreetmap.org/node/2408853432</ref> is a village in [[Churu district]] in [[Rajasthan]] state of [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |author= |date=2025 |title=Ghanghoo Population - Churu, Rajasthan |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/village/70570-ghanghoo-rajasthan.html |website=census2011.co.in |publisher=Census Organization of India |access-date=April 14, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-08-19 |title=हर्ष व जीण माता की जन्मभूमि है घांघू |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/rajasthan/churu/news/rajasthan-news-ghanghu-is-the-birthplace-of-happiness-and-living-mother-084506-5272570.html |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20210731045641/https://www.bhaskar.com/rajasthan/churu/news/rajasthan-news-ghanghu-is-the-birthplace-of-happiness-and-living-mother-084506-5272570.html |archive-date=2021-07-31 |access-date=2025-12-10 |work=Dainik Bhaskar |language=hi}}</ref> This village is associated with [[Harsh, Sikar|Harsh]] and [[Jeenmata]]. One of the oldest villages in Rajasthan, it was a Thikana of Bikaner State in Pre-independence India. It was originally ruled by Chauhans, and later taken over by the Kandhalot Rathores.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|28|20|N|75|07|E|display=title|region:IN_type:city_source:GNS-enwiki}}
{{Churu district}}

[[Category:Villages in Churu district]]

{{Bikanerdivision-geo-stub}}

South Gujarat

2025-12-05T13:30:12Z

SAWANTRAJ: small update section for consistency and improved wording after review

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = South Gujarat
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = region
| image_skyline = File:Map_GujDist_South.png
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Southern Districts of Gujarat State (India)
| pushpin_map = India Gujarat#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Gujarat]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 17500
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 11703004
| population_as_of = 2011
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| demographics_type2 = Languages
| demographics1_title2 = Other
| demographics1_info2 = [[English language|English]], [[Hindi]], [[Dhanki language|Dangi]], [[Bhili language|Bhili]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]]<ref name="Sasaki2011">{{cite book|author=T. Sasaki|title=Nature and Human Communities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S_HwCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA41|date=28 June 2011|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-4-431-53967-4|pages=41–}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://dangs.gujarat.gov.in/about-dang|title=About Dang}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.ws/prakashjm45/goa/eastindian.html|title=Konkanian Origin of the 'East Indians'}}</ref>
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = Largest city
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Surat]]
| blank1_name_sec2 = Headquarter
| blank1_info_sec2 = [[Surat]]
| website = {{URL|gujaratindia.com}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''South Gujarat'''{{efn|{{lang|gu-latn|Dakṣiṇ Gujarāt}},<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.india.com/news/india/rahul-gandhi-to-discuss-gujarat-assembly-election-results-with-party-leaders-2783070/|first=Priyarag|last=Verma|title=Rahul Gandhi to Discuss Gujarat Assembly Election Results With Party Leaders|publisher=India.com|date=December 22, 2017}}</ref> {{IPA|gu|ˈd̪əkʃiɳ ˈɡudʒəɾət̪|pron}}}} is a region in the [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Gujarat]]. The region has a wetter climate than other regions of Gujarat. The western part is almost coastal and is known as the {{translit|gu|kantha vistar}} ('coastal expanse'), and the eastern part is also known as {{translit|gu|dungar vistar}} ('hilly expanse'), which ranges from {{convert|100|m|ft}} to {{convert|1000|m|ft}}, with the highest peak at [[Saputara]] in the [[Dang District, India|Dang]] district.

== Cities and districts ==
[[Surat]] is the largest city in the region, the second largest in Gujarat and [[List of cities in India by population|eighth largest in India]]. It is the commercial and economic centre of South Gujarat, famous for its diamonds and textile Industries and as a market for apparels and accessories.

Other important cities are [[Bharuch]], [[Ankleshwar]], [[Navsari]], [[Vyara]], [[Valsad]], [[Pardi]], [[Bardoli]], [[Vapi]], [[Jambusar]], [[Bilimora]], [[Amalsad]], [[Rajpipla]], [[Ahwa]], [[The Dangs]], [[Saputara|Saput]]

The districts in the region are [[Surat district]], [[Bharuch district]], [[Navsari district]], [[Dang District, India|Dang district]], [[Valsad district]], [[Narmada district]] and [[Tapi district]].

== Notable people ==
=== Freedom fighters ===
* [[Bhulabhai Desai]]

===Politicians===
* [[Dadabhai Naoroji]], former [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|British House of Commons]]
* [[Morarji Desai]] – former [[Prime Minister of India]]
* [[Ahmed Patel]] – former Congress [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|member of the Lok Sabha]] representing [[Bharuch Lok Sabha constituency|Bharuch]]
* [[Kanubhai Desai]] – [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] member of the [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly]]
* [[C. R. Patil]] – BJP member of the Lok Sabha representing [[Navsari Lok Sabha constituency|Navsari]]

===Businesspeople===
* [[Jamsetji Tata]] – founder of the [[Tata Group]]

===Entertainers===
* [[Freddie Mercury]] – singer and songwriter for the British rock band [[Queen (band)|Queen]], whose family originated from [[Valsad]]

== Notable places ==
*[[Saputara]] – the only [[hill station]] in Gujarat
*[[Dandi, Navsari|Dandi Beach]]
*[[Ubharat Beach]]
*[[Dumas Beach]]
*[[Suvali Beach]]
*[[Tithal Beach]]
*[[Umargam]] – a town known for its [[television studio]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thereel.scroll.in/824058/ramayana-to-karmaphal-data-shani-a-tour-of-the-mumbai-tv-industrys-mytho-hub-in-umbergaon|title='Ramayana' to 'Karmaphal Data Shani': Inside India's one-stop shop for mythological television|last=Karkare|first=Aakash|date=29 December 2016|website=[[scroll.in]]}}</ref>
*Barumal Mahadev Temple – a [[Hindu temple]] located in [[Dharampur, Gujarat|Dharampur]]
*[[Kabirvad]] – a banyan tree located on a small river island in the [[Narmada River]]
*[[Jagdishchandra Bose Aquarium]] – a large aquarium in Surat
*[[Gopi Talav]] – a lake in Surat

