Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

Bijpur Assembly constituency

2026-05-07T03:11:08Z

RodEsters254334: Added the details v1

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Bijpur
| type= SLA
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Vidhan Sabha constituencies/West Bengal/Bijpur.map}}
| map_caption = Interactive Map Outlining Bijpur Assembly Constituency
| map_alt =
| mla = [[Sudipta Das]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| alliance =
| latest_election_year = [[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2026]]
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| district = [[North 24 Parganas district|North 24 Parganas]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Barrackpore (Lok Sabha constituency)|Barrackpore]]
| constituency_no = 103
| established = 1951
| electors = 158,495
| reservation = None
| abolished =
}}

'''Bijpur Assembly constituency''' is an [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] constituency in [[North 24 Parganas district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].

==Overview==
As per orders of the [[Delimitation Commission of India|Delimitation Commission]], No. 103 Bijpur Assembly constituency is composed of the following: [[Kanchrapara]] municipality and [[Halisahar]] municipality.<ref name=delimitation>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/WestBengal/FINAL%20ORDER%20NOTIFICATION_English.pdf | title = Delimitation Commission Order No. 18 dated 15 February 2006 | access-date= 15 October 2010 |work = West Bengal | publisher= Election Commission of India}}</ref>

Bijpur Assembly constituency is part of No. 15 [[Barrackpore (Lok Sabha constituency)]].<ref name=delimitation/>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Name
!colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[1951 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1951]]
|[[Bipin Behari Ganguli]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1957 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|[[Niranjan Sengupta]]
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1962 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|Monoranjan Roy
|-
|[[1967 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|rowspan="8"|Jagadish Chandra Das
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|dab=yes|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1969 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|-
|[[1971 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1971]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1972 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|-
|[[1977 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|dab=yes|rowspan=7}}
|-
|[[1982 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1982]]
|-
|[[1987 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1987]]
|-
|[[1991 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|-
|[[1996 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
|Kamal Sengupta Basu
|-
|[[2001 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2001]]
|Jagadish Chandra Das
|-
|[[2006 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2006]]
|Dr. Nirjharini Chakraborty
|-
|[[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Subhranshu Roy]]
|{{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
|-
|[[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
|[[Subodh Adhikary]]
|}

==Election results==
===2026===
{{Election box begin|title=[[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Bijpur}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Sudipta Das |party= Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=71799|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Subodh Adhikary |party=Trinamool Congress |votes=58456|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Debasish Rakshit (Boby)|party=CPI(M)|votes=10009 |percentage=|change=}}

{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate= Shibabrata Guha Roy|party=Indian National Congress|votes= 867|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]|party=None of the above (India)|votes=731|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=13343|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes={{formatnum:}}|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = BJP
|loser = Trinamool Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2021===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]]: Bijpur<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/bijpur-west-bengal-election-result-2021|title=Bijpur Assembly Election Results 2021 LIVE - Bijpur Vidhan Sabha Election Results}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = [[Subodh Adhikary]]
|votes = 66,625
|percentage = 47.90%
|change = -13.68
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Subhranshu Roy]]|votes=43,278|percentage=28.30%|change=+17.3}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|candidate=Sukanta Rakshit (Babin)|votes=14,490|percentage=20.42%|change=-03.08}}
{{Election box majority|votes=13,347|percentage=9.65|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=1,37,869|percentage=72.54|change=+3.03}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2016===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2016 West Bengal state assembly election|West Bengal assembly elections, 2016]]: Bijpur constituency<ref>{{cite web|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3469-west-bengal-general-legislative-election-2016/|title=Bijpur Result 2016|work =India News|accessdate=9 November 2021}}</ref>}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = Subhranshu Roy
|votes = 76,744
|percentage = 61.58
|change = +10.09
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = Dr. Rabindra Nath Mukherjee
|votes = 28,888
|percentage = 23.15
|change = -18.42
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Alo Rani Sarkar
|votes = 13,723
|percentage = 11
|change = +7.19
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = SUCI(C)
|candidate = Kalipada Debnath
|votes = 1,714
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the Above
|candidate = None of the Above
|votes = 1,483
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Krishna Gopal Majhi
|votes = 1,001
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = 47,954
|percentage = 38.43
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 1,24,504
|percentage = 69.51
|change = –10.73
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2011===
In the 2011 elections, SubhransHu Roy of Trinamool Congress defeated his nearest rival Nirjharini Chakraborty of CPI(M).
{{Election box begin | title=[[2011 West Bengal state assembly election|West Bengal assembly elections, 2011]]: Bijpur constituency<ref name=vidhansabha2011>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2011/stat_WB_May2011.pdf|title = General Elections, India, 2011, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=736&cid=103| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120327191826/http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=736&cid=103| url-status = usurped| archive-date = 27 March 2012|title = West Bengal Assembly Election 2011 |work =Bijpur| publisher =Empowering India |access-date = 24 April 2011}}</ref>}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = Subhranshu Roy
|votes = 65,479
|percentage = 51.49
|change = +4.57#
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = Nirjharini Chakarborty
|votes = 52,867
|percentage = 41.57
|change = -11.08
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Kamala Kanta Chowdhury
|votes = 4,841
|percentage = 3.81
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ramen Mallick
|votes = 2,005
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Sarat Chandra Biswas
|votes = 1,982
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 127,174
|percentage = 80.24
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|loser = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|swing = 15.66%*
}}
{{Election box end}}

.*Swing calculated on Congress+Trinamool Congress vote percentages taken together in 2006.

===1977-2006===
In the [[2006 West Bengal state assembly election|2006 state assembly elections]]<ref name=vidhansabha2006>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_WB_2006.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 2006, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref> Dr. Nirjharini Chakraborty of [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] won the Bijpur seat defeating Kalyani Biswas (Basu) of [[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]]. Contests in most years were multi cornered but only winners and runners are being mentioned. In 2001,<ref name=vidhansabha2001>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/StatRept_WB_2001.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 2001, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref> Jagadish Chandra Das of CPI(M) won defeating Jagadish Das, son of Akul Das, of Trinamool Congress. Kamal Sengupta Basu of CPI(M) defeated Mrinal Kanti Singha Roy of [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] in 1996.<ref name=vidhansabha1996>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-WB96.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1996, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref> Jagadish Chandra Das of CPI(M) defeated Bimalananda Dutta of Congress in 1991<ref name=vidhansabha1991>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-West%20Bengal91.pdf|title = General Elections, India, 1991, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref> and 1987,<ref name=vidhansabha1987>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1987/StatisticalReportWestBengal87.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1987, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref> Prabir Bandopadhyay of Congress in 1982<ref name=vidhansabha1982>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1982/StatisticalReportWestBengal82.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1982, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref> and Jagadish Chandra Das, s/o Akul in 1977.<ref name=vidhansabha1977>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReportWestBengal77.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1977, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/archive/ElectionAnalysis/AE/S25/Partycomp128.htm |title =128 - Bijpur Assembly Constituency |work = Partywise Comparison Since 1977 | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 15 October 2010}}</ref>

===1951-1972===
Jagadish Chandra Das, s/o Akul, of Congress won in 1972<ref name=vidhansabha1972>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_WB_72.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1972, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref> and 1971.<ref name=vidhansabha1971>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1971/StatReport_WB_71.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1971, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref> Jagadish Chandra Das of CPI(M) won in 1969<ref name=vidhansabha1969>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1969/StatReport_WB_69.pdf|title = General Elections, India, 1969, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission |access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref> and 1967.<ref name=vidhansabha1967>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20report%20WB1967.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1967, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref> Monoranjan Roy of [[Communist Party of India|CPI]] won in [[1962 West Bengal state assembly election|1962]].<ref name=vidhansabha1962>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_WB_1962.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1962, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref>[[Niranjan Sengupta]] of CPI won in [[1957 West Bengal state assembly election|1957]]<ref name=vidhansabha1957>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_WB_1957.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1957, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref> and in [[1952 West Bengal state assembly election|independent India's first election in 1951]].<ref name=vidhansabha1952>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_WestBengal.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1951, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{North 24 Parganas topics}}
{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of West Bengal}}

{{West Bengal elections}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Politics of North 24 Parganas district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in West Bengal]]

9th Orissa Legislative Assembly

2026-05-05T05:31:17Z

RodEsters254334: made new article

{{Short description|9th state legislature of the Indian state of Orissa}}
{{Infobox legislative term
| background_color = #00BFFF
| name = 9th Orissa Legislative Assembly
| before = [[8th Orissa Legislative Assembly|8th Assembly]]
| after = [[10th Orissa Legislative Assembly|10th Assembly]]
| image = File:Odisha Vidhan Soudha.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Front view of Odisha Vidhan Saudha, [[Bhubaneshwar]] (2010)
| meeting_place = Odisha Vidhan Saudha, [[Bhubaneshwar]], [[Orissa]], [[India]]
| election = [[1985 Orissa Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| website = {{URL|https://assembly.odisha.gov.in/}}
| chamber1 = '''[[Orissa Legislative Assembly]]'''
| government = [[Indian National Congress]]
| opposition = [[Janata Party]]
| term_start = 9 March 1985
| term_end = 3 March 1990
| membership1 = 147
| chamber1_leader1_type = [[List of governors of Orissa|Governor]]
| chamber1_leader1 = [[Bishambhar Nath Pande]] [[Saiyid Nurul Hasan]] [[Yagya Dutt Sharma (Punjab politician)|Yagya Dutt Sharma]]
| chamber1_leader2_type = [[List of speakers of the Orissa Legislative Assembly|Speaker]]
| chamber1_leader2 = Prasanna Kumar Dash, [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| chamber1_leader3_type = [[List of speakers of the Orissa Legislative Assembly#Deputy Speaker|Deputy Speaker]]
| chamber1_leader3 = Chintamani Dyan Samantra, [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| chamber1_leader4_type = Leader of the House ([[List of Chief Ministers of Orissa|Chief Minister]])
| chamber1_leader4 = [[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]], [[Indian National Congress|INC]] [[Hemananda Biswal]], [[Indian National Congress|INC]]
| chamber1_leader5_type = [[List of leaders of the opposition in the Orissa Legislative Assembly|Leader of Opposition]]
| chamber1_leader5 = [[Biju Patnaik]], [[Janata Party|JP]]
| control1 = [[Indian National Congress]] (117/147)
| module = 11 Sessions with 188 Sittings
| chamber1_image = File:India Odisha Legislative Assembly 1985.svg
| chamber1_image_size = 300px
| chamber1_image_caption = House Composition as assembly begins
}}

The '''Ninth [[Orissa Legislative Assembly]]''' was convened after [[1985 Orissa Legislative Assembly election]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Orissa Assembly Election Results in 1985 |url=https://www.elections.in/orissa/assembly-constituencies/1985-election-results.html |access-date=2025-09-17 |website=www.elections.in}}</ref>

== Brief history ==
Riding on the sympathy wave, after the death of [[Indira Gandhi]], Chief Minister [[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]] won the reelection of [[1985 Orissa Legislative Assembly election|1985 Orissa Assembly election]]. He along with 5 Cabinet Ministers and 9 Minister of State were administered the oath of office and secrecy by Governor [[Bishambhar Nath Pande]] at the [[Raj Bhavan, Bhubaneswar]] on 10 March 1985.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2025-09-14|title=Brief History of Odisha Legislative Assembly|url=https://assembly.odisha.gov.in/AboutUs.aspx|website=[[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]}}</ref> Ministry was further expanded on 30 May 1985 & 22 July 1986.<ref name=":0" /> Following poor performance of Congress party in the [[1989 Indian general election|1989 Lok Sabha elections]], Shri Patnaik stepped down as CM taking moral responsibility on 7 December 1989. On Same day, Shri [[Hemananda Biswal]] along with 6 Cabinet Ministers, 15 Minister of State and 2 Deputy Minister were administered the oath of office and secrecy by Governor [[Yagya Dutt Sharma (Punjab politician)|Saiyid Nurul Hasan]]. Shri Biswal resigned on 5 March 1990 following Congress party's defeat in [[1990 Orissa Legislative Assembly election|1990 Odisha Legislative Assembly election]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Wayback Machine|url=https://www.journalofpoliticalscience.com/uploads/archives/6-2-1-681.pdf|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250620201803/https://www.journalofpoliticalscience.com/uploads/archives/6-2-1-681.pdf|archive-date=2025-06-20|access-date=2026-03-07|website=www.journalofpoliticalscience.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=LIST OF MEMBERS OF ODISHA LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY |url=https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/orissaannualreference/ORA-2011/pdf/453-501.pdf |website=Orissa Annual Reference}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Das|first=Dr. Sthitaprajna|last2=Panigrahi|first2=Puspalata|date=14 July 2024|title=A study on the state legislative assembly elections in Odisha (1952-2024)|url=https://www.journalofpoliticalscience.com/uploads/archives/6-2-1-681.pdf|journal=International Journal of Political Science and Governance|volume=6|issue=2|pages=28-33|via=E-ISSN: 2664-603X, P-ISSN: 2664-6021}}</ref>

== House Composition ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" |Party
! colspan="2" |Strength
|-
!'''Assembly Begins'''
!'''Assembly Disolves'''
|-
![[Indian National Congress]]
|117
|111
|-
!'''[[Janata Party]]'''
|21
|19
|-
![[Communist Party of India]]
|1
|1
|-
![[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|1
|1
|-
![[Independent politician|Independent]]
|7
|6
|-
!Vacant
| -
|11
|}

== Office Bearers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
!Post
!Portrait
!Name
! colspan="2" |Tenure
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
| rowspan="4" |'''[[List of governors of Orissa|Governor]]'''
|[[File:Bishambhar_Nath_Pande.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Bishambhar Nath Pande]]
|Assembly Begins
|20 November 1988
| colspan="2" rowspan="4" |N/A
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[File:Saiyid_Nurul_Hasan_16_(cropped).jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Saiyid Nurul Hasan]] {{small|(Additional Charge)}}
|20 November 1988
|20 March 1989
|-
|[[Saiyid Nurul Hasan]]
|20 March 1989
|6 February 1990
|-
|[[File:Yagya_Dutt_Sharma.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Yagya Dutt Sharma (Punjab politician)|Yagya Dutt Sharma]]
|7 February 1990
|Assembly Dissolves
|-
|'''[[List of speakers of the Orissa Legislative Assembly|Speaker]]'''
|[[File:Prasanna_Kumar_Dash.jpg|100x100px]]
|Prasanna Kumar Dash {{small|MLA from [[Baripada Assembly constituency|Baripada]]}}
|14 March 1985
|9 March 1990
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|'''[[List of speakers of the Orissa Legislative Assembly#Deputy Speakers|Deputy Speaker]]'''
| [[File:Chintamani Dyan Samantra.jpg|100x100px]]
|Chintamani Dyan Samantra {{small|MLA from [[Chikiti Assembly constituency|Chikiti]]}}
|18 March 1985
|3 March 1990
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|rowspan=2|'''[[Chief Minister of Orissa|Leader of the House]] '''{{Small|(Chief Minister) Leader of INC Legislature Party}}
|[[File:Janaki Ballav Patnaik.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]] {{small|MLA from [[Athagarh Assembly constituency|Athgarh]]}}
|10 March 1985
|7 December 1989
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[File:Hemananda Biswal.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Hemananda Biswal]] {{small|MLA from [[Laikera Assembly constituency|Laikera]]}}
|7 December 1989
|5 March 1990
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[List of leaders of the opposition in the Orissa Legislative Assembly|'''Leader of Opposition''']] {{Small|Leader of JP Legislature Party}}
|[[File:Biju-Patnaik.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Biju Patnaik]] {{small|MLA from [[Bhubaneswar Assembly constituency|Bhubaneswar]]}}
|22 March 1985
|3 March 1990
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[Speaker of the Lok Sabha#Pro tem speaker|Pro tem Speaker]]
| [[File:Sradhakar Supakar.jpg|100x100px]]
|[[Shraddhakar Supakar]] {{small|MLA from [[Sambalpur Assembly constituency|Sambalpur]]}}
|13 March 1985
|3 March 1985
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|}

== Council of Ministers ==

=== Janaki Ballabh Patnaik Ministry ===
{{Transcluded section|source=Second Janaki Ballabh Patnaik ministry}}
{{trim|{{#Section-h:Second Janaki Ballabh Patnaik ministry|Council of Ministers}}}}

=== Hemananda Biswal Ministry ===
{{Transcluded section|source=First Hemananda Biswal ministry}}
{{trim|{{#Section-h:First Hemananda Biswal ministry|Council of Ministers}}}}

== Members of Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|+[https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/orissaannualreference/ORA-2011/pdf/453-501.pdf Source]
!District
!AC. No.
!Constituency
!Member
! colspan="2" |Party
!Remarks
|-
| rowspan="12" |[[Mayurbhanj district|Mayurbhanj]]
|1
|[[Karanjia Assembly constituency|Karanjia (ST)]]
| Karunakar Naik
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|2
|[[Jashipur Assembly constituency|Jashipur (ST)]]
| [[Sambhunath Naik]]
| {{party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |3
| rowspan="2" |[[Bahalda Assembly constituency|Bahalda (ST)]]
| [[Bhagey Gobardhan]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|Resigned on December 1989 on his election to [[9th Lok Sabha]]
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Vacant''' (Since 7 December 1989)
|-
| rowspan="2" |4
| rowspan="2" |[[Rairangpur Assembly constituency|Rairangpur (ST)]]
| Bhabendra Nath Majhi
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Expired on 3 March 1986
|-
|[[Chaitanya Prasad Majhi]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|Won in 1986 Bypoll
|-
|5
|[[Bangriposi Assembly constituency|Bangriposi (ST)]]
| Kangoi Singh
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|6
|[[Kuliana Assembly constituency|Kuliana (ST)]]
| [[Saraswati Hembram]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|7
|[[Baripada Assembly constituency|Baripada]]
| Prasanna Kumar Dash
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|8
|[[Baisinga Assembly constituency|Baisinga (ST)]]
| Pruthunath Kisku
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|9
|[[Khunta Assembly constituency|Khunta (ST)]]
| Biram Murmu
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|10
|[[Udala Assembly constituency|Udala (ST)]]
| Ramaneswar Madhei
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="12" |[[Balasore district|Baleshwar]]
|11
|[[Bhograi Assembly constituency|Bhograi]]
| Umarani Patra
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|12
|[[Jaleswar, Odisha Assembly constituency|Jaleswar]]
| Judisthir Jena
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|13
|[[Basta Assembly constituency|Basta]]
| Bhupal Chandra Mahapatra
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|14
|[[Balasore Assembly constituency|Balasore]]
| [[Gopanarayan Das]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|15
|[[Soro Assembly constituency|Soro]]
| Jadunath Das Mohapatra
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|16
|[[Simulia Assembly constituency|Simulia]]
| [[Padma Lochan Panda]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|17
|[[Nilgiri Assembly constituency|Nilgiri]]
| Sukumar Nayak
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|18
|[[Bhandaripokhari Assembly constituency|Bhandaripokhari (SC)]]
| Panchanan Mandal
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|19
|[[Bhadrak Assembly constituency|Bhadrak]]
| Jugal Kishore Pattanayak
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|20
|[[Dhamnagar Assembly constituency|Dhamnagar]]
| [[Jagannath Rout]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|21
|[[Chandabali Assembly constituency|Chandbali (SC)]]
| Netrananda Malik
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|22
|[[Basudevpur Assembly constituency|Basudevpur]]
| Madhu Sadan Panigrahi
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="28" |[[Cuttack district|Cuttack]]
|23
|[[Sukinda Assembly constituency|Sukinda]]
| Sarata Rout
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|24
|[[Korei Assembly constituency|Korai]]
| [[Ramachandra Khuntia]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|25
|[[Jajpur Assembly constituency|Jajpur (SC)]]
| [[Jagannath Mallick]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|26
|[[Dharmasala Assembly constituency|Dharamsala]]
| Kangali Charan Panda
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|27
|[[Barchana Assembly constituency|Barchana]]
| Sitakanta Mahapatra
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |28
| rowspan="2" |[[Bari-derabisi Assembly constituency|Bari-Derabisi]]
| [[Srikant Kumar Jena]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|Resigned on December 1989 on his election to [[9th Lok Sabha]]
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Vacant''' (Since 7 December 1989)
|-
|29
|[[Binjharpur Assembly constituency|Binjharpur (SC)]]
| Nabakishore Mallick
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|30
|[[Aul Assembly constituency|Aul]]
| Olagobinda Nayak
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|31
|[[Patamundai Assembly constituency|Patamundai (SC)]]
| [[Ganeswar Behera]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|32
|[[Rajanagar Assembly constituency|Rajnagar]]
| Nalinikanta Mohanty
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|33
|[[Kendrapara Assembly constituency|Kendrapara]]
| [[Bhagabat Prasad Mohanty]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|34
|[[Patkura Assembly constituency|Patkura]]
| [[Bijoy Mohapatra]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|35
|[[Tirtol Assembly constituency|Tirtol]]
| [[Nityananda Samntaray]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|36
|[[Ersama Assembly constituency|Ersama]]
| Krushna Chandra Swain
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|37
|[[Balikuda-Erasama Assembly constituency|Balikuda]]
| Jyotish Chandra Das
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|38
|[[Jagatsinghpur Assembly constituency|Jagatsinghpur (SC)]]
| Kailash Chandra Mallik
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|39
|[[Kissannagar Assembly Constituency|Kissannagar]]
| Batakrishna Jena
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|40
|[[Mahanga Assembly constituency|Mahanga]]
| S. K. Matlub Ali
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|41
|[[Salipur Assembly constituency|Salepur (SC)]]
| Mayadhar Sethi
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |42
| rowspan="2" |[[Gobindpur, Odisha Assembly constituency|Gobindpur]]
| [[Trilochan Kanungo]]
| {{party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|Resigned on 15 September 1989.
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Vacant''' (Since 15 September 1989)
|-
|43
|[[Cuttack Sadar Assembly constituency|Cuttack Sadar]]
| Dola Gobind Pradhan
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|44
|[[Cuttack City Assembly constituency|Cuttack City]]
| Sayad Mustafiz Ahemad
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|45
|[[Choudwar-Cuttack Assembly constituency|Choudwar]]
| Rasananda Sahu
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|46
|[[Banki Assembly constituency|Banki]]
| Akshaya Kumar Pattanaik
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|47
|[[Athagarh Assembly constituency|Athgarh]]
| [[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|48
|[[Baramba Assembly constituency|Baramba]]
| Lalit Mohan Mohanty
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="17" |[[Puri district|Puri]]
|49
|[[Balipatna Assembly constituency|Balipatna (SC)]]
| Raghab Chandra Seth
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|50
|[[Bhubaneswar Assembly constituency|Bhubaneswar]]
| [[Biju Patnaik]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|51
|[[Jatani Assembly constituency|Jatni]]
| [[Suresh Kumar Routray]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|52
|[[Pipili Assembly constituency|Pipli]]
| [[Pradeep Maharathy]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|53
|[[Nimapara Assembly constituency|Nimapara (SC)]]
| [[Rabindra Kumar Sethy]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|54
|[[Kakatpur Assembly constituency|Kakatpur]]
| [[Surendra Nath Naik]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|55
|[[Satyabadi Assembly constituency|Satyabadi]]
| Rabindra Kumar Das
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|56
|[[Puri Assembly constituency|Puri]]
| [[Braja Kishore Tripathy]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|57
|[[Brahmagiri Assembly constituency|Brahmagiri]]
| Gangadhar Mohapatra
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|58
|[[Chilika Assembly constituency|Chilka]]
| Debendranath Manasingh
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |59
| rowspan="2" |[[Khurda Assembly constituency|Khurda]]
| [[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Elected from two seats, Resigned.
|-
|[[Prasanna Kumar Patasani]]
| {{party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|Won in 1985 Bypoll.
|-
|60
|[[Begunia Assembly constituency|Begunia]]
| Kailash Chandra Mohapatra
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|61
|[[Ranpur Assembly constituency|Ranpur]]
| Ramakanta Mishra
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|62
|[[Nayagarh Assembly constituency|Nayagarh]]
| [[Bhagabat Behera]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|63
|[[Khandapada Assembly constituency|Khandapara]]
| Bibhuti Bhusan Singh Mardaraj
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|64
|[[Daspalla Assembly constituency|Daspalla]]
| Harihar Karan
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="15" |[[Ganjam district|Ganjam]]
|65
|[[Jaganathprasad Assembly constituency|Jaganathprasad (SC)]]
| Damburudhar Sethi
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|66
|[[Bhanjanagar Assembly constituency|Bhanjanagar]]
| Umakanta Misra
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|67
|[[Surada Assembly constituency|Suruda]]
| Sarat Chandra Panda
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|68
|[[Aska Assembly constituency|Aska]]
| Raghaba Parida
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|69
|[[Kabisuryanagar Assembly constituency|Kabisuryanagar]]
| Radha Govinda Sahu
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|70
|[[Kodala Assembly constituency|Kodala]]
| [[Ram Krushna Patnaik]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|71
|[[Khalikote Assembly constituency|Khallikote]]
| [[V. Sugnana Kumari Deo]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|72
|[[Chhatrapur Assembly constituency|Chatrapur]]
| Ashok Kumar Choudhury
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|73
|[[Hinjili Assembly constituency|Hinjili]]
| Udayanath Nayak
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|74
|[[Gopalpur, Odisha Assembly constituency|Gopalpur (SC)]]
| Ghana Syama Behere
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|75
|[[Berhampur Assembly constituency|Berhampur]]
| Sibasankar Sahani
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|76
|[[Chikiti Assembly constituency|Chikiti]]
| Chintamani Dyan Samantara
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|77
|[[Mohana Assembly constituency|Mohana]]
| Sarat Kumar Jena
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|78
|[[Ramagiri Assembly constituency|Ramagiri (ST)]]
| Haladhar Karji
| {{party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|
|-
|79
|[[Paralakhemundi Assembly constituency|Parlakhemundi]]
| Trinath Sahu
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="14" |[[Koraput district|Koraput]]
|80
|[[Gunupur Assembly constituency|Gunupur (ST)]]
| [[Bhagirathi Gomango]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|81
|[[Bissam Cuttack Assembly constituency|Bissam-cuttack (ST)]]
| Dambaru Dhar Ulaka
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|82
|[[Rayagada Assembly constituency|Rayagada (ST)]]
| [[Ramachandra Ulaka|Ulaka Rama Chandra]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|83
|[[Laxmipur Assembly constituency|Lakshmipur (ST)]]
| Anantaram Majhi
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|84
|[[Pottangi Assembly constituency|Pottangi (ST)]]
| [[Chandrama Santha]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|85
|[[Koraput Assembly constituency|Koraput]]
| Nrushimananda Brahma
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|86
|[[Malkangiri Assembly constituency|Malkangiri (SC)]]
| Nadiabasi Biswas
| {{party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|
|-
|87
|[[Chitrakonda Assembly constituency|Chitrakonda (ST)]]
| Gangadhar Madi
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|88
|[[Kotpad Assembly constituency|Kotpad (ST)]]
| Basudev Majhi
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|89
|[[Jeypore Assembly constituency|Jeypore]]
| Gupta Prasad Das
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|90
|[[Nabarangpur Assembly constituency|Nowrangpur]]
| Habibulla Khan
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|91
|[[Kodinga Assembly constituency|Kodinga (ST)]]
| Bhogabati Pujari
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|92
|[[Dabugam Assembly constituency|Dabugam (ST)]]
| Domburu Majhi
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|93
|[[Umerkote Assembly constituency|Umarkote (ST)]]
| [[Parama Pujari]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="9" |[[Kalahandi district|Kalahandi]]
|94
|[[Nuapada Assembly constituency|Nawapara]]
| Ghasi Ram Majhi
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|95
|[[Khariar Assembly constituency|Khariar]]
| Anup Singh Deo
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|96
|[[Dharmagarh Assembly constituency|Dharamgarh (SC)]]
| Jugaram Behera
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|97
|[[Koksara Assembly constituency|Koksara]]
| Rahas Bihari Behera
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|98
|[[Junagarh Assembly constituency|Junagarh]]
| [[Bikram Keshari Deo]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |99
| rowspan="2" |[[Bhawanipatna Assembly constituency|Bhawanipatna (SC)]]
| [[Bhakta Charan Das]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|Resigned on December 1989 on his election to [[9th Lok Sabha]]
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Vacant''' (Since 7 December 1989)
|-
|100
|[[Narla Assembly constituency|Narla (ST)]]
| Kumarmani Sabar
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|101
|[[Kesinga Assembly constituency|Kesinga]]
| [[Bhupinder Singh (politician)|Bhupinder Singh]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Kandhamal district|Phulabani]]
|102
|[[Baliguda Assembly constituency|Balliguda (ST)]]
| Laxmikanta Mallik
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|103
|[[Udayagiri, Odisha Assembly constituency|Udayagiri (ST)]]
| [[Nagarjuna Pradhan]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|104
|[[Phulbani Assembly constituency|Phulbani (SC)]]
| Abhimanyu Behera
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|105
|[[Boudh Assembly constituency|Boudh]]
| Sujit Kumar Padhi
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="11" |[[Balangir district|Balangir]]
| rowspan="2" |106
| rowspan="2" |[[Titlagarh Assembly constituency|Titilagarh (SC)]]
| Purna Chandra Mahananda
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Expired on 18 May 1989.
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Vacant''' (Since 18 May 1989)
|-
|107
|[[Kantabanji Assembly constituency|Kantabanji]]
| Chaitanya Pradhan
| {{party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|
|-
|108
|[[Patnagarh Assembly constituency|Patnagarh]]
| Sushil Kumar Prushty
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|109
|[[Saintala Assembly constituency|Saintala]]
| Radha Kanta Panda
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |110
| rowspan="2" |[[Loisingha Assembly constituency|Loisingha]]
| [[Balgopal Mishra]]
| {{party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|Resigned on December 1989 on his election to [[9th Lok Sabha]]
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Vacant''' (Since 7 December 1989)
|-
|111
|[[Bolangir Assembly constituency|Bolangir]]
| Mahammad Mujafar Hussain Khan
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|112
|[[Sonepur Assembly constituency|Sonepur (SC)]]
| Achyuta Biswal
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|113
|[[Binka Assembly constituency|Binka]]
| Chitaranjan Mishra
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|114
|[[Birmaharajpur Assembly constituency|Birmaharajpur]]
| Kartika Prasad Taria
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="10" |[[Dhenkanal district|Dhenkanal]]
|115
|[[Athmallik Assembly constituency|Athmallik]]
| [[Amarnath Pradhan]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|116
|[[Angul Assembly constituency|Angul]]
| Prafulla Misra
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|117
|[[Hindol Assembly constituency|Hindol (SC)]]
| Rabinarayan Naik
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|118
|[[Dhenkanal Assembly constituency|Dhenkanal]]
| [[Nandini Satpathy]]
| {{party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|
|-
|119
|[[Gondia, Odisha Assembly constituency|Gondia]]
| Prafulla Kumar Bhanja
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|120
|[[Kamakhyanagar Assembly constituency|Kamakhyanagar]]
| Prasan Pattanayak
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |121
| rowspan="2" |[[Pallahara Assembly constituency|Pallahara]]
| Bibhudhendra Pratap Das
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Resigned on 30 December 1989.
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Vacant''' (Since 30 December 1989)
|-
| rowspan="2" |122
| rowspan="2" |[[Talcher Assembly constituency|Talcher (SC)]]
| [[Bhajaman Behara]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Disqualified under [[Anti-defection law (India)|Anti Defection Law]] on 15 September 1989.
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Vacant''' (Since 15 September 1989)
|-
| rowspan="13" |[[Sambalpur district|Sambalpur]]
|123
|[[Padampur Assembly constituency|Padampur]]
| Satyabhusan Sahu
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|124
|[[Melchhamunda Assembly constituency|Melchhamunda]]
| Prakashchandra Debta
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|125
|[[Bijepur Assembly constituency|Bijepur]]
| Nikunja Bihari Singh
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|126
|[[Bhatli Assembly constituency|Bhatli (SC)]]
| Mohan Nag
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|127
|[[Bargarh Assembly constituency|Bargarh]]
| Jadummani Pradhan
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|128
|[[Sambalpur Assembly constituency|Sambalpur]]
| [[Shraddhakar Supakar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|129
|[[Brajarajnagar Assembly constituency|Brajarajnagar]]
| Prasannakumar Panda
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|
|-
|130
|[[Jharsuguda Assembly constituency|Jharsuguda]]
| Birendra Pandey
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|131
|[[Laikera Assembly constituency|Laikera (ST)]]
| [[Hemananda Biswal]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|132
|[[Kuchinda Assembly constituency|Kuchinda (ST)]]
| Jagateshwar Mirdha
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|133
|[[Rairakhol Assembly constituency|Rairakhol (SC)]]
| Abhimanyu Kumar
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |134
| rowspan="2" |[[Deogarh Assembly constituency|Deogarh]]
| Raj Kishore Pradhan
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Resigned on 30 December 1989.
|-
| colspan="4" |'''Vacant''' (Since 30 December 1989)
|-
| rowspan="7" |[[Sundergarh district|Sundergarh]]
|135
|[[Sundargarh Assembly constituency|Sundargarh]]
| Bharatendra Sekher Deo
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|136
|[[Talsara Assembly constituency|Talsara (ST)]]
|[[Gajadhar Majhi]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|137
|[[Rajgangpur Assembly constituency|Rajgangpur (ST)]]
| [[Mangala Kisan]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|138
|[[Biramitrapur Assembly constituency|Biramitrapur (ST)]]
| Remish Kerketta
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|139
|[[Rourkela Assembly constituency|Rourkela]]
| [[Dilip Ray]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|140
|[[Raghunathpali Assembly constituency|Raghunathpali (ST)]]
| [[Frida Topno]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|141
|[[Bonai Assembly constituency|Bonai (ST)]]
| Basanta Kumar Singh Dandpat
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
| rowspan="6" |[[Kendujhar district|Keonjhar]]
|142
|[[Champua Assembly constituency|Champua (ST)]]
| Dhanurjay Laguri
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|143
|[[Patna Assembly constituency|Patna]]
| [[Hrushikesh Naik]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|144
|[[Keonjhar Assembly constituency|Keonjhar (ST)]]
| Chhotaray Majhi
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|
|-
|145
|[[Telkoi Assembly constituency|Telkoi (ST)]]
| Pranaballav Naik
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|146
|[[Ramchandrapur, Odisha Assembly Constituency|Ramchandrapur]]
| [[Niranjan Patnaik]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|-
|147
|[[Anandapur Assembly constituency|Anandapur (SC)]]
| [[Jayadev Jena]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|
|}

== Bypolls ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|+[https://assembly.odisha.gov.in/DocumentDetails/historicalbackground/historical-background.pdf Source]
!Year
!Constituency
!Reason for by-poll
!Winning candidate
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
| April 1985
| [[Khurda Assembly constituency|Khurda]]
| Resignation of [[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]]
| [[Prasanna Kumar Patasani]]
| {{party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
| November 1986
| [[Rairangpur Assembly constituency|Rairangpur (ST)]]
| Death of Bhabendra Nath Majhi
| [[Chaitanya Prasad Majhi]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Odisha Legislative Assembly}}

[[Category:Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:Orissa MLAs 1985–1990]]
[[Category:Terms of the Odisha Legislative Assembly]]

Sonu Shivdasani

2026-04-30T03:07:46Z

RodEsters254334:

{{short description|Indian–British hotelier (born 1965)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sonu Shivdasani
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|OBE}}
| image = Sonu and Eva Shivdasani.jpg
| alt = Sonu and Eva Shivdasani by Antonina Gern
| caption = Sonu and Eva Shivdasani by Antonina Gern
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1965}}
| birth_place = India
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| other_names =
| occupation = Founder and CEO of [[Soneva]]
| known_for = Eco-friendly resorts in [[Maldives]] and [[Thailand]]
}}

'''Sonu Shivdasani''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|OBE}} (born 1965) is a British hotelier. He is the founder of the [[Soneva]] resort chain which operates luxury resorts in the [[Maldives]] and [[Thailand]]. He is also the founder and former CEO of Six Senses Resorts & Spas, which had locations throughout South East Asia and Europe, and was sold in 2012.

==Early life and education==
Sonu was born in India. He is the youngest son of Lakshmi and Indoo Shivdasani (1918–1979), an Indian businessman who made his fortune trading in [[Nigeria]], with his offices based in London and [[Geneva]].<ref name="ht10">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Luxury/A-rich-man-s-world/Article1-523660.aspx|title=A rich man's world|author=Vir Sanghvi|date=27 March 2010|accessdate=25 April 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824233718/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Luxury/A-rich-man-s-world/Article1-523660.aspx|archivedate=24 August 2013|url-status=dead|work=Hindustan Times}}</ref> His parents originated from [[Sindh]], in modern-day Pakistan, his father immigrating to England long before the [[Partition of India]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The luxury king: Sonu Shivdasani's Six Senses resorts are playgrounds for the super-rich |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100110/jsp/graphiti/story_11961363.jsp |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130630114104/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100110/jsp/graphiti/story_11961363.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 June 2013 |work=The Telegraph |location=India|date=10 January 2010 |accessdate=25 April 2013}}</ref> His grandfather was an [[Indian Civil Service]] officer during the [[British Raj]]. His father studied at [[Clare College, Cambridge]] and built a business in finance, trade and agro-allied industries in West Africa, India and Europe.<ref>{{cite news |date=24 September 2011 |title=Poets of hope |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/poets-of-hope-111092400075_1.html |accessdate=25 April 2012 |work=Business Standard |last1=Sangghvi |first1=Malavika }}</ref> His father died in 1979, when Sonu was 13, leaving his older brother Azad to look after the family business.

Sonu studied at [[Eton College]] in England and [[Institut Le Rosey]] in Switzerland. He graduated from [[Oxford University]] with an MA in English Literature in 1988.<ref name="ht10" /><ref name="bw">{{cite web|url=http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId=47870075&privcapId=32792184|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130628202604/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId=47870075&privcapId=32792184|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 June 2013|title=Executive Profile: Sonu Shivdasani|work=Business Week|accessdate=25 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bombay-times/Lifes-easy-if-you-enjoy-what-you-are-doing/articleshow/1287464.cms|title='Life's easy if you enjoy what you are doing'|date=17 February 2002|accessdate=25 April 2013|work=The Times of India}}</ref>

His older sister Bina Shivdasani, Countess Sella di Monteluce (1949–2006), was a philanthropist in women's education and was the first [[High Sheriff of Greater London]] of Asian origin in 2002.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kovaleski |first=Serge F. |date=1993-08-11 |title=FOR ONE WOMAN, CHILDREN'S ISLAND IS NO FANTASY |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1993/08/11/for-one-woman-childrens-island-is-no-fantasy/7694b152-48f3-42a9-8113-ccc49d012208/ |access-date=2024-01-18 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=April 18, 2006 |first=January 13, 1949- |date=2024-01-18 |title=Bina Shivdasani, Countess Sella di Monteluce |newspaper=[[The Times]] |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/bina-shivdasani-countess-sella-di-monteluce-3g0fprgx52z |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118133627/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/bina-shivdasani-countess-sella-di-monteluce-3g0fprgx52z |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 January 2024 |access-date=2024-01-18 |language=en |issn=0140-0460}}</ref>

==Career==
After graduating from Oxford, Sonu started working with his older brother Azad Shivdasani to manage their family businesses.<ref name=ht10/> After having worked together for two years he founded Six Senses BVI.

In 1995, Sonu and his wife Eva, who took on the role of creative director, opened Soneva Fushi resort on the [[Kunahandhoo (Laamu Atoll)|Kunahandhoo]] island in the Maldives. They also started the Evason group of hotels and the Six Senses Resorts & Spas, with properties opening across South East Asia and Europe. In 2009 they opened Soneva Kiri on [[Ko Kut district|Ko Kut]] island in Thailand. By 2011, Six Senses expanded into an international luxury spa and resort chain with 26 resorts and 41 spas.<ref>{{cite news |title=Six Senses to redefine luxury for Indian consumers: Shivdasani |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-03-18/news/29141913_1_luxury-indian-businessman-maharajas |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305020943/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-03-18/news/29141913_1_luxury-indian-businessman-maharajas |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 March 2016 |work=The Economic Times |date=18 March 2011 |accessdate=25 April 2013}}</ref> In 2012, Sonu sold Six Senses to Pegasus Capital and shifted to focus on Soneva's resorts and private residences as part of the "One Owner, One Operator, One Philosophy, One Brand".<ref>{{cite web |title=Soneva Group History |url=http://www.soneva.com/soneva/media-centre/media-centre/soneva-group-history |publisher=Soneva website |accessdate=25 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130613044116/http://www.soneva.com/soneva/media-centre/media-centre/soneva-group-history |archivedate=13 June 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Q & A SONU SHIVDASANI, Chairman & CEO Soneva Group |url=http://www.luxurytravelbible.com/Q-and-A-Sonu-Shivdasani |date= 19 June 2012 |work=Luxury Travel Bible }}</ref>

Sonu is one of the founders of the Soneva Foundation (previously known as the SLOWLIFE Foundation), a UK-registered charity. In 2023, Sonu was honoured as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to tourism, sustainability and charity in the King's New Year Honours 2023 Overseas and International List.<ref>{{cite news |title=Soneva founder, CEO Sonu Shivdasani awarded OBE in King's New Year Honours 2023 list|url=https://hospitality.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/hotels/soneva-founder-ceo-sonu-shivdasani-awarded-obe-in-kings-new-year-honours-2023-list/96727191?redirect=1 |work=The Economic Times |date=4 January 2023 |accessdate=23 January 2023}}</ref>

Named a “pioneer of barefoot luxury and philanthropist extraordinaire”, Sonu was the recipient of the prestigious SevenRooms Icon Award – the only award given to an individual and not a hotel property – at the first-ever edition of The World's 50 Best Hotels in 2023.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pioneer of barefoot luxury and philanthropist extraordinaire|url=https://www.theworlds50best.com/hotels/awards/icon-award.html |work=50 Best |date=19 September 2023 |accessdate=16 April 2024}}</ref>

==Personal life==
He first met Eva Malmstrom, a Swedish model,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Portee |first=Allyson |title=From A Cover Model To A Fashion Designer, Eva Malmström Shivdasani Opens Up About Her Creative Journey To Her Maldivian Paradise |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/allysonportee/2021/02/15/from-being-on-the-covers-of-over-100-fashion-magazines-to-being-a-fashion-designer-eva-malmstrm-shivdasani-opens-up-about-her-creative-journey-to-her-maldavian-paradise/ |access-date=2024-01-18 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> when they were introduced through his sister, the Countess Bina Sella di Monteluce, at the [[Monaco Grand Prix]] in [[1986 Monaco Grand Prix|1986]]. They later married<ref name=ht10/> and spent their honeymoon traveling around some of the world's most exclusive hotels and resorts, inspiring them to open their own. They leased a resort in the Maldives and set about creating their dream and a few years later opened Soneva Fushi.<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://virsanghvi.com/Article-Details.aspx?Key=1221
| title = Vir Sanghvi
| website = virsanghvi.com
| access-date = 25 February 2016
}}</ref> Eva became a designer and Soneva's Creative Director and Conscience, designing interiors at their resorts in the Maldives and Thailand.<ref>{{cite web |title=Travel Insider: Sonu and Eva Shivdasani |url=http://www.harpersbazaar.co.uk/travel/tips/-travel-insider-sonu-and-eva-s |date=16 November 2010 |publisher=Harper's Bazaar |accessdate=25 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029203447/http://www.harpersbazaar.co.uk/travel/tips/-travel-insider-sonu-and-eva-s |archivedate=29 October 2013 }}</ref>

Sonu was diagnosed with cancer in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-08 |title=Guest Column by Sonu Shivdasani: A mind, body & soul approach |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/lifestyle/brunch/guest-column-by-sonu-shivdasani-a-mind-body-soul-approach-101649438042466.html |access-date=2024-01-18 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

He was honored as an Officer of the [[Order of the British Empire]] by King [[Charles III]] for his contributions to "tourism, sustainability and charity" in the [[2023 New Year Honours]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=King Charles III Honors Hospitality Pioneer, Soneva Founder Sonu Shivdasani - 85194 |url=https://www.luxurytravelmagazine.com/news-articles/king-charles-iii-honors-hospitality-pioneer-soneva-founder-sonu-shivdasani |access-date=2024-01-18 |website=www.luxurytravelmagazine.com}}</ref>

==Legal Matters==
=== Collaboration with the former Maldives’ Minister of Tourism, [[Ahmed Adeeb]] ===
In 2018 Sonashah Shivdasani and his Soneva Jani Resort in the Maldives were highlighted in an OCCRP (Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project) report as partners to the former Minister of Tourism in the Maldives, Ahmed Adeeb. [[Soneva]] is a privately held company of Sonu Shivdasani and his wife Eva Malmstrom Shivdasani. Records show that the Shivdasanis obtained the Maldives island of Medhufaru and its surroundings, now the location of their Soneva Jani resort, via a no-bid contract in 2014.

Ahmed Adeeb, the former tourism minister of the Maldives, leased out over 50 islands and lagoons for tourism development without the public tenders the law of the Maldives normally requires. Tens of millions of dollars' worth of these lease fees were then embezzled by Adeeb and his accomplices.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.occrp.org/en/paradiseleased/meet-the-businessmen-and-global-brands-that-got-the-islands | title=Meet the Businessmen and Global Brands That Got the Islands - OCCRP | newspaper=Occrp }}</ref>

The allegations against Soneva were later dropped as the processes through which Medhufaru Island and its surroundings were acquired in 2014 were in strict compliance with the legal frameworks and regulations of the Maldives. Before the development of Soneva Jani resort, which opened to guests in 2016, the conversion of the island lease from agricultural to tourism purposes was executed legally, adhering to all necessary legal and procedural standards. This was ratified through official letters from the Ministry of Tourism, Republic of Maldives, categorically exonerating both Soneva and Sonu Shivdasani from any alleged involvement in the island lease bribery and money laundering investigation into former Maldives President Abdulla
Yameen and former Maldives Tourism Minister Ahmed Adeeb.

=== Soneva Kiri fire ===
The Soneva Kiri Resort, a privately held company of Sonu Shivdasani and his wife Eva Malmstrom Shivdasani, was under investigation by the Department of Special Investigation by the Natural Resources and Environment Division in Thailand. A report on the resort's safety standards were published in March 2022. A fire broke out at the Soneva Kiri Resort on Koh Kut island and gutted one of the site's villas. Incorrectly reported at the time, charges were alleged to have been brought against three executives of the resort, including Sonashah Shivdasani. The claims include causing a fire by negligence, causing damages to people's property, endangering other persons, and allowing others to use the building for hotel business without obtaining a license from the local officials.
These allegations were since dropped and the case was subsequently closed. Soneva Kiri was found to operates within the legal framework established for land utilisation and environmental conservation. A memorandum from the Trat Provincial Land Office confirmed the legality of the resort's land acquisition and use. Following the fire in Villa 63 in 2021, Soneva Kiri reinforced the resort's safety measures and protocols. Throughout the investigation into the incident, Soneva Kiri fully cooperated with the authorities, as well as liaising effectively between its insurers and the family affected by the incident to reach a mutually satisfactory outcome.

=== Soneva Kiri Property Dispute ===

In March 2021, a case (KSL Capital Partners, case number 1:21-mc-00064, in the U.S. District Court for the District of Colorado) was brought by a Swiss businessman who petitioned under Section 1782 of the U.S. Code — which allows federal courts to order entities in their districts to turn over evidence to be used in certain foreign proceedings - for the court to obtain information from a private equity firm in order to pursue foreign proceedings against Sonu Shivdasani his company Bluebay Resorts (BVI) Ltd.

The Swiss businessman Jean Sebastian Ferrer Funke and his company Ecoprivate Business Ltd. alleged that Sonu Shivdasani deceived them into investing in a $6.2 million villa in Thailand and thus filed an ex parte petition for a federal court order to obtain evidence from KSL Capital Partners, a Denver-based private equity firm specializing in travel and leisure enterprises, which participated in a $230 million investment in Sonashah Shivdasani's Soneva Kiri Resort.
Shivdasani was accused of running a scheme that used Bluebay as a vehicle to fraudulently induce Ferrer and Ecoprivate to purchase a Thai villa and surrounding land at the Soneva Kiri Resort for $6.2 million. The lawsuit claimed Shivdasani failed to deliver the property to them, resulting in Ferrer and Ecoprivate requesting access to KSL's documents for use in a contemplated criminal complaint against Shivdasani in Switzerland for fraud and criminal mismanagement, and for Ecoprivate to commence an arbitration proceeding against Bluebay.
However, all allegations that Sonu Shivdasani made misrepresentations were dismissed by the tribunal. Some of the tribunal's key findings were:
Ferrer's evidence related to Shivdasani's alleged misrepresentations were deemed unreliable; The tribunal found that Bluebay and Shivdasani did not seek to defraud Ecoprivate and Ferrer into purchasing the villa; and the tribunal found there was no illegality in the original acquisition of the resort land, accepting Shivdasani's evidence for this issue.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.soneva.com/ Soneva website]
*{{cite web |title=Cover Story: Sonu Shivdasani: Creating Ownership |url=http://www.businesstoday.lk/cover_page.php?issue=243 |date=November 2011 |publisher=Business Today }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shivdasani, Sonu}}
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:British hoteliers]]
[[Category:Indian hoteliers]]
[[Category:People educated at Eton College]]
[[Category:Alumni of Institut Le Rosey]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Oxford]]
[[Category:British people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:British people of Sindhi descent]]
[[Category:Sindhi businesspeople]]
[[Category:Sindhi people]]

KTM 390 series

2026-04-24T19:58:27Z

RodEsters254334: Adding stub

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox motorcycle
| name = KTM 390 Duke
| image = Ktm duke 390.jpg
| caption =
| aka =
| manufacturer = [[Bajaj Auto]] and [[KTM]]
| parent_company =
| production = 2013–present
| assembly = India, Philippines, and Argentina<ref name="TopGear"/>
| predecessor =
| successor =
| class = [[Types of motorcycles#Standard|Standard]]
| engine = {{cvt|398.7|cc}} [[Four-stroke engine|4-stroke]], [[Radiator (engine cooling)|liquid-cooled]] [[Single-cylinder engine|single]]<ref name="CW2024" />
| bore_stroke = {{cvt|89|×|64|mm}}
| compression = 12.6:1
| top_speed = {{cvt|106|mph|order=flip}}<ref name="Malone2013" /><ref name="Searle2015a" />
| power = {{ubl
| {{cvt|33|kW}} @ 9,500 rpm (claimed)<ref name="dePrato2013" />
}}
| torque = {{ubl
| {{cvt|26|ftlb|Nm|order=flip}} @ 7250 rpm (claimed)<ref name="dePrato2013" />
}}
| ignition = [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]] [[Ignition system#Digital electronic ignitions|digital]]
| transmission = [[Clutch#Wet vs. dry|Wet clutch]], [[Sequential manual transmission|6-speed]], [[X-ring chain]]
| frame = Tubular steel [[Motorcycle frame#Trellis|trellis]]
| suspension = {{ubl
| Front: 43 mm WP [[telescopic fork]], {{cvt|150|mm}} travel
| Rear: [[Suspension (motorcycle)#Mono-shock|mono-shock]] [[swingarm]]
}}
| brakes = {{ubl
| [[ByBre]] [[Anti-lock braking system|ABS]] [[Disc brake|disc]]
| Front: four-piston radial caliper, 300 mm (2013–2016) 320 mm (2017–present) rotor
| Rear: 230 mm
}}
| tires = [[Metzeler]] Sportec M5 17-110/70 x 17-150/60
| rake_trail = 25°, {{cvt|100|mm}}
| wheelbase = {{cvt|1367|mm}}
| length = {{cvt|2002|mm}}
| width = {{cvt|873|mm}}
| height = {{cvt|1267|mm}}
| seat_height = {{cvt|800|mm}}
| dry_weight = {{cvt|149|kg}} (claimed)<ref name="Wheeler2013" />
| wet_weight = {{ubl
| {{cvt|168.3|kg}} (claimed)<ref name="HindustanTimes2013" />
| {{cvt|372|lb|order=flip}}<ref name="Searle2015a" />
}}
| fuel_capacity = {{cvt|13.5|L|usgal}}
| oil_capacity =
| fuel_consumption = {{cvt|60|mpgimp|order=flip}}<ref name="Malone2013" />
| turning_radius =
| related = [[KTM Duke series]] [[KTM 690 series]]
| sp = us
}}

The '''KTM 390 Series''' are a range<ref name="Range">{{cite web | url=https://www.bikedekho.com/news/2025-ktm-390-family-explained-duke-390-390-adventure-390-enduro-r-and-more-17873 | title=2025 KTM 390 Family Explained: Duke 390, 390 Adventure, 390 Enduro R And More|author=Samarth | website=BikeDekho |access-date=26 August 2025 |language=en |date=12 April 2025}}</ref> of [[single-cylinder engine]] [[motorcycle]]s assembled by [[Bajaj Auto]], and KTM Asia Motorcycle Manufacturing, Inc. (KAMMI) for the Austrian manufacturer [[KTM]].<ref name="TopGear" />

There are currently six bike models which were developed under a joint program of Bajaj and KTM engineers, in which the concept was developed in Austria, while everything else, including design and final product development, was done in India by Bajaj.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/bajaj-to-be-first-indian-auto-firm-to-make-bikes-for-us-roads-113020600006_1.html |title=Bajaj to be First Indian Auto Firm to Make Bikes for US Roads |last=Baggonkar |first=Swaraj |date=6 February 2013 |newspaper=[[Business Standard]] |access-date=23 December 2018}}</ref> The six models in the line up are the road worthy 390 Duke, RC 390 and 390 SMC R and the dual purpose 390 Enduro R, 390 Adventure R and the 390 Adventure X.

== History ==
The 390 Duke [[Types of motorcycles#Standard|standard]] debuted at the 2012 [[EICMA]] show in [[Milan]], Italy, and went on sale in India and the Philippines in 2013 and in the US in 2015.<ref name="HindustanTimes2013" /><ref name="HindustanTimes2012" /><ref name="revzilla.com" /> The RC 390 [[sport bike]] was presented at EICMA the following year.<ref name="Edge2013" /> After the Duke's initial release, KTM CEO Stefan Pierer announced plans to export the 390 Duke to the US for 2014.<ref name="Baggonkar2013" /><ref name="Bornhop2013" /> Bajaj said eventually the bike will be sold in 80 countries worldwide.<ref name="Chaudhari2013" /> Pierer said in December 2015 that KTM and Bajaj plan to replace the 125, 200, and the 390-series Duke and RC lines in 2017, based on all new platforms, in part tarnavo meet [[European emission standards|Euro IV]] emissions standards, and to incorporate new technologies such as ride-by-wire.<ref name="MSN2015" />

In 2024 KTM started the transition from the original {{cvt|373.2|cc|cuin}} motor to the new {{cvt|398.6|cc|cuin}} LC4c motors.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://press.ktm.com/news-the-brand-new-2024-single-cylinder-ktm-duke-line-up-roars-to-life?id=189159&menueid=6521&l=north%20america |title=THE BRAND NEW 2024 SINGLE-CYLINDER KTM DUKE LINE-UP ROARS TO LIFE |date=15 November 2024 |access-date=26 August 2025}}</ref><ref name="CW2024">{{cite web |last1=Child |first1=Adam |title=2024 KTM 390 Duke First Ride |url=https://www.cycleworld.com/motorcycle-reviews/ktm-390-duke-first-ride/ |website=Cycle World |access-date=27 January 2025 |language=en |date=4 March 2024}}</ref> The new 390 SMC R, Enduro and Adventure models began introduction into the 2025 line-up.<ref name="Range" />

==390 Duke==
{{See|KTM Duke series}}
In its home market, the 390 Duke's engine size and weight place it in the mid-range category, and it sells for more than three times the average price of a motorcycle in India.<ref name="HindustanTimes2013" /><ref name="Baggonkar2010" /> As one Indian reviewer put it "The 390 Duke may well be a simple little A2 license commuter for the European rider, but in the environs of Mumbai traffic, it's a proper rocket-powered scalpel."<ref name="Burman 2013" /> In the US market, the same motorcycle is considered small-displacement, lightweight, and relatively inexpensive.<ref name="Bornhop2013" /> Similarly, the UK ''[[Sunday Times]]'' said, "Given that the 390 Duke weighs less than 150kg when it's full of fuel, you have to sit on it to stop it blowing away. It's as agile in traffic as a push-bike and whippet-thin," saying the bike was ideal for young riders with the A2 license, limited to {{cvt|47|bhp}}, who would find it easy to ride and confidence-inspiring, while feeling "fast and sporty".<ref name="Malone2013" /> Such a bike in the UK would also appeal to experienced riders looking for a practical and efficient commuter bike and runabout.<ref name="Malone2013" /> The 390 Duke won the 2013–14 Jury's Choice Bike of the Year in The [[Bloomberg TV India]] [[Autocar (magazine)|Autocar]] India Awards.<ref name="Motoroids2013" /> ''IndianCarsBikes'' said that with a top speed of {{cvt|180|kph}} and a {{cvt|0|to|100|kph}} time of 4.3 seconds, the 390 Duke is the fastest motorcycle made in India {{As of|2014|1|lc=y}}.<ref name="Rakesh2014" />

''[[Motorcycle Consumer News]]'' tested the 390 Duke's top speed to be {{cvt|110.0|mph|order=flip}}, with acceleration from {{cvt|0|to|60|mph|order=flip}} in 4.34 seconds, and {{cvt|0|to|1/4|mi}} in 14.02 seconds at {{cvt|91.88|mph|order=flip}}.<ref name="Searle2015a" /> The brakes stopped the bike from {{cvt|60|to|0|mph|order=flip}} in {{cvt|141.3|ft|order=flip}}, and fuel economy was tested at {{cvt|59.3|mpgus|order=flip}}.<ref name="Searle2015a" /> The 390 Duke weighed {{cvt|338|lb|order=flip}} wet and the engine power was {{cvt|40.29|hp|order=flip}} at 9,600 rpm, with {{cvt|24.28|ftlb|Nm|order=flip}} torque @ 7,000 rpm.<ref name="Searle2015a" /> The brakes were considered to be "the most obvious flaw on the 390".<ref name="Kiser2015" />

It comes standard with [[kickstand]] sensor, switchable dual-channel combined ABS, [[traction control system]], [[engine braking]] control, adaptive brake light, and cornering lights. As a feature, it has no [[Remote keyless system|keyless ignition]] but only optional [[immobiliser]] key and alarm system.

===Duke model timeline===
The 390 Duke of 2013 came about from efforts to place the larger 373cc motor into the robust frame of the [[KTM 200 Duke|Duke 200]] while utilizing the same suspension and brakes.<ref name="dePrato2013" />

===2017 update===
After 2017, the 390 series' front brake disc was increased from 300 mm to 320 mm. The headlight was redesigned and converted to LED. The display became a color [[Thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display|TFT]] panel with phone pairing capability. Seat height was increased from {{cvt|800|mm|in|1|abbr=in|lk=}} to {{cvt|830|mm|in|1|abbr=}} and wheelbase was decreased 10 mm. The brake and clutch levers were also made manually adjustable.<ref name="Corey 2018"/> The throttle now uses a ride by wire system and the tank was updated from {{cvt|11|to|13.5|L|usgal}}.

=== 2018 update ===
In 2018, KTM updated its Duke 390 with some minor changes, where it added a deflector plate on the left side of the chassis, to avoid exhaust heat near the riders leg.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/auto/auto-news/story/ktm-390-duke-white-is-in-india-gets-new-features-and-updates-1136101-2018-01-11 | title=KTM 390 Duke white is in India, gets new features and updates | date=11 January 2018 }}</ref> The Duke 390 in India gained new features and updates. The Duke 390 comes with a daytime running light, and is on [[European emission standards|Euro IV]] emission standards.

=== 2020 update ===
The bike was made [[Bharat stage emission standards|BS6]] compliant and a bi-directional [[quickshifter]] was added.

=== 2022 update ===
3 new colors are available for the 2022 Duke, which was launched in Egypt at an ex-showroom price of {{INRConvert|2.7|l}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://auto.hindustantimes.com/auto/two-wheelers/ktm-390-duke-rivaling-2022-bmw-g-310-r-launched-in-india-at-rs-2-70-lakh-41657856737091.html|title=KTM 390 Duke rivaling 2022 BMW G 310 R launched in India at ₹2.70 lakh|author=HT Auto Desk|date=July 15, 2022|website=Hindustan Times Auto News}}</ref> In Austria, it was released at {{FXConvert|AUT|6749|cursign={{Euro|link=yes}}}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zweirad-wimmer.at/neumotorrad/ktm/naked-bike/ktm-390-duke-2022|title=KTM 390 Duke 2022|website=Zweirad Wimmer - KTM & Husqvarna}}</ref>

=== 2023 update ===
After using the old 373cc LC4 engine for a decade, the Duke 390 received its first definitive engine upgrade in 2023. The new engine, called the LC4c, was 399cc compared to the old 373cc and also made more power and torque with peak power being approximately {{cvt|32.8|kW}} and peak torque now being {{cvt|28.8|ftlb|Nm|order=flip}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ghosh |first=Arka |date=23 April 2026 |title=KTM India website |url=https://www.ktmindia.com/ktm-bikes/naked-bike/ktm-390-duke-r/specifications }}</ref>

The chassis and subframe were also entirely new. To allow for a bigger airbox, KTM moved the rear monoshock to the right which also allowed them to reduce the seat height from 820mm in the older models to a more accessible 800mm. However, an accessory 820mm seat is still offered by KTM. Due to these changes, the ground clearance too went up significantly from 150mm to 183mm. And this was the first time the Duke 390 received fully adjustable suspensions at both the front and rear.<ref>{{cite web | title=KTM 390 Duke Specifications, Feature, Weight, Tyre Size | url=https://www.ktmindia.com/ktm-bikes/naked-bike/ktm-390-duke-r/specifications }}</ref> The girl tank capacity also went up from 13.5L to 15L.

The brakes received a significant upgrade as well with the front brake now being a wheel mounted disc over the regular, hub-mounted disc unit on the old bike.

=== 2025 update ===
The LC4c engine still made {{cvt|32.8|kW}} and {{cvt|28.8|ftlb|Nm|order=flip}} but received an improved transmission and optimized [[cylinder head]] for a smoother power delivery and lighter weight.

A 5″ bonded-glass TFT display with turn-by-turn navigation, music, and call integration was offered. The three ride modes - Street, Rain, Track - were still on offer. Launch Control is standard and has been so since 2023 but is unlocked only after covering the first 1000kms.

Cruise control also became a standard and three new buttons on the left side switch gears were added for the dedicated cruise control mode with pedal switches to increase or decrease the cruise control speed on the fly.

=== 2026 update ===
After India brought revised GST rates in September 2025 which increased the GST rates of bikes above 350cc from 28% to 40%, KTM-Bajaj decided to launch sub-350cc KTM models which would be sold alongside the existing 399 cc models. A new moniker, the Duke 390 R, was created by KTM to denote the 399cc bikes while the Duke 390 moniker went to the new, sub-350cc engine which now made less power and torque than their 399cc counterparts. Earlier in this year, KTM also decided to switch from a ByBre brakes setup to a WP brakes setup.

==390 SMC R==
The [[Supermoto]] version of the 390 Duke, the KTM 390 SMC R was introduced in 2025. Its 399cc LC4c motor produces 46 PS. The ride-by-wire throttle allows Street and Sport ride modes, on/off traction control, and Supermoto ABS mode allowing you to turn off the rear ABS (front ABS is always on). The SMC R has different geometry via 26.9 deg steering head angle, different subframe mounts and a different flex profile compared to the Duke. The wheelbase is almost 4 inches longer as well. It is equipped with 17" wire spoked wheels. It joins the other two bikes in the KTM Supermoto lineup, the 450 SMR and the [[KTM 690 series#690 supermoto|690 SMC R]].<ref name="25SMCR">{{cite web |last1=Conner |first1=Blake |title=2025 KTM 390 SMC R First Look |url=https://www.cycleworld.com/bikes/ktm-390-smc-r-first-look/ |website=[[Cycle World]] |access-date=17 December 2025 |language=en |date=15 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="25CN Review">{{cite web |last1=Scaysbrook |first1= Rennie |title=2025 KTM 390 SMC R Review |url=https://www.cyclenews.com/2025/08/article/2025-ktm-390-smc-r-review/ |website=Cycle News |access-date=17 December 2025 |language=en |date=14 August 2025}}</ref>

=={{Anchor|RC390}}RC 390==
{{Infobox motorcycle
| name = KTM RC 390
| image = KTM RC390 Photo-1449426468159-d96dbf08f19f 2015.jpg
| caption =
| aka =
| manufacturer = [[Bajaj Auto]] and [[KTM]]
| parent_company =
| production = 2014–present
| assembly = India and Philippines<ref name="TopGear" />
| predecessor =
| successor =
| class = [[Sport bike]]
| engine = {{cvt|373.2|cc}} [[single-cylinder engine|single]]
| bore_stroke = {{cvt|89|×|60|mm}}
| compression =
| top_speed = {{cvt|110|mph|order=flip}}<ref name="Searle2015b" /><ref name="Canet2015" />
| power = {{cvt|40.29|hp|order=flip}} @ 8,600 rpm<ref name="Searle2015b" />
| torque = {{cvt|24.28|ftlb|Nm|order=flip}} @ 6,800 rpm<ref name="Searle2015b" />
| ignition = [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]] [[Ignition system#Digital electronic ignitions|digital]]
| transmission = Multi-plate wet clutch ([[Slipper clutch|slipper]] (2017–present), 6-speed, [[X-ring chain]]
| frame = Single-piece [[trellis frame|steel trellis]]
| suspension = {{ubl
| Front: 43 mm WP [[Motorcycle fork#Telescopic fork|telescopic fork]], 150 mm travel
| Rear: [[Suspension (motorcycle)#Mono-shock|mono-shock]] [[swingarm]] adj. preload, damping
}}
| brakes = {{ubl
| [[ByBre]] [[Anti-lock braking system|ABS]] [[Disc brake|disc]]
| Front: four-piston radial caliper, 300 mm (2013–2016) 320 mm (2017–present) rotor
| Rear: 230 mm
}}
| tires = {{ubl
| [[Pirelli]] Diablo Rosso II
| Front: 110/70ZR17, Rear: 150/60ZR17
}}
| rake_trail = 23.5°, {{cvt|3.5|in|order=flip}}
| wheelbase = {{cvt|1340|mm}}
| length =
| width =
| height =
| seat_height = {{cvt|820|mm}}
| dry_weight = {{cvt|324|lb|order=flip}} (claimed, without fuel)<ref name="RC390" />
| wet_weight = {{ubl
| {{cvt|340|lbs|order=flip}} (estimated)<ref name="BellFuels" />
| {{cvt|364.5|lb|order=flip}}<ref name="Searle2015b" />
}}
| fuel_capacity = {{cvt|10|L|usgal}}
| oil_capacity =
| fuel_consumption = {{cvt|56.4|–|58|mpgus|order=flip}}<ref name="Searle2015b" /><ref name="Canet2015" />
| turning_radius =
| related =
| sp =
}}

A [[sport bike]] version of the 390 Duke, the KTM RC 390 was presented at the 2013 EICMA motorcycle show in Italy, though most details had been leaked a few weeks earlier.<ref name="Edge2013" /><ref name="Bike2013" /> The 2014 model year [[road racing]] style bike has the same 373 cc engine making a claimed {{cvt|44|hp}} @ 9,500 rpm with a claimed weight without fuel of {{cvt|324|lbs|order=flip}}. With a fuel capacity {{cvt|2.64|usgal|order=flip}}, the wet weight would be {{cvt|340|lbs|order=flip}}.<ref name="BellFuels" /><ref name="EICMApresskit" /> The frame of the RC is a different single piece [[trellis frame]] than the Duke, which KTM says is stiffer than the 390 Duke.<ref name="Beeler2013" /> The tires are [[Metzeler]] 110/70ZR17 front and 150/60ZR17 rear.<ref name="Beeler2013" /> Where the Duke has a steering head angle of 65° (or 25° [[Rake and trail|rake]]), the RC's fork has a steeper 66.5° head angle (or 23.5° rake).<ref name="RC390" /> The {{cvt|1340|mm}} wheelbase is {{cvt|27|mm}} shorter than the Duke. The same ByBre disc brakes with switchable dual channel ABS, and WP 43 mm front fork and rear shock are used on the RC 390.<ref name="EICMApresskit" /><ref name="Beeler2013" />

KTM added a racing version of the RC 390, the '''RC 390 Cup''' for use by motorcycle racers ages 13 to 21 in the [[ADAC]] Junior Cup, a [[MotoGP]] event. The RC 390 Cup has no lights or mirrors, and no ABS to reduce weight, and an upgraded WP suspension, fully adjustable front and rear. The engine is detuned to a {{cvt|38|hp}} with a block-off plate, and has an [[Akrapovič]] exhaust.<ref name="Paris2014" /><ref name="KTM2014" />

''Motorcycle Consumer News'' test results of the RC 390's power were {{cvt|40.29|hp|order=flip}} @ 8,600 rpm and {{cvt|24.28|ftlb|Nm|order=flip}} torque @ 6,800 rpm, with a wet weight of {{cvt|364.5|lb|order=flip}}<ref name="Searle2015b" /> They found a top speed of {{cvt|105.0|mph|order=flip}}, with an acceleration from {{cvt|0|to|1/4|mi}} in 14.02 seconds at {{cvt|91.88|mph|order=flip}}, {{cvt|0|to|60|mph|order=flip}} in 4.34 seconds, and braking from {{cvt|60|to|0|mph|order=flip}} in {{cvt|141.3|ft|order=flip}}.<ref name="Searle2015b" /> The tested fuel economy was {{cvt|56.4|mpgus|order=flip}}.<ref name="Searle2015b" />

''[[Cycle World|Cycle World's]]'' road tests of the RC 390 also showed a top speed of {{cvt|105|mph|order=flip}}, but faster acceleration {{cvt|0|to|1/4|mi}} in 13.67 seconds at {{cvt|91.88|mph|order=flip}}, and from {{cvt|0|to|60|mph|order=flip}} in 4.6 seconds. Braking performance and fuel economy were not so far off, at {{cvt|60|to|0|mph|order=flip}} in {{cvt|141.3|ft|order=flip}}, and {{cvt|58|mpgus|order=flip}}.<ref name="Canet2015" /> ''Cycle Worlds''{{'}}s tested power figure was {{cvt|40.1|hp|order=flip}} @ 8,600 rpm, and torque was {{cvt|25.4|ftlb|Nm|order=flip}}.<ref name="Canet2015" />

''Motorcycle USA'' measured acceleration from 0-60 mph in 4.9 seconds and {{cvt|0|to|1/4|mi}} in 14.21 seconds for 2015 model. Braking distance was measured at 148.2 feet from 60-0 mph with ABS disabled and 151.7 feet without ABS disabled.<ref name="MCUSA2015" />

It has a [[kickstand]] sensor but does not have Combined ABS, cornering lights, adaptive brake light, or engine braking control.

