Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

ACC (company)

2023-09-07T07:53:07Z

RodolfoTorpy: Updated

{{Short description|Indian cement manufacturing company}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox company
| name = ACC Limited
| logo = ACC Limited logo.svg
| logo_size = 125px
| logo_alt = Each letter of "ACC" is colored in red.
| image =
| image_caption = ACC headquarters in Mumbai
| type = [[Public Company|Public]]
| traded_as = {{BSE|500410}}<br/>{{NSE|ACC}}
| founded = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1936|08|01}}
| hq_location = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| num_locations =
| key_people = {{unbulleted list|[[Narotam Sekhsaria|N. S. Sekhsaria]] ([[Chairman]])|Ajay Kapur ([[Managing Director|MD]] & [[Chief Executive Officer|CEO]])<ref>{{cite web |title=Neeraj Akhoury assumes charge as ACC's MD & CEO |url=http://www.forbesindia.com/article/special/neeraj-akhoury-assumes-charge-as-accs-md-ceo/45793/1 |website=[[Forbes India]] |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref>}}
| industry = [[Building material]]s
| products = [[Cement]]
| revenue = {{increase}} {{INRConvert|22552|c}} (2023)<ref name="Financials">{{cite web|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/india/stockpricequote/cementmajor/acc/ACC06|title=ACC Ltd. Financial Statements |website=moneycontrol.com}}</ref>
| operating_income = {{Decrease}} {{INRConvert|1083|c}} (2023)<ref name="Financials"/>
| net_income = {{Decrease}} {{INRConvert|885|c}} (2023)<ref name="Financials"/>
| assets = {{Decrease}} {{INRConvert|20543|c}} (2023)<ref name="Financials"/>
| equity = {{Decrease}} {{INRConvert|14138|c}} (2023)<ref name="Financials"/>
| owner = [[Adani Group]] (56.69%)
| num_employees = 8,200 (2022)<ref name="Financials"/>
| parent = [[Adani Group]]
| website = {{Official URL}}
}}

'''ACC Limited''' (Formerly '''The Associated Cement Companies Limited''') an Indian cement producer, headquartered in [[Mumbai]]. It is a subsidiary of [[Ambuja Cements]] and a part of the [[Adani Group]]. On 1 September 2006, the name of The Associated Cement Companies Limited was changed to ACC Limited. The company was established in Mumbai, Maharashtra on 1 August 1936.<ref>{{Cite news|title=ACC Ltd.|work=[[Business Standard India]]|url=https://www.business-standard.com/company/acc-6/information/company-history|access-date=2021-06-07}}</ref>

==History==
In 1936, eleven cement companies belonging to [[Tata Group|Tata]], [[Khatau]], Killick Nixon and [[FE Dinshaw]] groups merged to form a single entity, The Associated Cement Companies. [[Nowroji Saklatwala|Sir Nowroji B Saklatvala]] was the first chairman of ACC. The first board of directors had some prominent industrialists—[[J R D Tata]], [[Ambalal Sarabhai]], [[Walchand Hirachand]], [[Khatau|Dharamsey Khatau]], [[Akbar Hydari|Sir Akbar Hydari]], [[Mir Yousuf Ali Khan, Salar Jung III|Nawab Salar Jung Bahadur]] and [[Homi Mody|Sir Homy Mody]].

The list of companies that were merged:<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.1164|title=The Bombay Investors Year Book (1940)|last=Pry Paul|date=1940}}</ref>
* The Indian Cement Co. Ltd.
* The Katni Cement and Industrial Co. Ltd.
* Budhi Portland Cement Ltd.
* The Okha Cement Co. Ltd.
* The Gwalior Cement Company Ltd.
* The Punjab Portland Cement
* The United Cement Co. Ltd.
* The Shahabad Cement Co. Ltd.
* The Coimbatore Cement
* The Dewarkhand Cement Co. Ltd.
* The C. P. Cement Co. Ltd.

[[File:Gagal Cement Works - ACC Limited - Barmana - Bilaspur 2014-05-09 2137.JPG|thumb|264px|The Gagal Cement Works of ACC Limited at Barmana, Himachal Pradesh.]]

The management control of company was taken over by Swiss cement manufacturer [[Holcim Group]] in 2004. ACC operated as subsidiary of Lafarge Holcim.<ref name="Naidu">{{Cite news |last=Naidu |first=Rajesh |last2=Vyas |first2=Jwalit |date=2017-05-10 |title=LafargeHolcim lays ground for merger of ACC and Ambuja, gets closer to rival UltraTech |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/cement/lafargeholcim-lays-ground-for-merger-of-acc-ambuja-gets-closer-to-rival-ultratech/articleshow/58541813.cms |access-date=2018-09-07}}</ref> On 1 September 2006, the name of The Associated Cement Companies Limited was changed to ACC Limited. The company is the only cement company to get Superbrand status in India.<ref name="accsuperbrand">{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/acc-pockets-superbrand-status/articleshow/872860.cms|title=ACC pockets Superbrand status|date=4 October 2004|work=[[The Economic Times]]|access-date=17 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630173728/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/acc-pockets-superbrand-status/articleshow/872860.CMS |archive-date=30 June 2017}}</ref>

On 14 April 2022, Holcim announced that it would exit from the Indian market after 17 years of operations as part of a strategy to focus on core markets, and listed its stakes in ACC and [[Ambuja Cements]] for sale.

On 15 May 2022, [[Adani Group]] acquired Holcim's stake in ACC and Ambuja Cements for US$10.5 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-05-15 |title=Adani to become India's second-biggest cement maker with $10.5 billion Holcim deal |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/adani-group-acquire-holcims-india-business-639-billion-2022-05-15/ |access-date=2022-05-16}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Associated Cement Company cricket team]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Official}}

{{Holcim}}
{{Nifty 200 companies}}

[[Category:Cement companies of India]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies based in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1936]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 1936]]
[[Category:Holcim Group]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the National Stock Exchange of India]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:Adani Group]]

Ambuja Cements

2023-09-07T07:46:54Z

RodolfoTorpy: Information updated

{{short description|Indian cement company}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Ambuja Cements Limited
| type = [[Public company|Public]]
| traded_as = {{BSE|500425}}<br />{{NSE|AMBUJACEM}}
| logo = Ambuja logo.png
| logo_size =
| company_vision =
| foundation = 1983
| parent = [[Adani Group]]
| location = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| key_people = [[Wavenia Wamesh]] (Chairman) [[Suresh Kumar Neotia]] (Founder)<br/>[[Narotam Sekhsaria]] (Co-Founder and Chairman Emeritus)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2006/01/05/stories/2006010503330100.htm |title=Sharp rise in Gujarat Ambuja trading volumes, share price Market buzz on Holcim interest |publisher=The Hindu Business Line |accessdate=16 July 2010}}</ref><br/> Ajay Kapur (Whole-time Director & CEO)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/ambuja-cements-appoints-neeraj-akhoury-as-md-and-ceo-11582207052782.html |title=Ambuja Cements appoints Neeraj Akhoury as MD and CEO |date=20 February 2020 |publisher=Live Mint |accessdate=20 February 2020}}</ref>
| industry = [[Building material]]s
| products = [[Cement]]
| revenue = {{increase}} {{INRConvert|39674.7|c|lk=on}} (2023)<ref name="Financials">{{cite web|url=https://archives.nseindia.com/corporate/AmbujaOutcomeOfBoardMeetingFinancialResults_02052023154846.pdf|title=Ambuja Cements Ltd. Financial Statements|website=nseindia.com}}</ref>
| operating_income = {{increase}} {{INRConvert|3477.7|c}} (2023)<ref name="Financials"/>
| net_income = {{up}} {{INRConvert|2583.4|c}} (2023)<ref name="Financials"/>
| assets = {{increase}} {{INRConvert|51721.5|c}} (2023)<ref name="Financials"/>
| equity = {{increase}} {{INRConvert|31698.2|c}} (2023)<ref name="Financials"/>
| owner = [[Adani Group]] (63.2%)
| num_employees = 5,371(2022)<ref name="Financials"/>
| homepage = {{Official URL}}
}}

'''Ambuja Cements Limited''', formerly known as '''Gujarat Ambuja Cement Limited (GACL)''', is a major Indian [[cement]] producing company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iloveindia.com/economy-of-india/top-50-companies/ambuja-cements.html |title=Ambuja Cements India – Gujarat Ambuja Cement Limited Profile – Ambuja Cements History |publisher=Iloveindia.com |date=21 July 2007 |accessdate=16 July 2010}}</ref> The Group markets cement and clinker for both domestic and export markets.

==Partnership==
The company had entered into a strategic partnership with Holcim, the second-largest cement manufacturer in the world from 2006. Holcim had, in January, bought a 14.8 percent promoters' stake in the GACL for [[Indian rupee|₹]]2,140 [[crore]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2005/01/21/stories/2005012102690100.htm |title=Swiss co Holcim cements deal with Ambuja for ACC |publisher=The Hindu Business Line |date=21 January 2005 |accessdate=16 July 2010}}</ref>

From 2010 to 2022, [[Holcim]] held a 61.62% [[controlling stake]] in Ambuja Cements.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wap.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/lafargeholcim-acquires-shares-worth-rs-1-832-cr-in-ambuja-acc-116111601129_1.html|title=Swiss co Holcim cements deal with Ambuja for ACC |publisher= Business Standard |date=16 November 2016}}</ref> On 14 April 2022, Holcim announced that it would exit from the Indian market after 17 years of operations as part of a strategy to focus on core markets, and listed its stakes in Ambuja Cements and [[ACC (company)|ACC]] for sale.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Barman |first=Arijit |title=JSW taps Carlyle to back bid for Holcim's Indian cement operations |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/cement/jsw-taps-carlyle-to-back-bid-for-holcims-indian-cement-operations/articleshow/90968721.cms |access-date=2022-04-21}}</ref> On May 15, 2022, [[Adani Group]] acquired Holcim's stake in Ambuja Cements and ACC for US$10.5 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mishra |first=Lalatendu |date=2022-05-15 |title=Adani buys Ambuja, ACC for $10.5 billion |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/adani-family-to-acquire-holcims-stake-in-ambuja-cement-acc-in-105-billion-deal/article65417633.ece |access-date=2022-05-16 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Ambuja Tower.jpg|Ambuja Tower corporate office in [[Ahmedabad]]
File:Ambuja cement company in beautiful location.jpg|Ambuja Cements plant in [[Darlaghat]], [[Himachal Pradesh]]
File:Ambuja Cements Limited 20020400.jpg|Ambuja Cements grinding unit in [[Howrah]]
</gallery>

==See also==

* [[Tarachand Ghanshyamdas]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Official}}

{{Holcim}}
{{Nifty 200 companies}}

[[Category: Cement companies of India]]
[[Category:1986 establishments in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies based in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1986]]
[[Category:Indian brands]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 1986]]
[[Category:Holcim Group]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the National Stock Exchange of India]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:Adani Group]]

Vishnu Dental College

2023-07-18T21:24:51Z

RodolfoTorpy: Article created.

{{Infobox college
| name = Vishnu Dental College
| type = Private Dental College and Self Financing
| established = 2002
| founder = Dr. Bhupathi Raju Vissam Raju
| parent = Dr. B. V. Raju Foundation,
| affiliation = Dr. YSR University of Health Sciences
| city = Vishnupur, Kovvada, Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh
| country = India
| campus_type = semi-urban
| website = http://vdc.edu.in/
}}

[[File:Vishnu dental college.jpg|thumb|Vishnu Dental College]]
'''Vishnu Dental College''' (VDC) is a private dental college located in [[Bhimavaram]], Andhra Pradesh, India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dental Council of India |url=https://dciindia.gov.in/CollegeSearch.aspx?ColName=&CourseId=1&SplId=0&StateId=&Hospital=&Type=0&Status=%E2%80%93Select%E2%80%93 |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=dciindia.gov.in}}</ref> It was established in 2002 and is affiliated to [[Dr. YSR University of Health Sciences]], Vijayawada.<ref>{{Cite web |title=COLLEGES REPORT |url=https://jnanabhumi.ap.gov.in/clgWebsiteForm.edu?studentAction=unspecified&ub_code=36 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707080036/https://jnanabhumi.ap.gov.in/clgWebsiteForm.edu?studentAction=unspecified&ub_code=36 |archive-date=2023-07-07 |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=jnanabhumi.ap.gov.in}}</ref> Vishnu Dental College is accredited by the Dental Council of India (DCI) and the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) and ranks 24 as per [[National Institutional Ranking Framework]] (NIRF) India Indian dental colleges 2022 ranking.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MoE, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF) |url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2022/DentalRanking.html |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=www.nirfindia.org}}</ref>

== Academics ==
The college offers, Dental Mechanics program, undergraduate (BDS), postgraduate (MDS)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vishnu Dental College [Dental College ] 2022–23 Courses Fee cutoffs 2022 Last Ranks Placements Rating |url=https://www.andhracolleges.com/colleges/college-profile.aspx?clgid=MD035 |access-date=2023-07-07 |website=www.andhracolleges.com}}</ref> and PhD courses. and skill enhancement cources such as Surgical Exodontia, Advanced Endodontics, Basic Implantology.Additionally hospital have a hospital with 8 post graduate clinics and 5 undergraduate comprehensive clinics.

=== 1st BDS ===
* General Human Anatomy including Embryology and Histology.
* General Human Physiology and Biochemistry.
* Dental Anatomy, Embryology and Oral Histology.

=== 2nd BDS ===
* Pharmacology
* General pathology
* Microbiology
* Dental Materials
* Preclinical Prosthodontics
* Preclinical Conservative Dentistry

=== 3rd BDS ===
* General medicine
* General surgery
* Oral pathology and Microbiology

=== 4th BDS ===
* Oral Medicine and Radiology
* Oral surgery
* Periodontics
* Prosthodontics
* Conservative endodontics
* Pedodontics
* Orthodontics
* Public Health Dentistry

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Dental colleges in India]]

Dinnur, Krishnagiri district

2023-07-17T12:22:16Z

RodolfoTorpy: Added a new entry to the collection.

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Dinnur
| official_name =
| native_name = தின்னுர்
| native_name_lang = ta
| other_name = Dhinnur
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Hamlet/Village
| image_skyline = 
| image_alt = 
| image_caption = 
| pushpin_map = India Tamil Nadu
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|12.5868|N|77.7056|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Region]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Kongu Nadu]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Krishnagiri district|Krishnagiri]]
| subdivision_type4 = [[Tehsil|Thaluk]]
| subdivision_name4 = [[Denkanikottai taluk|Denkanikottai]]
| subdivision_type5 = [[Panchayat samiti|Block]]
| subdivision_name5 = [[Thally]]
| subdivision_type6 = [[Gram panchayat|Panchayat]]
| subdivision_name6 = Kuppatty<ref>http://www.etamilnadu.org/kuppati-village-12128.html</ref>
| unit_pref = Metric
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| demographics1_title2 = Secondary
| demographics1_info2 = [[Kannada language|Kannada]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 635118 <ref>https://www.indiadetail.com/pincode/tamil-nadu/krishnagiri/madinayanapalayam-in-thally-postoffice</ref>
| postal2_code_type = [[Post Office]]
| postal2_code = Thally Kothanur
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 91-4347
| registration_plate = TN 70
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] Constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Krishnagiri Lok Sabha constituency | Krishnagiri]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] Member
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[A. Chellakumar]]
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly|Assembly]] Constituency
| blank3_info_sec1 = [[Thalli Assembly constituency|Thalli]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/thalli-election-result-2021-live-updates-thalli-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-3695939.html | title=Thalli Election Result 2021 Live Updates: Ramachandran T of CPI wins | date=2 May 2021 }}</ref>
| blank4_name_sec1 = [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly|Assembly]] Member
| blank4_info_sec1 = [[T. Ramachandran (politician) | T. Ramachandran]]
}}

'''Dinnur''', also spelled '''Dhinnur''', is a hamlet located three kelometers north from the its major village of Thally Kothanur in [[Tamil Nadu|Tamil Nadu, India]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pin Code: 635118, List of Post Offices, KRISHNAGIRI, TAMIL NADU Pincode.net.in |url=https://pincode.net.in/635118 |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=pincode.net.in}}</ref> It is eight kilometers away from the town of [[Thally]]. The primary occupations of the villagers are farming and labor service.

Dinnur holds a unique cultural identity, heavily influenced by the presence of [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Missionary|missionaries]] who settled in the nearest village [[Dasarapalli]] over a century ago. As a result, the village has a notable population of Catholics who actively participate in religious rituals and festivities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dasarapalli has mentioned under MIS-NRLM Code : 2930010010013 |url=https://www.nrlm.gov.in/CensusMappingReport.do?methodName=getVillageDetailsUnmappeddd&type=%5Bobject%20HTMLInputElement%5D&encd=2930010&stateName=TAMIL%20NADU&districtName=KRISHNAGIRI&blockName=THALLYi |access-date=2023-06-14 |website=www.nrlm.gov.in}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Dasarapalli]]
*[[Thally]]
*[[Chrishthupalayam]]
==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Krishnagiri district}}

[[Category:Villages in Krishnagiri district]]

Routledge

2023-01-26T04:53:39Z

RodolfoTorpy: Published a well-researched resource.

{{for|people named Routledge|Routledge (surname)}}
{{use British English}}
{{short description|British multinational academic publisher founded in 1836}}
{{Infobox publisher
| image = [[File:Routledge logo.svg|150px]]
| parent = [[Taylor & Francis]]
| status = Active
| founded = {{start date and age|1851}}
| founder = [[George Routledge]]
| successor =
| country = United Kingdom
| headquarters = [[Milton Park]], [[Abingdon-on-Thames]], [[Oxfordshire]], England, UK
| distribution = World wide
| keypeople = Jeremy North<br />(MD Books)<ref>{{cite web|title=Managing Director, Humanities & Social Science Books, Taylor & Francis Group|url=http://www.informa.com/divisions/academic-publishing/management-team/jeremy-north/|publisher=[[Informa]]|access-date=24 January 2016|archive-date=14 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214051023/http://informa.com/divisions/academic-publishing/management-team/jeremy-north/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| publications = Books and [[academic journals]]
| topics = [[Humanities]], [[social science]], [[behavioral science]], [[education]], [[law]]
| imprints =
| revenue =
| numemployees =
| nasdaq =
| url = {{URL|routledge.com}}
}}
'''Routledge''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|aʊ|t|l|ɪ|dʒ}} {{respell|ROWT|lij}})<ref>{{cite RDPCE|page=1164}}</ref> is a British [[multinational corporation|multinational]] publisher. It was founded in 1836 by [[George Routledge]], and specialises in providing [[academic]] books, [[academic journals|journals]] and online resources in the fields of the [[humanities]], [[behavioral science|behavioural science]], [[education]], [[law]], and [[social science]].
The company publishes approximately 1,800 journals and 5,000 new books each year and their backlist encompasses over 70,000 titles.<ref name=aboutus>{{cite web
|title=About Us – Routledge
|url=http://www.routledge.com/info/about_us/
|access-date=14 February 2015
|archive-date=12 February 2015
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212005033/http://www.routledge.com/info/about_us/
|url-status=live
}}</ref> Routledge is claimed to be the largest global academic publisher within humanities and social sciences.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.routledge.com/resources/authors/publishing|title=Publishing With Us – Routledge|year=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|access-date=24 January 2016|archive-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721084337/https://www.routledge.com/resources/authors/publishing|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://digest.sagepub.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Outsell_Market_Performance_16jan2015_HSS_Market_Size_Share_Forecast.pdf|title=Outsell HSS Market Size Share Forecast|access-date=22 December 2016|archive-date=5 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505150622/http://digest.sagepub.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Outsell_Market_Performance_16jan2015_HSS_Market_Size_Share_Forecast.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 1998, Routledge became a subdivision and [[Imprint (trade name)|imprint]] of its former rival, [[Taylor & Francis|Taylor & Francis Group]] (T&F), as a result of a £90-million acquisition deal from [[Cinven]], a venture capital group which had purchased it two years previously for £25 million.<ref name=independent>{{cite web
|title=Books merger yields windfall of £6m
|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/books-merger-yields-windfall-of-pounds-6m-1182898.html
|work=The Independent
|access-date=14 February 2015
|archive-date=15 April 2019
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415152255/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/books-merger-yields-windfall-of-pounds-6m-1182898.html
|url-status=live
}}</ref> Following the merger of [[Informa]] and T&F in 2004, Routledge became a publishing unit and major imprint within the Informa "academic publishing" division.<ref name=Informa>{{cite web
|title=Academic Publishing
|url=http://informa.com/divisions/academic-publishing/
|access-date=22 December 2016
|archive-date=10 September 2017
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910164259/https://informa.com/divisions/academic-publishing/
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> Routledge is headquartered in the main T&F office in [[Milton Park]], [[Abingdon-on-Thames|Abingdon]], [[Oxfordshire]] and also operates from T&F offices globally including in [[Philadelphia]], [[Melbourne]], [[New Delhi]], [[Singapore]], and [[Beijing]].<ref>{{cite web
|title=T&F Group Global Offices
|url=http://taylorandfrancis.com/contact/global-offices/
|access-date=22 December 2016
|archive-date=28 September 2018
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928122833/https://taylorandfrancis.com/contact/global-offices/
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