== Education ==
* [[Indian Institute of Information Technology, Surat]]
* [[Veer Narmad South Gujarat University]]
* [[Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat]]
* [[AURO University]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Gujarat}}

[[Category:Regions of Gujarat]]

Church of Our Lady of Health, Cavel

2025-11-29T08:31:12Z

SAWANTRAJ: add lead for consistency

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox church
| name = Church of Our Lady of Health, Cavel
| fullname =
| image =
| imagesize =
| landscape =
| caption =
| coordinates = {{Coord|18.949126|N|72.840557|E|display=title,inline}}
| location = [[Cavel]], [[Mumbai]]
| country = [[India]]
| denomination = [[Roman Catholic]]
| previous denomination =
| churchmanship =
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| founded date = {{start date and age|1794}}
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| status = [[Parish Church]]
| functional status = Active
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| archdiocese = [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bombay|Archdiocese of Bombay]]
| diocese =
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| district =
| division =
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| archbishop = Oswald Cardinal Gracias
| bishop =
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| canon =
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The '''Church of Our Lady of Health, Cavel''' is a [[Roman Catholic]] church under the [[Archdiocese of Bombay]]. It was built by the Portuguese in 1794,<ref>{{cite book|title=The Origin of Bombay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=miD5YO05jpUC&pg=PA8 |publisher=[[Asian Educational Services]]|work= Joseph Gerson Da Cunha| year= 1900|isbn = 9788120608153|access-date=27 March 2012}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite news|title=Will old churches get new tenants? |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report_will-old-churches-get-new-tenants_1188208 |work=[[Daily News & Analysis]] |date= 7 September 2008 |access-date=26 March 2012}}</ref> when it was a chapel under the [[Padroado]] jurisdiction.

==History==
When the old chapel began to decay, a new Church was built in 1812 and was remodelled in 1971.
There is a beautiful grotto with the statue of the Our Lady of Immaculate Conception, in front of the church.<ref>{{cite web|title=Places - Churches |url=http://cultural.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/greater_bombay/places.html#8 |publisher=Maharashtra State Gazetteers, Greater Bombay District|access-date=27 March 2012}}</ref>

==References==

{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Roman Catholic church buildings in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches completed in 1812]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic church buildings in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:19th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in India]]

Aoyim

2025-11-28T00:08:43Z

SAWANTRAJ: Done!

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Aoyim
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| settlement_type = [[Village]]
| image =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| nickname =
| image_map1 =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Nagaland#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Aoyim
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Administrative divisions of India#Regions|Region]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Northeast India]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Nagaland]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Chümoukedima district|Chümoukedima District]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_footnotes =
| government_type =
| leader_party =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| leader_title1 =
| leader_name1 =
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| area_footnotes =
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| area_water_percent =
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| elevation_footnotes = 
| elevation_m =
| elevation_min_m =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_rank =
| population_total = 123<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiagrowing.com/Nagaland/Dimapur/Chumukedima/Aoyim|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221060641/https://www.indiagrowing.com/Nagaland/Dimapur/Chumukedima/Aoyim|url-status=usurped|archive-date=December 21, 2021|title=Census of India 2011 – Aoyim data|website=indiagrowing.com|access-date=27 December 2022}}</ref>
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_urban =
| population_density_urban_km2 =
| population_metro =
| population_density_metro_km2 =
| population_blank1_title = [[Demonym]]
| population_blank1 =
| population_density_blank1_km2 =
| population_blank2_title = Official
| population_blank2 = [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 797113
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 =
| website = {{URL|nagaland.nic.in}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Aoyim''' is a village located in the [[Chümoukedima district|Chümoukedima District]] of [[Nagaland]] and is a suburb of [[Chümoukedima]], the district headquarters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mapsofindia.com/villages/nagaland/dimapur/kuhuboto/aoyim.html|title=Map of Aoyim|website=www.mapsofindia.com|access-date=4 January 2023}}</ref>

==Demographics==
Aoyim is situated in the Chümoukedima District of Nagaland. As per the Population Census 2011, there are a total 24 households in Aoyim. The total population of Aoyim is 123.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Chümoukedima district]]

Nallur, Kanyakumari

2025-11-15T02:28:07Z

SAWANTRAJ: expand information after review and fixed typos for accuracy

{{About|the town in Kanyakumari District near Marthandam Town||Nallur (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Nallur (Nalloor)
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Tamil Nadu
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India
| coordinates = {{coord|8.29613|N|77.21747|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kanniyakumari district|Kanniyakumari]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 8.50
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 17,989<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kanyakumari.tn.nic.in/tp.html |title=Kanyakumari District website |access-date=4 July 2015 |archive-date=4 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204024711/http://www.kanyakumari.tn.nic.in/tp.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = 2116.4
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 629165
| registration_plate = TN-75
| footnotes =
}}
'''Nallur''' (Nalloor) is a [[panchayat town]] in [[Kanniyakumari district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]].

Nalloor Town Panchayat city in district of Kanniyakumari, Tamil Nadu. The Nalloor city is divided into 18 wards for which elections are held every 5 years.