As a feature, it has no [[Remote keyless system|keyless ignition]] but only optional [[immobiliser]] key and alarm system.

=== 2017 update ===

KTM revised the RC 390 in 2017 by adding a [[slipper clutch]], adjustable brake levers, ride-by-wire throttle, a larger 320 mm front brake rotor, larger mirrors, and some cosmetic and ergonomic changes.<ref name="Zigwheels2017" /><ref name="Adams2016" />

=== 2020 update ===
The bike was made [[Bharat stage emission standards|BS6]] compliant and a new color option was offered.{{fact|date=December 2022}}

=== 2022 update ===
Cornering ABS and a [[traction control system]] were added. Increased fuel capacity to 3.61 gallons. A bi-directional [[quickshifter]] is optional.
{{clear}}

=={{Anchor|390 Enduro R}}390 Enduro/Adventure==
{{Infobox motorcycle
| name = KTM 390 Enduro/Adventure
| image = KTM-390-ADVENTURE-·-2022-·-EURO5.png
| caption =
| aka =
| manufacturer = [[Bajaj Auto]] and [[KTM]]
| parent_company =
| production = 2020–present
| assembly = India and Philippines
| predecessor =
| successor =
| class = [[Dual Sport]]/[[Touring motorcycle#Adventure tourers|Adventure Touring]]
| engine = {{cvt|398.7|cc}} [[single-cylinder engine|single]]
| bore_stroke = {{cvt|89|×|64|mm}}
| compression =
| top_speed =
| power = {{ubl | {{cvt|44|hp|order=flip}} @ 9,600 rpm }}
| torque = {{ubl | {{cvt|28.8|ftlb|Nm|order=flip}} @ 7,000 rpm }}
| ignition = [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]] [[Ignition system#Digital electronic ignitions|digital]]
| transmission = Multi-plate wet clutch ([[Slipper clutch|slipper]] (2025–present), 6-speed, [[X-ring chain]]
| frame =
| suspension =
| brakes =
| tires =
| rake_trail =
| wheelbase =
| length =
| width =
| height =
| seat_height =
| dry_weight =
| wet_weight =
| fuel_capacity =
| oil_capacity =
| fuel_consumption =
| turning_radius =
| related =
| sp =
}}

The '''KTM 390 Adventure''' is an [[Touring motorcycle#Adventure tourers|Adventure Touring]] motorcycle produced by [[KTM]], first introduced in 2020. It was essentially the 373cc, 390 Duke with added features and refined dimensions. The engine produced approximately 31 kW (43 hp) at 9,000 rpm; maximum torque was 37 Nm at 7,000 rpm. Power was transmitted to the rear wheel via a 6-speed gearbox and a chain.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.adac.de/rund-ums-fahrzeug/zweirad/motorrad-roller/fahrberichte/ktm-390-adventure/ |title=KTM 390 Adventure: Die kleine Enduro im Fahrbericht, ADAC |access-date=8 November 2024}}</ref> From 2020 to 2023 it came with 19" front and 17" rear cast aluminum rims. The suspension consists of a 43 mm WP upside-down fork and a monoshock rear suspension system, both of which are adjustable. The 2024 Adventure had 19/17 wire spoked wheels.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.heise.de/hintergrund/Vorstellung-KTM-390-Adventure-4703784.html?hg=1&hgi=3&hgf=false |title=Vorstellung: KTM 390 Adventure |date=2020-04-16 |language=de |access-date=2024-11-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.1000ps.de/testbericht-3009459-die-ktm-adventure-reihe-5-reiseenduros-2022-im-test |title=Die KTM Adventure-Reihe: 5 Reiseenduros 2022 im Test |date=2022-07-17 |language=DE |access-date=2024-11-08}}</ref> The speed, rpm, gear, and fuel level of the KTM 390 Adventure were displayed on a TFT display. Other features include cornering ABS, dynamic traction control, and Bluetooth connectivity to a smartphone.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ktm.com/de-de/models/travel/2024-ktm-390-adventure.html |title=2024 KTM 390 Adventure |language=de-DE |access-date=2024-11-08}}</ref> The motorcycle was available in orange and black or gray and white.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.1000ps.de/modellnews-3010794-ktm-390-adventure-2024-in-neuem-design |title=KTM 390 Adventure 2024 in neuem Design |date=2023-11-03 |language=DE |access-date=2024-11-08}}</ref> One particular 390 Adventure, assembled in January of 2023 at the Indian cooperation partner [[Bajaj Auto]], was the 1,000,000th KTM motorcycle made since production began there in 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://magazin.baboons.de/news/allgemeine-news/ktm-knackt-1-000-000-marke |title=KTM KNACKT 1.000.000-MARKE! |publisher=BABOONS GmbH |date=2023-01-23 |access-date=2023-01-26}}</ref>

In 2025, KTM replaced the 390 Adventure in the lineup with the 390 Adventure X, now sporting the new 398.6 cc LC4c motor. The Adventure X is a stripped down version of the more well equipped KTM 390 Adventure R. The X gets 19-inch front and 17-inch rear cast wheels.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.motorradonline.de/enduro/ktm-390-adventure-r-x-und-enduro-r-und-smc-r-neu-2025-auch-als-125er-leak-u1/ |title=KTM 390 Adventure R/X, 390/125 Enduro R und SMC R: Neue 125er und 390er von KTM für 2025 |date=2024-10-30 |language=de |access-date=2024-11-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.visordown.com/news/ktm-390-adventure-gains-r-spec-2025 |title=KTM 390 Adventure Gains R-Spec for 2025 |date=2024-11-08 |access-date=2024-11-08}}</ref>

The '''KTM 390 Enduro R''' is released in 2025 sporting the new 398.6 cc LC4c motor previously introduced in the 390 Duke. Premimum features include better seated and standing positions, a 4.2” TFT display, electronic [[fuel injection]], ride-by-wire throttle, a balancer shaft, [[slipper clutch]], [[traction control]] (street / offroad) and [[Anti-lock braking system|ABS]]. The redesigned "trellis" frame and improved subframe allows for 21"/18" wire spoke wheels and a 35 inch seat height.<ref name="new 2025">{{cite web |last1=Beck |first1=Jon |title=2025 KTM 390 Enduro R Review – First Ride |url=https://www.motorcycle.com/bikes/manufacturer/ktm/2025-ktm-390-enduro-r-review-first-ride-44644294 |website=Motorcycle.com |access-date=28 August 2025 |date=21 July 2025}}</ref>

The Dual Sport version of the 390 designated as the 390 Enduro R and the Adventure Touring versions designated the 390 Adventure R and 390 Adventure X are all derived of the 390 Duke.<ref name="Rider Adventure">{{cite web |last1=Houston |first1=Sylvia |title=2025 KTM 390 Adventure R Review |url=https://ridermagazine.com/2025/07/21/2025-ktm-390-adventure-r-review/#:~:text=On%20the%20390%20Adventure%20R,higher%20speeds%20or%20under%20load. |website=Rider Magazine |access-date=24 August 2025 |date=21 July 2025}}</ref> The differences between the street-biased X and off-road-focused R primarily involves the wheels, tires, and suspension. Each model has tires suitable for the bikes intended use.<ref name="differences">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=2025 KTM 390 Adventure R and X Preview |url=https://ridermagazine.com/2025/02/10/2025-ktm-390-adventure-r-and-x-preview/ |website=Rider Magazine|access-date=28 August 2025 |date=10 February 2025}}</ref>

==Notes==
<references>
<ref name="TopGear">{{Cite news |url=https://www.topgear.com.ph/moto-sapiens/motorcycle-news/ktm-assembly-plant-laguna-a00188-20170607 |title=KTM's Laguna assembly plant's operation is now in full swing |website=topgear.com.ph |access-date=2018-09-21|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="dePrato2013">{{Citation |magazine=[[Cycle World]] |title=2013 KTM 390 Duke – First Look A little roadster with big performance. |date=November 19, 2012 |first=Bruno |last=dePrato |url=http://www.cycleworld.com/2012/11/19/2013-ktm-390-duke-first-look/ |access-date=October 12, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="Bornhop2013">{{Citation |magazine=[[Cycle World]] |access-date=October 12, 2013 |title=The New Normal: Will Getting Back to Basics Save Motorcycling? Small displacement, big sales? |date=February 26, 2013 |first=Andrew |last=Bornhop |url=http://www.cycleworld.com/2013/02/26/small-displacement-entry-level-motorcycles-big-sales/}}</ref>

<ref name="Baggonkar2013">{{Citation |newspaper=[[Business Standard]] |access-date=October 12, 2013 |title=Bajaj to be first Indian auto firm to make bikes for US roads; To produce Duke 390 for partner KTM at Chakan plant; launch next year |first=Swaraj |last=Baggonkar |date=February 11, 2013 |url=http://www.bsmotoring.com/news/bajaj-to-be-first-indian-auto-firm-to-make-bikes-for-us-roads/6404/1}}</ref>

<ref name="Chaudhari2013">{{Citation |title=Bajaj will ride KTM 390 to 80 countries |date=June 26, 2013 |newspaper=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |first=Yuga |last=Chaudhari |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/money/1853255/report-bajaj-will-ride-ktm-390-to-80-countries |access-date=October 12, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="MSN2015">{{citation |title=New KTMs coming 2017, Husqvarnas could follow |url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/autos/news/new-ktms-coming-2017-husqvarnas-could-follow/ar-BBnQl34 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424050136/http://www.msn.com/en-in/autos/news/new-ktms-coming-2017-husqvarnas-could-follow/ar-BBnQl34 |url-status=dead |archive-date= 2016-04-24 |website=[[MSN]] |date=December 2015}}</ref>

<ref name="HindustanTimes2013">{{Citation |title=KTM 390 Duke Launched at Rs. 1.8 Lakh |newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=June 26, 2013 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Autos/Latest-News/KTM-390-Duke-launched-at-Rs-1-8-lakh/Article1-1082447.aspx |access-date=October 12, 2013 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130731042840/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Autos/Latest-News/KTM-390-Duke-launched-at-Rs-1-8-lakh/Article1-1082447.aspx |archive-date= July 31, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="HindustanTimes2012">{{Citation |title=KTM 390 Duke revealed |date=September 19, 2012 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Autos/Latest-News/KTM-390-Duke-revealed/Article1-961406.aspx |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131012233735/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Autos/Latest-News/KTM-390-Duke-revealed/Article1-961406.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date= October 12, 2013 |newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]] |access-date=October 12, 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="Baggonkar2010">{{Citation |newspaper=[[Business Standard]] |title=Bajaj-KTM bikes to sport Rs 1 lakh-plus tags; You didn't expect high-performance Bajaj-KTMs to come cheap, did you? |first=Swaraj |last=Baggonkar |date=May 19, 2010 |url=http://www.bsmotoring.com/autoexpo11//storypage.php?autono=2074 |access-date=October 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923194854/http://www.bsmotoring.com/autoexpo11//storypage.php?autono=2074 |archive-date= September 23, 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="Burman 2013">{{Citation |first=Tushar |last=Burman |date=November 16, 2013 |website=motovore.com |title=KTM 390 Duke: First service update |url=http://motovore.com/ktm-390-duke-first-service-update/}}</ref>

<ref name="Malone2013">{{Citation |title=Ditch the Xbox, pipsqueak, and get a taste of orange |newspaper=[[Sunday Times]] {{Subscription required}} |location=London, England |date=June 2, 2013 |page=8 |access-date=October 12, 2013 |first=Pat |last=Malone |url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/ingear/2_Wheels/Motorbikes/article1266647.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528063957/http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/ingear/2_Wheels/Motorbikes/article1266647.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 28, 2015}}</ref>

<ref name="Beeler2013">{{Citation |title=Officially Official: 2014 KTM RC390 |date=November 5, 2013 |first=Jensen |last=Beeler |url=http://www.asphaltandrubber.com/bikes/2014-ktm-rc390/ |magazine=Asphalt and Rubber}}</ref>

<ref name="EICMApresskit">{{Cite press release |title=KTM EICMA Media Information MY14 |date=October 14, 2013 |url=http://www.ktm.com/uploads/media/KTM_EICMA_Media_Information_MY14_GB.pdf |publisher=[[KTM]]}}{{dead link |date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

<ref name="BellFuels">Assuming a weight of 6.073 lbs per US gallon. {{cite web |title=Lead-Free gasoline Material Safety Data Sheet |author=Bell Fuels |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] |url=http://www.sefsc.noaa.gov/HTMLdocs/Gasoline.htm |access-date=July 6, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020820074636/http://www.sefsc.noaa.gov/HTMLdocs/Gasoline.htm |archive-date=August 20, 2002}}</ref>

<ref name="Edge2013">{{Citation |first=Dirck |last=Edge |date=October 25, 2013 |website=Motorcycle Daily |title=2014 KTM RC390 Photos and Specs Leak Ahead of Official EICMA Unveil |url=http://www.motorcycledaily.com/2013/10/2014-ktm-rc390-photos-and-specs-leak-ahead-of-official-eicma-unveil/}}</ref>

<ref name="Bike2013">{{Citation |title=KTM RC390 breaks cover ahead of EICMA |date=October 26, 2013 |journal=[[Bike India]] |url=http://bikeindia.in/ktm-rc390-breaks-cover-ahead-of-eicma/}}</ref>

<ref name="RC390">{{Cite press release |url=http://www.ktm.com/supersport/rc-390/highlights.html#.UpkGteKzJI0 |access-date=November 29, 2013 |publisher=[[KTM]] |title=KTM RC 390 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111031132/http://www.ktm.com/supersport/rc-390/highlights.html#.UpkGteKzJI0 |archive-date=November 11, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="Motoroids2013">{{Citation |url=http://www.motoroids.com/news/autocar-india-awards-ford-ecosport-ktm-390-duke-bag-car-year-2013-bike-year-2013-awards-respectively/ |title=Autocar India Awards- Ford EcoSport and KTM 390 Duke bag 'Car of the Year 2013' and 'Bike of the Year 2013' awards respectively |first=Yatharth |last=Singh Chauhan |date=December 21, 2013 |website=Motoroids}}</ref>

<ref name="Rakesh2014">{{Citation |title=KTM Duke 390 Black Colour sales to begin by February end |first=Rakesh |last=Datton |date=January 21, 2014 |url=http://www.indiancarsbikes.in/motorcycles/ktm-duke-390-black-colour-sales-begin-february-end-80711/ |access-date=January 23, 2014 |website=IndianCarsBikes |archive-date=30 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140130080437/http://www.indiancarsbikes.in/motorcycles/ktm-duke-390-black-colour-sales-begin-february-end-80711/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="Paris2014">{{Citation |url=http://www.roadracingworld.com/news/magazine-feature-ktm-rc-390-cup-intro/ |magazine=Roadracing World |date=October 1, 2014 |title=More On The KTM RC 390 Cup Racebike |first=Melissa |last=Paris}}</ref>

<ref name="KTM2014">{{Cite press release |url=http://www.ktm.com/news-events/news/all/details/world-premiere-ktm-presents-the-rc390-cup.html#.VHfmM9Yl5J8 |title=World Premiere: KTM Presents The RC390 Cup! (press release) |date=November 7, 2013 |publisher=[[KTM]] |access-date= November 28, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204214703/http://www.ktm.com/news-events/news/all/details/world-premiere-ktm-presents-the-rc390-cup.html#.VHfmM9Yl5J8 |archive-date= December 4, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="Searle2015a">{{Citation |last=Searle |first=Dave |date =May 2015 |title=KTM's 390 Duke |magazine=[[Motorcycle Consumer News]] |location=Irvine, California |publisher=Aviation News Corp |volume=46 |issue=5 |issn=1073-9408 |pages=16–19}}</ref>

<ref name="Searle2015b">{{Citation |date =July 2015 |title=2015 KTM RC390 ABS Specifications and Performance Data |magazine=[[Motorcycle Consumer News]] |location=Irvine, California |publisher=Aviation News Corp |volume=46 |issue= 7 |issn=1073-9408 |page=21}}</ref>

<ref name="Canet2015">{{Citation |last=Canet |first=Don |title=Sweet Spot; The Affordable Sportbike Gets Just Big Enough |magazine=[[Cycle World]] |publisher=[[Hachette Filipacchi Media U.S.]] |issn=0011-4286 |location=Newport Beach, California |date=June 2015 |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=60–66}}</ref>

<ref name="MCUSA2015">{{Cite news |url=http://www.motorcycle-usa.com/2015/05/article/2015-ktm-rc390-comparison/ |title=2015 KTM RC390 Comparison - Motorcycle USA |website=Motorcycle USA |access-date=October 1, 2017 |language=en-US |archive-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001213317/http://www.motorcycle-usa.com/2015/05/article/2015-ktm-rc390-comparison/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="Zigwheels2017">{{Cite news |url=https://www.zigwheels.com/newbikes/KTM/RC-390 |title=KTM RC 390 Price (Check Festive Offers), Images, Colours, Mileage & Specs in India @ ZigWheels |website=ZigWheels |access-date=October 1, 2017}}</ref>

<ref name="revzilla.com">{{Citation |title=2015 KTM 390 Duke Review |date=November 14, 2015 |url=http://www.revzilla.com/common-tread/2015-ktm-390-duke-review |first=Spurgeon |last=Dunbar}}</ref>

<ref name="Kiser2015">{{Citation |last1=Kiser |first1=Jesse |first2=Jim |last2=Downs |url=https://rideapart.com/articles/2015-ktm-390-duke-full-review |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817123616/https://rideapart.com/articles/2015-ktm-390-duke-full-review |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 17, 2017 |website=[[RideApart]] |date=August 18, 2015 |title=Little, Orange and Awesome}}</ref>

<ref name="Corey 2018">{{cite web |last1=Alexander |first1=Corey |title=2017 KTM 390 Duke - First Ride Review |url=https://www.cycleworld.com/2017-ktm-390-duke-small-displacement-motorcycle-ride-review |magazine=[[Cycle World]] |access-date=27 July 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Adams2016">{{Citation |last=Adams |first=Bradley |title=KTM's Updated 2017 RC 390 Looks Sharp As Ever; Now with bigger brakes and wider mirrors |magazine=[[Cycle World]] |url=http://www.cycleworld.com/2017-updated-ktm-rc-390-first-look-review-eicma}}</ref>

<ref name="Wheeler2013">{{cite press release |url=https://blog.ktm.com/duke-390-launch-blog-part-3-little-bike-with-the-big-heart-2/ |title=Duke 390 Launch Blog Part 4: Little Bike with the Big Heart |last=Wheeler |first=Adam |date=6 May 2013 |work=KTM Blog |publisher=[[KTM]] |access-date=28 July 2019}}</ref>
</references>

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Citation |magazine=[[Cycle World]] |date=August 5, 2014 |title=2014 KTM Duke 390 – First Ride; This fun street-legal single arrives in the US this fall. Do Americans want such a machine? We do. |first=Bruno |last=dePrato |url=http://www.cycleworld.com/2014/08/05/2014-ktm-390-duke-motorcycle-review-first-ride-photos-specifications/ |access-date=August 6, 2014 }}
* {{Citation |url=http://www.indiancarsbikes.in/motorcycles/2015-ktm-duke-390-list-20-explained-114607/ |website=IndianCarsBikes |title=2015 KTM Duke 390 – List of 20 changes explained |date=February 27, 2015 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{Citation |url=http://www.mydigitalfc.com/news/premium-mobikes-super-run-india-775 |title=Premium mobikes on a super run in India |first=Michael |last=Gonsalves |date=June 28, 2015 |newspaper=[[Financial Chronicle]] |access-date=28 June 2015 |archive-date=18 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150718032038/http://www.mydigitalfc.com/news/premium-mobikes-super-run-india-775 |url-status=dead }}
* {{Citation |title=KTM RC 390 tested in Kumbharli Ghats |url=http://www.indiancarsbikes.in/auto-news/ktm-rc-390-tested-kumbharli-ghats-96174/ |access-date=July 28, 2014 |website=IndianCarsBikes.in |archive-date=28 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728220439/http://www.indiancarsbikes.in/auto-news/ktm-rc-390-tested-kumbharli-ghats-96174/ |url-status=dead }}
*{{Citation |magazine=Sport Rider | date=December 2014 | title=Orange is the New Small |page=48 | first=Bradley | last=Adams }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category multi|KTM 390 Duke|KTM RC 390}}
*{{Citation |title=Official website, 390 Duke |url=http://www.ktm.com/gb/naked-bike/390-duke/390-duke.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171030031430/https://www.ktm.com/gb/naked-bike/390-duke |archive-date=October 30, 2017 }}
*{{Citation |title=Official website, RC 390 |url=http://www.ktm.com/gb/supersport/rc-390/highlights.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150319012639/https://www.ktm.com/gb/supersport/rc-390/highlights.html |archive-date=March 19, 2015}}

[[Category:KTM motorcycles|390]]
[[Category:Bajaj Auto]]
[[Category:Single-cylinder motorcycles]]
[[Category:Standard motorcycles]]
[[Category:Dual-sport motorcycles]]
[[Category:Off-road motorcycles]]
[[Category:Sport bikes]]
[[Category:Motorcycles introduced in 2013]]

2015 Dadri lynching

2026-04-24T05:47:37Z

RodEsters254334: made new page

{{EngvarB|date=March 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Short description|Lynching incident in Uttar Pradesh, India}}

{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = 2015 Dadri
lynching
| image =
| caption =
|map= {{Location map|India3
|width = 250
|float = right
|label = Dadri
|marksize = 8
| lat_deg = 28.550
| lon_deg = 77.553
}}
| map_caption =
| location = Bisahda village, [[Dadri]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India
| coordinates =
| target = Akhlaq family
| date = 28 September 2015
| time =
| timezone =
| type = Lynching
| fatalities = 1 (Mohammad Akhlaq)
| injuries = 1 (Danish Akhlaq)
| perps = Cow vigilantes
| susperps =
| weapons =
|notes=
<mapframe latitude="28.584" longitude="77.571" zoom="11" width="300" height="227" align="center">{
"type": "FeatureCollection",
"features": [
{
"type": "Feature",
"properties": {},
"geometry": {
"type": "Point",
"coordinates": [
77.571,
28.584
]
}
},

]
}</mapframe>
}}

The '''2015 Dadri lynching''' refers to case of [[lynching]] in which a mob of villagers attacked the home of 52 year-old Mohammed Akhlaq, killing him, for suspicion of slaughtering a [[cow]].<ref name="ie01042019">{{cite news |title=Lynching accused in front row, Yogi says at Dadri: 'SP govt tried to curb our emotions' |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/lynching-accused-in-front-row-yogi-adityanath-says-at-dadri-sp-govt-tried-to-curb-our-emotions-5652017/ |access-date=1 April 2019 |publisher=The Indian Express |date=1 April 2019}}</ref> The attack took place at night, on 28 September 2015 in '''Bisahda village''', near [[Dadri]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]], India. The mob consisting of local villagers, attacked Akhlaq's house with sticks, bricks and knives, saying that they suspected of him stealing and slaughtering a cow calf.

Mohammad Akhlaq Saifi (Ikhlaq according to some sources) died in the attack, and his son, 22-year-old Danish, was seriously injured. Later an Indian court found [[prima facie]] evidence of meat that may have been either mutton or beef, and ordered registration of a [[first information report]] (FIR) against Akhlaq.<ref name=IndianManBBC>{{cite news|title=Indian man lynched over beef rumours|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-34398433|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[BBC News]]|date=30 September 2015}}</ref><ref name=IExpressBeef>{{cite news|title=Dadri: Outrage after mob lynches man for allegedly consuming beef|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/outrage-after-man-lynched-over-rumour-of-storing-beef-in-house/|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=1 October 2015}}</ref><ref name=AlJ-Rumors/><ref name=DH-Bisara>{{cite news|title=Bisara faces political polarisation|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/504202/bisara-faces-political-polarisation.html|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[Deccan Herald]]|date=3 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="FIR Indian express">{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/dadri-lynching-beef-ban-mohammad-akhlaq-family-fir-bisara-2914776/|title=Dadri lynching: Court orders FIR against murdered Mohammad Akhlaq, his kin|access-date=28 February 2017|work=[[Indian Express]]|date=15 July 2016}}</ref> Then the state government changed the original report and concluded that he was not storing beef for consumption.<ref name="jazeera">{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/07/india-epidemic-mob-lynching-170706113733914.html|title=What is behind India's epidemic of 'mob lynching'?|last=Apoorvanand|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref>

==Events==

===Background===
On 28 September 2015 evening, one of Akhlaq's neighbors allegedly accused him of stealing and slaughtering his missing calf at Bisahda village near [[NTPC Dadri]] in Uttar Pradesh.{{Citation needed|date=April 2017}} Soon a crowd gathered and insisted on searching his house for traces of slaughter which was refused by family. Soon things took an ugly turn when two boys used the local temple's public address system and announced that the family of Akhlaq had killed the cow calf and consumed its meat on [[Eid-ul-Adha]].<ref name=BBCWhy>{{cite news|title=Why India man was lynched over beef rumours|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-34409354|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[BBC News]]|date=1 October 2015}}</ref><ref name=WP-beat>{{cite news|title=A mob in India just dragged a man from his home and beat him to death — for eating beef|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/09/30/a-mob-in-india-just-dragged-a-man-from-his-home-and-beat-him-to-death-for-eating-beef/|access-date=4 October 2015|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=30 September 2015}}</ref> Cows are considered sacred in [[Hinduism]] and in most Indian states including Uttar Pradesh, where killing cows is illegal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-no-beef-nation/|title=The states where cow slaughter is legal in India|date=8 October 2015|publisher=}}</ref> The police said that this was the cause of the outrage of citizens.<ref name=ET-temple>{{cite news|title=Temple announcement about beef triggered the lynching: Police|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/temple-announcement-about-beef-triggered-the-lynching-police/articleshow/49190181.cms|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[The Economic Times]]|date=2 October 2015}}</ref>

===Attack===
Mob carrying sticks arrived at Akhlaq's house at around 10:30 p.m. ([[Indian Standard Time|IST]]) that evening. The family had finished dinner and were about to go to sleep. Akhlaq and his son Danish were already asleep. The mob woke them and accused them of consuming beef. They found some meat in the refrigerator and seized it, but the family insisted it was mutton. However, the mob proceeded to drag the entire family outside; Akhlaq and Danish were repeatedly kicked, hit with bricks and stabbed. The family's neighbours tried to stop the mob but were not able to. The police were called and arrived an hour later. By then, Akhlaq was dead and Danish was badly injured.<ref name=AlJ-Rumors>{{cite news|title=Indian mob kills man over beef eating rumour|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/09/indian-mob-kills-man-cow-slaughter-rumour-150930193719666.html|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]|date=1 October 2015}}</ref><ref name=BBCWhy/><ref name=WP-beat/><ref name=MM-Eight>{{cite news|title=Eight held for lynching 'beef-eater' in Dadri|url=http://www.mumbaimirror.com/news/india/Eight-held-for-lynching-beef-eater-in-Dadri/articleshow/49175446.cms|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[Mumbai Mirror]]|date=1 October 2015}}</ref>

The family had been living in the village for about the 70 years. The family consisted of Akhlaq, 52; his brother Jan Mohammad Saifi, 42; mother Asgari Begum, 82; wife Ikram; son Danish, 22; and daughter Sajida.<ref name=AlJ-Rumors/><ref name=TS-beef>{{cite news|title=Mob allegedly beat Muslim farmer to death for eating beef|url=http://www.torontosun.com/2015/09/30/mob-allegedly-beat-muslim-farmer-to-death-for-eating-beef|access-date=4 October 2015|newspaper=[[Toronto Sun]]|date=30 September 2015}}</ref><ref name=IE-Pakistani>{{cite news|title=Dadri lynching: Three days before attack, my son was called a Pakistani, says mother|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/three-days-before-attack-my-son-was-called-a-pakistani-says-mother/|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=2 October 2015}}</ref> Akhlaq's elder son, Mohammad Sartaj, 27, works as a [[corporal]]-ranked technician in the [[Indian Air Force]] (IAF) and was in [[Chennai]] at the time of attack.<ref name=IT-DadriVillage>{{cite news|title=Danish battles for life, his brother decides to leave Dadri village|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/as-danish-battles-for-life-airman-mohammad-sartaj-says-he-will-shift-his-family-out-of-harms-way-266230-2015-10-04|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[India Today]]|date=4 October 2015}}</ref>

===Aftermath and arrests===
The police arrested the temple's priest and his assistant for questioning. An FIR was filed naming ten of the attackers based on the testimony of the family members. It contained charges under Sections 147 ([[rioting]]), 148 (rioting with [[deadly weapon]]), 149 ([[unlawful assembly]]), 302 ([[murder]]), 307 ([[attempt to murder]]), 458 ([[house-breaking]]), and 504 ([[hate speech|intentional insult]] with intent to [[breach of the peace]]) of the [[Indian Penal Code]]. Six of them were found and arrested by 1 October 2015. On 1 October, the number of arrests went to eight. The arrests were protested by locals. The protesters set fire on vehicles and vandalised shops. The police had to fire in the air to disperse them. One person was injured in the protests.<ref name=BBCWhy/><ref name=ET-temple/><ref name=MM-Eight/> Personnel from Uttar Pradesh Provincial Armed Constabulary and the [[Rapid Action Force]] were deployed in the village.<ref name=IE-Para>{{cite news|title=UP Police, RAF, paramilitary patrol tense Dadri village|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/up-police-raf-paramilitary-patrol-tense-dadri-village/|access-date=6 October 2015|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=1 October 2015}}</ref>

The temple priest denied involvement. He said that he was forced to make the announcement by some youngsters. The priest said that he had only announced that a cow had been killed and asked people to gather near the temple.<ref name=ET-temple/> On 3 October, a man named Vishal Singh Rana, the son of a local [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) leader Sanjay Rana, was arrested in connection to the case.<ref name=HD-BJPson>{{cite news|title=BJP leader's son held in Dadri lynching case|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/bjp-leaders-son-held-in-dadri-lynching-case/article7720979.ece|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=4 October 2015}}</ref> By 4 October, Danish had spent 4 days in the [[Intensive Care Unit]] and undergone two brain surgeries. He had been admitted in Kailash Hospital, [[Greater Noida]],<ref name=IT-DadriVillage/> and then to [[Army Hospital Research and Referral]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=11 October 2015|title=Dadri lynching: Akhlaq's son Danish shifted to Army's Research and Referral hospital|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/dadri-lynching-akhlaqs-son-danish-shifted-to-armys-research-and-referral-hospital-1150192.html|access-date=2020-10-09|website=News18}}</ref>

Some female relatives of the arrested persons attacked journalists and pelted stones at media vans. They claimed that these persons had been wrongly arrested and the media was covering only the victim's story.<ref name="IE-chasemedia">{{cite news|title=Dadri lynching: Women residents throw stones, chase media out of village|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/dadri-lynching-women-residents-throw-stones-chase-media-out-of-village/|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=4 October 2015}}</ref><ref name="MM-bias">{{cite news|title=Mob lynching in Dadri: Kin of accused attack journalists over 'bias'|url=http://www.mumbaimirror.com/news/india/Mob-lynching-in-Dadri-Kin-of-accused-attack-journalists-over-bias/articleshow/49211804.cms|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[Mumbai Mirror]]|date=4 October 2015}}</ref>

On 5 October, [[Uttar Pradesh Police]] asked [[microblogging]] site [[Twitter]] to remove certain text and photographs related to the incident, which it considered provocative.<ref name=DNA-twitter>{{cite news|title=Dadri lynching: Police asks Twitter to delete 'provocative' posts on Muhammad Akhlaq's killing|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-dadri-lynching-police-asks-twitter-to-delete-provocative-posts-on-muhammad-akhlaq-s-killing-2131982|work=[[DNA India]]|access-date=6 October 2015}}</ref><ref name=TOI-twitter>{{cite news|title=Dadri lynching: Uttar Pradesh Police ask Twitter to delete 'provocative' posts on killing|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Dadri-lynching-Uttar-Pradesh-Police-ask-Twitter-to-delete-provocative-posts-on-killing/articleshow/49236011.cms|access-date=6 October 2015|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=6 October 2015}}</ref> The victim's family left Bisahda village and moved to an Indian Air Force zone in Delhi on 6 October.<ref name=DC-Leaves>{{cite news|title=Beef battle: Iqlakh's family leaves Dadri|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/151008/nation-current-affairs/article/iqlakh%E2%80%99s-family-leaves-dadri|access-date=8 October 2015|work=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|date=8 October 2015}}</ref><ref name=DNA-moves>{{cite news|title=Dadri killing: Victim's family moves to Delhi, peace march held in village|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-dadri-killing-victim-s-family-moves-to-delhi-peace-march-held-in-village-2132439|access-date=8 October 2015|work=[[DNA India]]|date=7 October 2015}}</ref>

Subsequently, 19 people were charged under the case, including Vishal Singh Rana and Vishal, his friend. 16 of the accused were subsequently invited by Uttar Pradesh's Chief Minister [[Yogi Adityanath]] to be present at his [[2019 Indian general election|election]] rallies.<ref name="ie01042019"/>

==Reactions==

The lynching was followed by political reactions on all sides, with the BJP trying to distance itself from direct responsibility for the killings, yet at the same time taking advantage of them in some rallies, But BJP accused that parties like the [[Indian National Congress]] (INC) and [[Bahujan Samaj Party]] (BSP) are trying to gain political mileage from the incident.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} The then Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh [[Akhilesh Yadav]] announced an [[ex-gratia]] of {{INR}}10,00,000 for the family on 30 September 2015. He also directed the [[District Magistrate]] and [[Superintendent of Police|Senior Superintendent of Police]] (SSP) of [[Noida|Noida Police]] to provide police protection to the family.<ref name=IE-exgratia>{{cite news|title=Dadri lynching: UP govt announces Rs 10 lakh compensation to next of kin|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/dadri-lynching-up-govt-announces-rs-10-lakh-compensation-to-next-of-kin/|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=30 September 2015}}</ref> On 3 October 2015, the ex-gratia was raised to {{INR}}20,00,000.<ref name=NDTV20Lakh>{{cite news|title=Dadri Mob Killing: Ex-Gratia for Family Raised to Rs. 20 Lakh|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/dadri-mob-killing-ex-gratia-for-family-raised-to-rs-20-lakh-1225799|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[NDTV]]|date=3 October 2015}}</ref> Akhlaq's elder son Mohammad Sartaj, said that he has decided to move the family out of Dadri.<ref name=NDTV-Move>{{cite news|title='Neighbours' Attacked his Father. Now Air Force Man Wants to Move His family|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/neighbours-attacked-his-father-now-air-force-man-wants-to-move-his-family-1225056?site=full|access-date=6 October 2015|work=[[NDTV]]|date=1 October 2015}}</ref> However, fearing for their safety, the family shifted to Delhi on 6 Oct 2015.

The [[Home Minister of India|Home Minister]] and former [[Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh]], [[Rajnath Singh]], appealed to people to maintain communal harmony and promised strict action against those who try to disrupt it.<ref name=TH-Rajnath>{{cite news|title=Strict action against those who disrupt harmony, Rajnath on Dadri lynching|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/strongest-action-against-those-who-disrupt-harmony-rajnath-singh-on-dadri-lynching/article7733844.ece|access-date=8 October 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=7 October 2015}}</ref> [[Finance Minister of India|Finance Minister]] [[Arun Jaitley]] said such incidents affect the image of the nation and people should rise above them.<ref name=NDTV-Arun>{{cite news|title=Incidents Like Dadri Mob Killing Bring Bad Name to India, Says Arun Jaitley|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/incidents-like-dadri-mob-killing-bring-bad-name-to-india-says-arun-jaitley-1227869|access-date=8 October 2015|work=[[NDTV]]|date=6 October 2015}}</ref> Union Minister [[Mahesh Sharma]] said that the incident was not planned but an unfortunate accident. However, he promised justice to the family.<ref name=IE-MaheshSharma>{{cite news|title=Dadri lynching: Mob murder an accident, arrested youths too will get justice, says Mahesh Sharma|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/dadri-lynching-union-minister-mahesh-sharma-meets-victim-family-insists-it-was-accident/|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=3 October 2015}}</ref> Another BJP leader [[Tarun Vijay]] said that this incident may derail the Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]]'s agenda of development. He asked Hindus to look after cows instead of resorting to violence. He also pointed to the issues of beef export and stray cows consuming plastic from garbage.<ref name=IE-Tarun>{{cite news|title=Dadri lynching: Incidents like these derail PM Modi's efforts, says BJP MP Tarun Vijay|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/dadri-lynching-incidents-like-these-derail-pm-modis-efforts-says-bjp-mp-tarun-vijay/|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=1 October 2015}}</ref> BJP leader [[Sakshi Maharaj]] criticised the exgratia amount and said that if a Hindu had been killed his family would have received much less.<ref name=Zee-Sakshi>{{cite news|title=When Muslim dies they give 20 lakhs, but Hindu doesn't even get 20,000: Sakshi Maharaj|url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/india/when-muslim-dies-they-give-20-lakhs-but-hindu-doesnt-even-get-20000-sakshi-maharaj_1805764.html|access-date=6 October 2015|work=[[Zee News]]|date=4 October 2015}}</ref>

[[Asaduddin Owaisi]], leader of [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]], criticized the police's decision to test the meat, calling this an irrelevance in light of the violent attack. He also criticized the ruling party of the state for inaction and the local BJP leaders for seeking to defending the attackers.<ref name=TOI-brains>{{cite news|title=Why test meat, why not their brains, asks Owaisi|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Why-test-meat-why-not-their-brains-asks-Owaisi/articleshow/49190012.cms|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=2 October 2015}}</ref>

[[Air Chief Marshal]] [[Arup Raha]] called the incident unfortunate and said that they were trying to move the family to an IAF area to help and protect them.<ref name=IE-Raha>{{cite news|title=Dadri lynching was unfortunate, trying to move family to IAF area, says Air chief Arup Raha|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/dadri-lynching-was-unfortunate-trying-to-move-family-of-injured-air-force-aspirant-to-iaf-area-air-chief/|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=4 October 2015}}</ref> Former [[Bihar]] Chief Minister and leader of [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]] (RJD) political party [[Lalu Yadav]] said that poor people and Indian [[expatriate]]s eat beef and that there was no biological difference between beef and goat. He added that eating meat and beef was not good for health.<ref name=IE-Lalubeef>{{cite news|title=Hindus also eat beef, says Lalu|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/dadri-lynching-lalu-prasad-yadav-says-hindus-too-eat-beef/|access-date=4 October 2015|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=4 October 2015}}</ref> However, he later retracted his statements, admitting he had spoken without any thought.<ref name=TOI-Laluback>{{cite news|title=Fearing Yadav backlash, Lalu goes back on 'Hindus eat beef' remark|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Fearing-Yadav-backlash-Lalu-goes-back-on-Hindus-eat-beef-remark/articleshow/49251433.cms|access-date=7 October 2015|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=7 October 2015}}</ref>

After the murder of Akhlaq, BJP legislator [[T. Raja Singh]] posted on Twitter sections from the Hindu text the Vedas that allegedly mandated killing people who slaughter cows. They were subsequently found to be lies.<ref name=FP>{{cite news|title=Modi's Sacred Cows|publisher=[[Foreign Policy]]|author=ARIF RAFIQ|date=2015-10-09}}</ref>

On 6 October 2015, author [[Nayantara Sahgal]] returned her [[Sahitya Akademi]] award in protest of the growing intolerance in the country. She pointed to the recent murders of [[M. M. Kalburgi]], [[Narendra Dabholkar]] and [[Govind Pansare]], and called the Dadri lynching her last straw.<ref name=TOI-sehgal>{{cite news|title=Nehru's niece Nayantara Sehgal returns Sahitya Akademi award, protests rising intolerance|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Nehrus-niece-Nayantara-Sehgal-returns-Sahitya-Akademi-award-protests-rising-intolerance/articleshow/49244721.cms|access-date=7 October 2015|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=6 October 2015}}</ref><ref name=HT-Sahgal>{{cite news|title=Nayantara Sahgal protests Dadri lynching, returns Akademi award|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/nayantara-sahgal-to-return-her-sahitya-akademi-award/article7730676.ece|access-date=7 October 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=6 October 2015}}</ref> Later, [[Ashok Vajpeyi]] and [[Rahman Abbas]] also returned their awards.<ref name=TOI-returns>{{cite news|title=Urdu writer returns state award to protest against 'intolerance'|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Urdu-writer-returns-state-award-to-protest-against-intolerance/articleshow/49266190.cms|access-date=8 October 2015|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=8 October 2015}}</ref>

On 7 October, [[Azam Khan (politician)|Azam Khan]], a cabinet minister in the [[Government of Uttar Pradesh]], said that he will raise the Dadri lynching issue at [[United Nations]].<ref name=DNA-Azam>{{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-sack-me-if-you-want-but-dadri-case-is-going-to-the-un-says-azam-khan-2132430|title=Sack me if you want, but Dadri case is going to the UN, says Azam Khan|access-date=7 October 2015|work=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|date= 7 October 2015}}</ref> On 7 October, [[President of India]] [[Pranab Mukherjee]] said that diversity, tolerance and plurality are the core of Indian civilisation and they kept India united for centuries.<ref name=TH-CoreValue>{{cite news|title=Pranab warns against letting go of India's core values|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/amid-outrage-over-dadri-lynching-pranab-mukherjee-talks-about-core-values-of-tolerance-and-plurality/article7734410.ece|access-date=8 October 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=7 October 2015}}</ref>

The [[Prime Minister of India]], [[Narendra Modi]], referencing the President's speech, said in a public rally on 8 October to follow the President's message and ignore statements of communal political leaders, urging people to stay united. He stated, "Hindus and Muslims should fight against poverty and not against each other".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/prime-minister-modi-breaks-silence-on-dadri-lynching-episode/article7738896.ece |title=Modi breaks silence on Dadri lynching |work=The Hindu |date=2015-10-03 |access-date=2015-10-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/pm-modi-breaks-silence-on-dadri-says-communal-harmony-will-take-the-country-forward/ |title=PM Modi breaks silence on Dadri: President's message our guiding principle |publisher=The Indian Express |date=2013-10-27 |access-date=2015-10-09}}</ref> On October, he termed the incident "dukhad" [saddening]. But he questioned the logic behind blaming the centre for it. Modi also termed undesirable the opposition to Pakistani singer [[Ghulam Ali (singer)|Ghulam Ali]]'s concert in Mumbai by the [[Shiv Sena]], but sought to know how the centre was responsible for it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/why-blame-the-centre-modi-on-dadri-lynching/article7760342.ece |title=Lynching is saddening, but Centre not to blame: Modi |work=The Hindu |date=2015-10-15 |access-date=2015-10-15}}</ref> Modi was criticized for speaking out against the killing ten days after it occurred.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=INDIA'S HOLY COW VIGILANTES|url=http://www.newsweek.com/2015/11/27/holy-cow-vigilantes-394749.html|author=JASON OVERDORF}}</ref>

==Request to close all inquiries==

The relatives of Akhlaq met the Chief Minister Yadav in the first week of December 2015. They expressed satisfaction on the monetary support they received and the progress of the case inquiry. At the same time, they requested him to close all further inquiries into the case.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://khabar.ndtv.com/news/lucknow/uttar-pradesh-now-dadri-victims-do-not-want-further-inquiry-1251756|title=उत्तर प्रदेश : अब कोई जांच नहीं चाहते दादरी कांड के पीड़ित|publisher=|access-date=2 May 2021|archive-date=8 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208104123/http://khabar.ndtv.com/news/lucknow/uttar-pradesh-now-dadri-victims-do-not-want-further-inquiry-1251756|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |title=A Decade After Akhlaq's Lynching, Uttar Pradesh Govt Moves to Drop All Charges Against Accused |url=https://thewire.in/communalism/a-decade-after-akhlaqs-lynching-uttar-pradesh-govt-moves-to-drop-all-charges-against-accused |website=The Wire |access-date=15 November 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=10 years after Akhlaq lynching, UP govt seeks to withdraw case against accused |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/10-years-dadri-lynching-up-govt-withdraw-case-accused-10367304/ |website=The Indian Express |access-date=15 November 2025 |language=en-in |date=15 November 2025}}</ref>

== FIR against victim and his kin ==
On 9 July 2016, judicial magistrate Vijay Kumar at the Surajpur district court ([[Greater Noida]]) issued direction under section 156 (3), on a petition filed by a Bisahda village resident against murdered Akhlaq and his kin. On the night of 28 September 2015 police collected a sample of the meat from Akhlaq's house in Bisahda and sent it to a vet for preliminary testing. These tests suggested it was mutton, but the [[Uttar Pradesh Police]] sent the sample to another lab in [[Mathura]] for a conclusive test, as per which meat was beef.<ref name=Hindu>
{{cite news
| title = Dadri meat was beef
| publisher = Hindu
| url =
https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/Dadri-meat-was-beef-claims-fresh-forensic-report/article14378277.ece
| date = 20 September 2016
| access-date = 28 April 2020
}}</ref>

== Move to withdraw case ==
On 15 October 2025, the government filed a withdrawal application in the court citing inconsistent statements by Mohammad Akhlaq’s kin in naming the accused; the fact that no firearm or sharp weapon was recovered from the accused, and the lack of any enmity or hostility recorded between the accused and the victim.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-16 |title=10 years after Dadri man lynched over beef suspicion, UP govt moves to withdraw case |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/10-years-dadri-lynching-up-govt-withdraw-case-accused-10367304/ |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-17 |title=Moving to drop Dadri lynching case, UP govt cites family’s ‘changing statements, no enmity’ |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/moving-to-drop-mohammad-akhlaq-dadri-lynching-case-up-govt-cites-familys-changing-statements-no-enmity-10369676/ |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Cow-based lynching]]
* [[Cattle in religion]]
* [[Victim blaming]]
* [[2017 Alwar lynching]]
* [[The Brotherhood (2017 film)|''The Brotherhood'' (2017 film)]] - Documentary about the lynching

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{Lynching in India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dadri lynching, 2015}}
[[Category:Lynching deaths in India]]
[[Category:Anti-Muslim riots in India]]
[[Category:Hinduism and cattle]]
[[Category:2010s in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Gautam Buddha Nagar district]]
[[Category:Murder in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:September 2015 in India]]
[[Category:2015 murders in India]]
[[Category:Hinduism-motivated violence in India]]
[[Category:Hindutva]]
[[Category:Riots and civil disorder in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:2015 riots]]
[[Category:Dadri|Lynching, 2015]]
[[Category:Hate crimes in India]]
[[Category:Knife attacks in India]]
[[Category:Stabbing attacks in 2015]]
[[Category:September 2015 crimes in Asia]]

Karam Chand Bachhawat

2026-04-22T18:34:25Z

RodEsters254334: Adding stub

{{short description|Diwan Bikaner}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Karam Chand Bachhawat
| image = Dewan Karam Chand Bachhawat.png
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_date = 1542 AD
| death_date = {{Death year and age |1607| 1542}}
| occupation = Dewan (Prime Minister) of Bikaner (1571-91).
Gajjadhikari (Head of state council) of Emperor Akbar at Lahore court (1591-1605).
| title = Dewan
| spouse = Ajaib Devi, Jeeva Devi and Kapur Devi
| children = Bhag Chand and Lakshmi Chand
| father = Sangram Singh
}}
__FORCETOC__
'''Karamchand Bachhawat''' (1542–1607; ''Karmacand Bacchāvat''<ref name=":4">Flügel, Peter & Ahmad, Muzaffar. (2018). An Exploratory Survey of the Jaina Heritage in Pakistan. Jaina studies, 13, 26-32. Retrieved on 21 April 2026 from: https://soas-repository.worktribe.com/output/451306</ref>) was the [[Dewan]], Prime Minister of [[Bikaner State]] in the former [[Rajputana]] (now [[Rajasthan]]) from 1571 to 1591. Karamchand, a descendant of Bachhraj, was a valiant warrior, a good administrator and a strategist in [[Bikaner]] and had a good relationship with [[Akbar]]. In 1591, fearing for his life, he resigned. At Akbar's invitation, Karamchand later joined the emperor as an adviser to the [[Lahore]] court.<ref>Jaysom Pathak and Guna Vinaya-1594 (1980). Karamchand Vanshavali Prabandh (Sanskrit/Hindi). SinghiGranthmala, Bhartiya Vidhya Bhawan, Mumbai,</ref><ref>Rai Bahadur Gauri Shankar H Ojha (1939). ''History of the Bikaner State''. Printed at the Vedic Yantralaya, Ajmer pages=93-94 and 211-212.</ref>

== Ancestors ==
Karamchand Bachhawat belonged to Bachhawat gotra (sect) of [[Oswal]] community. The Bachhawats belong to the feudal aristocratic order of former states of [[Rajputana]] ([[Rajasthan]]), who faced many ups and downs in life. They were brave, and many sacrificed their lives fighting for the state against [[Muslim]] invaders. They were visionary administrators par excellence but at times suspected to be anti-state but pro-Mughal and pro-British regime. The members of this clan were associated with the administration of the state for generations. Among them many were independent rulers in [[Delwara]] state (former small kingdom near [[Udaipur State|Udaipur]]), Raja Sagar, Rana Shri Karan, Raja Bohitya Deora Chauhan. There were as many as six Prime Ministers of [[Jodhpur]] and [[Bikaner]] states from amongst the direct ancestors, Bachhraj, Karam Singh, Var Singh, Nagraj, Sangram Singh, and Karamchand Bachhawat. Later, in Mewar state, five of his descendants, Agarchand, Devichand, Sher Singh, Gokalchand and [[Rai Pannalal Mehta|Pannalal]] Bachhawat Mehta, served as Prime Ministers, nine members were appointed as Kiledars (Governors of Forts; किलेदार) and more than 25 members of this clan served as Hakims (Administrators; हाकिम) in various districts of Mewar.<ref name=":6"/><ref>Rai BahadurGaurishankar H Ojha(1938). Udaipur Rajya ka Itihasa (History: Kingdom of Udaipur). Publisher: Rajasthani Granthaghar, Jodhpur (Hindi)</ref><ref>Seth RajmalLalwani; Sukhsampat Raj Bhandari and others (1939). Oswal Jati ka Itihas. Oswal History Publishing House, Bhanpura, Indore</ref><ref name="Rai Pannalal Mehta CEI 1989">Rai Pannalal Mehta CEI, (1989). Swa-Jeewni (Autobiography). Published at the behest of Gokul Lal Mehta, Retd, IAS / Editors: Dr PD Pathak</ref>

The Bachhawats, trace their origin from the Chauhan dynasty of Samrat [[Prithviraj Chauhan|Prithviraj]] Chauhan. The ancestors were [http://www.indianrajputs.com/history/deora.php Deora] (देवड़ा) Chauhans, who ruled [[Delwara]] (city of gods; देवकुलपाटननगरी) state, in 13th-14th century. The ruler of Delwara, Raja Sagar, a Deora Chauhan and a descendant of Rao Kirtipal of [[Jalore Fort|Jalore]], was the progenitor of Bachhawats. Later, in 14th century, this clan embraced Jainism. Thus, the Bachhawat gotra in Oswal community was born. Since, for generations many of them were in the service of rulers (Maharajas & Maharanas), the Bachhawats also followed Vaishnavism alongside Jainism.<ref>Rai Bahadur Gaurishankar H Ojha(1938). Udaipur Rajya ka Itihasa (History: Kingdom of Udaipur). Publisher: Rajasthani Granthaghar, Jodhpur (Hindi)</ref><ref name="Rai Pannalal Mehta CEI 1989"/>

During mid15th century, Bachhraj submitted his services to the Chief of [[Mandore]] ([[Jodhpur]]) Rao Rinmal, where he was appointed Diwan as he was able administrator and a gallant warrior. It is said that a relative of [[Rana Kumbha]] of [[Mewar]] murdered Rao Rinmal. Diwan Bachhraj swiftly crowned the eldest son [[Rao Jodha]] to prevent any external aggression. Rao Jodha, then, for the first time, allowed Bachhraj and other Oswals to take part in commanding armies. In 1465, [[Rao Bika]], elder son of Rao Jodha, chose Bachhraj as his main follower, along with his uncle Rawal Kandhal and others, while proceeding to establish a new territory, later named [[Bikaner State|Bikaner]].

Bachhraj was appointed as Dewan of the newly founded state of Bikaner. The descendants of Bachhraj came to be known as Bachhawat, which later became a distinctive clan (gotra) and an ethnic group.<ref>Nahata Bhanwarlal, (2009). Mantri Karam Chand Bachhawat. Prakrit Bharati Academy, Jaipur; BJ Nahata Foundation, Calcutta. Pages 67-80</ref> With the passage of time the influence of Bachhawats grew by leaps and bounds. Each descendant of this clan was appointed as Dewan of Bikaner. Although ancestors of Bachhawats were Kshatriyas (Deora Chauhans), they now belonged to Vaishya (Bania) caste; hence they understood military strategy better than any Kshatriya adviser as royal blood runs in them. They used their pen and sword with equal skill and impact.

== Loyal to state, brilliant administrator & suave strategist ==
Karamchand was born in 1542 AD ([[Vikram Samvat]] 1599, Paush vid 11; Indian lunar calendar). In 1571, Rao Kalyanmal, on demise of Dewan Sangram Singh, a descendant of Bachhraj, appointed his son Karamchand as Dewan of Bikaner. He was popular in Bikaner and had built a good rapport with Emperor Akbar Jalal-u-din (1556-1605). The royal family of Bikaner had marital relations with the Mughals. Daughter of Kalyanmal was married to Emperor Akbar in 1570 and later his son Rai Singh's daughter was married to prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir). Thus, the ruling family of Bikaner was one among the chosen families from Rajputana, being part of marriage alliance arranged by Karamchand. Neither event is alluded to in the ‘Kiyant’ but the facts are recorded by Ferishta (pages 234 and 260, Brigg's Translation). Thus, Kalyan's son Rai Singh, who succeeded him in 1573, was one of Akbar's most distinguished generals.<ref name=":3"/><ref>Bhanwar lal Nahata (2009). Mantri Karam Chand Bachhawat. Prakrit Bharati Academy, Jaipur; BJ Nahata Foundation, Calcutta</ref> In 1571, while travelling with Prince Rai Singh from Bikaner to the court of Emperor Akbar at Lahore, the much-indebted Dewan Karamchand, before his departure asked Rao Kalyanmal, "''My Lord, order me as you please''". Rao Kalyanmal said that he has everything but wants to fulfil the wishes of his ancestors. He said,<blockquote>''“I want to perform Kamal Puja (prayers for departed souls of ancestors) sitting in the ‘gavaksh’ (balcony) of Jodhpur palace to fulfil the wishes of late Rao Bika”''.</blockquote>Karamchand along with Rajkumar Rai Singh paid their obeisance to [[Akbar|Emperor Akbar]]. Since Karamchand enjoyed a good equation with Akbar, he asked him for a favour, for Rao Kalyanmal to perform puja at the Jodhpur palace. Since [[Jodhpur]] was under the rule of Akbar, his wishes were granted instantly. Thus, Rao Kalyanmal could fulfil the wishes of his ancestors and asked Karamchand what he would like in return. Karamchand politely said, <blockquote>''“I have everything given by you. However, you may like to grant that during the four months of chaturmaas (monsoon) – teli (oilman), kumhar (potter), kandoi (confectioner), etc to stop violence related work. Do not collect tax on ‘maal’ (goods), goats, sheep, etc”.''</blockquote>Rao Kalyanmal accepted his wishes and granted four villages on stamped paper to Karamchand. Since Karamchand was on good terms with Emperor Akbar, the rulers of Bikaner were among the most loyal adherents of the empire and held high ranks as Mansabdars of special order in the imperial court, like Raja [[Man Singh I]] of Amber (Jaipur). They served as [[Commanding officer|military commanders]] in various Mughal campaigns all over the Indian sub-continent. Karamchand fought alongside Raja Rai Singh to defeat the Sultan of [[Gujarat]]. Emperor [[Akbar]] was pleased with the strategist in Dewan Karamchand and asked him what he wished for. He replied, <blockquote>''“I do not want anything for myself but a grant of 52 parganas for my king”''.</blockquote>Karamchand had three wives – Ajaib Devi, Jeeva Devi and Kapur Devi (Ajaibde, Jibade and Kapurde). He along with his family often travelled to Jain pilgrim centres – ''[[Palitana temples|Shatrunjay]], [[Girnar Jain temples|Girnar]], Mt [[Dilwara Temples|Abu]],'' etc. and gave away plenty of alms in charity. He was an able disciple of ''Acharya'' ''Jinachandra Suri''.

== Kind hearted and saviour of Jainism in medieval period ==
In 1573, Rao Kalyanmal was succeeded by Rao Rai Singh. With the help of strategist Karamchand, Rao Rai Singh expanded his kingdom and brought in a lot of prosperity for Bikaner state. The kingdom of Rao Rai Singh extended up to Harappa in Sindh (Sindhu Desh) by defeating the forces of Balochis. At the behest of Karamchand, the captured Baluchi prisoners of war were properly clothed, fed and returned to their homes, with dignity.<ref name=":7"/>

The valiant and brave king Rao Rai Singh of Bikaner was granted the title of Raja by Emperor Akbar. Karamchand, who had deep concern for the environment and Jain traditions, had orders issued for stopping of fishing activities in Sutlej, Dek and Raavi rivers. He stopped felling of trees in the desert region. Raja Rai Singh also passed orders banning killing of animals during Paryushan (holy festival of Jains during monsoon).<ref name=":8"/>

The rare 1050 Jina images (Jain paintings) and sculptures (gold & brass) looted by Sultan Tursam Khan in 1576, from the shrines of Sirohi were kept with Emperor Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri. It was intended to melt the statues and extract the gold, but Akbar denied the permission and ordered them to be kept safely. It was at the behest of Karamchand that Raja Rai Singh approached the Emperor and the statues were respectfully released in 1582. [[File:Chintamani Mandir Bikaner.jpg|alt=Chintamani Mandir Bikaner - inscription|thumb|Chintamani Mandir Bikaner - ''inscription - that Bachhawats has renovated it.''|280x280px]]When the statues arrived at Bikaner, Karamchand along with the Jain Acharyas and disciples organised a grand function to welcome these statues and installed them in the basement of Chintamani Mandir. From time to time on special occasions the basement is opened, and the statues worshipped as per Jain traditions in public. Such auspicious occasions in the 20th century were in the year 1943, when Acharya Mani Sagar Suri Maharaj arrived in Bikaner, then in 1962, 1978, 2009 and now in November 2017. Perhaps, due to non-availability of regular puja and worship facilities for so many divine statues, they are stored in the basement even today.
In the Chintamani temple, the main ‘Chaturvinshti’ (24 statues) idol was badly damaged during the invasion by Kamaran, ruler of Lahore and brother of Emperor Humayun. The stone-plaque at the temple put up in 1952 (VS 2009) mentions that the renovation work was carried out by the Bachhawat descendants of Mantri Bachhraj, namely Mantri Var Singh.<ref name=":7">BhanwarlalNahata (2009). Mantri Karam Chand Bachhawat. Prakrit Bharati Academy, Jaipur; BJ Nahata Foundation, Calcutta</ref><ref>Dr Vasudev Sharan Agrawal (Preface); Compiled & Edited by AgarchandNahata and BhanwarlalNahata (2013). Bikaner Jain LekhSangrah. Published by Shri Abhay Jain Granthalaya, Bikaner</ref>

In 1586, Karamchand learnt that Jain temples at [[Palitana temples|Shatrunjay]] (Palitana) and other places in Saurashtra were being destroyed by Navarang Khan. Fearing destruction of more Jain temples in the area, he immediately petitioned Akbar for the protection of Jain temples. Akbar at once issued a farmaan (stamped order) to Azam Khan of Gujarat to put Shatrunjay and other Jain temples in Saurashtra under the control of Karamchand for their protection. Later, a Jain temple was constructed by Karamchand at Palitana and at his maternal home (nanihal) in Merata city in memory of his mother.<ref name=":6"/>

== Bachhawats granted title of Mehta & honour to wear gold in legs ==
In 1586, Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir), son of Akbar and son-in-law of Raja Rai Singh was blessed with a daughter under inauspicious planetary conditions. The advice of Shaikh Abul Fazal and other learned people was sought. In the end, Karamchand and astrologers were consulted and special puja as per [[Jain philosophy]] was performed by Pontiff Bhanu Chandra <ref>Siddhi Chandra Upadhyaya (1941). Bhanu Chandra GaniCharitra. ed Shri Mohanlal Dalichand Desai, Calcutta</ref> to successfully ward off evil effects. Karamchand presented Prince Salim with a precious pearl necklace worth 1300 gold mohars (coins). Emperor Akbar was mighty pleased with Karamchand and he granted the honour to the ladies of Bachhawat family to wear gold in the foot. Till then this honour was reserved for only Sarang family of Oswal clan. The title of ''Mehta'' (a person engaged in important assignment; महत्त्वपूर्ण कार्यकर्ता) was also granted to him. All his direct descendants settled in Mewar use the title of Mehta. Karamchand Bachhawat Mehta, a close friend and strategist of Emperor Akbar became a historical person and came to be known as the saviour of Jainism during medieval period.<ref>Seth RajmalLalwani, Sukhsampat Raj Bhandari and others (1939). Oswal Jati ka Itihas. Oswal History Publishing House, Bhanpura, Indore</ref><ref name=":7"/>

== Against rewards to [[Charan]]s ==
Both Jain sources as well as Khayat of Dayaldas portray Raja Rai Singh as a very benevolent but extravagant personality. Judging from the marvellous liberality to [[Charan]]s with which the ‘Khyat’ credits Rai Singh, he would appear to have had a great appreciation of poetry and every important circumstance of his life is attested by a ballad.<ref>JK Jain et al ed (1932). SindhayachDayaldaskiKhyat (Hindi/Marwari). Part II; Page 36</ref> As Dewan of the state, Karamchand had a guarded attitude in the interest of the state treasury and did not like this extravaganza on bards. Hence Karamchand often protested to the king over the rewards.

The bohemian between Raja Rai Singh and Dewan Karamchand could not last long and very soon tensions surfaced in their relationship.

== Bachhawats do not worship Dyadi Mata ==
Traditionally, on completion of Navratri festival, Dyadi Mata ([[Ashapura Mata|Ashapura]] Mata; ''[[Kuladevata|Kuldevi]]'' of Chauhans as Bachhawats are their descendants) is commonly worshipped by all castes in Rajasthan. Once, during the later part of the 16th century, when Karamchand was engaged in the worshipping of Dyadi Mata, a disciple of Jain Muni, the ''Maharajsaab,'' came to Bachhawat's Haveli (Mansion) for ''gochari'' (food and alms). Karamchand felt disturbed, and told the disciple to convey to ''Maharajsaab'' to come later for ''gochari''. The ''Maharajsaab'' was displeased and through his spiritual powers, let Dyadi Mata's idol speak to Karamchand'','' <ref name=":1"/><blockquote>''"You shall not worship me from now onwards. I shall not find any fault for doing so. I may be immersed in water. If your descendants remake a similar statue and purify (bathe) it in sawa mound of oil, the puja can recommence."''</blockquote>It is believed, that ''Maharajsaab'' then had the gold statue, weighing sawa mound (approx. 1500 kg) thrown into the family well just outside the haveli in Maneck Chowk. Hence the ''Bachhawats'' and the members of this ethnic group do not worship Dyadi Mata (Kuldevi), from that day.

== Foundation of Junagarh Fort at Bikaner ==
[[File:Junagarh Fort of Bikaner.jpg|alt=Junagarh Fort of Bikaner. Formerly Chintamani Fort built under supervision of Karam Chand 1588-93|thumb|410x410px|Junagarh Fort of Bikaner. Formerly Chintamani Fort built (1588-93) under supervision of Dewan Karamchand Bachhawat.]]From 1585 to 1594 Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner was employed in the Deccan by Emperor Akbar, where he was Mansabdar of [[Burhanpur]]. While Rai Singh is said to have kept the petty chiefs under control and to have governed his province well, the administration of Bikaner was totally with Karamchand.

The royal family of Bikaner lived in the original small fortress built by Rao Bika, until Raja Rai Singh built a new fort called ‘Chintamani’. The ruins of the old fort can still be seen around the walled city, on Raati Ghati near Lakshmi Nathji temple. Whilst at Burhanpur he planned and ordered his minister, Karamchand to begin the construction of present fine fort of Bikaner in 1588.<ref name=":5"/> As Rai Singh was away, Karamchand laid the foundation stone of fort, named Chintamani Fort in 1588 and supervised its construction. Raja Rai Singh returned from his ''subah'' after nine years in 1594. In 1593, Emperor Akbar being mighty pleased with the military services and successful campaigns in Deccan and Gujarat by Raja Rai Singh, granted him with the jagirs of [[Junagadh State|Junagarh]] ([[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]]) and [[Burhanpur]]. In the early 20th century (1926) when the ruling family moved to Lalgarh Palace outside the fort limits, the original old fort was renamed as Junagarh, or ‘Old Fort’.

Completed in 1593, then Chintamani Fort, is an impressive fort of Northern India famous for its magnificent architecture, design and decoration. This Fort, also known as Bikaner Fort has withstood the ravages of time and has remained unconquered.