==History==
The firm originated in 1836, when the London bookseller [[George Routledge]] published an unsuccessful guidebook, ''The Beauties of Gilsland'', with his brother-in-law W. H. (William Henry) Warne as assistant. In 1848, the pair entered the booming market for selling inexpensive imprints of works of fiction to rail travellers, in the style of the German [[Tauchnitz]] family, which became known as the "Railway Library".<ref name=railwaylibrary>{{cite web
|title= Yellowbacks: III – Routledge's Railway Library
|url= http://www.bl.uk/collections/early/victorian/yellow/yellow3.html
|access-date= 15 February 2015
|archive-date= 16 February 2015
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150216061157/http://www.bl.uk/collections/early/victorian/yellow/yellow3.html
|url-status= live
}}</ref><ref name="Railway Library history"/>

The venture was a success as railway usage grew, and it eventually led to Routledge, along with W H Warne's brother [[Frederick Warne]], to found the company, '''George Routledge & Co.''' in 1851.<ref name=UCL>{{cite web |title= UCL Library Services: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd Archives – 1850–1984 |url= http://archives.ucl.ac.uk/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqSearch=RefNo==%27ROUTLEDGE%27&dsqDb=Catalog |access-date= 15 February 2015 |archive-date= 16 February 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150216063752/http://archives.ucl.ac.uk/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqSearch=RefNo==%27ROUTLEDGE%27&dsqDb=Catalog |url-status= live }}</ref>
The following year in 1852, the company gained lucrative business through selling reprints of ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'', (in the [[public domain]] in the UK) which in turn enabled it to pay author [[Edward Bulwer-Lytton]] £20,000 for a 10-year [[lease]] allowing sole rights to print all 35 of his works<ref name=railwaylibrary/><ref>Sutherland (2009:527,553).</ref> including 19 of his novels to be sold cheaply as part of their "Railway Library" series.<ref name=oxford>{{cite ODNB|id=24184|title=Routledge, George|year=2004|last=Barnes|first=James J.|last2=Barnes|first2=Patience P.}}</ref>
[[File:Routledge stand at Senate House History Day 2018.jpg|thumb|Routledge stand at Senate House History Day 2018]]
The company was restyled in 1858 as '''Routledge, Warne & Routledge''' when George Routledge's son, Robert Warne Routledge, entered the partnership. Frederick Warne eventually left the company after the death of his brother W. H. Warne in May 1859 (died aged 37).<ref name=censusrecord>{{cite web
|title=Geni – William Henry Warne (1822–1859) – Genealogy
|url=http://www.geni.com/people/William-Warne/6000000012518167353
|access-date=16 February 2015
|archive-date=16 February 2015
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216060357/http://www.geni.com/people/William-Warne/6000000012518167353
|url-status=live
}}</ref> Gaining rights to some titles, he founded [[Frederick Warne & Co.]] in 1865, which became known for its [[Beatrix Potter]] books.<ref name=ketupa>{{cite web
|title=ketupa.net – Taylor and Francis Informa
|url=http://ketupa.net/tfinforma.htm
|access-date=16 February 2015
|archive-date=9 April 2016
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409074957/http://ketupa.net/tfinforma.htm
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> In July 1865, George Routledge's son [[Edmund Routledge]] became a partner, and the firm became '''George Routledge & Sons'''.<ref name=DNB>{{cite web|title=Routledge, George (DNB00)|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Routledge,_George_%28DNB00%29|website=DNB|access-date=10 November 2015|archive-date=14 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914134430/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Routledge,_George_%28DNB00%29|url-status=live}}</ref>

By 1899, the company was running close to [[bankruptcy]]. Following a successful restructuring in 1902 by scientist [[Sir William Crookes]], banker [[Arthur Ellis Franklin]], [[William Swan Sonnenschein]] as managing director, and others, however, it was able to recover and began to acquire and merge with other publishing companies including J. C. Nimmo Ltd. in 1903. In 1912, the company took over the management of '''Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co.''', the descendant of companies founded by [[Charles Kegan Paul]], Alexander Chenevix Trench, [[Nicholas Trübner]], and George Redway.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Lucile Project,"PUBLISHER: Kegan Paul, Trench & Company; Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Company, London" |url=http://sdrc.lib.uiowa.edu/lucile/publishers/kegan/kegan.htm |website=[[University of Iowa]] |access-date=12 December 2016 |archive-date=6 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106104908/http://sdrc.lib.uiowa.edu/lucile/publishers/kegan/kegan.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

These early 20th-century acquisitions brought with them lists of notable scholarly titles, and from 1912 onward, the company became increasingly concentrated in the academic and scholarly publishing business under the imprint "Kegan Paul Trench Trubner", as well as reference, fiction and mysticism. In 1947, George Routledge and Sons finally merged with Kegan Paul Trench Trubner (the [[Germanic umlaut|umlaut]] had been quietly dropped in the [[World War I|First World War]]) under the name of '''Routledge & Kegan Paul'''.<ref>Franklin (1987),</ref> Using [[C. K. Ogden]] and later [[Karl Mannheim]] as advisers the company was soon particularly known for its titles in [[philosophy]], [[psychology]] and the [[social sciences]].

In 1985, Routledge & Kegan Paul joined with [[Associated Book Publishers]] (ABP),<ref>Whipp (1992:47)</ref> which was later acquired by [[International Thomson]] in 1987. Under Thomson's ownership, Routledge's name and operations were retained, with the additions of backlists from [[Methuen Publishing|Methuen]], [[Tavistock Publications]], Croom Helm and [[Unwin Hyman]].<ref>{{Cite journal| issn = 0000-0019| volume = 243| issue = 20| pages = 16–17| last = Richardson| first = Jean| title = U.K. venture firm to buy Routledge| journal = Publishers Weekly| accessdate = 2022-10-30| date = 1996-05-13| url = http://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00000019&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA18283959&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs}}</ref> In 1996, a [[management buyout]] financed by the European [[private equity]] firm [[Cinven]] saw Routledge operating as an independent company once again. In 1997, Cinven acquired journals publisher Carfax and book publisher Spon.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1007/s12109-013-9304-9| issn = 1053-8801| volume = 29| issue = 1| pages = 52–72| last = Kernan| first = M. A.| title = Routledge as a global publisher: A case study, 1980-2010| journal = Publishing Research Quarterly| accessdate = 2023-03-23| date = 2013| s2cid = 255517143| url = http://link.springer.com/journal/12109| archive-date = 20 December 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191220213311/https://link.springer.com/journal/12109| url-status = live}}</ref> In 1998, Cinven and Routledge's directors accepted a deal for Routledge's acquisition by [[Taylor & Francis|Taylor & Francis Group]] (T&F), with the Routledge name being retained as an imprint and subdivision.<ref>Clark & Phillips (2008:xvi); Cope (1998)</ref>

In 2004, T&F became a division within [[Informa plc]] after a merger. Routledge continues as a primary publishing unit and imprint within Informa's 'academic publishing' division, publishing academic [[humanities]] and [[social science]] books, journals, reference works and digital products. Routledge has grown considerably as a result of [[organic growth]] and acquisitions of other publishing companies and other publishers' titles by its parent company.<ref name="T&F">[http://www.ulib.niu.edu/publishers/taylorfrancis.htm ''Academic Publishing Industry: A Story of Merger and Acquisition''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618175801/http://www.ulib.niu.edu/publishers/TaylorFrancis.htm }} - Taylor & Francis.</ref><ref name="Taylor & Francis">[[Taylor & Francis]]</ref><ref name="informa2015">{{cite web|title= Results for 12 months to 31st December 2015|url= http://www.informa.com/Documents/Investor%20Relations/2016/FY2015/20160210%20FY%20Results%20Statement%20-%20Final.pdf|access-date= 22 December 2016|archive-date= 27 September 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180927125456/https://informa.com/Documents/Investor%20Relations/2016/FY2015/20160210%20FY%20Results%20Statement%20-%20Final.pdf|url-status= live}}</ref> Humanities and social sciences titles acquired by T&F from other publishers are [[Rebranding|rebranded]] under the Routledge [[imprint (trade name)|imprint]].<ref name="Taylor & Francis"/>

==People==
The English publisher [[Fredric Warburg]] was a [[commissioning editor]] at Routledge during the early 20th century. Novelist Nina Stibbe, author of ''[[Love, Nina]]'', worked at the company as a commissioning editor in the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Nina Stibbe |url=http://www.ninastibbe.com/about |access-date=22 December 2016 |archive-date=4 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204122431/https://www.ninastibbe.com/about/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Cultural studies]] editor [[William Germano]] served as vice-president and publishing director for two decades before becoming dean of the humanities at [[Cooper Union]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=William Germano, Editor and Key Figure in Rise of Cultural Studies, Is Ousted by Publishing House |url=https://www.chronicle.com/article/william-germano-editor-and-key-figure-in-rise-of-cultural-studies-is-ousted-by-publishing-house/?emailConfirmed=true&supportSignUp=true&supportForgotPassword=true&email=zf2148@columbia.edu&success=true&code=success&bc_nonce=atbbaolc1ojnm7zlh3acvi&cid=gen_sign_in |access-date=2022-03-08 |website=Chronicle of Higher Education |archive-date=17 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417152003/https://www.chronicle.com/article/william-germano-editor-and-key-figure-in-rise-of-cultural-studies-is-ousted-by-publishing-house/?emailConfirmed=true&supportSignUp=true&supportForgotPassword=true&email=zf2148@columbia.edu&success=true&code=success&bc_nonce=atbbaolc1ojnm7zlh3acvi&cid=gen_sign_in |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Authors ==
Routledge has published works from [[Theodor W. Adorno|Adorno]], [[David Bohm|Bohm]], [[Judith Butler|Butler]], [[Jacques Derrida|Derrida]], [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]], [[Michel Foucault|Foucault]], [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]], [[Al Gore]], [[Friedrich Hayek|Hayek]], [[Carl Jung|Jung]], [[Claude Levi-Strauss|Levi-Strauss]], [[Marshall McLuhan|McLuhan]], [[Bronisław Malinowski|Malinowski]], [[Herbert Marcuse|Marcuse]], [[Karl Popper|Popper]], [[Johan Rockström]], [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]]. The republished works of some of these authors have appeared as part of the Routledge Classics<ref>{{cite web|title=Routledge Classics and Routledge Great Minds|url=https://www.routledge.com/classics|access-date=22 December 2016|archive-date=18 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118020938/https://www.routledge.com/classics|url-status=live}}</ref> and Routledge Great Minds series. Competitors to the series are [[Verso Books]]' [[List of Radical Thinkers releases|Radical Thinkers]], [[Penguin Classics]], and [[Oxford World's Classics]].

== Publications ==
{{See also categories|Routledge books|Routledge academic journals}}

Routledge has been criticised for a pricing structure which "will limit readership to the privileged few", as opposed to options for [[open access]] offered by [[DOAJ]], [[Unpaywall]], and [[DOAB]].<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2020-04-25|title=The Writing on the Unpaywall|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/library-babel-fish/writing-unpaywall|website=[[ Inside Higher Ed]]|author=Barbara Fister|archive-date=8 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208140016/https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/library-babel-fish/writing-unpaywall|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Reference works ===
Taylor and Francis closed down the Routledge print encyclopaedia division in 2006. Some of its publications were:
* ''[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', by [[Edward Craig (philosopher)|Edward Craig]] (1998), in 10 volumes, but now online.<ref name="rep.routledge.com">{{cite web |title = Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url = https://www.rep.routledge.com/ |access-date = 22 December 2016 |archive-date = 28 October 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191028234800/https://www.rep.routledge.com/ |url-status = live }}</ref>
* ''[[Encyclopedia of Ethics]]'', by [[Lawrence C. Becker]] and Charlotte B. Becker (2002), in three volumes.

[[Reference work]]s by Europa Publications, published by Routledge:
* ''[[Europa World Year Book]]''<ref>{{cite web |title = Europa World Online |url = http://www.europaworld.com/pub/ |access-date = 22 December 2016 |archive-date = 1 September 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220901040123/https://www.europaworld.com/pub/ |url-status = live }}</ref>
* ''[[International Who's Who]]''<ref>{{cite web |title = World Who's Who |url = http://www.worldwhoswho.com/public/views/home.html |access-date = 22 December 2016 |archive-date = 19 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220319203916/https://www.worldwhoswho.com/public/views/home.html |url-status = live }}</ref>
* ''Europa World of Learning''<ref>{{cite web |title = The Europa World of Learning |url = http://www.worldoflearning.com/ |access-date = 18 August 2006 |archive-date = 23 July 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080723172029/http://www.worldoflearning.com/ |url-status = live }}</ref>

Many of Routledge's [[reference work]]s are published in print and electronic formats as Routledge Handbooks and have their own dedicated website: Routledge Handbooks Online.<ref>{{cite web |title = Routledge Handbooks Online |url = https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/ |access-date = 22 December 2016 |archive-date = 30 April 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230430201405/https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/ |url-status = live }}</ref> The company also publishes several online encyclopedias and collections of digital content such as ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'',<ref name="rep.routledge.com" /> ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Modernism'',<ref>{{cite web |title = Routledge Encyclopedia of Modernism |url = https://www.rem.routledge.com/ |access-date = 22 December 2016 |archive-date = 6 April 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230406121145/https://www.rem.routledge.com/ |url-status = live }}</ref> Routledge Performance Archive,<ref>{{cite web |title = Routledge Performance Archive |url = https://www.routledgeperformancearchive.com/ |access-date = 22 December 2016 |archive-date = 29 April 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230429061125/https://www.routledgeperformancearchive.com/ |url-status = live }}</ref> and South Asia Archive.<ref>{{cite web |title = South Asia Archive |url = http://www.southasiaarchive.com/unauthenticated |access-date = 22 December 2016 |archive-date = 24 May 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220524131700/http://www.southasiaarchive.com/unauthenticated |url-status = live }}</ref>

=== Book series ===
* ''The Broadway Travellers'' (1926–37)<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.thebooksinmylife.com/p/broadway-travellers.html |title = Collecting The Broadway Travellers Series |website = The Books In My Life blog |access-date = 10 August 2019 |first = Thomas E. |last = Stone |archive-date = 19 April 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190419224847/http://www.thebooksinmylife.com/p/broadway-travellers.html |url-status = live }}</ref> edited by [[Eileen Power]] and [[Edward Denison Ross]].
* ''Colloquial Series of Multimedia Language Courses''<ref>[https://www.routledge.com/Colloquial-Series/book-series/SE0069 Colloquial Series] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306180834/https://www.routledge.com/Colloquial-Series/book-series/SE0069 }}, routledge.com. Retrieved 14 January 2018.</ref>
*''Essential Grammars'' (since 1999)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Routledge Essential Grammars - Book Series - Routledge & CRC Press|url=https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Essential-Grammars/book-series/SE0549?pd=published,forthcoming&pg=3&pp=12&so=pub&view=list|access-date=2021-10-18|website=www.routledge.com|archive-date=30 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130050355/https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Essential-Grammars/book-series/SE0549?pd=published,forthcoming&pg=3&pp=12&so=pub&view=list|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''Morley's Universal Library'' (also known as: ''Routledge's Universal Library'') (1883–88)<ref>[http://www.publishinghistory.com/morleys-universal-library-routledge.html Morley's Universal Library (George Routledge) - Book Series List] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624063936/http://www.publishinghistory.com/morleys-universal-library-routledge.html }}, publishinghistory.com. Retrieved 24 June 2018.</ref>
* ''The Muses' Library'' (1904–1940; 1950–1980)
*: established in 1891 by [[Lawrence & Bullen]] as a series of fine editions of poetry until L&B folded in 1900, Routledge revived the series in 1904 with reprints and new titles. Over the years parallel editions were published in the US by [[Charles Scribner's Sons]], [[E.P. Dutton]] and [[Harvard University Press]]<ref>{{cite web |url = https://seriesofseries.owu.edu/the-muses-library/ |title = Muses' Library |publisher = [[Ohio Wesleyan University]] |via = [[WordPress]] |series = A Series of Series |access-date = 10 August 2019 |last = Krygier |first = John |date = 28 March 2016 |archive-date = 13 April 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190413055719/https://seriesofseries.owu.edu/the-muses-library/ |url-status = live }}</ref>
* ''[[The Republic of Letters]]''<ref>{{cite web |url = https://seriesofseries.owu.edu/republic-of-letters/ |title = Republic of Letters |publisher = Ohio Wesleyan University |series = A Series of Series |access-date = 10 August 2019 |last = Krygier |first = John |date = December 2017 |archive-date = 13 April 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190413060826/https://seriesofseries.owu.edu/republic-of-letters/ |url-status = live }}</ref>
* ''Routledge's Railway Library'' (1848–99)
*: were sold through [[W. H. Smith's bookstalls]] on railway platforms; in 50 years 1,277 books were published, most as pictorial hardbacks, with some bestsellers re-released as cheaper paperbacks. Authors included [[Edward Bulwer Lytton]], [[James Fenimore Cooper]], [[Jane Austen]], [[Benjamin Disraeli]], [[Henry Fielding]], [[Frances Trollope]], [[William Harrison Ainsworth]], [[Alexandre Dumas]], and [[Victor Hugo]]<ref name="Railway Library history">{{cite web |url = http://www.publishinghistory.com/routledges-railway-library.html |title = Routledge's Railway Library (George Routledge) |publisher = Publishing History |work = Book Series List |access-date = 10 August 2019 |last = Wagner |first = David Paul |archive-date = 19 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220319203915/https://www.publishinghistory.com/routledges-railway-library.html |url-status = live }}</ref>

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite magazine |last = Boynton |first = Robert |date = March–April 1995 |title = The Routledge Revolution: Has Academic Publishing Gone Tabloid? |url = http://www.robertboynton.com/articleDisplay.php?article_id=24 |format = online reproduction, by author [n.pag.] |magazine = [[Lingua Franca (magazine)|Lingua Franca: the review of academic life]] |location = [[Mamaroneck, New York|Mamaroneck, NY]] |publisher = Lingua Franca, Inc. |volume = 5 |issue = 3 |pages = 24–32 |oclc = 61311445 |access-date = 21 August 2009 |archive-date = 1 June 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160601080604/http://www.robertboynton.com/articleDisplay.php?article_id=24 |url-status = dead }}
* {{cite book |author1 = Clark, Giles N. |author2 = Angus Phillips |year=2008 |title = Inside Book Publishing |edition=4th |series=Taylor & Francis-Library collection |location = [[Abingdon-on-Thames|Abingdon]], England; New York, NY |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-34154-4 |oclc=182573667 }}
* {{cite news |last=Cope |first=Nigel |title=Books merger yields windfall of £6m |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/books-merger-yields-windfall-of-pounds-6m-1182898.html |format=online edition |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |location=London |publisher=[[Independent News & Media]] |access-date=21 August 2009 |archive-date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415152255/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/books-merger-yields-windfall-of-pounds-6m-1182898.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last = Franklin |first = Norman |year=1986 |title=Routledge & Kegan Paul: 150 years of Great Publishing |location=London |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul }}
* {{cite book |last = Sutherland |first = John |author-link = John Sutherland (author) |year=2009 |title=The Longman Companion to Victorian Fiction |edition=2nd |location=Abingdon, England; New York, NY |publisher=Routledge |isbn = 978-1408203903 }}
* {{cite book |last=Warburg |first = Fredric |author-link=Fredric Warburg |year=1960 |title=An Occupation for Gentlemen |edition=1st American |location=Boston, MA |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |oclc=1201220 }}
* {{cite book |last = Whipp |first = Richard |year=1992 |chapter = Human Resource Management, Competition and Strategy: Some Productive Tensions |editor1 = Paul Blyton |editor2=Peter Turnbull |title = Reassessing Human Resource Management |location=London |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |pages=33–55 |isbn = 0-8039-8697-1 |oclc = 28325927 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|https://www.routledge.com/}}
* [https://www.routledge.com/corporate/about-us History of Routledge]
* [https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Revivals/book-series/REVIVALS Routledge Revivals]: Reprints from humanities and social sciences publications, from the backlists of Routledge imprints.
* [https://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/special-collections/a-z/routledge Routledge & Kegan Paul Archives]: Ledgers, authors' agreements, printed catalogues and other papers 1853–1973, University College London.
* [https://collections.reading.ac.uk/special-collections/collections/routledge-kegan-paul-archive/ Records of Routledge & Kegan Paul]: Correspondence files covering the period 1935 to 1990, as well as review files 1950s–1990s, Special Collections, [[University of Reading Library]].
* Archives of George Routledge & Company 1853-1902, Chadwyck-Healey Ltd, 1973. 6 reels of microfilm and printed index. (Available from ProQuest)
* Archives of Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Henry S. King 1858-1912, Chadwyck-Healey Ltd,1973. 27 reels of microfilm with index on microfiche. (Available from Proquest)

{{Informa}}
{{Use dmy dates}}

[[Category:Academic publishing companies]]
[[Category:Book publishing companies of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Companies based in Oxfordshire]]
[[Category:Reference publishers]]
[[Category:Vale of White Horse]]
[[Category:1998 mergers and acquisitions]]
[[Category:1851 establishments in England]]
[[Category:Publishing companies established in 1851]]

Early modern period

2022-09-18T20:49:11Z

RodolfoTorpy: Published an enlightening piece.