==Geography==
Nallur is located at {{Coord| 8.29613|N|77.21749|E|}}

==Demographics==
{{As of|2001}} India [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archivedate=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|accessdate=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Nallur had a population of 15,563. Males constitute 50% of the population and females 50%. Nallur has an average literacy rate of 78%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 82%, and female literacy is 74%. In Nallur, 11% of the population is under 6 years of age.

As of 2011 census, Nalloor Town Panchayat has population of 17,989 of which 8,985 are males while 9,004 are females as per report released by Census India 2011.

The population of children aged 0-6 is 1721 which is 9.57% of total population of Nalloor (TP). In Nalloor Town Panchayat, the female sex ratio is 1002 against state average of 996. Moreover, the child sex ratio in Nalloor is around 921 compared to Tamil Nadu state average of 943. The literacy rate of Nalloor city is 92.35% higher than the state average of 80.09%. In Nalloor, male literacy is around 94.97% while the female literacy rate is 89.77%.

Nalloor Town Panchayat has total administration over 4,480 houses to which it supplies basic amenities like water and sewerage. It is also authorized to build roads within Town Panchayat limits and impose taxes on properties coming under its jurisdiction.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.census2011.co.in/data/town/803888-nalloor-tamil-nadu.html|title = Nalloor Town Panchayat City Population Census 2011-2022 | Tamil Nadu}}</ref>

==Religion==
Hinduism consists 55.42% of the population, with Christianity consisting 42.77%, Islam consisting 1.65%, and others consisting 1.81%.{{bar box
|width=290px
|barwidth=50px
|title=Religions in Nalloor{{sfn|Religions in Nalloor|2011}}
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|#FF8000|55.42}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|#0080FF|42.77}}
{{bar percent|
[[Islam]]|#009000|1.65}}
{{bar percent|
Others|#FFFF00|1.81}}
}}

==See also==

* [[Karavilai]]
* [[Kuzhithurai Railway Station]]
* [[Marthandam]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Kanyakumari district]]

{{Kanniyakumari-geo-stub}}

Kashmir Conspiracy case

2025-11-06T05:35:38Z

SAWANTRAJ: added new entry basic info

{{Short description|Legal case filed by the government of India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
'''Kashmir Conspiracy Case''' was the legal case filed by [[Government of Jammu and Kashmir|government of Kashmir]] and Investigations Department of the [[government of India]],<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=xrPtAAAAMAAJ&q=investigations+department+] Perspectives on Kashmir: the roots of conflict in South Asia by Raju G. C. Thomas</ref> by which [[Sheikh Abdullah]] and others were arrested and jailed. Abdullah along with [[Mirza Afzal Beg]] and 22 others, who were accused of conspiracy against the state for allegedly espousing the cause of an independent Kashmir. The case was framed in 1958, for which the trial began in 1959 but was withdrawn in 1964 as a diplomatic decision.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/StoryPrint.aspx?ID=NEWEN20080064233&ch=633623065596223750 |title=NDTV.com: Kashmir the bone of contention |website=www.ndtv.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008235936/http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/StoryPrint.aspx?ID=NEWEN20080064233&ch=633623065596223750 |archive-date=2012-10-08}} </ref><ref name=c>[http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2010/08/05/negotiations-on-kashmir-a-concealed-story/?wpmp_switcher=desktop The activities of the Plebiscite Front eventually led to the institution of the ‘Kashmir Conspiracy Case’ in 1958 and two other cases Having put Abdullah behind bars on 8 August in "Kashmir conspiracy case"]</ref><ref>[https://openlibrary.org/books/OL2918M/The_Kashmir_conspiracy_case The Kashmir conspiracy case]</ref><ref name=b>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kashmir-information.com/ConvertedKashmir/Chapter20.html |title=Kashmir Conspiracy Case |access-date=14 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918050529/http://www.kashmir-information.com/ConvertedKashmir/Chapter20.html |archive-date=18 September 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name=z/>

==History of the case==

On 8 August 1953 Sheikh Abdullah was dismissed as prime minister by the then [[Sadr-i-Riyasat]] (Constitutional [[Head of State]]) [[Karan Singh|Dr. Karan Singh]] son of the erstwhile [[Hari Singh|Maharajah Hari Singh]] on the charge that he had lost the confidence of his [[Cabinet (government)|cabinet]].<ref>Sheikh Abdullah; M.Y.Taing (1985), p593-594</ref> He was denied the opportunity to prove his majority on the floor of the house,<ref>Sheikh Abdullah; M.Y.Taing (1985), p607</ref> and [[Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad|Bakshi Ghulam Mohammed]] was appointed as prime minister. Abdullah was arrested soon after in year 1953 for anti-national activities.<ref>Sheikh Abdullah; M.Y.Taing (1985), p600</ref>

Following the dismissal of Sheikh Abdullah, his lieutenant [[Mirza Afzal Beg]] formed the [[Plebiscite Front]] on 9 August 1955 demanding a [[plebiscite]] to decide the accession of the state and the unconditional release of Abdullah. Abdullah meanwhile was released for a short time and later again re-arrested on charges of conspiracy against the state. The legal case initiated in 1958 came to be known as the Kashmir Conspiracy Case.<ref name=c/><ref>Sheikh Abdullah; M.Y.Taing (1985), p711-717</ref>

[[Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad]], who was appointed as Prime Minister of Jammu & Kashmir, said in his radio broadcast that:
{{cquote|"A fraud was being committed on the interests of the country. The slogan of independence was dangerous. Under the control of an imperialist power an independent Kashmir would have been a serious danger for the people of India and Pakistan...."<ref name=b/>}}