== Suspicion between Rai Singh and Karamchand ==
Capt PW Powlett writes in ‘''Gazetteer of Bikaner State''’,<blockquote>''“Karamchand established control over the polity of Bikaner and influenced some princes as well. The frequent absence of Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner to discharge his duties as Mansabdar was used by Karam Chand to establish his contacts at the Mughal court. This increasing proximity to Emperor Akbar was distancing Karamchand from his King. Karamchand had a dominating personality and whose proactive attitude overshadowed Rai Singh. The honours conferred on Karam Chand by Emperor Akbar made Raja Rai Singh jealous”.''</blockquote>One of the causes given by the historians is the breach of protocol. Karamchand was a good chess player and the Emperor Akbar would often ask him to play chess, seated opposite him in the Mughal court, while his master and other Rajas stood by in humble attendance.<ref name=":5">Captain PW Rowlett (1874). Gazetteer of the Bikaner State. Bikaner, Reprinted at Government Press (1832). Pages 24 to 34</ref> This was naturally most galling to Rai Singh, who conceived hatred towards his servant and sought to eliminate him after his return home from Burhanpur.

By 1591, tension started building up between the Rai Singh and Karamchand. Rai Singh discovered a conspiracy against his life. A conspiracy was hatched to dislodge Rai Singh from the ''gaddi'' (throne) of [[Bikaner State|Bikaner]]. The prime mover behind the conspiracy was allegedly Karamchand, which was not true. It is also strange to say, notwithstanding the Raja's magnificent treatments of Brahmins and minstrel class, a Purohit (priest) also figure amongst the conspirators. The objective was to place Raja's eldest son Dalpat Singh or his brother Ram Singh on the throne'','' thus Karamchand monopolizing the power of the state. These rumours were spread by the detractors of Dewan Karamchand. Karamchand and his family, having received timely warning, escaped to Delhi, where they were well received at the court of Akbar.

It is further stated by Capt Powlet in Gazetteer of Bikaner State, <blockquote>''“They were made the supreme authority of Emperor Akbar and acquainted him with Bikaner secrets, an offence still held in native states to be one of the most heinous possible''. ''But in other respects, Karamchand was now able to be a thorn in the side of the Raja Rai Singh”''.</blockquote>Capt Powlett further clarifies, ''“It must be understood that these expressions are those of the writers of Khyats”''. The Khyats are written by [[Charan]]s, a caste of warrior-poets who compose poems and stories of battles and heroes with the greatest of ease and keep alive the oral tradition. The stories are passed down from father to son. In a sense they are the early historians, and were respected to do so.

However, another version of this story from ''‘Karamchand Vansh-kavyam’'' by Jaysom states,<ref>Jaysom Pathak and Guna Vinaya-1594 (1980). Karamchandra Vanshavali Prabandh (Sanskrit / Hindi). Singh Granthmala, Bhartiya Vidhya Bhawan, Mumbai</ref><blockquote>“''Raja Rai Singh turned against Karamchand and wanted to take revenge. Sensing development of ill will of Raja Rai Singh towards himself, Dewan Karamchand politely took permission to settle in Merta city along with his family members, to spend his time in the service of Parshvanath Swami and Shri Jindutt Surij at a nearby village of Phalodi. He was invited by Raja Man Singh of Amber (Jaipur), one of the famous 'Navaratnas' (the nine gems at the royal court of Akbar) and other kings but he refused as he had his singular loyalty towards Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner''”.</blockquote>

== Invited to Lahore court by Akbar ==
Around 1591, Emperor Akbar being aware of the talent and loyalty of Dewan Karamchand sent a letter to invite him to his court at [[Lahore Fort|Lahore]] through Raja Rai Singh. On the orders of his king, Karamchand left Merta for Lahore along with his aides. He visited Ajmer en route to seek blessings at the memorial (stupa) of his guru Dada sahib Shri Jindutt Suri. When at Lahore he was immediately called in by the Emperor Akbar for an audience, whereas, people would wait for days to have audience. The Emperor knew everything about him and reassured Karamchand that his lost glory would be restored shortly.

Bhanwarlal Nahata writes in his book ‘Mantri Karamchand Bachhawat’,<ref name=":1">Bhanwarlal Nahata (2009). Mantri Karam Chand Bachhawat. Prakrit Bharati Academy, Jaipur; BJ Nahata Foundation, Calcutta</ref><blockquote>''“Emperor Akbar appointed Dewan Karamchand as Gajjadhikari (Head of State Council, Treasury &Stores). Emperor presented him with a hunting horse loaded with gold. He was also appointed as the Samrajyadhipati (Governor;'' स्म्राज्यधिपति'') of Toshampur (now in Haryana) with appropriate number of elephants, horses and foot soldiers”.''</blockquote>It meant that all Kings and Mansabdars under Mughal Empire would have to first meet Dewan Karamchand before calling on Emperor.

== Acharya Jinchandra Suri invited to Lahore court ==
[[File:Acharya Jinchand Suri.jpg|alt=Acharya Jinchand Suri with Akbar and Karam Chand at Lahore court|thumb|Acharya Jinchandra Suri with Akbar and Karam Chand at Lahore court|440x440px]]
During one of the meetings with the learned religious people, Akbar asked the pundits, "''Who was the most learned Jain philosopher?''" The pundits replied, "''Acharya Jinchandra Suri was one such person''". Emperor asked, "''Who is his disciple?''" The pundits replied, "''Dewan Karamchand''".<ref>English Translation by S.M. Pahedia (1982). Jainism in mdiaeval india(1300-1800). Chapter XIV. https://www.scribd.com/document/59431751/Jainism-in-Medieval-India</ref>

Bhanwarlal Nahata of Prakrit Bharati Academy, Jaipur writes in his book ‘''Mantri Karam Chand Bachhawat''’<ref name=":7"/><ref name=":1" /> that Karamchand was summoned and ordered to invite his guru Maharaj as soon as possible. Accordingly, Acharya, who was then at [[Palitana temples|Shatrunjay]] ([[Palitana temples|Palitana]], Saurashtra) reached Lahore after six months journey on foot, on 14 February 1592 along with 31 disciples on Eid day.

The Emperor, who was sitting in the balcony of the palace, came down to receive Acharya Jinchandra Suri and after exchanging pleasantries, he said, <blockquote>''“I have asked you to come here all the way from Gujarat to benefit from your thoughts at the religious meetings''. ''I strongly believe in non-violence (ahimsa); therefore, you must visit my court to give audience, at least once every day so that there is spiritual awakening among my children''”.</blockquote>Having received the patronage of the Emperor, Acharya soon became popular and was well received by one and all at Lahore. He stayed there for over a year till next monsoon.

== Akbar proceeds to Kashmir by boat through river Jhelum ==
[[File:Jhelum river map.jpg|alt=Jhelum river map - Akbar proceeds to Kashmir by boat|thumb|Jhelum river map - Akbar proceeds to Kashmir by boat|302x302px]]
Jaysom notes in Karamchandra Vanshavali Prabandh,<ref>Jaysom Pathak and Guna Vinaya-1594 (1980). Karamchandra Vanshavali Prabandh (Sanskrit / Hindi). Singhi Granthmala, Bhartiya Vidhya Bhawan, Mumbai</ref> that Emperor Akbar, while in Lahore dealing with the [[Uzbekistan|Uzbeks]] had sought to subjugate the upper Indus valley to secure the frontier provinces. He sent an army to conquer [[Kashmir]] in the upper Indus basin. In 1585, Ali Shah surrendered immediately to the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], but another of his sons, Yaqub, crowned himself as king, and led a stubborn resistance to Mughal armies. Finally, in June 1589, Akbar himself travelled from Lahore to Srinagar to receive the surrender of Yaqub and his rebel forces.<ref name=":7"/>

On another occasion in 1592, once again sensing trouble from rebels, Emperor Akbar then desired to go to Kashmir by boat through river [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]]. He summoned Karamchand and asked him to make necessary preparations for the journey. Later, Emperor called for Acharya Jinchandra Suri for his darshan (audience) before proceeding to Kashmir. He told Karamchand to ensure that Acharya stays put comfortably in Lahore during his absence so that inter-religious spiritual discourses, kindness, mercy to all living beings (ahimsa) and protection of cows to continue in his empire. Accordingly, Emperor issued farmaans to his eleven subas to follow the instructions on ahimsa. Many kings and sultans, to please the Emperor, also issued orders to protect living beings on certain days in their kingdom.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7"/>

Akbar asked Karamchand and Vachak Mahimraj Man Singh, the senior Jain preacher & story teller, to accompany him to [[Kashmir]]. Karamchand made elaborate arrangements, such as tents, logistics, also vegetarian food cooked by Brahmin, a mahatma and tantric to accompany the entourage for warding off any evil en route, etc. Akbar, stopped enroute at Rohtaspur with his entourage. During this second visit to Kashmir on 7 October 1592, the great Moghul enjoyed the saffron blossom at [[Pampore]] and celebrated the festival of Diwali. On this occasion the boats on the banks of river Jhelum and the roofs of the houses in Srinagar were illuminated at the Emperor's command. However, sensing trouble from the rebels, Karamchand, the most trustworthy and gallant official was dispatched for the protection of imperial Anantnag at the behest of Emperor. Karamchand faced stiff resistance but successfully captured the rebels without any bloodshed.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7"/>

== Karamchand Bachhawat passes away ==
In 1605, the Emperor Akbar died. Karamchand Vanshho-KirtankamKavyam (1594) by Jaysom observes,<ref name=":3">Jaysom Pathak and Guna Vinaya-1594 (1980). KaramchandraVanshavaliPrabandh (Sanskrit / Hindi). SinghiGranthmala, Bhartiya Vidhya Bhawan, Mumbai</ref><ref name=":7"/>
[[File:Acharya Jinchandra Suri.jpg|alt=Acharya Jinchandra Suri guru of Karam Chand|thumb|Acharya Jinchandra Suri, guru of Karam Chand]]
<blockquote>''“On the accession of Jahangir as Emperor of India, Raja Rai Singh went to Delhi. He also called on ailing Karamchand to wish him good health and apologise for the past. He also expressed his condolences on demise of Akbar and wept profusely in front of Karamchand''”.</blockquote>After Raja Rai Singh went away, Karamchand called his sons, Bhagchand and Lakshmichand. He praised Raja Rai Singh but at the same time cautioned them that these were crocodile tears and not of love and affection. He said,<blockquote>“''Raja Rai Singh is happy that I shall shortly pass away and regretted that he was unable to take revenge of the past. My dear children! Don’t you make a mistake of ever returning to Bikaner''”.</blockquote>He died at Delhi after Emperor Akbar's death between 1605 and 1607.

Capt PW Powlett writes in ‘''Gazetteer of Bikaner State’'',<ref name=":5"/><blockquote>“''It is interesting to note, whether Karamchand’s presence at Mughal court was only due to his personal rapport with the Emperor Akbar or due to his linkages with the Jain religious circles close to Akbar. It is yet to be established whether he was kept at the court as a bulwark against the house of Bikaner to maintain a system of checks and balances. Thus, revenge was inevitable from Rai Singh and despite showing sympathy for the Bachhawat family he could not pursue Karamchand or his sons to return to Bikaner. Thus, the hero of Jain tradition became the villain of the royal house of Bikaner and the Rajput traditions''”.</blockquote>''Bachhawat Karamchand'' was a very cultured person and was indeed loyal to the king like his fore fathers. Later, Dewan Karamchand Bachhawat Mehta, a close friend and strategist of Emperor Akbar became a historical person.

== Dying wish of Raja Rai Singh for Bachhawats ==
Captain Powlett writes in ''‘Gazetteer of Bikaner State’'', that immediately after the death of Karamchand, Raja Rai Singh was again reappointed as the Mansabdar of Burhanpur. After a visit to Bikaner, he set off for Deccan with his son Sur Singh and governed there successfully for seven years. In 1612 he fell ill and Sur Singh seeing that his father's end was approaching, with folded hands asked for his last injunctions. Dying Raja Rai Singh said,<ref name=":5" /> <blockquote>“''Bachhawats, the family of Karamchand should be enticed to Bikaner that on them should be visited the sins of their father. The Purohit Man Mahesh and Bharat Chotji and the other conspirators such as Bharta Jat, associated with Karamchand should receive the reward of their misdeeds''”.</blockquote>Having exacted a promise that his wishes should be attended to, the Raja Rai Singh expired in 1612.

Dalpat ascended the throne of Bikaner in 1612. He earned the displeasure of Emperor at Delhi and that of his younger brother Sur Singh. Due to Dalpat's unpopularity that his nobles fell away from him and openly or secretly united with Sur Singh. Later, Sur Singh revolted against his elder brother Dalpat Singh and killed him along with his guards with the consent of Emperor Jahangir. Dalpat's wives at Bikaner were slaughtered and those at Bhatner became sati with Dalpat's turban in their hands.<ref name=":6">Rai BahadurGaurishankar H Ojha (1939). The History of the Bikaner State. Printed at the Vedic Yantralaya, Ajmer. Pages 93-94 and 211-212</ref><ref name="JK Jain 1932 Page 36">JK Jain et al ed (1932).SindhayachaDayaldaskiKhyat (Hindi/Marwari).Part II; Page 36</ref>

== Bravery and heroism of Bachhawats at Bikaner ==
Sur Singh ascended the throne of Bikaner in 1613. Around 1619, Raja Sur Singh went to [[Delhi Sultanate|Delhi]] to pay his obeisance to Emperor Jahangir, where he was restored 11 mansabs by the Emperor. He also called on Bhagchand & Lakshmichand, sons of late Dewan Karamchand. He took them in absolute confidence and invited them to Bikaner. He went so far as to dismiss his minister, to give the office to Bhagchand and Lakshmichand. Both sons of Karamchand did not remember their father's advice and started in good faith for [[Bikaner State|Bikaner]]. They were appointed as Mantris very respectfully. Raja Sur Singh remained extra benevolent towards these brothers in the following months. He also accepted the invitation to visit the Bachhawat haveli, wherein the Bachhawat brothers gave a nazrana (offerings to king) of one lakh rupee and other gifts for the felicitation of the King. Jinsaar Suri Raas, written in 1623 mentions that around 1619 Acharya Jinsagar Suri was hosted at Bikaner by Mantri Bhagchand and his nephew Manohar Das.<ref name=":7"/><ref name=":8">Lalit K. Mehta (1999). Caste, Clan, and Ethnicity: A Study of Mehtas in Rajasthan. Rawat Publications</ref><ref name="JK Jain 1932 Page 36"/>

The Bachhawats thereupon were resettled in Bikaner but one fine morning at daybreak by treachery their quarters were surrounded by 4000 royal troops of Bikaner and they soon perceived that their destruction was intended. Though they belonged to one ''bania'' (trader) caste, they had, like many of their class who lived amongst and held office under Rajputs, imbibed much of the Rajput spirit and they resolved to die hard. At that time Bhagchand was resting and his brother Lakshmichand and his son Manohar Das were at the Durbar. Lakshmichand's wife announced with both pride and anger,
[[File:Bada Upasara buit by Dewan Sangram Singh Bachhawat at Rangdi ka Chowk, Bikaner.jpg|alt=Bada Upasara built by Dewan Sangram Singh Bachhawat at Rangdi ka Chowk, Bikaner|thumb|320x320px|Bada Upasara built by Dewan Sangram Singh Bachhawat at Rangdi ka Chowk, Bikaner]]
<blockquote>''“The royal forces have surrounded our haveli. If I have your permission I shall adorn men’s uniform and show them my power”''.</blockquote>Upon which Bhagchand refused permission and himself, after destroying their valuable jewels and sword in hand, fell upon the Rajputs of Rai Singh. The brave Bachhawats retaliated by their well-trained 500 guards. But the guards of Bachhawats could not withstand the mighty power of royal soldiers for a long. The wives of Karamchand, Lakshmichand, Manohar Das and the other women of Bachhawat household killed themselves by Jal-Johar (jumping into the haveli well), whilst their men died fighting royal soldiers. Lakshmichand and Manohar Das who were in Durbar were killed there.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />

== Bachhawats exterminated by deceit ==
In Rangdi-ka-Chowk (formerly Maneck Chowk), opposite Bada Upasara there used to be a well owned by Bachhawats, which was later closed, and a platform built. Today, a ‘Hanuman Mandir' stands tall on its side. This was the well, in which Bachhawat women performed Jal-Johar to protect their honour when troops of Sur Singh invaded their quarters.<ref name=":8" />

However, the Raja Sur Singh failed in total exterminating the Bachhawats, since one pregnant lady, Mewariji, (Jigishabai) wife of Bhag Chand, was not allowed to sacrifice herself. She, with the assistance of a trusted servant Raghunath escaped to [[Karni Mata Temple|Karni Mata]] temple at [[Deshnoke]]. As per convention the pregnant lady was granted safe passage to return to her father’s home at Udaipur. Mewariji (Jigishabai) was the daughter of [[Bhamashah]], then Pradhan of [[Mewar]] state during Maharana Pratap’s time. Thus, Karamchand and Bhamashah were related through marriage alliance between their son and daughter respectively.<ref name=":7" />

Capt PW Powlett writes in ‘''Gazetteer of Bikaner State’'',<ref name=":5"/> <blockquote>''“In the same year that the slaughter of the Bachhawats occurred, Sur Singh further carried out the dying behest of his father by confiscating the jagirs of the descendants of conspirators, Purohit Man Mahesh and Bharat Chotaji. Thereafter, these people came to Bikaner (Chintamani / Junagarh) Fort and protested outside Karanpol and were intentionally not stopped from self-immolation during the protest. Another of those denounced by the late Raja Rai Singh, a Bharta Jat was also killed mercilessly”''.</blockquote>Mohammed Iqbal in his book ‘''Bikaner Rajya ka Itihas – Kuch Anchue Pahelu''’ notes that these events were heart breaking and were considered inauspicious for the state. In the act of showing regret and repentance for all the killings, Raja Sur Singh built a lake on the spot where self-immolation by Brahmins was carried out. The lake later came to be known as Sur Sagar. It is said that due to bad omen, the water of the lake from time to time gets mysteriously polluted by some underground water source and needs to be cleaned periodically.

== Epilogue ==
''Dewan Karamchand'' ''Bachhawat Mehta'' was a brilliant administrator, clever strategist, suave politician and a very cultured person. He is also well known as the saviour of Jainism during medieval period. He was indeed loyal to the king like his forefathers. The hero of Jain tradition who became the villain of the royal house of Bikaner is a historical person.

== See also ==
* [[History of Bikaner]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
# Tod, James (1832). Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han or the Central and Western Rajpoot States of India, Volume 2. London: Smith, Elder.
# Kaviraj Shyamal Das (1890 / 1930). Veer Vinod – Mewar ka Itihaas (Hindi). In 4 volumes. Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi.
# Pratap Singh Mehta (2016). Rajputana Chronicles: Guns and Glories – the thousand-year story of the Bachhawat clan. Notion Press Media, Chennai. <nowiki>https://www.amazon.in/Guns-Glories-Pratap-Singh-Mehta/dp/9352066006</nowiki>
# Dalpat Vilas. Publisher: Sadul Rajasthani Research Institute, Bikaner 1960. It is the surviving fragment of a historical manuscript. Written in the Rajasthani language and is the earliest known Rajput source of [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] -Rajput relations / The author of the Dalpat Vilas remains unknown.
# Gupta, R.K.; Bakshi, S.R., eds. (2008). Studies in Indian History: Rajasthan Through the Ages Vol. 5. New Delhi: Sarup& Sons
# AbulFazl, Ain-i-Akbari
# Prof Shalin Jain (2007). The Centre and Locality in Mughal India: The case of Mantri Karam Chand Bachhawat of Bikaner. Paper at 68th session of IHC 2007;Pages 332-339
# Sharma, Dasharatha (1970), Lectures on Rajput History and Culture, MotilalBanarsidass, Delhi.
# [[Girija Shankar Sharma|Sharma, Girija Shankar]] (2003) ''Dalpat Vilas: Itihaskidrishti se samikshan'' in ''Hamare Purodha''-19 Dr. Dasharatha Sharma (in [[Hindi]]) Rajasthan SahityaAkademi, Udaipur. {{ISBN|81-88445-00-2}}.
# RC Jauhri, Sharma, Pushap Lata Jainism in medieval India a study of its contact with Muslim rulers
# English Translation by S.M. Pahedia (1982). Jainism in Mediaeval India (1300-1800). Chapter XIV. https://www.scribd.com/document/59431751/Jainism-in-Medieval-India
# Maj KD Erskine, 1909. Rajputana Gazetteers, Vol III-A, The Western Rajputna States Residency and Bikaner Agency. The Pioneer Press, Allahbad. Pages 318-19
# Sri Jin Chandra Suri. Akbar Pratibodh Raas. ed Agar Chand Nahata. Page 58-78
# Mohammad Iqbal (2011). Bikaner Rajya ka Itihas – Kuch Anchue Pahelu. Bikaner.

[[Category:Bikaner]]
[[Category:Politicians from Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Indian dewans]]
[[Category:Prime ministers]]
[[Category:Saurashtra (region)]]
[[Category:Jain acharyas]]
[[Category:Jodhpur]]
[[Category:Akbar]]
[[Category:Junagadh]]
[[Category:1542 births]]
[[Category:1607 deaths]]

Bhulai Bhai

2026-04-14T11:20:07Z

RodEsters254334: made post

{{Short description|Indian politician (died 2024)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Member of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| name = Narayan alias Bhulai Bhai
| constituency = Nebua-Naurangiya
| term_end = 1980
| term_start = 1974
| awards = [[Padma Shri]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| other_party = [[Bharatiya Jana Sangh]]
| birth_place = Pagar Chhapra, Kaptanganj, [[Kushinagar district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| death_place = Pagar Chhapra, Kaptanganj, [[Kushinagar district]] [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| death_date = 31 October 2024
}}

'''Narayan''' (died 31 October 2024) popularly known as '''Bhulai Bhai''' was an Indian politician who served as the Member of [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] from Nebua-Naurangiya Assembly constituency for two-terms, in 1974 and 1977.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-01 |title=Bhulai Bhai, BJP's oldest party worker, dies at 111 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/bhulai-bhai-bjp-oldest-party-worker-dies-kushinagar-up-jana-sangh-mla-pm-modi-health-enquiry-2626183-2024-11-01 |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Livemint |date=2024-11-01 |title='Irreparable loss': Bhulai Bhai, BJP's oldest party worker passes away; PM Modi, Amit Shah condole demise {{!}} Today News |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/irreparable-loss-bhulai-bhai-bjps-oldest-party-worker-passes-away-pm-modi-amit-shah-condole-demise-11730470026240.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241107103122/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/irreparable-loss-bhulai-bhai-bjps-oldest-party-worker-passes-away-pm-modi-amit-shah-condole-demise-11730470026240.html |archive-date=7 November 2024 |access-date=2025-01-25 |work=mint |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> He was a member of [[Bharatiya Jana Sangh]] and [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]. He posthumously received the [[Padma Shri]] in 2025 under the Public Affairs category.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-25 |title=Padma Bhushan for Manohar Joshi, Sushil Modi; BJP's 'oldest worker' gets posthumous Padma Shri: Who got the awards for public affairs |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/padma-bhushan-manohar-joshi-sushil-modi-bjp-narayan-9799314/ |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-25 |title=बीजेपी के सबसे पुराने कार्यकर्ता को पद्मश्री, 111 साल की उम्र में हुआ था निधन |url=https://www.aajtak.in/india/news/story/bjp-oldest-worker-narayan-alias-bhulai-bhai-gets-padma-shri-ntc-rptc-2151396-2025-01-25 |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=आज तक |language=hi}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Bhulai Bhai was born as Narayan at Pagar Chhapra, [[Kaptanganj, India|Kaptanganj]] in [[Kushinagar district]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=जब भुलई भाई ने दीनदयाल उपाध्याय के कहने पर अफसरी से दे दिया था इस्तीफा, कौन थे जनसंघ के 'पितामह' |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/state/uttar-pradesh/kushinagar/bhulai-bhai-had-resigned-on-the-advice-of-deen-dayal-upadhyaya/articleshow/114844390.cms |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=Navbharat Times |language=hi}}</ref>

== Career ==
He joined politics in 1967 after being influenced by the works of [[Deendayal Upadhyaya|Deen Dayal Upadhyay]] for [[Hindutva]]. He left his job as a education officer to join Bharatiya Jana Sangh.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-01 |title=कौन थे भुलई भाई, जिनके जाने का दुख पूरी भाजपा को, BJP बनने से पहले से रहा नाता |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/uttar-pradesh/kushinagar-who-was-bhulai-bhai-jansangh-leader-entire-bjp-leadership-sad-pm-modi-respected-him-a-lot-8807868.html |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=News18 हिंदी |language=hi}}</ref> He was elected first time to the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly from Nebua-Naurangiya Assembly constituency in [[1974 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] on the symbol of Bharatiya Jana Sangh and again won the same constituency with same symbol in 1977 and held the office till 1980.<ref>{{Cite web |title=कौन हैं BJP के सबसे सीनियर वर्कर 106 साल के भुलई भाई जिनसे मिलने पहुंचे राजनाथ सिंह? |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/india/rajnath-meets-106-year-old-bhulai-bhai-senior-most-member-of-bjp/articleshow/87022547.cms |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=Navbharat Times |language=hi}}</ref> During [[The Emergency (India)|emergency]], he went to jail for some time.<ref name=":0" />

== Death ==
He died after a prolonged illness on 31 October 2024 at his residence in Kushinagar. His death was condoled by [[Narendra Modi]], [[Yogi Adityanath]], [[Amit Shah]] and other political figures.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-11-03 |title=BJP ex-MLA Bhulai Bhai passes away; CM expresses grief |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/bjp-veteran-bhulai-bhai-dies-at-111-cm-yogi-adityanath-mourns-loss/articleshow/114892576.cms |access-date=2025-01-25 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=कौन थे भुलई भाई, जिनके सामने BJP का हुआ जन्म, निधन पर PM मोदी, अमित शाह समेत पूरी भाजपा हो गई उदास |url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/india/who-was-bhulai-bhai-bjp-oldest-party-worker-dies-at-111/2496979 |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=Zee News Hindi |language=hi}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Public Affairs|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhai, Bhulai}}
[[Category:2024 deaths]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Jana Sangh politicians]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 1974–1977]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 1977–1980]]
[[Category:People from Kushinagar district]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in public affairs]]

Debadrita Basu

2026-04-13T18:10:11Z

RodEsters254334: Added new info initial version

{{Short description|Indian actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Debadrita Basu
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name = Debadrita Basu
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|2001|01|03}}
| birth_place = [[Chakdaha]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]]
| citizenship =
| occupation = Actress
| relations = [[Sanjay Basu]] (father) [[Debopriya Basu]] (sister) [[Bidesh Ranjan Bose]] (grandfather)
| partner = [[Rahul Dev Bose]]
}}

'''Debadrita Basu''' (born 3 October 2001) is an Indian Bengali television and theatre actress.<ref name=":0">{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/debadrita-basu-isnt-complaining-about-the-new-normal/articleshow/76369568.cms |title=Debadrita Basu isn't complaining about the new normal |work=The Times of India}}</ref> Although her career started with stage plays, she is best known for playing the lead roles of Joyee in the serial ''[[Joyee]]'' and Alo in the serial ''[[Alo Chhaya]]''—both of these aired on [[Zee Bangla]], Rajkumari Meera / Meerabai in the mythological serial ''[[Shree Krishna Bhakto Meera]]'' on [[Star Jalsha]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/i-took-part-in-school-plays-but-never-thought-ill-act-on-tv-debadrita-basu-/articleshow/63331349.cms |title=I took part in school plays, but never thought I'll act on TV: Debadrita Basu |work=The Times of India |access-date=25 June 2018}}</ref> Alo in the serial ''Alor Theekana'' on [[Sun Bangla]] and antagonist role of 'Nilu' in the serial ''Mithijhora'' on [[Zee Bangla]].

== Early life ==
Basu was born in [[Chakdaha]], [[West Bengal]] to Sanjay and Shukla Basu. She is the granddaughter of famous footballer [[Bidesh Ranjan Bose|Bidesh Basu]]. She has a younger sister, Debopriya Basu, who is also an actress. Basu's acting career started with the theater group ''Ha Za Ba Ra La'' at the age of 8. While still in school, Basu began theatre practice with her father.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/supplementary/anandaplus/before-the-serial-i-never-play-football-says-debadrita-basu-1.812073 |title=ফুটবল ছুঁয়েও দেখিনি কখনও, জানালেন জয়ী |last=দত্ত |first=নবনীতা |work=Anandabazar Patrika |access-date=27 June 2018 |language=bn}}</ref> ''Drohi Choitonnya'' was her first theater drama. She got an opportunity to work in TV serials through auditioning.

== Career ==
Basu played the lead role in the serial ''[[Joyee]]'' on the Bengali channel [[Zee Entertainment Enterprises|Zee Bangla]], in Kolkata.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://ebela.in/entertainment/joyi-aka-debadrita-basu-belongs-to-a-family-deeply-connected-to-theatre-dgtl-1.733642 |title=অভিনয়ে এত ভাল কেন 'জয়ী', পরিবারের পরিচয়ে লুকিয়ে রহস্য |work=ebela.in |access-date=25 June 2018}}</ref>

She also played Alo Sengupta, the titular protagonist in the soap opera ''[[Alo Chhaya]]''.

She was last seen as Meerabai in the mythological drama ''Shree Krishna Bhakto Meera'' on [[Star Jalsha]], which unexpectedly stopped airing due to the show's low popularity.

Since 2022, she has been playing Alo, the main protagonist in the daily soap ''Alor Theekana'' on [[Sun Bangla]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/debadrita-basu-john-bhattacharyya-starrer-alor-thikana-to-premiere-on-september-19/articleshow/93999422.cms |title=Debadrita Basu-John Bhattacharyya starrer 'Alor Thikana' to premiere on September 19 |work=etimes.in |access-date=5 September 2022}}</ref>

== Television ==

===Television series===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
!Channels
!Notes
! Ref(s)
|-
| 2017–2019
| ''[[Joyee]]''
|Joyee/Jessica
| rowspan="2" |[[Zee Bangla]]
| Debut, Lead Role
|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ganguly |first1=Ruman |title=I took part in school plays, but never thought I'll act on TV: Debadrita Basu - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/i-took-part-in-school-plays-but-never-thought-ill-act-on-tv-debadrita-basu-/articleshow/63331349.cms |work=The Times of India |date=16 March 2018 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2019–2021
| ''[[Alo Chhaya]]''
|Alo Sengupta (née Chatterjee)
| rowspan="3" |Lead Role
|<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/alo-chhaya-actress-debadrita-basu-is-a-diva-off-screen/photostory/75407620.cms |title=Alo Chhaya actress debadrita Basu is a diva off screen |website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/debadrita-basu-is-all-game-for-playing-challenging-characters/articleshow/73352657.cms |title=Debadrita Basu is all game for playing challenging characters |website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/actresses-debadrita-basu-and-oindrila-bose-to-play-alo-chhaya/articleshow/72032846.cms |title=Actresses Debadrita Basu and Oindrila Bose to play Alo-Chhaya |work=The Times of India}}</ref>
|-
| 2021
| ''[[Shree Krishna Bhakto Meera]]''
|[[Meerabai]]
|[[Star Jalsha]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Actress Debadrita Basu to play Meera in an upcoming show - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/actress-debadrita-basu-to-play-meera-in-an-upcoming-show/articleshow/82252001.cms |work=The Times of India |date=26 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2022–2023
|''Alor Theekana''
|Alo
|[[Sun Bangla]]
|<ref name=":1" />
|-
|2023–2025
|''[[Mithijhora]]''
|Nilanjana aka Nilu
| rowspan="2" |[[Zee Bangla]]
|2nd Lead. Positive to Negative and again switched to Positive.
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|2026–Present
|''Kamala Nibas''
|Pallabi
|Lead Role
|<ref>{{cite news |title=“পল্লবী চরিত্রটা খুবই সংবেদনশীল, মেয়েটা...” দীর্ঘ বিরতির পর ‘কমলা নিবাস’-এ প্রধান চরিত্রে ফিরছেন দেবাদূতা বসু! দেবশঙ্কর হালদার, সোহিনী সেনগুপ্ত আর পরমব্রতর সঙ্গে নতুন অধ্যায় নিয়ে কী বললেন অভিনেত্রী?|url=https://tollytales.com/viral/debadrita-basu-returns-to-television-with-new-serial-kamala-nibas-shares-experience-51791#google_vignette}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |title='কমলা নিবাস'-এ দেবাদৃতার বিপরীতে পরম! 'অনেক সময় যে দ্বিধাটা কাজ করে…', নায়কের সঙ্গে কাজের অভিজ্ঞতা নিয়ে যা বললেন নায়িকা|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bangla/entertainment/exclusive-debadrita-basu-pair-up-with-parambrata-chatterjee-in-kamala-nivas-she-share-her-experiance-271773079175334.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=দুই বোনের গল্পে দেবাদৃতা-সংহতি! কোন চ্যানেলে আসছে নতুন ধারাবাহিক?|url=https://www.aajkaal.in/entertainment/debadrita-basu-and-sanghati-banerjee-will-be-seen-in-upcoming-bangla-serial-kamala-nibas-307340}}</ref>
|}

===Mahalaya===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
!Channels
|-
|2018
|''Shaktirupeno''
|[[Bipodtarini Devi|Devi Bipodtarini]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Zee Bangla]]
|-
|2019
|''Baro Maashe Baro Rupe Debiboron''
|Devi Falharini and [[Jagaddhatri|Jagadhatri]]
|-
|2020
|''Durga Saptashati Sambhavami Yuge Yuge''
|[[Yogamaya|Devi Jogomaya]]
|-
|2022
|''Debi Doshomahavidya''
|[[Chhinnamasta|Devi Chinnamasta]]
|[[Colors Bangla]]
|}

===Awards===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Award show
! Category
! Role
! Serial
|-
|rowspan="2"| 2018
|rowspan="5"| ''Zee Bangla Sonar Sansar''
| Sera Bou
| Joyee
|rowspan="3"| [[Joyee]]
|-
| Sera Juti
| Joyee-Ribhu
|-
| 2019
| Sera Bouma
| Joyee
|-
| 2020
| Sera Meye
|rowspan="2"|Alo
|rowspan="2"| [[Alo Chhaya]]
|-
| 2021
| Priyo Bou
|-
| 2021
| ''Kolkata GlitZ Awards 2021''
| Young Achiever Female (Popular Choice)
| Alo
| [[Alo Chhaya]]
|-
| 2024
| ''Tollystar Awards 2024''
| Performer of the Year
|
|
|-
| 2024
| ''Tolly And Cine Somman 2024''
| Best Actor in a Supporting Role
| Nilanjana
| [[Mithijhora]]
|-
| 2025
| ''Zee Bangla Sonar Sansar 2025''
| Priyo Kholnayika
| Nilanjana
| [[Mithijhora]]
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Basu, Debadritz}}
[[Category:Actresses from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:2001 births]]

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad

2026-04-13T02:16:16Z

RodEsters254334: Put up new info

{{Short description|Indian religious leader and founder of the Ahmadiyya community (1835–1908)}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}

{{Infobox clergy|honorific prefix=|name=Mīrzā Ghulām Aḥmad {{nq|{{nobold|مرزا غلام احمد}}}}|title=Founder of the [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam]]|image=Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (c. 1897).jpg|caption=Ahmad, {{circa|1897}}|religion=[[Ahmadiyya]] Islam<ref name="Upal 2021">{{cite book |author-last=Upal |author-first=M. Afzal |author-link=Afzal Upal |year=2021 |chapter=The Cultural Genetics of the Aḥmadiyya Muslim Jamāʿat |editor1-last=Cusack |editor1-first=Carole M. |editor1-link=Carole M. Cusack |editor2-last=Upal |editor2-first=M. Afzal |title=Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion |volume=21 |doi=10.1163/9789004435544_034 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-90-04-43554-4 |issn=1874-6691 |pages=637–657}}</ref><ref name="Korbel-Preckel 2016">{{cite book |last1=Korbel |first1=Jonathan |last2=Preckel |first2=Claudia |year=2016 |chapter=Ghulām Aḥmad al-Qādiyānī: The Messiah of the Christians—Peace upon Him—in India (India, 1908) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtY6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA426 |editor1-last=Bentlage |editor1-first=Björn |editor2-last=Eggert |editor2-first=Marion |editor3-last=Krämer |editor3-first=Hans-Martin |editor4-last=Reichmuth |editor4-first=Stefan |editor4-link=Stefan Reichmuth (academic) |title=Religious Dynamics under the Impact of Imperialism and Colonialism |series=Numen Book Series |volume=154 |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |pages=426–442 |doi=10.1163/9789004329003_034 |isbn=978-90-04-32511-1}}</ref>|spouse={{unbulleted list|{{marriage|Hurmat Bibi|1852}}|{{marriage|[[Nusrat Jahan Begum]]|1884}}}}|children={{Collapsible list|titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=|Mirza Sultan Ahmad|Mirza Fazal Ahmad|[[Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad]]|[[Mirza Bashir Ahmad]]|Mirza Sharif Ahmad|Mirza Mubarak Ahmad||Mubarika Begum|Amatul Naseer Begum |Amatul Hafeez Begum}}|birth_date={{birth date|df=yes|1835|2|13}}|birth_place=[[Qadian]], [[Gurdaspur]], [[Sikh Empire]] {{small|(present-day [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[India]])}}|death_date={{death date and age|df=yes|1908|5|26|1835|2|13}}|death_place=[[Lahore]], [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]], [[British Raj|British India]] {{small|(present-day [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]])}}}}
'''Mirza Ghulam Ahmad'''{{Efn|{{langx|ur|{{nq|مرزا غلام احمد}}|Mirzā Ghulām Aḥmad}}}} (13 February 1835 – 26 May 1908) was an Indian religious leader and the founder of the [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadiyya movement in Islam]]. He claimed to have been divinely appointed as initially the ''[[Mujaddid]]'' (centennial reviver) of the 14th [[Islamic calendar|Islamic century]], followed by the claim to be both the promised [[Messiah]] and [[Mahdi]], in regard to [[Islamic eschatology|Islamic prophecies regarding the end times]], as well as being [[Krishna]], an Avatar of [[Vishnu]], for the [[Hindus]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahmad |first1=Mirza Ghulam |title=Haqiqatul Wahi |date=1907 |publisher=Islam International Publications |isbn=978-1-84880-764-8 |page=655 |url=https://new.alislam.org/library/books/haqiqatul-wahi |access-date=6 February 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Al Hakam - The claims of Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (as) |url=https://www.alhakam.org/the-claims-of-hazrat-mirza-ghulam-ahmad-as/ |access-date=6 February 2026 |archive-date=11 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251211142322/https://www.alhakam.org/the-claims-of-hazrat-mirza-ghulam-ahmad-as/ |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>{{Ahmadiyya|amj}}

Born to a family with aristocratic roots in [[Qadian]], rural [[Punjab]], Ahmad emerged as a writer and debater for [[Islam]]. When he was just over forty years of age, his father died and around that time he claimed that [[God in Islam|God]] began to communicate with him. In 1889, he took a [[Bay'ah (Ahmadiyya)|pledge of allegiance]] from forty of his supporters at [[Ludhiana]] and formed a community of followers upon what he claimed was divine instruction, stipulating [[Bay'ah_(Ahmadiyya)#The_ten_conditions|ten conditions of initiation]], an event that marks the establishment of the Ahmadiyya movement. The mission of the movement, according to him, was the reinstatement of the [[Tawhid|absolute oneness]] of God, the revival of Islam through the moral reformation of society along Islamic ideals, and the global propagation of Islam in its pristine form. As opposed to the Christian and mainstream Islamic view of Jesus (or Isa), being alive in heaven to return towards the end of time, Ahmad asserted that he had in fact survived crucifixion and [[Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam|died a natural death]]. He traveled extensively across the Punjab preaching his religious ideas and rallied support by combining a reformist programme with his personal revelations which he claimed to receive from God, attracting thereby substantial following within his lifetime as well as considerable hostility particularly from the Muslim ''[[Ulama]]''. He is known to have engaged in numerous public debates and dialogues with Christian missionaries, Muslim scholars and Hindu revivalists.

Ahmad was a prolific author and wrote [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad bibliography|more than ninety books]] on various religious, theological and moral subjects between the publication of the first volume of ''[[Barahin-e-Ahmadiyya|Barahin-i-Ahmadiyya]]'' (The Proofs of Ahmadiyya, his first major work) in 1880 and his death in May 1908. Many of his writings bear a [[polemical]] and [[apologetic]] tone in favour of Islam, seeking to establish its superiority as a religion through rational argumentation, often by articulating his own interpretations of Islamic teachings. He advocated a peaceful propagation of Islam and emphatically argued against the permissibility of [[Ahmadiyya view on Jihad|military Jihad]] under circumstances prevailing in the present age. By the time of his death, he had gathered an estimated 400,000 followers, especially within the [[United Provinces of British India|United Provinces]], the Punjab and [[Sindh]] and had built a dynamic religious organisation with an executive body and its own printing press. After his death he was succeeded by his close companion [[Hakeem Noor-ud-Din|Hakīm Noor-ud-Dīn]] who assumed the title of [[Ahmadiyya Caliphate|''Khalīfatul Masīh'']] (successor of the Messiah).

Although Ahmad is revered by Ahmadi Muslims as the promised Messiah and Imām Mahdi, [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]] nevertheless remains the central figure in Ahmadiyya Islam. Ahmad's claim to be a subordinate (''ummati'') [[Prophethood (Ahmadiyya)|prophet ''within'' Islam]] has remained a central point of controversy between his followers and mainstream Muslims, who believe Muhammad to be the last prophet.

==Lineage and family==
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was a descendant of [[Mirza Hadi Beg]], a member of the [[Barlas|Barlas tribe]].{{sfn|Khan|2015|p=21}} In 1530, Mirza Hadi Beg migrated from [[Samarkand]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=N8wDAAAAMAAJ&q=mirza+ghulam+ahmad+samarkand "Faith and Thought"] Vol. '''37'''. The Victoria Institute, Great Britain. Original from the [[University of Michigan]], p. 242.</ref> (present-day [[Uzbekistan]]) along with an entourage of two hundred people consisting of his family, servants and followers.<ref>[http://www.alislam.org/library/books/Hadhrat-Ahmad-20080514MN.pdf Hadhrat Ahmad] by Mirza Bashir-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad.</ref><ref name="apnaorg.com">{{Cite web|url=https://apnaorg.com/books/punjab-chiefs/index.html|title=Complete Book: Chiefs of Punjab by Lepel Griffin|website=apnaorg.com}}</ref>{{sfn|Khan|2015|p=22}} Travelling through [[Samarkand]], they finally settled in the Punjab, India, where Mirza Hadi founded the town known today as [[Qadian]] during the reign of [[Emperor of Hindustan|Emperor]] [[Babur]],{{sfn|Khan|2015|p=22}} his distant relative. The family were all known as Mughals within the British governmental records of India probably due to the high positions it occupied within the [[Mughal Empire]] and their courts. Mirza Hadi Beg was granted a [[Jagir]] of several hundred villages and was appointed the [[Qadi]] (judge) of Qadian and the surrounding district. The descendants of Mirza Hadi are said to have held important positions within the Mughal Empire and had consecutively been the chieftains of Qadian.<ref name="apnaorg.com"/>

==Life==

===Early life and education===
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was born on 13 February 1835 in [[Qadian]], Punjab, then part of the [[Sikh Empire]] under [[Ranjit Singh]] ({{Reign|1801|1839}}). The surviving child of twins born to an affluent Mughal family.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmad |first=Basharat |title=The Great Reformer: Biography of Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian (Volume 1) |publisher=AAIIL Inc USA |year=2008 |isbn=978-0913321980 |pages=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dard |first=Abdur Rahim |title=Life of Ahmad |publisher=Islam International Publications Ltd |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-85372-977-5 |location=United Kingdom |pages=33}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Evans |first=Nicholas H. A. |title=Far from the Caliph's Gaze: Being Ahmadi Muslim in the Holy City of Qadian |date=2020 |isbn=978-1-5017-1571-6 |location=Ithaca |pages=1 |oclc=1107057359}}</ref> He learned to read the Arabic text of the [[Qur'an]] and studied basic Arabic grammar and the Persian language from a teacher named Fazil-e-Illahi. At the age of 10, he learned from a teacher named Fazl Ahmad. Again at the age of 17 or 18, he learnt from a teacher named Gul Ali Shah.<ref>{{cite book |title=Hadhrat Ahmad|year=1998|publisher=Islam International Publications|location=Athens, Ohio|oclc=45764230|page=15|url=http://www.alislam.org/library/books/Hadhrat-Ahmad-20080514MN.pdf}}</ref> In addition, he also studied some works on medicine from his father, Mirza Ghulam Murtaza, who was a physician. Ahmad's father, [[Mirza Ghulam Murtaza]], was a local chieftain ({{Transliteration|ar|[[ra'is]]}}) who served in the Sikh Army.{{sfn|Khan|2015|p=23}}

From 1864 to 1868, upon his father's wishes, Ahmad worked as a clerk in [[Sialkot]], where he would come into contact with Christian missionaries with whom he frequently engaged in debate. After 1868, he returned to Qadian, as per his father's wishes, where he was entrusted to look after some estate affairs. During all this time, Ahmad was known as a social recluse because he would spend most of his time in seclusion studying religious books and praying in the local mosque. As time passed, he began to engage more with the Christian missionaries, particularly in defending Islam against their criticism.<ref name="Upal 2021" /><ref name="Korbel-Preckel 2016" /> He would often confront them in public debates, especially the ones based in the town of [[Batala]].<ref>http://www.alislam.org/library/books/Life-of-Ahmad-20080411MN.pdf{{Dead link | date=April 2026 | fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

In 1886, certain leaders of the [[Arya Samaj]] held discussion and debate with Ahmad about the truthfulness of Islam and asked for a sign to prove that Islam was a living religion. In order to dedicate special prayers for this purpose and so as to seek further divine guidance, Ahmad travelled to [[Hoshiarpur]] upon what he claimed was divine instruction. Here, he spent forty days in seclusion, a practice known as ''[[Chilla (retreat)|chilla-nashini]]''. He travelled accompanied by three companions to the small two-storied house of one of his followers and was left alone in a room where his companions would bring him food and leave without speaking to him as he prayed and contemplated. He only left the house on Fridays and used an abandoned mosque for [[Friday prayer|Jumu'ah]] (Friday prayers). It is during this period that he declared God had given him the glad tidings of an illustrious son.<ref>[http://www.alislam.org/library/books/guidedone/?page=91 Ahmad, the Guided One], p. 91.</ref><ref>[http://www.alislam.org/library/links/00000177.html Musleh Mau'ood, Khalifatul Masih II, in the Eyes of Non-Ahmadies], The Ahmadiyya Gazette, February 1997.</ref>

===Taking of the ''Bay'ah''===
{{See also|Bay'ah (Ahmadiyya)|Ten Conditions of Bai'at}}
[[File:Mirza Ghulam Ahmad group.jpg|thumb|Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (seated centre) with some of his companions at [[Qadian]] {{Circa|1899}}]]

Ahmad claimed divine appointment as a reformer as early as 1882 but did not take any pledge of allegiance or initiation. In December 1888, Ahmad announced that God had ordained that his followers should enter into a {{Transliteration|ar|[[bay'ah]]}} with him and pledge their allegiance to him.<ref>Yohanan Friedmann. ''Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and its Medieval Background'' Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 140. "Like Muḥammad, he [Ghulam Ahmad] was then forty years of age; he was privileged in the beginning with a "good dream" (''ru'yā ṣāliḥa''), shown to him as "the break of dawn" (''mithl falaq al-ṣubḥ''). And when Ghulām Aḥmad's father died, Allāh revealed to him the ''Sūrat al-Ḍuḥā'', which speaks of Allāh's help to Muḥammad when he was a destitute orphan."</ref><ref>Simon Ross Valentine. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Q78O1mjX2tMC&q=islamic+reform Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jama'at: History, Belief, Practice]'' Columbia University Press, 2008, p. 42. "Following the death of his father in 1876 Ahmad claimed to receive visions and revelations. 'In short', he declared, 'about forty years of my life were spent under the care of my revered father. Just as he was taken from the world, I started receiving Divine revelations with great intensity'. Having commenced receiving revelations at roughly the same age as the prophet Muhammad himself, Ahmad described his experiences in similar terms to the revelations received by the Prophet."</ref><ref>Louis J. Hammann.[https://www.alislam.org/introduction/intro-louis-hammann.html "Ahmaddiyyat - An Introduction"] Ahmadiyya Muslim Community [online], 1985 "It was not, however, until his 41st year (1876) that Hazrat Ahmad began to receive the revelations that would lead him eventually to the conviction that in his person the advent of the Mahdi was fulfilled."</ref> In January 1889, he published a pamphlet in which he laid out ten conditions or issues to which the initiate would abide by for the rest of his life.<ref name="alislam.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/history/ahmadiyya/10.html |title=Ten Conditions of Baiat |publisher=Alislam.org |access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Ten Conditions of Bai'at |url=http://www.alislam.org/apps/cob/webapp/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110127184453/http://www.alislam.org/apps/cob/webapp/ |archive-date=27 January 2011}}</ref><ref>[[Yohanan Friedmann|Friedmann]], ''The [[Ahmadiyya]] Movement: A Historical Survey'', {{ISBN|965-264-014-X}}, p. 5.</ref>{{Sfn|Khan|2015|p=38–39}} On 23 March 1889, he founded the Ahmadiyya community by taking a pledge from forty followers.<ref name="alislam.org"/> The formal method of joining the Ahmadiyya movement included joining hands and reciting a pledge, although physical contact was not always necessary. This method of allegiance continued for the rest of his life and after his death by his [[Khalifatul Masih|successors]].<ref name="history_10">{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/history/ahmadiyya/10.html |title=A Brief History of Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam – Founding of Ahmadiyya Jamaat |publisher=Alislam.org |access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref>

===His claim===
[[File:Mirza Ghulam Ahmad.jpg|thumb|Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, photograph taken in 1898]]
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad proclaimed that he was the [[Messiah|Promised Messiah]] and Mahdi. He claimed to be the fulfilment of various prophecies found in world religions regarding the second coming of their founders. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad's followers say that he never claimed to be the same physical Jesus who lived nineteen centuries earlier. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad claimed that Jesus died a natural death,<ref name="ShaeferCohen">{{cite book |last1=Schäfer |first1=Peter |title=Toward the Millennium: Messianic Expectations from the Bible to Waco |last2=Cohen |first2=Mark R. |publisher=Brill/Princeton UP |year=1998 |isbn=90-04-11037-2 |location=Leiden/Princeton |pages=306–7}}</ref> in contradiction to the traditional Muslim view of Jesus' physical ascension to heaven and the traditional Christian belief of Jesus' crucifixion.<ref name="tadhkirah">{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/books/Tadhkirah.pdf |title=Tadhkirah |access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref> He claimed in his books that there was a general decay of Islamic life and a dire need of a messiah.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/books/victoryofislam/VICTORY%20OF%20ISLAM.pdf |title=Fatah-Islam (1890) |access-date=20 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102194813/http://www.alislam.org/books/victoryofislam/VICTORY%20OF%20ISLAM.pdf |archive-date=2 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9UNvF3JcnK0C&q=elucidation+of+objectives |title=Tawdhi-i-Marām (1891) |access-date=20 May 2013|isbn=9781853727429 |last1=Ahmad |first1=Hazrat Mirza Ghulam |year=2004 |publisher=Islam International }}</ref><ref>Izāla-i-Auhām (1891).</ref> He argued that, just as Jesus had appeared in the 14th century after [[Moses]], the promised messiah, i.e. the Mahdi, must also appear in the 14th century after Muhammad.

In ''Tazkiratush-Shahadatain'', he wrote about the fulfillment of various prophecies. In it, he enumerated a variety of prophecies and descriptions from both the [[Qur'an]] and [[Hadith]] relating to the advent of the Mahdi and the descriptions of his age, which he ascribed to himself and his age. These include assertions that he was physically described in the Hadith and manifested various other signs; some of them being wider in scope, such as focusing on world events coming to certain points, certain conditions within the Muslim community, and varied social, political, economic, and physical conditions.<ref>[http://www.alislam.org/library/claim.html Tazkiratush-Shahadatain], p. 38–39.</ref>

===Post-claim===
In time, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad's claim of being the {{Transliteration|ar|[[mujaddid]]}} (reformer) of his era became more explicit.<ref name="founder_ch4">[http://www.ahmadiyya.org/books/f-ahm-mv/ch4.htm "The Founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement"], by Maulana Muhammad Ali, Chapter 4: Mahdi and Messiah.</ref>{{Sfn|Khan|2015|p=42}}<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web |date=24 June 1904 |title=Chapter Two – Claims of Hadhrat Ahmad |url=http://www.alislam.org/books/3in1/chap2/index.html |access-date=20 May 2013 |publisher=Alislam.org}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">"The Fourteenth-Century's Reformer / Mujaddid", from the "Call of Islam", by [[Maulana Muhammad Ali]].</ref> In one of his most well-known and praised<ref name="critical_study">[http://www.irshad.org/brochures/criticalstudy.php "Qadianism – A Critical Study"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227230808/http://www.irshad.org/brochures/criticalstudy.php|date=27 December 2014}}, by [[Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi|Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi]].</ref> works, ''[[Barahin-e-Ahmadiyya]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introducing the Books of the Promised Messiah (as) |url=https://www.alislam.org/articles/introducing-books-promised-messiah/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=An Introduction to the Hidden Treasures of Islam |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/books/Hidden-Treasures-of-Islam.pdf}}</ref> a voluminous work, he claimed to be the Messiah of Islam.<ref name="Upal 2021" /><ref name="Korbel-Preckel 2016" /><ref name="founder_ch4"/> Muslims have maintained that Jesus will return in the flesh during the last age.<ref>[http://www.islamicperspectives.com/ReturnOfJesus.htm Islamic View of the Coming/Return of Jesus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923170110/http://www.islamicperspectives.com/ReturnOfJesus.htm|date=23 September 2015}}, by Dr. Ahmad Shafaat, 2003, Islamic Perspectives.</ref> Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, by contrast, asserted that Jesus had in fact survived crucifixion and died of old age much later in [[Kashmir]], where he had migrated. According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the promised Mahdi was a symbolic reference to a spiritual leader and not a military leader in the person of Jesus Christ as is believed by many Muslims.<ref name="Upal 2021" /><ref name="Korbel-Preckel 2016" /><ref>Yohanan Friedmann. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rv8EAAAACAAJ&q=Prophecy+Continuous ''Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and its Medieval Background''] Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 121. "The affinity between the two can also be shown in the framework of Ghulām Aḥmad's prophetology. Muḥammad and Moses were similar to each other because they initiated the two prophetic chains; Jesus and Ghulām Aḥmad complete the divine scheme of things by terminating them. They must therefore also be similar. They resemble each other both in the circumstances of their appearance and in the nature of their prophetic mission. Both appeared when their respective communities were subject to foreign rule: the Jews under the Romans, and the Indian Muslims under the British. The religious conditions prevailing in their communities were also similar. The Jews were described in the [[Quran]] (1:7) as "those who earned [divine] wrath" (''al-maghḍūb 'alayhim'') by their lack of religiosity and by rejecting the message of Jesus. Most Muslims of Ghulām Aḥmad's time can be described in similar terms: their spirituality is lost, and only rituals remain of their religion. Furthermore, they rejected Ghulām Aḥmad in the same way that the Jews had rejected Jesus. In addition to these similar circumstances, Ghulām Aḥmad's message resembles that of Jesus in two important characteristics: he does not advocate ''jihād'', and does not bring a new law, but strives rather to implement the ''sharī'a'' promulgated by his predecessor in the prophetic office. And to make the affinity between the two chains total, Ghulām Aḥmad is spiritually greater than Jesus in the same way that Muḥammad was greater than Moses."</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Essence of Islam, Vol. IV, p. 33 |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/books/Essence-4.pdf}}</ref> With this proclamation, he also rejected the idea of armed [[Jihad (Ahmadiyya)|Jihad]] and argued that the conditions for such Jihad are not present in this age, which requires defending Islam by the pen and tongue but not with the sword.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/articles/Jihad-Brochure.pdf |title=Jihad Brochure |access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref>{{Sfn|Friedmann|2003|pp=174–175}}<ref name="overview">{{cite web |title=Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, An Overview |url=http://www.alislam.org/introduction/ |access-date=20 May 2013 |publisher=Alislam.org}}</ref> Mirza Ghulam Ahmad wrote two books named ''Tuhfa-e-Qaiseriya'' and ''Sitara-e-Qaiseriya'' in which he invited Queen Victoria to embrace Islam and forsake Christianity.

===Reaction of religious scholars===

Following his claim to be the Promised Messiah and Mahdi, one of his adversaries prepared a [[Fatwa]] (decree) of disbelief against Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, declaring him a [[kafir]] (disbeliever), a deceiver, and a liar. The decree permitted killing him and his followers. It was taken all around India and was signed by some two hundred religious scholars.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/books/invitation/arg7.html |title=Argument 7: Defeat of Enemies |publisher=Alislam.org |access-date=20 May 2013 |archive-date=8 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208195442/http://www.alislam.org/books/invitation/arg7.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Some years later, a prominent Muslim leader and scholar, [[Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi]], was to travel to the [[Hejaz]] to collect the opinions of the religious scholars of Mecca and Madina. He compiled these opinions in his work ''[[Husamul Haramain]]'' (The Sword of the Two Holy Mosques),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.alahazratnetwork.org/english/Hussam_ul_Harmain.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127221039/http://www.alahazratnetwork.org/english/Hussam_ul_Harmain.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Hussam ul Harmain|archivedate=27 November 2007}}</ref> in which he calls Ahmad an apostate. The consensus of about thirty-four religious scholars was that Ahmad's beliefs were blasphemous and tantamount to apostasy and that he must be punished by imprisonment and, if necessary, by execution.

===Journey to Delhi===
[[File:Jama Masjid, Delhi, watercolour, 1852.jpg|thumb|Jama Masjid, Delhi, 1852, [[William Carpenter (painter)|William Carpenter]]]]

Ahmad went to [[Delhi]], which was at the time considered a centre of religious learning and home to many prominent religious leaders, in 1891, with the intention of distinguishing what he believed to be the truth from falsehood. He published an advertisement in which he invited the scholars to accept his claim and to engage in a public debate with him regarding the life and death of [[Jesus in Islam|Isa]] (Jesus), particularly Maulana [[Syed Nazeer Husain]] (1805–1901), who was a leading religious scholar. He also proposed three conditions that were essential for such a debate: that there should be a police presence to maintain peace, the debate should be in written form (for the purpose of recording what was said), and that the debate should be on the subject of the death of Jesus.

Eventually, it was settled, and Ahmad travelled to the [[Jama Masjid, Delhi|Jama Masjid]] (main mosque) of Delhi accompanied by twelve of his followers, where some 5,000 people were gathered. Before the debate started, there was a discussion on the conditions, which led to the conclusion that the debate should not be upon the death of Jesus, but upon the claims of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. He explained that his claim could only be discussed after the death of Jesus was proven, for Jesus was considered by many to be living and the one who will descend to Earth himself. Only when this belief was refuted could his claim to be the Messiah be discussed.

Upon this, there was a clamour among the crowds, and Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was informed that the other party alleged that he was at odds with Islamic beliefs and was a disbeliever; therefore, it was not proper to debate with him unless he clarified his beliefs. Ahmad wrote his beliefs on a piece of paper and had it read aloud, but due to the clamour among the people, it could not be heard. Seeing that the crowd was drifting out of control and that violence was imminent, the police superintendent gave orders to disperse the audience, and the debate did not take place. A few days later, however, a written debate did take place between Mirza Ghulam Ahmad and Maulwi Muhammad Bashir of [[Bhopal]], which was later published.

Ahmad is known to have travelled extensively across Northern India during this period of his life and to have held various debates with influential religious leaders.<ref name="life_of_ahmad">{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/books/Life-of-Ahmad-20080411MN.pdf |title=Life of Ahmad, Founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement |access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref>

===Challenge to opponents===
Ahmad published a book called ''The Heavenly Decree'', in which he challenged his opponents to a "spiritual duel" in which the question of whether someone was a Muslim or not would be settled by God based on the four criteria laid out in the Qur'an, namely, that a perfect believer will frequently receive glad tidings from God, that he will be given awareness about hidden matters and events of the future from God, that most of his prayers will be fulfilled and that he will exceed others in understanding novel finer points, subtleties and deeper meanings of the Qur'an.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/books/TheHeavenlyDecree.pdf |title=The Heavenly Decree |access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref>

===The Sun and Moon eclipse===
After announcing his claim to be the Messiah and Mahdi, his opponents demanded that he should produce the "heavenly sign" detailed in the tradition attributed to the 7th-century Imam [[Muhammad al-Baqir]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/history/ahmadiyya/15.html |title=A Brief History of Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam – Sign of the Eclipses |publisher=Alislam.org |access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref> also known as Muhammad bin Ali, in which a certain sign is stated about the appearance of the [[Mahdi]]:

{{Blockquote|For our Mahdi, there are two signs which have never happened since the earth and the heavens were created, i.e., the moon will be eclipsed on the first of the possible nights in the month of Ramadhan and the sun will be eclipsed in the middle of the possible days of the month of Ramadhan.|Dar Qutni Vol. 1, page 188<ref>{{cite web |title=Hadith on Imam Mahdi|url=https://www.alislam.org/library/links/00000202.html|website=alislam.org|access-date=20 March 2015|quote=In Dar Qutni, the sign of the appearance of the Imam Mahdi is given in the following Hadith: 'For our Mahdi, there are two signs which have never happened since the earth and the heavens were created, i.e., the moon will be eclipsed on the first of the possible nights in the month of Ramadhan and the sun will be eclipsed in the middle of the possible days of the month of Ramadhan.'}}</ref>}}

Ahmadis maintain that this prophecy was fulfilled in 1894 and again in 1895, about three years after Ahmad proclaimed himself to be the Promised Mahdi and Messiah, with the lunar and solar eclipse during the month of Ramadhan, according to the Ahmadiyya interpretation of the prophecy. Ahmad declared that this was a sign of his truth and was in fulfillment of the tradition or prophecy.<ref name="eclipses">{{cite web |url=https://www.alislam.org/library/articles/new/TruthAboutEclipses.html |title=The Truth About Eclipses|date=1999|access-date=22 March 2015}}</ref> The eclipses being a sign of the Mahdi are also mentioned specifically in the Letters of Rabbani by [[Ahmad Sirhindi]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}}

Scientific historical records indicate these eclipses occurred at the following dates:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Eclipse
! Date
|-
| Partial lunar eclipse
| 1894 March 21 2pm UT (7pm)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/5MCLEmap/1801-1900/LE1894-03-21P.gif|title=NASA - eclipse 1894 March 21}}</ref>

|-
| Hybrid solar eclipse
| 1894 April 6 4am-7am UT (9am-11am)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEsearch/SEsearchmap.php?Ecl=18940406|title=NASA - Hybrid Solar Eclipse of 1894 April 06|website=eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov}}</ref>
|-
| Total lunar eclipse
| 1895 March 11 03:39 UT<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://moonblink.info/Eclipse/eclipse/1895_03_11|title=Total Lunar Eclipse of 11 Mar, 1895 AD|website=moonblink.info}}</ref>
|-
| Partial solar eclipse
| 1895 March 23, 10:10 UT<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://moonblink.info/Eclipse/eclipse/1895_03_26|title=Partial Solar Eclipse of 26 Mar, 1895 AD|website=moonblink.info}}</ref>
|}

===Lawsuit===
In 1897, a Christian missionary, [[Henry Martyn Clark]], filed a lawsuit of attempted murder against Ahmad at the court of District Magistrate Captain [[Montagu William Douglas]] in the city of [[Ludhiana]]. The charge laid against him was that he hired a man by the name of Abdul Hameed to assassinate Clark. However, he was not detained by the police and was declared innocent by the then-magistrate Captain Douglas.<ref name="murder">{{cite book |title=Ahmad the Guided One |author=Ian Adamson |year=1999 |publisher=Islam International Publications Ltd |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/books/guidedone/index.htm?page=177#top |pages=177–193 |isbn=1-85372-597-8}}</ref><ref name="lawsuit">{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/history/ahmadiyya/18.html |title=Lawsuit by Dr.Clark |access-date=25 January 2011 |publisher=Al Islam}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=March 2018}}

===The Revealed Sermon===
{{Main|The Revealed Sermon}}

In 1900, on the occasion of the festival of [[Eid ul-Adha]], he is said to have delivered an hour-long sermon extempore in Arabic expounding the meaning and philosophy of sacrifice. This episode is celebrated as one of the important events of the history of Ahmadiyya. The sermon was simultaneously written down by two of his companions and came to be known as the ''Khutba Ilhamiyya'', the revealed or inspired sermon. Ahmadiyya literature states that during this sermon, there was a change in his voice, he appeared as if in a [[trance]], in the grip of an unseen hand, and as if a voice from the unknown had made him its mouthpiece. After the sermon ended, Ahmad fell into [[Sujud#Sajdah of thankfulness|prostration]], followed by the rest of the congregation, as a sign of gratitude towards God.<ref>[http://www.alislam.org/library/links/00000005.html Miraculous Knowledge of Arabic], The Review of Religions, July 1993.</ref>

Ahmad wrote later:
{{Blockquote|It was like a hidden fountain gushing forth and I did not know whether it was I who was speaking or an angel was speaking through my tongue. The sentences were just being uttered and every sentence was a sign of God for me.|Mirza Ghulam Ahmad|Haqeeqatul-Wahi<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/links/80-books.html |title=Introducing the Books of the Promised Messiah |publisher=Alislam.org |access-date=2013-05-20}}</ref>}}

===Challenge to John Alexander Dowie===
[[File:John Alexander Dowie in his robes as Elijah the Restorer.jpg|thumb|[[John Alexander Dowie|Alexander Dowie]] in his robes as "Elijah the Restorer"]]

In 1899, Scottish-born American clergyman [[John Alexander Dowie]] laid claim to be the forerunner of the second coming of Christ. Ahmad exchanged a series of letters with him between 1903 and 1907. Ahmad challenged him to a prayer duel, where both would call upon God to expose the other as a false prophet. Ahmad stated:

{{Blockquote|The best way to determine whether Dowie's God is true or ours, is that Mr. Dowie should stop making prophecies about the destruction of all Muslims. Instead he should keep me alone in his mind and pray that if one of us is fabricating a lie, he should die before the other.|Ghulam Ahmad<ref name="history_30">{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/history/ahmadiyya/30.html |title=A Brief History of Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam: Death of Dr. Dowie |publisher=Alislam.org |access-date=2013-05-20}}</ref>||source=}}

Dowie declined the challenge,<ref>S.R. Valentine, Islam and Ahmadiyya Jama'at, Foundation Books, 2008, p. 50.</ref> calling Mirza Ghulam Ahmad the "silly Mohammedan Messiah".{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} Ahmad prophesied:
{{Blockquote|Though he may try hard as he can to fly from death which awaits him, yet his flight from such a contest will be nothing less than death to him; and calamity will certainly overtake his Zion, for he must bear the consequences either of the acceptance of the challenge or its refusal. He will depart this life with great sorrow and torment during my lifetime.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}}}

The challenge of "prayer duel" was made by Mirza in September 1902. The ''Dictionary of American Biography'' states that after having been deposed during a revolt in which his own family was involved, Dowie endeavoured to recover his authority via the law courts without success and that he may have been a victim of some form of mania, as he suffered from hallucinations during his last illness.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks15/1500721h/0-dict-biogD.html#dowie1 |title=Dictionary of Australian Biography: John Alexander Dowie |publisher=Gutenberg.net.au |access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref> Dowie died before Mirza, in March 1907.