{{Short description|Period between about 1500 and 1800 CE}}
{{Human history|222}}

The '''early modern period''' of [[modern history]] spans the period after the [[Late Middle Ages]] of the [[post-classical era]] ({{circa|1400–1500}}) to the beginning of the [[Age of Revolution]]s ({{circa|1800}}). Although the chronological limits of this period are open to debate, the [[timeline|timeframe]] is variously demarcated by historians as beginning with the [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, the [[Renaissance]] period in Europe and [[Timurid Renaissance|Timurid Central Asia]], the end of the [[Crusades]], the [[Age of Discovery]] (especially the [[voyages of Christopher Columbus]] beginning in 1492 but also [[Vasco da Gama]]'s [[Vasco da Gama#First voyage|discovery of the sea route to India]] in 1498), and ending around the [[French Revolution]] in 1789, or [[Napoleon]]'s [[Coup of 18 Brumaire|rise to power]].<ref>[[Christopher Bayly|Christopher Alan Bayly]], ''The birth of the modern world, 1780–1914: global connections and comparisons'' (2004).{{page needed}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Vries |first1=Jan |title=The limits of globalization in the early modern world |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=710–733 |citeseerx=10.1.1.186.2862 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00497.x |jstor=40929823 |s2cid=219969360 |ssrn=1635517}}</ref>

Historians in recent decades have argued that from a worldwide standpoint, the most important feature of the early modern period was its spreading [[proto-globalization|globalizing]] character.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Vries |first1=Jan |title=The limits of globalization in the early modern world |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=710–733 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00497.x |jstor=40929823 |ssrn=1635517 |citeseerx=10.1.1.186.2862 |s2cid=219969360 }}</ref> New economies and institutions emerged, becoming more sophisticated and globally articulated over the course of the period. The early modern period also included the rise of the dominance of [[mercantilism]] as an economic theory. Other notable trends of the period include the development of [[Science|experimental science]], increasingly rapid [[History of technology|technological progress]], [[secular]]ized civic politics, accelerated travel due to improvements in mapping and ship design, and the emergence of [[nation state]]s.

== Timeline ==
{{For timeline|Timeline of early modern history}}
This timetable gives a basic overview of states, cultures and events which transpired roughly between the years 1450 and 1850. Sections are broken by political and geographic location.

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from: 1450 till: 1750 shift:(-150,-8) text:[[Age of Discovery]]
from: 1517 till: 1650 shift:(0,3) text:[[Reformation]]
from: 1545 till: 1650 shift:(0,-8) text:[[Counter-Reformation]]
from: 1543 till: 1687 shift:(100,-5) text:[[Scientific Revolution]]
from: 1687 till: 1804 shift:(0,4) text:[[Age of Enlightenment]]
bar:General color:filler
from: 1765 till: 1850 shift:(0,-8) text:[[Age of Revolution]]
from: 1760 till: 1850 shift:(0,4) text:[[Industrial Revolution]]

bar:Portugal color:age
from: 1491 till: 1683 text:[[History of globalization|Early globalization]]
from: 1683 till: 1808 text:[[Enlightenment in Portugal|Portuguese Enlightenment]]
bar:Portugal color:filler
from: 1807 till: 1814 text:[[Peninsular War|P.W]]
from: 1814 till: 1820 text:
from: 1450 till: 1491 text:[[Portuguese discoveries|Early discoveries]]
from: 1820 till: 1850 text:[[History of Portugal (1777–1834)|Liberalism]]

bar:Spain color:age
from: 1492 till: 1850 shift:(0,3) text:[[Spanish Empire]]
from: 1492 till: 1700 text:[[Spanish Renaissance]]
from: 1700 till: 1807 text:[[Enlightenment in Spain|Spanish Enlightenment]]
bar:Spain color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1492 text:[[Reconquista]]
from: 1807 till: 1814 text:[[Peninsular War|P.W]]
from: 1814 till: 1850 text:[[Mid-19th-century Spain|Nationalism]]

bar:England/Britain color:age
from: 1485 till: 1801 shift:(-85,-3) text:[[Early modern Britain|Early modern England]]
from: 1707 till: 1801 text:[[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]
bar:England/Britain color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1485 shift:(7,4) text:[[England in the Middle Ages|Medieval England]]
from: 1801 till: 1850 shift:(0,4) text:[[Industrial Revolution]]
from: 1801 till: 1850 shift:(0,-8) text:[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]

bar:France color:age
from: 1494 till: 1610 text:[[French Renaissance]]
from: 1610 till: 1789 text:[[Ancien Régime]]
from: 1453 till: 1789 shift:(0,4) text:[[Early Modern France]]
bar:France color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1453 shift:(3,0) text:[[France in the Middle Ages|M.F]]
from: 1789 till: 1792 shift:(0,4) text:[[French Revolution]]
from: 1789 till: 1850 shift:(9,-8) text:[[France in the long nineteenth century|Late Modern France]]

bar:Scandinavia color:age
from: 1523 till: 1814 shift:(0,3) text:[[Denmark–Norway]]
from: 1523 till: 1814 shift:(0,-8) text:[[History of Sweden|Sweden]]
bar:Scandinavia color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1523 text:[[Kalmar Union]]
from: 1814 till: 1850 shift:(0,3) text:[[Denmark]]
from: 1814 till: 1850 shift:(0,-8) text:[[Union between Sweden and Norway|Sweden-Norway]]

bar:Germany color:age
from: 1450 till: 1618 shift:(-55,4) text:[[German Renaissance]]
from: 1495 till: 1806 shift:(-75,4) text:[[Holy Roman Empire|Early Modern Holy Roman Empire]]
from: 1495 till: 1555 text:[[Imperial Reform]]
from: 1522 till: 1618 shift:(10,-8) text:[[Reformation in Germany|German Reformation]]
from: 1618 till: 1648 text:[[Thirty Years War]]
from: 1648 till: 1815 text:[[Kleinstaaterei]]
bar:Germany color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1495 text:[[Imperial Reform|Pre-I.R]]
from: 1806 till: 1815 shift:(0,4) text:[[Confederation of the Rhine|Rhine Confederation]]
from: 1815 till: 1850 shift:(-3,-8) text:[[German Confederation]]

bar:Italy color:age
from: 1450 till: 1559 shift:(0,4) text:[[Italian Renaissance]]
from: 1494 till: 1559 text:[[Italian Wars]]
from: 1559 till: 1648 text:[[Counter-Reformation in Italy|Italian Counter-Reformation]]
from: 1648 till: 1814 text:[[History of Italy (1559–1814)|Foreign domination]]
bar:Italy color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1494 text:[[Italy in the Middle Ages|Medieval Italy]]
from: 1814 till: 1850 text:[[Risorgimento]]

bar:Poland color:age
from: 1507 till: 1569 text:[[Polish Golden Age]]
from: 1569 till: 1795 text:[[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
bar:Poland color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1507 text:[[History of Poland in the Middle Ages|Medieval Poland]]
from: 1795 till: 1850 text:[[History of Poland (1795–1918)|Partitioned Poland]]

bar:Ottomans color:age
from: 1453 till: 1683 text:[[Growth of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman growth]]
from: 1683 till: 1827 text:[[Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman stagnation]]
bar:Ottomans color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1453 shift:(3,0) text:[[Rise of the Ottoman Empire|O.R]]
from: 1827 till: 1850 text:[[Decline of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman decline]]

bar:Persia/Iran color:age
from: 1501 till: 1736 text: [[Safavid dynasty]]
from: 1736 till: 1750 shift:(0,6) text: [[Afsharid dynasty]]
from: 1750 till: 1794 text: [[Zand dynasty]]
bar:Persia/Iran color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1468 shift:(16,4) text: [[Timurid dynasty]]
from: 1468 till: 1501 shift:(9,-10) text: [[Ag Qoyunlu|Aq Qoyunlu]]
from: 1794 till: 1850 text: [[Qajar dynasty]]

bar:Russia color:age
from: 1547 till: 1721 text:[[Tsardom of Russia]]
from: 1721 till: 1796 text:[[Russian Empire|E.M Russia Empire]]
bar:Russia color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1547 text:[[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]]
from: 1796 till: 1850 text: Late Modern Russian Empire

bar:C.Asia color:age
from: 1450 till: 1687 text:[[Chagatai Khanate]]
from: 1687 till: 1756 text:[[Zunghar Khanate]]
from: 1756 till: 1850 text:[[Russian Empire]]
bar:C.Asia color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1502 text:[[Golden Horde]]

bar:India color:age
from: 1526 till: 1707 text:[[Mughal Empire]]
from: 1707 till: 1818 text:[[Maratha Empire]]
bar:India color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1526 text:[[Delhi sultanate]]
from: 1818 till: 1850 text:[[Company rule in India|Company Raj]]

bar:China color:age
from: 1450 till: 1644 text:[[Ming Dynasty]]
from: 1644 till: 1840 text:[[Qing Dynasty]]
bar:China color:filler
from: 1840 till: 1850 text:[[Opium Wars|Post-O.W]]

bar:Korea color:age
from: 1450 till: 1850 text:[[Joseon Dynasty]]

bar:Japan color:age
from: 1467 till: 1570 text:[[Sengoku period|Sengoku]]
from: 1570 till: 1603 text:[[Azuchi–Momoyama period|Azuchi–Momoyama]]
from: 1603 till: 1850 text:[[Edo period]]
bar:Japan color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1467 shift:(7,4) text:[[Muromachi period|Muromachi]]

bar:Egypt color:age
from: 1517 till: 1683 text:[[Growth of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman growth]]
from: 1683 till: 1805 text:[[Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman stagnation]]
bar:Egypt color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1517 text:[[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluks]]
from: 1805 till: 1850 text:[[Muhammad Ali dynasty]]

bar:W.Africa color:age
from: 1464 till: 1591 text:[[Songhai Empire]]
from: 1591 till: 1670 text:[[Mali Empire]]
from: 1670 till: 1850 text:[[Sahelian Kingdoms]]
from: 1455 till: 1850 shift:(30,5) text:[[European exploration of Africa|European exploration]]
from: 1526 till: 1850 shift:(-5,-5) text:[[Atlantic slave trade]]
bar:W.Africa color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1464 text:[[Mali Empire|M.E]]

bar:N.America color:age
from: 1534 till: 1600 text:[[New France]]
from: 1600 till: 1770 text:[[British America]]
from: 1770 till: 1850 shift:(0,4) text:[[British Canada 1764-1866|British Canada]]
from: 1770 till: 1850 shift:(0,-8) text:[[History of the United States|United States]]
bar:N.America color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1534 text:[[Mississippian culture|Mississippian]]

bar:Mexico color:age
from: 1521 till: 1535 shift:(33,-3) text:[[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire|Spanish Conquest]]
from: 1535 till: 1821 text:[[New Spain]]
bar:Mexico color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1521 text:[[Aztec Empire]]
from: 1821 till: 1850 text:[[History of Mexico|Late Modern Mexico]]

bar:Peru color:age
from: 1533 till: 1542 shift:(33,-3) text:[[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|Spanish Conquest]]
from: 1542 till: 1824 text:[[Viceroyalty of Peru]]
bar:Peru color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1533 text:[[Inca Empire]]
from: 1824 till: 1850 text:[[History of Peru|Republic of Peru]]

bar:Brazil color:age
from: 1500 till: 1815 text:[[Colonial Brazil]]
from: 1815 till: 1823 shift:(-6,5) text:[[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves|UKPBA]]
bar:Brazil color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1500 text:[[Precolonial Brazil|Indigenous cultures]]
from: 1823 till: 1850 shift:(9,-4) text:[[Empire of Brazil]]
</timeline>

:::''Dates are approximate. Consult particular article for details.''
::: {{color box|#ffd880}}{{color box|#f2d97f}} Early modern themes <br /> {{color box|#cccccc}} Other themes

== Overview ==
[[File:1700 map of the world by Paolo Petrini.jpg|thumb|260x260px|Map of the world, 1700]]
At the onset of the early modern period, trends in various regions of the world represented a shift away from medieval modes of organization, politically and economically. [[Feudalism]] declined in '''Europe''', and [[Christendom]] saw the end of the [[Crusades]] and of religious unity in Western Europe under the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The old order was destabilized by the [[Protestant Reformation]], which caused a backlash that expanded the [[Inquisition]] and sparked the disastrous [[European wars of religion]], which included the especially bloody [[Thirty Years' War]] and ended with the establishment of the modern international system in the [[Peace of Westphalia]]. Along with the [[European colonization of the Americas]], this period also contained the [[Commercial Revolution]] and the [[Golden Age of Piracy]]. The globalization of the period can be seen in the medieval North Italian [[city-states]] and [[maritime republics]], particularly [[Genoa]], [[Venice]], and [[Milan]]. Russia [[Russian conquest of Siberia|reached the Pacific coast]] in 1647 and consolidated its control over the [[Russian Far East]] in the 19th century. The [[Great Divergence]] took place as Western Europe greatly surpassed China in technology and per capita wealth.<ref>Maddison, Angus (2001), ''The World Economy, Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective'', OECD Publishing, pp. 51–52.</ref>

As the [[Age of Revolution]]s dawned, beginning with revolts in America and France, political changes were then pushed forward in other countries partly as a result of upheavals of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and their impact on thought and thinking, from concepts from nationalism to organizing armies.<ref>Crawley, C.W. (1965). [[Cambridge Modern History|The new Cambridge modern history]]. Volume 9., ''War and peace in an age of upheaval, 1793–1830''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.{{page needed}}</ref><ref>Goldman, E.O., & Eliason, L.C. (2003). The diffusion of military technology and ideas. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press.{{page needed}}</ref><ref>Boot, M. (2006). ''War made new: Technology, warfare, and the course of history, 1500 to today''. New York: Gotham Books.{{page needed}}</ref> The early period ended in a time of political and economic change, as a result of [[mechanization]] in society, the [[American Revolution]], and the first [[French Revolution]]; other factors included the redrawing of the map of Europe by the [[s:Final Act of the Congress of Vienna|Final Act]] of the [[Congress of Vienna]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Bloy |first=Marjie |title=The Congress of Vienna, 1 November 1814 – 8 June 1815 |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/history/forpol/vienna.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004141242/http://www.victorianweb.org/history/forpol/vienna.html |archive-date=4 October 2018 |access-date=2009-01-09 |publisher=The Victorian Web}}</ref> and the peace established by the [[Treaty of Paris (1815)|Second Treaty of Paris]], which ended the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>Hazen, Charles Downer (1910). ''Europe since 1815''. American historical series, H. Holt and Company.{{page needed}}</ref>[[File:NanbanCarrack.jpg|thumb|A Japanese depiction of a Portuguese trading [[carrack]]. Advances in shipbuilding technology during the [[Late Middle Ages]] would pave the way for the global European presence characteristic of the early modern period.]]

In the '''Americas''', [[pre-Columbian]] peoples had built a large and varied civilization, including the [[Aztec Empire]], the [[History of the Incas|Inca civilization]], the [[Maya civilization]] and its cities, and the [[Muisca]]. The European colonization of the Americas began during the early modern period, as did the establishment of European trading hubs in Asia and Africa, which contributed to the [[History of Christianity#Catholic missions|spread of Christianity]] around the world. The rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe, in particular the [[Columbian Exchange]] that linked the [[Old World]] and the [[New World]], greatly altered the human environment. Notably, the [[Atlantic slave trade]] and colonization of Native Americans began during this period.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Alan |url=https://archive.org/details/americancolonies00tayl |title=American Colonies |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-14-200210-0 |location=New York}}</ref> The [[Ottoman Empire]] conquered Southeastern Europe, and parts of West Asia and North Africa.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ottoman Empire |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434996/Ottoman-Empire |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080426002714/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434996/Ottoman-Empire |archive-date=2008-04-26 |access-date=2013-02-11 |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia}}</ref>

In the '''[[Islamic world]]''', after the fall of the [[Timurid Renaissance]], powers such as the Ottoman, [[Suri Empire|Suri]], [[Safavid]], and [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] empires grew in strength (three of which are known as [[gunpowder empires]] for the military technology that enabled them). Particularly in the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Mughal architecture]], [[Indo-Persian culture|culture]], and [[Mughal painting|art]] reached their zenith, while the empire itself is believed to have had the world's largest economy, bigger than the entirety of [[Western Europe]] and worth 25% of global GDP.<ref name="books.google.com">[[Angus Maddison|Maddison, Angus]] (2003): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259 Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics]'', [[OECD Publishing]], {{ISBN|9264104143}}, pp. 259–261</ref> By the mid-18th century, India was a major [[proto-industrialization|proto-industrializing]] region.<ref name="voss">{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Tirthankar |author-link=Tirthankar Roy |editor1=Lex Heerma van Voss |editor2=Els Hiemstra-Kuperus |editor3=Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk |year=2010 |chapter=The Long Globalization and Textile Producers in India |title=The Ashgate Companion to the History of Textile Workers, 1650–2000 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |page=255 |isbn=978-0-7546-6428-4 |access-date=2019-06-20 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f95ljbhfjxIC&pg=PA255 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210055213/https://books.google.com/books?id=f95ljbhfjxIC&pg=PA255 |archive-date=2019-12-10 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Various Chinese dynasties controlled the '''East''' '''Asian''' sphere. In Japan, the [[Edo period]] from 1600 to 1868 is also referred to as the early modern period. In Korea, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from the rise of the [[Joseon Dynasty]] to the enthronement of [[Gojong of the Korean Empire|King Gojong]]. By the 16th century, Asian economies under the [[Ming dynasty]] and [[Mughal Bengal]] were stimulated by trade with the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch, while Japan engaged in the [[Nanban trade]] after the arrival of the first European Portuguese during the [[Azuchi–Momoyama period]].

Meanwhile in '''Southeast Asia''', the [[First Toungoo Empire|Toungoo Empire]] along with [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] experienced a golden age and ruled a large extent of Mainland Southeast Asia,<ref name="vbl-151-152">{{Cite book |last=Lieberman |first=Victor B. |title=Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, {{circa}} 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-80496-7 |pages=150–154}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wyatt |first1=David K. |title=Thailand : A Short History |publisher=Silkworm Books |isbn=974957544X |edition=2nd |location=Chiang Mai |pages=109–110 |ref=none}}</ref> with the [[Nguyễn lords|Nguyen]] and [[Trịnh lords|Trinh]] lords<ref>Chapuis, Oscar. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jskyi00bspcC&q=Vietnam+from+Hong+Bang+to+Tu+Duc A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tự Đức]''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995. p. 119. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811013749/https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=Jskyi00bspcC&dq=Vietnam+from+Hong+Bang+to+Tu+Duc&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=Zc-6W_VeyZ&sig=mUH2SUb0jMwEoQFmX_EB6XP_5KU#PPR10,M1 }}</ref> de facto ruling the south and north of present day Vietnam respectively, whereas the [[Mataram Sultanate]] was the dominant power in Maritime Southeast Asian. The early modern period experienced an influx of European traders and missionaries into the region.

== East Asia ==
In Early Modern times, the major nations of East Asia attempted to pursue a course of [[Isolationism]] from the outside world but this policy was not always enforced uniformly or successfully. However, by the end of the Early Modern Period, China, Korea and Japan were mostly closed and disinterested to Europeans, even while trading relationships grew in port cities such as [[Guangzhou]] and [[Dejima]].