Before his dismissal, arrest, brief release and re-arrest under the case, the intelligence agency had collected ample proof regarding the Sheikh's links with Pakistan and of his speeches and activities to these affect, after which Bakshi rearrested Sheikh Abdullah. The entire matter relating to the alleged conspiracy of the Sheikh for joining hands with [[Pakistan]] was submitted to Nehru along with documentary evidence and recorded tapes of his public speeches. [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] was taken aback while listening to the tapes and going through the letters of Sheikh Abdullah. He approved launching of a case against the Sheikh, his one time very close friend. Thus, the Kashmir conspiracy case was launched against Sheikh Abdullah, Mirza Afzal Beg and 22 other people on charge of having conspired with Pakistan for making of an independent Kashmir.<ref name=b/>{{Dead link|date=March 2017}}

The counsel of Government, between 9 August 1952 and 29 April 1958, in his several briefs before the court, stated that the accused and their accomplices both inside and outside the state collaborated with Pakistani officials to overthrow the Government with violence. Their intention was to overthrow the Government and to annex the state with Pakistan through the process to spread hatred in the masses against the Government.<ref name=b/>{{Dead link|date=March 2017}}
The court was shown that, while Sheikh Abdullah was in jail his wife [[Begum Akbar Jahan Abdullah]] and allies, Mirza Afzal Beg, Ghulam Mohammad Chikan, Mir Ghulam Rasool, Pir Maqbool Gilani, Khwaja Ali Shah and others, received large amount of money from Pakistan for this purpose. They also received type-writers and [[Lithography|litho-machines]] and literature for propaganda purposes. Besides explosives were received from Pakistan for blowing up bridges, factories, military installations, mosques, temples and [[Gurudwara]]s in [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu & Kashmir]], so that the Government machinery may be paralyzed. People were trained in Pakistan to come and create havoc here.<ref name=b/>{{Dead link|date=March 2017}}<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=xTBWAAAAYAAJ&q=Chikan+kashmir+conspiracy+case] Link, Volume 6, Issues 26-52, 1964</ref> Part of Abdullah's defence in the case was that many of the documents relied on to show his involvement were forged by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. <ref>[https://archive.org/details/kashmirconspiracycase_202001/page/n1/mode/2up] Kashmir Conspiracy Case: Resume of Defence Arguments by Mirza Mohd. Afzal Baig, 1961, Internet Archive at page 2</ref>

The trials began in 1959 and were heard over several years, when in 1962 the special Magistrate, transferred the case to higher court that all the accused be tried under [[Indian Penal Code]], under sections for which punishment was either death or life-imprisonment. But certain later developments like [[Hazratbal disappearance episode]] in Kashmir, lead to Nehru's decision to drop the case.<ref name=z/> Sheikh Abdullah spent almost eleven years behind bars from 1953 till 1964 (six years after being accused under the case), while others were held from 1958 till 1964. In 1964, when whole nation was eagerly awaiting the outcome of the case and the judgement of the court, the case was withdrawn and all the accused were released as a part of controversial and sudden diplomatic decision taken by Jawaharlal Nehru, the erstwhile [[Prime Minister of India]] and [[Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq]], the erstwhile [[Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref name=c/><ref name=b/><ref name="z">[https://books.google.com/books?id=C8h_VjG4ucsC&dq=kashmir+conspiracy+case+began+in+year&pg=PA239] The clash of fundamentalisms: crusades, jihads and modernity By Tariq Ali, page 239</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Politics of Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:1950s in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:1960s in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Nehru administration]]
[[Category:Indian case law]]
[[Category:1958 in India]]
[[Category:1964 in Indian law]]

1986 Austral-Asia Cup final

2025-09-27T16:28:51Z

SAWANTRAJ: Entry!

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox limited overs final
| title = 1986 Austral-Asia Cup Final
| image = File:SharjahCricket.JPG
| caption = Sharjah Cricket Ground
| event = [[1986 Austral-Asia Cup]]
| team1 = [[India national cricket team|India]]
| team1flag = {{flagicon|India|size=40px}}
| team1score = 245/7
| team1overs = 50 overs
| team2 = [[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]]
| team2flag = {{flagicon|Pakistan|size=40px}}
| team2score = 248/9
| team2overs = 50 overs
| details = Pakistan won by 1 wicket
| cricket format = [[One Day International]]
| date = 18 April 1986
| stadium = [[Sharjah Cricket Stadium]]
| city = [[Sharjah]]
| man_of_the_match = [[Javed Miandad]]
| umpires = [[Antonio Gaynor]] [[David Archer (umpire)|David Archer]]
}}