===Encounter with the Agapemonites===
In September 1902 the Rev. [[John Hugh Smyth-Pigott]] (1852-1927) proclaimed himself the Messiah and also claimed to be God while preaching in the Church known as "The Ark of the Covenant" in [[Upper Clapton|Clapton]] in London. This church was originally built by the [[Agapemonites]], a religious movement founded by the Anglican priest [[Henry James Prince]].<ref name="claptonpond">{{Cite web|url=http://claptonpond.ground-level.org/messiah|title=Clapton Pond Neighbourhood Action Group: The Clapton Messiah|date=22 July 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030722112805/http://claptonpond.ground-level.org/messiah |archive-date=22 July 2003 }}</ref> Mirza Ghulam Ahmad wrote to Smyth-Pigott, informing him that such a blasphemous proposition did not behove man, and that in the future he should abstain from making such claims, or he would be destroyed. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad also added that should Smyth-Pigott not die within his lifetime, then this would falsify Ahmad's claim to messiahship, writing that "if I die before Mr. Pigott, I am not the true Messiah nor am I from God."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmad |first=Mirza Ghulam |url=https://imgur.com/a/zARIp#KHgEyMQ |title=A warning to a pretender to divinity |publisher=Artistic Printing Works |year=1902 |location=Lahore, Pakistan |language=English}}</ref> This message was sent in November 1902. Newspapers in America and Europe published Mirza Ghulam Ahmad's notification.{{cn|date=May 2022}} Despite this prophecy, Smyth-Piggot continued to claim divinity both before and after Mirza Ghulam's death in 1908, as reported by various contemporary newspapers at the time.<ref>{{cite web | title=Auckland Star, 1905 | url=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/AS19050826.2.88}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=The Cambrian, Friday, August 18 1905 | url=https://newspapers.library.wales/view/3347828/3347836}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Wairarapa Age, 1909 | newspaper=Wairarapa Age| date=9 March 1909| page=5| url=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/WAG19090309.2.17.28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Nottingham Evening Post, March 1927 | url = http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000321/19270321/027/0007?_=1497108726400}}</ref>

===Last journey===
Towards the end of 1907 and early 1908, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad claimed to have received numerous revelations informing him of his imminent death. In April 1908, he travelled to Lahore with his family and companions. Here, he gave many lectures. A banquet was arranged for dignitaries where Ahmad, upon request, spoke for some two hours explaining his claims, teachings and speaking in refutation of objections raised against his person; here, he preached reconciliation between Hindus and Muslims. He completed writing his last work, entitled ''Message of Peace'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/books/Message-of-Peace.pdf |title=A Message of Reconciliation |access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref> a day before his death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/history/ahmadiyya/31.html |title=A Brief History of Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam – His Last Journey |publisher=Alislam.org |date=27 April 1908 |access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref>

===Death===
Ahmad was in Lahore at the home of Dr. Syed Muhammad Hussain (who was also his physician), when, on 26 May 1908, he died from dysentery.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/links/00000082.html |title=Re-Institution of Khilafat |publisher=Alislam.org |access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref> His body was subsequently taken to Qadian and buried there;<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Spiritual Challenge – Mubahala with Maulvi Sanaullah Amritsari |url=https://www.alislam.org/ahmadiyya-history/spiritual-challenge-mubahala-maulvi-sanaullah-amritsari/ |access-date=2023-12-19 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/history/ahmadiyya/27.html |title=His Last Testament |access-date=25 January 2011 |publisher=Al Islam}}</ref> he had previously claimed that an [[angel]] had told him that he would be buried there.<ref>{{cite book |author=Valentine |first=Simon Ross |title=Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jamaʻat: History, Belief, Practice |pages=41}}</ref> By the time of his death, he had gathered an estimated 400,000 followers, especially within the [[United Provinces of British India|United Provinces]], the Punjab and [[Sindh]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Valentine |first=Simon Ross |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q78O1mjX2tMC&q=islamic+reform |title=Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jamaʻat: History, Belief, Practice |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-231-70094-8 |page=53}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=H.H. Risley and E.A. Gait, (1903), Report of the Census of India, 1901, Calcutta, Superintendent of Government Printing, p. 373. |url=http://www.chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au/dcd/page.php?title=&record=1512 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205180023/http://www.chaf.lib.latrobe.edu.au/dcd/page.php?title=&record=1512 |archive-date=5 February 2012 |publisher=Chinese Heritage of the Australian Federation Project}}</ref>

==Marriages and children==
[[File:Mirza Ghulam Ahmad with son.jpg|thumb|Mirza Ghulam Ahmad with his son, Mirza Sharif Ahmad.]]

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad married twice. His first wife was his maternal cousin Hurmat Bibi.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dard |first1=A. R. |title=Life of Ahmad |url=https://www.alislam.org/library/books/Life-of-Ahmad.pdf |access-date=2 October 2022 |website=Al-Islam |publisher=Islam International Publications Ltd. |page=38}}</ref> When Ahmad remarried, they separated.

===Children===
With his first wife, Hurmat Bibi, he had two sons:
#Mirza Sultan Ahmad (1853 – 2 July 1931)
#Mirza Fazal Ahmad (1855 – 1904)

With his second wife, [[Nusrat Jahan Begum]], he had ten children, five of whom died in infancy:

#Ismat (15 April 1886 – July 1891)
#Bashir (7 August 1887 – 4 November 1888)
#[[Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad]] (12 January 1889 – 8 November 1965)
#Shaukat (1891 – 1892)
#[[Mirza Bashir Ahmad]] (20 April 1893 – 2 September 1963)
#Mirza Sharif Ahmad (24 May 1895 – 26 December 1961)
#(Nawab) Mubarika Begum (2 March 1897 – 23 May 1977)
#Mubarik (14 June 1899 – 16 September 1907)
#Amtul Naseer (28 January 1903 – 3 December 1903)
#(Nawab) Amtul Hafeez Begum (25 June 1904 – 6 May 1987)

==Legacy==
{{Main|Ahmadiyya}}

{{See also|Ahmadiyya Caliphate|Persecution of Ahmadis}}
Although Mirza Ghulam Ahmad aroused much opposition particularly from Muslim leaders owing to his messianic claims, opinion of him was not entirely negative.{{Sfn|Khan|2015|p=6}}<ref>Brannon Ingram, 'Ahmadi Muslim Americans' in E. E. Curtis. [https://books.google.com/books?id=owZCMZpYamMC ''Encyclopedia of Muslim-American History''] Infobase Publishing, 2010, p. 32.</ref> Many leading Muslim scholars, theologians and prominent journalists who were his contemporaries or had come into contact with him, had, despite differing with him in matters of belief, praised his personal character and acclaimed his works in the cause of Islam and the manner of his argumentation against proclaimants of other religions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tributes to Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad|url=http://www.muslim.org/sa-case/evidence/s20.htm|access-date=2 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Majestic Writings of the Promised Messiah in View of Some Renowned Muslim Scholars |url=https://www.alislam.org/library/books/Majestic-Writings-of-Promised-Messiah.pdf |access-date=2 April 2016 |publisher=Al-Islam}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Immaculate Character of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad |url=http://kashifmd.com/2015/01/13/the-immaculate-character-of-mirza-ghulam-ahmad-as/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514063234/http://kashifmd.com/2015/01/13/the-immaculate-character-of-mirza-ghulam-ahmad-as/ |archive-date=14 May 2016 |access-date=1 May 2016}}</ref> The teachings that Jesus survived crucifixion, migrating towards the east in search of the Israelite tribes that had settled there and that he [[Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam|died a natural death]] upon earth, as propounded by Ahmad, have been a source of ongoing friction with the Christian church since they challenge the core beliefs of Christianity and would nullify the doctrines of [[vicarious atonement]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]], the two principal tenets of Christianity. Western scholars and historians have acknowledged this fact as one of the features of Ahmad's legacy.<ref>Francis Robinson.[https://books.google.com/books?id=XLvL4zh8KK4C ‘The British Empire and the Muslim World' in Judith Brown, Roger Louis (ed) ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume IV: The Twentieth Century''.] Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 411. "At their most extreme religious strategies for dealing with the Christian presence might involve attacking Christian revelation at its heart, as did the Punjabi Muslim, Ghulam Ahmad (d. 1908), who founded the Ahmadiyya missionary sect. He claimed that he was the messiah of the Jewish and Muslim tradition; the figure known as Jesus of Nazareth had not died on the cross but survived to die in Kashmir."</ref><ref>Yohanan Friedmann. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rv8EAAAACAAJ&q=Prophecy+Continuous ''Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and its Medieval Background''] Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 114. "He [Ghulam Ahmad] realized the centrality of the crucifixion and of the doctrine of vicarious atonement in the Christian dogma, and understood that his attack on these two was an attack on the innermost core of Christianity."</ref><ref>[[Kambiz GhaneaBassiri]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=xKsLCx2VmcwC ''A History of Islam in America: From the New World to the New World Order''] Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 208. "Ghulam Ahmad denied the historicity of Jesus' crucifixion and claimed that Jesus had fled to India where he died a natural death in Kashmir. In this way, he sought to neutralize Christian soteriologies of Christ and to demonstrate the superior rationality of Islam."</ref>

Ahmad was the first to propose a ''post-crucifixion'' journey to India for Jesus and the first—other than the local people{{Sfn|Khan|2015|p=47}}—to identify the [[Roza Bal]] shrine in Kashmir as the tomb of Jesus. These ideas have been further expanded upon since his death in light of subsequent findings, both by Ahmadis and individuals independent of the Ahmadiyya movement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alislam.org/jesus/|title=Jesus – A Humble Prophet of God|work=Islam Ahmadiyya }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reviewofreligions.org/date/2015/05/|title=May 2015|website=The Review of Religions}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.alislam.org/sunrise/sunrise2003-4.pdf |title=Jesus in India: A Review of the World Literature (1899-1999) |journal=The Muslim Sunrise |author1=Tahir Ijaz |author2=Qamar Ijaz |name-list-style=amp |year=2003 |issue=4}}</ref> Jesus' survival of crucifixion and his natural death have become an important element of Ahmadi belief and Ahmadis have published extensively on this topic.

A number of modern Muslim scholars and Muslim intellectuals seem to conform to the idea of Jihad as fundamentally a peaceful religious endeavour rather than ''chiefly'' (or unconditionally) a militaristic struggle, in accordance with Ahmad's standpoint on the issue. Furthermore, some Islamic scholars have opined that Jesus has died (Ahmad's assertion) or have expressed their own confusion on this matter,<ref>{{cite book|last=Leirvik|first=Oddbjørn|title=Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition|year=2010|publisher=Continuum|isbn=978-1-4411-7739-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gzd_I2AFswwC|pages=146–8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Zahniser|first=A. H. Mathias|title=The Mission and Death of Jesus in Islam and Christianity|year=2008|publisher= Orbis Books|isbn=978-1-57075-807-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PvzXAAAAMAAJ|pages=61–2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ayoub|first1=Mahmoud|last2=Omar|first2=Irfan A.|title=Muslim View Of Christianity: Essays on Dialogue by Mahmoud Ayoub|year=2010|publisher= Logos Press|isbn=978-81-7268-197-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UmRvZOOc5hEC|pages=172–3}}</ref><ref>[http://www.yale.edu/faith/downloads/rp/Did%20Jesus%20Die%20on%20the%20Cross-English.pdf Did Jesus Die on the Cross? The History of Reflection on the End of His Earthly Life in Sunni Tafsir Literature], Joseph L. Cumming Yale University. May 2001, pp. 26–30.</ref><ref>"[http://www.renaissance.com.pk/septitl2y4.html The Second Coming of Jesus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930165205/http://www.renaissance.com.pk/septitl2y4.html |date=30 September 2007 }}", [[Al-Mawrid|Renaissance – Monthly Islamic Journal]], 14(9), September 2004.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Islahi |first=Amin |title=Tadabbur-i-Qur'an |title-link=Tadabbur-i-Qur'an |publisher=Faran Foundation |edition=1st |location=[[Lahore]] |oclc=60341215 |author-link=Amin Ahsan Islahi}} Vol. 2, p. 243.</ref> though the majority orthodox position of most Muslims with regard to this issue has not changed.

One of the main sources of dispute during his lifetime and continuing since then is Ahmad's use of the terms ''[[Prophets of Islam|nabi]]'' ("prophet") and ''rasul'' ("messenger") when referring to himself.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Holy Prophet: The Messenger of Allah and the Seal of Prophets |url=http://www.alislam.org/holyprophet/ |access-date=20 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Ahmadiyya Muslim Understanding of Finality of Prophethood |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/books/With-Love-to-Muhammad.pdf |access-date=20 September 2015}}</ref>{{Sfn|Friedmann|2003|p=132}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 May 2010 |title=Who are the Ahmadi? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8711026.stm |via=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Most non-Ahmadi Muslims consider [[Muhammad]] to be the last of the prophets<ref>{{Cite web |title=Five Pillars of Islam |url=http://www.islam101.com/dawah/pillars.html |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=www.islam101.com}}</ref> and believe that Ahmad's use of these terms is a violation of the concept of the [[Finality of Prophethood]].<ref>"[http://muslim-canada.org/oxford.html Further Similarities and Differences: (between esoteric/exoteric & Sunni/Shia) and (between Islam/Christianity/Judaism)]", Exploring World Religions, 2001, Oxford University Press Canada.</ref> His followers fall into two factions in this regard. The [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]], which comprises by far the majority of Ahmadis, believes that Ahmad's prophetic status does not in any way infringe the finality of Muhammad's prophethood – to which it is wholly subservient and from which it is inseparable – and is in accordance with scriptural prophecies concerning the advent of the Messiah in Islam.<ref name="Ahmadiyya Muslim Community">{{cite web |url=http://www.alislam.org/books/truth/finality.html|title=Finality of Prophethood - Hadhrat Muhammad (PUBH) the Last Prophet|publisher=[[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]]}}</ref><ref>[http://www.alislam.org/library/books/promisedmessiah/index.htm?page=37 The Question of Finality of Prophethood], The Promised Messiah and Mahdi, by Dr. Aziz Ahmad Chaudhry, Islam International Publications Limited.</ref> This group is currently headed by Ahmad's fifth caliph, or successor, carrying the title of [[Khalifatul Masih]], an institution believed to have been established soon after his death. The [[Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement]], which comprises a small fraction of all Ahmadis and believes in an allegorical understanding of these terms with reference to Ahmad, formed in 1914 when a number of prominent Ahmadis seceded from the main body soon after the election of [[Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad|Mirza Mahmud Ahmad]] as the second caliph. This group is administered by a body of people called the ''Anjuman Ishaat-e-Islam'' ("Movement for the Propagation of Islam"), headed by an [[Emir]].{{Sfn|Friedmann|2003|pp=147–153}}<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MdRth02Q6nAC&q=split&pg=PA250 | title=Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jama'at: History, Belief, Practice | author=Simon Ross Valentine | publisher=Columbia University Press | pages=56–7 | access-date=25 August 2014| isbn=9781850659167 | year=2008 }}</ref>

The movement initiated by Ahmad,<ref name="Upal 2021" /><ref name="Korbel-Preckel 2016" /> which is often seen to have emerged as an Islamic religious response to the Christian and [[Arya Samaj]] missionary activity widespread in 19th-century India, and is viewed by its adherents as embodying the promised latter day revival of Islam, has since grown in organisational strength and in its own missionary programme under the leadership of its caliphate. Although it has expanded to over 200 countries and territories of the world, numbering an estimated 10 to 20 million,<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url = http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.html|title = Major Branches of Religions|date = 28 October 2005|access-date = 19 April 2015|publisher = Adherents.com|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150315022054/http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.html|archive-date = 15 March 2015|url-status = usurped}}</ref><ref name="ahmadi">See:

* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yi8ONIe1fv4C&pg=PA8 |title=Breach of Faith |date=June 2005 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |page=8 |quote=Estimates of around 20 million would be appropriate. |access-date=29 March 2014}}
* {{cite book |author1=Larry DeVries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgtgGhMUgIUC&pg=PA72 |title=Asian Religions in British Columbia |author2=Don Baker |author3=Dan Overmyer |date=January 2011 |publisher=University of Columbia Press |isbn=978-0-7748-1662-5 |quote=The community currently numbers around 15 million spread around the world. |access-date=29 March 2014 |name-list-style=amp}}
* {{cite book |author=Juan Eduardo Campo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA23 |title=Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=Infobase |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1 |page=24 |quote=The total size of the Ahmadiyya community in 2001 was estimated to be more than 10 million. |access-date=29 March 2014}}
* {{cite web |date=20 January 2012 |title=Ahmadiyya Muslims |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2012/01/20/january-20-2012-ahmadiyya-muslims/10124/ |access-date=6 October 2013 |publisher=pbs.org}}</ref> it has received a largely negative (often hostile) response from mainstream Muslims who view Ahmad as a false messiah and his teachings as heretical, particularly the teaching that he was a prophet.{{sfn|Friedmann|2003|p=132}}

[[Pakistan]] is the only state that specifically requires every Pakistani Muslim to denigrate Ahmad as an impostor and his followers as non-Muslims when applying for a passport or a national ID card.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jocelyne Cesari |title=The Awakening of Muslim Democracy |date=2014 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=thgmAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=41 |isbn=978-1-107-04418-0 |quote=When applying for a passport, every Pakistani Muslim must sign a statement deriding Ahmad and denouncing his followers as non-Muslims.}}</ref><ref name="hanif">{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/8744092.stm|title= Why Pakistan's Ahmadi community is officially detested |date= 16 June 2010|work=BBC News|first=Mohammed|last=Hanif|author-link=Mohammed Hanif}}</ref>

==See also==
{{columns-list|
*[[Ahmadiyya Caliphate]]
*[[Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam]]
*[[List of founders of religious traditions]]
*[[List of Mahdi claimants]]
*[[List of people claimed to be Jesus]]
*[[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad bibliography]]
*[[Mujaddid]]
*[[Seal of the Prophets]]
}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* {{Cite book |last=Friedmann |first=Yohanan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rv8EAAAACAAJ&q=Prophecy+Continuous |title=Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and Its Medieval Background |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-19-566252-0 |editor-last= |editor-first= |place=Oxford |author-link=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Adil Hussain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C2DxBwAAQBAJ |title=From Sufism to Ahmadiyya: A Muslim Minority Movement in South Asia |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-253-01529-7 |editor-last= |editor-first= |place=Bloomington |author-link=}}
*''The Essence of Islam'', Islam International Publications, Ltd.; 2nd edition (2004), {{ISBN|1-85372-765-2}}
*Iain Adamson: ''Ahmad, The Guided One'', Islam International Publications, 1990, revised 1991.
*''Jesus in India'', Ahmadiyya Muslim Foreign Mission Department, 1978, {{ISBN|978-1-85372-723-8}}; Original ''Masih Hindustan Mein'', Oriental & Religious Publications Ltd., Rabwah ([http://www.alislam.org/library/books/jesus-in-india/index.html Online])
*{{cite book |last1=Korbel |first1=Jonathan |last2=Preckel |first2=Claudia |year=2016 |chapter=Ghulām Aḥmad al-Qādiyānī: The Messiah of the Christians—Peace upon Him—in India (India, 1908) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtY6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA426 |editor1-last=Bentlage |editor1-first=Björn |editor2-last=Eggert |editor2-first=Marion |editor3-last=Krämer |editor3-first=Hans-Martin |editor4-last=Reichmuth |editor4-first=Stefan |editor4-link=Stefan Reichmuth (academic) |title=Religious Dynamics under the Impact of Imperialism and Colonialism |series=Numen Book Series |volume=154 |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |pages=426–442 |doi=10.1163/9789004329003_034 |isbn=978-90-04-32511-1 |access-date=10 November 2020}}
*S. R. Valentine, 'Islam & the Ahmadiyya Jama'at', Hurst & Co, London/New York, 2008

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
*{{Wikiquote-inline}}

{{Ahmadiyya topics|state=collapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ghulam Ahmad, Mirza}}
[[Category:Mirza Ghulam Ahmad| ]]
[[Category:1835 births]]
[[Category:1908 deaths]]
[[Category:Angelic visionaries]]
[[Category:Founders of Islamic new religious movements]]
[[Category:Indian Ahmadis]]
[[Category:Indian Islamic religious leaders]]
[[Category:Muslim apologists]]
[[Category:People from Gurdaspur]]
[[Category:Prophecy in Islam]]
[[Category:Prophets in Ahmadiyya]]
[[Category:Self-declared messiahs]]
[[Category:Swoon hypothesis]]
[[Category:Self-declared mahdi]]
[[Category:Islam-related controversies]]
[[Category:Indian nonviolence advocates]]
[[Category:Revivalists]]
[[Category:People from Punjab Province (British India)]]

Barsi Madha Assembly constituency

2026-04-09T18:18:03Z

RodEsters254334: made new post!

{{Short description|Constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Barsi Madha
| type= SLA
| state = Maharashtra
| established = 1951 <ref name="delimitation1951">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3968-dpaco-1951/ |title=DPACO (1951) - Archive Delimitation Orders - Election Commission of India |access-date= 9 December 2020 |pages=344-357}}</ref>
| abolished = 1955 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/146-archive-delimitation-orders |title= Archive Delimitation Orders - Final Order DC (1953-1955) |access-date=31 January 2026 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
| electors = 66,236
| mla = Jadhav Tulshidas Saubhanrao
| party = {{Party index link|Peasants and Workers Party of India}}
| constituency_no =
| latest_election_year = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| district =
| loksabha_cons =
| reservation = None
}}
Barsi Madha Assembly constituency was an assembly constituency in the [[India]] [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Maharashtra]].
==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#FFB2B2" | [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || Jadhav Tulshidas Saubhanrao || {{Full party name with color|Peasants and Workers Party of India}}
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Barsi Madha <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114083220/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Jadhav Tulshidas Saubhanrao |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 26,174 |percentage = 63.46% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sathe Ganpat Dhondiba |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 15,071 |percentage = 36.54% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 11,103 |percentage = 26.92% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 41,245 |percentage = 62.27% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 41,245}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 66,236 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Peasants and Workers Party of India |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra}}
[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]][[Constituencies established in 1951]]
{{coord missing|Maharashtra}}
{{Maharashtra-geo-stub}}

Namit Shah

2026-04-07T17:14:30Z

RodEsters254334:

{{short description|Indian actor (born 2001)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Namit Shah
| image = Namit Shah.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Shah in 2013, promoting his film ''[[Main Krishna Hoon]]''
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|2001|10|21}}
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| other_names = Tumkee
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 2006–present
| education = [[Mithibai College]], [[Mumbai]]
| known_for = {{flatlist|
*''[[The Suite Life of Karan & Kabir]]''
*''[[Main Krishna Hoon]]''
*''[[Wagle Ki Duniya – Nayi Peedhi Naye Kissey]]''}}
}}

'''Namit Shah''' (born 21 October 2001) is an Indian actor who works in Hindi-language films and television series. He is known for his role as Kabir in ''[[The Suite Life of Karan & Kabir]]'' and Vivaan Malhotra in sitcom [[Wagle Ki Duniya - Nayi Peedhi Naye Kissey |''Wagle Ki Duniya – Nayi Peedhi Naye Kissey'']].

== Career ==
Shah started his career with an [[HSBC]] commercial in 2009, which was not aired in India. Since then, he starred in many television commercials. He was also featured in a [[Reebok]] advertisement alongside the former [[India national cricket team|Indian national cricket team]] captain, [[Mahendra Singh Dhoni]].<ref name="sweet life">{{cite news |title=Living the sweet life |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/radio-and-tv/living-the-sweet-life/article4332320.ece |accessdate=5 May 2014 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=22 January 2013 |archive-date=5 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505183626/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/radio-and-tv/living-the-sweet-life/article4332320.ece |url-status=live}}</ref> He has done various small roles for soap operas.<ref name="Mother of all TV roles"/>

In 2012, Shah received the role of Kabir Jaiswal, in [[Disney Channel (India)|Disney India]]'s popular television series, ''[[The Suite Life of Karan & Kabir]]''. A smart, quiet and mature boy of 10–11 years, his character indulged himself in mischievous acts with his twin brother, Karan (played by Siddharth Thakkar).<ref name="sweet life"/><ref name="Mother of all TV roles">{{cite news |last=Kulkarni |first=Onkar |title=Mother of all TV roles |url=http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/story_print.php?storyId=935888 |accessdate=5 May 2014 |newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] |date=13 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505181010/http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/story_print.php?storyId=935888 |archivedate=5 May 2014 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Taste luxury moments with two mischievous brats">{{cite news |title=Taste luxury moments with two mischievous brats |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-newdelhi/taste-luxury-moments-with-two-mischievous-brats/article3286176.ece |accessdate=5 May 2014 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=6 April 2012 |archive-date=5 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505183132/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-newdelhi/taste-luxury-moments-with-two-mischievous-brats/article3286176.ece |url-status=live}}</ref> He was cast in the role for two seasons of the show.<ref name="Karan and Kabir back again">{{cite news |title=Karan and Kabir back again |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/karan-and-kabir-back-again/article4321268.ece |accessdate=5 May 2014 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=19 January 2013 |archive-date=5 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505183717/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/karan-and-kabir-back-again/article4321268.ece |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2013, Shah made his silver screen debut with the film ''[[Main Krishna Hoon]]'', alongside veteran actors like [[Juhi Chawla]] and [[Paresh Ganatra]]. He played Krishna, an orphaned boy who was assisted by [[Krishna|Lord Krishna]] himself.<ref name="IBNLive Movie Awards: Nominees for Best Animated Feature Film">{{cite news |title=IBNLive Movie Awards: Nominees for Best Animated Feature Film |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/ibnlive-movie-awards-nominees-for-best-animated-feature-film/448303-8-66.html |accessdate=5 May 2014 |newspaper=[[CNN-IBN]] |archive-date=10 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310030828/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/ibnlive-movie-awards-nominees-for-best-animated-feature-film/448303-8-66.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>
He played the role of Vivaan in ''[[Wagle Ki Duniya - Nayi Peedhi Naye Kissey]]''. He also played the role of [[Chand Bardai]] in ''[[Chakravarti Samrat Prithviraj Chauhan]]'' in 2025.

== Filmography ==
=== Films ===
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
!scope="col"| Year
!scope="col"| Title
!scope="col"| Role
!scope="col"| Notes
|-
|2010
| ''[[Break Ke Baad]]''
| Young Abhay
|
|-
| 2013
| ''[[Main Krishna Hoon]]''
| Krishna
| Nominated for [[The Times of India|Times Best Child Artist Award]]<ref name="Best Child Artist 2013">{{cite news |title=Best Child Artist 2013 |url=http://ww.itimes.com/times-polls/best-child-artist-2013 |accessdate=6 May 2014 |newspaper=itimes |archive-date=6 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506112146/http://ww.itimes.com/times-polls/best-child-artist-2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 2013
| ''[[Ramaiya Vastavaiya]]''
| Young Raghuveer
|
|-
| 2014
| ''[[Hasee Toh Phasee]]''
| Young Nikhil Bharadwaj
|
|-
| 2014
| ''[[Raja Natwarlal]]''
| Vicky
|
|-
|}

=== Television ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2009
| ''[[Jeet Jayenge Hum]]''
| Shankar
|
|-
| ''[[Sapna Babul Ka...Bidaai]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Mata Ki Chowki]]''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Mitwa Phool Kamal Ke]]''
|
|
|-
| 2012–2013
| ''[[The Suite Life of Karan & Kabir]]''
| Kabir Jaiswal
| Character equivalent of [[Zack and Cody Martin|Cody Martin]], portrayed by [[Dylan and Cole Sprouse|Cole Sprouse]] in the original series, ''[[The Suite Life of Zack & Cody]]''.
|-
| 2014
| ''[[Baal Veer]]''
| Jai Veer
|-

|2015
| ''[[Goldie Ahuja Matric Pass]]''
| Harry Ahuja
|
|-
| 2019
| ''[[Jhansi Ki Rani (2019 TV series)|Khoob Ladi Mardaani...Jhansi Ki Rani]]''
| [[Nana Saheb]]
|
|-
| 2021–2025
|''[[Wagle Ki Duniya - Nayi Peedhi Naye Kissey]]''
| Vivaan Malhotra
|
|-
|2025
|''[[Chakravarti Samrat Prithviraj Chauhan]]''
|[[Chand Bardai]]
|<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y727dSd6RBM |title=#ChakravartiSamratPrithvirajChauhan {{!}} Naye Faces Aur Pehla Din Set Par {{!}} Behind The Scenes |date=2025-09-08 |last=Contiloe Studios - India |access-date=2025-09-10 |via=YouTube}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
* [[List of Indian film actors]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama person}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shah, Namit}}
[[Category:2001 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi television]]
[[Category:Male actors from Bengaluru]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Indian male child actors]]

Sona Ram Choudhary

2026-04-05T05:28:23Z

RodEsters254334: stub.

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Short description|Indian politician (1945–2025)}}
{{Infobox Indian politician
| name = Sona Ram Choudhary
| honorific_prefix = [[Colonel (India)|Colonel]]
| office1 = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]] for [[Barmer Lok Sabha constituency|Barmer-Jaisalmer]]
| term_start1 = 2014
| term_end1 = 2019
| predecessor1 = [[Harish Chaudhary]]
| successor1 = [[Kailash Choudhary]]
| term_start2 = 1996
| term_end2 = 2004
| predecessor2 = [[Ram Niwas Mirdha]]
| successor2 = [[Manvendra Singh]]
| assembly3 = Rajasthan Legislative
| constituency_AM3 = [[Baytoo Assembly constituency|Baytoo]]
| term_start3 = 2008
| term_end3 = 2013
| predecessor3 =
| successor3 = [[Kailash Choudhary]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1945|3|31}}
| birth_place = [[Mohangarh, Jaisalmer]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|2025|8|20|1945|3|31}}
| death_place = [[New Delhi]], India
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
<ref>{{Cite web |last=PTI |title=Rajasthan: Former BJP MP Sonaram Choudhary returns to Congress |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/elections/rajasthan/rajasthan-former-bjp-mp-sonaram-choudhary-returns-to-congress-2757799 |access-date=2023-11-05 |newspaper=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>
| other_party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| children =
| allegiance = {{flagu|India}}
| branch = {{army|India}}
| branch_label = Branch
| service_years =
| service_years_label = Service years
| rank = [[File:Colonel of the Indian Army.svg|25px]] [[Colonel (India)|Colonel]]
| unit = {{ubil|{{flagicon image|In^ce.gif}} [[Indian Army Corps of Engineers]]}}
| image =
| image_size =
}}

[[Colonel]] '''Sona Ram Choudhary''' (31 March 1945 – 20 August 2025) was an [[Indian Army]] officer and politician from [[Rajasthan]].<ref name="w910">{{cite web |last1=व्यास |first1=श्रीकांत |last2=द्विवेदी |first2=गौरव कुमार |date=21 August 2025 |title=कद्दावर नेता कर्नल सोनाराम चौधरी का निधन, दिल्ली के अपोलो अस्पताल में ली आखिरी सांस |url=https://rajasthan.ndtv.in/rajasthan-news/former-mp-colonel-sonaram-chaudhary-passed-away-in-delhi-apollo-hospital-9127748 |access-date=21 August 2025 |website=rajasthan.ndtv.in |language=hi}}</ref> He was a four term [[Member of parliament|Member of Parliament]] in the [[Lok Sabha]] for [[Barmer Lok Sabha constituency|Barmer]]. He was also elected to the [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]] from [[Baytoo Assembly constituency|Baytoo]]. A popular leader of [[Marwar]],<ref>[https://archive.today/20120711155937/http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?644671 Jat Mahasabha Backs Ashok Gehlot for CM Post]</ref> his career spanned both military service and active politics. He was a member of the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajasthan: Former BJP MP Sonaram Choudhary returns to Congress |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/elections/rajasthan/rajasthan-former-bjp-mp-sonaram-choudhary-returns-to-congress-2757799 |access-date=2025-08-21 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and military career==
Choudhary was born on 31 March 1945 in [[Mohangarh, Jaisalmer|Mohangarh]] town of [[Jaisalmer district|Jaisalmer]].<ref name="f969">{{cite web | last=Srivastava | first=Sanjay Kumar | title=चार बार सांसद रहे कर्नल सोनाराम का निधन, जैसलमेर के मोहनगढ़ में होगा आज अंतिम संस्कार | website=Patrika News | date=21 August 2025 | url=https://www.patrika.com/barmer-news/farmer-leader-four-time-mp-colonel-sona-ram-passed-away-jaisalmer-mohangarh-last-rites-performed-today-19880647 | language=hi | access-date=21 August 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=e−Rajasthan |date=2025-08-21 |title=कर्नल सोनाराम का जैसलमेर के मोहनगढ़ में किसान समुदाय के बीच अंतिम संस्कार |url=https://news.e-raj.in/colonel-sonaram-last-rituals/ |access-date=2025-08-24 |language=en-GB}}</ref> He obtained a [[B.E.]] degree from M.B.M. Engineering College, [[Jodhpur]] ([[Rajasthan]])<ref>{{Cite web |last=e−Rajasthan |date=2025-08-21 |title=कर्नल सोनाराम का जैसलमेर के मोहनगढ़ में किसान समुदाय के बीच अंतिम संस्कार |url=https://news.e-raj.in/colonel-sonaram-last-rituals/ |access-date=2025-08-24 |language=en-GB}}</ref> and was a Fellow of the [[Institution of Engineers (India)|Institution of Engineers]] (F.I.E.).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Col. Sonaram Choudhary(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- GUDHA MALANI(BARMER) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://www.myneta.info/Rajasthan2023/candidate.php?candidate_id=464 |access-date=2025-08-21 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref> He passed out of the [[Indian Military Academy]] in 1966 and was commissioned as [[Lieutenant]] in the [[Indian Army Corps of Engineers]] into, 55th Engineers Regiment of [[Bengal Sappers]] of the [[Indian Army]]. He served in the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]] on the Eastern Front. He retired from the Army as a [[Colonel]] in 1994.<ref name="s907" />

== Political career ==
After retiring from the [[Indian Army]], Sona Ram entered politics and joined the [[Indian National Congress]] in 1994. Sona Ram rose as an influential leader from western Rajasthan and secured a place in national politics. In the [[1996 Indian general election|1996 general election]], he was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]] from the [[Barmer Lok Sabha constituency|Barmer-Jaisalmer constituency]]. He retained the seat in the 1998 and 1999 elections, serving three consecutive terms as a [[Member of Parliament (India)|Member of Parliament]] in the [[Lok Sabha]].<ref name="s907" /> During his tenure, Sona Ram was part of several parliamentary committees, including the Standing Committee on Defence and the Consultative Committee on Petroleum and Natural Gas, where he contributed to matters of national security and energy policy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MLA Sonaram Choudhary (MLA) |url=https://rajasthanlink.com/ |access-date=2025-08-21 |website=Rajasthan Link |language=English}}</ref>

In the [[2004 Indian general election|2004 general election]], Sona Ram faced a setback when he lost the [[Barmer Lok Sabha constituency|Barmer]] seat to [[Manvendra Singh]] of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-04-19 |title=Will Manvendra Singh repeat his 2004 Barmer Lok Sabha win for Cong in 2019? |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/lok-sabha-elections/will-manvendra-singh-repeat-his-2004-barmer-lok-sabha-victory-for-congress-in-2019/story-eM2sidfIrilwUIuV5RyAVJ.html |access-date=2025-08-21 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> Shifting his focus to state politics, he contested the [[2008 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2008 Rajasthan Assembly elections]] and was elected as the MLA from [[Baytoo Assembly constituency|Baytoo]], serving in the state legislature until 2013. His grassroots connect and standing as a [[Jats|Jat]] leader kept him relevant in the political landscape of [[Marwar]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=De |first=Amar |date=2004-03-14 |title=Cong regains its hold among Jats in Rajasthan |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/cong-regains-its-hold-among-jats-in-rajasthan/articleshow/559000.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-08-21 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389 |quote=Prominent Jat leaders, including Sis Ram Ola, Balram Jakhar and Col Sona Ram are now busy building up the base for the party.}}</ref>

Ahead of the [[2014 Indian general election|2014 general election]], Sona Ram joined the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]. The BJP chose him as its candidate for the [[Barmer Lok Sabha constituency|Barmer-Jaisalmer]] seat, sidelining veteran leader [[Jaswant Singh]], who contested as an independent. Riding on the BJP wave, Choudhary won the election and returned to the [[Lok Sabha]], where he served another term from 2014 to 2019.<ref name="y345">{{cite web |last=Sanyal |first=Prasad |date=25 March 2014 |title=In Barmer, it's BJP vs Jaswant Singh. Sona Ram files nomination |url=https://www.ndtv.com/elections-news/in-barmer-its-bjp-vs-jaswant-singh-sona-ram-files-nomination-555041 |access-date=21 August 2025 |website=www.ndtv.com}}</ref>

After nearly a decade with the BJP, Choudhary rejoined the Congress party in 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Former Rajasthan MP Sonaram Choudhary Quits BJP, Returns To Congress |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/former-rajasthan-mp-sonaram-choudhary-quits-bjp-returns-to-congress-4548232 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241210085118/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/former-rajasthan-mp-sonaram-choudhary-quits-bjp-returns-to-congress-4548232 |archive-date=2024-12-10 |access-date=2025-08-21 |work=NDTV.com}}</ref> He was fielded by the party in the [[Gudha Malani Assembly constituency|Gudamalani]] constituency during the [[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2023 Rajasthan Assembly elections]], but he was defeated by BJP’s [[KK Vishnoi|K.K. Vishnoi]]. Despite the loss, he remained a respected political figure, remembered for his influence in the Jat community and his long career spanning both national and state politics.<ref name="o658">{{cite web |last1=आचार्य |first1=भूपेश |last2=मित्तल |first2=पुलकित |date=21 August 2025 |title=रिफाइनरी के पचपदरा जाने की वजह बने थे सोनाराम चौधरी, गहलोत सरकार के लिए सिरदर्द बन गया था उनका प्रदर्शन |url=https://rajasthan.ndtv.in/rajasthan-news/colonel-sonaram-chaudhary-death-marwar-ka-khara-sona-journey-soldier-politician-9129206 |access-date=21 August 2025 |website=rajasthan.ndtv.in |language=hi}}</ref>

=== Jat reservation agitation and Pachpadra refinery issue ===
Choudhary was a supporter of the [[Jats|Jat]] reservation movement and, even while in the Congress, consistently raised the community’s demands before the central government. His outspoken style made him popular among the people. As an MLA from [[Baytoo Assembly constituency|Baytu]], he led a agitation against Chief Minister [[Ashok Gehlot|Ashok Gehlot’s]] government over the [[Pachpadra]] refinery issue, which created political turmoil and even prompted Minister [[Hemaram Choudhary]] to offer his resignation. Within politics, his sharp differences with his own party and leaders often drew attention, while his close ties with former Haryana Chief Minister [[Bhupinder Singh Hooda]] were well known.<ref name="o6582">{{cite web |last1=आचार्य |first1=भूपेश |last2=मित्तल |first2=पुलकित |date=21 August 2025 |title=रिफाइनरी के पचपदरा जाने की वजह बने थे सोनाराम चौधरी, गहलोत सरकार के लिए सिरदर्द बन गया था उनका प्रदर्शन |url=https://rajasthan.ndtv.in/rajasthan-news/colonel-sonaram-chaudhary-death-marwar-ka-khara-sona-journey-soldier-politician-9129206 |access-date=21 August 2025 |website=rajasthan.ndtv.in |language=hi}}</ref>

== Awards ==
He received three honors: the Vishisht Seva Medal (VSM) from the [[President of India]], a Commendation from the [[Chief of Army Staff (India)|Chief of Army Staff]], and a Commendation from the [[Chief of the Air Staff (India)|Chief of Air Staff]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-21 |title=Army veteran and four-time MP Col. Sonaram Choudhary passes away at 80 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/army-veteran-and-four-time-mp-col-sonaram-choudhary-passes-away-at-80-10202955/ |access-date=2025-08-23 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Death ==
Choudhary died from a heart attack in [[New Delhi]], on 20 August 2025, at the age of 80.<ref name="s907">{{cite web |date=21 August 2025 |title=Congress leader and four-time MP Colonel Sonaram passes away: Breathes his last in Delhi hospital after being admitted with chest pain |url=https://www.bhaskarenglish.in/local/rajasthan/news/congress-leader-and-four-time-mp-colonel-sonaram-passes-away-breathed-his-last-in-delhi-hospital-after-being-admitted-with-chest-pain-135724588.html |access-date=21 August 2025 |website=Bhaskar English |quote=Colonel Sonaram Choudhary completed his BE, Fellow (FIE) from Jodhpur. After this, he joined the Indian Army in 1966. He also contributed to the 1971 war on the Eastern Front. He took VRS in 1994 and joined politics.}}</ref> He was cremated with full army honours at Mohangarh town of [[Jaisalmer district]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-08-22 |title=Col Sonaram laid to rest in Jaisalmer |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/col-sonaram-laid-to-rest-in-jaisalmer/articleshow/123460151.cms |access-date=2025-08-23 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=e−Rajasthan |date=2025-08-21 |title=कर्नल सोनाराम का जैसलमेर के मोहनगढ़ में किसान समुदाय के बीच अंतिम संस्कार |url=https://news.e-raj.in/colonel-sonaram-last-rituals/ |access-date=2025-08-24 |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{16th LS members from Rajasthan |state=expanded}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Choudhary, Sona Ram}}
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:2025 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Rajasthan]]
[[Category:People from Barmer district]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Members of Parliament from Barmer]]
[[Category:India MPs 1996–1997]]
[[Category:India MPs 1998–1999]]
[[Category:India MPs 1999–2004]]
[[Category:Rajasthan MLAs 2008–2013]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Rajasthan]]
[[Category:India MPs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:Colonels (military rank)]]
[[Category:M.B.M. University alumni]]

Avanti (region)

2026-03-30T16:50:41Z

RodEsters254334: made data

{{short description|Historical country in India}}
{{About|the historical region of Avanti|the kingdom in Indian epic literature|Avanti Kingdom (Mahabharata)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name = Avantī-deśa
| conventional_long_name = the Kingdom of Avanti
| common_name = Kingdom of Avanti
| era = [[Bronze Age]], [[Iron Age]]
| government_type = [[Monarchy]]
| year_start = c. 700 BCE
| year_end = c. 300 BCE
| s1 = Malavas
| image_map = Mahajanapadas_(c._500_BCE).png
| image_map_alt =
| image_map_caption = Avanti and other Mahajanapadas in the post-[[Vedic period]] of the subcontinent.
| leader1 =
| capital = [[Ujjain|Ujjayini]]
| common_languages = [[Sanskrit]], [[Prakrit]]
| religion = [[Historical Vedic religion]] [[Jainism]] [[Buddhism]]
| currency =
| title_leader =
| today = [[India]]
}}
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}

'''Avanti''' was an [[ancient India]]n [[Mahajanapada]] (''Great Janapada''), roughly corresponding to the present-day [[Malwa]] region. According to the [[Buddhist texts]], the ''Anguttara Nikaya'', Avanti was one of the ''solasa [[mahajanapadas]]'' (sixteen great realms) of the 6th century BCE. The ''janapada'' was divided into two parts by the [[Vindhyas]], the northern part had its capital at [[Ujjain|Ujjayini]] and the southern part had its centre at [[Mahishmati]].<ref>Mahajan, V.D. (1960, reprint 2007). ''Ancient India'', New Delhi:S. Chand, {{ISBN|81-219-0887-6}}, p.233</ref><ref>Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). ''Political History of Ancient India'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.85,129-30</ref>

The Avantis, the ancient people belonging to this realm, were described as ''mahavala'' (very powerful) in the [[Udyoga Parva]] (19.24) of the [[Mahabharata]].<ref name="law1">Law, B.C. (1973). ''Tribes in Ancient India'', Bhandarkar Oriental Series No.4, Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, pp.337-43</ref> According to the [[Vishnu Purana]] (II.3), the [[Bhagavata Purana]] (XII.I.36) and the [[Brahma Purana]] (XIX.17), the Avantis were associated with the [[Malava]], the [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]]s, the [[Abhira tribe|Abhira]]s/[[Yadav]]as, the Suras, the [[Karusha Kingdom|Karusha]]s and the Arbudas and were described as dwelling along the ''Pariyatra'' (or ''Paripatra'') mountains<ref name="law2">Law, B.C. (1973). ''Tribes in Ancient India'', Bhandarkar Oriental Series No.4, Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, p.63</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Gokhale|first=B. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AWNuAAAAMAAJ&q=abhira+history+of+rajputs|title=Samudra Gupta: Life and Times|page=18|publisher=Asia Publishing House|location=New Delhi|year=1962}}</ref> (a western branch of the Vindhyas).

==Location==
The kingdom of Avanti covered a territory which included the region around the city of [[Ujjain|Ujjayini]] and the section of the [[Narmada River|Narmadā]] river valley between [[Mandhata|Māhissatī]] and [[Maheshwar]], as well as some nearby areas.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1953||p=144-146}}

Avanti was divided into a northern and a southern part by the [[Vindhya Range|Vindhya]] mountains, with the northern section, which had its capital at Ujjenī, being drained by the [[Shipra River|Sipra]] river as well as other streams, while the southern section was drained by the Narmadā and had its capital at Māhissatī or Māhiṣmatī.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|1953|p=144-146}}

==History==

===The Haihayas of Mahishmati===
[[File:I13 12karshapana Avanti 1ar (8481304617).jpg|thumb|A silver coin of ½ [[karshapana]] from the kingdom of Avanti about 400-312 BC. '''Obv:''' Fish. '''Rev:''' empty. '''Dimensions:''' 10 x 9.32 mm. '''Weight:''' 1.7 g.]]
{{Main|Haihayas}}
According to the Puranic accounts, the [[Haihayas]] were the earliest rulers of Avanti, who captured the region from the Nagas. Initially, they ruled from Mahishmati. Some accounts place Ujjayini as the capital of Avanti.<ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= [https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/74 74]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref> Later, the whole janapada was divided into two parts with the capitals at Mahishmati and Ujjayini. The Haihayas were a confederation of five clans, the Vitihotras, the Bhojas, the Avantis, the Tundikeras and the Sharyatas. Later, the Haihayas were better known by their dominant clan - the Vitihotras. Ripunjaya, the last Vitihotra ruler of Ujjayini was overthrown by his ''amatya'' (minister) Pulika, who placed his son, [[Pradyota]] on the throne.<ref>Raizada, Ajit (1992). ''Ujjayini'' (in Hindi), Bhopal: Directorate of Archaeology & Museums, Government of Madhya Pradesh, p.21</ref><ref>Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). ''Political History of Ancient India'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.130-1</ref>

The ''Mahagovindasuttanta'' of the ''[[Digha Nikaya|Dighanikaya]]'' mentions an Avanti king Vessabhu (Vishvabhu) and his capital Mahissati (Mahishmati). Probably he was a Vitihotra ruler.<ref name="bhattacharyya">{{cite book|last=Bhattacharyya|first=P. K. |title=Historical Geography of Madhya Pradesh from Early Records|year=1977|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|location=Delhi|isbn=9788120833944|pages=118–9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=njYpsvmr2dsC&q=Dighanikaya+Mahissati&pg=PA118}} writer( sp ananth)</ref>

===Pradyota dynasty===
{{Main|Pradyota dynasty}}
Pradyota was contemporary to [[Gautama Buddha]].{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=99}} He was also known as ''Chandapradyota Mahasena''. Pradyota captured the [[Vatsa]] king Udayana but later he married his daughter Vasavadatta to Udayana. The ''Mahavagga'' described him as cruel and according to the Majjhima Nikaya, [[Ajatashatru|Ajātasattu]], the king of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] fortified [[Rajagriha]] to protect it from an invasion led by Pradyota.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhandari |first=Sukhsampattirai |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35737 |title=History Of Malwa}}</ref> He also waged war on Pushkarasarin, king of [[Taxila|Takshashila]]<ref>Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). ''Political History of Ancient India'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.179-81</ref> Pradyota's chief queen Gopalamata (mother of prince Gopala) was a disciple of Buddhist monk Mahakatyayana and constructed a [[stupa]] in Ujjayini.

Pradyota had two sons, Gopala and Palaka. He was succeeded by Palaka. According to Jaina accounts Palaka ascended to the throne on the day of passing away of [[Mahavira]]. According to the [[Kathasaritsagara]] and the ''Avashyaka Kathanaka'', the kingdom of [[Vatsa]] was already a part of Avanti during the reign of Palaka and a prince of the royal family was the governor of [[Kosambi|Kaushambi]]. In the [[Mricchakatika]], Palaka was described as a tyrant who was overthrown by a popular revolt. This revolt placed Aryaka on the throne of Ujjayini. The Puranas place Nadivardhana or Vartivardhana after Aryaka. But these names are probably corruptions of Avantivardhana, the name of the son of Palaka according to the ''Kathasaritsagara'' or the son of Gopala according to the Nepali ''Brihatkatha''. He was defeated by [[Shishunaga]], the king of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]].<ref>Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). ''Political History of Ancient India'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.192-5</ref>

===Avanti under Magadhan rule===
[[File:A copper uninscribed coin of Ujjayini.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A copper uninscribed coin of Ujjayini]]
Avanti was a part of the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha empire]] during the rule of the [[Shaishunaga dynasty|Shaishunaga]] and the [[Nanda Empire|Nanda]] dynasties. During the [[Nanda Empire]] rule, Avanti became the [[Avantirastra|{{IAST|Avantirāṭṭha}}]]<ref>Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). ''Political History of Ancient India'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p.256</ref> or the western province of the empire, with its capital at Ujjayini.<ref>Thapar, R. (2001). ''{{IAST|Aśoka}} and the Decline of the Mauryas'', New Delhi: Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-564445-X}}, p.237</ref> The Junagarh Rock inscription of [[Rudradaman I]] (150 CE) mentions Pushyagupta as the governor of the western province during the reign of [[Chandragupta Maurya]].<ref>Thapar, R. (2001). ''{{IAST|Aśoka}} and the Decline of the Mauryas'', New Delhi: Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-564445-X}}, p.13</ref> During the reign of the next ruler [[Bindusara]], prince [[Ashoka]] was the provincial governor.<ref>Thapar, R. (2001). ''{{IAST|Aśoka}} and the Decline of the Mauryas'', New Delhi: Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-564445-X}}, p.21</ref> After the fall of the Mauryas, at the time of [[Pushyamitra Shunga]], his son [[Agnimitra]] was the Magadhan viceroy at [[Vidisha]], but he ruled independent of Magadha for all practical purposes.<ref>Lahiri, B (1974). ''Indigenous States of Northern India (Circa 200 B.C. to 320 A.D.) '', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p.49</ref>

===Malava Kingdom===
{{main|Malavas}}

The ''Malava kingdom'' is one of the many kingdoms ruled by the [[Yadu|Yadava]] kings in the central and western India [[Malwa]] region that are mentioned in the [[Mahabharata]].<ref>[[Kisari Mohan Ganguli]], ''The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa Translated into English Prose'', 1883-1896.</ref> Sometimes, Avanti and Malava were described to be the same country. They were originally a western tribe, located in the [[Punjab]] region of North-west India.{{Citation needed|date=September 2012}} Later, they migrated to the [[Rajasthan]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]] states of India. In the [[recorded history]] of India, there was a royal tribe called Malavas that were believed to be the descendants of the Malavas.

==See also==
* [[Janapada]]
* [[Mahajanapadas]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[Avanti-Magadhan War]]
* [[History of Hinduism]]
* [[List of Indian monarchs]]
* [[List of Hindu empires and dynasties]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation |last=Jain |first=Kailash Chand |title=Malwa Through the Ages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C |date=1972 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |edition=First |isbn=978-81-208-0805-8 |ref={{sfnref|Kailash Chand Jain|1972}} }}
*{{cite book |last=Raychaudhuri |first=Hemchandra |author-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri |date=1953 |title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of Gupta Dynasty |url= |location= |publisher=[[University of Calcutta]] |isbn=}}
{{refend}}

{{Mahajanapada |state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Avanti (region)|*]]
[[Category:History of Malwa]]
[[Category:Mahajanapadas]]
[[Category:Yadava kingdoms]]
[[Category:History of Ujjain]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 4th century BC]]

Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation

2026-03-29T12:43:32Z

RodEsters254334:

{{Short description|Communist political party in India}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox Indian political party
| party_name = Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation
| party_logo = Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation logo.png
| foundation = {{Start date and age|1974}}
| founder = Subrata Dutta [[Vinod Mishra]] Swadesh Bhttacharya
| abbreviation = CPI(ML), CPI-ML, CPIML(L), CPI-ML(L), CPIML Liberation
| general_secretary = [[Dipankar Bhattacharya]]
| split = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist)]]
| loksabha_leader =
| rajyasabha_leader =
| ideology = {{ubl|class=nowrap
| [[Communism]]<ref name="cpiml">{{cite web|url=http://cpiml.org/documents-2/10th-congress-cpiml/general-programme-of-cpiml/|title=General Programme of CPI(ML)|date=6 April 2013|website=Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) website|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-23|archive-date=8 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408034607/http://cpiml.org/documents-2/10th-congress-cpiml/general-programme-of-cpiml/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| [[Marxism–Leninism]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cpiml.org/english/about-us|title=ABOUT CPI(ML) LIBERATION|publisher=CPI(ML) LIBERATION|access-date=15 March 2026}}</ref>
| [[Maoism|Mao Zedong Thought]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408034607/http://cpiml.org/documents-2/10th-congress-cpiml/general-programme-of-cpiml/|title=General Programme of CPI(ML)|publisher=CPI (ML) Liberation|date=6 April 2013|access-date=15 March 2026}}</ref>
}}
| colours = {{color box|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}} [[Red]]
| colorcode = {{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}
| headquarters = Charu Bhawan, U-90, Shakarpur, [[Delhi]]-110092
| students = [[All India Students' Association]]
| youth = [[Revolutionary Youth Association]]
| women = [[All India Progressive Women's Association]]
| labour = {{ubl|{{•}}[[All India Central Council of Trade Unions]]|{{•}}All India Agricultural and Rural Labour Association}}
| peasants = [[All India Kisan Mahasabha]]
| position = [[Far-left politics|Far-left]]
| eci = State Party<ref name="ec">{{cite web|title=Amending Notification regarding Political Parties and their Symbols Dated 01.03.2021|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/12953-amending-notification-regarding-political-parties-and-their-symbol-dated-01032021/
|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=9 May 2013|location=India|year=2013}}</ref>
| publication = Liberation (English)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mail.liberation.org.in/index.php/|title=Liberation(Central Organ of CPI(ML)}}</ref> ''Deshabrati'' (Bengali)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cpiml.org/report/symposium-fifty-years-of-deshabrati/|title=Fifty years of Deshabrati}}</ref>
| symbol = [[File:Flag Logo of CPIML.png|150px]] Flag with Stars
| flag = [[File:CPIML LIBERATION FLAG.jpg|150px]]
| website = {{official URL}}
|alliance = [[Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance|I.N.D.I.A]] (National) [[Mahagathbandhan (Bihar)|Mahagathbandhan]] (Bihar) [[Mahagathbandhan (Jharkhand)|Mahagathbandhan]] (Jharkhand) [[Left Front-led Alliance|Left Front+]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lokmattimes.com/national/cpi-ml-to-contest-10-seats-in-bengal-in-alliance-with-left-front/|title=CPI(ML) Liberation to contest 10 seats in Bengal in alliance with Left Front|date=16 March 2026}}</ref> (West Bengal)
| loksabha_seats = {{Composition bar|2|543|hex={{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
| rajyasabha_seats = {{composition bar|0|245|hex={{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
| state_seats_name = [[State legislative assemblies of India|State Legislative Assembly]]
| state_seats =
{{hidden
|List
|headerstyle=background:#ccccff
|style=text-align:center; |
{{composition bar|2|243|hex={{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}} ([[Bihar Legislative Assembly|Bihar]]) 
{{composition bar|2|81|hex={{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}} ([[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly|Jharkhand]])
}}
|no_states ={{Composition bar|1|31|hex={{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}|state3_seats_name=[[Bihar Legislative Council]]|State3_seats={{Composition bar|1|75|hex={{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation}}}} ([[Bihar Legislative Council|Bihar]])}}
{{Communist Parties|Asia}}
{{Communism in India|expanded=all}}

The '''Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation''' (in brief '''CPI(ML)L''') is a [[Communism|communist]] political party in India.<ref name=":0" /> The party is represented in [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|Bihar]] and [[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly|Jharkhand]] Legislative Assemblies. Since 2023, CPIML Liberation is also a member of the [[Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance|INDIA]] bloc.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/26/india-what-you-need-to-know-about-indias-opposition-alliance|title=‘INDIA’: What you need to know about India’s opposition alliance|publisher=|access-date=16 March 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Munjal |first=Diksha |date=2023-07-26 |title=Which are the 26 parties in the INDIA combine, the face of Opposition unity for the 2024 Lok Sabha polls? |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/which-are-the-26-parties-in-the-india-combine-the-face-of-opposition-unity-for-the-2024-lok-sabha-polls/article67115171.ece |access-date=2024-02-18 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In Bihar, the party has significant base amongst the [[Other Backward Castes|Extremely Backward Castes]] and the [[Scheduled Castes]]. It was successful in mobilising [[Upper Backward Castes|Upper Backward Caste]] groups such as [[Koeri]]s in some districts of central Bihar, prior to the rise of [[Lalu Prasad Yadav]]. The party faced existential crisis when a large section of its Koeri and Yadav support base defected to [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]] in 1990s. However, the ideological commitment of its cadre protected it from disintegration.<ref name=Sammadar/>

== History ==
In 1973, the original [[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist)]] split, with one group led by Sharma and another by Mahadev Mukherjee. [[Vinod Mishra]] initially belonged to Mukherjee's party, but he and the Burdwan Regional Committee broke with Mukherjee in September 1973. Mishra sought contact with the Sharma group, but the Burdwan Regional Committee was later divided and Mishra denounced the political line of Sharma (a critique, which amongst other things, called for the formation of open mass organizations, a move that almost constituted a heresy in the CPI (ML) movement at the time).<ref name="lib">Sen, Arindam. ''[http://www.cpiml.org/liberation/year_1999/january/homage11.htm The Life of Vinod Mishra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923210847/http://www.cpiml.org/liberation/year_1999/january/homage11.htm |date=23 September 2015}}''</ref>

In 1974, Mishra came into contact with Subrata Dutta (Jauhar), a leader of armed struggle in the plain areas of [[Bihar]]. On 28 July 1974 (the second death anniversary of [[Charu Majumdar]]), a new party [[Central Committee]] was formed with Jauhar as General Secretary and Mishra and Swadesh Bhattacharya (Raghu) as members.<ref name="lib" /> The reorganized party became known as the 'anti-[[Lin Biao]]' group (whilst the faction of Mahadev Mukherjee constituted the 'pro-Lin Biao' group).<ref name="karat" /> The anti-Lin Biao group became known as the CPIML Liberation.<ref name="nax">''[[Frontline (U.S. TV series)|Frontline]]''. ''[http://www.flonnet.com/fl2221/stories/20051021008801000.htm The road from Naxalbari] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061017003722/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2221/stories/20051021008801000.htm |date=17 October 2006}}''. Volume 22 - Issue 21, 8–21 October 2005</ref>

Mishra served as [[West Bengal]] secretary of the new party organization. Under Mishra's leadership new ''dalams'' (guerilla squads) were formed.

In November 1975, Jauhar was killed during [[Lal Sena]] activities. Mishra became the new party General Secretary in a reorganized five-member Central Committee. Mishra organized a second party congress, held clandestinely in the rural areas of [[Gaya district]] in February 1976. The congress unanimously re-elected Mishra as General Secretary.<ref name="lib" />

=== Reorientation and rectification ===
Mishra was the political architect of the process of re-orientation of CPIML Liberation.<ref name="lib"/> By 1976 the party had adopted a position that armed struggle would be combined with building a broad anti-[[Indian National Congress|Congress]] democratic front movement.<ref name="nax"/> The process was further elaborated through an internal rectification process initiated in late 1977. Party study circles and party schools were started from central to the block level of the party structure. The theory of two line tactics started to develop.

In 1981, the party tried to unify the other splintered ML factions. The party organised a unity meeting with 13 ML factions to form a unified leading core. However, the initiative was a failure.

==== The IPF ====
In the early 1980s, CPIML Liberation began building an open non-party mass movement (in direct to the original policy of CPI (ML)), the [[Indian People's Front]] (founded in April 1982). [[Nagbhushan Patnaik]] became the president of IPF. The construction of IPF, through which the underground party could develop links to other democratic forces on the basis of a popular, democratic and patriotic programme, was based on interventions by Mishra.<ref name="lib" /> However, although Mishra broke with the dogmas of the early CPI (ML), he never renounced Charu Majumdar's legacy.<ref name="karat">[[Prakash Karat|Karat, Prakash]]. ''[http://cpim.org/marxist/198501_marxist_naxalism_Prakash.htm Naxalism Today; At an Ideological Deadend[sic]]''. ''The Marxist'', Volume: 3, No. 1, January–March 1985</ref>

In the third party congress, it was decided that IPF will participate in parliamentary elections. In 1989, IPF's [[Rameshwar Prasad (CPI(ML) Liberation)|Rameshwar Prasad]] won the loksabha seat from Ara ([[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur]]). In 1990, IPF won seven seats from Bihar Legislative Assembly. Special initiatives taken for restructuring the party and open up. IPF hold its first rally on 8 October 1990 in Delhi.

CPIML's mass base in the state of Bihar was among the members of Extremely Backward and [[Schedule Caste]]s and it was initially unable to draw support for its activities from the [[Upper Backward Castes|upper backward castes]]. It was, however successful in mobilising the [[Koeri]]s in the regions like [[Arrah]], [[Rohtas district|Rohtas]], [[Patna]] and [[Aurangabad]]. This success remained temporary as with the formation of [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]], the [[Koeri]] and [[Yadav]] support base of CPIML increasingly shifted its loyalty to the RJD. This was because plum posts in the party was offered by RJD to those defecting from the CPIML. During this period four legislators associated with [[Indian People's Front]], the open mass organisation of CPIML defected to the RJD. These were [[Shri Bhagwan Singh Kushwaha]], K.D Yadav, Umesh Singh and [[Suryadev Singh]]. However, the party was saved from complete ruin by the presence of top leadership which was ideologically committed and belonged to social groups such as non-Yadav [[Other Backward Castes]].<ref name=Sammadar>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zA2rCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT201|title=Government of Peace: Social Governance, Security and the Problematic of Peace|chapter=Bihar 1990-2011|author=Ranabir Samaddar|date=3 March 2016|publisher=Routledge, 2016|isbn=978-1317125372|access-date=21 June 2022|pages=201–205|archive-date=2 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202201354/https://books.google.com/books?id=zA2rCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT178|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== The ASDC ====
In 1985, the party launched People's democratic Front (PDF) in [[Karbi Anglong]] district of Assam which won a seat in state assembly. In 1987 PDF was transformed to [[Autonomous State Demand Committee]] (ASDC). A sustained mass movement by ASDC help it to sweep district council elections in 1989. In 1981, ASDC's [[Jayanta Rongpi]] became an MP in Parliament. In 1996, ASDC was able to send its five-member group in Assam assembly as MLA.

In 1992, after the Fifth party congress (Held in Kolkata), the party comes out in the open from its underground status.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Programme of CPI(ML) |url=http://cpiml.org/documents-2/10th-congress-cpiml/general-programme-of-cpiml/ |access-date=2016-11-19 |website=cpiml.org |archive-date=8 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408034607/http://cpiml.org/documents-2/10th-congress-cpiml/general-programme-of-cpiml/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> Mishra was re-elected General Secretary of the party at the sixth congress of CPIML Liberation in [[Varanasi]] in October 1997.<ref name="lib"/>

== Present ==

The CPIML(Liberation), led by [[Dipankar Bhattacharya]] is a surviving faction of the CPIML.<ref>{{cite web|title=Organisation (10th All India Party Congress) {{!}} Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation|url=http://cpiml.net/Organisation-%2810th-All-India-Party-Congress%29|website=cpiml.net|language=en|access-date=2020-05-08|archive-date=8 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508135650/http://cpiml.net/Organisation-%2810th-All-India-Party-Congress%29|url-status=dead}}</ref> Liberation has established legal overground structures (trade unions, student groups, peasant organisations etc.) and participates in elections. In the Lok Sabha elections in 1999 the party won 0.3% of the votes and one seat (the former ASDC-seat from [[Assam]]). In the 2004 elections the seat was lost, mainly due to a split within ASDC. As of 2016, the party has been able to send its representatives to the state legislative assemblies of [[Bihar (India)|Bihar]] and [[Jharkhand]] as well as the panchayats of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and Punjab.

In November 2020, it won 12 seats in Bihar's election. In 2025, it was reduced to 2 seats.

In 2024, it was able to win two seats in from Bihar in Indian general election. The CPIMLL candidates, [[Raja Ram Singh Kushwaha]] and [[Sudama Prasad]] were able to defeat union minister [[R. K. Singh]] in [[Arrah Lok Sabha constituency]] and [[Upendra Kushwaha]] and Bhojpuri singer and actor [[Pawan Singh]] in [[Karakat Lok Sabha constituency]]. In a report, [[Dainik Bhaskar]] stated that the party is more strong than [[Indian National Congress]] in the state of Bihar, given its stellar performance in [[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]s and 2024 Indian general elections. Many a times, it was seen protesting against its own government outside and inside the house of legislative assembly. The party was also praised for its ground level work amongst the downtrodden section of society and for winning the elections with bare minimum resources, when other political parties relied on heavy funding from the corporate for their election expenses.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/election-2024/bihar-loksabha-election/news/bihar-election-2024-cpi-ml-party-candidatesperformance-in-lok-sabha-133133659.html|title=बिहार में कांग्रेस से ज्यादा ताकतवर माले:3 सीट पर लड़ी, 2 पर जीत, आरके सिंह, उपेंद्र और पवन को हराना आसान नहीं था |website=Dainik Bhaskar|access-date=8 June 2024}}</ref><ref name=IE1>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/parliament-will-again-have-two-cpi-ml-liberation-mps-here-they-are-9377543/|title=Parliament will again have two CPI (ML-Liberation) MPs: Here they are |website=Indian Express|date=7 June 2024 |access-date=8 June 2024}}</ref>

However the party suffered a setback in 2025, when it won just 2 seats in the [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]], suffering a loss of 10 seats.

CPIMLL has also showed significant presence in the regions such as [[Siwan district|Siwan]] and has been at the forefront in the fight against local landed magnates on the question of poor. It came into conflict with the gangster politician Mohammad Shahabuddin in the region, who was supported by local feudal elements. The Party has been served in the region by the influential local leaders such [[Ramesh Singh Kushwaha]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/bihar-siwan-mohammed-shahabuddin-wife-heena-9342513/|title=Thrice unlucky, Shahabuddin's wife Heena hopes for a turnaround after his death|website=Indian Express|date=21 May 2024|access-date=8 June 2024}}</ref>

== Publications ==
The English-language publication of the party is ''Liberation'', and thus the party is called CPIML Liberation. Apart from ''Liberation'', the party publishes a central Hindi weekly organ, ''Samkaleen Lokyuddh''. Some state party committees publish their own organs, like the weekly ''Ajker Deshabrati'' in [[West Bengal]], ''Nabasphulinga'' in [[Tripura]], ''Teeppori'' in Tamil Nadu, ''Telugu Liberation'' in [[Andhra Pradesh]], ''Kannada Liberation'' in [[Karnataka]], ''Samkali Lok Morcha'' in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], etc.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cpiml.org/first-page-category/feature-first-page-category/liberation-completes-50/|title=Liberation Completes 50|access-date=5 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://liberation.org.in/About-Us|title=Liberation Central Organ of CPI(ML)|access-date=5 June 2024}}</ref>

== States ==
=== Bihar ===
The party has a longstanding conflict with the feudal landlords since the beginning of CPI (ML). Siwan, Bhojpur, Arrah are the strongholds of CPI (ML) movement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cpiml.org/library/library-items?cat=report-from-the-flaming-fields-of-bihar|title=Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation Library ItemsCommunist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation|website=cpiml.org|access-date=2016-11-30}}</ref> The communist movement in Bihar was founded by the comrade [[Jagdish Mahto]], Rameshwar Ahir and Ramnaresh Ram in the Ekwaari village of Bhojpur.<ref name="Gail">{{cite book|title =Reinventing Revolution: New Social Movements and the Socialist Tradition in India|first=Gail|last=Omvedt|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|pages=58–60|year=1993|isbn=0765631768|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wlxb0uacnRcC&pg=PA59|access-date=2020-06-16}}</ref> Traditionally, CPIML had a strong base between [[Kushwaha]]s and [[Dalit]]s of Bihar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/election-2024/caste-india-lok-sabha-election-2024-nda-bjp-india-bloc-caste-politics-ayodhya-obc-vote/article68267201.ece|title=Caste returns to centre stage in the 2024 Lok Sabha election |website=Frontline|date=11 June 2024 |access-date=12 June 2024}}</ref>

==== Bihar Legislative Assembly Election ====
[[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2015]]

CPIML Liberation emerged as the fifth largest party in Bihar Legislative Assembly Election 2015. The party contested jointly along with CPI, CPI(M), RSP, Forward Bloc, and SUCI(C) as a third alternative to the [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|National Democratic Alliance]] and the [[Mahagathbandhan (Bihar)|Mahagathbandhan]] of [[Lalu Prasad Yadav]] and [[Nitish Kumar]]. The party won the seats of [[Darauli (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Darauli]], [[Balrampur, Katihar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Balrampur]] and [[Tarari (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Tarari]] each. The party has a vote percentage of 1.5% in the state. All the left parties together have a vote percentage of 3.59%.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/bihar-elections-2015/news/bihar-election-results-2015-cpi-ml-emerges-as-the-biggest-left-party-in-bihar/articleshow/49730502.cms|title=Bihar election results 2015: CPI-ML emerges as the biggest left party in Bihar|newspaper=The Times of India |date=10 November 2015 |access-date=5 June 2024}}</ref>
[[File:2020 Bihar assembly election results.png|thumb|218x218px|Map of results of 2020 Bihar assembly elections, grouped by party and alliance]]
[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2020]]

CPI(ML) Liberation contested the [[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]] as part of the [[Mahagathbandhan (Bihar)|Mahagathbandhan]], an alliance of the [[United Progressive Alliance|UPA]] and the leftist parties led by the [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]]. The party secured 12 seats with a vote percentage of 3.16%, making it the fifth largest party in the [[Bihar Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/cpi-mls-show-in-bihar-an-eye-opener-for-left-parties/article33087917.ece |title=CPI (ML)'s show in Bihar an eye-opener for Left parties|website=The Hindu |date=13 November 2020 |access-date=14 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/election-2020/bihar-election-results-constituency-wise-live-updates-rjd-jdu-bjp-nda-ljp-congress-ec-counting-tejashwi-yadav-winner-nitish-kumar-913419.html#1|title=Bihar Election Result Constituency-wise: RJD emerges single largest party, but NDA in the driver's seat|website=Deccan Herald|date=9 November 2020|access-date=2020-11-16}}</ref> However, the Mahagathbandhan lost the election to the rival [[National Democratic Alliance]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-11-11|title=Bihar election: India's BJP coalition wins key state election|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-54883737|access-date=2020-11-15}}</ref>

As a result of the election, the CPI(ML)L was recognised as a [[Regional political parties of India|state party]] by the [[Election Commission of India]].<ref name="ec"/>

[[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
[[File:2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly Election Result Map.svg|350px]]

In this election, contesting under the Mahagathbandhan, the party won just 2 seats and was the ninth largest party in [[Bihar Legislative Assembly]]. Its vote percentage reduced to 2.84%.