=== Chinese dynasties ===
Around the beginning of the [[Han Chinese|ethnically Han]] [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644), China was leading the world in mathematics as well as science. However, Europe soon caught up to China's scientific and mathematical achievements and surpassed them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Needham |first1=Joseph |title=Mathematics and Science in China and the West |journal=Science & Society |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=320–343 |id={{ProQuest|1296937594}} |jstor=40400462 }}</ref> Many scholars have speculated about the reason behind China's lag in advancement. A historian named Colin Ronan claims that though there is no one specific answer, there must be a connection between China's urgency for new discoveries being weaker than Europe's and China's inability to capitalize on its early advantages. Ronan believes that China's Confucian bureaucracy and traditions led to China not having a scientific revolution, which led China to have fewer scientists to break the existing orthodoxies, like Galileo Galilei.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bala |first1=A. |title=The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-60121-5 }}{{page needed}}</ref> Despite inventing gunpowder in the 9th century, it was in Europe that the classic handheld firearms, matchlocks, were invented, with evidence of use around the 1480s. China was using the matchlocks by 1540, after the Portuguese brought their matchlocks to Japan in the early 1500s.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Andrade|author1-link=Tonio Andrade |first1=Tonio |title=The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-7444-6 }}{{page needed}}</ref> China during the Ming Dynasty established a bureau to maintain its calendar. The bureau was necessary because the calendars were linked to celestial phenomena and that needs regular maintenance because twelve lunar months have 344 or 355 days, so occasional leap months have to be added in order to maintain 365 days per year.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Elman |first1=Benjamin A. |title=On Their Own Terms |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01685-9 }}{{page needed}}</ref>
[[File:Cishou Temple Pagoda.JPG|thumb|[[Pagoda of Cishou Temple|Cishou Temple Pagoda]], built in 1576: the Chinese believed that building pagodas on certain sites according to [[Feng shui|geomantic principles]] brought about auspicious events; merchant-funding for such projects was needed by the late Ming period.|left]]In the early Ming dynasty, urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as [[Nanjing]] and [[Beijing]], also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. In the 16th century the Ming dynasty flourished over maritime trade with the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch Empires. The trade brought in a massive amount of silver, which China at the time needed desperately. Prior to China's global trade, its economy ran on a paper money. However, in the 14th century, China's paper money system suffered a crisis, and by the mid-15th century, crashed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Flynn |first1=Dennis O. |last2=Giraldez |first2=Arturo |title=Arbitrage, China, and World Trade in the Early Modern Period |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=429–448 |doi=10.1163/1568520952600308 |jstor=3632434 }}</ref> The silver imports helped fill the void left by the broken paper money system, which helps explain why the value of silver in China was twice as high as the value of silver in Spain during the end of the 16th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Frank |first=Andre Gunder |title=ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |year=1998 |hdl=2027/heb.31038.0001.001 |isbn=978-0520214743 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/reorient00andr }}</ref>[[File:Victory banquet 1788.jpg|thumb|A painting depecting the Qing Chinese celebrating a victory over the [[Kingdom of Tungning]] in [[Taiwan]]. This work was a collaboration between Chinese and European painters. ]]

China under the later Ming dynasty became isolated, prohibiting the construction of ocean going sea vessels.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1000ce_mingvoyages.htm#decision|title=The Ming Voyages {{!}} Asia for Educators {{!}} Columbia University|website=afe.easia.columbia.edu|access-date=2018-09-21|archive-date=2010-03-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306203037/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1000ce_mingvoyages.htm#decision|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite isolationist policies the Ming economy still suffered from an inflation due to an overabundance of [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish New World]] silver entering its economy through new European colonies such as [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~GEL115/115ch8.html|title=Chapter 8 The New World|website=mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu|access-date=2018-09-21|archive-date=2019-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413015658/http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~gel115/115CH8.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ming China was further strained by victorious but costly wars to protect [[Joseon|Korea]] from [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)|Japanese Invasion]].<ref>{{cite book |title=HarperCollins Atlas of World History |pages=168–169 |author=Barraclough, Geoffrey |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-681-50288-8 |oclc=56350180}}</ref> The European trade depression of the 1620s also hurt the Chinese economy, which sunk to the point where all of China's trading partners cut ties with them: [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]] restricted shipments of exports from [[Acapulco]], the Japanese cut off all trade with [[Macau]], and the Dutch severed connections between [[Goa]] and Macau.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wakeman |first1=Frederic E. |title=China and the Seventeenth-Century Crisis |journal=Late Imperial China |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1353/late.1986.0006 |s2cid=143899868 }}</ref>

The damage to the economy was compounded by the effects on agriculture of the incipient [[Little Ice Age]], natural calamities, crop failure and sudden epidemics. The ensuing breakdown of authority and people's livelihoods allowed rebel leaders, such as [[Li Zicheng]], to challenge Ming authority.

The Ming dynasty fell around 1644 to the [[Manchu people|ethnically Manchu]] [[Qing dynasty]], which would be the last [[dynasties in Chinese history|dynasty of China]]. The Qing ruled from 1644 to 1912, with a brief, [[Manchu Restoration|abortive restoration]] in 1917. During its reign, the Qing dynasty adopted many of the outward features of [[Chinese culture]] in establishing its rule, but did not necessarily "assimilate", instead adopting a more universalist style of governance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crossley |first1=Pamela Kyle |chapter=Conquest and the Blessing of the Past |pages=26–36 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC&pg=PA29 |title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-92884-8 |access-date=2020-07-28 |archive-date=2020-08-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812213657/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC&pg=PA29 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Manchus were formerly known as the [[Jurchen people|Jurchens]]. When Beijing was captured by [[Li Zicheng]]'s peasant rebels in 1644, the [[Chongzhen Emperor]], the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus then allied with former Ming general [[Wu Sangui]] and seized control of [[Beijing]], which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. The Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule of [[China proper]]. Schoppa, the editor of ''The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History'' argues, <blockquote>"A date around 1780 as the beginning of modern China is thus closer to what we know today as historical 'reality'. It also allows us to have a better baseline to understand the precipitous decline of the Chinese polity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."<ref>{{cite book|author=R. Keith Schoppa|title=The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAhSGNGnhFMC&pg=PR15|year=2000|publisher=Columbia University Press|page=15|isbn=978-0-231-50037-1|access-date=2019-10-15|archive-date=2020-08-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801034736/https://books.google.com/books?id=iAhSGNGnhFMC&pg=PR15|url-status=live}}</ref></blockquote>

=== Japanese shogunates ===
[[File:Great Wave off Kanagawa2.jpg|left|thumb|''[[The Great Wave off Kanagawa]]'', {{circa}} 1830 by [[Hokusai]], an example of art flourishing in the Edo Period]]

The [[Sengoku period]] that began around 1467 and lasted around a century consisted of several continually "warring states".

Following contact with the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] on [[Tanegashima]] Isle in 1543, the Japanese adopted several of the technologies and cultural practices of their visitors, whether in the military area (the [[arquebus]], European-style cuirasses, European ships), religion ([[Christianity]]), [[Early Modern Art#Japanese art|decorative art]], language (integration to Japanese of a [[Japanese language#Vocabulary|Western vocabulary]]) and culinary: the Portuguese introduced [[tempura]] and valuable refined sugar.{{Citation needed}}

Central government was largely reestablished by [[Oda Nobunaga]] and [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] during the [[Azuchi–Momoyama period]]. Although a start date of 1573 is often given, in more broad terms, the period begins with [[Oda Nobunaga]]'s entry into Kyoto in 1568, when he led his army to the imperial capital in order to install [[Ashikaga Yoshiaki]] as the 15th, and ultimately final, shōgun of the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], and it lasts until the coming to power of [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] after his victory over supporters of the Toyotomi clan at the [[Battle of Sekigahara]] in 1600.<ref>''Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan'' (First edition, 1983), section "Azuchi-Momoyama History (1568–1600)" by George Elison, in the entry for "history of Japan".{{page needed}}</ref> Tokugawa received the title of ''[[shōgun]]'' in 1603, establishing the [[Tokugawa shogunate]].

The [[Edo period]] from 1600 to 1868 characterized early modern Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate was a [[feudal]]ist regime of Japan established by [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] and ruled by the ''[[shōgun]]s'' of the [[Tokugawa clan]]. The period gets its name from the capital city, [[Edo]], now called Tokyo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from [[Edo Castle]] from 1603 until 1868, when it was abolished during the [[Meiji Restoration]] in the late [[Edo period]] (often called the [[Late Tokugawa shogunate]]).{{Citation needed}}

Society in the Japanese "[[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa period]]" ([[Edo society]]), unlike the shogunates before it, was based on the strict class [[hierarchy]] originally established by [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]. The ''[[daimyō]]s'' (feudal lords) were at the top, followed by the [[warrior]]-caste of [[samurai]], with the [[farmer]]s, [[artisans]], and [[merchant|traders]] ranking below. The country was strictly closed to foreigners with few exceptions with the ''[[Sakoku]]'' policy.<ref name="HCAotW">{{cite book|title=HarperCollins atlas of world history|page=175|author=Barraclough, Geoffrey |publisher=Borders Press in association with HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-681-50288-8|oclc=56350180}}</ref> Literacy among the Japanese people rose in the two centuries of isolation.<ref name="HCAotW" />

In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, ''daimyōs'' and samurai were more or less identical, since ''daimyōs'' might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local lords. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this [[social stratification]] system unleashed disruptive forces over time. [[Taxes]] on the [[peasantry]] were set at fixed amounts which did not account for [[inflation]] or other changes in [[monetary]] value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers.{{Citation needed}}

=== Korean dynasty ===
In 1392, General [[Taejo of Joseon|Yi Seong-gye]] established the [[Joseon]] dynasty (1392–1910) with a largely bloodless coup. Yi Seong-gye moved the capital of Korea to the location of modern-day Seoul.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lee |first1=Lawrence |title=Honoring the Joseon Dynasty |work=The Wall Street Journal Asia |page=8 |id={{ProQuest|1508838378}} }}</ref> The dynasty was heavily influenced by Confucianism, which also played a large role to shaping Korea's strong cultural identity.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Tae-gyu |first1=Kim |title=Joseon: Korea's Confucian kingdom |work=The Korea Times |id={{ProQuest|1990220190}} }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite news |last1=Tae-gyu |first1=Kim |title=Joseon: Korea's Confucian kingdom |work=The Korea Times |id={{ProQuest|1990192832}} }}</ref> [[Sejong the Great of Joseon|King Sejong the Great]] (1418–1450), one of the only two kings in Korea's history to earn the title of great in their posthumous titles, reclaimed Korean territory to the north and created the [[Hangul|Korean alphabet]].{{citation needed}}

During the end of the 16th century, Korea was invaded twice by Japan, first in 1592 and again in 1597. Japan failed both times due to Admiral [[Yi Sun-sin]], Korea's revered naval genius, who lead the Korean Navy using advanced metal clad ships called [[turtle ship]]s. Because the ships were armed with cannons, Admiral Yi's navy was able to demolish the Japanese invading fleets, destroying hundreds of ships in Japan's second invasion.<ref name=":1" /> During the 17th century, Korea was invaded again, this time by Manchurians, who would later take over China as the Qing Dynasty. In 1637, King [[Injo of Joseon|Injo]] was forced to surrender to the Qing forces, and was ordered to send princesses as concubines to the Qing Prince [[Dorgon]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|last=Wakeman|first=Frederic E.|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520048041|language=en|access-date=2018-07-27|archive-date=2016-04-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429100458/https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892|url-status=live}}</ref>

After invasions from Manchuria, Joseon enjoyed nearly 200 years of peace. However, whatever power the kingdom recovered during its isolation further waned as the 18th century came to a close, and Korea was faced with internal strife, power struggles, international pressure and rebellions at home. The Joseon dynasty declined rapidly in the late 19th century.{{citation needed}}

== South Asia ==
[[File:Islamic Gunpowder Empires.jpg|thumb|right|Map of the [[Gunpowder Empires]], the [[Mughal Empire]] being the orange one.]]

===Indian empires===
[[File:Shah Abbas the Great receiving the Mughal ambassador Khan’Alam in 1618.jpg|thumb|The [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] ambassador Khan'Alam in 1618 negotiating with [[Abbas I of Persia|Shah Abbas the Great]] of [[Safavid dynasty|Iran]]. ]]
On the [[Indian subcontinent]], the [[Lodi dynasty]] ruled over the [[Delhi Sultanate]] during its last phase. The dynasty founded by [[Bahlul Lodi]] ruled from 1451 to 1526. The dynasty's last ruler, Ibrahim Lodhi, was defeated and killed by [[Babur]] in the first [[Battle of Panipat (1526)|Battle of Panipat]]. The [[Vijayanagara Empire]] was based in the [[Deccan Plateau]], but its power was diminished after a major military defeat in 1565 by the [[Deccan sultanates]]. The empire is named after its capital city of [[Vijayanagara]].{{Citation needed}}

The rise of the [[Mughal Empire]] is usually dated from 1526, around the end of the Middle Ages. It was an [[Islamic state|Islamic]] [[Persianate]]<ref>{{cite book|last=L. Canfield|first=Robert|author2=Jonathan Haas|title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-521-52291-5|page=20}}</ref> imperial power that ruled most of the area as [[Hindustan]] by the late 17th and the early 18th centuries.<ref name="sscnet.ucla.edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/mughals.html|title=Manas: History and Politics, Mughals|access-date=2009-07-08|archive-date=2018-06-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621203057/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/mughals.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The empire dominated [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southwestern Asia]],<ref name="sscnet.ucla.edu" />
becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power,<ref name="Parthasarathi38">{{cite book |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |pages=39–45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38 |access-date=2019-10-15 |archive-date=2019-11-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121101302/https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38 |url-status=live }}</ref> with a nominal GDP that valued a quarter of world GDP, superior than the combination of [[Europe]]'s GDP.<ref name="books.google.com" /><ref name="harrison">{{cite book|title=Developing cultures: case studies|author=[[Lawrence Harrison (academic)|Lawrence E. Harrison]], [[Peter L. Berger]]|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2006|page=158|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RB0oAQAAIAAJ|isbn=978-0415952798|access-date=2020-05-26|archive-date=2020-06-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612234406/https://books.google.com/books?id=RB0oAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>
The "classic period" ended with the death of [[Mughal Empire|Mughal Emperor]] [[Aurangzeb]],<ref name="BBC">{{cite web|title=Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s)|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/mughalempire_1.shtml|work=bbc.co.uk|publisher=BBC|access-date=18 October 2010|location=London|at=Section 5: Aurangzeb|archive-date=10 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101110065723/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/mughalempire_1.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> although the dynasty continued for another 150 years. During this period, the Empire was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting the different regions. All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period which was characterised by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and architectural results. The [[Maratha Empire]] was located in the south west of present-day India and expanded greatly under the rule of the [[Peshwa]]s, the prime ministers of the Maratha empire. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] which halted imperial expansion and the empire was then divided into a confederacy of Maratha states.{{Citation needed}}

=== British and Dutch colonization ===

The development of [[New Imperialism]] saw the conquest of nearly all eastern hemisphere territories by colonial powers. The [[Company rule in India|commercial colonization of India]] commenced in 1757, after the [[Battle of Plassey]], when the [[Nawab of Bengal]] surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company,<ref>{{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2003|p=76}}</ref>{{Citation not found}} in 1765, when the company was granted the ''diwani'', or the right to collect revenue, in [[Bengal]] and [[Bihar]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Judith Margaret|title=Modern India: the origins of an Asian democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq7tAAAAMAAJ|year=1994|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-873112-2|page=46|access-date=2021-01-28|archive-date=2020-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815113830/https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq7tAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Peers|first=Douglas M.|title=India under colonial rule: 1700–1885|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6iNuAAAAMAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Pearson Education|isbn=978-0-582-31738-3|page=30|access-date=2021-01-28|archive-date=2020-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815000750/https://books.google.com/books?id=6iNuAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> or in 1772, when the company established a capital in [[Calcutta]], appointed its first [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]], [[Warren Hastings]], and became directly involved in governance.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Metcalf|first1=Barbara Daly|author-link1=Barbara D. Metcalf|last2=Metcalf|first2=Thomas R.|author-link2=Thomas R. Metcalf|title=A concise history of modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-86362-9|page=56|access-date=2021-01-28|archive-date=2021-02-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225220847/https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Robert Clive and Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey, 1757 by Francis Hayman.jpg|left|thumb|[[Robert Clive]] and [[Mir Jafar]] after the [[Battle of Plassey]], 1757 by Francis Hayman]]

The [[Maratha Empire|Maratha states]], following the [[Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)|Anglo-Maratha wars]], eventually lost to the [[British East India Company]] in 1818 with the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]]. The rule lasted until 1858, when, after the [[Indian rebellion of 1857]] and consequent of the [[Government of India Act 1858]], the [[India Office|British government]] assumed the task of directly administering India in the new [[British Raj]].<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/393/ |title = Official, India |website = [[World Digital Library]] |date = 1890–1923 |access-date = 2013-05-30 |archive-date = 2019-12-19 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191219213715/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/393/ |url-status = live }}</ref> In 1819, [[Stamford Raffles]] established [[Singapore]] as a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when an [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824|Anglo-Dutch treaty]] demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. From the 1850s onwards, the pace of colonization shifted to a significantly higher gear.

The [[Dutch East India Company]] (1800) and [[East India Company|British East India Company]] (1858) were dissolved by their respective governments, who took over the direct administration of the colonies. Only [[Thailand]] was never colonized by a European power, although, Thailand itself was also greatly affected by the power politics of the Western powers. Colonial rule had a profound effect on Southeast Asia. While the colonial powers profited much from the region's vast resources and large market, colonial rule did develop the region to a varying extent. Commercial agriculture, mining and an export based economy developed rapidly during this period.{{citation needed}}

== Southeast Asia ==
At the start of the modern era, the [[Spice Route]] between India and China crossed [[Majapahit]], an archipelagic empire based on the island of [[Java (island)|Java]]. It was the last of the major [[Hindu]] empires of [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] and is considered one of the greatest states in Indonesian history.<ref name="Ricklefs_19">M.C. Ricklefs, ''A History of Modern Indonesia Since {{circa}} 1300'', 2nd ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991. page 19</ref> Its influence extended to states in [[Sumatra]], the [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Borneo]] and eastern Indonesia, but the effectiveness of their exact influence is the subject of debate.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pigeaud |first1=Theodore G. Th. |chapter=Alphabetical Index of Subjects Treated in Volumes II–V |pages=29–46 |doi=10.1007/978-94-011-8778-7_3 |title=Java in the 14th Century: The Nāgara-Kěrtāgama by Rakawi Prapañca of Majapahit, 1365 A. D.. Glossary, General Index |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-011-8778-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Resink |first1=Gertrudes Johan |title=Indonesia's History Between the Myths: Essays in Legal History and Historical Theory |publisher=Van Hoeve |isbn=978-90-200-7468-0 |page=21 }}</ref> Majapahit found itself unable to control the rising power of the [[Sultanate of Malacca]], which grew to stretch from Muslim Malay settlements of Phuket, Satun and Pattani (bordering Ayutthaya) in the north to Sumatra in the southwest. The Portuguese invaded its capital in 1511 and in 1528 the [[Sultanate of Johor]] was established by a Malaccan prince to succeed Malacca.{{Citation needed}}

== Middle East and North Africa ==
{{Main|Timeline of 16th-century Muslim history|Timeline of 17th-century Muslim history|Timeline of 18th-century Muslim history}}{{Sources}}

=== Ottoman Empire ===
{{main|Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire|Transformation of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman ancien régime}}
[[File:Ottoman empire.svg|thumb|Ottoman Empire 1481–1683]]

During the early modern era, the [[Ottoman Empire]] enjoyed an [[growth of the Ottoman Empire|expansion and consolidation]] of power, leading to a ''[[Pax Ottomana]]''. This was perhaps the golden age of the empire. The Ottomans expanded southwest into North Africa while battling with the re-emergent [[Persia]]n Shi'a [[Safavid Empire]] to the east.

=== North Africa ===
In the Ottoman sphere, the Turks seized Egypt in 1517 and established the regencies of [[Ottoman Algeria|Algeria]], [[Ottoman Tunisia|Tunisia]], and [[Ottoman Tripolitania|Tripolitania]] (between 1519 and 1551), [[Morocco]] remaining an independent [[Arabized Berber]] state under the [[Saadi Sultanate|Sharifan dynasty]].

=== Safavid Iran ===
{{Main|Safavid Iran}}
The [[Safavid Empire]] was a great Shia [[Persianate society|Persianate empire]] after the Islamic conquest of Persia and established of Islam, marking an important point in the history of Islam in the east. The Safavid dynasty was founded about 1501. From their base in Ardabil, the Safavids established control over all of Persia and reasserted the Iranian identity of the region, thus becoming the first native dynasty since the [[Sassanids]] to establish a unified Iranian state. Problematic for the Safavids was the powerful Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans, a Sunni dynasty, fought several campaigns against the Safavids.