The '''1986 Austral-Asia Cup Final''' was a [[One Day International]] (ODI) match played on 18 April 1986 between [[India national cricket team|India]] and [[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]] at the [[Sharjah Cricket Stadium]], [[Sharjah]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mancunianmatters.co.uk/content/230678108-watch-mm-explore-india-and-pakistans-great-rivalry-after-cricket-world-cup-show|title=Watch: MM explore India and Pakistan's great rivalry after Cricket World Cup show comes to Manchester. Mancunian Matters|website=www.mancunianmatters.co.uk|access-date=31 July 2019|archive-date=31 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731184830/http://www.mancunianmatters.co.uk/content/230678108-watch-mm-explore-india-and-pakistans-great-rivalry-after-cricket-world-cup-show|url-status=live}}</ref> It marked the culmination of the first [[1986 Austral-Asia Cup|Austral-Asia Cup]] and was won by Pakistan who defeated India by one wicket to lift their first ODI trophy.<ref name=slog>{{cite news |last1=Puri |first1=Narottam |title=Australasia Cup 1986: Pakistan beat India in the last ball |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/sport/story/19860515-australasia-cup-1986-pakistan-beat-india-in-the-last-ball-800848-1986-05-15 |access-date=21 June 2019 |publisher=[[India Today]] |date=15 May 1986 |archive-date=21 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621155921/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/sport/story/19860515-australasia-cup-1986-pakistan-beat-india-in-the-last-ball-800848-1986-05-15 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Road to the final==
[[India national cricket team|India]] reached the final by defeating [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lanka]] by seven wickets, while [[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]] reached the final by defeating [[New Zealand national cricket team|New Zealand]] by ten wickets.<ref>{{cite news |title=New Zealand Vs Pakistan, Sharjah |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/8536/scorecard/65815/new-zealand-vs-pakistan-2nd-sf-austral-asia-cup-1985-86 |access-date=18 February 2020 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=29 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191129111753/https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/8536/scorecard/65815/new-zealand-vs-pakistan-2nd-sf-austral-asia-cup-1985-86 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Details==
Heading into the match, Pakistani team remained unchanged from their semi-final victory over New Zealand while India made one change with [[Dilip Vengsarkar]] replacing [[Sandeep Patil]] from their victory over Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite news |title=1st SF, Austral-Asia Cup at Sharjah, Apr 13 1986 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/8536/scorecard/65814/india-vs-sri-lanka-1st-sf-austral-asia-cup-1985-86 |access-date=19 June 2019 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=29 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629011526/https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/8536/scorecard/65814/india-vs-sri-lanka-1st-sf-austral-asia-cup-1985-86 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Imran Khan]] won the toss and elected to field first. Openers [[Krishnamachari Srikkanth]] and [[Sunil Gavaskar]] opened with a 117 run partnership before Krishnamachari Srikkanth attempt for a six was caught by [[Wasim Akram]]. [[Dilip Vengsarkar]] scored a half-century before being clean bowled by Wasim Akram with the score at 216. The scorecard remained the same as [[Kirti Azad]] was sent back by Akram for no score. [[Kapil Dev]] struck a boundary before being bowled by Imran Khan, who dismissed Sunil Gavaskar as well, with Gavaskar only being eight runs shy of a century. Later India lost quick wickets of [[Ravi Shastri]] and [[Chetan Sharma]] and India finished on 245 for 7 from their fifty overs with the last eights overs getting them only 38 runs.<ref name=slog/> For Pakistan, Wasim Akram was the best of the bowlers with three wickets while Imran Khan claimed two wickets.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Iqbal |first1=Asif |title=On This Day: Miandad's last-ball six dashes India's dreams |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/on-this-day-javed-miandad-chetan-sharma-last-ball-six-pakistan-vs-india-sharjah-1986/article26862880.ece |access-date=19 June 2019 |publisher=[[The Sportstar]] |date=17 April 2019 |archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303211031/https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/on-this-day-javed-miandad-chetan-sharma-last-ball-six-pakistan-vs-india-sharjah-1986/article26862880.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=18th April 1986: Javed Miandad, Chetan Sharma and THAT Sharjah Six |url=https://www.news18.com/cricketnext/news/18th-april-1986-javed-miandad-chetan-sharma-and-that-sharjah-six-2106383.html |access-date=19 June 2019 |publisher=[[News 18]] |date=18 April 2019 |archive-date=28 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328231851/https://www.news18.com/cricketnext/news/18th-april-1986-javed-miandad-chetan-sharma-and-that-sharjah-six-2106383.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Chasing the target of 246 to win, Pakistan lost in-form batsman [[Mudassar Nazar]] [[leg before wicket]] to Chetan Sharma with the total at nine. New man [[Rameez Raja]] also couldn't make a good score as he was dismissed by Maninder Singh for ten. [[Javed Miandad]] pushed the score slowly along with opener [[Mohsin Khan (Pakistani cricketer)|Mohsin Khan]]. [[Madan Lal]] clean bowled Khan for 36 with the scorecard at 61 for 3. Miandad built good partnerships with [[Saleem Malik]] and later [[Abdul Qadir (cricketer)|Abdul Qadir]], who made a quick 34, before being caught by substitute fielder [[Raman Lamba]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Raman Lamba Takes a Good Catch vs Pak at Sharjah in Australasia Cup 1986 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3o-hUnw0d8M |publisher=[[YouTube]] |access-date=20 June 2019 |archive-date=28 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128223309/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3o-hUnw0d8M&gl=US&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref> Still Pakistan were 67 runs away from victory. Imran Khan and Manzoor Elahi perished while going for big hits, but Miandad was moving the score at one end, trying to maintain the asking rate with occasional boundaries and sixes.