=== Jharkhand ===
Since the separation of Jharkhand from Bihar important places like '''[[Ranchi]], [[Dhanbad]], [[Giridih]], [[Koderma]], [[Jamtara]]''' and others have been field of work of the party. In Jharkhand the party is the representative of regional [[adivasi]]s who have conflicts with corporates and government against improper land seizure without proper rehabilitation. The party also has conflicts with the local coal mafias.
== Members of Legislative Assembly Jharkhand ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="5" |Members of [[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]]
|-
! colspan="5" |[[5th Jharkhand Assembly]]
|-
!Year
!Nos.
!Name
!Constituency
!Votes
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election]]
|'''1.'''
|'''[[Bablu Mahato]]'''
|[[Sindri Assembly constituency|Sindri]]
|''105,136''
|-
|'''2.'''
|'''[[Arup Chatterjee]]'''
|[[Nirsa Assembly constituency|Nirsa]]
|''104,855''
|}

<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cpiml.org/liberation/february-2010/jharkhand-elections-and-after?default=yes|title=Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation Jharkhand Elections and AfterCommunist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation|website=cpiml.org|access-date=2016-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201020145/http://cpiml.org/liberation/february-2010/jharkhand-elections-and-after?default=yes|archive-date=1 December 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[File:Giridih in Jharkhand (India).svg|thumb|[[Giridih district]], Jharkhand|157x157px]]

===2014 state election===
The party contested in cooperation with state left parties like [[Marxist Co-ordination Committee|Marxist Co-ordination Committee (MCC)]], CPI, and CPI(M) as an alternative to the BJP and INC led alliances. The party won the [[Dhanwar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Dhanwar]] seat.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/elections-news/elections-2014-cpi-ml-to-contest-for-23-lok-sabha-seats-in-bihar-553908|title= Elections 2014: CPI-ML to contest for 23 Lok Sabha seats in Bihar|access-date=5 June 2024}}</ref> The party got 1.5% of vote in the state. All the left parties together got 2.5% vote in the state.

===2019 state election===
The party gained the legislative assembly seat of [[Bagodar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Bagodar]]<ref>{{cite web|date=2019-12-23|title=Bagodar Election Results 2019 Live Updates: Vinod Kumar Singh of CPI(ML)(L) Wins|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/bagodar-election-results-2019-live-updates-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-2430769.html|access-date=2021-01-31|website=News18|language=en}}</ref> but lost the previous seat from [[Dhanwar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Dhanwar]].

===2024 state election===
In the [[2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election]], the [[Marxist Co-ordination Committee]] (MCC), which since its inception was closely associated with the CPI(ML) Liberation, formally merged with the CPI(ML)L in September 2024.

Following the merger, CPI(ML)L held its first meeting on 10–11 September 2024, where five MCC leaders were inducted into its Central Committee.<ref>Source about CPI(ML)L meeting and MCC merger</ref>

As a result of the election, the CPI(ML)L gained the legislative assembly seats of [[Sindri Assembly constituency|Sindri]] and [[Nirsa Assembly constituency|Nirsa]].<ref>Election Commission of India – Jharkhand 2024 results</ref>

== Leadership ==

The current general secretary of the party is [[Dipankar Bhattacharya]], first elected in 1998 after the passing of Vinod Mishra. The 11th party congress of CPIML Liberation, held in Patna, Bihar from 15 to 20 February 2023 elected a Central Committee with 77 members. The Central Committee later elected a 17 numbers of [[Politburo]] members Committee.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Jai|title=Imagining Alternatives|publisher=Daanish Books|year=2012|isbn=978-93-81144-14-5|series=Other worlds possible?|location=[[Gazipur]]|pages=15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cpiml.org/party-organization/|title=Organisation|website=cpiml.org|access-date=12 April 2020|archive-date=21 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521233307/http://cpiml.org/party-organization/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Politburo members ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!Style="background-color:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}};color:white" | {{abbr|No.|Number}}
!Style="background-color:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}};color:white" | Name
|-
|1
|[[Dipankar Bhattacharya]]
|-
|2
| Swadesh Bhattacharya
|-
|3
| Kartik Paul
|-
|4
| Ramji Rai
|-
|5
| Amar
|-
|6
| Kunal
|-
|7
| Dhirendra Jha
|-
|8
| Janardan Prasad
|-
|9
| Manoj Bhakt
|-
|10
| Shankar V
|-
|11
| [[Raja Ram Singh Kushwaha|Rajaram Singh]]
|-
|12
| [[Vinod Kumar Singh (Bagodar politician)|Vinod Singh]]
|-
|13
|Meena Tiwari
|-
|14
| Abhijit Mazumdar
|-
|15
| Shashi Yadav
|-
|16
|Sanjay Sharma
|-
|17
|Ravi Rai
|}

=== General Secretary ===
{| class="wikitable"

|-
!Style="background-color:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}};color:white" |{{abbr|No.|Number}}
!Style="background-color:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}};color:white" |Name
!Style="background-color:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}};color:white" |Tenure
|-
| '''1st'''||Subrata Dutta || 1974–1975
|-
| '''2nd'''||[[Vinod Mishra]] || 1975–1998
|-
| '''3rd'''||[[Dipankar Bhattacharya]] || 1998–''incumbent''
|}

== Electoral performance ==

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!Style="background-color:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}};color:white" | Election Year
!Style="background-color:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}};color:white" | Overall votes
!Style="background-color:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}};color:white" | % of overall votes
!Style="background-color:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}};color:white" | seats contested
!Style="background-color:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}};color:white" | seats won
!Style="background-color:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}};color:white" | ± in seats
!Style="background-color:{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}};color:white" | ± in vote share
|-
!colspan=7|[[Bihar Legislative Assembly]]
|-
|[[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2015]]
|5,87,701
|1.54%
|98
|{{Composition bar|3|243|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
|{{Increase}}3
|{{Decrease}}0.29
|-
|[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2020]]
|13,33,682
|3.16%
|19
|{{Composition bar|12|243|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
|{{Increase}}9
|{{Increase}}1.66
|-
|[[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
|14,25,592
|2.84%
|20
|{{Composition bar|2|243|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
|{{Decrease}} 10
|{{Decrease}}0.32
|-
!colspan=7|[[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]]
|-
|[[2005 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
|
|2.46%
|28
|{{Composition bar|1|81|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
|{{Steady}}
|{{Steady}}
|-
|[[2009 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
|241,436
|2.35%
|33
|{{Composition bar|1|81|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
|{{Steady}}
|{{Decrease}}0.11
|-
|[[2014 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
|210,446
|1.52%
|39
|{{Composition bar|1|81|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
|{{Steady}}
|{{Decrease}}0.83
|-
|[[2019 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
|172,475
|1.15%
|14
|{{Composition bar|1|81|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
|{{Steady}}
|{{Decrease}}0.35
|-
|[[2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
|337,062
|1.89%
|4
|{{Composition bar|2|81|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
|{{Increase}}1
|{{Increase}}0.74
|-
!colspan=7|[[Lok Sabha]]
|-
|[[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
|1,044,510
|0.25%
|
|{{Composition bar|0|543|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
|{{Steady}}
|{{Steady}}
|-
|[[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
|1,007,275
|0.18%
|
|{{Composition bar|0|543|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
|{{Steady}}
|{{Decrease}}0.7
|-
|[[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|711,715
|0.12%
|
|{{Composition bar|0|543|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
|{{Steady}}
|{{Decrease}}0.6
|-
|[[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
|1,726,309
|2.99%
|4
|{{Composition bar|2|543|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}}}
|{{Increase}}2
|{{Increase}}2.87
|-
|}

== Members of Lok Sabha ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="5" |Members of Lok Sabha
|-
!Year
!Lok Sabha
!Name
!Constituency
!Margin
|-
![[File:Indian General Election 1999.svg|thumb|[[1999 Indian general election]]]]
|[[13th Lok Sabha]]
|[[Jayanta Rongpi]]
|[[File:Diphu_Lok_Sabha_constituency_2024.png|thumb|[[Autonomous District Lok Sabha constituency]]]]
|'''1,04,864'''
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[File:2024 Indian General Election Result Map.svg|thumb|[[2024 Indian general election]]]]
| rowspan="2" |[[18th Lok Sabha]]
| [[Sudama Prasad]]
|[[File:194-Arrah constituency.svg|thumb|[[Arrah Lok Sabha constituency]]]]
|'''59,808'''
|-
| [[Raja Ram Singh Kushwaha]]
|[[File:213-Karakat constituency.svg|thumb|[[Karakat Lok Sabha constituency]]]]
|'''1,05,858'''
|}

== Members of Legislative Assembly Bihar ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="5" |[[File:India Bihar Vidhan Sabha 2020.svg|thumb|Members of [[Bihar Legislative Assembly]]]]
|-
! colspan="5" |[[17th Bihar Assembly]]
|-
!Year
!Nos.
!Name
!Constituency
!Margin
|-
! rowspan="16" |[[File:2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly Election Result Map.svg|thumb|[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]]]
|'''1.'''
|[[Birendra Prasad Gupta]]
|[[File:9-Sikta constituency.svg|thumb|[[Sikta Assembly constituency|Sikta]]]]
|'''2,302'''
|-
|'''2.'''
|[[Mahbub Alam (politician)|Mahbub Alam]]
|[[File:65-Balrampur, Bihar constituency.svg|thumb|[[Balrampur, Bihar Assembly constituency|Balrampur]]]]
|'''53,597'''
|-
|'''3.'''
|[[File:Amarjeet kushwaha.jpg|thumb|[[Amarjeet Kushwaha]]]]
|[[File:106-Ziradei constituency.svg|thumb|[[Ziradei Assembly constituency|Ziradei]]]]
|
|-
|'''4.'''
|[[File:Satyadev Ram CPIML.jpg|thumb|[[Satyadeo Ram]]]]
|[[File:107-Darauli constituency.svg|thumb|[[Darauli Assembly constituency|Darauli]]]]
|'''12,119'''
|-
|'''5.'''
|[[Gopal Ravidas]]
|[[File:188-Phulwari constituency.svg|thumb|[[Phulwari Assembly constituency|Phulwari]]]]
|'''13,857'''
|-
|'''6.'''
|[[Sandeep Saurav]]
|[[File:190-Paliganj constituency.svg|thumb|[[Paliganj Assembly constituency|Paliganj]]]]
|'''30,915'''
|-
|'''7.'''
|
| rowspan="3" |[[File:195-Agiaon constituency.svg|thumb|[[Agiaon Assembly constituency|Agiaon]]]]
|'''48,550'''
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''8.'''
|[[Shiv Prakash Ranjan]]
| rowspan="2" |'''29,835'''
|-
|[[2024 elections in India|2024 By-election]]
|-
|'''9.'''
|
| rowspan="3" |[[File:196-Tarari constituency.svg|thumb|[[Tarari Assembly constituency|Tarari]]]]
|'''11,015'''
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''10.'''
|
| rowspan="2" |
|-
|[[2024 elections in India|2024 By-election]]
|-
|'''11.'''
|[[File:Ajit Kushwaha.jpg|thumb|[[Ajit Kushwaha]]]]
|[[File:201-Dumraon constituency.svg|thumb|[[Dumraon Assembly constituency|Dumraon]]]]
|
|-
|'''12.'''
|
|[[File:213-Karakat constituency.svg|thumb|[[Karakat Assembly constituency|Karakat]]]]
|
|-
|'''13.'''
|[[File:MAHANAND SINGH.jpg|thumb]][[Maha Nand Singh]]
|[[File:214-Arwal constituency.svg|thumb|[[Arwal Assembly constituency|Arwal]]]]
|
|-
|'''14.'''
|
|[[File:217-Ghosi, Bihar constituency.svg|thumb|[[Ghosi, Bihar Assembly constituency|Ghosi]]]]
|
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="5" |[[File:Bihar Legislative Assembly 2015.svg|thumb|[[Member of Bihar Legislative Assembly]]]]
|-
! colspan="5" |[[16th Bihar Assembly]]
|-
!Year
!Nos.
!Name
!Constituency
!Margin
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[File:2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly Election Result Map.svg|thumb|[[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]]]
|'''1.'''
|[[File:Satyadev Ram CPIML.jpg|thumb|[[Satyadeo Ram]]]]
|[[File:107-Darauli constituency.svg|thumb|[[Darauli Assembly constituency|Darauli]]]]
|
|-
|'''2.'''
|[[Mahbub Alam (politician)|Mahbub Alam]]
|[[File:65-Balrampur,_Bihar_constituency.svg|thumb|[[Balrampur, Bihar Assembly constituency|Balrampur]]]]
|'''20,419'''
|-
|'''6.'''
|
|[[File:196-Tarari constituency.svg|thumb]]
|
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="5" |[[File:India Bihar Legislative Assembly 2005 October.svg|thumb|[[Member of Bihar Legislative Assembly]]]]
|-
! colspan="5" |[[14th bihar Assembly]]
|-
!Year
!Nos.
!Name
!Constituency
!Margin
|-
! rowspan="5" |[[File:Bihar Assembly election 2005 results.png|thumb|[[October 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]]]
|'''1.'''
|[[Amar Nath Yadav]]
|[[File:107-Darauli_constituency.svg|thumb|[[Darauli Assembly constituency|Darauli]]]]
|
|-
|'''2.'''
|[[Mahbub Alam (politician)|Mahbub Alam]]
|
|
|-
|'''3.'''
|
|[[File:213-Karakat constituency.svg|thumb|[[Karakat Assembly constituency|Karakat]]]]
|
|-
|'''4.'''
|
|
|
|-
|'''5.'''
|
|
|
|}

==Mass organizations==
The main mass organizations of the party are:
*[[Revolutionary Youth Association]] (RYA)
*[[All India Students Association]] (AISA)
*All India Agricultural and Rural Labour Association (AIARLA)
*All India Peasants' Coordination Committee
*[[All India Central Council of Trade Unions]] (AICCTU)
*[[All India Progressive Women's Association]] (AIPWA)
*[[Autonomous State Demand Committee]] (ASDC)
*[[All India Kisan Mahasabha]] (AIKM)

==See also==
* [[List of political parties in India]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation}}
{{Indian political parties}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation}}
[[Category:Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation| ]]
[[Category:Member parties of the Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance]]
[[Category:Anti-capitalist political parties]]
[[Category:Anti-capitalist organizations]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1974]]
[[Category:Communist parties in India]]

Punjab Province (British India)

2026-03-27T00:10:53Z

RodEsters254334:

{{Short description|Province of British India}}
{{About|the former province of [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]] (1849–1947)|other uses|Punjab Province (disambiguation)}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Infobox former country
| conventional_long_name = Province of Punjab
| common_name = Punjab
| status = *[[#Early administration|Board of Administration]]-led province under [[Bengal Presidency]] of [[East India Company]] (1849–1853)
*[[Chief Commissioner's Province]] of [[East India Company]] (1853–1858)
*[[Lieutenant governor|Lieutenant Governor]]-led [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|province of British Raj]] (1858–1921)
*[[List of head of the State of Punjab (British India)|Governor]]-led province of British Raj (1921–1947)
| native_name = 
| image_flag = Flag of the Province of Punjab of British India.svg
| alt_flag = Flag of the Province of the Punjab based on the British Blue Ensign featuring a Union Jack in the upper hoist quarter; and augmented with the emblem of the province.
| flag = Flag of the Province of the Punjab
| image_coat = Badge of British Punjab.svg
| symbol_width = 60px
| alt_coat = Emblem of the Province of the Punjab featuring a sun with five rivers.
| symbol_type = [[Flags of British India#Emblem|Emblem]]
| national_motto = Crescat e Fluviis ([[Latin]])
| englishmotto = "Let it grow from the rivers"
| national_anthem = "[[God Save the King]]" <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:God Save The King (Band of the Grenadier Guards, 1930s instrumental).oga|God Save the King / Queen ]]</div>
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Punjab 1909.jpg |upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Province of the Punjab in 1909|[[File:Pope1880Panjab3.jpg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Province of the Punjab in 1880|default=1}}
| map_width = 250px
| alt_map = Images of maps of the Province of the Punjab
| capital = [[Lahore]]
| admin_center = [[Murree]] (1873–1876) [[Simla]] (1876–1947)
| admin_center_type = Summer Capital
| official_languages = {{Hlist|[[English language|English]]|[[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]|[[Persian language|Persian]] (1849{{ndash}}1854)|[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (1854{{ndash}}1947){{efn|English was used by the British administration; while Hindustani (both Hindi and Urdu) and Persian were used in local administration. In 1849, the Board of Administration of the Punjab adopted a "two-language policy" maintaining the already-established Persian in the province, as well as establishing Hindustani for official use. However, in 1854, Persian was discontinued as an official language in the province and was replaced with Punjabi}}}}
| languages_type = Native languages
| languages = {{Hlist|[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]|[[#Language|others]]}} 
| ethnic_groups = 76.4% [[Punjabis|Punjabi]] 23.6% [[#Language|other]]
| ethnic_groups_year = 1931
| demonym = Punjabi
| title_leader = [[List of head of the State of Punjab (British India)|Head of Province]]
| leader1 = [[Henry Montgomery Lawrence]] (first){{efn|as [[List of governors of Punjab (British India)#List of heads of the Punjab (1849–1947)|President of the Board of Administration]]}}
| year_leader1 = 1849–1853
| leader2 = [[Evan Meredith Jenkins]] (last){{efn|as [[List of governors of Punjab (British India)|Governor]]}}
| year_leader2 = 1946–1947
| title_representative = [[Premier of the Punjab|Premier]]
| representative1 = [[Sikandar Hayat Khan]] (first)
| year_representative1 = 1937–1942
| representative2 = [[Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana]] (last)
| year_representative2 = 1942–1947
| legislature = [[Punjab Legislative Council (British India)|Punjab Legislative Council]] (1921–1936) [[Punjab Provincial Assembly (British India)|Punjab Provincial Assembly]] (1937–1947)
| event_start = [[Battle of Gujrat]]
| year_start = 1849
| date_start = 21 February
| event_end = [[Partition of Punjab|Partition of Punjab during the Partition of India]]
| year_end = 1947
| date_end = 17 August
| event1 = [[#Company rule|Annexation of Punjab]]
| date_event1 = 29 March 1849
| event2 = [[Delhi Territory#History|Incorporation of Delhi Division]]
| date_event2 = 1858
| event3 = [[North-West Frontier Province#Formation|Separation of the North-West Frontier]]
| date_event3 = 9 November 1901
| event4 = [[Delhi|Separation of Delhi District]]
| date_event4 = 1911
| event5 = [[Partition of India|Establishment of Pakistan and India]]
| date_event5 = 14–15 August 1947
| area_km2 = 458,354
| area_sq_mi = 176,971
| population_census = 34,309,861
| population_census_year = 1941
| population_link = #Population
| currency = [[History of the rupee#Coinage since the British period|British Indian rupee]]
| utc_offset = +05:30
| date_format = {{ubl
| {{nowrap|{{abbr|dd|day}}-{{abbr|mm|month}}-{{abbr|yyyy|year}}}}
}}
| religion_year = 1941
| religion = {{ubl
| 53.2% [[Islam]]
| 30.1% [[Hinduism]]
| 14.9% [[Sikhism]]
| 1.5% [[Christianity]]
| 0.5% [[Religion in the Punjab|other]]
}}
| p1 = Sikh Empire{{!}}'''1849''': Sikh Empire
| p2 = Cis-Sutlej states{{!}}'''1849''': Cis-Sutlej states
| p3 = Delhi Territory{{!}}'''1858''': Delhi Division
| s1 = North-West Frontier Province{{!}}'''1901''': North-West Frontier Province
| s2 = Delhi{{!}}'''1911:''' Delhi Province
| s3 = West Punjab{{!}}'''1947''': West Punjab
| s4 = East Punjab
| s5 = Patiala and East Punjab States Union
| flag_p1 = Sikh Empire flag.svg
| flag_p3 = Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg
| flag_s1 = British Raj Red Ensign.svg
| flag_s2 = British Raj Red Ensign.svg
| flag_s3 = Flag of Pakistan.svg
| flag_s4 = Flag of India.svg
| flag_s5 = EMBLEM OF PEPSU.png
| today = {{hidden||{{Tree list}}
* {{flag|Pakistan}}
** [[Punjab,Pakistan|Punjab]]
** [[Islamabad Capital Territory]]
* {{flag|India}}
** [[Punjab,India|Punjab]]
** [[Haryana]]
** [[Himachal Pradesh]]
** [[Delhi NCR]]
{{tree list/end}}
}}
| era = New Imperialism
}}

The '''Punjab Province''', officially the '''Province of the Punjab''', was a [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|province of British Raj]], with its capital in [[Lahore]] and [[summer capital]]s in [[Murree]] and [[Simla]]. At its greatest extent, it stretched from the [[Khyber Pass]] to [[Delhi]]; and from the [[Babusar Pass]] and the borders of [[Tibet]] to the borders of [[Sind Division|Sind]]. Established in 1849 following [[#History|Punjab's annexation]], the province was [[Partition of Punjab|partitioned in 1947]] into [[West Punjab|West]] and [[East Punjab]]; and incorporated into [[Pakistan]] and [[India]], respectively.

Most of the [[Punjab|Punjab region]] was annexed by the [[East India Company]] on [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|29 March 1849]] following the company's victory against the [[Sikh Empire]]'s army at the [[Battle of Gujrat]] in northern Punjab, a month prior. The Punjab was the last major region of the [[Indian subcontinent]] to fall to [[British imperialism]].

Immediately following its annexation, the Punjab was annexed into the [[Bengal Presidency]] and administered separately by a [[#Early administration|board of administration]] led by the [[List of head of the State of Punjab (British India)|head of province]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Michel |first=Aloys Arthur |title=The Indus Rivers: A Study of the Effects of Partition |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1967 |isbn=9780608140230}}</ref>{{Rp|page=54}} After 1853, the board was replaced by a [[chief commissioner]] as the Punjab was separated from the Bengal Presidency and established as a [[Chief Commissioner's Province]].<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=54}} In 1858, the Punjab, along with the rest of British India, came under the rule of the [[The Crown|British crown]]. Following the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], the Punjab became a lieutenant-governor's province under the Bengal Presidency.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=54}} After the ''[[Government of India Act 1919]]'', Punjab was turned into a governor's province.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|pages=55}} It had a land area of 358,355 square kilometers.

The province comprised four natural geographic regions – ''Indo-Gangetic Plain West'', ''Himalayan'', ''Sub-Himalayan'', and the ''North-West Dry Area'' – along with five administrative divisions – [[Delhi]], [[Jalandhar|Jullundur]], [[Lahore]], [[Multan]], and [[Rawalpindi]] – and a number of [[princely state]]s.<ref name="Chisholm 1911, p. 653">{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Punjab | Volume 22 |page=653}}</ref> In 1947, the [[Partition of India]] led to the province's division into [[East Punjab]] and [[West Punjab]], in the newly independent [[dominion]]s of the [[Dominion of India|Indian Union]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]] respectively.

During the colonial-period, the appellation "province" was used somewhat indiscriminately but usually referred to lieutenant-governor provinces (which Punjab was after 1859) but also to chief-commissioner provinces (which Punjab was from 1853–1859).<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|pages=54–55}}

==Etymology==
The region was originally called the [[Sapta Sindhu|Sapta Sindhu Rivers]],<ref name=Anin1>D. R. Bhandarkar, 1989, [https://books.google.com/books?isbn=8120604571 Some Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture: Sir William Meyers Lectures, 1938-39] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007062647/https://www.google.com/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=isbn:8120604571 |date=7 October 2022 }}, Asia Educational Services, p.{{nbsp}}2.</ref> the [[Vedic period|Vedic]] land of the seven rivers, originally: Saraswati, Indus, Sutlej, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Beas.<ref name=curr1>A.S. valdiya, [http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/104/01/0042.pdf "River Sarasvati was a Himalayan-born river"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924194903/http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/104/01/0042.pdf |date=24 September 2018 }}, [http://www.currentscience.ac.in Current Science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710211340/http://www.currentscience.ac.in/ |date=10 July 2018 }}, vol 104, no.01, ISSN 0011-3891.</ref> The [[Sanskrit]] name for the region, as mentioned in the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]], for example, was ''Pañcanada'', which means literally "Five Waters", and was translated from [[Sanskrit]] to [[Farsi language|Farsi]] as ''Panj-Âb'' after the [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Islamic conquests]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?p.1:375.hobson|title=Hobson-Jobson: A glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive|first=Henry|last=Yule|date=31 December 2018|website=dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu|access-date=7 May 2018|archive-date=1 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201141824/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?p.1:375.hobson|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/macdonell_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%96&searchhws=yes|title=A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary with Transliteration, Accentuation, and Etymological Analysis Throughout|first=Arthur Anthony|last=Macdonell|date=31 December 2018|website=dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu|access-date=10 July 2018|archive-date=1 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201141645/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/macdonell_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%96&searchhws=yes|url-status=dead}}</ref> The later name ''Punjab'' is thus a compound of two [[Farsi language|Farsi]] words<ref name=EoS>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.learnpunjabi.org/eos/PUNJAB.html |title=The Punjab |author=H K Manmohan Siṅgh |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Sikhism, Editor-in-Chief Harbans Singh |publisher=[[Punjabi University]], Patiala |access-date=18 August 2015 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305062705/http://www.learnpunjabi.org/eos/PUNJAB.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|title=Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten|year=2013|page=1 ("Introduction")|publisher=Aleph Book Company|location=New Delhi, India, Urbana, [[Illinois]]|isbn=978-93-83064-41-0}}</ref> Panj (five) and āb (water) and was introduced to the region by the [[Turko-Persian]] conquerors<ref>{{cite book|last=Canfield|first=Robert L.|title=Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective|year=1991|page=1 ("Origins")|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=[[Cambridge]], United Kingdom|isbn=978-0-521-52291-5}}</ref> of [[History of India|India]] and more formally popularised during the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Rajmohan|title=Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten|year=2013|publisher=Aleph Book Company|location=New Delhi, India, Urbana, [[Illinois]]|isbn=978-93-83064-41-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Shimmel|first=Annemarie|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|year=2004|publisher=Reaktion Books Ltd.|location=London, United Kingdom|isbn=1-86189-1857|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne}}</ref> Punjab literally means ''"(The Land of) Five Waters"'' referring to the rivers: [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Sutlej]], and [[Beas River|Beas]].<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed., vol.20, Punjab, p.107</ref> All are tributaries of the [[Indus River]], the Chenab being the largest.

==Geography==
Geographically, the province was a triangular tract of country of which the [[Indus River]] and its tributary the [[Sutlej]] formed the two sides up to their confluence, the base of the triangle in the north being the [[Lower Himalayan Range]] between those two rivers. Moreover, the province as constituted under British rule also included a large tract outside these boundaries. Along the northern border, Himalayan ranges divided it from [[Kashmir]] and [[Tibet]]. On the west it was separated from the [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North-West Frontier Province]] by the Indus, until it reached the border of [[Dera Ghazi Khan District]], which was divided from [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Baluchistan]] by the [[Sulaiman Range]]. To the south lay [[Sindh]] and [[Rajputana]], while on the east the rivers [[Jumna River|Jumna]] and [[Tons River|Tons]] separated it from the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]].<ref name="Chisholm 1911, p. 653"/> In total Punjab had an area of approximately 357 000 km square about the same size as modern day Germany, being one of the largest provinces of the British Raj.

It encompassed the present day [[States and union territories of India|Indian states]] of [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Delhi]], and some parts of [[Himachal Pradesh]] which were merged with Punjab by the British for administrative purposes (but excluding the former [[princely state]]s which were later combined into the [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]]) and the Pakistani regions of the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]], [[Islamabad Capital Territory]] and [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]].

In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province: the [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North-West Frontier Province]]. Subsequently, Punjab was divided into four natural geographical divisions by colonial officials on the decadal census data:<ref name="punjab1911">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1911-26575903/|title=Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 1, Report.|access-date=21 July 2022|archive-date=21 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721231731/https://www.jstor.org/site/SAOA/SouthAsiaOpenArchivesSAOA/CensusReports-1911-26575903/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|2}}<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|4}}
# '''''Indo-Gangetic Plain West geographical division''''' (including [[Hisar district]], [[Loharu State]], [[Rohtak district]], [[Dujana|Dujana State]], [[Gurgaon district]], [[Pataudi State]], [[Delhi]], [[Karnal district]], [[Jalandhar district]], [[Kapurthala State]], [[Ludhiana district]], [[Malerkotla State]], [[Firozpur district]], [[Faridkot State]], [[Patiala State]], [[Jind State]], [[Nabha State]], [[Lahore District]], [[Amritsar district]], [[Gujranwala District]], and [[Sheikhupura District]]);
# '''''Himalayan geographical division''''' (including [[Sirmur State|Sirmoor State]], [[Simla District]], [[Simla Hill States]], [[Bilaspur State (princely state)|Bilaspur State]], [[Kangra district]], [[Mandi State]], [[Suket State]], and [[Chamba State]]);
# '''''Sub-Himalayan geographical division''''' (including [[Ambala district]], [[Kalsia State]], [[Hoshiarpur district]], [[Gurdaspur District (British Punjab)|Gurdaspur District]], [[Sialkot District]], [[Gujrat District]], [[Jhelum District]], [[Rawalpindi District]], and [[Attock District]];
# '''''North-West Dry Area geographical division''''' (including [[Montgomery District]], [[Shahpur District]], [[Mianwali District]], [[Lyallpur District]], [[Jhang District]], [[Multan District]], [[Bahawalpur State]], [[Muzaffargarh District]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District]], and the Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract).

==Administrative divisions==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Punjab (British India): British Territory and Princely States in 1855<ref>See the Page no.- 9,13,14, [https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/31709 1855 Punjab Province Census on Censusgovin] & also see Page no. 4 [[iarchive:dli.pahar.0447|Administration of Punab 1851-53]]</ref>
! Division !! Districts
|-
| Cis-Sutlej Division || [[Ambala district|Ambala]] • [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]] • [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]] • [[Thanesar]] • [[Shimla district|Shimla]]
|-
| Trans-Sutlej Division || [[Kangra district|Kangra]] • [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]] • [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]]
|-
| Lahore Division || [[Lahore District|Lahore]] • [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]] • [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]] • [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]] • [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]]
|-
| Jhelum Division || [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]] • [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]] • [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]] • [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]]
|-
| Multan Division || [[Multan District|Multan]] • [[Gogera]] • [[Jhang District|Jhang]]
|-
| Leia Division || [[Layyah District|Layyah]] • [[Khangarh, Punjab|Khangarh]] • [[Dera Ismail Khan District|Dera Ismail Khan]] • [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]
|-
|Peshwar Division || [[Peshawar District|Peshawar]] • [[Hazara District|Hazara]] • [[Kohat District|Kohat]]
|-
! Total British Territory || 81,625.24 square miles & 12,717,821 persons
|-
|Cis-Satluj Principlites
|[[Patiala State|Patiala]] • [[Nabha State|Nabha]] • [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]] • [[Jind State|Jind]] • [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]] • [[Kalsia]]
|-
|Simla-Hill states
|[[Simla Hill States|Hill states]] {{smaller|(south of [[Sutlej River]])}}
|-
|Trans-Sutlej Principlites
|[[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]] • [[Simla Hill States|Hill states]] {{smaller|between [[Beas River|Beas]] & [[Ravi River]])}}
|-
|Bahawalpur
|[[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]
|-
|Kashmir & Jammu
|[[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Gulab singh Territories]]
|-
! Total Native States || 102,884.95 square miles & 6,750,606 persons
|-
! Total Punjab Province || 184,510.19 square miles & 19,468,627 persons
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Punjab (British India): British Territory and Princely States in 1901
! Division!!Districts in British Territory / Princely States
|-
| Rawalpindi Division || {{hlist|[[Attock District|Attock]]| |[[Jhelum District|Jhelum]] | [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]] | [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]]}}
|-
| Lahore Division || {{hlist|[[Amritsar District|Amritsar]] | [[Gujrat district|Gujrat]] | [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]] |4=[[Gurdaspur District|Gurdaspur]]|5=[[Lahore District|Lahore]]|9=[[Sialkot District|Sialkot]]}}
|-
| Multan Division || {{hlist|[[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]| [[Jhang District|Jhang]]|[[Mianwali District|Mianwali]] | [[Multan District|Multan]] | [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargarh]] | }}
|-
| Jullundur Division || {{hlist|[[Firozpur district|Ferozepore]] | [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]] | [[Jalandhar district|Jullundur]] | [[Kangra district|Kangra]] | [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]]}}
|-
| Delhi Division || {{hlist| [[Ambala district|Ambala]] | [[Delhi district|Delhi]] | [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]] | [[Hisar district|Hissar]] | [[Karnal district|Karnal]] | [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]] | [[Simla district|Simla]]}}
|-
! Total British Territory || 97,209 square miles
|-
| Native States || {{hlist|[[Patiala State|Patiala]] | [[Jind State|Jind]] | [[Nabha State|Nabha]] | [[Bahawalpur State|Bahawalpur]] | [[Sirmur State|Sirmur]] | [[Loharu State|Loharu]] | [[Dujana]] | [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]] | [[Kalsia]] | [[Simla Hill States]] | [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]] | [[Mandi State|Mandi]] | [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]] | [[Suket State|Suket]] | [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]] | [[Siba State|Siba]] | [[Chamba State|Chamba]] | [[Kahlur]] (Bilaspur) }}
|-
! Total Native States || 36,532 square miles
|-
! Total Punjab Province || 133,741 square miles
|}

=== Maps of administrative divisions ===
<gallery>
File:Province of Punjab map with Divisions, Labeled, with main district, 1947.jpg|Map of the divisions of British Punjab (with the namesake district of each division shaded darker and princely-states shaded black), 1947
File:Province and Princely States of Punjab, 1947.jpg|Map of Punjab in 1947, with princely-state territory in purple & direct British-rule in pink.
File:British and native states in the Cis-Sutlej Division between 1847–51, by Abdos Sobhan, 1858 (F.4-27).jpg|1847–1851:- Punjab Province's Cis-Sutlej Division and Principlites
File:Map of the Punjab and the adjoining countries, 1853 (F.4-10).jpg|1853:- Map showing Punjab provinces and adjoining area
File:Punjab-religion-2.jpg|Districts of Punjab with Muslim (green) and non-Muslim (pink) majorities, as per 1941 census
</gallery>

==History==

===Company rule===
{{See also|Company rule in India}}
{{multiple image
| footer = The Durbar, or assembly of native princes and nobles, convened by Sir John Lawrence at Lahore
| image1 = Iln1864leftmax.jpg
| width1 = 125
| alt1 =
| image2 = Iln1864rightmax.jpg
| width2 = 125
| alt2 = }}[[Delhi Territory|Delhi]] and the areas of Gurgaon, Hisar, and Karnal districts were [[Second Anglo-Maratha War|conquered by the British]] in 1803.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Banerjee |first1=Abhijit |url=https://eml.berkeley.edu/~webfac/bardhan/e271_sp03/2_18.pdf |title=History, Institutions and Economic Performance: The Legacy of Colonial Land Tenure Systems in India (BREAD Working Paper No. 003) |last2=Iyer |first2=Lakshmi |date=January 2003 |publisher=Bureau for Research in Economic Analysis of Development |pages=39 |chapter=Appendix Table 1: Districts of British India, With Dates and Mode of Acquisition by the British}}</ref> On 30 December 1803, the [[Daulat Scindia]] signed the [[Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon]] with the British after the [[Battle of Assaye]] and Battle of [[Laswari]] and ceded to the British, Hisar, Panipat, Rohtak, Rewari, Gurgaon, Ganges-Jumna Doab, the Delhi-Agra region, parts of Bundelkhand, Broach, some districts of Gujarat and the fort of Ahmmadnagar.<ref name="Naravane">{{Cite book |last=Naravane |first=M.S. |title=Battles of the Honorourable East India Company |publisher=A.P.H. Publishing Corporation |year=2014 |isbn=978-81-313-0034-3 |pages=65–66}}</ref>{{rp|73}} The area of Shimla district was obtained by the British in 1815.<ref name=":2"/>

After the conclusion of the First Anglo-Sikh War of 1845–46, the areas of the following districts were annexed by the British: Ambala, Firozpur, Hoshiyarpur, Jalandhar, Kangra, Ludhiana districts.<ref name=":2" />{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=June 2025}} After the Second Anglo-Sikh War of 1848–49, the areas of the following districts were annexed by the Britishers: Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Bannu, Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khan, Gujranwala, Gujrat, Hazara, Jhang, Jhelum, Kohat, Lahore, Montgomerty, Multan, Muzaffargarh, Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Shahpur, and Sialkot districts.<ref name=":3">See point 81(c) or Pdf reader page no. - 44 - [https://plrs.org.in/pdfs/land%20administration%20Manual.pdf Land Administration Punjab]</ref><ref name=":2" />[[File:Map of British India, showing principal administrative divisions, London & New York, 1851.png|thumb|Map of British India, showing principal administrative divisions, London & New York, 1851. The recently conquered Punjabi territory was initially administered as part of the [[Bengal Presidency]] for a few years following annexation.]]
On 21{{nbsp}}February 1849, the [[East India Company]] decisively defeated the [[Sikh Empire]] at the [[Battle of Gujrat]] bringing to an end the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]]. Following the victory, the East India Company announced the annexation of the conquered territory through a ''[[Durbar (court)|durbar]]'' proclamation on 30 March 1849 and annexed the Punjab on 2{{nbsp}}April 1849{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}} and incorporated it within [[British India]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Archbold |first=W. A. J. |title=The Cambridge History of India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1929 |editor-last=Dodwell |editor-first=Henry Herbert |volume=V: British India, 1497–1858 |chapter=29 (XXIX): The Conquest of Sind and the Panjab}}</ref>{{Rp|page=556}} The deposed child-monarch [[Duleep Singh]] was given a pension and forced to live outside Punjab.<ref name=":02"/>{{Rp|page=556}}

For the task of organization of the conquered region, Henry Lawrence was the prime candidate to take up the task, yet Dalhousie did not agree with Lawrence's views fully.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=556}} Thus, the compromise was the establishment of a three-member board of government/administration to administer the new territory.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=556}}<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=54}} The province whilst nominally under the control of the [[Bengal Presidency]] was administratively independent.{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}} [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]] constituted the Board of Administration by inducting into it the most experienced and seasoned British officers.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=556}} The Board was led by [[Henry Montgomery Lawrence|Sir Henry Lawrence]], who had previously worked as British Resident at the [[Lahore]] [[Durbar (court)|Durbar]] and also consisted of his younger brother [[John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence|John Lawrence]] and [[Charles Grenville Mansel]].<ref>J. S. Grewal, The Sikhs of the Punjab, Volumes 2-3, Cambridge University Press, 8 October 1998, p.258</ref><ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=556}} Below the Board, a group of acclaimed officers collectively known as [[Henry Lawrence's "Young Men"]] assisted in the administration of the newly acquired province.{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}} The Board was abolished by Lord Dalhousie in 1853;{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}} Sir Henry was assigned to the [[Rajputana Agency]], and his brother John Lawrence succeeded as the first Chief Commissioner.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=557}} Thus, Punjab became administered by a chief commissioner.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=54}}

Recognising the cultural diversity of the Punjab, the Board maintained a strict policy of non-interference in regard to religious and cultural matters.<ref name="autogenerated77">Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair, Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed, A&C Black, 8 August 2013, p.77</ref> Sikh aristocrats were given patronage and pensions and groups in control of historical places of worship were allowed to remain in control.<ref name="autogenerated77"/>

During the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], the Punjab remained relatively peaceful, apart from rebellion led by [[Rai Ahmad Khan Kharal|Ahmad Khan Kharral]].<ref name="auto1">{{cite book |last1=N. Arielli, B. Collins |title=Transnational Soldiers: Foreign Military Enlistment in the Modern Era |date=28 November 2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1137296634}}</ref> In May, John Lawrence took swift action to disarm potentially mutinous sepoys and redeploy most European troops to the Delhi ridge.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dalrymple |first1=William |title=The Last Mughal: The Fall of Delhi, 1857 |date=17 August 2009 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1408806883}}</ref> Finally he recruited new regiments of Punjabis to replace the depleted force, and was provided with manpower and support from surrounding princely states such as Jind, Patiala, Nabha and Kapurthala and tribal chiefs on the borderlands with Afghanistan. By 1858, an estimated 70,000 extra men had been recruited for the army and militarised police from within the Punjab.<ref name="auto1"/>

===British Raj===
{{See also|British Raj}}
[[File:Pope1880Panjab3.jpg|thumb|250px|The Punjab in 1880]]
Following the Indian mutiny, Punjab became a lieutenant-governor's province, still under the Bengal Presidency.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=54}} The governor-general of India, the highest seat of local authority, ruled the Bengal Presidency through its lieutenant-governors and chief-commissioners.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=54}} Both the lieutenant-governors and chief-commissioners presided over commissioners of divisions, with those commissioners having authority over deputy-commissioners of districts.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=54}}

In 1858, under the terms of the Queen's Proclamation issued by [[Queen Victoria]], the Punjab, along with the rest of British India, came under the direct rule of the British Crown.<ref name="victoriap221">[[#Hibbert|Hibbert 2000]], p. 221</ref> The East India Company was abolished, along with its court of directors, replacing that administrative set-up with the [[council of India]].<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=55}} [[Delhi Territory]] was transferred from the [[North-Western Provinces]] to the Punjab in 1858, partly to punish the city for the important role the last [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]], [[Bahadur Shah II]], and the city as a whole, played in the 1857 Rebellion.<ref>Gupta, Narayani. 1981. ''Delhi Between Two Empires, 1803-1931''. Oxford University Press, p.26</ref>

In 1859, Punjab became a lieutenant-governor's province.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|pages=54–55}} Sir John Lawrence, then Chief Commissioner, was appointed the first [[List of Governors of Punjab (British India)|Lieutenant-Governor]] on 1{{nbsp}}January 1859. In 1866, the Judicial Commissioner was replaced by a Chief Court. The direct administrative functions of the Government were carried by the Lieutenant-Governor through the Secretariat, comprising a Chief Secretary, a Secretary and two Under-Secretaries. They were usually members of the [[Indian Civil Service]].<ref name="two">{{cite web|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V20_337.gif|title=Imperial Gazetteer2 of India, Volume 20, page 331 -- Imperial Gazetteer of India -- Digital South Asia Library|work=uchicago.edu|access-date=20 February 2021|archive-date=18 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918085700/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V20_337.gif|url-status=live}}</ref> The territory under the Lieutenant consisted of 29 Districts, grouped under 5 Divisions, and 43 [[Princely State]]s. Each District was under a Deputy-Commissioner, who reported to the Commissioner of the Division. Each District was subdivided into between three and seven [[tehsils]], each under a ''tahsildar'', assisted by a ''naib'' (deputy) ''tahsildar''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V20_339.gif|title=Imperial Gazetteer2 of India, Volume 20, page 333 -- Imperial Gazetteer of India -- Digital South Asia Library|work=uchicago.edu|access-date=20 February 2021|archive-date=18 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918074647/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V20_339.gif|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1885 the Punjab administration began an ambitious plan to transform over six million acres of barren waste land in central and western Punjab into irrigable agricultural land. The [[Punjab Canal Colonies|creation of canal colonies]] was designed to relieve demographic pressures in the central parts of the province, increase productivity and revenues, and create a loyal support amongst peasant landholders.<ref>Imran Ali, The Punjab Canal Colonies, 1885-1940, 1979, The Australian National University, Canberra, p34</ref> The colonisation resulted in an agricultural revolution in the province, rapid industrial growth, and the resettlement of over one million Punjabis in the new areas.<ref>Ian Talbot, Khizr Tiwana, the Punjab Unionist Party and the Partition of India, Routledge, 16 December 2013, p,55</ref> A number of towns were created or saw significant development in the colonies, such as [[Lyallpur]], [[Sargodha]] and [[Sahiwal|Montgomery]]. Colonisation led to the canal irrigated area of the Punjab increasing from three to fourteen million acres in the period from 1885 to 1947.<ref>Saiyid, the Muslim Women of the British Punjab, p.4.</ref>

The beginning of the twentieth century saw increasing unrest in the Punjab. Conditions in the Chenab colony, together with land reforms such as the [[Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900]] and the Colonisation Bill, 1906 contributed to the [[1907 Punjab unrest]]. The unrest was unlike any previous agitation in the province as the government had for the first time aggrieved a large portion of the rural population.<ref name="autogenerated353">Barrier, N. Gerald. "The Punjab Disturbances of 1907: The Response of the British Government in India to Agrarian Unrest." Modern Asian Studies, vol. 1, no. 4, 1967, pp. 353–383</ref> Mass demonstrations were organised, headed by [[Lala Lajpat Rai]], a leader of the Hindu revivalist sect [[Arya Samaj]].<ref name="autogenerated353"/> The unrest resulted in the repeal of the Colonisation Bill and the end of paternalist policies in the colonies.<ref name="autogenerated353"/>

During the [[World War I|First World War]], Punjabi manpower contributed heavily to the [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]]. Out of a total of 683,149 combat troops, 349,688 hailed from the province.<ref>Tan Tai Yong, "An Imperial Home Front: Punjab and the First World War", The Journal of Military History (2000), p.64</ref> In 1918, an influenza epidemic broke out in the province, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 962,937 people or 4.77 percent of the total estimated population.<ref>"Influenza in India, 1918." Public Health Reports, vol. 34, no. 42, 1919, pp. 2300–2302</ref> In March 1919 the [[Rowlatt Act]] was passed extending emergency measures of detention and incarceration in response to the perceived threat of terrorism from revolutionary nationalist organisations.<ref name=Sarkar1921>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1921|p=137}}</ref> This led to the infamous [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]] in April 1919, where Colonel [[Reginald Dyer|Reginald Edward Harry Dyer]] ordered detachments of the [[9th Gorkha Rifles]] and the [[59th Scinde Rifles (Frontier Force)|59th Scinde Rifles]] under his command to fire into a group of some 10,000 unarmed protesters and [[Baisakhi]] pilgrims, killing 379.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/483563/Punjab/46046/History|title=Punjab|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=4 May 2013|archive-date=14 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614133208/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/483563/Punjab/46046/History|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Administrative reforms===
The [[Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms]] enacted through the [[Government of India Act 1919]] expanded the Punjab Legislative Council and introduced the principle of [[dyarchy]], whereby certain responsibilities such as agriculture, health, education, and local government, were transferred to elected ministers. The first Punjab Legislative Council under the 1919 Act was constituted in 1921, comprising 93 members, seventy per cent to be elected and rest to be nominated.<ref>http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1921-1923.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402123711/http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1921-1923.htm |date=2 April 2016 }} [[Provincial Assembly of the Punjab]]</ref> Some of the British Indian ministers under the dyarchy scheme were [[Abdul Qadir (Muslim leader)|Sir Sheikh Abdul Qadir]], Sir [[Shahab-ud-Din Virk]] and Lala Hari Kishen Lal.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Working Of Dyarchy In India 1919 1928|date=12 August 2023 |publisher=D.B.Taraporevala Sons And Company.|url=https://archive.org/details/workingofdyarchy029425mbp}}</ref><ref>http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1924-1926.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207160211/http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1924-1926.htm |date=7 February 2017 }} Provincial Assembly of the Punjab</ref>

The [[Government of India Act 1935]] introduced provincial autonomy to Punjab replacing the system of dyarchy. It provided for the constitution of Punjab Legislative Assembly of 175 members presided by a Speaker and an executive government responsible to the Assembly. The [[Unionist Party (Punjab)|Unionist Party]] under Sir [[Sikandar Hayat Khan]] formed the government in 1937. Sir Sikandar was succeeded by [[Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana]] in 1942 who remained the Premier till partition in 1947. Although the term of the Assembly was five years, the Assembly continued for about eight years and its last sitting was held on 19 March 1945.<ref>http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1937-1945.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402123700/http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1937-1945.htm |date=2 April 2016 }} Provincial Assembly of the Punjab</ref>

===Partition===
{{See also|Partition of India|Partition of Punjab}}
The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. The landed elites of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party led independence movement.<ref name="autogenerated54">Pritam Singh, Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy, Routledge, 19 February 2008, p.54</ref> Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most active [[Indian National Congress|National Congress]] supporters, the Sikhs flocked to the [[Shiromani Akali Dal|Akali movement]] whilst the Muslims eventually supported the [[All-India Muslim League]].<ref name="autogenerated54"/>

Since the partition of the sub-continent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided into [[West Punjab]] [[Legislative Assembly]] and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947.<ref>http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1946-1947.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207162416/http://www.pap.gov.pk/uploads/previous_members/S-1946-1947.htm |date=7 February 2017 }} Provincial Assembly of the Punjab</ref>

== Population ==
{{Historical populations
| title = Population history
| direction = vertical
| align = right
| footnote = ''Source: [[Census of India]]'' <ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|8}}<ref name="punjab1931">{{cite web|url=https://jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793242|title=CCensus of India 1931. Vol. 17, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables.|date=12 August 2023 |jstor=saoa.crl.25793242 |access-date=15 August 2021|archive-date=6 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606080643/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793242|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|6}}<ref name="krishan2004"/>{{rp|86}}
| 1855|17600000
| 1868|19700000
| 1881|20800995
| 1891|22915894
| 1901|24367113
| 1911|23791841
| 1921|25101514
| 1931|28490869
| 1941|34309861
}}
The first British census of the Punjab was carried out in 1855. This covered only British territory to the exclusion of local princely states, and placed the population at 17.6 million. The first regular census of British India carried out in 1881 recorded a population of 20.8 million people. The final British census in 1941 recorded 34.3 million people in the Punjab, which comprised 29 districts within British territory, 43 princely states, 52,047 villages and 283 towns.<ref name="krishan2004">{{cite journal |url=http://www.global.ucsb.edu/punjab/sites/secure.lsit.ucsb.edu.gisp.d7_sp/files/sitefiles/journals/volume11/no1/6_krishan.pdf |title=Demography of the Punjab (1849–1947) |first=Gopal |last=Krishan |journal=Journal of Punjab Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2004 |pages=77–89 |access-date=8 February 2018 |archive-date=9 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209003014/http://www.global.ucsb.edu/punjab/sites/secure.lsit.ucsb.edu.gisp.d7_sp/files/sitefiles/journals/volume11/no1/6_krishan.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1881, only Amritsar and Lahore had populations over 100,000. The commercial and industrial city of Amritsar (152,000) was slightly larger than the cultural capital of Lahore (149,000). Over the following sixty years, Lahore increased in population fourfold, whilst Amritsar grew two-fold. By 1941, the province had seven cities with populations over 100,000 with emergence and growth of Rawalpindi, Multan, Sialkot, Jullundur and Ludhiana.<ref name="krishan2004"/>

The colonial period saw large scale migration within the Punjab due to the creation of [[Punjab Canal Colonies|canal colonies in western Punjab]]. The majority of colonists hailed from the seven most densely populated districts of Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Jullundur, Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, Ambala and Sialkot, and consisted primarily of [[Khatris]], [[Brahmins]], [[Jats]], [[Arain]]s, [[Sainis]], [[Kamboj|Kambohs]] and [[Rajputs]]. The movement of many highly skilled farmers from eastern and central Punjab to the new colonies, led to western Punjab becoming the most progressive and advanced agricultural region of the province.<ref name="krishan2004"/>

The period also saw significant numbers of Punjabis emigrate to other regions of the [[British Empire]]. The main destinations were East Africa - [[Kenya]], [[Uganda]] and [[Tanzania]], Southeast Asia - [[British Malaya|Malaya]] and [[Burma]], [[Hong Kong]] and [[Canada]].<ref name="krishan2004"/>

== Religion ==
{{Main|Religion in the Punjab}}

The Punjab was a religiously eclectic province, comprising three major groups: [[Islam|Muslims]], [[Hinduism|Hindus]] and [[Sikhism|Sikhs]]. By 1941, the religious Muslims constituting an absolute majority at 53.2%, whilst the Hindu population was at 30.1%.{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}} The period between 1881 and 1941 saw a significant increase in the Sikh and [[Christianity|Christian]] populations, growing from 8.2% and 0.1% to 14.9% and 1.9% respectively.<ref name="krishan2004" /> The decrease in the Hindu population has been attributed to the conversion of Hindus mainly to Sikhism and Islam, and also to Christianity.<ref name="krishan2004" />

In 1941, the Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs made 30.1,{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}} 53.2 and 14.9 per cent of the total population of Punjab but
made 37.9, 51.4 and 8.4 per cent of its [[urban areas|urban]] population respectively.<ref name="krishan2004"/>
{{Further|Religion in the Punjab#Punjab region}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religious groups in Punjab Province (1881–1941)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057656 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057656 |access-date=7 April 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. I. |year=1881 }}</ref><ref name="Census1881B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057657 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057657 |access-date=7 April 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. II. |year=1881 |pages=14 }}</ref><ref name="Census1881C">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057658 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057658 |access-date=7 April 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. III. |year=1881 |pages=14 }}</ref>{{efn|name=Delhi}}{{efn|name=NWFP|Population figure excludes subdivisions that would ultimately form part of [[North-West Frontier Province]] following bifurcation of Punjab Province in 1901.}}
! colspan="2" |1891<ref name="Census1891">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25318668 |jstor=saoa.crl.25318668 |access-date=23 June 2025 |title=Census of India, 1891 The Punjab and its feudatories, part I--The report on the census |year=1891 }}</ref><ref name="Census1891B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25318669 |jstor=saoa.crl.25318669 |access-date=23 June 2025 |title=Census of India, 1891 The Punjab and its feudatories, part II--Imperial Tables and Supplementary Returns for the British Territory |year=1891 |pages=14 }}</ref><ref name="Census1891C">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25318670 |jstor=saoa.crl.25318670 |access-date=23 June 2025 |title=Census of India, 1891 The Punjab and its feudatories, part III--Imperial Tables and Supplementary Returns for the Native States, Together with a Caste Index |year=1891 |pages=8 }}</ref>{{efn|name=Delhi}}{{efn|name=NWFP}}
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25363739 |jstor=saoa.crl.25363739 |access-date=10 March 2024 |title=Census of India 1901. [Vol. 17A]. Imperial tables, I–VIII, X–XV, XVII and XVIII for the Punjab, with the native states under the political control of the Punjab Government, and for the North-west Frontier Province. |year=1901}}</ref>{{rp|34}}{{efn|name=Delhi}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25393788 |jstor=saoa.crl.25393788 |access-date=3 March 2024 |title=Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1911}}</ref>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.62718 |access-date=3 March 2024 |title=Census Of India 1911 Punjab Vol XIV Part II |year=1911 |author=Kaul, Harikishan}}</ref>{{rp|27}}{{efn|name=Delhi|Including Delhi district, which was later made into a separate province in 1912, following [[Delhi#Colonial period|the transfer from Calcutta to Delhi as capital of India in 1911]].}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430165 |jstor=saoa.crl.25430165 |access-date=17 February 2024 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 15, Punjab and Delhi. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921}}</ref>{{rp|29}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793242 |jstor=saoa.crl.25793242 |access-date=4 February 2024 |title=Census of India 1931. Vol. 17, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1931}}</ref>{{rp|277}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.28215541 |jstor=saoa.crl.28215541 |access-date=22 July 2022 |title=Census of India, 1941. Vol. 6, Punjab |year=1941 |author1=India Census Commissioner |volume=6 }}</ref>{{rp|42}}
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 9,872,745
| {{Percentage | 9872745 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 10,827,628
| {{Percentage | 10827628 | 22848419 | 2 }}
| 12,183,345
| {{Percentage | 12183345 | 24754737 | 2 }}
| 12,275,477
| {{Percentage | 12275477 | 24187750 | 2 }}
| 12,813,383
| {{Percentage | 12813383 | 25101060 | 2 }}
| 14,929,896
| {{Percentage | 14929896 | 28490857 | 2 }}
| 18,259,744
| {{Percentage | 18259744 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi|1931 & 1941 censuses: Including [[Ad-Dharmi]]s}}
| 9,095,175
| {{Percentage | 9095175 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 10,070,716
| {{Percentage | 10070716 | 22848419 | 2 }}
| 10,344,469
| {{Percentage | 10344469 | 24754737 | 2 }}
| 8,773,621
| {{Percentage | 8773621 | 24187750 | 2 }}
| 8,799,651
| {{Percentage | 8799651 | 25101060 | 2 }}
| 9,018,509
| {{Percentage | 9018509 | 28490857 | 2 }}
| 10,336,549
| {{Percentage | 10336549 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 1,706,165
| {{Percentage | 1706165 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 1,849,371
| {{Percentage | 1849371 | 22848419 | 2 }}
| 2,102,896
| {{Percentage | 2102896 | 24754737 | 2 }}
| 2,883,729
| {{Percentage | 2883729 | 24187750 | 2 }}
| 3,107,296
| {{Percentage | 3107296 | 25101060 | 2 }}
| 4,071,624
| {{Percentage | 4071624 | 28490857 | 2 }}
| 5,116,185
| {{Percentage | 5116185 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 42,572
| {{Percentage | 42572 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 45,575
| {{Percentage | 45575 | 22848419 | 2 }}
| 49,983
| {{Percentage | 49983 | 24754737 | 2 }}
| 46,775
| {{Percentage | 46775 | 24187750 | 2 }}
| 41,321
| {{Percentage | 41321 | 25101060 | 2 }}
| 43,140
| {{Percentage | 43140 | 28490857 | 2 }}
| 45,475
| {{Percentage | 45475 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 28,054
| {{Percentage | 28054 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 48,472
| {{Percentage | 48472 | 22848419 | 2 }}
| 66,591
| {{Percentage | 66591 | 24754737 | 2 }}
| 199,751
| {{Percentage | 199751 | 24187750 | 2 }}
| 332,939
| {{Percentage | 332939 | 25101060 | 2 }}
| 419,353
| {{Percentage | 419353 | 28490857 | 2 }}
| 512,466
| {{Percentage | 512466 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 3,251
| {{Percentage | 3251 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 6,236
| {{Percentage | 6236 | 22848419 | 2 }}
| 6,940
| {{Percentage | 6940 | 24754737 | 2 }}
| 7,690
| {{Percentage | 7690 | 24187750 | 2 }}
| 5,912
| {{Percentage | 5912 | 25101060 | 2 }}
| 7,753
| {{Percentage | 7753 | 28490857 | 2 }}
| 854
| {{Percentage | 854 | 34309861 | 3 }}
|-
! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 413
| {{Percentage | 413 | 20748432 | 3 }}
| 364
| {{Percentage | 364 | 22848419 | 3 }}
| 477
| {{Percentage | 477 | 24754737 | 3 }}
| 653
| {{Percentage | 653 | 24187750 | 3 }}
| 526
| {{Percentage | 526 | 25101060 | 3 }}
| 569
| {{Percentage | 569 | 28490857 | 3 }}
| 4,359
| {{Percentage | 4359 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 29
| {{Percentage | 29 | 22848419 | 4 }}
| 24
| {{Percentage | 24 | 24754737 | 4 }}
| 54
| {{Percentage | 54 | 24187750 | 4 }}
| 19
| {{Percentage | 19 | 25101060 | 4 }}
| 13
| {{Percentage | 13 | 28490857 | 4 }}
| 39
| {{Percentage | 39 | 34309861 | 4 }}
|-
! Others
| 57
| {{Percentage | 57 | 20748432 | 4 }}
| 28
| {{Percentage | 28 | 22848419 | 4 }}
| 12
| {{Percentage | 12 | 24754737 | 4 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 24187750 | 4 }}
| 13
| {{Percentage | 13 | 25101060 | 4 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 28490857 | 4 }}
| 34,190
| {{Percentage | 34190 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population
! 20,748,432
! {{Percentage | 20748432 | 20748432 | 2 }}
! 22,848,419
! {{Percentage | 22848419 | 22848419 | 2 }}
! 24,754,737
! {{Percentage | 24754737 | 24754737 | 2 }}
! 24,187,750
! {{Percentage | 24187750 | 24187750 | 2 }}
! 25,101,060
! {{Percentage | 25101060 | 25101060 | 2 }}
! 28,490,857
! {{Percentage | 28490857 | 28490857 | 2 }}
! 34,309,861
! {{Percentage | 34309861 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="15" | {{small|Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh Union Territory]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[National Capital Territory of Delhi]] (until 1911), [[Punjab, Pakistan]], and [[Islamabad Capital Territory]].}}
|}
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religion in West Punjab (1881–1941)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881"/><ref name="Census1881B"/><ref name="Census1881C"/><ref name="Shakargarh1881">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35264 |access-date=7 April 2024 |title=Gazetteers Of Gurdaspur District, 1883-84 |year=1884}}</ref>{{efn|name=WestPunjab1881|1881 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), and one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1881 census data here:<ref name="Census1881"/><ref name="Census1881B"/><ref name="Census1881C"/> Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
! colspan="2" |1891<ref name="Census1891"/><ref name="Census1891B"/><ref name="Census1891C"/><ref name="Shakargarh1891">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.30607/ |access-date=23 June 2025 |title=Gazetteer of the Gurdaspur district, 1891-92 |year=1892}}</ref>{{efn|name=WestPunjab1891|1891 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1891 census data here:<ref name="Census1891"/><ref name="Census1891B"/><ref name="Census1891C"/> Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901"/>{{rp|34}}<ref name="Shakargarh1901">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.105602 |access-date=10 March 2024 |title=Punjab District Gazetteers Gurdaspur District Vol.21 Statistical Tables |year=1913}}</ref>{{rp|62}}{{efn|name=WestPunjab1901|1901 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Lyallpur District|Lyallpur]] (inscribed as the ''[[Punjab Canal Colonies#Chenab Colony|Chenab Colony]]'' on the 1901 census), [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1901 census data here:<ref name="Census1901"/>{{rp|34}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911"/>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B"/>{{rp|27}}{{efn|name=WestPunjab1911|1911 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Attock District|Attock]], [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Lyallpur District|Lyallpur]], [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1911 census data here:<ref name="Census1911"/>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B"/>{{rp|27}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921"/>{{rp|29}}{{efn|name=WestPunjab1921|1921 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Sheikhupura District|Sheikhupura]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Attock District|Attock]], [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Lyallpur District|Lyallpur]], [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1921 census data here:<ref name="Census1921"/>{{rp|29}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931"/>{{rp|277}}{{efn|name=WestPunjab1931|1931 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Sheikhupura District|Sheikhupura]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Attock District|Attock]], [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Lyallpur District|Lyallpur]], [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1931 census data here:<ref name="Census1931"/>{{rp|277}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|42}}{{efn|name=WestPunjab1941|1941 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Sheikhupura District|Sheikhupura]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Attock District|Attock]], [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Lyallpur District|Lyallpur]], [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1941 census data here:<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|42}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 6,201,859
|{{Percentage | 6201859 | 7942399 | 2 }}
| 6,766,545
|{{Percentage | 6766545 | 8895342 | 2 }}
| 7,951,155
|{{Percentage | 7951155 | 10427765 | 2 }}
| 8,494,314
|{{Percentage | 8494314 | 11104585 | 2 }}
| 8,975,288
|{{Percentage | 8975288 | 11888985 | 2 }}
| 10,570,029
|{{Percentage | 10570029 | 14040798 | 2 }}
| 13,022,160
|{{Percentage | 13022160 | 17350103 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| 1,449,913
|{{Percentage | 1449913 | 7942399 | 2 }}
| 1,727,810
|{{Percentage | 1727810 | 8895342 | 2 }}
| 1,944,363
|{{Percentage | 1944363 | 10427765 | 2 }}
| 1,645,758
|{{Percentage | 1645758 | 11104585 | 2 }}
| 1,797,141
|{{Percentage | 1797141 | 11888985 | 2 }}
| 1,957,878
|{{Percentage | 1957878 | 14040798 | 2 }}
| 2,373,466
|{{Percentage | 2373466 | 17350103 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 272,908
|{{Percentage | 272908 | 7942399 | 2 }}
| 366,162
|{{Percentage | 366162 | 8895342 | 2 }}
| 483,999
|{{Percentage | 483999 | 10427765 | 2 }}
| 813,441
|{{Percentage | 813441 | 11104585 | 2 }}
| 863,091
|{{Percentage | 863091 | 11888985 | 2 }}
| 1,180,789
|{{Percentage | 1180789 | 14040798 | 2 }}
| 1,530,112
|{{Percentage | 1530112 | 17350103 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 12,992
|{{Percentage | 12992 | 7942399 | 2 }}
| 30,168
|{{Percentage | 30168 | 8895342 | 2 }}
| 42,371
|{{Percentage | 42371 | 10427765 | 2 }}
| 144,514
|{{Percentage | 144514 | 11104585 | 2 }}
| 247,030
|{{Percentage | 247030 | 11888985 | 2 }}
| 324,730
|{{Percentage | 324730 | 14040798 | 2 }}
| 395,311
|{{Percentage | 395311 | 17350103 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 4,352
|{{Percentage | 4352 | 7942399 | 2 }}
| 4,408
|{{Percentage | 4408 | 8895342 | 2 }}
| 5,562
|{{Percentage | 5562 | 10427765 | 2 }}
| 5,977
|{{Percentage | 5977 | 11104585 | 2 }}
| 5,930
|{{Percentage | 5930 | 11888985 | 2 }}
| 6,921
|{{Percentage | 6921 | 14040798 | 2 }}
| 9,520
|{{Percentage | 9520 | 17350103 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 354
|{{Percentage | 354 | 7942399 | 3 }}
| 215
|{{Percentage | 215 | 8895342 | 3 }}
| 300
|{{Percentage | 300 | 10427765 | 3 }}
| 377
|{{Percentage | 377 | 11104585 | 3 }}
| 309
|{{Percentage | 309 | 11888985 | 3 }}
| 413
|{{Percentage | 413 | 14040798 | 3 }}
| 312
|{{Percentage | 312 | 17350103 | 3 }}
|-
! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 7942399 | 4 }}
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 8895342 | 4 }}
| 6
|{{Percentage | 6 | 10427765 | 4 }}
| 168
|{{Percentage | 168 | 11104585 | 3 }}
| 172
|{{Percentage | 172 | 11888985 | 3 }}
| 32
|{{Percentage | 32 | 14040798 | 4 }}
| 87
|{{Percentage | 87 | 17350103 | 3 }}
|-
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
|{{N/a}}
|{{N/a}}
| 17
|{{Percentage | 17 | 8895342 | 4 }}
| 9
|{{Percentage | 9 | 10427765 | 4 }}
| 36
|{{Percentage | 36 | 11104585 | 4 }}
| 16
|{{Percentage | 16 | 11888985 | 4 }}
| 6
|{{Percentage | 6 | 14040798 | 4 }}
| 7
|{{Percentage | 7 | 17350103 | 4 }}
|-
! Others
| 21
|{{Percentage | 21 | 7942399 | 4 }}
| 17
|{{Percentage | 17 | 8895342 | 4 }}
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 10427765 | 4 }}
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 11104585 | 4 }}
| 8
|{{Percentage | 8 | 11888985 | 4 }}
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 14040798 | 4 }}
| 19,128
|{{Percentage | 19128 | 17350103 | 2 }}
|-
! Total Population
! 7,942,399
!{{Percentage | 7942399 | 7942399 | 2 }}
! 8,895,342
!{{Percentage | 8895342 | 8895342 | 2 }}
! 10,427,765
!{{Percentage | 10427765 | 10427765 | 2 }}
! 11,104,585
!{{Percentage | 11104585 | 11104585 | 2 }}
! 11,888,985
!{{Percentage | 11888985 | 11888985 | 2 }}
! 14,040,798
!{{Percentage | 14040798 | 14040798 | 2 }}
! 17,350,103
!{{Percentage | 17350103 | 17350103 | 2 }}
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="16" | {{small|Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of [[Punjab, Pakistan]] and [[Islamabad Capital Territory]]. Note: 186 villages and 2 towns — [[Khemkaran]] and [[Patti, Punjab|Patti]] — in [[Kasur Tehsil]] ([[Lahore District]]) fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]], but their population numbers are still included here as detailed sub-tehsil religious data did not exist at the time. According to the 1941 census, [[Kasur Tehsil]] had a total of 322 villages and 3 towns, roughly half fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite book |last=Vashishta, India. Superintendent of Census Operations, Punjab. |first=Lakshmi Chandra |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25797139 |title=Census of India, 1951: Punjab, Pepsu, Himachal Pradesh, Bilaspur & Delhi Part I-A - Report |publisher=India, Superintendent of Census Operations, Punjab. |pages=X|jstor=saoa.crl.25797139 }}</ref>}}
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religion in East Punjab (1881–1941)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881"/><ref name="Census1881B"/><ref name="Census1881C"/><ref name="Shakargarh1881"/>{{efn|name=EastPunjab1881|1881 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Delhi]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Sirsa district|Sirsa]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], and [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1881 census data here:<ref name="Census1881"/><ref name="Census1881B"/><ref name="Census1881C"/> Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}{{efn|name=Delhi}}
! colspan="2" |1891<ref name="Census1891"/><ref name="Census1891B"/><ref name="Census1891C"/><ref name="Shakargarh1891"/>{{efn|name=EastPunjab1891|1891 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Delhi]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], [[Sirmur State|Nahan]], [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]], [[Mandi State|Mandi]], and [[Chamba State|Chamba]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1891 census data here:<ref name="Census1891"/><ref name="Census1891B"/><ref name="Census1891C"/> Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}{{efn|name=Delhi}}
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901"/>{{rp|34}}<ref name="Shakargarh1901"/>{{rp|62}}{{efn|name=EastPunjab1901|1901 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Delhi]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], [[Sirmur State|Nahan]], [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]], [[Mandi State|Mandi]], [[Suket State|Suket]], and [[Chamba State|Chamba]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1901 census data here:<ref name="Census1901"/>{{rp|34}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}{{efn|name=Delhi}}
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911"/>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B"/>{{rp|27}}{{efn|name=EastPunjab1911|1911 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Delhi]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], [[Sirmur State|Nahan]], [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]], [[Mandi State|Mandi]], [[Suket State|Suket]], and [[Chamba State|Chamba]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1911 census data here:<ref name="Census1911"/>{{rp|27}}<ref name="Census1911B"/>{{rp|27}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}{{efn|name=Delhi}}
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921"/>{{rp|29}}{{efn|name=EastPunjab1921|1921 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], [[Sirmur State|Nahan]], [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]], [[Bilaspur State (princely state)|Bilaspur]], [[Mandi State|Mandi]], [[Suket State|Suket]], and [[Chamba State|Chamba]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1921 census data here:<ref name="Census1921"/>{{rp|29}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931"/>{{rp|277}}{{efn|name=EastPunjab1931|1931 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], [[Sirmur State|Sirmoor]], [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]], [[Bilaspur State (princely state)|Bilaspur]], [[Mandi State|Mandi]], [[Suket State|Suket]], and [[Chamba State|Chamba]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1931 census data here:<ref name="Census1931"/>{{rp|277}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|42}}{{efn|name=EastPunjab1941|1941 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], [[Sirmur State|Sirmoor]], [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]], [[Bilaspur State (princely state)|Bilaspur]], [[Mandi State|Mandi]], [[Suket State|Suket]], and [[Chamba State|Chamba]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1941 census data here:<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|42}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| 7,645,262
|{{Percentage | 7645262 | 12806033 | 2 }}
| 8,342,906
|{{Percentage | 8342906 | 13953077 | 2 }}
| 8,400,106
|{{Percentage | 8400106 | 14326972 | 2 }}
| 7,127,863
|{{Percentage | 7127863 | 13083165 | 2 }}
| 7,002,510
|{{Percentage | 7002510 | 13212075 | 2 }}
| 7,060,631
|{{Percentage | 7060631 | 14450059 | 2 }}
| 7,963,083
|{{Percentage | 7963083 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 3,670,886
|{{Percentage | 3670886 | 12806033 | 2 }}
| 4,061,083
|{{Percentage | 4061083 | 13953077 | 2 }}
| 4,232,190
|{{Percentage | 4232190 | 14326972 | 2 }}
| 3,781,163
|{{Percentage | 3781163 | 13083165 | 2 }}
| 3,838,095
|{{Percentage | 3838095 | 13212075 | 2 }}
| 4,359,867
|{{Percentage | 4359867 | 14450059 | 2 }}
| 5,237,584
|{{Percentage | 5237584 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 1,433,257
|{{Percentage | 1433257 | 12806033 | 2 }}
| 1,483,209
|{{Percentage | 1483209 | 13953077 | 2 }}
| 1,618,897
|{{Percentage | 1618897 | 14326972 | 2 }}
| 2,070,288
|{{Percentage | 2070288 | 13083165 | 2 }}
| 2,244,205
|{{Percentage | 2244205 | 13212075 | 2 }}
| 2,890,835
|{{Percentage | 2890835 | 14450059 | 2 }}
| 3,586,073
|{{Percentage | 3586073 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 38,220
|{{Percentage | 38220 | 12806033 | 2 }}
| 41,167
|{{Percentage | 41167 | 13953077 | 2 }}
| 44,421
|{{Percentage | 44421 | 14326972 | 2 }}
| 40,798
|{{Percentage | 40798 | 13083165 | 2 }}
| 35,391
|{{Percentage | 35391 | 13212075 | 2 }}
| 36,219
|{{Percentage | 36219 | 14450059 | 2 }}
| 35,955
|{{Percentage | 35955 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 15,062
|{{Percentage | 15062 | 12806033 | 2 }}
| 18,304
|{{Percentage | 18304 | 13953077 | 2 }}
| 24,220
|{{Percentage | 24220 | 14326972 | 2 }}
| 55,237
|{{Percentage | 55237 | 13083165 | 2 }}
| 85,909
|{{Percentage | 85909 | 13212075 | 2 }}
| 94,623
|{{Percentage | 94623 | 14450059 | 2 }}
| 117,155
|{{Percentage | 117155 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 3,251
|{{Percentage | 3251 | 12806033 | 2 }}
| 6,236
|{{Percentage | 6236 | 13953077 | 2 }}
| 6,934
|{{Percentage | 6934 | 14326972 | 2 }}
| 7,522
|{{Percentage | 7522 | 13083165 | 2 }}
| 5,740
|{{Percentage | 5740 | 13212075 | 2 }}
| 7,721
|{{Percentage | 7721 | 14450059 | 2 }}
| 767
|{{Percentage | 767 | 16959758 | 3 }}
|-
! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 59
|{{Percentage | 59 | 12806033 | 4 }}
| 149
|{{Percentage | 149 | 13953077 | 3 }}
| 177
|{{Percentage | 177 | 14326972 | 3 }}
| 276
|{{Percentage | 276 | 13083165 | 3 }}
| 217
|{{Percentage | 217 | 13212075 | 3 }}
| 156
|{{Percentage | 156 | 14450059 | 3 }}
| 4,047
|{{Percentage | 4047 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
|{{N/a}}
|{{N/a}}
| 12
|{{Percentage | 12 | 13953077 | 4 }}
| 15
|{{Percentage | 15 | 14326972 | 4 }}
| 18
|{{Percentage | 18 | 13083165 | 4 }}
| 3
|{{Percentage | 3 | 13212075 | 4 }}
| 7
|{{Percentage | 7 | 14450059 | 4 }}
| 32
|{{Percentage | 32 | 16959758 | 4 }}
|-
! Others
| 36
|{{Percentage | 36 | 12806033 | 4 }}
| 11
|{{Percentage | 11 | 13953077 | 4 }}
| 12
|{{Percentage | 12 | 14326972 | 4 }}
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 13083165 | 4 }}
| 5
|{{Percentage | 5 | 13212075 | 4 }}
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 14450059 | 4 }}
| 15,062
|{{Percentage | 15062 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|-
! Total Population
! 12,806,033
!{{Percentage | 12806033 | 12806033 | 2 }}
! 13,953,077
!{{Percentage | 13953077 | 13953077 | 2 }}
! 14,326,972
!{{Percentage | 14326972 | 14326972 | 2 }}
! 13,083,165
!{{Percentage | 13083165 | 13083165 | 2 }}
! 13,212,075
!{{Percentage | 13212075 | 13212075 | 2 }}
! 14,450,059
!{{Percentage | 14450059 | 14450059 | 2 }}
! 16,959,758
!{{Percentage | 16959758 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="16" | {{small|Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], and [[National Capital Territory of Delhi]] (until 1911). Note: 186 villages and 2 towns — [[Khemkaran]] and [[Patti, Punjab|Patti]] — in [[Kasur Tehsil]] ([[Lahore District]]) fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]], but their population numbers are not included here as detailed sub-tehsil religious data did not exist at the time. According to the 1941 census, [[Kasur Tehsil]] had a total of 322 villages and 3 towns, roughly half fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]].<ref name="auto"/>}}
|}