What fueled the growth of Safavid economy was its position between the burgeoning civilizations of Europe to its west and Islamic Central Asia to its east and north. The Silk Road, which led from Europe to East Asia, revived in the 16th century. Leaders also supported direct sea trade with Europe, particularly England and The Netherlands, which sought Persian carpet, silk, and textiles. Other exports were horses, goat hair, pearls, and an inedible bitter almond hadam-talka used as a spice in India. The main imports were spice, textiles (woolens from Europe, cotton from Gujarat), metals, coffee, and sugar. Despite their demise in 1722, the Safavids left their mark by establishing and spreading Shi'a Islam in major parts of the Caucasus and West Asia.

=== Uzbeks and Afghan Pashtuns ===
{{Main|Uzbeks|Pashtun people}}
In the 16th to early 18th centuries, [[Central Asia]] was under the rule of [[Uzbeks]], and the far eastern portions were ruled by the local [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]]. Between the 15th and 16th centuries, various nomadic tribes arrived from the steppes, including the [[Kipchaks]], [[Naimans]], [[Kangly]], [[Khongirad]], and [[Manghud]]s. These groups were led by [[Muhammad Shaybani]], who was the [[Khan (title)|Khan]] of the Uzbeks.

The lineage of the [[Afghan (name)|Afghan]] Pashtuns stretches back to the [[Hotaki]] dynasty.<ref name="US State Dept">[http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/bgnotes/sa/afghanistan9407.html Afghanistan: History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113054241/http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/bgnotes/sa/afghanistan9407.html }}, ''U.S. Department of State'' (retrieved 10 October 2006).</ref> Following Muslim Arab and Turkic conquests, Pashtun ''[[Ghazw|ghazis]]'' (warriors for the faith) invaded and conquered much of northern India during the [[Lodhi dynasty]] and [[Suri dynasty]]. Pashtun forces also invaded Persia, and the opposing forces were defeated in the [[Battle of Gulnabad]]. The Pashtuns later formed the [[Durrani Empire]].

== Europe ==
{{Main|Early Modern Europe}}
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; width:222px; text-align:left; clear:right;"
|<div style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"> European events and dates </div>
The beginning of the early modern period is not clear-cut, but is generally accepted as in the late 15th century or early 16th century. Significant dates in this transitional phase from medieval to early modern Europe can be noted:
* 1415 – [[Conquest of Ceuta]] by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]]
* 1444 – [[Johannes Gutenberg]]'s [[Movable type]]
* 1453 – Conquest of [[Constantinople]] by the [[Ottomans]]
* 1485 – England's last [[Plantagenet]] king, [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] dies
* 1486 – [[Giovanni Pico della Mirandola]] publishes his "900 Theses"
* 1492 – [[Christopher Columbus]] leads a Spanish fleet to America.
* 1494 – French king [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] invaded Italy
* 1498 – A Portuguese fleet, led by [[Vasco da Gama]], arrives in [[India]]
* 1517 – [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] begins with [[Martin Luther]]
* 1519 – [[First circumnavigation of the globe]], by the Portuguese explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]]
* 1532 – [[Machiavelli]]'s ''[[The Prince]]''
* 1543 – [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]'s ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium|De revolutionibus]]''
* 1545 – [[Council of Trent]] is convened
* 1648 – [[Peace of Westphalia]] ends the [[Thirty Years War]].
|}
[[File:Ferdinand Pauwels - Luther hammers his 95 theses to the door.jpg|thumb|upright|Ferdinand Pauwels – [[Martin Luther]] hammers his [[Ninety-five Theses|95 theses]] to the door|alt=]]

Many major events caused [[Europe]] to change around the start of the 16th century, starting with the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, the fall of [[Muslim Spain]] and the discovery of the [[Americas]] in 1492, and [[Martin Luther]]'s [[Protestant Reformation]] in 1517. In [[England]] the modern period is often dated to the start of the [[Tudor period]] with the victory of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] over [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] at the [[Battle of Bosworth]] in 1485.<ref>Helen Miller, Aubrey Newman. ''Early modern British history, 1485–1760: a select bibliography'', [[Historical Association]], 1970</ref><ref>[http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu/rul/rr_gateway/research_guides/history/texts_by_period.shtml#emp ''Early Modern Period (1485–1800)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306004416/http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu/rul/rr_gateway/research_guides/history/texts_by_period.shtml#emp }}, Sites Organized by Period, [[Rutgers University]] Libraries</ref> Early modern European history is usually seen to span from the start of the 15th century, through the [[Age of Enlightenment]] in the 17th and 18th centuries, until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century.

The early modern period is taken to end with the [[French Revolution]], the [[Napoleonic Wars]], and the [[Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire]] at the [[Congress of Vienna]]. At the end of the early modern period, the [[Second British Empire|British]] and [[Russian Empire|Russian]] empires had emerged as world powers from the multipolar contest of [[colonial empires]], while the three great [[Asia]]n empires of the early modern period, [[stagnation of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkey]], [[Mughal Empire#Decline|Mughal India]] and [[Qing China#Reigns of the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors|Qing China]], all entered a period of stagnation or decline.

=== Renaissance vs. early modern period ===
{{Unreferenced section}}
The expression "early modern" is at times used as a substitute for the term [[Renaissance]]. However, "Renaissance" is properly used in relation to a diverse series of cultural developments that occurred over several hundred years in many different parts of Europe—especially central and northern Italy—and it spans the transition from late [[medieval]] civilization to the opening of the early modern period. In the visual arts and architecture, the term "early modern" is not a common designation as the Renaissance period is clearly distinct from what came later. Only in the study of literature is the early modern period a standard designation ([[early modern literature]]). European music of the period is generally divided between [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]] and [[Baroque music|Baroque]]. Similarly, philosophy is divided between [[Renaissance philosophy]] and [[the Enlightenment]]. In other fields, there is far more continuity through the period such as [[gunpowder warfare|warfare]] and [[History of science|science]].

=== Gunpowder and firearms ===
{{See|Military Revolution}}
When gunpowder was introduced to Europe, it was immediately used almost exclusively in weapons and explosives for warfare. Though it was invented in China, gunpowder arrived in Europe already formulated for military use and European countries took advantage of it and were the first to create the classic firearms.<ref name=":0" /> The advances made in gunpowder and firearms was directly tied to the decline in the use of plate armor because of the inability of the armor to protect one from bullets. The musket was able to penetrate all forms of armor available at the time, making armor obsolete, and as a consequence the heavy musket as well. Although there is relatively little to no difference in design between [[arquebus]] and musket except in size and strength, it was the term ''musket'' which remained in use up into the 1800s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chase |first=Kenneth |year=2003 |title=Firearms: A Global History to 1700 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82274-9|page=61}}</ref>

=== European kingdoms and movements ===
In the early modern period, the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was a union of territories in Central Europe under a [[Holy Roman Emperor]] the first of which was [[Otto I]]. The last was [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]], who [[abdication|abdicated]] and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. Despite its name, for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders.

The [[Renaissance]] was a cultural movement that began in the 14th century,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=renaissance&searchmode=none|title=Online Etymology Dictionary|access-date=2009-07-08|archive-date=2017-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629033330/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=renaissance&searchmode=none|url-status=live}}</ref> beginning in Italy in the [[Late Middle Ages]] and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term. As a cultural movement, it encompassed a rebellion of learning based on [[Classical antiquity|classical]] sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform.

==== Notable individuals ====
[[File:Press -Bettman.jpg|thumb|left|Gutenberg reviewing a press proof (a colored engraving created probably in the 19th century)]]

[[Johannes Gutenberg]] is credited as the first European to use [[movable type]] [[printing]], around 1439, and as the global inventor of the mechanical [[printing press]]. [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] formulated a comprehensive [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] [[cosmology]] (1543), which displaced the [[Earth]] from the center of the universe.<ref>A Greek mathematician, [[Aristarchus of Samos]], had already discussed heliocentric hypotheses as early as the third century BCE. However, there is little evidence that he ever developed his ideas beyond a very basic outline [[#Reference-Dreyer-1953|(Dreyer, 1953]], [https://archive.org/stream/historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/134/mode/2up pp. 135–148]; [[#Reference-Linton-2004|Linton, 2004, p. 39)]].</ref> His book, ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]'' (''On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres'') began modern [[astronomy]] and sparked the [[Scientific Revolution]]. Another notable individual was [[Machiavelli]], an Italian political philosopher, considered a founder of modern [[political science]]. Machiavelli is most famous for a short political treatise, [[The Prince]], a work of [[Political realism|realist]] [[political theory]]. The Swiss [[Paracelsus]] (1493–1541) is associated with a medical revolution<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wexler |first1=Philip |title=Toxicology in the Middle Ages and Renaissance |year= 2017 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-809559-1 |page=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttB1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072345/https://books.google.com/books?id=ttB1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |url-status=live }}</ref> while the Anglo-Irish [[Robert Boyle]] was one of the founders of modern chemistry.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Levere |first1=Trevor H. |title=Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball |year=2001 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-6610-4 |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tnos3wua2cIC&pg=PA14 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072357/https://books.google.com/books?id=tnos3wua2cIC&pg=PA14 |url-status=live }}</ref> In visual arts, notable representatives included the "three giants of the High Renaissance", namely [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Michelangelo]], and [[Raphael]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Corrain |first1=Lucia |title=The Art of the Renaissance |publisher=The Oliver Press, Inc. |isbn=978-1-934545-04-1 |page=28 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pupv8gNWvIC&pg=PA28 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2022-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072353/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pupv8gNWvIC&pg=PA28 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Albrecht Dürer]] (often considered the greatest artist of Northern Renaissance),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Strickland |first1=Carol |last2=Boswell |first2=John |title=The Annotated Mona Lisa: A Crash Course in Art History from Prehistoric to Post-Modern |year= 2007 |publisher=Andrews McMeel Publishing |isbn=978-0-7407-6872-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n39T-zRGI90C&pg=PA42 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072356/https://books.google.com/books?id=n39T-zRGI90C&pg=PA42 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Titian]] from the [[Venetian painting|Venetian school]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Celinscak |first1=Mark |last2=Hutt |first2=Curtis |title=Artistic Representations of Suffering: Rights, Resistance, and Remembrance |year= 2021 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-5381-5292-8 |page=61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQZAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072354/https://books.google.com/books?id=OQZAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Peter Paul Rubens]] of the Flemish Baroque traditions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Carl |first1=Klaus H. |last2=Manca |first2=Joseph |last3=McShane |first3=Megan |title=30 Millennia of Painting |year= 2016 |publisher=Parkstone International |isbn=978-1-68325-359-4 |page=412 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qlFBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA412 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215080417/https://books.google.com/books?id=qlFBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA412 |url-status=live }}</ref> Famous composers included [[Guillaume Du Fay]], [[Heinrich Isaac]], [[Josquin des Prez]], [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]], [[Claudio Monteverdi]], [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sporre |first1=Dennis J. |title=The Creative Impulse: An Introduction to the Arts |publisher=Prentice-Hall |isbn=978-0-13-189754-0 |page=283 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2T7KARr7XgC |access-date=16 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=16 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216194238/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2T7KARr7XgC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Barrie |title=The Hutchinson Concise Dictionary of Music |year= 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-95018-7 |page=478 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoa3AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA438 |access-date=16 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=16 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216194238/https://books.google.com/books?id=zoa3AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA438 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Among the notable royalty of the time was [[Charles the Bold]] (1433–1477), the last [[House of Valois|Valois]] [[Duke of Burgundy]], known as ''Charles the Bold (or Rash)'' to his enemies,<ref>The title was derived from his savage behavior against his enemies, and particularly from a war with France in late 1471: frustrated by the refusal of the French to engage in open battle, and angered by French attacks on his unprotected borders in Hainault and Flanders, Charles marched his army back from the Ile-de-France to Burgundian territory, burning over two thousand towns, villages and castles on his way—Taylor, Aline S. ''Isabel of Burgundy''. Lanham, Md: Madison Books, c2001, pp. 212–213</ref> His early death was a pivotal moment in European history.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wingfield |first1=George |title=Belgium |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-0486-7 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AR1TpY1wcCMC&pg=PA31 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215075041/https://books.google.com/books?id=AR1TpY1wcCMC&pg=PA31 |url-status=live }}</ref> Charles has often been regarded as the last representative of the feudal spirit,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mead |first1=Walter Russell |title=God and Gold: Britain, America and the Making of the Modern World |year=2014 |publisher=Atlantic Books |isbn=978-1-78239-600-0 |page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sn7oAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT90 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072400/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sn7oAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT90 |url-status=live }}</ref> although in administrative affairs, he introduced remarkable modernizing innovations.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cartellieri |first1=Otto |title=The Court of Burgundy |year= 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-20406-7 |page=80 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQxUAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072353/https://books.google.com/books?id=vQxUAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Vaughan |first1=Richard |last2=Paravicini |first2=Werner |title=Charles the Bold: The Last Valois Duke of Burgundy |publisher=Boydell Press |isbn=978-0-85115-918-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GsKuCHXRuPMC&pg=PA97 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072359/https://books.google.com/books?id=GsKuCHXRuPMC&pg=PA97 |url-status=live }}</ref> Upon his death, Charles left an unmarried nineteen-year-old daughter, [[Mary of Burgundy]], as his heir. Her marriage would have enormous implications for the political balance of Europe. [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]] secured the match for his son, the future [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]], with the aid of Mary's stepmother, Margaret. In 1477, the territory of the [[Duchy of Burgundy]] was annexed by France. In the same year, Mary married Maximilian, [[Archduke of Austria]]. A conflict between the Burgundian side (Maximilian brought with himself almost no resources from the Empire<ref>{{cite book |last1=Berenger |first1=Jean |last2=Simpson |first2=C. A. |title=A History of the Habsburg Empire 1273–1700 |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-89570-1 |page=124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWQSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301025504/https://books.google.com/books?id=rWQSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |url-status=live }}</ref>) and France ensued, culminating in the [[Treaty of Senlis]](1493) which gave the majority of Burgundian inheritance to the Habsburg (Mary already died in 1482).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gunn |first1=Steven |last2=Grummitt |first2=David |last3=Cools |first3=Hans |title=War, State, and Society in England and the Netherlands 1477–1559 |year= 2007 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-152588-9 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KQtREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072359/https://books.google.com/books?id=KQtREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 |url-status=live }}</ref> The rise of the Habsburg dynasty was a prime factor in the spreading of the Renaissance.{{sfn|Johnson|2013|p=78}}

In Central Europe, King [[Matthias Corvinus]] (1443–1490), a notable nation builder, conqueror (Hungary in his time was the most powerful in Central Europe<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ring |first1=Trudy |last2=Watson |first2=Noelle |last3=Schellinger |first3=Paul |title=Northern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-63944-9 |page=126 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yfPYAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA126 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072356/https://books.google.com/books?id=yfPYAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA126 |url-status=live }}</ref>) and patron, was the first who introduced the Renaissance outside of Italy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vagnoni |first1=Mirko |title=Royal Divine Coronation Iconography in the Medieval Euro-Mediterranean Area |year= 2020 |publisher=MDPI |isbn=978-3-03943-751-1 |page=19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J-oOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072357/https://books.google.com/books?id=J-oOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Paul |title=The Renaissance |year= 2013 |publisher=Orion |isbn=978-1-78022-716-0 |page=78 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUmqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT78 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072349/https://books.google.com/books?id=wUmqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT78 |url-status=live }}</ref> In military area, he introduced the [[Black Army of Hungary|Black Army]], one of the first standing armies in Europe and a remarkably modern force.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Morrison |first1=Elspeth |title=The Dorothy Dunnett Companion: Volume II |year= 2007 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-307-42844-8 |page=245 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qLW7atYX8sC&pg=PA245 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072354/https://books.google.com/books?id=9qLW7atYX8sC&pg=PA245 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bulliet |first1=Richard W. |title=The Wheel: Inventions and Reinventions |year= 2016 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-54061-2 |page=159 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x341CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072352/https://books.google.com/books?id=x341CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Some noblemen from the generation that lived during this period have been attributed the moniker "the last knight", with the most notable being the above mentioned Maximilian I (1459–1519),<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Terjanian |editor-first1=Pierre |title=The Last Knight: The Art, Armor, and Ambition of Maximilian I |year= 2019 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-1-58839-674-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X-anDwAAQBAJ |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072358/https://books.google.com/books?id=X-anDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard|Chevalier de Bayard]](1476–1524),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gal |first1=Stéphane |last2=Bayard |first2=Amis de |title=Bayard: histoires croisées du chevalier |publisher=Presses universitaires de Grenoble |isbn=978-2-7061-1420-5 |page=75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mtlnAAAAMAAJ |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=fr |archive-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201092719/https://books.google.com/books?id=MTlnAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Franz von Sickingen]](1481–1523)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Arbeitsgemeinschaft Kreis Kaiserslautern, Historischer Verein der Pfalz |title=Jahrbuch zur Geschichte von Stadt und Landkreis Kaiserslautern |publisher=Arbeitsgemeinschaft Kreis Kaiserslautern, Historischer Verein der Pfalz |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LDdFAAAAMAAJ |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=de |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072350/https://books.google.com/books?id=LDdFAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Götz von Berlichingen]](1480–1562).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Durian-Ress |first1=Saskia |title=Badische Burgen aus romantischer Sicht: Auswahl aus den Beständen des Augustinermuseums |publisher=Rombach |isbn=978-3-7930-0678-7 |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S15IAQAAIAAJ |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=de |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072346/https://books.google.com/books?id=S15IAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Maximilian (although Claude Michaud opines that he could claim "last knight" status by virtue of being the last medieval epic poet.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Michaud |first1=Claude |title=Hispania- Austria. Die Katholischen Könige, Maximilian I. und die Anfänge der Casa de Austria in Spanien/Los Reyes Catolicos, Maximiliano I. y los inicios de la Casa de Austria en España |journal=Revue d'Histoire Moderne & Contemporaine |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=371–373 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhmc_0048-8003_1996_num_43_2_1824_t1_0371_0000_1 |access-date=16 February 2022 |archive-date=16 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216194238/https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhmc_0048-8003_1996_num_43_2_1824_t1_0371_0000_1 |url-status=live }}</ref>) was actually a chief modernizing force of the time (whose reform initiatives led to Europe-wide revolutions in the areas of warfare<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brunner |first1=Jean-Claude |title=Historical Introduction |journal=Medieval Warfare |volume=2 |issue=Vol. 2, No. 3, "The revival of infantry tactics in the Late Middle Ages (2012)" |pages=6–9 |jstor=48578016 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48578016 |access-date=15 February 2022 |archive-date=24 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924090025/https://www.jstor.org/stable/48578016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Kersken/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Axelrod |first1=Alan |title=Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies |publisher=CQ Press |isbn=978-1483364674 |page=124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lX9ZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT124 |access-date=20 September 2021 |archive-date=26 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926204224/https://books.google.com/books?id=lX9ZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT124 |url-status=live }}</ref> and communications,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Metzig |first1=Gregor |title=Kommunikation und Konfrontation: Diplomatie und Gesandtschaftswesen Kaiser Maximilians I. (1486–1519) |year=2016 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-11-045673-8 |pages=98, 99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MiyXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 |access-date=15 February 2022 |language=de |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228153214/https://books.google.com/books?id=MiyXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor#Legacy|among others]]), who broke the back of the knight class (causing many to become robber barons)<ref name=Kersken>{{cite episode |last= Kersken|first=Uwe |year=2014 |title=Die letzten ihrer Art |series=Die Welt der Ritter |network=Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen(zdf)}}</ref> and had personal conflicts with the three other men on the matter of the knight's status.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Turnbull |first1=Stephen |title=The Art of Renaissance Warfare: From The Fall of Constantinople to the Thirty Years War |year= 2018 |publisher=Casemate Publishers |isbn=978-1-5267-1377-3 |page=175 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=adhgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP175 |access-date=27 January 2022 |language=en |archive-date=27 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127080044/https://books.google.com/books?id=adhgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP175 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ninness |first1=Richard J. |title=German Imperial Knights: Noble Misfits between Princely Authority and the Crown, 1479–1648 |year= 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-28504-8 |pages=65, 91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T4wEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT91 |access-date= |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072352/https://books.google.com/books?id=T4wEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT91 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Kersken/>

[[File:Hanging houses in Cuenca Spain.jpg|thumb|15th century Hanging Houses in [[Cuenca, Spain|Cuenca]], [[Spain]] from the [[Early Renaissance]], and the Early modern period.]]{{Sources}}
[[Claude de Lorraine]] was the first [[Duke of Guise]], from 1528 to his death. Claude distinguished himself at the [[battle of Marignano]] (1515), and was long in recovering from the twenty-two wounds he received in the battle. In 1521, he fought at [[Fuenterrabia]], and [[Louise of Savoy]] ascribed the capture of the place to his efforts. In 1523 he became governor of [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]] and [[Burgundy (region)|Burgundy]], after defeating at [[Neufchâteau, Vosges|Neufchâteau]] the [[Holy Roman Empire|imperial]] troops who had invaded this province. In 1525 he destroyed the [[Anabaptist]] [[German Peasants' War|peasant army]], which was overrunning [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]], at [[Lupstein]], near [[Saverne]] (Zabern). On the return of Francis I from captivity in 1528, Claude was made Duke of Guise in the [[peerage of France]], though up to this time only princes of the royal house had held the title of duke and peer of France. The Guises, as cadets of the sovereign house of Lorraine and descendants of the [[House of Valois-Anjou|house of Anjou]], claimed precedence of the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] princes of [[Prince of Condé|Condé]] and [[Prince of Conti|Conti]].