At the end of 49th over, Pakistan were 235 for seven and required 11 runs from six balls to win the cup. Chetan Sharma was bowling the 50th over of the match and Miandad struck the first ball to the long-off boundary, but Kapil fielded it and returned the ball quickly and Wasim Akram was run out trying to get the second run. Miandad struck a boundary off the second ball but could score only a single in the third ball, as [[Roger Binny]] brilliantly stopped a possible boundary. Wicket-keeper batsman [[Zulqarnain (cricketer, born 1962)|Zuldarnain]] was clean bowled by Sharma for a duck which left Pakistan needing five runs from two deliveries. Last man [[Tauseef Ahmed]] scrambled a single off the fifth ball as [[Mohammad Azharuddin]] missed a clean run-out chance. Pakistan needing four runs and India one final wicket from the last ball. Chetan Sharma's intended yorker became a full toss which was dispatched into crowds by Miandad for a six. Pakistan finished on 248 for 9 with Miandad remained unbeaten on 116 as he helped Pakistan to win their maiden One Day trophy.<ref>{{cite web|title=India vs Pakistan, Australasia Cup Final 1986, Sharjah|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1r0xkjz4fHE|publisher=[[YouTube]]|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=4 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004165300/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1r0xkjz4fHE|url-status=live}}</ref> For India, Chetan Sharma was the best of the bowlers with three wickets while Madan Lal claimed two wickets. Javed Miandad was adjudged the [[Player of the match|man of the match]] while Sunil Gavaskar was declared the Man of the Series.<ref name=score>{{cite news |title=Final, Austral-Asia Cup at Sharjah, Apr 18 1986 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/8536/scorecard/65816/india-vs-pakistan-final-austral-asia-cup-1985-86 |access-date=19 June 2019 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |archive-date=29 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729011219/https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/8536/scorecard/65816/india-vs-pakistan-final-austral-asia-cup-1985-86 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=India v Pakistan Austral-Asia Cup 1985/86 (Final) |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/47/47049.html |access-date=19 June 2019 |publisher=CricketArchive |archive-date=28 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528224936/http://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/47/47049.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Javed Miandad Last Ball Six India vs Pakistan 1986 – Detailed with Interviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFURtncw9-w|publisher=[[YouTube]]|access-date=20 June 2019|archive-date=11 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411150836/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFURtncw9-w|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Scorecard==
{{Cricket match batting box begin|title=[[India national cricket team|India]] batting<ref name=score/>}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Krishnamachari Srikkanth]]|status= c Wasim Akram b Abdul Qadir|runs=75|balls=80|4s=8|6s=2|strike_rate=93.75 |fow=1–117}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Sunil Gavaskar]]|status=b Imran Khan|runs=92|balls=134|4s=6|6s=0|strike_rate=68.66 |5–242}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Dilip Vengsarkar]]|status=b Wasim Akram|runs=50|balls=64|4s=0|6s=1|strike_rate=78.12 |2–216}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Kirti Azad]]|status=b Wasim Akram|runs=0|balls=3|4s=0|6s=0|strike_rate=0.00 |3–216}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Kapil Dev]] *|status= b Imran Khan|runs=8|balls=8|4s=1|6s=0|strike_rate=100.00 |4–229}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Chetan Sharma]]|status=run out|runs=10|balls=10|4s=1|6s=0|strike_rate=100.00 |7–245}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Ravi Shastri]]|status=b Wasim Akram|runs=1|balls=2|4s=0|6s=0|strike_rate=50.00 |6–245}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Chandrakant Pandit]]{{dagger}}|status=not out|runs=0|balls=2|4s=0|6s=0|strike_rate=0.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Mohammad Azharuddin]]|status=|runs=|balls=|4s=|6s=|strike_rate=}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Madan Lal]]|status=|runs=|balls=|4s=|6s=|strike_rate=}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Maninder Singh (cricketer)|Maninder Singh]]|status=|runs=|balls=|4s=|6s=|strike_rate=}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=Extras|status=(lb 6, w 2, nb 1)|runs=9|balls=|4s=|6s=|strike_rate=}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player='''Total'''|status=(7 wickets; 50 overs)|runs='''245'''|balls=|4s=|6s=|strike_rate=}}
{{Cricket match box end}}

Fall of wickets: 1–117 (Srikkanth), 2–216 (Vengsarkar), 3–216 (Kirti Azad), 4–229 (Kapil Dev), 5–242 (Sunil Gavaskar), 6–245 (Ravi Shastri), 7–245 (Chetan Sharma)

{{Cricket match bowling box begin|title=[[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]] bowling<ref name=score/>}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler=[[Imran Khan]]|overs=10|maiden=2|runs=40|wickets=2|econ=4.00}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler=[[Wasim Akram]]|overs=10|maiden=1|runs=42|wickets=3|econ=4.20}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler=[[Manzoor Elahi]]|overs=5|maiden=0|runs=33|wickets=0|econ=6.60}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler=[[Mudassar Nazar]]|overs=5|maiden=0|runs=32|wickets=0|econ=6.40}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler=[[Abdul Qadir (cricketer)|Abdul Qadir]]|overs=10|maiden=2|runs=49|wickets=1|econ=4.90}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler=[[Tauseef Ahmed]]|overs=10|maiden=1|runs=43|wickets=0|econ=4.30}}
{{Cricket match box end}}
 
{{Cricket match batting box begin|title=[[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]] batting<ref name=score/>}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Mudassar Nazar]]|status=lbw b Sharma|runs=5|balls=22|4s=1|6s=0|strike_rate=22.73}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Mohsin Khan (Pakistani cricketer)|Mohsin Khan]]|status=b Madan Lal|runs=36|balls=53|4s=4|6s=0|strike_rate=67.92}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Rameez Raja]]|status=b Maninder Singh|runs=10|balls=15|4s=0|6s=0|strike_rate=66.67}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Javed Miandad]]|status=not out|runs=116|balls=114|4s=3|6s=3|strike_rate=101.75}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Saleem Malik]]|status=run out|runs=21|balls=37|4s=0|6s=0|strike_rate=56.76}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Abdul Qadir (cricketer)|Abdul Qadir]]|status=c sub (R Lamba) b Kapil Dev|runs=34|balls=39|4s=1|6s=1|strike_rate=87.18}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Imran Khan]] *|status=b Madan Lal|runs=7|balls=10|4s=0|6s=0|strike_rate=70.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Manzoor Elahi]]|status=c Shastri b Sharma|runs=4|balls=5|4s=0|6s=0|strike_rate=80.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Wasim Akram]]|status=run out|runs=3|balls=4|4s=0|6s=0|strike_rate=75.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Zulqarnain (cricketer, born 1962)|Zulqarnain]]{{dagger}}|status=b Sharma|runs=0|balls=1|4s=0|6s=0|strike_rate=0.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=[[Tauseef Ahmed]]|status=not out|runs=1|balls=1|4s=|6s=|strike_rate=100.00}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player=Extras|status=(lb 11)|runs=11|balls=|4s=|6s=|strike_rate=}}
{{Cricket match batsman status|player='''Total'''|status=(9 wickets; 50 overs)|runs='''248'''|balls=|4s=|6s=|strike_rate=}}
{{Cricket match box end}}