=== Subdivisions ===
{{About||detailed decadal census data from 1901 to 1941 broken down by subdivision and classified by natural division|Religion in the Punjab#Subregions}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religion in the Districts & Princely States of Punjab Province (1941)<ref name="Census1941"/>
! rowspan="2" |[[Districts of British India|District]]/ [[Princely state]]
! colspan="2" |[[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
! colspan="2" |[[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
! colspan="2" |[[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
! colspan="2" |Christianity [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
! colspan="2" |[[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
! colspan="2" |Others{{efn|name=others|Including [[Buddhism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], Judaism, [[Tribal religions in India|Tribals]], others, or not stated}}
! colspan="2" |Total
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
| [[Patiala State]]
| 436,539
| {{Percentage | 436539 | 1936259 | 2 }}
| 597,488
| {{Percentage | 597488 | 1936259 | 2 }}
| 896,021
| {{Percentage | 896021 | 1936259 | 2 }}
| 1,592
| {{Percentage | 1592 | 1936259 | 2 }}
| 3,101
| {{Percentage | 3101 | 1936259 | 2 }}
| 1,518
| {{Percentage | 1518 | 1936259 | 2 }}
! 1,936,259
! {{Percentage | 1936259 | 1936259 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Lahore District]]
| 1,027,772
| {{Percentage | 1027772 | 1695375 | 2 }}
| 284,689
| {{Percentage | 284689 | 1695375 | 2 }}
| 310,646
| {{Percentage | 310646 | 1695375 | 2 }}
| 70,147
| {{Percentage | 70147 | 1695375 | 2 }}
| 1,951
| {{Percentage | 1951 | 1695375 | 2 }}
| 170
| {{Percentage | 170 | 1695375 | 2 }}
! 1,695,375
! {{Percentage | 1695375 | 1695375 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Multan District]]
| 1,157,911
| {{Percentage | 1157911 | 1484333 | 2 }}
| 249,872
| {{Percentage | 249872 | 1484333 | 2 }}
| 61,628
| {{Percentage | 61628 | 1484333 | 2 }}
| 14,290
| {{Percentage | 14290 | 1484333 | 2 }}
| 552
| {{Percentage | 552 | 1484333 | 2 }}
| 80
| {{Percentage | 80 | 1484333 | 2 }}
! 1,484,333
! {{Percentage | 1484333 | 1484333 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Firozpur district]]
| 641,448
| {{Percentage | 641448 | 1423076 | 2 }}
| 287,733
| {{Percentage | 287733 | 1423076 | 2 }}
| 479,486
| {{Percentage | 479486 | 1423076 | 2 }}
| 12,607
| {{Percentage | 12607 | 1423076 | 2 }}
| 1,674
| {{Percentage | 1674 | 1423076 | 2 }}
| 128
| {{Percentage | 128 | 1423076 | 2 }}
! 1,423,076
! {{Percentage | 1423076 | 1423076 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Amritsar district]]
| 657,695
| {{Percentage | 657695 | 1413876 | 2 }}
| 217,431
| {{Percentage | 217431 | 1413876 | 2 }}
| 510,845
| {{Percentage | 510845 | 1413876 | 2 }}
| 25,973
| {{Percentage | 25973 | 1413876 | 2 }}
| 1,911
| {{Percentage | 1911 | 1413876 | 2 }}
| 21
| {{Percentage | 21 | 1413876 | 2 }}
! 1,413,876
! {{Percentage | 1413876 | 1413876 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Lyallpur District]]
| 877,518
| {{Percentage | 877518 | 1396305 | 2 }}
| 204,059
| {{Percentage | 204059 | 1396305 | 2 }}
| 262,737
| {{Percentage | 262737 | 1396305 | 2 }}
| 51,948
| {{Percentage | 51948 | 1396305 | 2 }}
| 35
| {{Percentage | 35 | 1396305 | 2 }}
| 8
| {{Percentage | 8 | 1396305 | 2 }}
! 1,396,305
! {{Percentage | 1396305 | 1396305 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Bahawalpur State]]
| 1,098,814
| {{Percentage | 1098814 | 1341209 | 2 }}
| 174,408
| {{Percentage | 174408 | 1341209 | 2 }}
| 46,945
| {{Percentage | 46945 | 1341209 | 2 }}
| 3,048
| {{Percentage | 3048 | 1341209 | 2 }}
| 351
| {{Percentage | 351 | 1341209 | 2 }}
| 17,643
| {{Percentage | 17643 | 1341209 | 2 }}
! 1,341,209
! {{Percentage | 1341209 | 1341209 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Montgomery District]]
| 918,564
| {{Percentage | 918564 | 1329103 | 2 }}
| 210,966
| {{Percentage | 210966 | 1329103 | 2 }}
| 175,064
| {{Percentage | 175064 | 1329103 | 2 }}
| 24,432
| {{Percentage | 24432 | 1329103 | 2 }}
| 49
| {{Percentage | 49 | 1329103 | 2 }}
| 28
| {{Percentage | 28 | 1329103 | 2 }}
! 1,329,103
! {{Percentage | 1329103 | 1329103 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Sialkot District]]
| 739,218
| {{Percentage | 739218 | 1190497 | 2 }}
| 231,319
| {{Percentage | 231319 | 1190497 | 2 }}
| 139,409
| {{Percentage | 139409 | 1190497 | 2 }}
| 75,831
| {{Percentage | 75831 | 1190497 | 2 }}
| 3,250
| {{Percentage | 3250 | 1190497 | 2 }}
| 1,470
| {{Percentage | 1470 | 1190497 | 2 }}
! 1,190,497
! {{Percentage | 1190497 | 1190497 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Hoshiarpur district]]
| 380,759
| {{Percentage | 380759 | 1170323 | 2 }}
| 584,080
| {{Percentage | 584080 | 1170323 | 2 }}
| 198,194
| {{Percentage | 198194 | 1170323 | 2 }}
| 6,165
| {{Percentage | 6165 | 1170323 | 2 }}
| 1,125
| {{Percentage | 1125 | 1170323 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 1170323 | 2 }}
! 1,170,323
! {{Percentage | 1170323 | 1170323 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jalandhar district]]
| 509,804
| {{Percentage | 509804 | 1127190 | 2 }}
| 311,010
| {{Percentage | 311010 | 1127190 | 2 }}
| 298,741
| {{Percentage | 298741 | 1127190 | 2 }}
| 6,233
| {{Percentage | 6233 | 1127190 | 2 }}
| 1,395
| {{Percentage | 1395 | 1127190 | 2 }}
| 7
| {{Percentage | 7 | 1127190 | 2 }}
! 1,127,190
! {{Percentage | 1127190 | 1127190 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Gujrat District]]
| 945,609
| {{Percentage | 945609 | 1104952 | 2 }}
| 84,643
| {{Percentage | 84643 | 1104952 | 2 }}
| 70,233
| {{Percentage | 70233 | 1104952 | 2 }}
| 4,449
| {{Percentage | 4449 | 1104952 | 2 }}
| 10
| {{Percentage | 10 | 1104952 | 2 }}
| 8
| {{Percentage | 8 | 1104952 | 2 }}
! 1,104,952
! {{Percentage | 1104952 | 1104952 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Hill States of India#Simla Hills|Hill States]]{{efn|HillStates|Including [[Mandi State]], [[Chamba State]], [[Sirmur State]], [[Bilaspur State (princely state)|Bilaspur State]], [[Suket State]], and other minor [[Hill States of India#Simla Hills in Details|Simla Hill States]].}}
| 37,214
| {{Percentage | 37214 | 1098475 | 2 }}
| 1,053,637
| {{Percentage | 1053637 | 1098475 | 2 }}
| 6,404
| {{Percentage | 6404 | 1098475 | 2 }}
| 407
| {{Percentage | 407 | 1098475 | 2 }}
| 210
| {{Percentage | 210 | 1098475 | 2 }}
| 603
| {{Percentage | 603 | 1098475 | 2 }}
! 1,098,475
! {{Percentage | 1098475 | 1098475 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Hisar district]]
| 285,208
| {{Percentage | 285208 | 1006709 | 2 }}
| 652,842
| {{Percentage | 652842 | 1006709 | 2 }}
| 60,731
| {{Percentage | 60731 | 1006709 | 2 }}
| 1,292
| {{Percentage | 1292 | 1006709 | 2 }}
| 6,126
| {{Percentage | 6126 | 1006709 | 2 }}
| 510
| {{Percentage | 510 | 1006709 | 2 }}
! 1,006,709
! {{Percentage | 1006709 | 1006709 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Shahpur District]]
| 835,918
| {{Percentage | 835918 | 998921 | 2 }}
| 102,172
| {{Percentage | 102172 | 998921 | 2 }}
| 48,046
| {{Percentage | 48046 | 998921 | 2 }}
| 12,770
| {{Percentage | 12770 | 998921 | 2 }}
| 13
| {{Percentage | 13 | 998921 | 2 }}
| 2
| {{Percentage | 2 | 998921 | 2 }}
! 998,921
! {{Percentage | 998921 | 998921 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Karnal district]]
| 304,346
| {{Percentage | 304346 | 994575 | 2 }}
| 666,301
| {{Percentage | 666301 | 994575 | 2 }}
| 19,887
| {{Percentage | 19887 | 994575 | 2 }}
| 1,249
| {{Percentage | 1249 | 994575 | 2 }}
| 2,789
| {{Percentage | 2789 | 994575 | 2 }}
| 3
| {{Percentage | 3 | 994575 | 2 }}
! 994,575
! {{Percentage | 994575 | 994575 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Rohtak district]]
| 166,569
| {{Percentage | 166569 | 956399 | 2 }}
| 780,474
| {{Percentage | 780474 | 956399 | 2 }}
| 1,466
| {{Percentage | 1466 | 956399 | 2 }}
| 1,043
| {{Percentage | 1043 | 956399 | 2 }}
| 6,847
| {{Percentage | 6847 | 956399 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 956399 | 2 }}
! 956,399
! {{Percentage | 956399 | 956399 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Gujranwala District]]
| 642,706
| {{Percentage | 642706 | 912234 | 2 }}
| 108,115
| {{Percentage | 108115 | 912234 | 2 }}
| 99,139
| {{Percentage | 99139 | 912234 | 2 }}
| 60,829
| {{Percentage | 60829 | 912234 | 2 }}
| 1,445
| {{Percentage | 1445 | 912234 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 912234 | 2 }}
! 912,234
! {{Percentage | 912234 | 912234 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Kangra district]]
| 43,249
| {{Percentage | 43249 | 899377 | 2 }}
| 846,531
| {{Percentage | 846531 | 899377 | 2 }}
| 4,809
| {{Percentage | 4809 | 899377 | 2 }}
| 788
| {{Percentage | 788 | 899377 | 2 }}
| 101
| {{Percentage | 101 | 899377 | 2 }}
| 3,899
| {{Percentage | 3899 | 899377 | 2 }}
! 899,377
! {{Percentage | 899377 | 899377 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Gurdaspur district]]{{efn|name="Gurdaspur1947"|Does not include [[Shakargarh Tehsil]], which was awarded to Pakistan as part of the [[Radcliffe Line]].}}
| 440,323
| {{Percentage | 440323 | 862006 | 2 }}
| 174,221
| {{Percentage | 174221 | 862006 | 2 }}
| 200,688
| {{Percentage | 200688 | 862006 | 2 }}
| 46,743
| {{Percentage | 46743 | 862006 | 2 }}
| 25
| {{Percentage | 25 | 862006 | 2 }}
| 6
| {{Percentage | 6 | 862006 | 2 }}
! 862,006
! {{Percentage | 862006 | 862006 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Sheikhupura District]]
| 542,344
| {{Percentage | 542344 | 852508 | 2 }}
| 89,182
| {{Percentage | 89182 | 852508 | 2 }}
| 160,706
| {{Percentage | 160706 | 852508 | 2 }}
| 60,054
| {{Percentage | 60054 | 852508 | 2 }}
| 221
| {{Percentage | 221 | 852508 | 2 }}
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 852508 | 2 }}
! 852,508
! {{Percentage | 852508 | 852508 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Gurgaon district]]
| 285,992
| {{Percentage | 285992 | 851458 | 2 }}
| 560,537
| {{Percentage | 560537 | 851458 | 2 }}
| 637
| {{Percentage | 637 | 851458 | 2 }}
| 1,673
| {{Percentage | 1673 | 851458 | 2 }}
| 2,613
| {{Percentage | 2613 | 851458 | 2 }}
| 6
| {{Percentage | 6 | 851458 | 2 }}
! 851,458
! {{Percentage | 851458 | 851458 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Ambala district]]
| 268,999
| {{Percentage | 268999 | 847745 | 2 }}
| 412,658
| {{Percentage | 412658 | 847745 | 2 }}
| 156,543
| {{Percentage | 156543 | 847745 | 2 }}
| 6,065
| {{Percentage | 6065 | 847745 | 2 }}
| 3,065
| {{Percentage | 3065 | 847745 | 2 }}
| 415
| {{Percentage | 415 | 847745 | 2 }}
! 847,745
! {{Percentage | 847745 | 847745 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jhang District]]
| 678,736
| {{Percentage | 678736 | 821631 | 2 }}
| 129,889
| {{Percentage | 129889 | 821631 | 2 }}
| 12,238
| {{Percentage | 12238 | 821631 | 2 }}
| 763
| {{Percentage | 763 | 821631 | 2 }}
| 5
| {{Percentage | 5 | 821631 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 821631 | 2 }}
! 821,631
! {{Percentage | 821631 | 821631 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Ludhiana district]]
| 302,482
| {{Percentage | 302482 | 818615 | 2 }}
| 171,715
| {{Percentage | 171715 | 818615 | 2 }}
| 341,175
| {{Percentage | 341175 | 818615 | 2 }}
| 1,913
| {{Percentage | 1913 | 818615 | 2 }}
| 1,279
| {{Percentage | 1279 | 818615 | 2 }}
| 51
| {{Percentage | 51 | 818615 | 2 }}
! 818,615
! {{Percentage | 818615 | 818615 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Rawalpindi District]]
| 628,193
| {{Percentage | 628193 | 785231 | 2 }}
| 82,478
| {{Percentage | 82478 | 785231 | 2 }}
| 64,127
| {{Percentage | 64127 | 785231 | 2 }}
| 9,014
| {{Percentage | 9014 | 785231 | 2 }}
| 1,337
| {{Percentage | 1337 | 785231 | 2 }}
| 82
| {{Percentage | 82 | 785231 | 2 }}
! 785,231
! {{Percentage | 785231 | 785231 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Muzaffargarh District]]
| 616,074
| {{Percentage | 616074 | 712849 | 2 }}
| 90,643
| {{Percentage | 90643 | 712849 | 2 }}
| 5,882
| {{Percentage | 5882 | 712849 | 2 }}
| 227
| {{Percentage | 227 | 712849 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 712849 | 2 }}
| 23
| {{Percentage | 23 | 712849 | 2 }}
! 712,849
! {{Percentage | 712849 | 712849 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Attock District]]
| 611,128
| {{Percentage | 611128 | 675875 | 2 }}
| 43,209
| {{Percentage | 43209 | 675875 | 2 }}
| 20,120
| {{Percentage | 20120 | 675875 | 2 }}
| 1,392
| {{Percentage | 1392 | 675875 | 2 }}
| 13
| {{Percentage | 13 | 675875 | 2 }}
| 13
| {{Percentage | 13 | 675875 | 2 }}
! 675,875
! {{Percentage | 675875 | 675875 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jhelum District]]
| 563,033
| {{Percentage | 563033 | 629658 | 2 }}
| 40,888
| {{Percentage | 40888 | 629658 | 2 }}
| 24,680
| {{Percentage | 24680 | 629658 | 2 }}
| 893
| {{Percentage | 893 | 629658 | 2 }}
| 159
| {{Percentage | 159 | 629658 | 2 }}
| 5
| {{Percentage | 5 | 629658 | 2 }}
! 629,658
! {{Percentage | 629658 | 629658 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Dera Ghazi Khan District]]
| 512,678
| {{Percentage | 512678 | 581350 | 2 }}
| 67,407
| {{Percentage | 67407 | 581350 | 2 }}
| 1,072
| {{Percentage | 1072 | 581350 | 2 }}
| 87
| {{Percentage | 87 | 581350 | 2 }}
| 106
| {{Percentage | 106 | 581350 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 581350 | 2 }}
! 581,350
! {{Percentage | 581350 | 581350 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Mianwali District]]
| 436,260
| {{Percentage | 436260 | 506321 | 2 }}
| 62,814
| {{Percentage | 62814 | 506321 | 2 }}
| 6,865
| {{Percentage | 6865 | 506321 | 2 }}
| 358
| {{Percentage | 358 | 506321 | 2 }}
| 23
| {{Percentage | 23 | 506321 | 2 }}
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 506321 | 2 }}
! 506,321
! {{Percentage | 506321 | 506321 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Kapurthala State]]
| 213,754
| {{Percentage | 213754 | 378380 | 2 }}
| 61,546
| {{Percentage | 61546 | 378380 | 2 }}
| 88,350
| {{Percentage | 88350 | 378380 | 2 }}
| 1,667
| {{Percentage | 1667 | 378380 | 2 }}
| 380
| {{Percentage | 380 | 378380 | 2 }}
| 12,683
| {{Percentage | 12683 | 378380 | 2 }}
! 378,380
! {{Percentage | 378380 | 378380 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jind State]]
| 50,972
| {{Percentage | 50972 | 361812 | 2 }}
| 268,355
| {{Percentage | 268355 | 361812 | 2 }}
| 40,981
| {{Percentage | 40981 | 361812 | 2 }}
| 161
| {{Percentage | 161 | 361812 | 2 }}
| 1,294
| {{Percentage | 1294 | 361812 | 2 }}
| 49
| {{Percentage | 49 | 361812 | 2 }}
! 361,812
! {{Percentage | 361812 | 361812 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Nabha State]]
| 70,373
| {{Percentage | 70373 | 344044 | 2 }}
| 146,518
| {{Percentage | 146518 | 344044 | 2 }}
| 122,451
| {{Percentage | 122451 | 344044 | 2 }}
| 221
| {{Percentage | 221 | 344044 | 2 }}
| 480
| {{Percentage | 480 | 344044 | 2 }}
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 344044 | 2 }}
! 344,044
! {{Percentage | 344044 | 344044 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Shakargarh Tehsil]]{{efn|name=Shakargarh1947|Part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]] which was awarded to Pakistan as part of the [[Radcliffe Line]].}}
| 149,600
| {{Percentage | 149600 | 291505 | 2 }}
| 116,553
| {{Percentage | 116553 | 291505 | 2 }}
| 20,573
| {{Percentage | 20573 | 291505 | 2 }}
| 4,779
| {{Percentage | 4779 | 291505 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 291505 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 291505 | 2 }}
! 291,505
! {{Percentage | 291505 | 291505 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Faridkot State]]
| 61,352
| {{Percentage | 61352 | 199283 | 2 }}
| 21,814
| {{Percentage | 21814 | 199283 | 2 }}
| 115,070
| {{Percentage | 115070 | 199283 | 2 }}
| 247
| {{Percentage | 247 | 199283 | 2 }}
| 800
| {{Percentage | 800 | 199283 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 199283 | 2 }}
! 199,283
! {{Percentage | 199283 | 199283 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Malerkotla State]]
| 33,881
| {{Percentage | 33881 | 88109 | 2 }}
| 23,482
| {{Percentage | 23482 | 88109 | 2 }}
| 30,320
| {{Percentage | 30320 | 88109 | 2 }}
| 116
| {{Percentage | 116 | 88109 | 2 }}
| 310
| {{Percentage | 310 | 88109 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 88109 | 2 }}
! 88,109
! {{Percentage | 88109 | 88109 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Kalsia State]]
| 25,049
| {{Percentage | 25049 | 67393 | 2 }}
| 29,866
| {{Percentage | 29866 | 67393 | 2 }}
| 12,235
| {{Percentage | 12235 | 67393 | 2 }}
| 55
| {{Percentage | 55 | 67393 | 2 }}
| 188
| {{Percentage | 188 | 67393 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 67393 | 2 }}
! 67,393
! {{Percentage | 67393 | 67393 | 2 }}
|-
| Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract
| 40,084
| {{Percentage | 40084 | 40246 | 2 }}
| 160
| {{Percentage | 160 | 40246 | 2 }}
| 2
| {{Percentage | 2 | 40246 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 40246 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 40246 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 40246 | 2 }}
! 40,246
! {{Percentage | 40246 | 40246 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Simla District]]
| 7,022
| {{Percentage | 7022 | 38576 | 2 }}
| 29,466
| {{Percentage | 29466 | 38576 | 2 }}
| 1,032
| {{Percentage | 1032 | 38576 | 2 }}
| 934
| {{Percentage | 934 | 38576 | 2 }}
| 114
| {{Percentage | 114 | 38576 | 2 }}
| 8
| {{Percentage | 8 | 38576 | 2 }}
! 38,576
! {{Percentage | 38576 | 38576 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Dujana|Dujana State]]
| 6,939
| {{Percentage | 6939 | 30666 | 2 }}
| 23,727
| {{Percentage | 23727 | 30666 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 30666 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 30666 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 30666 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 30666 | 2 }}
! 30,666
! {{Percentage | 30666 | 30666 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Loharu State]]
| 3,960
| {{Percentage | 3960 | 27892 | 2 }}
| 23,923
| {{Percentage | 23923 | 27892 | 2 }}
| 7
| {{Percentage | 7 | 27892 | 2 }}
| 2
| {{Percentage | 2 | 27892 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 27892 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 27892 | 2 }}
! 27,892
! {{Percentage | 27892 | 27892 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Pataudi State]]
| 3,655
| {{Percentage | 3655 | 21520 | 2 }}
| 17,728
| {{Percentage | 17728 | 21520 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 21520 | 2 }}
| 9
| {{Percentage | 9 | 21520 | 2 }}
| 128
| {{Percentage | 128 | 21520 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 21520 | 2 }}
! 21,520
! {{Percentage | 21520 | 21520 | 2 }}
|- class="sortbottom"
!Total
!18,259,744
!{{Percentage | 18259744 | 34309861 | 2 }}
!10,336,549
!{{Percentage | 10336549 | 34309861 | 2 }}
!5,116,185
!{{Percentage | 5116185 | 34309861 | 2 }}
!512,466
!{{Percentage | 512466 | 34309861 | 2 }}
!45,475
!{{Percentage | 45475 | 34309861 | 2 }}
!39,442
!{{Percentage | 39442 | 34309861 | 2 }}
!34,309,861
!{{Percentage | 34309861 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="15" | {{small|Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh Union Territory]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Punjab, Pakistan]], and [[Islamabad Capital Territory]].}}
|}

==Language==
As with religion, Punjab was a linguistically eclectically diverse province and [[Punjab|region]]. In 1837, [[Persian language|Persian]] had been abolished as the official language of Company administration and replaced by local Indian vernacular languages. In the Sikh Empire, Persian continued to be the official state language.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goud and Mookherjee |first1=R. Sidda and Manisha |title=India and Iran in Contemporary Relations |date=20 April 2014 |publisher=Allied Publishers |isbn=978-8184249095 |page=64}}</ref> Shortly after annexing the Punjab in 1849, the Board of Administration canvassed local officials in each of the provinces's six divisions to decide which language was "best suited for the Courts and Public Business".<ref name="Mir (2010)">{{cite book |last1=Mir |first1=Farina |title=The Social Space of Language: Vernacular Culture in British Colonial Punjab |date=2010 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520262690 |pages=35–50 |ref=Mir (2010)}}</ref> Officials in the western divisions recommended Persian whilst eastern officials suggested a shift to Urdu.<ref name="Mir (2010)"/> In September 1849 a two-language policy was instituted throughout the province. The language policy in the Punjab differed from other Indian provinces in that Urdu was not a widespread local vernacular. In 1849 John Lawrence noted "that Urdu is not the language of these districts and neither is Persian".<ref name="Mir (2010)"/>

In 1854, the Board of Administration abruptly ended the two-language policy and Urdu was designated as the official language of government across the province. The decision was motivated by new civil service rules requiring all officials pass a test in the official language of their local court. In fear of potentially losing their jobs, officials in Persian districts petitioned the board to replace Persian with Urdu, believing Urdu the easier language to master.<ref name="University of California Press">{{cite book |last1=Mir |first1=Farina |title=The Social Space of Language: Vernacular Culture in British Colonial Punjab |date=2010 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520262690 |pages=37–50}}</ref> Urdu remained the official administrative language until 1947.

Officials, although aware that Punjabi was the colloquial language of the majority, instead favoured the use of Urdu for a number of reasons. Criticism of Punjabi included the belief that it was simply a form of [[patois]], lacking any form of standardisation, and that "would be inflexible and barren, and incapable of expressing nice shades of meaning and exact logical ideas with the precision so essential in local proceedings."<ref name="University of California Press"/> Similar arguments had earlier been made about [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Odia language|Oriya]] and [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]; however, those languages were later adopted for local administration. Instead it is believed the advantages of Urdu served the administration greater. Urdu, and initially Persian, allowed the Company to recruit experienced administrators from elsewhere in India who did not speak Punjabi, to facilitate greater integration with other Indian territories which were administered with Urdu, and to help foster ties with local elites who spoke Persian and Urdu and could act as intermediaries with the wider populace.<ref name="University of California Press"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Language in Punjab Province (1881–1931)
! rowspan="2" |[[Mother tongue]]
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881"/><ref name="Census1881B"/>{{rp|168}}<ref name="Census1881C"/>{{rp|122}}{{efn|name=Delhi}}{{efn|name=NWFP}}
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931"/>{{rp|266}}
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Punjabi dialects and languages|Punjabi]]
| 14,895,747{{efn|[[Standard Punjabi]]: 13,266,525 [[Lahnda]]: 1,513,778 Other: 115,444}}
| {{Percentage | 14895747 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 21,893,702{{efn|[[Standard Punjabi]]: 14,515,090 [[Lahnda]]: 7,378,252 Other: 360}}
| {{Percentage | 21893702 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]
| 4,193,440
| {{Percentage | 4193440 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 3,988,023
| {{Percentage | 3988023 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Northern Indo-Aryan languages|Pahari]]
| 1,378,512
| {{Percentage | 1378512 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 1,699,152
| {{Percentage | 1699152 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]]
| 116,721
| {{Percentage | 116721 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 618,396
| {{Percentage | 618396 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]
| 45,797
| {{Percentage | 45797 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 21,822
| {{Percentage | 21822 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Pashto]]
| 32,974
| {{Percentage | 32974 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 92,554
| {{Percentage | 92554 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]]
| 27,474
| {{Percentage | 27474 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 62,703
| {{Percentage | 62703 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Balochi language|Balochi]]
| 23,238
| {{Percentage | 23238 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 60,985
| {{Percentage | 60985 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[English language|English]]
| 23,026
| {{Percentage | 23026 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 26,204
| {{Percentage | 26204 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]
| 4,924
| {{Percentage | 4924 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 11,581
| {{Percentage | 11581 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| 2,681
| {{Percentage | 2681 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 2,667
| {{Percentage | 2667 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Persian language|Persian]]
| 2,117
| {{Percentage | 2117 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 4,000
| {{Percentage | 4000 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] & [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| 621
| {{Percentage | 621 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 3,494
| {{Percentage | 3494 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]
| 245
| {{Percentage | 245 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 976
| {{Percentage | 976 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Arabic]] & [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
| 234
| {{Percentage | 234 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 675
| {{Percentage | 675 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! Others
| 681
| {{Percentage | 681 | 20748432 | 2 }}
| 3,923
| {{Percentage | 3923 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population
! 20,748,432
! {{Percentage | 20748432 | 20748432 | 2 }}
! 28,490,857
! {{Percentage | 28490857 | 28490857 | 2 }}
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="15" | {{small|Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh Union Territory]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[National Capital Territory of Delhi]] (until 1911), [[Punjab, Pakistan]], and [[Islamabad Capital Territory]].}}
|}

=== 1931 census ===
According to the 1931 Census of British Punjab Province, [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] was the most widely spoken language, with '''50.94%''' of the population reporting it, and '''50.49%''' declaring it as their mother tongue (MT). [[Lahnda]] followed with '''25.90%''' total speakers ('''25.66%''' MT), and [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] accounted for '''14.00%''' ('''13.75%''' MT). Other languages included [[Western Pahari]] ('''5.93%'''), [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]] ('''2.15%'''), [[Pashto]] ('''0.32%'''), Balochi ('''0.21%'''), and [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] ('''0.08%'''). Additionally, '''0.47%''' of the population spoke languages categorized as 'Others'. The table below presents the full linguistic distribution, including both total speakers and those who reported each [[language]] as their [[mother tongue]].

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Mother Tongue Language Statistics from 1931 Census of Punjab Province<ref name="census-source">Source: Page 284, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56041 Census of India 1931, Volume XVII: Punjab, Part I & II - Report and Statistical Tables], Published by the Government of India, Census Commissioner's Office; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793222?searchText=1931+census&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3D1931%2Bcensus%26so%3Drel&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3A5c54b3a3a539b8fd6e54b368a65e7260&seq=1 Census of India 1931: Punjab - Mother Tongue Statistics], Available at JSTOR</ref>
|-
! District or State
! colspan="2" | [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
! colspan="2" | [[Lahnda language|Lahnda]]
! colspan="2" | [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]
! colspan="2" | [[Western Pahari languages|Western Pahadi]]
! colspan="2" | [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]]
! colspan="2" | Others<ref group="lower-alpha" name="a">Includes [[Pashto language|Pashto]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], and other languages.</ref>

|-
!
! Total
! MT only
! Total
! MT only
! Total
! MT only
! Total
! MT only
! Total
! MT only
! Total
! MT only
|-
| '''Punjab''' || '''50.94%'''|| '''50.49%'''|| '''25.90%'''|| '''25.66%'''|| '''14.00%'''|| '''13.75%'''|| '''5.93%'''|| '''5.90%'''|| '''2.15%'''|| '''2.10%'''|| '''1.08%'''|| '''2.10%'''
|-
| Indo-Gangetic Plain West || 66.97% || 66.16% || 2.00% || 2.00% || 25.91% || 25.50% || 0.31% || 0.30% || 4.43% || 4.35% || 0.38% || 1.69%
|-
| [[Hissar district|Hissar]] || 24.43% || 24.36% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 54.01% || 53.98% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 21.54% || 21.17% || 0.02% || 0.49%
|-
| [[Loharu State]] || 0.07% || 0.02% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 99.92% || 99.92% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.01% || 0.06%
|-
| [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]] || 0.07% || 0.03% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 99.91% || 99.91% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.02% || 0.06%
|-
| [[Dujana|Dujana State]] || 0.05% || 0.05% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 99.93% || 99.93% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.02% || 0.02%
|-
| [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]] || 0.12% || 0.03% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 78.25% || 78.25% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 21.39% || 21.58% || 0.24% || 0.14%
|-
| [[Pataudi State]] || 0.01% || 0.01% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 99.98% || 99.98% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.01% || 0.01%
|-
| [[Karnal district|Karnal]] || 1.95% || 1.79% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 98.03% || 98.01% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.04% || 0.20%
|-
| [[Jullundur district|Jullundur]] || 99.55% || 99.45% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.27% || 0.18% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.18% || 0.37%
|-
| [[Kapurthala State]] || 99.84% || 99.71% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.14% || 0.13% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.02% || 0.16%
|-
| [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]] || 97.80% || 96.32% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 1.82% || 1.54% || 0.01% || 0.01% || 0.02% || 0.02% || 0.35% || 2.11%
|-
| [[Malerkotla State|Maler Kotla State]] || 99.67% || 99.63% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.32% || 0.19% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.01% || 0.18%
|-
| [[Firozpur district|Ferozepore]] || 90.29% || 90.19% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 4.04% || 3.80% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 5.28% || 5.12% || 0.39% || 0.89%
|-
| [[Faridkot State]] || 94.95% || 94.68% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 2.90% || 1.33% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.35% || 0.14% || 1.80% || 3.85%
|-
| [[Patiala State]] || 85.29% || 84.57% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 2.94% || 2.61% || 2.36% || 2.33% || 9.39% || 9.19% || 0.02% || 1.30%
|-
| [[Jind State]] || 20.54% || 20.47% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 79.35% || 79.12% || 0.01% || 0.01% || 0.07% || 0.07% || 0.03% || 0.33%
|-
| [[Nabha State]] || 70.89% || 70.89% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 29.03% || 28.54% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.07% || 0.07% || 0.01% || 0.50%
|-
| [[Lahore district|Lahore]] || 92.02% || 86.72% || 0.03% || 0.01% || 6.13% || 3.93% || 0.05% || 0.02% || 0.06% || 0.04% || 1.71% || 9.28%
|-
| [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]] || 98.07% || 97.91% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 1.01% || 0.51% || 0.03% || 0.00% || 0.08% || 0.03% || 0.81% || 1.55%
|-
| [[Gujranwala district|Gujranwala]] || 78.23% || 78.16% || 21.23% || 21.23% || 0.27% || 0.16% || 0.02% || 0.00% || 0.01% || 0.01% || 0.24% || 0.44%
|-
| [[Sheikhupura district|Sheikhupura]] || 84.51% || 84.43% || 14.43% || 14.43% || 0.77% || 0.55% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.03% || 0.01% || 0.26% || 0.58%
|-
| [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] || 4.52% || 4.27% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 1.75% || 1.69% || 89.64% || 89.23% || 0.02% || 0.02% || 4.07% || 4.79%
|-
| [[Sirmoor State]] || 7.90% || 7.86% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 16.24% || 16.20% || 75.39% || 75.34% || 0.10% || 0.10% || 0.37% || 0.50%
|-
| [[Shimla|Simla]] || 14.45% || 10.25% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 14.74% || 12.46% || 61.42% || 52.10% || 0.11% || 0.05% || 9.28%<ref group="lower-alpha">Includes 3.09% Kashmiri speakers.</ref> || 25.04%<ref group="lower-alpha">Includes 0.89% Kashmiri speakers.</ref>
|-
| [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill states]] || 10.72% || 10.53% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.28% || 0.26% || 79.83% || 78.97% || 0.01% || 0.00% || 9.16% || 10.24%
|-
| [[Bilaspur State (princely state)|Bilaspur state]] || 10.69% || 10.68% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.02% || 0.02% || 89.28% || 89.28% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.01% || 0.02%
|-
| [[Kangra district|Kangra]] || 1.64% || 1.51% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.16% || 0.15% || 94.05% || 94.00% || 0.02% || 0.02% || 4.13% || 4.32%
|-
| [[Mandi State]] || 1.66% || 1.53% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.09% || 0.08% || 96.79% || 96.75% || 0.01% || 0.01% || 1.45% || 1.63%
|-
| [[Suket State]] || 1.33% || 1.27% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.02% || 0.01% || 98.44% || 98.43% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.21% || 0.29%
|-
| [[Chamba State]] || 1.47% || 0.73% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.03% || 0.03% || 95.77% || 95.39% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 2.73% || 3.85%
|-
| [[Sub-Himalayan]] || 61.37% || 61.07% || 29.26% || 29.20% || 8.53% || 8.41% || 0.07% || 0.04% || 0.02% || 0.01% || 0.75% || 1.27%
|-
| [[Ambala district|Ambala]] || 35.61% || 35.20% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 63.45% || 63.26% || 0.17% || 0.11% || 0.15% || 0.10% || 0.62% || 1.33%
|-
| [[Kalsia State]] || 17.63% || 17.58% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 82.21% || 82.18% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.04% || 0.04% || 0.12% || 0.20%
|-
| [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]] || 99.79% || 99.79% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.16% || 0.11% || 0.01% || 0.01% || 0.01% || 0.00% || 0.03% || 0.09%
|-
| [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] || 98.94% || 98.91% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.34% || 0.20% || 0.27% || 0.11% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.45% || 0.78%
|-
| [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]] || 99.46% || 99.45% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.19% || 0.15% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.01% || 0.01% || 0.34% || 0.39%
|-
| [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]] || 68.36% || 67.72% || 30.68% || 30.68% || 0.74% || 0.46% || 0.01% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.21% || 1.14%
|-
| [[Jhelum district|Jhelum]] || 10.86% || 9.63% || 88.05% || 88.05% || 0.27% || 0.17% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.82% || 2.15%
|-
| [[Rawalpindi district|Rawalpindi]] || 4.36% || 4.06% || 91.87% || 91.83% || 2.26% || 2.13% || 0.07% || 0.06% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 1.44% || 1.92%
|-
| [[Attock district|Attock]] || 2.02% || 1.81% || 93.71% || 93.17% || 0.28% || 0.23% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 3.99%<ref group="lower-alpha">Includes 3.88% Pashto speakers.</ref> || 4.79%<ref group="lower-alpha">Includes 3.01% Pashto speakers.</ref>
|-
| North-West Dry Area || 25.18% || 25.13% || 71.42% || 70.57% || 0.95% || 0.84% || 0.07% || 0.07% || 0.56% || 0.50% || 1.82% || 2.89%
|-
| [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]] || 42.97% || 42.89% || 53.55% || 53.51% || 1.73% || 1.56% || 0.45% || 0.44% || 0.62% || 0.59% || 0.68% || 1.01%
|-
| [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]] || 28.13% || 28.03% || 70.00% || 69.99% || 1.13% || 0.93% || 0.01% || 0.01% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.73% || 1.04%
|-
| [[Mianwali district|Mianwali]] || 1.78% || 1.62% || 91.36% || 90.96% || 0.11% || 0.08% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.01% || 0.00% || 6.74%<ref group="lower-alpha">Includes 6.68% Pashto speakers.</ref> || 7.34%<ref group="lower-alpha">Includes 6.12% Pashto speakers.</ref>
|-
| [[Faisalabad District|Lyallpur]] || 80.76% || 80.73% || 17.96% || 17.95% || 0.90% || 0.69% || 0.06% || 0.00% || 0.15% || 0.09% || 0.23% || 0.54%
|-
| [[Jhang district|Jhang]] || 4.90% || 4.89% || 94.85% || 94.85% || 0.08% || 0.07% || 0.03% || 0.03% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.14% || 0.16%
|-
| [[Multan district|Multan]] || 11.23% || 11.24% || 86.25% || 86.21% || 1.09% || 1.05% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.17% || 0.13% || 1.26% || 1.37%
|-
| [[Bahawalpur State]] || 7.53% || 7.46% || 86.32% || 86.12% || 1.77% || 1.62% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 3.12% || 2.79% || 1.26% || 1.86%
|-
| [[Muzaffargarh district|Muzaffargarh]] || 0.64% || 0.62% || 98.84% || 98.72% || 0.22% || 0.21% || 0.01% || 0.01% || 0.07% || 0.07% || 0.22% || 0.37%
|-
| [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]] || 0.48% || 0.48% || 87.75% || 76.54% || 0.02% || 0.01% || 0.00% || 0.00% || 0.03% || 0.02% || 11.72%<ref group="lower-alpha">Includes 11.02% Balochi speakers.</ref> || 22.95%<ref group="lower-alpha">Includes 9.11% Balochi speakers.</ref>
|-
| colspan="13" align="left" | ''Note: All district boundaries have seen many changes after 1947, so their boundaries are not the same as today.''
|}
'''Summary of the table above 1931 language census of Punjab''':
In pre-partition Punjab, the linguistic landscape was divided into major zones based on dominant languages and influence: '''Punjabi-Dominant Regions''': These districts were overwhelmingly Punjabi-speaking — [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], [[Kapurthala State]], [[Malerkotla]], [[Jalandhar district|Jullundur]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Faridkot State]], [[Firozpur district|Ferozepore]], [[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], and [[Nabha State]]. '''Punjabi with Lahnda Influence''': Districts where Punjabi was dominant but there was also significant Lahnda influence included [[Sheikhupura District|Shekhupura]], [[Faisalabad District|Lyallpur]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], and [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]].'''Lahnda with Punjabi Influence''': Regions like [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], and [[Sahiwal District|Montgomery]] were Lahnda-dominant but retained a strong influence of Punjabi.'''Lahnda-Dominant Regions''': These districts were primarily Lahnda-speaking — [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargarh]], [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Attock District|Attock]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]], [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur State]], and [[Multan District|Multan]]. And [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]], and [[Attock District|Attock]] showed a small influence of [[Pashto]] while [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]] had influence of [[Balochi language|Balochi]], especially in their western parts.'''Hill Regions''': The hill districts namely [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Shimla district|Simla]], and [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill states]] & other hill States with few part of [[Patiala State]](2.33%) specially its [[kandaghat]] tahsil were dominated by [[Western Pahari languages|Western Pahari]] speakers. while some part of [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill states]](10.72%) also have influence of [[Punjabi language|Punjabi.]] '''Hindustani and Rajasthani Zones''': In [[Ambala division|Ambala Division]], districts such as [[Delhi]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], and [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]] were primarily [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]- and [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]]-speaking. However, [[Ambala district|Ambala]] (35.6%) and [[Hisar district|Hissar]] (24.4%) had significant Punjabi-speaking populations with [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] and [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]] Majority. Additionally, the majority of [[Jind State]] and parts of [[Patiala State|Patiala]] and [[Nabha State]] that geographically surrounded the Ambala Division were linguistic enclaves of Hindustani and Rajasthani. A very small part of [[Firozpur district|Ferozepore]] had influence from [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] and [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]] languages.

=== 1911 census ===
As per the 1911 census, speakers of the [[Punjabi dialects and languages]], including [[standard Punjabi]] along with [[Lahnda]]{{efn|name=lahnda|Western Punjabi languages and dialects including [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]], [[Hindko]] and [[Pahari-Pothwari]], and other related languages or dialects}} formed just over three-quarters (75.93 per cent) of the total provincial population.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Language in Punjab Province by geographical division (1911 census)<ref name="punjab1911" />{{rp|370}}
! rowspan="2" | [[First language|Language]]
! colspan="1" |Total Punjab Province
! colspan="1" |Indo–Gangetic Plain West{{efn|name=IGPW|Districts: Hisar, Loharu State, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Delhi, Karnal, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Firozpur, Lahore, Amritsar, and Gujranwala. Princely States: Loharu, Dujana, Pataudi, Kapurthala, Malerkotla, Faridkot, Patiala, Jind, and Nabha}}
! colspan="1" |Himalayan{{efn|name=H|Districts: Simla and Kangra. Princely States: Nahan, Mandi, Suket, Chamba, and other Simla Hill States}}
! colspan="1" |Sub–Himalayan{{efn|name=SH|Districts: Ambala, Hoshiarpur, Gurdaspur, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, and Attock. Princely States: Kalsia}}
! colspan="1" |North–West Dry Area{{efn|name=NWDA|Districts: Montgomery, Shahpur, Mianwali, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, Muzaffargarh, and Dera Ghazi Khan. Princely States: Bahawalpur}}
|-
! %
! %
! %
! %
! %
|-
! [[Punjabi dialects and languages|Punjabi]]{{efn|[[Standard Punjabi]]: 58.34% [[Lahnda]]:{{efn|name=lahnda}} 17.59%}}
! 75.93%{{efn|[[Standard Punjabi]]: 58.34% [[Lahnda]]:{{efn|name=lahnda}} 17.59%}}
| 64.49%{{efn|[[Standard Punjabi]]: 63.49% [[Lahnda]]:{{efn|name=lahnda}} 1.0%}}
| 45.15%
| 88.77%{{efn|[[Standard Punjabi]]: 74.01% [[Lahnda]]:{{efn|name=lahnda}} 14.76%}}
| 96.45%{{efn|[[Lahnda]]:{{efn|name=lahnda}} 60.31% [[Standard Punjabi]]: 36.14%}}
|-
! [[Western Hindi]]{{efn|name=westernhindi|Including [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]]), [[Braj Bhasha]], [[Haryanvi language|Haryanvi]], and other related languages or dialects}}
! 15.82%
| 29.56%
| 1.39%
| 8.81%
| 0.56%
|-
! [[Western Pahari]]
! 4.11%
| 0.87%
| 50.22%
| 1.49%
| 0.01%
|-
! [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]]
! 3.0%
| 6.26%
| 0.02%
| 0.01%
| 0.62%
|-
! [[Balochi language|Balochi]]
! 0.29%
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 1.25%
|-
! [[Pashto]]
! 0.28%
| 0.07%
| 0.01%
| 0.5%
| 0.53%
|-
! [[English language|English]]
! 0.15%
| 0.11%
| 0.2%
| 0.3%
| 0.05%
|-
! Other
! 0.42%
| 0.13%
| 3.0%
| 0.12%
| 0.53%
|}

== Literacy==
'''Literacy Rate by Religious Community in Punjab Province 1941'''<ref>1941 Punjab Province Census p.g.65 - [https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.28215541 1941 Census of British india Punjab Province Jstor.com]</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Religion
!% Total Literacy
!% Total Male Literacy
!% Total Female Literacy
|-
|[[Jainism|Jains]]
|41.93%
|29.03%
|12.90%
|-
|[[Sikhs]]
|17.03%
|12.13%
|4.90%
|-
|[[Hindus]]
|16.35%
|11.89%
|4.46%
|-
|[[Christians]]
|7.76%
|4.69%
|3.07%
|-
|[[Muslims]]
|6.97%
|5.52%
|1.45%
|-
|Others
|7.62%
|6.85%
|0.77%
|-
!Total
|'''10.87%'''
|'''8.13%'''
|'''2.74%'''
|}

==Education==
In 1854, the Punjab education department was instituted with a policy to provide secular education in all government managed institutions.<ref name="autogenerated96">Robert Ivermee, Secularism, Islam and Education in India, 1830–1910, Routledge, 28 July 2015, p.96</ref> Privately run institutions would only receive grants-in-aid in return for providing secular instruction.<ref name="autogenerated96"/> By 1864 this had resulted in a situation whereby all grants-in-aid to higher education schools and colleges were received by institutions under European management, and no indigenous owned schools received government help.<ref name="autogenerated96"/>

In the early 1860s, a number of educational colleges were established, including [[Lawrence College, Murree]], [[King Edward Medical University]], [[Government College University (Lahore)|Government College, Lahore]],
[[Government Medical College, Amritsar|Glancy Medical College]] and [[Forman Christian College]]. In 1882, [[Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner]] published a damning report on the state of education in the Punjab. He lamented the failure to reconcile government run schools with traditional indigenous schools, and noted a steady decline in the number of schools across the province since annexation.<ref>Gottlieb William Leitner, History of indigenous education in the Punjab since annexation and in 1882, Republican Books, 1882</ref> He noted in particular how Punjabi Muslim's avoided government run schools due to the lack of religious subjects taught in them, observing how at least 120,000 Punjabis attended schools unsupported by the state and describing it as 'a protest by the people against our system of education.'<ref>Robert Ivermee, Secularism, Islam and Education in India, 1830–1910, Routledge, 28 July 2015, p.97</ref> Leitner had long advocated the benefits of oriental scholarship, and the fusion of government education with religious instruction. In January 1865 he had established the Anjuman-i-Punjab, a subscription based association aimed at using a European style of learning to promote useful knowledge, whilst also reviving traditional scholarship in [[Arabic]], [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Sanskrit]].<ref>Robert Ivermee, Secularism, Islam and Education in India, 1830–1910, Routledge, 28 July 2015, p.91</ref> In 1884, a reorganisation of the Punjab education system occurred, introducing measures tending towards decentralisation of control over education and the promotion of an indigenous education agency. As a consequence several new institutions were encouraged in the province. The [[Arya Samaj]] opened a college in Lahore in 1886, the Sikhs opened the [[Khalsa College, Amritsar|Khalsa College]] whilst the [[Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam]] stepped in to organise Muslim education.<ref>Robert Ivermee, Secularism, Islam and Education in India, 1830–1910, Routledge, 28 July 2015, p.105</ref> In 1886, the Punjab Chiefs' College, later renamed [[Aitchison College]], was opened to further the education of the elite classes.