The [[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba|3rd Duke of Alba]] was a nobleman of importance in the early modern period, nicknamed the "Iron Duke" by the Protestants of the [[Low Countries]] because of his harsh rule and cruelty. Tales of atrocities committed during his military operations in [[Flanders]] became part of Dutch and English folklore, forming a central component of the [[Spanish Black Legend]].

In England, [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] was the [[King of England]] and a significant figure in the history of the [[English monarchy]]. Although in the greater part of his reign he brutally suppressed the influence of the [[Protestant Reformation]] in England (see also [[William Tyndale|''Martyrdom of William Tyndale''.]]) a movement having some roots with [[John Wycliffe]] in the 14th century, he is more popularly known for his political struggles with [[Roman Catholic Church|Rome]]. These struggles ultimately led to the separation of the [[Church of England]] from papal authority, the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], and establishing himself as the [[Supreme Head of the Church of England]]. Though Henry reportedly became a Protestant on his death-bed, he advocated Catholic ceremony and doctrine throughout his life. Royal support for the [[English Reformation]] began with his heirs, the devout [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] and the renowned [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], whilst daughter [[Mary I of England|Mary I]] temporarily reinstated papal authority over England. Henry also oversaw the legal union of England and [[Wales]] with the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542]]. He is also noted for his [[Wives of Henry VIII|six wives]], two of whom were [[Decapitation|beheaded]].

=== Christians and Christendom ===
[[File:Johann Sebastian Bach - Mass in B minor - Agnus Dei.ogg|right|thumb|Johann Sebastian Bach – Mass in B minor – Agnus Dei, From 1724]]
{{Main|History of Christianity|Christendom}}

Christianity was challenged at the beginning of the modern period with the [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453 and later by various movements to reform the church (including Lutheran, Zwinglian, and Calvinist), followed by the [[Counter Reformation]].

==== End of the Crusades and unity ====
[[File:Anonym Entsatz Wien 1683.jpg|thumb|[[Battle of Vienna]], 12 September 1683]]{{Sources}}
The [[Hussite Wars|Hussite Crusades]] involved the military actions against and amongst the followers of [[Jan Hus]] in [[Bohemia#Hussite Bohemia|Bohemia]] ending ultimately with the [[Battle of Grotniki]]. Also known as the Hussite Wars, they were arguably the first European war in which hand-held gunpowder weapons such as [[musket]]s made a decisive contribution. The [[Taborite]] faction of the [[Hussite]] warriors were basically infantry, and their many defeats of larger armies with heavily armored knights helped effect the infantry revolution. In totality, the Hussite Crusades were inconclusive.

The last crusade, the ''Crusade of 1456'', was organized to counter the expanding Ottoman Empire and lift the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|Siege of Belgrade]], and was led by [[John Hunyadi]] and [[Giovanni da Capistrano]]. The siege eventually escalated into a major battle, during which Hunyadi led a sudden counterattack that overran the Turkish camp, ultimately compelling the wounded Sultan Mehmet II to lift the siege and retreat. The siege of Belgrade has been characterized as having "decided the fate of [[Christendom]]".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/bluedot/belgrade.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413030956/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/bluedot/belgrade.html|url-status=dead|title=Pope Calixtus III account from 1456 to the Burgundian bishop talking about the savior of Christianity at Belgrade|archivedate=April 13, 2009}}</ref> The [[noon bell]] ordered by [[Pope Callixtus III]] commemorates the victory throughout the [[Christian world]] to this day.

Nearly a hundred years later, the [[Peace of Augsburg]] officially ended the idea that all Christians could be united under one church. The principle of ''[[cuius regio, eius religio]]'' ("whose the region is, [it shall have] his religion") established the religious, political and geographic divisions of Christianity, and this was established in [[international law]] with the [[Treaty of Westphalia]] in 1648, which legally ended the concept of a single Christian [[hegemony]], i.e. the "One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church" of the [[Nicene Creed]]. Each government determined the religion of their own state. Christians living in states where their denomination was ''not'' the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will. With the Treaty of Westphalia, the [[European wars of religion|Wars of Religion]] came to an end, and in the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] of 1713 the concept of the [[national sovereignty|sovereign national state]] was born. The ''Corpus Christianum'' has since existed with the modern idea of a tolerant and diverse society consisting of many different communities.

==== Inquisitions and Reformations ====
{{Main|Spanish Inquisition|Protestant Reformation|Inquisition|Catholic Reformation}}{{Sources}}The modern [[Inquisition]] refers to any one of several institutions charged with trying and convicting [[Christian heresy|heretics]] (or other offenders against [[canon law]]) within the Catholic Church. In the modern era, the first manifestation was the [[Spanish Inquisition]] of 1478 to 1834.<ref name="fordhaminquisition">{{Cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/inquisition1.html |title=Medieval Sourcebook: Inquisition – Introduction |access-date=2009-07-08 |archive-date=2014-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814182705/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/inquisition1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Inquisition prosecuted individuals accused of a wide array of crimes related to heresy, including [[Magic (paranormal)|sorcery]],{{NoteTag|This also includes [[Maleficium (sorcery)|black magic (Maleficium)]].}} [[blasphemy]], [[Judaizing]] and [[witchcraft]], as well for [[censorship]] of printed literature. Because of its objective—combating heresy—the Inquisition had jurisdiction only over baptized members of the Church (which, however, encompassed the vast majority of the population in Catholic countries). Secular courts could still try non-Christians for blasphemy (most of the [[witch trials]] went through secular courts).
[[File:Massysm Quentin — The Moneylender and his Wife — 1514.jpg|thumb|Bourgeoisie takes more and more importance throughout the modern era.]]

The [[Protestant Reformation]] and rise of [[modernity]] in the early 16th century entailed the start of a series of changes in the ''[[Corpus Christianum]]''. [[Martin Luther]] challenged the Catholic Church with his [[Ninety-five Theses]], generally accepted as the beginning of the Reformation, a Christian reform movement in Europe, though precursors such as [[Jan Hus]] predate him. The Protestant movement of the 16th century occurred under the protection of the [[Electorate of Saxony]], an independent hereditary [[Prince-elector|electorate]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The Elector [[Frederick III, Elector of Saxony|Frederick III]] established a [[Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg|university at Wittenberg]] in 1502. The [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] friar Martin Luther became professor of philosophy there in 1508. At the same time, he became one of the preachers at the castle church of Wittenberg.

On 31 October 1517, Luther posted his ''Ninety-five Theses'' on the door of the [[All Saints' Church, Wittenberg|All Saints' Church]], which served as a notice board for university-related announcements.<ref name="Simon-120-121">{{cite book |first=Edith |last=Simon |title=Great Ages of Man: The Reformation |pages=[https://archive.org/details/makingprogressth0000unse/page/120 120–121] |publisher=Time-Life Books |year=1966 |isbn=978-0-662-27820-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/makingprogressth0000unse/page/120 }}</ref> These were points for debate that criticized the Church and the Pope. The most controversial points centered on the practice of selling [[indulgence]]s (especially by [[Johann Tetzel]]) and the Church's policy on [[purgatory]]. The reform movement soon split along certain doctrinal lines. Religious disagreements between various leading figures led to the emergence of rival Protestant churches. The most important [[Christian denomination|denominations]] to emerge directly from the Reformation were the [[Lutheran]]s, and the [[Reformed tradition|Reformed]]/[[Calvinist]]s/[[Presbyterian]]s. The process of reform had decidedly different causes and effects in other countries. In England, where it gave rise to [[Anglicanism]], the period became known as the [[English Reformation]]. Subsequent Protestant denominations generally trace their roots back to the initial reforming movements.

The [[Diet of Worms]] in 1521, presided by Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], declared Martin Luther a heretic and an outlaw (although Charles V was more preoccupied with maintaining his vast empire than with arresting Luther). As a result of Charles V's distractions in East Europe and in Spain, he agreed through the [[Diet of Speyer (1526)|Diet of Speyer]] in 1526 to allow German princes to effectively decide themselves whether to enforce the Edict of Worms or not, for the time being. After returning to the empire, Charles V attended the [[Diet of Augsburg]] in 1530 to order all Protestants in the empire to revert to Catholicism. In response, the Protestant territories in and around Germany formed the [[Schmalkaldic League]] to fight against the Catholic Holy Roman Empire. Charles V left again to handle the advance of the Ottoman Turks. He returned in 1547 to launch a military campaign against the Schmalkaldic League and to issue an imperial law requiring all Protestants to return to Catholic practices (with a few superficial concessions to Protestant practices). Warfare ended when Charles V relented in the [[Peace of Passau]] (1552) and in the [[Peace of Augsburg]] (1555), which formalized the law that the rulers of a land decide its religion.

Of the late Inquisitions in the modern era, there were two different manifestations:<ref name="fordhaminquisition" />
# the [[Portuguese Inquisition]] (1536–1821)
# the [[Roman Inquisition]] (1542–{{circa}}1860)
This Portuguese inquisition was a local analogue of the more famous Spanish Inquisition. The Roman Inquisition covered most of the [[Italian peninsula]] as well as [[Malta]] and also existed in isolated pockets of papal jurisdiction in other parts of Europe, including [[Avignon]].

The [[Catholic Reformation]] began in 1545 when the [[Council of Trent]] was called in reaction to the ''Protestant Rebellion''. The idea was to reform the state of worldliness and disarray that had befallen some of the [[Catholic clergy|clergy of the Church]], while reaffirming the spiritual authority of the Catholic Church and its position as the sole true [[Church of Christ]] on Earth. The effort sought to prevent further damage to the Church and her faithful at the hands of the newly formed [[Protestant denomination]]s.

==== Tsardom of Russia ====
{{Main|Tsardom of Russia}}

In development of the [[Third Rome]] ideas, the Grand Duke [[Ivan IV]] (the "Awesome"<ref>Frank D. McConnell. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rqhZAAAAMAAJ&q=%22ivan+the+awesome%22 Storytelling and Mythmaking: Images from Film and Literature.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521233257/https://books.google.com/books?id=rqhZAAAAMAAJ&q=%22ivan+the+awesome%22 }} [[Oxford University Press]], 1979. {{ISBN|0-19-502572-5}}; Quote from p. 78: "But Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible, or as the Russian has it, ''Ivan Groznyi'', "Ivan the Magnificent" or "Ivan the Awesome", is precisely a man who has become a legend"</ref> or "the Terrible") was officially crowned the first [[Tsar]] ("[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]") of Russia in 1547. The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws ([[Sudebnik of 1550]]), established the first Russian feudal representative body ([[Zemsky Sobor]]) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Solovyov, S.|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|pages=562–604|volume=6|isbn=978-5-17-002142-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Skrynnikov, R.|title=Ivan the Terrible|publisher=Academic Intl Pr|year=1981|page=[https://archive.org/details/ivanterrible0000skry/page/219 219]|isbn=978-0-87569-039-1|url=https://archive.org/details/ivanterrible0000skry/page/219}}</ref> During his long reign, Ivan IV nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates (parts of disintegrated [[Golden Horde]]): [[Khanate of Kazan|Kazan]] and [[Astrakhan Khanate|Astrakhan]] along the Volga River, and [[Sibirean Khanate]] in South Western Siberia. Thus by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a [[multiethnic]], multiconfessional and [[transcontinental state]].

Russia experienced territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of [[Cossacks]]. Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling [[pirates]] and [[pioneers of the New World]]. The native land of the Cossacks is defined by a line of Russian/Ruthenian town-fortresses located on the border with the [[Eurasian Steppe|steppe]] and stretching from the middle Volga to Ryazan and Tula, then breaking abruptly to the south and extending to the Dnieper via Pereyaslavl. This area was settled by a population of free people practicing various trades and crafts.
[[File:Repin Cossacks.jpg|left|thumb|[[Cossacks]] became the backbone of the early Russian Army.]]
In 1648, the peasants of [[Ukraine]] joined the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] in rebellion against Poland–Lithuania during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]], because of the social and religious oppression they suffered under Polish rule. In 1654 the Ukrainian leader, [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]], offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar, [[Aleksey I]]. Aleksey's acceptance of this offer led to another [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)]]. Finally, Ukraine was split along the river [[Dnieper]], leaving the western part (or [[Right-bank Ukraine]]) under Polish rule and eastern part ([[Left-bank Ukraine]] and [[Kiev]]) under Russian. Later, in 1670–71 the [[Don Cossacks]] led by [[Stenka Razin]] initiated a major uprising in the Volga region, but the Tsar's troops were successful in defeating the rebels. In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of the huge territories of Siberia was led mostly by Cossacks hunting for valuable [[fur]]s and [[ivory]]. [[Russian explorers]] pushed eastward primarily along the [[Siberian river routes]], and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in the Eastern Siberia, on the [[Chukchi Peninsula]], along the [[Amur River]], and on the Pacific coast. In 1648 the [[Bering Strait]] between Asia and North America was passed for the first time by [[Fedot Popov]] and [[Semyon Dezhnyov]].{{Citation needed}}

=== Discovery and trade ===
[[File:Cantino planisphere (1502).jpg|thumb|right|The [[Cantino planisphere]] (1502), the oldest surviving Portuguese nautical chart showing the results of the explorations of [[Vasco da Gama]] to India, [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] to Central America, [[Gaspar Corte-Real]] to Newfoundland and [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] to Brazil. The meridian of [[Tordesillas]], separating the Portuguese and Spanish halves of the world is also depicted]]
The [[Age of Discovery]] was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning capitalism in Europe. They also were in search of trading goods such as gold, silver and [[spices]]. In the process, Europeans encountered peoples and mapped lands previously unknown to them. This factor in the early European modern period was a [[proto-globalization|globalizing]] character; the 'discovery' of the Americas and the rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe was an important historical event.{{Citation needed}}

The search for new routes was based on the fact that the [[Silk Road]] was controlled by the Ottoman Empire, which was an impediment to European commercial interests, and other Eastern trade routes were not available to the Europeans due to Muslim control. The ability to outflank the Muslim states of North Africa was seen as crucial to European survival. At the same time, the Iberians learnt much from their Arab neighbors. The northwestern region of [[Eurasia]] has a very long coastline, and has arguably been more influenced by its ''[[maritime history]]'' than any other continent. Europe is uniquely situated between several navigable seas, and intersected by navigable rivers running into them in a way that greatly facilitated the influence of maritime traffic and commerce. In the [[maritime history of Europe]], the carrack and caravel both incorporated the [[lateen sail]] that made ships far more maneuverable. By translating the Arab versions of lost [[History of geography#Greco-Roman world|ancient Greek geographical works]] into Latin, European navigators acquired a deeper knowledge of the shape of Africa and Asia.{{Citation needed}}

==== Mercantile capitalism ====
{{Main|Mercantilism|Merchant capitalism}}

[[Mercantilism]] was the dominant school of economic thought throughout the early modern period (from the 16th to the 18th century). This led to some of the first instances of significant government intervention and control over the economy, and it was during this period that much of the modern capitalist system was established. Internationally, mercantilism encouraged the many European wars of the period and fueled European imperialism. Belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late 18th century, as the arguments of Adam Smith and the other classical economists won out.{{Citation needed}}

The [[Commercial Revolution]] was a period of economic expansion, [[colonialism]], and mercantilism that lasted from approximately the 16th century until the early 18th century. Beginning with the [[Crusades]], Europeans rediscovered spices, silks, and other commodities rare in Europe. This development created a new desire for trade, which expanded in the second half of the [[Middle Ages]]. European nations, through [[Age of Discovery|voyages of discovery]], were looking for new trade routes in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which allowed the European powers to build vast, new [[international trade]] networks. Nations also sought new sources of wealth. To deal with this new-found wealth, new economic theories and practices were created. Because of competing national interest, nations had the desire for increased world power through their colonial empires. The Commercial Revolution is marked by an increase in general commerce, and in the growth of non-manufacturing pursuits, such as banking, insurance, and investing.{{Citation needed}}

===== Trade and the new economy =====
In the [[Old World]], the most desired trading goods were gold, silver, and [[spice]]s. Western Europeans used the [[compass]], new [[sailing ship]] technologies, new maps, and advances in astronomy to seek a viable [[trade route]] to Asia for valuable spices that Mediterranean powers could not contest.
{|align="center" class="toccolours"
! style="background:#f8eaba;"| Desired trading goods
|-
|
<gallery>
File:Native gold nuggets.jpg|Gold fueled European exploration of the Americas. Explorers reported [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] in [[Central America]], [[Peru]], [[Ecuador]] and [[Colombia]] were to have had large amounts.
File:SilverUSGOV.jpg|Silver, valued as a [[precious metal]], has been used to make expensive [[decorative arts|ornaments]], fine [[jewelry]], high-value [[tableware]] and utensils ([[Silver (household)|silverware]]), and [[currency coin]]s.
File:Indianspicesherbs.jpg|Spices were among the most luxurious products, the most common being [[black pepper]], [[cinnamon]] (and the cheaper alternative [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|cassia]]), [[cumin]], [[nutmeg]], [[ginger]] and [[clove]]s.
</gallery>
|-
|}
In terms of shipping advances, the most important developments were the creation of the [[carrack]] and [[caravel]] designs in [[Portugal]]. These vessels evolved from [[post-classical age|medieval]] European designs from the North Sea and both the Christian and Islamic Mediterranean. They were the first ships that could leave the relatively placid and calm [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] or [[North Sea]] and sail safely on the open [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]]. When the [[carrack]] and then the [[caravel]] were developed in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], European thoughts returned to the fabled East. These explorations have a number of causes. [[Monetarists]] believe the main reason the Age of Exploration began was because of a severe shortage of [[bullion]] in Europe. The European economy was dependent on gold and silver currency, but low domestic supplies had plunged much of Europe into a recession. Another factor was the centuries-long conflict between the Iberians and the Muslims to the south.{{Citation needed}}

===== Piracy's Golden Age =====
{{Main|Golden Age of Piracy}}

The [[Golden Age of Piracy]] is a designation given to one or more outbursts of [[piracy]] in the early modern period, spanning from the mid-17th century to the mid-18th century. The [[Golden Age of Piracy#The buccaneering period, 1650–1680|buccaneering period]] covers approximately the late 17th century. The period is characterized by Anglo-French seamen based on Jamaica and Tortuga attacking Spanish colonies and shipping in the Caribbean and eastern Pacific. A sailing route known as the [[Pirate Round]] was followed by certain Anglo-American pirates at the turn of the 18th century, associated with long-distance voyages from Bermuda and the Americas to rob Muslim and East India Company targets in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea. The post-Spanish Succession period extending into the early 18th century, when Anglo-American sailors and privateers left unemployed by the end of the War of the Spanish Succession turned en masse to piracy in the Caribbean, the American eastern seaboard, the West African coast, and the Indian Ocean.{{Citation needed}}

==== European states and politics ====
[[File:Europe map 1648.PNG|thumb|Europe after the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in 1648]]
The 15th to 18th century period is marked by the first European colonies, the rise of strong centralized governments, and the beginnings of recognizable European nation states that are the direct antecedents of today's states. Although the Renaissance included revolutions in many [[intellectual]] pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for European artistic developments and the contributions of such [[polymath]]s as [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and [[Michelangelo]], who inspired the term "[[Polymath|Renaissance man]]".<ref>BBC Science & Nature, ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/leonardo/ Leonardo da Vinci] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205132502/http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/leonardo/ }}'' (Retrieved on May 12, 2007)</ref><ref>BBC History, ''[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/michelangelo.shtml Michelangelo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225210110/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/michelangelo.shtml }}'' (Retrieved on May 12, 2007)</ref>

During the [[Baroque]] period the [[Thirty Years' War]] in Central Europe decimated the population by up to 20%. In 1648, the [[Peace of Westphalia]], consisting of the [[Peace treaty|treaties]] of [[Osnabrück]] and [[Münster]], signed on May 15 and October 24, respectively, ended several wars in Europe and established the beginning of [[sovereign state]]s. The treaties involved the [[Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand III]] ([[Habsburg]]), the Kingdoms of Spain, France and [[Sweden]], the [[Dutch Republic|Netherlands]] and their respective allies among the [[Princes of the Holy Roman Empire|princes]] and the [[Free Imperial City|Republican Imperial States]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].{{Citation needed}}

The Peace of Westphalia resulted from the first modern [[Diplomacy|diplomatic]] congress. Until 1806, the regulations became part of the constitutional laws of the Holy Roman Empire. The [[Treaty of the Pyrenees]], signed in 1659, ended the [[war]] between France and Spain and is often considered part of the overall accord.