Fall of wickets: 1–9 (Mudassar Nazar), 2–39 (Rameez Raja), 3–61 (Mohsin Khan), 4–110 (Saleem Malik), 5–181 (Abdul Qadir), 6–209 (Imran Khan), 7–215 (Manzoor Elahi), 8–236 (Wasim Akram), 9–241 (Zulqarnain)

{{Cricket match bowling box begin|title=[[India national cricket team|India]] bowling<ref name=score/>}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler=[[Kapil Dev]]|overs=10|maiden=1|runs=45|wickets=1|econ=4.50}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler=[[Chetan Sharma]]|overs=9|maiden=0|runs=51|wickets=3|econ=5.67}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler=[[Madan Lal]]|overs=10|maiden=0|runs=53|wickets=2|econ=5.30}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler=[[Maninder Singh (cricketer)|Maninder Singh]]|overs=10|maiden=0|runs=36|wickets=1|econ=3.60}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler=[[Ravi Shastri]]|overs=9|maiden=0|runs=38|wickets=0|econ=4.22}}
{{Cricket match bowler status|bowler=[[Mohammad Azharuddin|Azharuddin]]|overs=2|maiden=0|runs=14|wickets=0|econ=7.00}}
{{Cricket match box end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/series/60863.html/ ESPNcricinfo – Austral-Asia Cup, 1985/86]

[[Category:India–Pakistan cricket rivalry]]
[[Category:1986 in cricket]]
[[Category:1986 in Pakistani cricket]]
[[Category:1986 in Indian cricket]]
[[Category:International cricket competitions from 1985–86 to 1988]]
[[Category:Limited overs cricket matches]]

Dhruva Interactive

2025-08-25T17:04:17Z

SAWANTRAJ: Made some data more to come...

{{Short description|Indian video game developer}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Dhruva Interactive
| logo =
| type = [[Subsidiary]]
| industry = [[Video game industry|Video games]]
| fate = Merged into [[Rockstar India]]
| founded = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1997|03|15}}
| founder = Rajesh Rao
| defunct = {{End date|df=yes|2019|05|22}}
| hq_location_city = [[Bangalore]]
| hq_location_country = India
| key_people = {{Unbulleted list|Rajesh Rao ([[Chief executive officer|CEO]])|Ajit Pillai ([[Chief financial officer|CFO]])}}
| num_employees = 300
| num_employees_year = 2019
| parent = {{Unbulleted list|class=nowrap|[[Starbreeze Studios]] (2017–2019)|[[Rockstar Games]] (2019)}}
| website =
}}

'''Dhruva Interactive''' was an Indian [[video game developer]] based in [[Bangalore]]. Rajesh Rao founded the company in March 1997 out of the multimedia company he had established two years earlier. [[Starbreeze Studios]] acquired a [[Controlling interest|majority holding]] in Dhruva Interactive in 2017, which it sold to [[Rockstar Games]] in May 2019. With the latter sale, Dhruva Interactive was merged into [[Rockstar India]], Rockstar Games' studio in Bangalore.

== History ==
Dhruva Interactive was founded by programmer Rajesh Rao. While he was an engineering student, he created a multimedia engine for the final assignment in his multimedia course, which he intended to use to establish a multimedia company.<ref name="VentureBeat: bullish" /> Having previously lived and worked in Europe, he decided to form his company in his native India. Using [[seed money]] from his father, Rao obtained a bank loan to purchase a computer and a 14.4 [[Kilobit per second|kbps]] [[modem]], and founded his company in [[Bangalore]] on 15 March 1995 as a one-person operation. By 1997, the company had grown to five people.<ref name="The World Is Flat" /> In February of that year, [[Intel]] approached Rao's company to develop a rendering engine for the manufacturer's new [[Pentium II]] chip. Rao described the signing of their contract in March 1997 as the end of "Dhruva 1.0" and the start of "Dhruva 2.0", the company's transition to a video game company.<ref name="VentureBeat: bullish" /><ref name="The World Is Flat" /> He formally founded Dhruva Interactive on 15 March 1997, making it the first in India.<ref name="VentureBeat: bullish" /><ref name="GIbiz: Pioneer" /><ref name="VentureBeat: coming of age" /> "Dhruva" is the [[Sanskrit]] word for the [[North Star]], "the star that shows the way", according to Rao.<ref name="GIbiz: Pioneer" />

The company signed its first game development contract with [[Infogrames]] on 28 November 1998. Despite what Rao described as a "great job", the game was never released. Afterwards, Rao found that fully developing games as Dhruva Interactive's sole operation was not sustainable. The company transitioned to an [[outsourcing]] company. the end of "Dhruva 2.0" and the start of "Dhruva 3.0". In the search for clients in the United States and Europe, Dhruva Interactive released the [[game demo]] ''Saloon'' in March 2001. The company intentionally used a [[Wild West]] setting to appeal to the target Western audience. As the team had never seen a [[Western saloon|saloon]] before, they sought references via the emerging [[Google Search]], a technique they would continue to employ to understand certain parts of Western culture.<ref name="The World Is Flat" />