==Tribes==
{{See also|List of Punjabi tribes}}
Punjab Province was diverse, with the main [[Caste system in India|castes]] represented alongside numerous subcastes and [[List of Scheduled Tribes in India|tribes]] (also known as ''[[Jāti]]'' or ''[[Baradari (brotherhood)|Barādarī]]''), forming parts of the various ethnic groups in the province, contemporarily known as [[Punjabis]], [[Saraiki people|Saraikis]], [[Haryanvi people|Haryanvis]], [[Hindkowans]], [[Dogras]], [[Pahari people (Kashmir)|Paharis]], [[Pahari people (Kashmir)|Potoharis]], [[Pahari people (Kashmir)|Himachalis]], [[Bagri people]] and other non related ethnicities were [[Kashmiris]], [[Balti people]], [[Ladakhi people]], [[Pashtuns]], [[Baloch people]], [[Marwaris]].
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Tribes of Punjab Province (1881–1931)<ref name="punjab1911"/>{{rp|478}}<ref name="punjab1921A">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430164 |jstor=saoa.crl.25430164 |access-date=26 March 2023|title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 15, Punjab and Delhi. Pt. 1, Report. |year=1921 |volume=15 }}</ref>{{rp|348}}<ref name="punjab1921B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430165 |jstor=saoa.crl.25430165 |access-date=26 March 2023|title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 15, Punjab and Delhi. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921 |volume=15 }}</ref>{{rp|193–254}}<ref name="punjab1931A">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793222 |jstor=saoa.crl.25793222 |access-date=21 March 2023|title=Census of India 1931. Vol. 17, Punjab. Pt. 1, Report. |year=1931 |volume=17 }}</ref>{{rp|367}}<ref name="punjab1931B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793242 |jstor=saoa.crl.25793242 |access-date=21 March 2023|title=Census of India 1931. Vol. 17, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1931 |volume=17 }}</ref>{{rp|281–309}}
! rowspan="2" |Tribe
! colspan="2" |1881
! colspan="2" |1891
! colspan="2" |1901
! colspan="2" |1911
! colspan="2" |1921
! colspan="2" |1931
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Jats|Jat]]
| 4,223,885
| {{Percentage | 4223885 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 4,500,340
| {{Percentage | 4500340 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 4,884,285
| {{Percentage | 4884285 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 4,891,060
| {{Percentage | 4891060 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 5,453,747
| {{Percentage | 5453747 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 6,070,032
| {{Percentage | 6070032 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Rajput]]
| 1,648,426
| {{Percentage | 1648426 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 1,747,989
| {{Percentage | 1747989 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 1,784,402
| {{Percentage | 1784402 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 1,586,274
| {{Percentage | 1586274 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 1,853,025
| {{Percentage | 1853025 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 2,792,060
| {{Percentage | 2792060 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Brahmin|Brahman]]
| 1,040,771
| {{Percentage | 1040771 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 1,069,132
| {{Percentage | 1069132 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 1,077,252
| {{Percentage | 1077252 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 985,901
| {{Percentage | 985901 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 994,529
| {{Percentage | 994529 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 1,058,598
| {{Percentage | 1058598 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Chuhra]]
| 1,039,039
| {{Percentage | 1039039 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 1,175,504
| {{Percentage | 1175504 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 1,175,003
| {{Percentage | 1175003 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 912,998
| {{Percentage | 912998 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 750,596
| {{Percentage | 750596 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 681,359
| {{Percentage | 681359 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Chamar]]
| 1,033,727
| {{Percentage | 1033727 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 1,147,913
| {{Percentage | 1147913 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 1,172,118
| {{Percentage | 1172118 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 1,075,941
| {{Percentage | 1075941 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 1,134,700
| {{Percentage | 1134700 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 1,102,465
| {{Percentage | 1102465 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Arain]]
| 795,471
| {{Percentage | 795471 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 890,264
| {{Percentage | 890264 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 1,003,698
| {{Percentage | 1003698 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 973,888
| {{Percentage | 973888 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 1,086,455
| {{Percentage | 1086455 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 1,331,295
| {{Percentage | 1331295 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Julaha]]
| 593,199
| {{Percentage | 593199 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 620,401
| {{Percentage | 620401 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 651,800
| {{Percentage | 651800 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 626,960
| {{Percentage | 626960 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 643,403
| {{Percentage | 643403 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 672,243
| {{Percentage | 672243 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Tarkhan (Punjab)|Tarkhan]]
| 564,385
| {{Percentage | 564385 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 621,718
| {{Percentage | 621718 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 675,361
| {{Percentage | 675361 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 637,971
| {{Percentage | 637971 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 614,912
| {{Percentage | 614912 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 654,053
| {{Percentage | 654053 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Gurjar|Gujjar]]
| 539,251
| {{Percentage | 539251 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 600,198
| {{Percentage | 600198 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 611,904
| {{Percentage | 611904 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 595,598
| {{Percentage | 595598 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 627,451
| {{Percentage | 627451 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 696,442
| {{Percentage | 696442 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Arora]]
| 538,465
| {{Percentage | 538465 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 603,131
| {{Percentage | 603131 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 647,945
| {{Percentage | 647945 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 667,943
| {{Percentage | 667943 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 707,495
| {{Percentage | 707495 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 775,734
| {{Percentage | 775734 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Kumhar]]
| 465,676
| {{Percentage | 465676 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 515,331
| {{Percentage | 515331 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 561,298
| {{Percentage | 561298 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 542,906
| {{Percentage | 542906 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 570,158
| {{Percentage | 570158 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 620,402
| {{Percentage | 620402 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Bania (caste)|Bania]]
| 437,000
| {{Percentage | 437000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 442,000
| {{Percentage | 442000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 452,000
| {{Percentage | 452000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 404,000
| {{Percentage | 404000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 374,169
| {{Percentage | 374169 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Jhinwar]]
| 418,499
| {{Percentage | 418499 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 458,702
| {{Percentage | 458702 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 450,362
| {{Percentage | 450362 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 331,951
| {{Percentage | 331951 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 371,418
| {{Percentage | 371418 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 281,512
| {{Percentage | 281512 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Khatri]]
| 392,413
| {{Percentage | 392413 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 418,517
| {{Percentage | 418517 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 433,579
| {{Percentage | 433579 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 423,704
| {{Percentage | 423704 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 452,902
| {{Percentage | 452902 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 516,207
| {{Percentage | 516207 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Awan (tribe)|Awan]]
| 350,848
| {{Percentage | 350848 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 389,402
| {{Percentage | 389402 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 420,504
| {{Percentage | 420504 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 425,450
| {{Percentage | 425450 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 439,975
| {{Percentage | 439975 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 539,242
| {{Percentage | 539242 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Kanet]]
| 346,000
| {{Percentage | 346000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 370,000
| {{Percentage | 370000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 390,000
| {{Percentage | 390000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 404,000
| {{Percentage | 404000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 288,159
| {{Percentage | 288159 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 305,814
| {{Percentage | 305814 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Mochi (disambiguation)#People|Mochi]]
| 334,034
| {{Percentage | 334034 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 384,179
| {{Percentage | 384179 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 408,314
| {{Percentage | 408314 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 410,977
| {{Percentage | 410977 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 429,242
| {{Percentage | 429242 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 472,616
| {{Percentage | 472616 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Baloch people in Punjab|Baloch]]
| 331,851
| {{Percentage | 331851 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 383,138
| {{Percentage | 383138 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 466,645
| {{Percentage | 466645 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 530,976
| {{Percentage | 530976 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 531,084
| {{Percentage | 531084 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 624,695
| {{Percentage | 624695 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Nai (caste)|Nai]]
| 323,703
| {{Percentage | 323703 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 371,144
| {{Percentage | 371144 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 370,019
| {{Percentage | 370019 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 344,845
| {{Percentage | 344845 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 360,653
| {{Percentage | 360653 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 380,657
| {{Percentage | 380657 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Shaikhs in South Asia|Sheikh]]
| 293,606
| {{Percentage | 293606 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 287,778
| {{Percentage | 287778 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 264,656
| {{Percentage | 264656 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 276,687
| {{Percentage | 276687 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 244,800
| {{Percentage | 244800 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 414,623
| {{Percentage | 414623 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Lohar (caste)|Lohar]]
| 291,506
| {{Percentage | 291506 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 323,420
| {{Percentage | 323420 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 347,099
| {{Percentage | 347099 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 319,847
| {{Percentage | 319847 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 322,195
| {{Percentage | 322195 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 333,910
| {{Percentage | 333910 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Teli]]
| 250,544
| {{Percentage | 250544 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 291,513
| {{Percentage | 291513 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 309,433
| {{Percentage | 309433 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 284,505
| {{Percentage | 284505 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 305,122
| {{Percentage | 305122 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 346,342
| {{Percentage | 346342 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Pathans of Punjab|Pathan]]
| 210,613
| {{Percentage | 210613 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 221,262
| {{Percentage | 221262 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 246,790
| {{Percentage | 246790 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 272,547
| {{Percentage | 272547 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 261,729
| {{Percentage | 261729 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 350,008
| {{Percentage | 350008 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sayyid#South Asia|Sayyid]]
| 200,728
| {{Percentage | 200728 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 217,034
| {{Percentage | 217034 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 230,802
| {{Percentage | 230802 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 239,160
| {{Percentage | 239160 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 247,087
| {{Percentage | 247087 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 294,223
| {{Percentage | 294223 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Mirasi]]
| 192,107
| {{Percentage | 192107 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 230,700
| {{Percentage | 230700 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 244,506
| {{Percentage | 244506 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 223,093
| {{Percentage | 223093 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 232,280
| {{Percentage | 232280 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 244,726
| {{Percentage | 244726 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Machiyar|Machhi]]
| 167,882
| {{Percentage | 167882 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 196,574
| {{Percentage | 196574 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 236,122
| {{Percentage | 236122 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 239,702
| {{Percentage | 239702 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 280,956
| {{Percentage | 280956 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 314,862
| {{Percentage | 314862 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Ahir]]
| 165,878
| {{Percentage | 165878 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 188,838
| {{Percentage | 188838 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 197,805
| {{Percentage | 197805 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 201,299
| {{Percentage | 201299 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 201,539
| {{Percentage | 201539 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 221,933
| {{Percentage | 221933 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Kashmiris in Punjab|Kashmiri]]
| 149,733
| {{Percentage | 149733 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 141,280
| {{Percentage | 141280 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 189,878
| {{Percentage | 189878 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 175,334
| {{Percentage | 175334 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 166,449
| {{Percentage | 166449 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 202,920
| {{Percentage | 202920 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Saini]]
| 147,183
| {{Percentage | 147183 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 120,507
| {{Percentage | 120507 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 121,722
| {{Percentage | 121722 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 107,759
| {{Percentage | 107759 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 120,376
| {{Percentage | 120376 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 165,190
| {{Percentage | 165190 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sunar]]
| 145,903
| {{Percentage | 145903 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 164,087
| {{Percentage | 164087 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 174,628
| {{Percentage | 174628 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 155,993
| {{Percentage | 155993 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 127,090
| {{Percentage | 127090 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 159,655
| {{Percentage | 159655 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Kamboj|Kamboh]]
| 129,468
| {{Percentage | 129468 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 150,646
| {{Percentage | 150646 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 173,780
| {{Percentage | 173780 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 171,536
| {{Percentage | 171536 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 180,870
| {{Percentage | 180870 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 239,582
| {{Percentage | 239582 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Dhobi]]
| 123,767
| {{Percentage | 123767 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 139,421
| {{Percentage | 139421 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 142,342
| {{Percentage | 142342 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 151,566
| {{Percentage | 151566 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 163,908
| {{Percentage | 163908 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 175,557
| {{Percentage | 175557 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Meo (ethnic group)|Meo]]
| 112,566
| {{Percentage | 112566 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 115,916
| {{Percentage | 115916 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 133,300
| {{Percentage | 133300 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 120,752
| {{Percentage | 120752 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 111,564
| {{Percentage | 111564 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 133,089
| {{Percentage | 133089 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Faqir (clan)|Faqir]]
| 111,995
| {{Percentage | 111995 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 300,214
| {{Percentage | 300214 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 362,266
| {{Percentage | 362266 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 262,511
| {{Percentage | 262511 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 270,070
| {{Percentage | 270070 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 287,445
| {{Percentage | 287445 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Ghirth|Ghirath]]
| 110,507
| {{Percentage | 110507 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 118,631
| {{Percentage | 118631 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 121,718
| {{Percentage | 121718 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 121,107
| {{Percentage | 121107 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 117,949
| {{Percentage | 117949 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 124,340
| {{Percentage | 124340 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Chhimba]]
| 100,448
| {{Percentage | 100448 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 141,819
| {{Percentage | 141819 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 147,152
| {{Percentage | 147152 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 124,090
| {{Percentage | 124090 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 120,695
| {{Percentage | 120695 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 96,269
| {{Percentage | 96269 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Qassab]]
| 92,571
| {{Percentage | 92571 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 109,435
| {{Percentage | 109435 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 114,158
| {{Percentage | 114158 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 117,363
| {{Percentage | 117363 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 120,820
| {{Percentage | 120820 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 127,198
| {{Percentage | 127198 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Rath tribe|Rathi]]
| 82,957
| {{Percentage | 82957 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 100,656
| {{Percentage | 100656 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 37,793
| {{Percentage | 37793 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 97,763
| {{Percentage | 97763 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 118,015
| {{Percentage | 118015 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 134,096
| {{Percentage | 134096 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! Dagi & [[Koli people|Koli]]
| 78,559
| {{Percentage | 78559 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 167,772
| {{Percentage | 167772 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 153,990
| {{Percentage | 153990 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 172,269
| {{Percentage | 172269 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 165,159
| {{Percentage | 165159 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 182,235
| {{Percentage | 182235 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Mughal people|Mughal]]
| 92,000
| {{Percentage | 92000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 118,000
| {{Percentage | 118000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 98,000
| {{Percentage | 98000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 99,000
| {{Percentage | 99000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 88,951
| {{Percentage | 88951 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Jogi (caste)|Jogi]]-[[Rawal (caste)|Rawal]]
| 90,000
| {{Percentage | 90000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 91,000
| {{Percentage | 91000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 76,000
| {{Percentage | 76000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 83,000
| {{Percentage | 83000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 80,577
| {{Percentage | 80577 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[List of Scheduled Castes|Dumna]]
| 66,169
| {{Percentage | 66169 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 64,046
| {{Percentage | 64046 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 53,394
| {{Percentage | 53394 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 72,250
| {{Percentage | 72250 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 36,669
| {{Percentage | 36669 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 37,541
| {{Percentage | 37541 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Dhanuk]]
| 66,000
| {{Percentage | 66000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 74,000
| {{Percentage | 74000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 77,000
| {{Percentage | 77000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 83,000
| {{Percentage | 83000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 87,278
| {{Percentage | 87278 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Dogar]]
| 63,000
| {{Percentage | 1881 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 70,000
| {{Percentage | 1891 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 75,000
| {{Percentage | 1901 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 68,000
| {{Percentage | 68000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 74,369
| {{Percentage | 74369 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Khoja]]
| 62,000
| {{Percentage | 62000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 90,000
| {{Percentage | 90000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 99,000
| {{Percentage | 99000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 63,000
| {{Percentage | 63000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 87,461
| {{Percentage | 87461 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Mallaah|Mallah]]
| 62,000
| {{Percentage | 62000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 77,000
| {{Percentage | 77000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 73,000
| {{Percentage | 73000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 78,000
| {{Percentage | 78000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 74,233
| {{Percentage | 74233 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Mali caste|Mali]]
| 58,672
| {{Percentage | 58672 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 95,989
| {{Percentage | 95989 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 105,956
| {{Percentage | 105956 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 96,883
| {{Percentage | 96883 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 92,933
| {{Percentage | 92933 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 85,758
| {{Percentage | 85758 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Bharai]]
| 56,000
| {{Percentage | 56000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 67,000
| {{Percentage | 67000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 66,000
| {{Percentage | 66000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 58,000
| {{Percentage | 58000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 61,721
| {{Percentage | 61721 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! Barwala
| 55,000
| {{Percentage | 55000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 64,000
| {{Percentage | 64000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 69,000
| {{Percentage | 69000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 64,000
| {{Percentage | 64000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 65,907
| {{Percentage | 65907 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Mahtam]]
| 50,313
| {{Percentage | 50313 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 56,982
| {{Percentage | 56982 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 82,719
| {{Percentage | 82719 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 81,805
| {{Percentage | 81805 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 94,325
| {{Percentage | 94325 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 65,262
| {{Percentage | 65262 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Labana]]
| 47,000
| {{Percentage | 47000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 55,000
| {{Percentage | 55000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 56,000
| {{Percentage | 56000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 58,000
| {{Percentage | 58000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 56,316
| {{Percentage | 56316 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Meghwal|Megh]]
| 37,373
| {{Percentage | 37373 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 41,068
| {{Percentage | 41068 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 44,315
| {{Percentage | 44315 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 39,549
| {{Percentage | 39549 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 30,465
| {{Percentage | 30465 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 23,207
| {{Percentage | 23207 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Khokhar]]
| 36,000
| {{Percentage | 36000 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 130,000
| {{Percentage | 130000 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 108,000
| {{Percentage | 108000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 60,000
| {{Percentage | 60000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 69,169
| {{Percentage | 69169 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Darzi]]
| 30,190
| {{Percentage | 30190 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 36,919
| {{Percentage | 36919 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 39,164
| {{Percentage | 39164 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 35,508
| {{Percentage | 35508 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 38,256
| {{Percentage | 38256 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 45,688
| {{Percentage | 45688 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Bawaria]]
| 22,013
| {{Percentage | 22013 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 26,420
| {{Percentage | 26420 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 29,112
| {{Percentage | 29112 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 32,849
| {{Percentage | 32849 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 34,807
| {{Percentage | 34807 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 32,527
| {{Percentage | 32527 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sansi people|Sansi]]
| 19,920
| {{Percentage | 19920 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 22,218
| {{Percentage | 22218 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 26,000
| {{Percentage | 26000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 24,439
| {{Percentage | 24439 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 17,402
| {{Percentage | 17402 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 165,190
| {{Percentage | 165190 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Orh|Od]]
| 15,652
| {{Percentage | 15652 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 22,450
| {{Percentage | 22450 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 26,160
| {{Percentage | 26160 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 31,690
| {{Percentage | 31690 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 28,502
| {{Percentage | 28502 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 32,719
| {{Percentage | 32719 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Saryara|Sarera]]
| 10,792
| {{Percentage | 10792 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 11,366
| {{Percentage | 11366 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 9,587
| {{Percentage | 9587 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 10,743
| {{Percentage | 10743 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 9,873
| {{Percentage | 9873 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 11,230
| {{Percentage | 11230 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! Pakhiwara
| 3,741
| {{Percentage | 3741 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 3,674
| {{Percentage | 3674 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 3,595
| {{Percentage | 3595 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 3,711
| {{Percentage | 3711 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 2,801
| {{Percentage | 2801 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 4,540
| {{Percentage | 4540 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Ghosi tribe|Ghosi]]
| 2,221
| {{Percentage | 2221 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 2,652
| {{Percentage | 2652 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 3,012
| {{Percentage | 3012 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 2,419
| {{Percentage | 2419 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 502
| {{Percentage | 502 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 3,853
| {{Percentage | 3853 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Harni]]
| 1,318
| {{Percentage | 1318 | 20800995 | 2 }}
| 4,157
| {{Percentage | 4157 | 22915894 | 2 }}
| 3,462
| {{Percentage | 3462 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 3,360
| {{Percentage | 3360 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 2,988
| {{Percentage | 2988 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 3,928
| {{Percentage | 3928 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Maliar]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 81,000
| {{Percentage | 81000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 90,000
| {{Percentage | 90000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 88,755
| {{Percentage | 88755 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Chuhra#In Islam|Mussalli]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 57,367
| {{Percentage | 57367 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 309,543
| {{Percentage | 309543 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 323,549
| {{Percentage | 323549 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 412,300
| {{Percentage | 412300 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Qureshi]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 53,000
| {{Percentage | 53000 | 24367113 | 2 }}
| 71,000
| {{Percentage | 71000 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 97,625
| {{Percentage | 97625 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
! [[Agrawal|Aggarwal]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 339,494
| {{Percentage | 339494 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 349,322
| {{Percentage | 349322 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 379,068
| {{Percentage | 379068 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! Bagaria
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 1,262
| {{Percentage | 1262 | 23791841 | 2 }}
| 1,619
| {{Percentage | 1619 | 25101514 | 2 }}
| 2,446
| {{Percentage | 2446 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Ramdasia]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 126,487
| {{Percentage | 126487 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Kahar]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 88,656
| {{Percentage | 88656 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! Tank Kshatrya
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 37,376
| {{Percentage | 37376 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! Dhiman Brahman
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 13,533
| {{Percentage | 13533 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! No tribe
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 6,816
| {{Percentage | 6816 | 25569792 | 2 }}
|-
! Total responses
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! {{N/a}}
! 25,569,792
! {{Percentage | 25569792 | 28490869 | 2 }}
|- class="sortbottom"
! Total population
! 20,800,995
! {{Percentage | 20800995 | 20800995 | 2 }}
! 22,915,894
! {{Percentage | 22915894 | 22915894 | 2 }}
! 24,367,113
! {{Percentage | 24367113 | 24367113 | 2 }}
! 23,791,841
! {{Percentage | 23791841 | 23791841 | 2 }}
! 25,101,514
! {{Percentage | 25101514 | 25101514 | 2 }}
! 28,490,869
! {{Percentage | 28490869 | 28490869 | 2 }}
|}

==Agriculture==
Within a few years of its annexation, the Punjab was regarded as British India's model agricultural province. From the 1860s onwards, agricultural prices and land values soared in the Punjab. This stemmed from increasing political security and improvements in infrastructure and communications. New cash crops such as [[wheat]], [[tobacco]], [[sugar cane]] and [[cotton]] were introduced. By the 1920s the Punjab produced a tenth of India's total cotton crop and a third of its wheat crop. Per capita output of all the crops in the province increased by approximately 45 percent between 1891 and 1921, a growth contrasting to agricultural crises in Bengal, [[Bihar]] and [[Orissa]] during the period.<ref name="talbot2007">{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Punjab Studies |volume=14 |issue=1 |first=Ian A. |last=Talbot |title=Punjab Under Colonialism: Order and Transformation in British India |pages=3–10 |date=2007 |url=http://www.global.ucsb.edu/punjab/sites/secure.lsit.ucsb.edu.gisp.d7_sp/files/sitefiles/journals/volume14/no1/14.1_Talbot.pdf |access-date=8 February 2018 |archive-date=9 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209063024/http://www.global.ucsb.edu/punjab/sites/secure.lsit.ucsb.edu.gisp.d7_sp/files/sitefiles/journals/volume14/no1/14.1_Talbot.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[University of Agriculture Faisalabad|Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute]] became the first higher educational agricultural institution in the Punjab when established in 1906. Rapid agricultural growth, combined with access to easy credit for landowners, led to a growing crisis of indebtedness.<ref name="autogenerated1">Islam, M. Mufakharul. "The Punjab Land Alienation Act and the Professional Moneylenders." Modern Asian Studies 29, no. 2</ref> When landowners were unable to pay down their loans, urban based moneylenders took advantage of the law to foreclose debts of mortgaged land.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> This led to a situation where land increasingly passed to absentee moneylenders who had little connection to the villages were the land was located. The colonial government recognised this as a potential threat to the stability of the province, and a split emerged in the government between paternalists who favoured intervention to ensure order, and those who opposed state intervention in private property relations.<ref name="talbot2007"/> The paternalists emerged victorious and the [[Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900]] prevented urban commercial castes, who were overwhelmingly Hindu, from permanently acquiring land from statutory agriculturalist tribes, who were mainly Muslim and Sikh.<ref>Robert W. Stern, Democracy and Dictatorship in South Asia, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, p.53</ref>

Accompanied by the increasing franchise of the rural population, this interventionist approach led to a long lasting impact on the political landscape of the province. The agricultural lobby remained loyal to the government, and rejected communalism in common defence of its privileges against urban moneylenders.<ref name="talbot2007"/> This position was entrenched by the Unionist Party. The Congress Party's opposition to the Act led to it being marginalised in the Punjab, reducing its influence more so than in any other province, and inhibiting its ability to challenge colonial rule locally. The political dominance of the Unionist Party would remain until partition, and significantly it was only on the collapse of its power on the eve of independence from Britain, that communal violence began to spread in rural Punjab.<ref name="talbot2007"/>

==Army==
In the immediate aftermath of annexation, the [[Sikh Khalsa Army]] was disbanded, and soldiers were required to surrender their weapons and return to agricultural or other pursuits.<ref name="autogenerated77"/> The [[Bengal Army]], keen to utilise the highly trained ex-Khalsa army troops began to recruit from the Punjab for Bengal infantry units stationed in the province. However opposition to the recruitment of these soldiers spread and resentment emerged from sepoys of the Bengal Army towards the incursion of Punjabis into their ranks. In 1851, the [[Punjab Irregular Force]] also known as the 'Piffars' was raised. Initially they consisted of one garrison and four mule batteries, four regiments of cavalry, eleven of infantry and the [[Corps of Guides (India)|Corps of Guides]], totalling approximately 13,000 men.<ref name="autogenerated293">Septimus Smet Thorburn, The Punjab in Peace and War, William Blackwood and Sons (1904), p.293</ref> The gunners and infantry were mostly Punjabi, many from the Khalsa Army, whilst the cavalry had a considerable Hindustani presence.<ref name="autogenerated293"/>

During the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], eighteen new regiments were raised from the Punjab which remained loyal to the East India Company throughout the crisis in the Punjab and United Provinces.<ref>Harsh V. Pant, Handbook of Indian Defence Policy: Themes, Structures and Doctrines, Routledge, 6 October 2015, p.18</ref> By June 1858, of the 80,000 native troops in the Bengal Army, 75,000 were Punjabi of which 23,000 were Sikh.<ref name="autogenerated2003">Rajit K. Mazumder, The Indian Army and the Making of Punjab, Orient Blackswan, 2003, p.3</ref> In the aftermath of the rebellion, a thorough re-organisation of the army took place. Henceforth recruitment into the [[British Indian Army]] was restricted to loyal peoples and provinces. Punjabi Sikhs emerged as a particularly favoured martial race to serve the army.<ref name="autogenerated69">Robin Cohen, The Cambridge Survey of World Migration - "Darshan Singh Tatla - Sikh free and military migration during the colonial period", Cambridge University Press, 2 November 1995, p.69</ref> In the midst of [[The Great Game]], and fearful of a Russian invasion of British India, the Punjab was regarded of significant strategic importance as a frontier province. In addition to their loyalty and a belief in their suitability to serve in harsh conditions, Punjabi recruits were favoured as they could be paid at the local service rate, whereas soldiers serving on the frontier from more distant lands had to be paid extra foreign service allowances.<ref>Ian Talbot, British Rule in the Punjab, page 207</ref> By 1875, of the entire Indian army, a third of recruits hailed from the Punjab.<ref name="Ian Talbot 1988, page 41">Ian Talbot, Punjab and the Raj, 1988, page 41</ref>

In 1914, three fifths of the Indian army came from the Punjab, despite the region constituting approximately one tenth of the total population of British India.<ref name="Ian Talbot 1988, page 41"/> During the First World War, Punjabi Sikhs alone accounted for one quarter of all armed personnel in India.<ref name="autogenerated69"/> Military service provided access to the wider world, and personnel were deployed across the [[British Empire]] from [[British Malaya|Malaya]], the Mediterranean and [[Africa]].<ref name="autogenerated69"/> Upon completion of their terms of service, these personnel were often amongst the first to seek their fortunes abroad.<ref name="autogenerated69"/> At the outbreak of the Second World War, 48 percent of the Indian army came from the province.<ref>Kalim Siddiqui, Conflict, Crisis and War in Pakistan, Springer, 18 June 1972, p.92</ref> In Jhelum, Rawalpindi and Attock, the percentage of the total male population who enlisted reached fifteen percent.<ref name="Tan Tai Yong 1947, p.291">Tan Tai Yong, The Garrison State: Military, Government and Society in Colonial Punjab, 1849-1947, SAGE Publications India, 7 April 2005, p.291</ref> The Punjab continued to be the main supplier of troops throughout the war, contributing 36 percent of the total Indian troops who served in the conflict.<ref name="Tan Tai Yong 1947, p.291"/>

The huge proportion of Punjabis in the army meant that a significant amount of military expenditure went to Punjabis and in turn resulted in an abnormally high level of resource input in the Punjab.<ref name="autogenerated23">Rajit K. Mazumder, The Indian Army and the Making of Punjab, Orient Blackswan, 2003, p.23</ref> It has been suggested that by 1935 if remittances of serving officers were combined with income from military pensions, more than two thirds of Punjab's land revenue could have been paid out of military incomes.<ref name="autogenerated23"/> Military service further helped reduce the extent of indebtedness across the Province. In [[Hoshiarpur]], a notable source of military personnel, in 1920 thirty percent of proprietors were debt free compared to the region's average of eleven percent.<ref name="autogenerated23"/> In addition, the benefits of military service and the perception that the government was benevolent towards soldiers, affected the latter's attitudes towards the British.<ref name="autogenerated2003"/> The loyalty of recruited peasantry and the influence of military groups in rural areas across the province limited the reach of the nationalist movement in the province.<ref name="autogenerated2003"/>

==Communications and transport==
In 1853, the Viceroy Lord Dalhousie issued a minute stressing the military importance of railways across India.<ref name="Railway Development in Colonial Punjab"/> In the Punjab, however, it was initially strategic commercial interests which drove investment in railways and communications from 1860.<ref name="Railway Development in Colonial Punjab"/>

Independent railway companies emerged, such as the [[Scinde Railway|Scinde]], [[Punjab Railway|Punjab]] and [[Delhi Railway|Delhi]] railways to build and operate new lines. In 1862, the first section of railway in the Punjab was constructed between Lahore and Amritsar, and [[Lahore Junction railway station]] opened. Lines were opened between Lahore and Multan in 1864, and Amritsar and Delhi in 1870.<ref name="Railway Development in Colonial Punjab">{{cite book |last1=Bhupinder Singh, Amandeep Kaur |title=Railway Development in Colonial Punjab: Social and Cultural Assimilation, Vol. 3, Issue 1 |date=2015 |publisher=International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research |pages=(80–84)}}</ref> The Scinde, Punjab and Delhi railways merged to form the [[Scinde, Punjab & Delhi Railway]] in 1870, creating a link between Karachi and Lahore via Multan. The [[Punjab Northern State Railway]] linked Lahore and Peshawar in 1883. By 1886, the independent railways had amalgamated into [[North Western State Railway]].<ref name="Railway Development in Colonial Punjab"/>

The construction of railway lines and the network of railway workshops generated employment opportunities, which in turn led to increased immigration into cantonment towns.<ref name="Railway Development in Colonial Punjab"/> As connectivity increased across the province, it facilitated the movement of goods, and increased human interaction. It has been observed that the Ferozpur, Lahore and Amritsar began to develop into one composite cultural triangle due to the ease of connectivity between them.<ref name="Railway Development in Colonial Punjab"/> Similarly barriers of spoken dialects eroded over time, and cultural affinities were increasingly fostered.<ref name="Railway Development in Colonial Punjab"/>

==Government==
{{See also|Prime Minister of the Punjab}}

===Early administration===
{{See also|List of Governors of Punjab (British India)}}

In 1849, a Board of Administration was put in place to govern the newly annexed province. The Board was led by a President and two assistants. Beneath them Commissioners acted as Superintendents of revenue and police and exercised the civil appellate and the original criminal powers of Sessions Judges, whilst Deputy Commissioners were given subordinate civil, criminal and fiscal powers.<ref>Panjab Administration Report, p.24</ref> In 1853, the Board of Administration was abolished, and authority was invested in a single Chief Commissioner. The [[Government of India Act 1858]] led to further restructuring and the office of Lieutenant-Governor replaced that of Chief Commissioner.
Although [[Indian Councils Act 1861|The Indian Councils Act, 1861]] laid the foundation for the establishment of a local legislature in the Punjab, the first legislature was constituted in 1897. It consisted of a body of nominated officials and non-officials and was presided over by the Lieutenant-Governor. The first council lasted for eleven years until 1909. The [[Indian Councils Act 1909|Morley-Minto Reforms]] led to an elected members complementing the nominated officials in subsequent councils.<ref name="parliamentarians1">The Punjab Parliamentarians 1897-213, Provincial Assembly of the Punjab, Lahore - Pakistan, 2015</ref>

===Punjab Legislative Council and Assembly===
The Government of India Act 1919 introduced the system of dyarchy across British India and led to the implementation of the first Punjab Legislative Council in 1921. At the same time the office of lieutenant governor was replaced with that of governor. The initial Council had ninety three members, seventy per cent of which were elected and the rest nominated.<ref name="parliamentarians1"/> A president was elected by the Council to preside over the meetings. Between 1921 and 1936, there were four terms of the Council.<ref name="parliamentarians1"/>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Council !! Inaugurated !! Dissolved !! President(s)
|-
| First Council || 8 January 1921 || 27 October 1923 || [[Montagu Sherard Dawes Butler|Sir Montagu Butler]] and Herbert Casson
|-
| Second Council || 2 January 1924 || 27 October 1926 ||Herbert Casson, [[Abdul Qadir (Muslim leader)|Sir Abdul Qadir]] and [[Shahab-ud-Din Virk|Sir Shahab-ud-Din Virk]]
|-
| Third Council || 3 January 1927 || 26 July 1930 || Sir Shahab-ud-Din Virk
|-
| Fourth Council || 24 October 1930 || 10 November 1936 || Sir Shahab-ud-Din Virk and [[Chhotu Ram|Sir Chhotu Ram]]
|}

In 1935, the [[Government of India Act 1935]] replaced dyarchy with increased provincial autonomy. It introduced direct elections, and enabled elected Indian representatives to form governments in the provincial assemblies. The Punjab Legislative Council was replaced by a Punjab Legislative Assembly, and the role of President with that of a Speaker. Membership of the Assembly was fixed at 175 members, and it was intended to sit for five years.<ref name="parliamentarians1"/>

===First Assembly Election===
{{See also|1937 Punjab Provincial Assembly election}}
The first election was held in 1937 and was won outright by the Unionist Party. Its leader, Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan was asked by the Governor, [[Sir Herbert William Emerson|Sir Herbert Emerson]] to form a Ministry and he chose a cabinet consisting of three Muslims, two Hindus and a Sikh.<ref>Bakhshish Singh Nijjar, History of the United Panjab, Volume 3, Atlantic Publishers & Dist, 1 January 1996, p.159</ref> Sir Sikandar died in 1942 and was succeeded as Premier by Khizar Hayat Khan Tiwana.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Position !! Name
|-
| Premier || [[Sikandar Hayat Khan (Punjabi politician)|Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan]]
|-
| Revenue Minister || [[Sundar Singh Majithia|Sir Sundar Singh Majithia]]
|-
| Development Minister || [[Chhotu Ram|Sir Chhotu Ram]]
|-
| Finance Minister || [[Sir Manohar Lal|Manohar Lal]]
|-
| Public Works Minister || [[Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana|Khizar Hayat Khan Tiwana]]
|-
| Education Minister || [[Abdul Haye|Mian Abdul Haye]]
|}

===Second Assembly Election===
{{See also|1946 Punjab Provincial Assembly election}}
The next election was held in 1946. The [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] won the most seats, winning 73 out of a total of 175. However a coalition led by the Unionist Party and consisting of the [[Indian National Congress|Congress Party]] and [[Shiromani Akali Dal|Akali Party]] were able to secure an overall majority. A campaign of civil disobedience by the Muslim League followed, lasting six weeks, and led to the resignation of Sir Khizar Tiwana and the collapse of the coalition government on 2 March 1947.<ref>David P Forsythe, Encyclopedia of Human Rights, Volume 1, OUP USA, 27 August 2009, p.49</ref> The Muslim League however were unable to attract the support of other minorities to form a coalition government themselves.<ref name="autogenerated154">Lionel Knight, Britain in India, 1858–1947, Anthem Press, 1 November 2012, p.154</ref> Amid this stalemate the Governor [[Evan Meredith Jenkins|Sir Evan Jenkins]] assumed control of the government and remained in charge until the independence of India and Pakistan.<ref name="autogenerated154"/>

==Coat of arms==
[[File:Arms of British Punjab.jpg|thumb|200px|Arms of British Punjab]]
''Crescat e Fluviis'' meaning, ''Let it grow from the rivers'' was the [[Latin]] motto used in the coat of arms for Punjab Province. As per the book ''History of the Sikhs'' written by [[Khushwant Singh]], it means Strength from the Rivers.

== Administrative timeline ==

* 1849–1853: Punjab administered by a board of administration<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|pages=54–55}}
* 1853–1859: Punjab administered by a chief-commissioner<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|pages=54–55}}
* 1859–1919: Punjab administered by a lieutenant-governor<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|pages=54–55}}
* 1919–1947: Punjab administered by a governor<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|pages=54–55}}

==See also==
* {{cl|People from Punjab Province (British India)}}
* [[History of Punjab]]
* {{section link|Misl|List of misls}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==References==
{{reflist|22em}}

{{Presidencies and provinces of British India}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord missing|Punjab (India)}}

[[Category:Punjab|*]]
[[Category:Punjab Province (British India)| ]]
[[Category:Provinces of British India]]
[[Category:1849 establishments in British India]]
[[Category:1947 disestablishments in British India]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1947]]

Turkmenistan

2026-03-26T02:50:30Z

RodEsters254334: improve content additionally and updated info after review

{{Short description|Country in Central Asia}}
{{Distinguish|Turkestan|Turkmeneli|Turkomania}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Infobox country
| common_name = Turkmenistan
| conventional_long_name = Turkmenistan
| native_name = {{lang|tk|Türkmenistan}}
| image_flag = Flag of Turkmenistan.svg
| flag_size = 120
| image_coat = Emblem of Turkmenistan.svg
| coa_size = 90
| symbol_type = Emblem
| religion_year = 2020
| national_motto = {{lang|tk|Türkmenistan Bitaraplygyň watanydyr}} "Turkmenistan is the motherland of Neutrality"<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 December 2019 |title="Turkmenistan is the motherland of Neutrality" is the motto of 2020 | Chronicles of Turkmenistan |work=Chronicles of Turkmenistan |url=https://en.hronikatm.com/2019/12/turkmenistan-is-the-motherland-of-neutrality-is-the-motto-of-2020/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608104205/https://en.hronikatm.com/2019/12/turkmenistan-is-the-motherland-of-neutrality-is-the-motto-of-2020/ |archive-date=8 June 2020 |access-date=26 May 2020 |publisher=En.hronikatm.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 December 2019 |title=Turkmen parliament places Year 2020 under national motto "Turkmenistan – Homeland of Neutrality" – tpetroleum |url=https://turkmenpetroleum.com/en/2019/12/29/turkmen-parliament-places-year-2020-under-national-motto-turkmenistan-homeland-of-neutrality/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608104205/https://turkmenpetroleum.com/en/2019/12/29/turkmen-parliament-places-year-2020-under-national-motto-turkmenistan-homeland-of-neutrality/ |archive-date=8 June 2020 |access-date=26 May 2020 |publisher=Turkmenpetroleum.com}}</ref>
| national_anthem = {{lang|tk|Türkmenistanyň Döwlet senasy}} "[[State Anthem of Turkmenistan]]"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:National anthem of Turkmenistan, performed by the United States Navy Band.oga]]}}
| image_map = {{switcher|[[File:Turkmenistan (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Turkmenistan-map.png|frameless]]|Show map of Turkmenistan}}
| map_caption = Turkmenistan (orthographic projection)
| capital = [[Ashgabat]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|37|58|N|58|20|E|type:city}}
| largest_city = [[Ashgabat]]
| official_languages = [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]<ref name="constitution">{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan's Constitution of 2008 |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Turkmenistan_2008.pdf?lang=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515155819/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Turkmenistan_2008.pdf?lang=en |archive-date=15 May 2019 |access-date=17 December 2020}}</ref>
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list
| 86.7% [[Turkmens]]
| 9.1% [[Uzbeks]]
| 1.6% [[Russians in Turkmenistan|Russians]]
| 1.2% [[Baloch of Turkmenistan|Baloch]]
| 1.3% [[Ethnic groups in Turkmenistan|others]]
}}
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stat.gov.tm/en/population-census|title=State Committee of Turkmenistan on Statistics|website=www.stat.gov.tm}}</ref>
| ethnic_groups_year = 2022
| religion = {{unbulleted list
| 95.8% [[Islam in Turkmenistan|Islam]]
| 3.0% [[Irreligion|no religion]]
| 1.1% [[Christianity in Turkmenistan|Christianity]]
| 0.1% [[Religion in Turkmenistan|other]]
}}
| religion_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=227c|title=National Profiles | World Religion|website=The Association of Religion Data Archives (the ARDA)}}</ref>
| demonym = Turkmenistani{{r|World Factbook}} Turkmen<ref name="usembassy">{{Cite web |title=Dual Citizenship |url=https://tm.usembassy.gov/u-s-citizen-services/dual-citizenship/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523121623/https://tm.usembassy.gov/u-s-citizen-services/dual-citizenship/ |archive-date=23 May 2020 |access-date=23 May 2020 |publisher=U.S. Embassy in Turkmenistan |location=Ashgabat}}</ref>
| government_type = [[Presidential system|Presidential republic]] under a [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] dictatorship<ref>*{{cite journal |last1=Gore |first1=Hayden |title=Totalitarianism: The Case of Turkmenistan |journal=Human Rights & Human Welfare |date=2007 |issue=Human Rights in Russia and the Former Soviet Republics |pages=107–116 |access-date=29 June 2021 |publisher=[[Josef Korbel School of International Studies]] |location=[[Denver]] |url=https://www.du.edu/korbel/hrhw/researchdigest/russia/totalitarianism.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229235859/https://www.du.edu/korbel/hrhw/researchdigest/russia/totalitarianism.pdf |archive-date=29 February 2020 |url-status=dead}} * {{Cite web |last=Williamson |first=Hugh |date=24 March 2022 |title=The internet is crucial |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/24/internet-crucial |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504060758/https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/24/internet-crucial |archive-date=4 May 2022 |access-date=4 May 2022 |website=[[Human Rights Watch]] |quote=Turkmenistan stands out as a totalitarian state. It gives absolutely no scope to dissident opinions and independent media. The regime censors the internet heavily.}} * {{cite book |last1=Horák |first1=Slavomír |last2=Šír |first2=Jan |title=Dismantling totalitarianism?: Turkmenistan under Berdimuhamedow |date=March 2009 |publisher=[[Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies]] |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |isbn=9789185937172 |url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/106328/js09turkmenistanunder.pdf |access-date=4 May 2022 |archive-date=16 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816214311/https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/106328/js09turkmenistanunder.pdf |url-status=live}} * {{cite news |title=Turkmenistan: New president, old ideas |url=https://eurasianet.org/turkmenistan-new-president-old-ideas |access-date=4 May 2022 |work=[[Eurasianet]] |date=15 March 2022 |archive-date=15 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315220843/https://eurasianet.org/turkmenistan-new-president-old-ideas |url-status=live}} * {{cite web |title=Nations in Transit: Turkemistan |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/turkmenistan/nations-transit/2016 |website=[[Freedom House]] |access-date=4 May 2022 |date=2016 |archive-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523044206/https://freedomhouse.org/country/turkmenistan/nations-transit/2016 |url-status=live}} * {{cite web |last1=Stronski |first1=Paul |title=Turkmenistan at Twenty-Five: The High Price of Authoritarianism |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/files/Stronski_Turkmenistan.pdf |publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] |access-date=4 May 2022 |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |date=30 January 2017 |archive-date=1 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101103735/https://carnegieendowment.org/files/Stronski_Turkmenistan.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="AP People's Council" />
| leader_title1 = [[President of Turkmenistan|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Serdar Berdimuhamedow]]
| leader_title2 = [[Deputy Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers of Turkmenistan|Deputy Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers]]
| leader_name2 = [[Raşit Meredow]]
| leader_title3 = Chairman of the [[People's Council of Turkmenistan|People's Council]]
| leader_name3 = [[Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow]]
| leader_title4 = [[List of chairmen of the Assembly of Turkmenistan|Chairperson of the Assembly]]
| leader_name4 = [[Dünýägözel Gulmanowa]]
| leader_title5 = [[Supreme Court of Turkmenistan|Chairman of the Supreme Court]]
| leader_name5 = Begenç Hojamgulyýew
| legislature = [[Assembly of Turkmenistan|Assembly]]
| sovereignty_type = [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note = from the [[Soviet Union]]
| established_event1 = Declared
| established_date1 = 22 August 1990
| established_event2 = Recognized
| established_date2 = 26 December 1991
| area_km2 = 491,210
| area_footnote = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.gov.tm/ru/content/info/turkmenistan/|title=Государственный комитет Туркменистана по статистике|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107073046/http://www.stat.gov.tm/ru/content/info/turkmenistan/|archive-date=7 January 2012|language=ru}} : Туркменистан — одна из пяти стран Центральной Азии, вторая среди них по площади (491,21 тысяч км2), расположен в юго-западной части региона в зоне пустынь, севернее хребта Копетдаг Туркмено-Хорасанской горной системы, между Каспийским морем на западе и рекой Амударья на востоке.</ref>
| area_rank = 52nd 
| area_sq_mi = 188,456 
| percent_water = 4.9
| population_census = 7,057,841
| population_estimate_year = 2022
| population_census_rank = 105th
| population_census_year = 2022<ref>{{cite web | url=https://turkmenportal.com/tm/blog/64479/ilat-yazuwy--2022-turkmenistanyn-ilaty-7-million-57-mun-841-adama-den-boldy | title="Ilat ýazuwy — 2022": Türkmenistanyň ilaty 7 million 57 müň 841 adama deň boldy | Jemgyýet | date=August 2023}}</ref>
| population_density_km2 = 14.4
| population_density_sq_mi = 37.2 
| population_density_rank = 221st
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $186.11 billion<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank = 83rd
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $27,887<ref name="auto"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 74th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $89.05 billion<ref name="auto"/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank = 78th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $13,334<ref name="auto"/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 72nd
| Gini = 40.8 
| Gini_year = 1998
| Gini_change = 
| Gini_ref =
| Gini_rank =
| HDI_year = 2023 
| HDI_change = increase 
| HDI = 0.764 
| HDI_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |date= 6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2023/2024|url= https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/TKM|access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 95th
| currency = [[Turkmenistani manat|Manat]]
| currency_code = TMT
| time_zone = [[Turkmenistan Time|TMT]]
| utc_offset = +05:00
| drives_on = Right
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Turkmenistan|+993]]
| cctld = [[.tm]]
| area_water_km2 = 24069
| today =
}}

'''Turkmenistan'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Turkmenistan.ogg|t|ɜːr|k|ˈ|m|ɛ|n|ᵻ|s|t|æ|n}} {{respell|turk|MEN|ih|stan}} or {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Turkmenistan-2.ogg|ˌ|t|ɜːr|k|m|ɛ|n|ᵻ|ˈ|s|t|ɑː|n}} {{respell|TURK|men|ih|STAHN}}; {{langx|tk|Türkmenistan}}, {{IPA|tk|tʏɾkmønʏˈθːɑːn|pron|Turkmenistan pronounced in turkmen audio.ogg}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Clark |first=Larry |title=Turkmen Reference Grammar |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |year=1998 |location=Wiesbaden |page=50 |language=en}}</ref>}} is a [[landlocked country]] in [[Central Asia]], bordered by [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Uzbekistan]] to the [[north]], [[Afghanistan]] to the [[Afghanistan–Turkmenistan border|southeast]], [[Iran]] to the [[Iran-Turkmenistan border|south and southwest]], and the [[Caspian Sea]] to the west.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Afanasiev |first=Vladimir |date=2021-01-21 |title=Deep-water friendship: Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan bury Caspian Sea hatchet |url=https://www.upstreamonline.com/politics/deep-water-friendship-turkmenistan-and-azerbaijan-bury-caspian-sea-hatchet/2-1-949189 |access-date=2023-04-07 |website=Upstream Online |language=en}}</ref> It is one of six independent [[Organization of Turkic States|Turkic states]]. [[Ashgabat]] is the capital and [[largest city]]. With over 7 million people,<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://unece.org/sites/default/files/2023-09/WS3YamatovENG_0.pdf | title=2022 Complete Population and Housing Census of Turkmenistan | website=unece.org}}</ref> Turkmenistan is the [[List of Asian countries by population|35th most-populous country in Asia]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldometers.info/population/countries-in-asia-by-population/|title=Asian Countries by Population (2024) - Worldometer|website=www.worldometers.info}}</ref> and has the lowest population of the Central Asian republics while being one of the most sparsely populated nations located on the [[Asia|Asian continent]].{{r|World Factbook}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenian |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/turkmenian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114234246/https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/turkmenian |archive-date=14 January 2021 |access-date=13 December 2020 |website=Ethnologue |language=en}}</ref><ref name="usembassy" />

Turkmenistan has long served as a thoroughfare for several empires and cultures.<ref name="World Factbook">{{Citation |title=Turkmenistan |date=19 October 2021 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkmenistan/ |work=The World Factbook |access-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110134553/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkmenistan/ |url-status=dead |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |archive-date=10 January 2021}}</ref> [[Merv]] is one of the oldest oasis-cities in Central Asia,<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Historical and Cultural Park "Ancient Merv" |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/886/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119105422/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/886 |archive-date=19 November 2020 |access-date=26 July 2020 |website=UNESCO-WHC}}</ref> and was once among the biggest cities in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tharoor |first=Kanishk |date=2016 |title=Lost cities #5: how the magnificent city of Merv was razed – and never recovered |url=https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/aug/12/lost-cities-merv-worlds-biggest-city-razed-turkmenistan |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429075843/https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/aug/12/lost-cities-merv-worlds-biggest-city-razed-turkmenistan |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=26 July 2020 |website=The Guardian |quote=Once the world's biggest city, the Silk Road metropolis of Merv in modern Turkmenistan destroyed by Genghis Khan's son and the Mongols in AD1221 with an estimated 700,000 deaths.}}</ref> It was also one of the great cities of the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]] and an important stop on the [[Silk Road]]. Annexed by the [[Russian Empire]] in 1881, Turkmenistan figured prominently in the [[Russian Civil War#Anti-Bolshevik movement|anti-Bolshevik movement]] in Central Asia. In 1925, Turkmenistan became a constituent republic of the [[Soviet Union]], the [[Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic]] (Turkmen SSR); it became independent after the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991.<ref name="World Factbook" />

Turkmenistan is widely criticized for its abuse of [[Human rights in Turkmenistan|human rights]],<ref name="flee" /><ref name="Kerry" /> including for its treatment of minorities, and its lack of press and religious freedoms. Since the independence declared from the Soviet Union in 1991, Turkmenistan has been ruled by repressive totalitarian regimes: that of [[President for Life]] [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] (also known as ''Türkmenbaşy'' or "Head of the Turkmens") until his death in 2006; [[Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow]], who became president in 2007 after winning a [[election fraud|non-democratic election]] (who had been the minister of health, vice-president, and then acting president previously); and his son [[Serdar Berdimuhamedow|Serdar]], who won a subsequent [[2022 Turkmenistan presidential election|2022 presidential election]] described by international observers as [[Sham election|neither free nor fair]], and now shares power with his father.<ref>{{Cite news |title=As Expected, Son Of Turkmen Leader Easily Wins Election In Familial Transfer Of Power |language=en |work=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmenistan-serdar-berdymukhammedov-presidency/31753690.html |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322024350/https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmenistan-serdar-berdymukhammedov-presidency/31753690.html |archive-date=22 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=15 March 2022 |title=Turkmenistan: Autocrat president's son claims landslide win |work=Deutsche Welle |url=https://www.dw.com/en/turkmenistan-autocrat-presidents-son-claims-landslide-win/a-61128199 |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315110959/https://www.dw.com/en/turkmenistan-autocrat-presidents-son-claims-landslide-win/a-61128199 |archive-date=15 March 2022}}</ref><ref name="AP People's Council">{{Cite news |date=22 January 2023 |title=Turkmenistan's president expands his father's power |work=[[Associated Press]] |location=[[Ashgabat]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/politics-gurbanguly-berdimuhamedow-turkmenistan-a8e746a5bb9935323f3f52e193b54468 |url-status=live |access-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129081208/https://apnews.com/article/politics-gurbanguly-berdimuhamedow-turkmenistan-a8e746a5bb9935323f3f52e193b54468 |archive-date=29 January 2023}}</ref>

Turkmenistan possesses the world's fifth-[[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|largest reserves of natural gas]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019 |url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2019-full-report.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226123745/https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2019-full-report.pdf |archive-date=26 December 2019 |access-date=13 December 2019 |page=30}}</ref> and many [[Methane leak|leaks]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=2026-03-17 |title=Revealed: the world’s worst mega-leaks of methane driving global heating |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2026/mar/17/revealed-world-worst-methane-leaks-global-heating |access-date=2026-03-17 |work=[[The Guardian]] |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Most of the country is covered by the [[Karakum Desert]]. Turkmenistan is an observer state in the [[Organisation of Turkic States]], a founding member of [[International Organization of Turkic Culture|TÜRKSOY]] (the International Organization of Turkic Culture) and a member of the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-28 |orig-date=2022-05-30  |title=History |url=https://www.turksoy.org/en-US/history |access-date=2026-01-24 |website=turksoy.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=AA |first=DAILY SABAH WITH |date=2021-11-17 |title='Turkmenistan's new status in Turkic States significant development' |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/diplomacy/turkmenistans-new-status-in-turkic-states-significant-development |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223092854/https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/diplomacy/turkmenistans-new-status-in-turkic-states-significant-development |archive-date=23 February 2022 |access-date=2022-02-23 |website=Daily Sabah |language=en-US}}</ref>


== Etymology ==
The name of Turkmenistan ({{langx|tk|Türkmenistan}}) can be divided into two components: the ethnonym [[Turkmens|Türkmen]] and the [[Persian language|Persian]] suffix [[-stan]] meaning "place of" or "country". The name "Turkmen" comes from Turk, plus the [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]] suffix -men, meaning "almost Turk", in reference to their status outside the Turkic dynastic mythological system.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zuev |first=Yury |title=Early Türks: Essays on history and ideology |publisher=Daik-Press |year=2002 |location=Almatý |page=157 |language=en}}</ref>

Muslim chroniclers like [[Ibn Kathir]] suggested that the etymology of Turkmenistan came from the words Türk and [[Iman (concept)|iman]] ({{langx|ar|إيمان|lit=faith/belief}}); this is in reference to a massive conversion to Islam of two hundred thousand households in the year 971.<ref>{{Cite web |title=البداية والنهاية/الجزء الحادي عشر - ويكي مصدر |url=https://ar.wikisource.org/wiki/%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25A8%25D8%25AF%25D8%25A7%25D9%258A%25D8%25A9_%25D9%2588%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2586%25D9%2587%25D8%25A7%25D9%258A%25D8%25A9/%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AC%25D8%25B2%25D8%25A1_%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AD%25D8%25A7%25D8%25AF%25D9%258A_%25D8%25B9%25D8%25B4%25D8%25B1 |access-date=2023-04-07 |website=ar.wikisource.org |language=ar}}</ref>

Turkmenistan declared its independence from the Soviet Union after the [[Independence Day (Turkmenistan)|independence referendum]] in 1991. As a result, the constitutional law was adopted on 27 October of that year and Article 1 established the new name of the state: Turkmenistan (''Türkmenistan'' / Түркменистан).<ref>[http://www.turkmenlegaldatabase.info/ru/documents.download/id/22155.html "Constitutional Law of Turkmenistan on independence and the fundamentals of the state organisation of Turkmenistan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809152501/http://www.turkmenlegaldatabase.info/ru/documents.download/id/22155.html |date=9 August 2020}}; ''Ведомости Меджлиса Туркменистана", № 15, page 152'' – 27 October 1991. Retrieved from the Database of Legislation of Turkmenistan, OSCE Centre in Ashgabat.</ref>

A common name for the Turkmen SSR was Turkmenia ({{langx|ru|Туркмения}}, [[romanization]]: Turkmeniya), used in some reports of the country's independence.<ref>{{Cite news |agency=Reuters |date=1991-10-28 |title=Independence of Turkmenia Declared After a Referendum |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/28/world/independence-of-turkmenia-declared-after-a-referendum.html |access-date=2023-04-07 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Turkmenistan}}

Historically inhabited by [[Indo-Iranians]], Turkmenistan's written history begins with its annexation by the [[Achaemenid Empire]] of ancient Iran. After centuries of turmoil, over a thousand years later, in the 8th century AD, [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking [[Oghuz Turks|Oghuz]] tribes moved from [[Mongolia]] into present-day Central Asia. Part of a powerful confederation of tribes, these Oghuz formed the ethnic basis of the modern Turkmen population.<ref name="cs">{{Cite web |date=February 2007 |title=Country Profile: Turkmenistan |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Turkmenistan.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050226190629/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Turkmenistan.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2005 |access-date=25 November 2013 |publisher=Library of Congress Federal Research Division}}</ref> In the 10th century, the name "Turkmen" was first applied to Oghuz groups that accepted [[Islam]] and began to occupy present-day Turkmenistan.<ref name="cs" /> There they were under the dominion of the [[Seljuk Empire]], which was composed of Oghuz groups living in present-day [[Iran]] and Turkmenistan.<ref name="cs" /> Oghuz groups in the service of the empire played an important role in the spreading of Turkic culture when they migrated westward into present-day [[Azerbaijan]] and eastern [[Turkey]].<ref name="cs" />

[[File:Turban helmet Met 04.3.211.jpg|thumb|left|[[Aq Qoyunlu|White Sheep Turkoman]] helmet (15th century)]]

In the 12th century, [[Turkmens|Turkmen]] and other tribes overthrew the Seljuk Empire.<ref name="cs" /> In the next century, the [[Mongols]] took over the more northern lands where the Turkmens had settled, scattering the Turkmens southward and contributing to the formation of new tribal groups.<ref name="cs" /> The sixteenth and eighteenth centuries saw a series of splits and confederations among the [[nomad]]ic Turkmen tribes, who remained staunchly independent and inspired fear in their neighbors.<ref name="cs" /> By the 16th century, most of those tribes were under the nominal control of two sedentary [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]] [[khanate]]s, [[Khanate of Khiva|Khiva]] and [[Khanate of Bukhara|Bukhoro]].<ref name="cs" /> Turkmen soldiers were an important element of the Uzbek militaries of this period.<ref name="cs" /> In the 19th century, raids and rebellions by the [[Yomud]] Turkmen group resulted in that group's dispersal by the Uzbek rulers.<ref name="cs" /> In 1855 the [[Turkmen tribes|Turkmen tribe]] of [[Teke (Turkmen tribe)|Teke]] led by Gowshut-Khan defeated the invading army of the [[Khanate of Khiva|Khan of Khiva]] Muhammad Amin Khan<ref>{{Cite web |last=Аннанепесов (Annanepesov) |first=М. (M.) |year=2000 |editor-last=Gundogdyyev |editor-first=Ovez |title=Серахское сражение 1855 года (Историко-культурное наследие Туркменистана) |trans-title=Serakhs Battle of 1855 (Historical and Cultural Heritage of Turkmenistan) |url=http://www.turkmeniya.narod.ru/sarahs-battle.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727093915/http://www.turkmeniya.narod.ru/sarahs-battle.html |archive-date=27 July 2020 |access-date=27 July 2020 |publisher=UNDP |language=ru |location=Istanbul}}</ref> and in 1861 the invading [[Persia]]n army of [[Naser al-Din Shah Qajar|Nasreddin-Shah]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Казем-Заде (Kazem-Zade) |first=Фируз (Firuz) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxE9B14dr84C&q=%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD-%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%85+%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2+1861&pg=PT138 |title=Борьба за влияние в Персии. Дипломатическое противостояние России и Англии |date=2017 |publisher=Центрполиграф (Centrpoligraph) |isbn=978-5457028937 |language=ru |trans-title=Struggle for Influence in Persia. Diplomatic Confrontation between Russia and England |access-date=22 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203123154/https://books.google.com/books?id=BxE9B14dr84C&q=%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD-%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%85+%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2+1861&pg=PT138 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the second half of the 19th century, northern Turkmens were the main military and political power in the [[Khanate of Khiva]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=MacGahan |first=Januarius |date=1874 |title=Campaigning on the Oxus, and the fall of Khiva |url=https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/collections/campaigning-on-the-oxus-and-the-fall-of-khiva-by-ja-macgahan-correspondent#/?tab=about |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161027035352/https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/collections/campaigning-on-the-oxus-and-the-fall-of-khiva-by-ja-macgahan-correspondent#/?tab=about |archive-date=27 October 2016 |access-date=25 July 2020 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Глуховской (Glukhovskoy) |first=А. |date=1873 |title=О положении дел в Аму Дарьинском бассейне |trans-title=On the State of Affairs in the Amu Darya Basin |url=http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/M.Asien/XIX/1860-1880/Russ_turkmenII/Razdel_III/39.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127200544/http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/M.Asien/XIX/1860-1880/Russ_turkmenII/Razdel_III/39.htm |archive-date=27 November 2020 |access-date=25 July 2020 |language=ru}}</ref> According to Paul R. Spickard, "Prior to the Russian conquest, the Turkmen were known and feared for their involvement in the Central Asian [[History of slavery in Asia|slave trade]]."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paul R. Spickard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C1G8xHAY5SUC |title=Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-415-95003-9 |page=260}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott Cameron Levi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qVkNBge8mIC&pg=PA68 |title=The Indian Diaspora in Central Asia and Its Trade: 1550–1900 |date=January 2002 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-12320-5 |page=68}}</ref>

[[File:1. Чарджуй (бухарские владения). У городских ворот.jpg|thumb|City of [[Türkmenabat|Çärjew]] in [[Russian Turkestan]], 1890]]

Russian forces began occupying Turkmen territory late in the 19th century.<ref name="cs" /> From their [[Caspian Sea]] base at Krasnovodsk (now [[Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenistan|Türkmenbaşy]]), the Russians eventually overcame the Uzbek khanates.<ref name="cs" /> In 1879, the Russian forces were defeated by the [[Teke (Turkmen tribe)|Teke Turkmens]] during the [[Battle of Geok Tepe (1879)|first attempt to conquer the Ahal area of Turkmenistan]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Аннанепесов (Annanepesov) |first=М. |year=2000 |title=Ахалтекинские экспедиции (Историко-культурное наследие Туркменистана) |trans-title=Akhal-Teke Expeditions (Historical and Cultural Heritage of Turkmenistan) |url=http://www.turkmeniya.narod.ru/akhalteke-expeditions.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727100307/http://www.turkmeniya.narod.ru/akhalteke-expeditions.html |archive-date=27 July 2020 |access-date=27 July 2020 |publisher=UNDP |language=ru}}</ref> However, in 1881, the last significant resistance in Turkmen territory was crushed at the [[Battle of Geok Tepe]], and shortly thereafter Turkmenistan was annexed, together with adjoining Uzbek territory, into the [[Russian Empire]].<ref name="cs" /> In 1916, the Russian Empire's participation in [[World War I]] resonated in Turkmenistan, as an anticonscription revolt swept most of Russian Central Asia.<ref name="cs" /> Although the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 had little direct impact, in the 1920s Turkmen forces joined [[Kazakhs]], [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]], and Uzbeks in the so-called [[Basmachi rebellion]] against the rule of the newly formed [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="cs" /> In 1921 the tsarist province of [[Transcaspian Oblast|Transcaspia]] ({{langx|ru|Закаспийская область}}, 'Transcaspian Oblast') was renamed Turkmen Oblast ({{langx|ru|Туркменская область}}), and in 1924, the [[Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic]] was formed from it.<ref name="cs" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Muradov |first=Ruslan |date=13 May 2021 |title=История Ашхабада: время больших перемен |language=ru |publisher=«Туркменистан: золотой век» |url=https://turkmenistan.gov.tm/ru/post/54304/istoriya-ashhabada-vremya-bolshih-peremen |url-status=live |access-date=15 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515035824/https://turkmenistan.gov.tm/ru/post/54304/istoriya-ashhabada-vremya-bolshih-peremen |archive-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> By the late 1930s, Soviet reorganization of agriculture had destroyed what remained of the nomadic lifestyle in Turkmenistan, and Moscow controlled political life.<ref name="cs" /> The [[1948 Ashgabat earthquake|Ashgabat earthquake]] of 1948 killed over 110,000 people,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Significant Earthquake Information|last=National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS): NCEI/WDS Global Significant Earthquake Database. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information|year=1972|url= https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/3891|publisher=NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information|doi=10.7289/V5TD9V7K}}</ref> amounting to two-thirds of the city's population.

[[File:Turkmen man with camel.jpg|thumb|A Turkmen man of Central Asia in traditional clothes. Photo by [[Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky|Prokudin-Gorsky]] between 1905 and 1915.]]

During the next half-century, Turkmenistan played its designated economic role within the Soviet Union and remained outside the course of major world events.<ref name="cs" /> Even the major [[History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)|liberalization movement]] that shook Russia in the late 1980s had little impact.<ref name="cs" /> However, in 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Turkmenistan declared sovereignty as a [[nationalist]] response to perceived exploitation by [[Moscow]].<ref name="cs" /> Although Turkmenistan was ill-prepared for independence and then-[[communist]] leader [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] preferred to preserve the Soviet Union, in October 1991, the fragmentation of that entity forced him to call a national referendum that approved independence.<ref name="cs" /> On 26 December 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Niyazov continued as Turkmenistan's chief of state, replacing communism with a unique brand of independent nationalism reinforced by a pervasive [[cult of personality]].<ref name="cs" /> A 1994 referendum and legislation in 1999 abolished further requirements for the president to stand for re-election (although in 1992 he completely dominated the only [[Turkmenistani presidential election, 1992|presidential election]] in which he ran, as he was the only candidate and no one else was allowed to run for the office), making him effectively [[president for life]].<ref name="cs" /> During his tenure, Niyazov conducted frequent purges of public officials and abolished organizations deemed threatening.<ref name="cs" /> Throughout the post-Soviet era, Turkmenistan has taken a neutral position on almost all international issues.<ref name="cs" /> Niyazov eschewed membership in regional organizations such as the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]], and in the late 1990s he maintained relations with the [[Taliban]] and its chief opponent in [[Afghanistan]], the [[Northern Alliance]].<ref name="cs" /> From 1993 to 2019, citizens received government-provided electricity, water and natural gas free of charge.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmen ruler ends free power, gas, water – World News |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkmen-ruler-ends-free-power-gas-water-120631 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715152001/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkmen-ruler-ends-free-power-gas-water-120631 |archive-date=15 July 2018 |access-date=15 July 2018 |website=Hürriyet Daily News|date=10 October 2017}}</ref> Niyazov offered limited support to the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|military campaign against the Taliban]] following the [[September 11 attacks|11 September 2001 attacks]].<ref name="cs" /> In 2002 an alleged assassination attempt against Niyazov led to a new wave of security restrictions, dismissals of government officials, and restrictions placed on the media.<ref name="cs" /> Niyazov accused exiled former foreign minister [[Boris Shikhmuradov]] of having planned the attack.<ref name="cs" />

Between 2002 and 2004, serious tension arose between Turkmenistan and [[Uzbekistan]] because of bilateral disputes and Niyazov's implication that Uzbekistan had a role in the 2002 assassination attempt.<ref name="cs" /> In 2004, a series of bilateral treaties restored friendly relations.<ref name="cs" /> In the [[Turkmenistani parliamentary election, 2004|parliamentary elections of December 2004 and January 2005]], only Niyazov's party was represented, and no [[Election monitoring|international monitors]] participated.<ref name="cs" /> In 2005, Niyazov exercised his dictatorial power by closing all hospitals outside [[Ashgabat]] and all rural libraries.<ref name="cs" /> The year 2006 saw intensification of the trends of arbitrary policy changes, shuffling of top officials, diminishing economic output outside the oil and gas sector, and isolation from regional and world organizations.<ref name="cs" /> China was among a very few nations to whom Turkmenistan made significant overtures.<ref name="cs" /> The sudden death of Niyazov at the end of 2006 left a complete vacuum of power, as [[List of cults of personality#Turkmenistan|his cult of personality]], comparable to the [[Kim Il-sung's cult of personality|one]] of eternal president [[Kim Il Sung]] of [[North Korea]], had precluded the naming of a successor.<ref name="cs" /> Deputy Prime Minister [[Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow]], who was named interim head of government, won a non-democratic [[Turkmen presidential election, 2007|special presidential election]] held in early February 2007.<ref name="cs" /> His appointment as interim president and subsequent run for president violated the constitution.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Horák |first1=Slavomír |url=https://www.silkroadstudies.org/resources/pdf/SilkRoadPapers/2009_03_SRP_Horak-Sir_Turkmenistan-Berdimuhamedov.pdf |title=Dismantling Totalitarianism? Turkmenistan under Berdimuhamedow |last2=Šír |first2=Jan |date=March 2009 |publisher=Central Asia-Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program |isbn=978-91 85937-17-2 |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=18–19 |access-date=12 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725080804/https://www.silkroadstudies.org/resources/pdf/SilkRoadPapers/2009_03_SRP_Horak-Sir_Turkmenistan-Berdimuhamedov.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Berdimuhamedow won two additional non-democratic elections, with approximately 97% of the vote in both [[Turkmen presidential election, 2012|2012]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 February 2012 |title=Turkmenistan president wins election with 96.9% of vote |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/13/turkmenistan-president-wins-election?newsfeed=true |url-status=live |access-date=25 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119110746/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/13/turkmenistan-president-wins-election?newsfeed=true |archive-date=19 November 2020}}</ref> and [[2017 Turkmenistan presidential election|2017]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Putz |first=Catherine |date=14 February 2017 |title=Turkmenistan, Apparently, Had an Election |publisher=The Diplomat |url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/02/turkmenistan-apparently-had-an-election/ |url-status=live |access-date=31 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024508/https://thediplomat.com/2017/02/turkmenistan-apparently-had-an-election/ |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> His son [[Serdar Berdimuhamedow]] won a non-democratic [[2022 Turkmenistan presidential election|snap presidential election]] in 2022, establishing a [[political dynasty]] in Turkmenistan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 March 2022 |title=Turkmenistan leader's son wins presidential election |url=https://apnews.com/article/central-asia-asia-turkmenistan-presidential-elections-elections-3d13e95fe055bf53525141c351708488 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315073122/https://apnews.com/article/central-asia-asia-turkmenistan-presidential-elections-elections-3d13e95fe055bf53525141c351708488 |archive-date=15 March 2022 |access-date=15 March 2022 |website=AP NEWS |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |language=en}}</ref> On 19 March 2022, Serdar Berdimuhamedov was sworn in as Turkmenistan's new president to succeed his father.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Serdar Berdimuhamedov sworn in as Turkmenistan's new president |work=www.aa.com.tr |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/serdar-berdimuhamedov-sworn-in-as-turkmenistans-new-president/2540192 |url-status=live |access-date=4 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422134741/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/serdar-berdimuhamedov-sworn-in-as-turkmenistans-new-president/2540192 |archive-date=22 April 2022}}</ref>

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Turkmenistan}}

{{Multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| align = right
| caption_align = center
| total_width = 200
| image1 = Serdar Berdimuhamedov in Japan on April 15, 2025.jpg
| caption1 = [[Serdar Berdimuhamedov]] [[President of Turkmenistan|President]] 
| alt1 = Serdar Berdimuhamedov
}}
After over a century of being a part of the [[Russian Empire]] and then the [[Soviet Union]] (including 67 years as a union republic), Turkmenistan declared its independence on 27 October 1991, following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzizDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30 |title=Turkmenistan Country Study Guide Volume 1 |date=2011 |publisher=International Business Publications |isbn=9781438749082 |location=Washington DC |access-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203123157/https://books.google.com/books?id=GzizDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Saparmurat Niyazov]], a former official of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], ruled Turkmenistan from 1985, when he became head of the [[Communist Party of the Turkmen SSR]], until his death in 2006. He retained absolute control over the country as [[President of Turkmenistan|President]] after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. On 28 December 1999, Niyazov was declared [[President for life|President for Life]] of Turkmenistan by the Mejlis (parliament), which itself had taken office a week earlier in elections that included only candidates hand-picked by President Niyazov. No opposition candidates were allowed.{{Citation needed|date=January 2026}}

The former Communist Party, now known as the [[Democratic Party of Turkmenistan]], is the dominant party. The second party, the [[Party of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs]], was established in August 2012, and an [[Agrarian Party of Turkmenistan|agrarian party]] appeared two years later. Political gatherings are illegal unless government sanctioned.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} In 2013, the first multi-party parliamentary elections [[Turkmenistani parliamentary election, 2013|were held]] in Turkmenistan. Turkmenistan was a one-party state from 1991 to 2012; however, the 2013 elections were widely seen as rigged.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 September 2014 |title=Turkmenistan |url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2014/turkmenistan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215140250/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2014/turkmenistan |archive-date=15 February 2016 |access-date=12 February 2016}}</ref> In practice, all parties in parliament operate jointly under the direction of the DPT. There are no true opposition parties in the Turkmen parliament.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Stronski |first=Paul |date=22 May 2017 |script-title=ru:Независимому Туркменистану двадцать пять лет: цена авторитаризма |language=ru |work=carnegie.ru |url=http://carnegie.ru/2017/05/22/ru-pub-70020 |url-status=live |access-date=23 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170522140924/http://carnegie.ru/2017/05/22/ru-pub-70020 |archive-date=22 May 2017}}</ref>

[[File:Turkmenistan Wedding.jpg|thumb|Golden statue of [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] in Ashgabat]]
Since the December 2006 death of Niyazov, Turkmenistan's leadership has made tentative moves to open up the country. His successor, President [[Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow]], repealed some of Niyazov's most idiosyncratic policies, including banning operas and circuses for being ''"insufficiently Turkmen"'', though other such rules were later put into place such as the banning of non-white cars.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 January 2018 |title=Turkmenistan's road police detain vehicles of all colours except white |url=https://en.hronikatm.com/2018/01/turkmenistans-road-police-detain-vehicles-of-all-colours-except-white/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206224659/https://en.hronikatm.com/2018/01/turkmenistans-road-police-detain-vehicles-of-all-colours-except-white/ |archive-date=6 February 2021 |access-date=4 November 2021 |website=Chronicles of Turkmenistan |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sergeev |first=Angel |date=12 January 2018 |title=Turkmenistan Bans All Non-White Cars From Capital |publisher=motor1.com |url=https://www.motor1.com/news/226932/turkmenistan-president-bans-black-cars/ |url-status=live |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609202155/https://www.motor1.com/news/226932/turkmenistan-president-bans-black-cars/ |archive-date=9 June 2020}}</ref> In education, Berdimuhamedow's government increased basic education from nine years to ten, and higher education was extended from four years to five. Berdimuhamedow was succeeded by his son [[Serdar Berdimuhamedow|Serdar]] in [[2022 Turkmenistan presidential election|2022]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 March 2022 |title=Turkmenistan holds inauguration of new president (UPDATE) |work=Trend News Agency |url=https://en.trend.az/casia/turkmenistan/3571398.html |url-status=live |access-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319125735/https://en.trend.az/casia/turkmenistan/3571398.html |archive-date=19 March 2022}}</ref>

The politics of Turkmenistan take place in the framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], with the [[President of Turkmenistan|President]] both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]]. Under Niyazov, Turkmenistan had a [[One-party state|one-party system]]; however, in September 2008, the People's Council unanimously passed a resolution adopting a new [[Constitution of Turkmenistan|Constitution]]. The latter resulted in the abolition of the council and a significant increase in the size of Parliament in December 2008 and also permits the formation of multiple political parties.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan Politics |url=http://country.eiu.com/article.aspx?articleid=487259232&Country=Turkmenistan&topic=Summary&subtopic=Political+structure |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329121454/https://s7.addthis.com/js/250/addthis_widget.js |archive-date=29 March 2021 |access-date=26 January 2021 |website=The Economist Intelligence Unit}}</ref>

According to [[International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance|International IDEA]]’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Turkmenistan performs in the low range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in local democracy, civic engagement, and civil society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/country/turkmenistan |access-date=2025-09-29 |website=www.idea.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global State of Democracy Indices {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/gsod-indices |access-date=2025-09-29 |website=www.idea.int}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/ |access-date=2025-09-29 |website=www.idea.int}}</ref>

===Legislature===
{{See also|Assembly of Turkmenistan|People's Council of Turkmenistan|National Council of Turkmenistan}}
The [[Assembly of Turkmenistan|Assembly]] ({{langx|tk|Mejlis}}) is since January 2023 the unicameral legislature of Turkmenistan.<ref name="abolishNT">{{Citation |title=Cоздан высший представительный орган народной власти – Халк Маслахаты Туркменистана |date=22 January 2023 |url=https://metbugat.gov.tm/newspaper/download?id=9681 |publisher=[[Neytralny Turkmenistan]] |language=ru |access-date=4 April 2023 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203132214/https://metbugat.gov.tm/newspaper/download?id=9681 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="abolishRFE">{{Citation |title=Халк Маслахаты стал самостоятельным законодательным органом, а парламент однопалатным |date=23 January 2023 |url=https://rus.azathabar.com/a/32234359.html |publisher=[[RFE/RL]] |language=ru}}</ref> Between March 2021 and 21 January 2023 it was the lower house of the now defunct bicameral [[National Council of Turkmenistan]] ({{langx|tk|Milli Geňeş}}). It has 125 members,<ref>{{Cite web |title=MEJLIS HAKYNDA |url=https://mejlis.gov.tm/mejlis-hakynda |access-date=31 March 2021 |archive-date=10 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610090001/https://mejlis.gov.tm/mejlis-hakynda |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bulletin [ Turkmenistan adopts investor-friendly constitution ] |url=http://www.worldbulletin.net/news_detail.php?id=28836 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007110513/http://www.worldbulletin.net/news_detail.php?id=28836 |archive-date=7 October 2008 |access-date=26 September 2008}}</ref> elected for five-year terms in single-seat [[constituencies]].