===== Absolutism =====
The [[Age of Absolutism]] describes the [[monarch]]ical power that was unrestrained by any other institutions, such as churches, [[legislature]]s, or [[social elite]]s of the [[European monarch]]s during the transition from [[feudalism]] to capitalism. Monarchs described as absolute can especially be found in the 17th century through the 19th century. Nations that adopted Absolutism include France, Prussia, and Russia. Nobles tended to trade privileges for allegiance throughout the eighteenth century, so that the interests of the nobility aligned with that of the crown. Absolutism is characterized by the ending of feudal partitioning, consolidation of power with the monarch, rise of [[Political power|state power]], unification of the [[state law]]s, drastic increase in tax revenue collected by the monarch, and a decrease in the influence of [[nobility]].{{Citation needed}}

===== French power =====
For much of the reign of [[Louis XIV]], who was known as the ''Sun King'' (French: ''le Roi Soleil''), France stood as the leading power in Europe, engaging in three major [[war]]s—the [[Franco-Dutch War]], the [[Nine Years War|War of the League of Augsburg]], and the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]—and two minor conflicts—the [[War of Devolution]], and the [[War of the Reunions]]. Louis ruled according to the [[Divine Right of Kings]], the theory that the King was crowned by God and accountable to him alone. Consequently, he has long been considered the archetypal [[Absolute monarchy|absolute monarch]]. Louis XIV continued the work of his predecessor to create a [[Centralized government|centralized state]], governed from the capital to sweep away the remnants of [[feudalism]] that persisted in parts of France. He succeeded in breaking the power of the provincial nobility, much of which had risen in revolt during his minority called the [[Fronde]], and forced many leading nobles to live with him in his lavish [[Palace of Versailles]].{{Citation needed}}

Men who featured prominently in the political and military life of France during this period include [[Cardinal Mazarin|Mazarin]], [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]], [[Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne|Turenne]], [[Vauban]]. French culture likewise flourished during this era, producing a number of figures of great renown, including [[Molière]], [[Jean Racine|Racine]], [[Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux|Boileau]], [[Jean de La Fontaine|La Fontaine]], [[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Lully]], [[Charles Le Brun|Le Brun]], [[Hyacinthe Rigaud|Rigaud]], [[Louis Le Vau]], [[Jules Hardouin Mansart]], [[Claude Perrault]] and [[André Le Nôtre|Le Nôtre]].

===== Early English revolutions =====
Before the Age of Revolution, the [[English Civil War]] was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The first and second civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent. The [[English Restoration]], or simply put as the Restoration, began in 1660 when the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were all restored under Charles II after the Commonwealth of England that followed the English Civil War. The [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688 establishes modern [[parliamentary democracy]] in England.

===== International balance of power =====
The [[War of the Spanish Succession]] was a war fought between 1701 and 1714, in which several European powers combined to stop a possible unification of the Kingdoms of Spain and France under a single Bourbon monarch, upsetting the European [[Balance of power in international relations|balance of power]]. It was fought mostly in Europe, but it included [[Queen Anne's War]] in North America. The war was marked by the military leadership of notable generals like the [[Claude-Louis-Hector de Villars|duc de Villars]], the Jacobite [[James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick-upon-Tweed|Duke of Berwick]], the [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]] and [[Prince Eugene of Savoy]].{{Citation needed}}

The [[Peace of Utrecht]] established after a series of individual [[peace treaty|peace treaties]] signed in the [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] city of [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] concluded between various European states helped end the War of the Spanish Succession. The representatives who met were Louis XIV of France and [[Philip V of Spain]] on the one hand, and representatives of Queen [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Anne]] of [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]], the [[Duchy of Savoy|Duke of Savoy]], and the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] on the other. The treaty enregistered the defeat of French ambitions expressed in the wars of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] and preserved the European system based on the [[Balance of power in international relations|balance of power]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palmer |first1=Robert Roswell |title=A History of the Modern World |publisher=Knopf |oclc=1000384424 |page=234 }}</ref> The [[Treaty of Utrecht]] marked the change from [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] to [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] naval supremacy.

== Sub-Saharan Africa ==
{{further|Dahomey|Aro Confederacy|Ashanti Empire|History of South Africa (1652–1815)|Atlantic Slave Trade}}{{Sources}}
The [[Songhai Empire]] took control of the [[trans-Saharan trade]] at the beginning of the modern era. It seized [[Timbuktu]] in 1468 and [[Djenné|Jenne]] in 1473, building the regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. The empire eventually made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought Muslim scholars to [[Gao]].<ref name="multiple">Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge 1988</ref>

Around the beginning of the modern era, the [[Benin Kingdom]] was an independent trading power in the southeastern coastline of West Africa, blocking the access of other inland nations to the coastal ports. Benin may have housed 100,000 inhabitants at its height, spreading over twenty-five square kilometres, enclosed by three concentric rings of earthworks. By the late 15th century Benin was in contact with [[Portugal]]. At its apogee in the 16th and 17th centuries, Benin encompassed parts of southeastern Yorubaland and the western [[Igbo people|Igbo]].

[[File:Adal.PNG|thumb|left|[[Axum]] and [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]] circa 1500.]]

In the [[Ethiopian Highlands]], the [[Solomonic dynasty]] established itself in the 13th century. Claiming direct descent from the old [[Axum]]ite royal house, the Solomonic ruled the region well into modern history. In the 16th century, [[Shewa]] and the rest of [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]] were [[Ethiopian-Adal War|conquered]] by the forces of [[Ahmed Gurey]] of the [[Adal Sultanate]] to the northwest. The conquest of the area by the [[Oromo migrations|Oromo]] ended in the contraction of both Adal and Abyssinia, changing regional dynamics for centuries to come.

The [[Ajuran Sultanate|Ajuran Empire]], which was one of the largest and strongest empires in the [[Horn of Africa]], began to decline in the 17th century, and several powerful successor states came to prominence. The [[Geledi Sultanate]], established by [[Ibrahim Adeer]], was a notable successor of the Ajuran Sultanate. The [[Sultanate]] reached its apex under the successive reigns of [[Sultan]] [[Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim]] (reigned 1798 to 1848), who successfully consolidated Geledi power during the [[Bardera]] wars, and [[Sultan]] [[Ahmed Yusuf (Gobroon)|Ahmed Yusuf]], who forced regional powers such as the [[Oman]]i Empire to pay [[tribute]]. The [[Majeerteen Sultanate]] was a [[Somali people|Somali]] [[Sultan]]ate in the [[Horn of Africa]]. Ruled by [[Boqor|King]] [[Osman Mahamuud]] during its golden age, it controlled much of northern and central [[Somalia]] in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity had all of the organs of an integrated modern state and maintained a robust trading network. Along with the [[Sultanate of Hobyo]] ruled by Sultan [[Yusuf Ali Kenadid]], the Majeerteen Sultanate was eventually annexed into [[Italian Somaliland]] in the early 20th century, following the military Campaign of the Sultanates.

== Americas ==
{{Main|European colonization of the Americas|History of colonialism|New World}}
[[File:Declaration independence.jpg|thumb|[[John Trumbull]]'s ''[[Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)|Declaration of Independence]]'', showing the [[Committee of Five]] in charge of drafting the Declaration in 1776 as it presents its work to the [[Second Continental Congress]] in [[Philadelphia]]]]
[[File:colonisation2.gif|thumb|center|upright=2.75|World Colonization of 1492 (Early Modern World), 1550, 1660, 1754 (Age of Enlightenment), 1822 (Industrial revolution), 1885 (European Hegemony), 1914 (World War I era), 1938 (World War II era), 1959 (Cold War era) and 1974, 2008 (Recent history).]]
The term ''colonialism'' is normally used with reference to discontiguous overseas empires rather than contiguous land-based empires, European or otherwise. European colonisation during the 15th to 19th centuries resulted in the spread of Christianity to [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], the Americas, Australia and the [[Philippines]].

=== Exploration and conquest of the Americas ===

{{Main|Spanish colonization of the Americas|Portuguese colonization of the Americas}}
[[Christopher Columbus]] came to the Americas in 1492. Subsequently, the major sea powers in Europe sent expeditions to the [[New World]] to build trade networks and colonies and to convert the native peoples to Christianity. [[Pope Alexander VI]] divided newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal along a north–south meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands (off the west coast of Africa). The division was never accepted by the rulers of England or France.{{Citation needed}}

=== Colonial Latin America ===
{{See also|New Spain|Spanish empire|Colonial Brazil}}

What is now called [[Latin America]], a designation first used in the late 19th century,<ref>José C. Moya, ed. ''The Oxford Handbook of Latin America''. New York: Oxford University Press 2011</ref> was claimed by Spain and Portugal. The Western Hemisphere, the [[New World]], was divided between the two Iberian powers by the Treaty of Tordesillas in what until the late 16th-century, was an area that could be called "Ibero-America". Spain called its overseas empire there "The Indies", with Portugal calling its territory in South America [[Brazil]], after the dyewood found there. Spain concentrated building its empire where there were large indigenous populations, "Indians", who could be compelled to work and large deposits of precious metals, mainly silver. Both [[New Spain]] (colonial Mexico) and [[Peru]] fit those criteria and the Spanish crown established [[viceroyalties]] to rule those two large areas. As Spanish settlements and the economy grew in size and complexity, the Spanish established viceroyalties in the eighteenth century during [[Bourbon reforms|administrative reforms]] Rio de la Plata (southeastern South America) and New Granada (northern South America).{{citation needed}}

Initially, Portuguese settlements (Brazil) in the coastal northeast were of lesser importance in the larger Portuguese overseas empire, where lucrative commerce and small settlements devoted to trade were established in coastal Africa, India and China. With sparse indigenous populations that could not be coerced to work and no known deposits of precious metals, Portugal sought a high-value, low-bulk export product and found it in [[sugarcane]]. Black African slave labour from Portugal's West African possessions was imported to do the grueling agricultural work. As the wealth of the Ibero-America increased, some Western European powers (Dutch, French, British, Danish) sought to duplicate the model in areas that the Iberians had not settled in numbers. They seized some Caribbean islands from the Spanish and transferred the model of sugar production on plantations with slave labour and settled in northern areas of North America in what are now the Eastern Seaboard of the United States and Canada.<ref>[[James Lockhart (historian)|James Lockhart]] and [[Stuart B. Schwartz]], ''Early Latin America''. New York: Cambridge University Press 1983.{{page needed}}</ref>

=== Colonial North America ===
{{See also|New Spain|New France|New Netherland|Colonial history of the United States|Canada under British rule}}

North America outside the zone of Spanish settlement was a contested area in the 17th century. Spain had founded small settlements in Florida and Georgia but nowhere near the size of those in [[New Spain]] or the Caribbean islands. France, The Netherlands, and Great Britain held several colonies in North America and the West Indies from the 17th century, 100 years after the Spanish and Portuguese established permanent colonies. The British colonies in North America were founded between 1607 (Virginia) and 1733 (Georgia). The Dutch explored the east coast of North America and began founding settlements in what they called [[New Netherland]] (now [[New York State]].). France colonized what is now [[Eastern Canada]], founding [[Quebec City]] in 1608. France's loss in the [[Seven Years' War]] resulted in the transfer of [[New France]] to [[Great Britain]]. The [[Thirteen Colonies]], in lower British North America, rebelled against British rule in 1775, largely due to the taxation that Great Britain was imposing on the colonies. The British colonies in Canada remained loyal to the crown, and a provisional government formed by the Thirteen Colonies proclaimed their independence on July 4, 1776 and subsequently became the original 13 United States of America. With the 1783 Treaty of Paris ending the [[American Revolutionary War]], Britain recognised the former Thirteen Colonies' independence.{{Citation needed}}

==Atlantic World==
{{see also|Atlantic history}}
[[File:Waldseemuller map 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Waldseemüller map]] with joint sheets, 1507]]
A recent development in early modern history is the creation of [[Atlantic World]] as a category. The term generally encompasses western Europe, West Africa, North and South and America and the Caribbean islands. It seeks to show both local and regional development and the connections between the various geographical regions.{{Citation needed}}

== Religion, science, philosophy, and education ==
{{further|History of religion|History of philosophy}}{{Sources}}

=== Eastern philosophies ===
Concerning the [[Philosophy#History|development of Eastern philosophies]], much of [[Eastern philosophy]] had been in an advanced state of development from study in the previous centuries. The various [[philosophy|philosophies]] include [[Indian philosophy]], [[Chinese philosophy]], [[Iranian philosophy]], [[Japanese philosophy]], and [[Korean philosophy]].

=== Muslim world ===
The [[Islamic Golden Age]] reached its peak in the [[High Middle Ages]], stopped short by the [[Mongol invasions]] of the 13th century. The re-establishment of three major Muslim empires by the 16th century (the aforementioned [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Safavid Empire|Safavid]] and [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] Empires) gave rise to a Muslim cultural revival.{{Clarify}} The [[Safavids]] [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|established]] [[Twelver Shi'a Islam]] as Iran's official religion, thus giving [[Iran]] a separate identity from its [[Sunni]] neighbors.

=== Protestant Reformation ===
{{Main|Protestant theology}}

The early modern period was initiated by the [[Protestant Reformation]] and the collapse of the unity of the medieval [[Roman Catholic Church|Western Church]]. The theology of [[Calvinism]] in particular has been argued as instrumental to the rise of [[capitalism]]. Max Weber has written a highly influential book on this called ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]].''

=== Counter-Reformation and Jesuits ===
{{Main|Counter-Reformation}}
The Counter-Reformation was a period of [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] revival in response to the [[Protestant Reformation]] during the mid-16th to mid-17th centuries. The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, involving ecclesiastical or structural reforms as well as a political dimension and spiritual movements.

Such reforms included the foundation of [[seminaries]] for the proper training of priests in the spiritual life and the theological traditions of the Church, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with [[Christ]], including the [[Spanish mystics]] and the [[French school of spirituality]]. It also involved political activities that included the [[Roman Inquisition]].

New religious orders were a fundamental part of this trend. Orders such as the [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchins]], [[Ursulines]], [[Theatines]], [[Discalced Carmelites]], the [[Barnabites]], and especially the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] strengthened rural parishes, improved popular piety, helped to curb corruption within the church and set examples that would be a strong impetus for Catholic renewal.

=== Scientific Revolution ===
[[File:PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png|thumb|right|147x147px|Model for the Three Superior Planets and Venus from [[Georg von Peuerbach]], ''Theoricae novae planetarum''.]]

The [[Great Divergence]] in scientific discovery, technological innovation, and economic development began in the early modern period as the pace of change in Western countries increased significantly compared to the rest of the world.

During the [[Scientific Revolution]] of the 16th and 17 century, [[empiricism]] and [[modern science]] replaced older methods of studying nature – European research methods that mainly involved reading texts by ancient writers. In ancient times, [[natural philosopher]]s made observations of nature and came up with explanations, but never conducted [[experiment]]s to test those explanations, because creating an artificial situation was considered an invalid way to discover the rules of nature. The [[scientific method]] of testing hypotheses was first recorded in the 10th century by [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen), inspiring [[Roger Bacon]] to begin experimenting in 13th century Europe. By the time of the Revolution, these methods resulted in accumulation of knowledge that overturned ideas inherited from Ancient Greece (primarily [[Aristotelian physics]], which includes the modern domains of physics, chemistry, biology) through the Middle Ages and Islamic scholars. Major changes of the Scientific Revolution and the 18th century included:
* The ancient [[geocentric model]] of the solar system (the planets circle the Earth) was replaced by the [[heliocentric model]] (Earth and other planets circle the Sun). Known as the [[Copernican Revolution]], the 1543 publication of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]'s ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]'' (''On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres'', which was influenced by [[Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi]] and was based on detailed astronomical observations) is often used to mark the beginning of the Scientific Revolution. Heliocentrism was resisted by the Catholic Church because it contradicted the Bible; the Catholic [[Inquisition]] imprisoned [[Galileo Galilei]] (sometimes called the "father of modern science" for his many empirical discoveries) for promoting this theory.
* Armed with detailed observations from [[Tycho Brahe]], [[Johannes Kepler]] found the idea that the planets moved in ellipses rather than on perfect [[celestial spheres]], publishing [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]]. The commonly held idea that the [[fixed stars]] are mounted on a large sphere was replaced by the idea that they are distant suns. [[Astrology and astronomy]] began to separate into different disciplines, with only [[astronomy]] using scientific methods. [[Telescope]] technology improved tremendously as did the [[History of optics|study of optics]].
* [[Aristotelian physics#Natural motion|Aristotle's laws of motion]] were demonstrated to be incorrect, and were replaced by [[Newton's laws of motion]] and [[Newton's law of universal gravitation]]. The 1687 publication of [[Isaac Newton]]'s 1687 ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]'' is often used to mark the end of the Scientific Revolution.
* A revival of [[atomism]] (denied by Aristotle) and [[corpuscularianism]] began to undermine the [[classical elements]]. Both 8th century Islamic experimenter [[Jabir ibn Hayyan]] and 17th century Christian experimenter [[Robert Boyle]] have been described as the founders of modern [[chemistry]], both worked as [[alchemist]]s before the fields were clearly separated. Boyle argued for corpuscularism in the 1661 book ''[[The Sceptical Chymist]]'', and discovered [[Boyle's Law]] of gases. [[Phlogiston theory]] was refuted by empirical discovery of [[conservation of mass]], among other discoveries bring the [[chemical revolution]]. The discovery of modern chemical elements would not begin until the 19th century in the late modern period, followed by experimental confirmation of atoms.
* Finally overcoming the difficulties human corpses to perform dissections, the anatomical descriptions of the 2nd century [[Galen]] were updated by the 1543 publication of ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' by [[Andreas Vesalius]], considered a foundational text of [[modern medicine]] and [[History of anatomy#Medieval to Early Modern Anatomy|early modern anatomy]]. The 1628 work ''[[De Motu Cordis]]'' by [[William Harvey]] was a major advance in the understanding of the [[circulatory system]].
* The field of [[microbiology]] began with the invention of the [[microscope]] and the first observations of microorganisms, famously by [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] in the 1670s and probably also by [[Athanasius Kircher]] in the 1640s. Though microorganisms were (correctly) proposed as the cause of infectious diseases as soon as they were discovered, this theory was generally dismissed. Though scientific investigation undermined [[humorism]] in medicine, [[miasma theory]] remained dominant throughout the early modern period. The [[germ theory of disease]] was not widely accepted until the 1880s, in the late modern period.
* Modern scientific [[dentistry]] was founded by [[Pierre Fauchard]].
* The [[smallpox vaccine]] was invented in the 1770s and popularized by [[Edward Jenner]] in the 1790s, though it was unclear at the time how it worked.
* [[Carl Linnaeus]] published the first modern [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] in 1735, replacing Aristotle's [[Great Chain of Being]]. [[Binomial nomenclature]] was used in publications by [[Gaspard Bauhin]] as early as 1622, and by Linnaeus in 1753.
* The ancient theory of [[spontaneous generation]] remained dominant throughout the early modern period, but the [[history of evolutionary thought]] includes some who questioned the strictest form of this dogma. The idea of partial [[common descent]] was famously promoted by [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon]]. [[Evolution]] was not fully articulated and accepted until the 19th century.
* Modern [[geology]] began to take shape mainly in the 18th and 19th centuries. Early on, [[Nicolas Steno]] proposed the [[law of superposition]] in 1669, and various writers in the [[history of geology]] began to question the notion derived from the Christian Bible that the Earth was only about 6,000 years old and relatively unchanged over time. Steno and [[James Hutton]] are often considered founders of the modern field. The study of [[fossil]]s and rock types became systematic.
* Early developments in the [[history of electromagnetism]] during this era include gradual teasing out of the relationships between [[electricity]], [[magnetism]], and [[lightning]]; development of the [[electrostatic generator]] and [[Leyden jar]] for storage; and the discoveries of [[ferromagnetism]], "electrics" and "non-electrics" ([[Electrical conductor|conductors]] and [[Electrical insulator|insulators]]). The now-obsolete [[fluid theory of electricity]] was developed to explain electrical phenomena in terms of "vitreous" and "resinous" fluids (later recognized as positive and negative electrical charges). [[Electrochemistry]] was born with the discovery of [[voltaic electricity]] (which would provide a power source for later experimentation) and [[pyroelectricity]]. Around 1784, [[Coulomb's law]] mathematically described the strength of electrical attraction. The discovery that electricity could cause muscles to contract was termed "[[Galvanic electricity]]".