In December 2016, the Swedish video game company [[Starbreeze Studios]] announced that it had acquired a 90.5% stake in Dhruva for {{US$|7 million}} in cash and {{US$|1.5 million|long=no}} of its [[stock]], with an [[earn-out]] agreement of {{US$|800,000|long=no}}. At the time, Dhruva had 320 employees in three studios: two in Bangalore and one in [[Dehradun]].<ref name="VentureBeat: Starbreeze" /> The completion of the acquisition was delayed into 2017 due to regulatory issues in India and complete on 28 August.<ref name="VentureBeat: bullish" /><ref name="Starbreeze: Starbreeze" /> In May 2019, a financially stricken Starbreeze agreed to sell its stake in Dhruva Interactive, now at 91.82%, to the American publisher [[Rockstar Games]] for {{US$|7.9 million|long=no}}.<ref name="GIbiz: Rockstar" /> Once the deal would close, which was expected to happen in early 2019, the studio's 300 employees would join [[Rockstar India]], Rockstar Games's existing studio in Bangalore.<ref name="GIbiz: Rockstar" /><ref name="GameZone: Rockstar" /> The sale was completed on 22 May.<ref name="Starbreeze: Rockstar" />

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="GameZone: Rockstar">{{cite web |url=https://www.gamezone.com/news/rockstar-games-acquires-indian-studio-dhruva-interactive/ |title=Rockstar Games acquires Indian studio Dhruva Interactive |first=Cade |last=Onder |date=14 May 2019 |website=GameZone |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-date=14 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514113642/https://www.gamezone.com/news/rockstar-games-acquires-indian-studio-dhruva-interactive/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="GIbiz: Pioneer">{{cite web |url=https://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2015-10-23-you-pay-a-heavy-price-for-being-a-pioneer-thats-the-way-it-is |title="You pay a heavy price for being a pioneer" |first=Matthew |last=Handrahan |date=23 October 2015 |website=[[GamesIndustry.biz]] |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-date=19 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519120637/https://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2015-10-23-you-pay-a-heavy-price-for-being-a-pioneer-thats-the-way-it-is |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="GIbiz: Rockstar">{{cite web |url=https://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2019-05-13-rockstar-acquires-dhruva-from-starbreeze-for-usd7-9m |title=Rockstar acquires Dhruva Interactive from Starbreeze for $7.9m |first=Rebekah |last=Valentine |date=13 May 2019 |work=[[GamesIndustry.biz]] |access-date=13 May 2019 |archive-date=13 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513194338/https://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2019-05-13-rockstar-acquires-dhruva-from-starbreeze-for-usd7-9m |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Starbreeze: Rockstar">{{cite press release |url=https://www.starbreeze.com/2019/05/starbreeze-has-closed-the-transaction-of-indian-subsidiary-dhruva/ |title=Starbreeze has closed the transaction of Indian subsidiary Dhruva |publisher=[[Starbreeze Studios]] |date=22 May 2019 |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-date=7 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190707232628/https://www.starbreeze.com/2019/05/starbreeze-has-closed-the-transaction-of-indian-subsidiary-dhruva/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="Starbreeze: Starbreeze">{{cite press release |url=https://www.starbreeze.com/2017/08/starbreeze-completes-dhruva-interactive-acquisition/ |title=Starbreeze completes Dhruva Interactive acquisition |publisher=[[Starbreeze Studios]] |date=28 August 2017 |access-date=8 July 2022 |archive-date=8 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708142633/https://www.starbreeze.com/2017/08/starbreeze-completes-dhruva-interactive-acquisition/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="The World Is Flat">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oSsIfoDQHhgC |title=The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century |first=Thomas |last=Friedman |author-link=Thomas Friedman |year=2007 |publisher=[[Picador (imprint)|Picador]] |isbn=9781429923071 |chapter=The Triple Convergence |pages=217–223 |via=[[Google Books]] |access-date=8 July 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="VentureBeat: bullish">{{cite web |url=https://venturebeat.com/2017/03/09/dhruvas-rajesh-rao-is-still-bullish-on-indias-game-market-after-two-decades/ |title=Dhruva's Rajesh Rao is still bullish on India's game market — after two decades |first=Dean |last=Takahashi |date=9 March 2017 |website=[[VentureBeat]] |access-date=17 November 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117193139/https://venturebeat.com/2017/03/09/dhruvas-rajesh-rao-is-still-bullish-on-indias-game-market-after-two-decades/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="VentureBeat: coming of age">{{cite web |url=https://venturebeat.com/2014/03/30/dhruva-ceo-explains-how-indias-game-industry-is-coming-of-age-interview/ |title=Dhruva CEO explains how India's game industry is coming of age (interview) |first=Dean |last=Takahashi |date=30 March 2014 |website=[[VentureBeat]] |access-date=17 November 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117193450/https://venturebeat.com/2014/03/30/dhruva-ceo-explains-how-indias-game-industry-is-coming-of-age-interview/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="VentureBeat: Starbreeze">{{cite web |url=https://venturebeat.com/2016/12/18/swedens-starbreeze-buys-indias-video-game-studio-dhruva-interactive/ |title=Sweden's Starbreeze buys Indian video game studio Dhruva Interactive |first=Dean |last=Takahashi |date=18 December 2016 |website=[[VentureBeat]] |access-date=30 August 2017 |archive-date=6 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906134943/https://venturebeat.com/2016/12/18/swedens-starbreeze-buys-indias-video-game-studio-dhruva-interactive/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

}}

{{Take-Two Interactive}}

[[Category:1997 establishments in Karnataka]]
[[Category:2016 mergers and acquisitions]]
[[Category:Companies based in Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Defunct video game companies of India]]
[[Category:Indian companies disestablished in 2019]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 1997]]
[[Category:Indian subsidiaries of foreign companies]]
[[Category:Rockstar Games subsidiaries]]
[[Category:Take-Two Interactive divisions and subsidiaries]]
[[Category:Video game companies disestablished in 2019]]
[[Category:Video game companies established in 1997]]
[[Category:Video game development companies]]