In the new [[social sciences]]:
* [[Historical linguistics]] emerged in the late 18th century as a field after the discovery of the common origin what are now called [[Indo-European languages]] by [[philologist]] [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]].
* The fields of [[anthropology]] and [[paleoanthropology]] emerged in the 18th century, but much of early modern anthropology is now considered [[scientific racism]].
* The 1776 multi-book publication ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' by [[Adam Smith]] is considered the foundational text of [[classical economics]].

Scientific discovery would accelerate in the late modern period, and continues today.

{{See also|History of science|Science in the Age of Enlightenment}}

===Technology===
{{main|Renaissance technology}}
Inventions of the early modern period included the [[Floating dock (impounded)|floating dock]], [[lifting tower]], [[newspaper]], [[grenade musket]], [[lightning rod]], [[bifocals]], and [[Franklin stove]]. Early attempts at building a practical [[electrical telegraph]] were hindered because [[static electricity]] was the only source available.

=== Enlightenment and reason ===
{{Main|17th-century philosophy}}
[[File:Encyclopedie frontispice full.jpg|thumb|upright=1|"If there is something you know, communicate it. If there is something you don't know, search for it." An engraving from the 1772 edition of the ''[[Encyclopédie]]''; [[Truth]] (center) is surrounded by light and unveiled by the figures to the right, [[Philosophy]] and [[Reason]]|alt=]]{{further|Atheism in the Age of the Enlightenment|Philosophical skepticism}}

The [[Age of Enlightenment]] is also called the Age of Reason because it marked a change from the medieval tradition of [[scholasticism]] based on Christian dogma and the often [[Renaissance magic|occultist]] approach of [[Renaissance philosophy]]. Instead, [[reason]] became the central source of knowledge, beginning the era of [[modern philosophy]], especially in [[Western philosophy]]. The period was typified in Europe by the great system-builders, philosophers who presented unified systems of [[epistemology]], [[metaphysics]], [[logic]], and [[ethics]] and often [[politics]] and the [[physical sciences]] as well.

Early 17th-century philosophy is often called the Age of Rationalism and is considered to succeed Renaissance philosophy and precede the Age of Enlightenment, but some consider it as the earliest part of the Enlightenment era in philosophy, extending that era to two centuries. This era includes [[Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]'' and [[René Descartes]]' [[Cogito, ergo sum|"I think therefore I am"]] (1637). The 18th century saw the beginning of [[secularization]] in Europe, rising to notability in the wake of the [[French Revolution]].

[[Immanuel Kant]] classified his predecessors into two schools: the [[Rationalism|rationalists]] and the [[Empiricism|empiricists]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/k/kantmeta.htm#H1|title=Kant, Immanuel: Metaphysics – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=2011-07-04|archive-date=2013-06-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627205028/http://www.iep.utm.edu/kantmeta/#H1|url-status=live}}</ref> The three main rationalists are normally taken to have been [[René Descartes]], [[Baruch Spinoza]], and [[Gottfried Leibniz]].

[[Roger Williams]] founded [[Providence Plantations]] in New England, based on the principle of [[separation of church and state]] after being exiled by [[Puritans]] in the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]]. The Enlightenment began at Harvard in 1646. The first great advances towards modern science were made in the mid-17th century, most notably the theory of [[gravity]] by [[Isaac Newton]] (1643–1727). Newton, Spinoza, [[John Locke]] (1632–1704) and [[Pierre Bayle]] (1647–1706) were philosophers sparking the ideas for the furthering of the Enlightenment.

French [[French art salons and academies|salon]] culture culminated in the Enlightenment's most influential publication, the great ''[[Encyclopédie]]'' (1751–1772), edited by [[Denis Diderot]] (1713–1784) with contributions by hundreds of leading [[philosophes]] (intellectuals) such as [[Voltaire]] (1694–1778) and [[Montesquieu]] (1689–1755). The [[Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns]] shook up the [[French Academy]] in the 1690s, elevating new discoveries over Greek and Roman wisdom. The French Enlightenment was received in Germany, notably fostered by [[Frederick the Great]], the [[king of Prussia]], and gave rise to a flowering of [[German philosophy]], represented foremost by [[Immanuel Kant]].

The French and German developments were further influential in [[Scottish Enlightenment|Scottish]], [[Russian Enlightenment|Russian]], [[Enlightenment in Spain|Spanish]] and [[Enlightenment in Poland|Polish]] philosophy.

The Enlightenment flourished until about 1790–1800, after which the emphasis on reason gave way to [[Romanticism]]'s emphasis on emotion and a [[Counter-Enlightenment]] gained force.
=== Humanism ===
{{Main|Humanism}}
{{further|Erasmus}}
With the adoption of large-scale printing after 1500, Italian [[Renaissance Humanism]] spread northward to France, Germany, Holland and England, where it became associated with the [[Protestant Reformation]].

Developing during the Enlightenment era, [[Renaissance humanism]] as an intellectual movement spread across Europe. The basic training of the humanist was to speak well and write (typically, in the form of a letter). The term ''umanista'' comes from the latter part of the 15th century. The people were associated with the ''[[studia humanitatis]]'', a novel curriculum that was competing with the ''[[quadrivium]]'' and [[scholastic logic]].<ref>[[Paul Oskar Kristeller]], ''Humanism'', pp. 113–114, in Charles B. Schmitt, [[Quentin Skinner]] (editors), ''The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy'' (1990).</ref>

In France, pre-eminent Humanist [[Guillaume Budé]] (1467–1540) applied the [[philology|philological]] methods of Italian Humanism to the study of antique coinage and to legal history, composing a detailed commentary on [[Corpus Juris Civilis|Justinian's Code]]. Although a royal absolutist (and not a republican like the early Italian ''umanisti''), Budé was active in civic life, serving as a diplomat for [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] and helping to found the [[Collège de France|Collège des Lecteurs Royaux]] (later the Collège de France). Meanwhile, [[Marguerite de Navarre]], the sister of Francis I, herself a poet, novelist and religious mystic,<ref>She was the author of ''[[Miroir de l'âme pécheresse]]'' (''The Mirror of a Sinful Soul''), published after her death, among other devotional poetry. See also "Marguerite de Navarre: Religious Reformist" in Jonathan A. Reid, [http://www.brill.nl/print.aspx?partid=210&pid=18212 ''King's sister—queen of dissent: Marguerite of Navarre (1492–1549) and her evangelical network''] {{dead link|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} (''Studies in medieval and Reformation traditions, 1573–4188''; v. 139). Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2009. (2 v.: (xxii, 795 p.) {{ISBN|978-90-04-17760-4}} (v. 1), {{ISBN|978-9004177611}} (v. 2)</ref> gathered around her and protected a circle of vernacular poets and writers, including [[Clément Marot]], [[Pierre de Ronsard]] and [[François Rabelais]].

== Death in the early modern period ==
=== Mortality rates ===
During the early modern period, thorough and accurate global data on mortality rates is limited for a number of reasons including disparities in medical practices and views on the dead. However, there still remains data from European countries that still holds valuable information on the mortality rates of infants during this era. In his book ''Life Under Pressure: Mortality and Living Standards in Europe and Asia, 1700–1900'', Tommy Bengtsson provides adequate information pertaining to the data of infant mortality rates in European countries as well as provide necessary contextual influences on these mortality rates.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book| last=Bengsston| first=Tommy| title=Life Under Pressure: Mortality and Living Standards in Europe and Asia, 1700–1900| publisher=The MIT Press| year=2004| isbn=978-0262025515| chapter= 12: Infant and Child Mortality}}</ref>

==== European infant mortality rates ====
Infant mortality was a global concern during the early modern period as many newborns would not survive into childhood. Bengsston provides comparative data on infant mortality averages in a variety of European towns, cities, regions and countries starting from the mid-1600s to the 1800s.<ref name=":4" /> These statistics are measured for infant deaths within the first month of every 1,000 births in a given area.<ref name=":4" />

For instance, the average infant mortality rate in what is now Germany was 108 infant deaths for every 1,000 births; in [[Bavaria]], there were 140–190 infant deaths reported for every 1,000 births.<ref name=":4" /> In France, [[Beauvaisis]] reported 140–160 infants dying per every 1,000 babies born.<ref name=":4" /> In what is now Italy, [[Venice]] averaged 134 infant deaths per 1,000 births.<ref name=":4" /> In [[Geneva]], 80–110 infants died per every 1,000 babies born. In Sweden, 70–95 infants died per 1,000 births in [[Linköping]], 48 infants died per 1,000 births in [[Sundsvall]], and 41 infants died per 1,000 births in [[Vastanfors]].<ref name=":4" />

==== Causes of infant mortality ====
Bengsston writes that climate conditions were the most important factor in determining infant mortality rates: "For the period from birth to the fifth birthday, [climate] is clearly the most important determinant of death".<ref name=":4" /> Winters proved to be harsh on families and their newborns, especially if the other seasons of the year were warmer. This seasonal drop in temperature was a lot for an infant's body to adapt to.

For instance, Italy is home to a very warm climate in the summer, and the temperature drops immensely in the winter.<ref name=":4" /> This lends context to Bengsston writing that "the [Italian] winter peak was the cruelest: during the first 10 days of life, a newborn was four times more likely to die than in the summer".<ref name=":4" /> According to Bengsston, this trend existed amongst cities in different parts of Italy and in various parts of Europe even though cities operated under different economic and agricultural conditions.<ref name=":4" /> This leads Bengsston to his conclusion on what may have caused mortality rates in infants to spike during winter: "The strong protective effect of summer for neonatal deaths leads us to suppose that in many cases, these might be due to the insufficient heating systems of the houses or to the exposure of the newborn to cold during the [[baptism]] ceremony. This last hypothesis could explain why the effect was so strong in Italy".<ref name=":4" />

=== Capital punishment ===
{{Main|Capital punishment#Modern era}}
During the early modern period, many societies' views on death changed greatly. With the implementation of new torture techniques, and increased public executions, people began to give more value to their life, and their body after death. Along with the views on death, methods of execution also changed. New devices to torture and execute criminals were invented.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Laqueur|first=Thomas|title=The Work of the Dead: A Cultural History of Mortal Remains|publisher=Princeton University|year=2015|isbn=978-0691157788}}</ref> The number of criminals executed by [[gibbeting]] increased,<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Ward|first=Richard|year=2015|title=Introduction to A Global History of Execution and the Criminal Corpse|doi=10.1057/9781137577931|pmid=27559562|isbn=978-1137577931|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/95831/1/Ward2015_Chapter_Introduction.pdf|access-date=2020-09-03|archive-date=2020-10-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028005638/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/95831/1/Ward2015_Chapter_Introduction.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> as did the total rate of executions during the early modern period.<ref name=":3" />

== End of the early modern period ==

[[File:Leonhard Euler World Map AD1760.jpg|thumb|right|Engraved world map (including [[magnetic declination]] lines) by [[Leonhard Euler]] from his school atlas "Geographischer Atlas bestehend in 44 Land-Charten" first published 1753 in Berlin]]{{Sources}}
The end of the early modern period is usually associated with the [[Industrial Revolution]], which began in Britain around 1750, but began to make substantial changes in many European countries by around 1800.

The [[Age of Revolutions]] starts at the end of the early modern period and continues into the late modern period, denoting in the decline of [[Absolute monarchy|absolutism]] in Europe. Near the end of the early modern period were the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Second Treaty of Paris]] which ended the [[American Revolution]], the [[French Revolution]] in 1789, and the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. The [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815 marked the end of this period of political upheaval and frequent war, with the rise of new concepts of nationalism and reorganization of military forces. 1815 is the latest year commonly reckoned as the end of the early modern period.

=== The French Revolutions ===
[[File:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|thumb|[[Eugène Delacroix]]'s ''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'' (1830). The [[French Revolution]] inspired a wave of revolutions across Europe. [[Liberalism]] and [[Nationalism]] were popular ideas that challenged [[Absolute monarchy|Absolute Monarchies]] in the 19th century. |alt=]]
{{Main|French Revolution}}
Toward the middle and latter stages of the Age of Revolution, the French political and social revolutions and radical change saw the French governmental structure transform. It was previously an [[absolute monarchy]] with feudal privileges for the [[aristocracy]] and Catholic clergy. It changed to forms based on [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] principles of citizenship and inalienable rights. The first revolution led to government by the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]], the second by the [[Legislative Assembly (France)|Legislative Assembly]], and the third by the [[French Directory|Directory]].

The changes were accompanied by violent turmoil, which included the trial and [[execution of Louis XVI]], vast bloodshed and repression during the [[Reign of Terror]], and the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] involving every other major European power. Subsequent events that can be traced to the Revolution include the [[Napoleonic Wars]], two separate restorations of the monarchy, and two additional revolutions as modern France took shape. In the following century, France would be governed at one point or another as a republic, constitutional monarchy, and two different empires.

== See also ==
* [[Price revolution]]
* [[Proto-globalization]]
* [[Early modern warfare]]
* [[Periodization]]
* [[Atlantic history]]
* [[Timeline of early modern history]]
* [[Cuisine in the early modern world]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|40em}}
* {{Citation |last1=Bose |first1=Sugata |author-link1=Sugata Bose |last2=Jalal |first2=Ayesha |author-link2=Ayesha Jalal |year=2003 |title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy |url=https://archive.org/details/modernsouthasiah00bose |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-30787-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Burke|first=Peter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fbGuxIsGjwsC|title=A Social History of Knowledge: From Gutenberg to Diderot|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0745624853|access-date=2019-10-17|archive-date=2020-08-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801035732/https://books.google.com/books?id=fbGuxIsGjwsC|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Cavallo|editor-first1=Sandra|editor-last2=Evangelisti|editor-first2=Silvia|title=A Cultural History of Childhood and Family in the Early Modern Age}}
* {{cite journal|last=De Vries|first=Jan|title=The limits of globalization in the early modern world|journal=Economic History Review|volume=63|number=3|pages=710–733|url=http://eml.berkeley.edu/~webfac/cromer/e211_sp08/devries.pdf|access-date=2014-08-29|archive-date=2020-10-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022185340/https://eml.berkeley.edu/~webfac/cromer/e211_sp08/devries.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Duara|editor-first1=Prasenjit |display-editors=etal |title=A Companion to Global Historical Thought|publisher=Wiley Blackwell}}
* {{cite book|last=Goldstone|first=Jack A.|chapter=Early Modern World|title=Sociological Worlds: Comparative and Historical Readings on Society|pages=249–}}
* {{cite book|last=Goldstone|first=Jack A.|title=Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World}}
* {{cite journal|last=Goldstone|first=Jack A.|title=The Rise of the West–or not? A revision to socio-economic history|journal=Sociological Theory|volume=18|number=2|pages=173–194|doi=10.1111/0735-2751.00094|s2cid=143924639}}
* {{cite book|last=Lockyer|first=Roger|title=Tudor and Stuart Britain: 1485–1714|edition=3rd}} [https://www.amazon.com/Tudor-Stuart-Britain-Roger-Lockyer/dp/0582771889/ Excerpt].
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Knoll|editor-first1=Martin|editor-last2=Reith|editor-first2=Reinhold|title=An Environmental History of the Early Modern Period}}
* {{cite book|last=Kümin|first=Beat A.|title=A cultural history of food in the early modern age (1600–1800)|publisher=Berg}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Newman|editor-first=Gerald|title=Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia|journal=History: Reviews of New Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhaBz_5OZiUC&pg=PR11|year=1997|volume=27|issue=2|pages=51–52|publisher=Taylor & Francis|doi=10.1080/03612759909604247|isbn=978-0815303961|access-date=2017-09-27|archive-date=2020-08-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801041745/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhaBz_5OZiUC&pg=PR11|url-status=live}} [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03612759909604247 online review]; 904pp; short articles on Britain by experts.
* {{cite book|last=Parker|first=Charles H.|title=Global Interactions in the Early Modern Age, 1400–1800}}
* {{cite book|last=Pomeranz|title=The great divergence: China, Europe, and the making of the modern world economy|publisher=Princeton University Press}} A highly influential statement.
* {{cite book|editor-last=Scott|editor-first=Hamish|title=The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350–1750|volume=I: Peoples and Place}} [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-European-History-1350-1750/dp/0198820569/ excerpt].
* {{cite book|editor-last=Scott|editor-first=Hamish|title=The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350–1750|volume=II: Cultures and Power}} [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-European-History-1350-1750/dp/0198820577/ excerpt].
* {{cite book|last=Wong|first=R. Bin|title=China Transformed; Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience|publisher=Cornell U.P.}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pgc.asp?page=mod/modsbook.html Internet Modern History Sourcebook], fordham.edu
* [http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmhint.html Discussion of the medieval/modern transition] from the introduction to the pioneering ''[[Cambridge Modern History]]'' (1902–1912)
* [http://www.rensoc.org.uk/ Society for Renaissance Studies]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110925084220/http://emc.eserver.org/ Early Modern Culture] (archived 25 September 2011)
* [http://earlymodernweb.org/ Early Modern Resources]

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|title=[[History by period]]|before=[[Postclassical Era]]|after=[[Late modern period]]|years=1500–1800 CE}}
{{S-end}}
{{Early Modern Europe}}
{{Western culture}}

[[Category:Early modern period| ]]
[[Category:Modern history| ]]
[[Category:15th century in Europe|.]]
[[Category:16th century in Europe|.]]
[[Category:17th century in Europe|.]]
[[Category:18th century in Europe|.]]
[[Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines]]
[[Category:Historical eras]]
[[Category:History of Europe by period]]
[[Category:World history]]

Foundational agreement

2022-04-14T19:23:21Z

RodolfoTorpy:

The United States signs "'''foundational agreements"''' with its defence partners.{{Sfn|Jain|2018|p=114–116}} These are "routine" agreements and include: [[General Security of Military Information Agreement]] (GSOMIA); Logistic Support Agreement (LSA); Communications and Information Security Memorandum of Agreement (CISMOA) and the Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement for Geospatial Intelligence (BECA).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Philip|first=Snehesh Alex|title=The 3 foundational agreements with US and what they mean for India's military growth|url=https://theprint.in/defence/the-3-foundational-agreements-with-us-and-what-they-mean-for-indias-military-growth/531795/|access-date=2020-10-28|website=ThePrint|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Roy|first=Shubhajit|title=BECA — and importance of three foundational pacts of India-US military cooperation|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/beca-india-us-trade-agreements-rajnath-singh-mike-pompeo-6906637/|access-date=2020-10-28|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Ragi|first1=Sangit K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KJwuDwAAQBAJ&q=foundational+agreements&pg=PT79|title=Imagining India as a Global Power: Prospects and Challenges|last2=Sondhi|first2=Sunil|last3=Pathak|first3=Vidhan|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-60915-9|language=en}}</ref>

== Signatories ==
The United States has signed over 100 foundational agreements with defence partners around the world.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jha|first=Lalit K|title=Foundational Agreements Facilitate Better Defence Ties: US|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/foundational-agreements-facilitate-better-defence-ties-us/896656|access-date=2020-10-28|website=Outlook India}}</ref> In 2020 India signed the BECA, having already signed GSOMIA in 2002 (and its extension the ISA in 2019), an adapted version of the LSA — Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) in 2016, and an adapted version of CISMOA — Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA) in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Editorial|title=Back to Future|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/editorials/back-to-future-2-india-us-meet-6906084/|access-date=2020-10-28|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Joshi|first=Manoj|author-link=Manoj Joshi (journalist)|title=Building upon the American connection|url=https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/building-upon-the-american-connection/|access-date=2020-10-28|website=ORF|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Watch {{!}} India and U.S. sign BECA|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/india-and-us-have-signed-beca/article32962324.ece|access-date=2020-10-28|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Tomar|first=Dr Ravi|title=India-US Relations in a Changing Strategic Environment|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp0102/02RP20|access-date=2020-10-28|website=www.aph.gov.au|language=en-AU}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===

* {{Cite journal|last=Jain|first=Bhupesh|title=LSA, CISMOA, and BECA: The Future of US-India Defence Ties|url=https://archive.claws.in/images/journals_doc/362182962_BhupeshJain.pdf|journal=CLAWS Journal|volume=Summer 2018|pages=114–126}}
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[[Category:Bilateral relations of the United States]]
[[Category:Military diplomacy]]