The [[People's Council of Turkmenistan]] ({{langx|tk|Halk Maslahaty}}, [[Help:IPA|[xɑlq mɑθlɑxɑt̪ɯ]]]; "People's Council") is Turkmenistan's independent "representative body" exerting supreme constitutional authority. It includes in its membership, but is not considered part of, the [[Assembly of Turkmenistan|legislature]]. ''Inter alia'' it is empowered to amend the constitution. Its chairperson is appointed by the president and is designated the "National Leader".<ref name="abolishNT" /><ref name="abolishRFE" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Указ Президента Туркменистана О Председателе Халк Маслахаты Туркменистана |date=21 January 2023 |url=https://tdh.gov.tm/ru/post/34440/ukaz-prezidenta-turkmenistana-19 |publisher=Туркменистан сегодня |language=ru}}</ref> State media referred to the People's Council as the "supreme organ of government authority".<ref name="abolishNT" /> From 2018 to 2023 it was the upper chamber of the National Council of Turkmenistan.

Outside observers consider the Turkmen legislature to be a [[Rubber stamp (politics)|rubber stamp]] parliament.<ref name="mejlis2018">{{Cite news |date=26 March 2018 |title=Turkmenistan votes for a new 'rubber-stamp' parliament |publisher=bne IntelliNews |url=https://www.intellinews.com/turkmenistan-votes-for-a-new-rubber-stamp-parliament-138871/ |url-status=live |access-date=31 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024116/https://www.intellinews.com/turkmenistan-votes-for-a-new-rubber-stamp-parliament-138871/ |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="rlmejlis">{{Cite news |last=Pannier |first=Bruce |date=22 March 2018 |title=Turkmen Elections Look Like Next Step Toward Dynasty |publisher=[[RFE/RL]] |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/qishloq-ovozi-turkmenistan-berdymukhammedov-the-second/29115690.html |url-status=live |access-date=31 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033439/https://www.rferl.org/a/qishloq-ovozi-turkmenistan-berdymukhammedov-the-second/29115690.html |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="atlant">{{Cite web |last=Clement |first=Victoria |date=21 October 2019 |title=Passing the baton in Turkmenistan |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/passing-the-baton-in-turkmenistan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210408040848/https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/passing-the-baton-in-turkmenistan/ |archive-date=8 April 2021 |access-date=31 March 2021 |publisher=Atlantic Council}}</ref> The 2018 [[OSCE]] election observer mission noted,<blockquote>The 25 March elections lacked important prerequisites of a genuinely democratic electoral process. The political environment is only nominally pluralist and does not offer voters political alternatives. Exercise of fundamental freedoms is severely curtailed, inhibiting free expression of the voters' will. Despite measures to demonstrate transparency, the integrity of elections was not ensured, leaving veracity of results in doubt<ref>{{Cite web |title=TURKMENISTAN PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS 25 March 2018 ODIHR Election Assessment Mission Final Report |url=https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/2/8/382915_0.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033433/https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/2/8/382915_0.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=4 April 2021}}</ref></blockquote>

===Judiciary===
{{See also|Supreme Court of Turkmenistan}}
The judiciary in Turkmenistan is not independent. Under Articles 71 and 100 of the constitution of Turkmenistan, the president appoints all judges, including the chairperson (chief justice) of the [[Supreme Court of Turkmenistan|Supreme Court]], and may dismiss them with the consent of the Parliament.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan's Constitution of 2008 with Amendments through 2016 |url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Turkmenistan_2016.pdf?lang=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210325141731/https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Turkmenistan_2016.pdf?lang=en |archive-date=25 March 2021 |access-date=31 March 2021 |publisher=constituteproject.org}}</ref> Outside observers consider the Turkmen legislature to be a [[Rubber stamp (politics)|rubber stamp]] parliament,<ref name="mejlis2018" /><ref name="rlmejlis" /><ref name="atlant" /> and thus despite constitutional guarantees of judicial independence under Articles 98 and 99, the judiciary is ''de facto'' firmly under presidential control.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan 2019 Human Rights Report |url=https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/TURKMENISTAN-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210322155912/https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/TURKMENISTAN-2019-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2021 |access-date=31 March 2021 |publisher=U.S. Department of State |page=8}}</ref> The chief justice is considered a member of the executive authority of the government and sits on the [[State Security Council of Turkmenistan|State Security Council]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 March 2021 |title=Türkmenistanyň Prezidentiniň Permany |language=Turkmen |publisher=Türkmenistan: Altyn asyr |url=https://turkmenistan.gov.tm/tk/habar/52620/turkmenistanyn-prezidentinin-permany-2 |url-status=live |access-date=31 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415023950/https://turkmenistan.gov.tm/tk/habar/52620/turkmenistanyn-prezidentinin-permany-2 |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> The [[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]] stated in its 2020-human rights report on Turkmenistan,<blockquote>Although the law provides for an independent judiciary, the executive controls it, and it is subordinate to the executive. There was no legislative review of the president's judicial appointments and dismissals. The president had sole authority to dismiss any judge. The judiciary was widely reputed to be corrupt and inefficient.<ref name="hr2020">{{Cite web |date=28 March 2021 |title=Turkmenistan 2020 Human Rights Report |url=https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/TURKMENISTAN-2020-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415034251/https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/TURKMENISTAN-2020-HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=5 April 2021 |publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref></blockquote>

Many national laws of Turkmenistan have been published online on the Ministry of Justice website.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hukuk Maglumatlary Merkezi |url=https://minjust.gov.tm/mmerkezi |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411211436/https://minjust.gov.tm/mmerkezi |website=Türkmenistanyň Adalat Ministrligi |archive-date=11 April 2021 |access-date=11 April 2021 |language=Turkmen}}</ref>

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Turkmenistan}}

[[File:Vladimir Putin and Serdar Berdimuhamedow (2022-06-10) 01.jpg|thumb|Turkmenistan's President [[Serdar Berdimuhamedow]] and Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] in Moscow on 10 June 2022]]

Turkmenistan's declaration of "permanent neutrality" was formally recognized by the [[United Nations]] in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A/RES/50/80. Maintenance of international security |url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/50/a50r080.htm |website=United Nations |date= 12 December 1995 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624051518/https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/50/a50r080.htm |archive-date= 24 June 2019 }}</ref> Former President [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] stated that the neutrality would prevent Turkmenistan from participating in multi-national defense organizations, but allows [[military]] assistance. Its [[Neutral country|neutral]] [[foreign policy]] has an important place in the [[Constitution of Turkmenistan|country's constitution]]. Turkmenistan has diplomatic relations with 139 countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diplomatic relations |url=http://mfa.gov.tm/en/mfa-en/diplomacy/diplomatic-relations |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102908/http://www.mfa.gov.tm/en/mfa-en/diplomacy/diplomatic-relations |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=14 February 2016 |website=The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Turkmenistan}}</ref> Turkmenistan is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[World Bank]], the [[Economic Cooperation Organization]], the [[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]], the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], the [[Islamic Development Bank]], [[Asian Development Bank]], [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development]], the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]], [[International Organization of Turkic Culture]] and observer member of [[Organisation of Turkic States]].

Turkmenistan is the 83rd most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 [[Global Peace Index]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf|title=Global Peace Index 2024 |publisher=Institute for Economics & Peace |date=June 2024 }}</ref>

===Military===
{{main|Armed Forces of Turkmenistan}}

[[File:Independence Day Parade - Flickr - Kerri-Jo (66).jpg|thumb|[[T-90]]SA and T-72UMG units]]
The '''Armed Forces of Turkmenistan''' ({{langx|tk|Türkmenistanyň Ýaragly Güýçleri}}), known informally as the '''Turkmen National Army''' ({{Langx|tk|Türkmenistanyň Milli goşun}}) is the national military of Turkmenistan. It consists of the [[Turkmen Ground Forces|Ground Forces]], the [[Turkmen Air Force|Air Force and Air Defense Forces]], [[Turkmen Naval Forces|Navy]], and other independent formations (etc. [[Turkmen Border Troops|Border Troops]], [[Turkmen Internal Troops|Internal Troops]] and [[Turkmen National Guard|National Guard]]).

===Law enforcement===
{{main|Law enforcement in Turkmenistan}}

The national police force in Turkmenistan is mostly governed by the [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Turkmenistan)|Interior Ministry]]. The [[Ministry for National Security (Turkmenistan)|Ministry of National Security]] (KNB) is the intelligence-gathering asset. The Interior Ministry commands the 25,000 personnel of the national police force directly, while the KNB deals with intelligence and counterintelligence work.

=== Human rights ===
{{Main|Human rights in Turkmenistan}}

Turkmenistan has been widely criticised for human rights abuses and has imposed severe restrictions on foreign travel for its citizens.<ref name="flee">{{Cite news |date=20 June 2003 |title=Russians 'flee' Turkmenistan |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3007598.stm |url-status=live |access-date=25 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406064632/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3007598.stm |archive-date=6 April 2019}}</ref><ref name="Kerry">{{Cite news |last=Spetalnick |first=Matt |date=3 November 2015 |title=Kerry reassures Afghanistan's neighbors over U.S. troop drawdown |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-centralasia-usa-kerry/kerry-reassures-afghanistans-neighbors-over-u-s-troop-drawdown-idUSKCN0SS0R720151103 |url-status=live |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303112343/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-centralasia-usa-kerry/kerry-reassures-afghanistans-neighbors-over-u-s-troop-drawdown-idUSKCN0SS0R720151103 |archive-date=3 March 2020|quote=Like Tajikistan, Turkmenistan’s human rights record is widely criticized. Berdymukhamedov has run the country with an iron grip since taking over in 2006.}}</ref> Discrimination against the country's ethnic minorities remains in practice. Universities have been encouraged to reject applicants with non-Turkmen surnames, especially ethnic Russians.<ref>{{Cite web |date=Jul 16, 2003 |title=Turkmenistan: Russian Students Targeted |url=http://www.iwpr.net/?p=rca&s=f&o=175615&apc_state=henirca2003 |first1=Murad |last1=Novruzov |access-date=25 November 2013 |publisher=Institute for War and Peace Reporting |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912055959/http://www.iwpr.net/?p=rca&s=f&o=175615&apc_state=henirca2003 |archive-date= 12 September 2009 }}</ref> It is forbidden to teach the customs and language of the [[Baloch people|Baloch]], an ethnic minority.<ref name="FIDH">{{Cite press release |title=Alternative report on the Human Rights situation in Turkmenistan for the Universal Periodic Review |publisher=[[FIDH]] |url=https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/Alternative_report_Turk_UPR_eng.pdf |access-date=23 July 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421080307/https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/Alternative_report_Turk_UPR_eng.pdf |archive-date=21 April 2022}}</ref> The same happens to Uzbeks, though the [[Uzbek language]] was formerly taught in some national schools.<ref name="FIDH" />

According to [[Human Rights Watch]], "Turkmenistan remains one of the world's most repressive countries. The country is virtually closed to independent scrutiny, media and religious freedoms are subject to draconian restrictions, and human rights defenders and other activists face the constant threat of government reprisal."<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2014/country-chapters/turkmenistan |title=World Report 2014: Turkmenistan |date=2 January 2014 |publisher=Hrw.org |access-date=28 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140126151300/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2014/country-chapters/turkmenistan |archive-date=26 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

According to [[Reporters Without Borders]]'s 2014 World Press Freedom Index, Turkmenistan had the 3rd worst press freedom conditions in the world (178/180 countries), just before [[North Korea]] and [[Eritrea]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reporters Without Borders |url=https://rsf.org/en/ranking/2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214120404/http://rsf.org/index2014/en-index2014.php |archive-date=14 February 2014 |access-date=14 February 2016 |website=rsf.org}}</ref> It is considered to be one of the "10 Most Censored Countries". Each broadcast under Niyazov began with a pledge that the broadcaster's tongue will shrivel if he slanders the country, flag, or president.<ref>{{Cite web |title=10 Most Censored Countries |url=https://www.cpj.org/censored/index.html |access-date=30 January 2012 |publisher=Cpj.org}}</ref>

Religious minorities are discriminated against for [[conscientious objection]] and practising their religion by imprisonment, preventing foreign travel, confiscating copies of Christian literature, or defamation.<ref name="hr2020" /><ref name="state2004">{{Cite web |date=21 May 2015 |title=Turkmenistan: International Religious Freedom Report 2004 |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2004/35490.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216035152/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2004/35490.htm |archive-date=16 February 2020 |access-date=15 March 2016 |website=www.state.gov/ |publisher=United States Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan 2015/2016: Freedom of religion |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/turkmenistan/report-turkmenistan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310014857/https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/turkmenistan/report-turkmenistan/ |archive-date=10 March 2015 |access-date=15 March 2016 |website=www.amnesty.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=One Year of Unjust Imprisonment in Turkmenistan |url=https://www.jw.org/en/news/legal/by-region/turkmenistan/year-in-prison-20160215/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711232856/https://www.jw.org/en/news/legal/by-region/turkmenistan/year-in-prison-20160215/ |archive-date=11 July 2016 |access-date=15 March 2016 |publisher=jw.org}}</ref> Many detainees who have been arrested for exercising their freedom of religion or belief were tortured and subsequently sentenced to imprisonment, many of them without a court decision.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Corley |first=Felix |title=Turkmenistan: Torture and jail for one 4 year and 14 short-term prisoners of conscience |date=21 May 2015 |url=https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2063 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015153243/http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2063 |archive-date=15 October 2018 |access-date=16 April 2024 |website=Forum 18 News Service |language=en-uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=12 January 2017 |title=Turkmenistan |language=en |work=Human Rights Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/country-chapters/turkmenistan |url-status=live |access-date=20 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630194342/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/country-chapters/turkmenistan |archive-date=30 June 2017}}</ref> [[LGBT rights in Turkmenistan|Homosexual]] acts are illegal in Turkmenistan.<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 May 2016 |title=LGBT relationships are illegal in 74 countries, research finds |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/gay-lesbian-bisexual-relationships-illegal-in-74-countries-a7033666.html |url-status=live |access-date=12 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827151517/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/gay-lesbian-bisexual-relationships-illegal-in-74-countries-a7033666.html |archive-date=27 August 2017}}</ref>

The use of the [[Capital punishment in Turkmenistan|death penalty]] in the country was suspended in 1999,<ref>{{Cite news |title=Asia-Pacific – Turkmenistan suspends death penalty |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/249665.stm |url-status=live |access-date=20 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407081142/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/249665.stm |archive-date=7 April 2022}}</ref> before being formally abolished in 2008.<ref name="constitution" />

=== Restrictions on free and open communication ===
{{See also|Telecommunications in Turkmenistan#Censorship}}
Despite the launch of Turkmenistan's first [[communication satellite]], the [[TurkmenSat 1]], in April 2015, the [[Government of Turkmenistan|Turkmen government]] banned all [[satellite dish]]es in Turkmenistan the same month. The statement issued by the government indicated that all existing satellite dishes would have to be removed or destroyed, despite the communications receiving antennas having been legally installed since 1995, in an effort by the government to fully block access of the population to many "hundreds of independent international media outlets" which are currently accessible in the country only through satellite dishes, including all leading international news channels in different languages. The main target of this campaign is [[Radio Azatlyk]], the Turkmen-language service of [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]].<ref name="at20150422">{{Cite news |last=Forrester |first=Chris |date=22 April 2015 |title=Satellite dishes banned in Turkmenistan |work=Advanced Television |url=http://advanced-television.com/2015/04/22/satellite-dishes-banned-in-turkmenistan/ |url-status=live |access-date=23 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423192643/http://advanced-television.com/2015/04/22/satellite-dishes-banned-in-turkmenistan/ |archive-date=23 April 2015}}</ref>

Internet access is filtered and websites to which the government objects are blocked. Blocked websites include opposition news media, YouTube, many social media sites (including Facebook), and encrypted communications applications. Use of [[virtual private networks]] to circumvent censorship is prohibited.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pannier |first=Bruce |date=19 September 2020 |title=Turkmenistan Increases Crackdown On Internet Access As Living Standards Continue Downward Spiral |publisher=RFE/RL |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmenistan-increases-crackdown-on-internet-access-as-living-standards-continue-downward-spiral/30846977.html |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210328050049/https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmenistan-increases-crackdown-on-internet-access-as-living-standards-continue-downward-spiral/30846977.html |archive-date=28 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=23 March 2021 |title=Turkmenistan: Internet welcome, or no VPNs allowed here |publisher=Eurasianet |url=https://eurasianet.org/turkmenistan-internet-welcome-or-no-vpns-allowed-here |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324213713/https://eurasianet.org/turkmenistan-internet-welcome-or-no-vpns-allowed-here |archive-date=24 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Phone and internet in Turkmenistan |url=https://caravanistan.com/turkmenistan/phone-internet/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419023650/https://caravanistan.com/turkmenistan/phone-internet/ |archive-date=19 April 2021 |access-date=28 March 2021 |publisher=Caravanistan}}</ref>

=== Corruption ===
{{main|Corruption in Turkmenistan}}

[[Transparency International]]'s 2021 Corruption Perceptions Index placed Turkmenistan in a tie with [[Burundi]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] for 169th place globally, between [[Chad]] and [[Equatorial Guinea]], with a score of 19 out of 100.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX |date=25 January 2022 |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2021/index/tkm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705122054/https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2021/index/tkm |archive-date=5 July 2022 |access-date=30 June 2022 |publisher=[[Transparency International]]}}</ref>

Opposition media and foreign human rights organizations describe Turkmenistan as suffering from rampant corruption. A non-governmental organization, [[Crude Accountability]], has openly called the economy of Turkmenistan a [[kleptocracy]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 2021 |title=Turkmenistan: A Model Kleptocracy |url=https://crudeaccountability.org/wp-content/uploads/web_Turkmenistan_A_Model_Kleptocracy_report.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725112947/https://crudeaccountability.org/wp-content/uploads/web_Turkmenistan_A_Model_Kleptocracy_report.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2021 |access-date=29 July 2021 |publisher=[[Crude Accountability]]}}</ref> Opposition and domestic state-controlled media have described widespread bribery in education and law enforcement.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 July 2021 |title=Коронабизнес» продолжается. За год власти Туркменистана не изжили коррупцию в сфере эпидзащиты |trans-title=The "corona business" continues. A year later, Turkmenistan's authorities have failed to eradicate corruption in the epidemic protection sector |url=https://turkmen.news/news/corruption-coronavirus/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729155146/https://turkmen.news/news/corruption-coronavirus/ |archive-date=29 July 2021 |access-date=29 July 2021 |publisher=[[Turkmen.News]] |language=ru}}</ref><ref name="ed">{{Cite news |date=9 October 2020 |title=В Туркменистане выявлены многочисленные факты взяточничества в сфере образования |trans-title=Numerous cases of bribery in the education sector have been uncovered in Turkmenistan |url=https://turkmenportal.com/blog/31114/v-turkmenistane-vyyavleny-mnogochislennye-fakty-vzyatochnichestva-v-sfere-obrazovaniya |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922112535/https://turkmenportal.com/blog/31114/v-turkmenistane-vyyavleny-mnogochislennye-fakty-vzyatochnichestva-v-sfere-obrazovaniya |archive-date=22 September 2021 |access-date=29 July 2021 |publisher=Turkmenportal |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=8 August 2018 |title=Взятки за поступление в вузы Туркменистана берут в долларах |trans-title=Bribes for admission to universities in Turkmenistan are taken in dollars |url=https://www.hronikatm.com/2018/08/vzyatki-za-postuplenie-v-vuzyi-turkmenistana-berut-v-dollarah/ |publisher=Chronicles of Turkmenistan |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=30 August 2019 |title=Размер взятки за устройство ребенка в русский класс достигает 20 тысяч манатов |trans-title=The bribe for placing a child in a Russian class can reach 20,000 manats |url=https://www.hronikatm.com/2019/08/school-corruption/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806040807/https://www.hronikatm.com/2019/08/school-corruption/ |archive-date=6 August 2021 |access-date=29 July 2021 |publisher=Chronicles of Turkmenistan |language=ru}}</ref> In 2019, the national chief of police, Minister of Internal Affairs [[Isgender Mulikov]], was convicted and imprisoned for corruption.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 September 2020 |title=Спустя год стали известны статьи УК, по которым осуждены И. Муликов, М. Нобатов и Ч. Кулов |trans-title=A year later, the articles of the Criminal Code under which I. Mulikov, M. Nobatov and Ch. Kulov were convicted became known |url=https://turkmen.news/news/mulikov-nobatov-kulov/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020010936/https://turkmen.news/news/mulikov-nobatov-kulov/ |archive-date=20 October 2020 |access-date=29 July 2021 |publisher=turkmen.news |language=Russian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=3 December 2019 |title=Бывший министр внутренних дел Туркменистана осуждён |trans-title=The former Minister of Internal Affairs of Turkmenistan has been convicted |url=https://rus.azathabar.com/a/30305784.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014122353/https://rus.azathabar.com/a/30305784.html |archive-date=14 October 2020 |access-date=29 July 2021 |publisher=RFE/RL, Inc. |language=Russian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Watan habarlary 03.12.2019 | Ghostarchive |url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/VHj0XfsRRHM |access-date=2023-04-07 |website=ghostarchive.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=1 October 2019 |title=Президент Туркменистана уволил главу МВД за серьёзные недостатки в работе |trans-title=The President of Turkmenistan fired the head of the Ministry of Internal Affairs for serious shortcomings in his work |url=https://turkmenportal.com/blog/22036/prezident-turkmenistana-uvolil-glavu-mvd-za-sereznye-nedostatki-v-rabote |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729155148/https://turkmenportal.com/blog/22036/prezident-turkmenistana-uvolil-glavu-mvd-za-sereznye-nedostatki-v-rabote |archive-date=29 July 2021 |access-date=29 July 2021 |publisher=Turkmenportal.ru |language=Russian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 December 2019 |title=Обритый экс-глава МВД Туркмении перед камерой повинился за преступления |trans-title=The shaved former head of Turkmenistan's Ministry of Internal Affairs confessed to his crimes on camera |url=https://fergana.news/news/113015/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729155149/https://fergana.news/news/113015/ |archive-date=29 July 2021 |access-date=29 July 2021 |publisher=Fergana |language=Russian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 January 2019 |title=Туркменистан: министр внутренних дел появился в наручниках |trans-title=Turkmenistan: Interior Minister appears in handcuffs |url=https://russian.eurasianet.org/%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80-%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85-%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB-%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%8F-%D0%B2-%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%85 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014122451/https://russian.eurasianet.org/%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD-%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80-%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85-%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB-%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%8F-%D0%B2-%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%85 |archive-date=14 October 2020 |access-date=29 July 2021 |publisher=Eurasianet |language=Russian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 January 2019 |title=В Туркменистане осужден экс-глава МВД. По ТВ его показали кающимся и остриженным наголо |trans-title=The former head of the Ministry of Internal Affairs has been convicted in Turkmenistan. He was shown on TV repentant and with his head shaved. |url=https://rus.ozodi.org/a/turkmenistan/30307359.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926015630/https://rus.ozodi.org/a/turkmenistan/30307359.html |archive-date=26 September 2020 |access-date=29 July 2021 |publisher=RFE/RL, Inc. |language=Russian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 December 2019 |title=Президент Туркменистана провёл выездное заседание Госсовета безопасности |trans-title=The President of Turkmenistan held an off-site meeting of the State Security Council. |url=https://turkmenportal.com/blog/23558/prezident-turkmenistana-provel-vyezdnoe-zasedanie-gossoveta-bezopasnosti |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806183018/https://turkmenportal.com/blog/23558/prezident-turkmenistana-provel-vyezdnoe-zasedanie-gossoveta-bezopasnosti |archive-date=6 August 2020 |access-date=29 July 2021 |publisher=Turkmenportal.com |language=Russian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=3 December 2019 |title=Итоги работы силовых ведомств за 11 месяцев года рассмотрены на заседании Госсовета безопасности |trans-title=The results of the security agencies' work for the first 11 months of the year were reviewed at a meeting of the State Security Council. |url=http://tdh.gov.tm/news/tm/articles.aspx&article20703&cat11 |publisher=Туркменистан сегодня |language=Russian}}{{Dead link|date=October 2022|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=February 2025}} In 2020, the deputy prime minister for education and science, Pürli Agamyradow, was dismissed for failure to control bribery in education.<ref name="ed" />

The illegal adoption of abandoned babies in Turkmenistan is blamed on rampant corruption in the agencies involved in the legal adoption process which pushes some parents to a "cheaper and faster" option.<ref name="rfe08jul21">{{Cite news |date=7 July 2021 |title=Buying Babies In Turkmenistan: 'Rampant' Corruption Drives Couples To Illegal Adoptions |language=en |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmenistan-buying-babies/31346163.html |url-status=live |access-date=8 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210707202215/https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmenistan-buying-babies/31346163.html |archive-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> One married couple in the eastern Farap district said that they had to provide documents and letters from 40 different agencies to support their adoption application, yet three years later there was still no decision on their bid. Meanwhile, wealthier applicants in Farap received a child for legal adoption within four months after applying because they paid up to 50,000 manats (about $14,300) in bribes.<ref name="rfe08jul21" />

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Turkmenistan|List of mountains of Turkmenistan}}

[[File:Turkmenistan Topography.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Topography of Turkmenistan]]
[[File:Water Stress, Top Countries (2020).svg|thumb|Turkmenistan is the tenth most [[Water scarcity|water-stressed]] country in the world.]]
At {{convert|488100|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, Turkmenistan is the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|world's 52nd-largest country]]. It is slightly smaller than [[Spain]] and larger than [[Cameroon]]. It lies between latitudes [[35th parallel north|35°]] and [[43rd parallel north|43° N]], and longitudes [[52nd meridian east|52°]] and [[67th meridian east|67° E]].
Over 80% of the country is covered by the [[Karakum Desert]]. The center of the country is dominated by the [[Turan Depression]] and the Karakum Desert. Topographically, Turkmenistan is bounded by the [[Ustyurt Plateau]] to the north, the [[Kopet Dag]] [[mountain range|Range]] to the south, the Paropamyz Plateau, the Koytendag Range to the east, the [[Amu Darya]] Valley, and the [[Caspian Sea]] to the west.<ref name="geotext">{{Cite book |last1=Çaryýew |first1=B. |url=https://docplayer.biz.tr/181461559-Turkmenistanyn-bilim-ministrligi-tarapyndan-hodurlenildi.html#show_full_text |title=Türkmenistanyň Geografiýasy |last2=Ilamanow |first2=Ýa. |date=2010 |publisher=Bilim Ministrligi |location=Ashgabat |language=Turkmen |access-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024121/https://docplayer.biz.tr/181461559-Turkmenistanyn-bilim-ministrligi-tarapyndan-hodurlenildi.html#show_full_text |archive-date=15 April 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Turkmenistan includes three tectonic regions, the Epigersin platform region, the Alpine shrinkage region, and the Epiplatform orogenesis region.<ref name="geotext" /> The Alpine tectonic region is the epicenter of earthquakes in Turkmenistan. Strong earthquakes occurred in the Kopet Dag Range in 1869, 1893, 1895, 1929, 1948, and 1994. The city of Ashgabat and surrounding villages were largely destroyed by the [[1948 Ashgabat earthquake|1948 earthquake]].<ref name="geotext" />

The [[Kopet Dag]] [[mountain range]], along the southwestern border, reaches {{convert|2,912|m|ft|lk=out|abbr=off}} at Kuh-e Rizeh (Mount Rizeh).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Golil - Peakbagger.com |url=https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10469 |access-date=2023-04-07 |website=www.peakbagger.com}}</ref>

The Great Balkhan Range in the west of the country ([[Balkan Province]]) and the [[Köýtendag Range]] on the southeastern border with Uzbekistan ([[Lebap Province]]) are the only other significant elevations. The Great Balkhan Range rises to {{convert|1880|m|ft}} at [[Gora Arlan|Mount Arlan]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2004 |title=Mount Arlan |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=13160 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118131221/http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=13160 |archive-date=18 January 2012 |access-date=30 January 2012 |publisher=Peakbagger.com}}</ref> and the highest summit in Turkmenistan is [[Ayrybaba]] in the Kugitangtau Range – {{convert|3137|m|ft}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2004 |title=Ayrybaba |url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10488 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203025158/http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10488 |archive-date=3 December 2013 |access-date=25 November 2013 |publisher=Peakbagger.com}}</ref> The [[Kopet Dag]] mountain range forms most of the border between Turkmenistan and Iran.

Major rivers include the [[Amu Darya]], the [[Murghab River]], the [[Hari River, Afghanistan|Tejen River]], and the [[Atrek|Atrek (Etrek) River]]. Tributaries of the Atrek include the [[Sumbar River]] and [[Chandyr River]].

The Turkmen shore along the [[Caspian Sea]] is {{convert|1748|km|mi}} long. The Caspian Sea is entirely landlocked, with no natural access to the ocean, although the [[Volga–Don Canal]] allows shipping access to and from the [[Black Sea]].

[[List of cities in Turkmenistan|Major cities]] include [[Ashgabat|Aşgabat]], [[Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenistan|Türkmenbaşy]] (formerly Krasnovodsk), [[Balkanabat]], [[Daşoguz]], [[Türkmenabat]], and [[Mary, Turkmenistan|Mary]].

=== Climate, biodiversity and environment ===
{{Main|Climate of Turkmenistan|Environmental issues in Turkmenistan}}

[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map TKM present.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Köppen climate classifications of Turkmenistan]]

Turkmenistan is in a temperate desert zone with a dry continental climate. Remote from the open sea, with mountain ranges to the south and southeast, Turkmenistan's climate is characterized by low precipitation, low cloudiness, and high evaporation. Absence of mountains to the north allows cold Arctic air to penetrate southward to the southerly mountain ranges, which in turn block warm, moist air from the Indian Ocean. Limited winter and spring rains are attributable to moist air from the west, originating in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.<ref name="geotext" /> Winters are mild and dry, with most precipitation falling between January and May. The Kopet Dag Range receives the highest level of precipitation.

The [[Karakum Desert]] is one of the driest deserts in the world; some places have an average annual precipitation of only {{convert|12|mm|in|2|abbr=on}}. The highest temperature recorded in [[Ashgabat]] is {{convert|48.0|°C|lk=on}} and [[Kerki]], an extreme inland city located on the banks of the [[Amu Darya]] river, recorded {{convert|51.7|°C}} in July 1983, although this value is unofficial. {{convert|50.1|C|F|0}} is the highest temperature recorded at [[Repetek Biosphere State Reserve|Repetek Reserve]], recognized as the highest temperature ever recorded in the whole former Soviet Union.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan |url=https://jsis.washington.edu/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/TURKMENISTAN.pdf |publisher=Washington University }}{{Dead link|date=April 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Turkmenistan enjoys 235–240 sunny days per year. The average number of [[degree day]]s ranges from 4500 to 5000 Celsius, sufficient for production of extra long staple cotton.<ref name="geotext" />

Turkmenistan contains seven terrestrial ecoregions: [[Alai-Western Tian Shan steppe]], [[Kopet Dag woodlands and forest steppe]], [[Badghyz and Karabil semi-desert]], [[Caspian lowland desert]], [[Central Asian riparian woodlands]], [[Central Asian southern desert]], and [[Kopet Dag semi-desert]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |display-authors=1 |year=2017 |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |pages=534–545 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |issn=0006-3568 |pmc=5451287 |pmid=28608869 |doi-access=free |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest |first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov |first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad}}</ref>

Turkmenistan's [[greenhouse gas emissions]] per person (17.5 tCO2e) are considerably higher than the OECD average, due mainly to natural gas seepage from oil and gas exploration.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 September 2019 |title=Strategic Infrastructure Planning for Sustainable Development in Turkmenistan |url=http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=ENV%2FEPOC%2FEAP%282019%2912&doclanguage=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207170454/http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=ENV%2FEPOC%2FEAP%282019%2912&doclanguage=en |archive-date=7 February 2020 |access-date=3 March 2020 |website=[[OECD]]}}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{further|Districts of Turkmenistan}}
Turkmenistan is divided into five regions or ''welayatlar'' (singular ''[[welayat]]'') and one capital city district. The provinces are subdivided into districts (''etraplar'', sing. ''etrap''), which may be either counties or cities. According to the [[Constitution of Turkmenistan]] (Article 16 in the 2008 Constitution, Article 47 in the 1992 Constitution), some cities may have the status of ''welaýat'' (province) or ''etrap'' (district).{{clear left}}
{{Turkmenistan Provinces Image Map}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#efefef;"
! Division !! [[ISO 3166-2]] !! Capital city !! Area<ref>''Statistical Yearbook of Turkmenistan 2000–2004'', National Institute of State Statistics and Information of Turkmenistan, Ashgabat, 2005.</ref> !! Pop (2022 Census)<ref>State Commission for Statistics, Turkmenistan (online)</ref> !! Key
|-
! Ashgabat City
| TM-S || [[Ashgabat]] || {{convert|470|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} || 1,030,063 ||
|-
! [[Ahal Region]]
| TM-A || [[Arkadag]] || {{convert|97160|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} || 886,845 || 1
|-
! [[Balkan Region]]
| TM-B || [[Balkanabat]] || {{convert|139270|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} || 529,895 || 2
|-
! [[Daşoguz Region]]
| TM-D || [[Daşoguz]] || {{convert|73430|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} || 1,550,354 || 3
|-
! [[Lebap Region]]
| TM-L || [[Türkmenabat]] || {{convert|93730|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} || 1,447,298 || 4
|-
! [[Mary Region]]
| TM-M || [[Mary, Turkmenistan|Mary]] || {{convert|87150|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} || 1,613,386 || 5
|}

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Turkmenistan|Agriculture in Turkmenistan}}

The country possesses the world's fourth largest reserves of [[natural gas]] and substantial oil resources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019 |url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2019-full-report.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226123745/https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2019-full-report.pdf |archive-date=26 December 2019 |access-date=13 December 2019}}</ref>

Turkmenistan has taken a cautious approach to economic reform, hoping to use gas and cotton sales to sustain its economy. In 2019, the unemployment rate was estimated to be 4.27%.<ref name="World Factbook" />

Between 1998 and 2002, Turkmenistan suffered from the continued lack of adequate [[export]] routes for natural gas and from obligations on extensive short-term external [[debt]]. At the same time, however, the value of total exports rose sharply due to increases in international oil and gas prices. The subsequent collapse of both hydrocarbon and cotton prices in 2014 cut revenues from export sales severely, causing Turkmenistan to run trade deficits from 2015 through 2017.<ref name="stat2020" /> Economic prospects in the near future are discouraging because of widespread internal [[poverty]] and the burden of foreign debt,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Country risk of Turkmenistan: Economy |url=https://import-export.societegenerale.fr/en/country/turkmenistan/economy-country-risk#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20updated%20IMF,post%2Dpandemic%20global%20economic%20recovery. |access-date=27 January 2021 |website=Societe Generale |publisher=Export Enterprises SA}}{{Dead link|date=January 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> coupled with continued low hydrocarbon prices and reduced Chinese purchases of natural gas.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hess |first=Maximilian |date=16 June 2020 |title=Central Asian Gas Exports to China: Beijing's Latest Bargaining Chip? |url=https://www.fpri.org/article/2020/06/central-asian-gas-exports-to-china-beijings-latest-bargaining-chip/ |publisher=Foreign Policy Research Institute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Rickleton |first=Chris |date=22 January 2021 |title=Turkmenistan: Big on gas, short on options |publisher=Eurasianet |url=https://eurasianet.org/turkmenistan-big-on-gas-short-on-options |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129123431/https://eurasianet.org/turkmenistan-big-on-gas-short-on-options |archive-date=29 January 2021}}</ref> One reflection of economic stress is the black-market exchange rate for the Turkmen manat, which though officially set at 3.5 manats to the US dollar, reportedly was trading in November 2022 at 18.5 manats to the dollar.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 November 2022 |title=Turkmenistan: Seoul man |url=https://eurasianet.org/turkmenistan-seoul-man |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314212335/https://eurasianet.org/turkmenistan-seoul-man |archive-date=14 March 2023 |access-date=11 April 2023 |website=Eurasianet}}</ref>

President Niyazov spent much of the country's revenue on extensively renovating cities, Ashgabat in particular. Corruption watchdogs voiced particular concern over the management of Turkmenistan's currency reserves, most of which are held in off-budget funds such as the Foreign Exchange Reserve Fund in the [[Deutsche Bank]] in [[Frankfurt]], according to a report released in April 2006 by London-based non-governmental organization [[Global Witness]].

According to a decree of the Peoples' Council of 14 August 2003,<ref>Resolution of Halk Maslahaty (Peoples' Council of Turkmenistan) N 35 (14 August 2003)</ref> [[electricity]], [[natural gas]], [[water]] and [[salt]] were to have been subsidized for citizens until 2030. Under implementing regulations, every citizen was entitled to 35 kilowatt hours of electricity and 50 cubic meters of natural gas each month. The state also provided 250 liters (66 gallons) of water per day.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 July 2017 |title=Turkmenistan leader wants to end free power, gas, and water |url=http://www.dw.com/en/turkmenistan-leader-wants-to-end-free-power-gas-and-water/a-39152012 |url-status=live |access-date=22 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201111623/http://www.dw.com/en/turkmenistan-leader-wants-to-end-free-power-gas-and-water/a-39152012 |archive-date=1 December 2017}}</ref> As of 1 January 2019, however, all such subsidies were abolished, and payment for utilities was implemented.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Putz |first=Catherine |date=27 September 2018 |title=Turkmenistan Set to Rollback Subsidies for Good |publisher=The Diplomat |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/09/turkmenistan-set-to-rollback-subsidies-for-good/ |url-status=live |access-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121123750/https://thediplomat.com/2018/09/turkmenistan-set-to-rollback-subsidies-for-good/ |archive-date=21 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=26 September 2018 |title=Turkmenistan Cuts Last Vestiges Of Program For Free Utilities |publisher=RFE/RL |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmenistan-cuts-last-vestiges-of-program-for-free-utilities/29511308.html |url-status=live |access-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902172745/https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmenistan-cuts-last-vestiges-of-program-for-free-utilities/29511308.html |archive-date=2 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Bugayev |first1=Toymyrat |last2=Najibullah |first2=Farangis |title=The Gas Man Cometh: In Turkmenistan, Free Energy No More |publisher=RFE/RL |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmen-energy-consumers-get-shock-treatment/29594173.html |url-status=live |access-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220105930/https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmen-energy-consumers-get-shock-treatment/29594173.html |archive-date=20 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=26 July 2019 |title=Pay for Electricity on Time or Face Court, Public Warned in East Turkmenistan |publisher=Turkmen.news |url=https://en.turkmen.news/news/utilities-turkmenistan/ |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121203114/https://en.turkmen.news/news/utilities-turkmenistan/ |archive-date=21 January 2021}}</ref>

On 1 January 2026, President [[Serdar Berdimuhamedow|Serdar Berdimuhamedov]] signed a bill which regulates [[Virtual asset|virtual assets]] and makes a liscensing scheme for [[cryptocurrency]] exchanges under the country's national bank.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-01 |title=Turkmenistan legalizovao rudarenje i razmenu kriptovaluta |url=https://n1info.rs/svet/turkmenistan-legalizovao-rudarenje-i-razmenu-kriptovaluta/ |access-date=2026-01-01 |website=N1 Info RS |language=sr-RS}}</ref>

=== Natural gas and export routes ===
{{Main|Economy of Turkmenistan#Natural gas|Pipelines in Turkmenistan}}

[[File:TAPI-ceremony-Serhetabat.jpg|thumb|Ceremony on completion of the Turkmen section of the [[Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India Pipeline]]]]
{{As of|May 2011}}, the [[Galkynysh Gas Field]] was estimated to possess the second-largest volume of gas in the world, after the [[South Pars/North Dome Gas-Condensate field|South Pars]] field in the Persian Gulf. Reserves at the [[Galkynysh Gas Field]] are estimated at 21.2 trillion cubic metres.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Solovyov |first=Dmitry |date=25 May 2011 |title=Turkmen gas field to be world's second-largest |work=Reuters |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/gas-turkmenistan-idUKLDE74O23A20110525 |url-status=dead |access-date=6 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219043938/https://uk.reuters.com/article/gas-turkmenistan-idUKLDE74O23A20110525 |archive-date=19 December 2019}}</ref> The Turkmenistan Natural Gas Company ([[Türkmengaz]]) controls gas extraction in the country. Gas production is the most dynamic and promising sector of the national economy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan – Oil & Gas |url=https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/turkmenistan-oil-gas |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818095428/https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/turkmenistan-oil-gas |archive-date=18 August 2022 |access-date=2 February 2021 |website=International Trade Administration}}</ref> In 2009 the government of Turkmenistan began a policy of diversifying export routes for its raw materials.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 February 2010 |title=Turkmenistan. Diversifying export routes |url=http://www.europarussia.com/posts/1748 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202235050/http://www.europarussia.com/posts/1748 |archive-date=2 December 2013 |access-date=25 November 2013 |publisher=Europarussia.com}}</ref>

Prior to 1958, gas production was limited to [[Natural gas#Natural gas|associated gas]] from oil wells in western Turkmenistan. In 1958, the first gas wells were drilled at [[Serhetabat]] (then Kushky) and at Derweze.<ref name="geotext" /> Oil and gas fields were discovered in the Central [[Karakum Desert]] between 1959 and 1965. In addition to Derweze, these include Takyr, Shyh, Chaljulba, Topjulba, Chemmerli, Atabay, Sakarchage, Atasary, Mydar, Goyun, and Zakli. These fields are located in Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments.<ref name="geotext" /> The Turkmen gas industry got underway with the opening of the Ojak gas field in 1966. To put this in perspective, associated gas production in Turkmenistan was only 1.157 billion cubic meters in 1965, but by 1970 natural gas production reached 13 billion cubic meters, and by 1989, 90 billion cubic meters. The USSR exported much of this gas to western Europe. Following independence, natural gas extraction fell as Turkmenistan sought export markets but was limited to existing delivery infrastructure under Russian control: Turkmenistan-Russia in two lines (3087 km, originating at Ojak, and another of 2259 km, also originating at Ojak); the [[Gumdag]] line (2530 km); and the [[Shatlyk gas field|Shatlyk]] line (2644 km) to Russia, Ukraine, and the Caucasus.<ref name="geotext" /> On 1 January 2016, Russia halted natural gas purchases from Turkmenistan after reducing them step by step for the previous years.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Putz |first=Catherine |date=16 January 2016 |title=Russia's Gazprom Stops Buying Gas from Turkmenistan |publisher=Eurasianet |url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/russias-gazprom-stops-buying-gas-from-turkmenistan/ |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209042051/https://thediplomat.com/2016/01/russias-gazprom-stops-buying-gas-from-turkmenistan/ |archive-date=9 February 2021}}</ref> Russia's [[Gazprom]] announced resumption of purchases in April 2019, but reported volumes remained low compared to previous delivery levels.<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 April 2016 |title=Russia's Gazprom Resumes Buying Turkmen Gas After Three-Year Halt |publisher=RFE/RL |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-gazprom-turkmenistan/29883131.html |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024239/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-gazprom-turkmenistan/29883131.html |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref>

In 1997, the [[Korpeje–Kordkuy pipeline|Korpeje-Gurtguy]] natural gas pipeline was built to [[Iran]]. It is 140 kilometers in length and was the first gas pipeline to a foreign customer constructed after independence.<ref name="geotext" /> Turkmenistan's exports of natural gas to Iran, estimated at 12 bcma, ended on 1 January 2017, when [[Turkmengaz]] unilaterally cut off deliveries, citing payment arrears.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pannier |first=Bruce |date=2 January 2017 |title=Turkmen Cutoff Of Iran Leaves Dwindling Gas Options For Ashgabat |publisher=RFE/RL |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmenistan-iran-gas-dispute-dwindling-options/28209476.html |url-status=live |access-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116141032/https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmenistan-iran-gas-dispute-dwindling-options/28209476.html |archive-date=16 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Mukhtarli |first=Fuad |date=23 August 2017 |title=Turkmenistan Turns To Europe As Iran, Russia Shut Off Their Gas Markets |publisher=Caspian News |url=https://caspiannews.com/news-detail/turkmenistan-turns-to-europe-as-iran-russia-shut-off-their-gas-markets-2017-8-18-8/ |url-status=live |access-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303021739/https://caspiannews.com/news-detail/turkmenistan-turns-to-europe-as-iran-russia-shut-off-their-gas-markets-2017-8-18-8/ |archive-date=3 March 2021}}</ref>

In December 2009, the first line, Line A, of the [[Central Asia–China gas pipeline|Trans-Asia]] pipeline to China opened, creating a second major market for Turkmen natural gas. By 2015 Turkmenistan was delivering up to 35 billion cubic meters per annum (bcma) to China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flow of natural gas from Central Asia |url=http://www.cnpc.com.cn/en/FlowofnaturalgasfromCentralAsia/FlowofnaturalgasfromCentralAsia2.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225070830/http://www.cnpc.com.cn/en/FlowofnaturalgasfromCentralAsia/FlowofnaturalgasfromCentralAsia2.shtml |archive-date=25 February 2021 |access-date=13 February 2021 |website=www.cnpc.com.cn}}</ref>

China is the largest buyer of gas from Turkmenistan, via three pipelines linking the two countries through Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. In 2019, China bought over 30bcm of gas from Turkmenistan,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hess |first=Maximilian |title=Central Asian Gas Exports to China: Beijing's Latest Bargaining Chip? |url=https://www.fpri.org/article/2020/06/central-asian-gas-exports-to-china-beijings-latest-bargaining-chip/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209183944/https://www.fpri.org/article/2020/06/central-asian-gas-exports-to-china-beijings-latest-bargaining-chip/ |archive-date=9 February 2021 |access-date=2 February 2021 |website=Foreign Policy Research Institute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 December 2009 |title=China plays Pipelineistan' |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Central_Asia/KL24Ag07.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091224215442/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Central_Asia/KL24Ag07.html |archive-date=24 December 2009 |access-date=3 May 2010 |publisher=Atimes.com}}</ref> making China Turkmenistan's main external source of revenue.<ref>Vakulchuk, Roman and Indra Overland (2019) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329310641 "China's Belt and Road Initiative through the Lens of Central Asia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024180554/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329310641_China%27s_Belt_and_Road_Initiative_through_the_lens_of_Central_Asia |date=24 October 2021}}, in Fanny M. Cheung and Ying-yi Hong (eds) ''Regional Connection under the Belt and Road Initiative. The Prospects for Economic and Financial Cooperation''. London: Routledge, pp. 115–133.</ref> In 2023, the Turkmenistan Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that Turkmenistan's quota on this pipeline system was 40 bcma.<ref>{{citation |url=https://mfa.gov.tm/en/news/3990 |title=STATEMENT FOR MEDIA | date=12 August 2023 |publisher=Turkmenistan Ministry of Foreign Affairs}}</ref>

The [[East–West pipeline]] was completed in December 2015, with the intent of delivering up to 30 bcm of natural gas to the Caspian shore for eventual export through a yet-to-be-built [[Trans-Caspian Gas Pipeline|Trans-Caspian natural gas pipeline]] connecting the Belek-1 compressor station in Turkmenistan to Azerbaijan.

The Turkmenistan government continues to pursue construction of the [[Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India Pipeline]], or TAPI.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 April 2020 |title=Islamabad needs to fast-track TAPI pipeline |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/2200597/2-islamabad-needs-fast-track-tapi-pipeline |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424225403/https://tribune.com.pk/story/2200597/2-islamabad-needs-fast-track-tapi-pipeline |archive-date=24 April 2021 |access-date=5 January 2021 |website=The Express Tribune |language=en}}</ref> The anticipated cost of the TAPI pipeline is currently estimated at $25 billion. Turkmenistan's section of the pipeline was started in 2015 and was completed in 2019, though the Afghanistan and Pakistan sections remain under construction.

In 2025 most of the worlds largest [[Methane leak|leaks of methane]], a [[Greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas]] which causes [[climate change]], were from the country.<ref name=":0" />

=== Oil ===
{{Main|Economy of Turkmenistan#Oil}}

{{See also|Pipelines in Turkmenistan}}
[[File:Jack-up-rig-in-the-caspian-sea.JPG|thumb|[[Oil platform]] of Turkmenistan in the [[Caspian Sea]]]]
Oil was known to exist in western Turkmenistan as early as the 18th century. General [[Aleksey Kuropatkin]] reported in 1879 that the [[Cheleken Peninsula]] had as many as three thousand oil sources.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuropatkin |first=Aleksey |url=https://rusneb.ru/catalog/000199_000009_003592081/ |title=Туркмения и Туркмены |date=1879 |publisher=Типоrрафия В.А. Полефини |location=St. Petersburg |page=2 |language=Russian |access-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024253/https://rusneb.ru/catalog/000199_000009_003592081/ |archive-date=15 April 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Turkmen settlers in the 19th century extracted oil near the surface and shipped it to [[Astrakhan]] by ship and to Iran by camel caravan. Commercial oil drilling began in the 1890s. The oil extraction industry grew with the exploitation of the fields in Cheleken in 1909 (by [[Branobel]]) and in Balkanabat in the 1930s. Production leaped ahead with the discovery of the Gumdag field in 1948 and the Goturdepe field in 1959. By 1940 production had reached two million tons per year, by 1960 over four million tons, and by 1970 over 14 million tons. Oil production in 2019 was 9.8 million tons.<ref name="geotext" /><ref name="stat2020">{{Cite book |title=Türkmenistanyň Ýyllyk Statistik Neşiri 2019 Ýyl |date=2020 |publisher=State Committee of Statistics of Turkmenistan |location=Ashgabat |language=Turkmen, Russian, English}}</ref>

Oil wells are mainly found in the western lowlands. This area also produces associated natural gas. The main oil fields are Cheleken, Gonurdepe, Nebitdag, Gumdag, Barsagelmez, Guyujyk, Gyzylgum, Ordekli, Gogerendag, Gamyshlyja, Ekerem, Chekishler, Keymir, Ekizek, and Bugdayly. Oil is also produced from offshore wells in the Caspian Sea.<ref name="geotext" /> Most oil is extracted by the Turkmenistan State Company (Concern) [[Türkmennebit]] from fields at Goturdepe, [[Balkanabat]], and on the [[Hazar, Turkmenistan|Cheleken]] Peninsula near the Caspian Sea, which have a combined estimated reserve of 700 million tons. Much of the oil produced in Turkmenistan is refined in the [[Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenistan|Türkmenbaşy]] and [[Seýdi|Seydi]] refineries. Some oil is exported by tanker vessel across the Caspian Sea en route to Europe via [[Baku]] and [[Makhachkala]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan Oil and Gas |url=http://turkmenistanoil.tripod.com/id4.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202234531/http://turkmenistanoil.tripod.com/id4.html |archive-date=2 December 2013 |access-date=25 November 2013 |publisher=Turkmenistanoil.tripod.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Ershov |first1=Alexander |last2=Yagova |first2=Olga |date=2 December 2019 |title=After Turkmen oil breakthrough, Vitol adds products to portfolio |publisher=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkmenistan-products-vitol/after-turkmen-oil-breakthrough-vitol-adds-products-to-portfolio-idUSKBN1Y61JY |url-status=live |access-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415025133/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkmenistan-products-vitol/after-turkmen-oil-breakthrough-vitol-adds-products-to-portfolio-idUSKBN1Y61JY |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=14 December 2020 |title=SOCAR Trading wins tender for Turkmen oil purchase |publisher=News.ru |url=https://news.ru/en/economics/socar-trading-wins-tender-for-turkmen-oil-purchase/ |url-status=dead |access-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033337/https://news.ru/en/economics/socar-trading-wins-tender-for-turkmen-oil-purchase/ |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> Foreign firms involved in offshore oil extraction include [[Eni|Eni S.p.A.]] of Italy, [[Dragon Oil]] of the United Arab Emirates, and [[Petronas]] of Malaysia.

On 21 January 2021, the governments of [[Azerbaijan]] and Turkmenistan signed a memorandum of understanding to jointly develop an oil field in the [[Caspian Sea]] that straddles the nations' border. Known previously as Kyapaz in [[Azerbaijani language|Azeri]] and Serdar in Turkmen, the oil field, now called Dostluk ("friendship" in both languages), potentially has reserves of up to 60 million tons of oil as well as associated natural gas.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Adams |first=Mikaila |date=22 January 2021 |title=Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan sign MoU for Caspian Sea field |publisher=Oil & Gas Journal |url=https://www.ogj.com/general-interest/article/14196058/turkmenistan-azerbaijan-sign-mou-for-caspian-sea-field |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413141205/https://www.ogj.com/general-interest/article/14196058/turkmenistan-azerbaijan-sign-mou-for-caspian-sea-field |archive-date=13 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=O'Byrne |first=David |date=22 January 2021 |title=Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan agreement advances Caspian gas cooperation |publisher=Eurasianet |url=https://eurasianet.org/azerbaijan-and-turkmenistan-agreement-advances-caspian-gas-cooperation |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210152311/https://eurasianet.org/azerbaijan-and-turkmenistan-agreement-advances-caspian-gas-cooperation |archive-date=10 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=21 January 2021 |title=Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan Finally Reach Deal On Lucrative Caspian Sea Energy Field |publisher=RFE/RL |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/azerbaijan-turkmenistan-deal-caspian-energy-field-dostluq-/31061674.html |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213131502/https://www.rferl.org/a/azerbaijan-turkmenistan-deal-caspian-energy-field-dostluq-/31061674.html |archive-date=13 February 2021}}</ref>

=== Energy ===
{{See also|Economy of Turkmenistan#Power generation}}
[[File:Gorskii 04414u.jpg|thumb|right|The generators of the Hindukush hydro power plant]]
Turkmenistan's first electrical power plant was built in 1909 and went into full operation in 1913. As of 2019 it was still in operation. The original triple-turbine Hindukush hydroelectric plant, built by the Austro-Hungarian company [[Ganz Works]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Abraham Ganz at the Hindukush |url=http://riowang.blogspot.com/2015/09/abraham-ganz-at-hindukush.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729214123/http://riowang.blogspot.com/2015/09/abraham-ganz-at-hindukush.html |archive-date=29 July 2021 |access-date=29 July 2021 |publisher=Poemas del rio Wang}}</ref> on the Murghab River, was designed to produce 1.2 megawatts at 16.5 kilovolts.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 July 2019 |title=Hindukush Power Station is 110 years old |publisher=Turkmenistan News Gazette |url=https://turkmenistannewsgazette.com/hindukush-power-station-is-110-years-old/ |url-status=live |access-date=2 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024741/https://turkmenistannewsgazette.com/hindukush-power-station-is-110-years-old/ |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="minenergo">{{Cite web |date=17 January 2016 |title=О министерстве |url=http://minenergo.gov.tm/ru/node/3 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033457/http://minenergo.gov.tm/ru/node/3 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=2 March 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Energy of Turkmenistan |language=Russian}}</ref> Until 1957, however, most electrical power in Turkmenistan was produced locally by small diesel generators and diesel-electric locomotives.<ref name="minenergo" />

In 1957, Soviet authorities created a republic-level directorate for power generation, and in 1966 Turkmenistan entered the first phase of connecting its remote regions to the regional Central Asian electrical grid. By 1979 all rural areas of Turkmenistan were brought on line. Construction of the Mary thermal power plant began in 1969, and by 1987 the eighth and final generator block was completed, bringing the plant to its design capacity of 1.686 gigawatts. In 1998 Turkmenenergo commissioned its first gas-turbine power plant, using [[GE]] turbines.<ref name="minenergo" />

As of 2010, Turkmenistan featured eight major power plants operating on natural gas, in [[Mary, Turkmenistan|Mary]], [[Ashgabat]], [[Balkanabat]], [[Büzmeýin, Turkmenistan|Buzmeyin]] (suburb of Ashgabat), [[Daşoguz|Dashoguz]], [[Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenistan|Türkmenbaşy]], [[Türkmenabat|Turkmenabat]], and Seydi.<ref name="geotext" /> As of 2013, Turkmenistan had 10 electrical power plants equipped with 32 turbines, including 14 steam-driven, 15 gas-powered, and 3 hydroelectric.<ref name="plan">{{Cite web |last=Rejepova |first=Tavus |date=3 June 2013 |title=Turkmenistan Adopts Electric Power Industry Development Plan |url=https://www.cacianalyst.org/publications/field-reports/item/12748-turkmenistan-adopts-electric-power-industry-development-plan.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024122/https://www.cacianalyst.org/publications/field-reports/item/12748-turkmenistan-adopts-electric-power-industry-development-plan.html |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=15 March 2021 |publisher=CACI Analyst}}</ref> Power output in 2011 was 18.27 billion kWh, of which 2.5 billion kWh was exported.<ref name="plan" /> Major power generating installations include the Hindukush Hydroelectric Station,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Curtis |first=Glenn |url=http://countrystudies.us/turkmenistan/22.htm |title=Turkmenistan: A Country Study |date=1996 |publisher=The Library of Congress |location=Washington DC |access-date=2 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613172956/http://countrystudies.us/turkmenistan/22.htm |archive-date=13 June 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> which has a rated capacity of 350 megawatts, and the Mary Thermoelectric Power Station,<ref>{{Cite news |last= |date=8 September 2018 |title=Turkmenistan to double power exports, eyes Pakistani market |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-turkmenistan-powerstation-idUSKCN1LO0A6 |url-status=dead |access-date=5 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203123148/https://www.reuters.com/?edition-redirect=uk |archive-date=3 February 2023}}</ref> which has a rated capacity of 1,370 megawatts. In 2018, electrical power production totaled more than 21 billion kilowatt-hours.<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) – Qb |url=https://www.eia.gov/opendata/qb.php?sdid=INTL.2-12-TKM-BKWH.A |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226223703/https://www.eia.gov/opendata/qb.php?sdid=INTL.2-12-TKM-BKWH.A |archive-date=26 February 2021 |access-date=5 January 2021 |website=www.eia.gov}}</ref>

Since 2013, additional power plants have been constructed in [[Mary, Turkmenistan|Mary]] and [[Ahal Region|Ahal province]], and [[Çärjew District]] of [[Lebap Region|Lebap province]]. The Mary-3 combined cycle power plant, built by [[Çalık Holding]] with [[GE]] turbines, commissioned in 2018, produces 1.574 gigawatts of electrical power and is specifically intended to support expanded exports of electricity to Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Zerger power plant built by [[Sumitomo]], [[Mitsubishi]], [[Hitachi]], and [[Rönesans Holding]] in [[Çärjew District]] has a design capacity of 432 megawatts from three 144-megawatt gas turbines and was commissioned in September 2021.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 September 2021 |title=Успешно реализован проект по строительству газотурбинной электростанции |language=ru |publisher=Туркменистан: золотой век |url=https://turkmenistan.gov.tm/ru/post/56822/uspeshno-realizovan-proekt-po-stroitelstvu-gazoturbinnoj-elektrostancii |url-status=live |access-date=9 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909013215/https://turkmenistan.gov.tm/ru/post/56822/uspeshno-realizovan-proekt-po-stroitelstvu-gazoturbinnoj-elektrostancii |archive-date=9 September 2021}}</ref> It is also primarily intended for export of electricity. The Ahal power plant, with capacity of 650 megawatts, was constructed to power the city of Ashgabat and in particular the Olympic Village.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 October 2020 |title=Turkmenistan has increased its electricity exports by 1.5 times |publisher=Orient |url=https://orient.tm/en/turkmenistan-has-increased-its-electricity-exports-by-1-5-times/ |url-status=dead |access-date=15 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429055550/https://orient.tm/en/turkmenistan-has-increased-its-electricity-exports-by-1-5-times/ |archive-date=29 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 May 2015 |title=Ambassador Allan Mustard visits the largest GE-supplied gas turbine power plant in Turkmenistan |url=https://tm.usembassy.gov/ambassador-allan-mustard-visits-largest-ge-supplied-gas-turbine-power-plant-turkmenistan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621155724/https://tm.usembassy.gov/ambassador-allan-mustard-visits-largest-ge-supplied-gas-turbine-power-plant-turkmenistan/ |archive-date=21 June 2021 |access-date=15 March 2021 |publisher=U.S. Embassy Ashgabat}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Hasanov |first=Huseyn |date=17 September 2019 |title=Turkmen power stations using GE technology |publisher=Trend |url=https://en.trend.az/casia/turkmenistan/3119523.html |url-status=live |access-date=15 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325115803/https://en.trend.az/casia/turkmenistan/3119523.html |archive-date=25 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2 November 2020 |title="Watan" DES elektrik energiýasynyň önümçiligini 1,4 esse artdyrar |language=Turkmen |publisher=Biznes Türkmenistan |url=https://business.com.tm/tm/post/6216/watan-des-elektrik-energiyasynyn-onumchiligini-14-esse-artdyrar |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033446/https://business.com.tm/tm/post/6216/watan-des-elektrik-energiyasynyn-onumchiligini-14-esse-artdyrar |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref>

Turkmenistan is a net exporter of electrical power to Central Asian republics and southern neighbors. In 2019, total electrical energy generation in Turkmenistan reportedly totaled 22,521.6 million kilowatt-hours (22.52 terawatt-hours).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Türkmenistanyň Ýyllyk Statistik Neşiri 2019 Ýyl |date=2020 |publisher=State Committee of Statistics of Turkmenistan |location=Ashgabat |page=28 |language=Turkmen, Russian, English}}</ref>

=== Agriculture ===
{{Main|Agriculture in Turkmenistan}}

Following independence in 1991, Soviet-era [[Kolkhoz|collective-]] and [[Sovkhoz|state farms]] were converted to "farmers associations" ({{langx|tk|daýhan birleşigi}}).<ref name="geotext" /> Virtually all field crops are irrigated due to the aridity of the climate. The top crop in terms of area planted is wheat (761 thousand hectares in 2019), followed by cotton (551 thousand hectares in 2019).<ref name="stat2020" />

Turkmenistan is the world's tenth-largest cotton producer.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wright |first=Steph |date=7 September 2020 |title=Top Cotton Producing Countries in the World |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-cotton-producing-countries-in-the-world.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122002233/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-cotton-producing-countries-in-the-world.html |archive-date=22 January 2021 |access-date=27 January 2021 |website=World Atlas}}</ref> Turkmenistan started producing cotton in the Murghab Valley following conquest of [[Mary, Turkmenistan|Merv]] by the [[Russian Empire]] in 1884.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lipovsky |first=Igor |date=1995 |title=The Central Asian cotton epic |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02634939508400923 |url-status=live |journal=Central Asian Survey |location=University of St Petersburg |volume=14 |issue=4 |page=542 |doi=10.1080/02634939508400923 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033335/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02634939508400923 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=27 January 2021 |issn = 0263-4937|url-access=subscription }}</ref> According to human rights organizations, public sector workers, such as teachers and doctors, are required by the government to pick cotton under the threat of losing their jobs if they refuse.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan's Forced Labor Problem |url=http://www.cottoncampaign.org/turkmenistans-forced-labor-problem.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124052919/http://www.cottoncampaign.org/turkmenistans-forced-labor-problem.html |archive-date=24 January 2021 |access-date=27 January 2021 |website=Cotton Campaign}}</ref>

During the 2020 season, Turkmenistan reportedly produced roughly 1.5 million tons of raw cotton. In 2012, around 7,000 tractors, 5,000 cotton cultivators, 2,200 sewing machines and other machinery, mainly procured from Belarus and the United States, were used. Prior to imposition of a ban on export of raw cotton in October 2018, Turkmenistan exported raw cotton to Russia, Iran, South Korea, United Kingdom, China, Indonesia, Turkey, Ukraine, Singapore and the [[Baltic states]]. Beginning in 2019, the Turkmenistan government shifted focus to export of cotton yarn and finished textiles and garments.<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 July 2012 |title=Turkmenistan to Privilege US Farm Machinery Manufacturers |work=The Gazette of Central Asia |publisher=Satrapia |url=http://www.satrapia.com/news/article/turkmenistan-to-privilege-us-farm-machinery-manufacturers/ |url-status=live |access-date=4 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725195723/http://www.satrapia.com/news/article/turkmenistan-to-privilege-us-farm-machinery-manufacturers/ |archive-date=25 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=1 May 2019 |title=Turkmen president instructs to accelerate sowing of raw cotton |publisher=Azernews |url=https://www.azernews.az/region/149930.html#:~:text=Moreover%2C%20in%20October%202018%2C%20President,country's%20rapidly%20developing%20textile%20industry. |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415035757/https://www.azernews.az/region/149930.html#:~:text=Moreover%2C%20in%20October%202018%2C%20President,country's%20rapidly%20developing%20textile%20industry. |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Muradov |first=Sapar |date=11 February 2019 |title=Turkmenistan will decrease the export of raw cotton and increase the production of finished products from it |publisher=Orient |url=https://orient.tm/en/turkmenistan-will-decrease-the-export-of-raw-cotton-and-increase-the-production-of-finished-products-from-it/ |url-status=dead |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033255/https://orient.tm/en/turkmenistan-will-decrease-the-export-of-raw-cotton-and-increase-the-production-of-finished-products-from-it/ |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Turkmenistan}}

[[File:Darvasa gas crater panorama.jpg|thumb|right|Panorama of the site of the [[Darvaza gas crater]]]]Turkmenistan reported arrival of 14,438 foreign tourists in 2019.<ref name="stat2020" /> Turkmenistan's international tourism has not grown significantly despite creation of the [[Awaza]] tourist zone on the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Las Vegas on the Caspian? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2011/12/20111230155633146491.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714115410/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2011/12/20111230155633146491.html |archive-date=14 July 2020 |access-date=29 July 2014 |website=aljazeera.com}}</ref> Every traveler must obtain a visa before entering Turkmenistan (see [[Visa policy of Turkmenistan]]). To obtain a tourist visa, citizens of most countries need visa support from a local travel agency. For tourists visiting Turkmenistan, organized tours exist providing visits to historical sites in and near [[Daşoguz]], [[Konye-Urgench]], [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nisa]], Ancient [[Merv]], and [[Mary, Turkmenistan|Mary]], as well as beach tours to Avaza and medical tours and holidays in the sanatoria in Mollagara, Bayramaly, Ýylysuw and [[Archman]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=turkmenistan |url=https://www.turkmen-travel.com/eng/places-to-go-see/health-resorts-sanatoriums/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621144208/https://www.turkmen-travel.com/eng/places-to-go-see/health-resorts-sanatoriums/ |archive-date=21 June 2021 |access-date=14 February 2021 |website=www.turkmen-travel.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Türkmenistandaky melhemhanalar | Syýahatçylyk | Turkmenportal.com |url=https://turkmenportal.com/tm/catalog/syyahatchylyk/turkmenistandaky-melhemhanalar |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421080226/https://turkmenportal.com/tm/catalog/syyahatchylyk/turkmenistandaky-melhemhanalar |archive-date=21 April 2022 |access-date=14 February 2021 |website=Türkmenistanyň, internet portaly}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/turkmenistan/attractions |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415185230/https://www.lonelyplanet.com/turkmenistan/attractions |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=14 February 2021 |publisher=Lonely Planet}}</ref>

In January 2022 President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow ordered that the fire at the [[Darvaza gas crater]], known informally as the country's "Gateway to Hell", and one of Turkmenistan's most popular tourist attractions, should be extinguished for environmental and health reasons, as well as part of efforts to increase gas exports. A possible explanation for the fire is that a Soviet drilling operation in 1971 caused it; however, in 2013 Canadian explorer George Kourounis examined the crater and believed that no one actually knew how it started.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 January 2022 |title=Turkmenistan plans to close its 'Gateway to Hell' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-59920221 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502230637/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-59920221 |archive-date=2 May 2022 |access-date=8 January 2022 |website=BBC}}</ref>

== Transportation ==
{{Main|Transportation in Turkmenistan}}

=== Automobile transport ===
{{Update section|date=April 2025}}
Prior to the 1917 [[Russian Revolution]], only three automobiles existed in Turkmenistan, all of them foreign models in Ashgabat. No automobile roads existed between settlements. After the revolution, Soviet authorities graded dirt roads to connect Mary and Kushky (Serhetabat), Tejen and Sarahs, Kyzyl-Arvat (Serdar) with Garrygala (Magtymguly) and Chekishler, i.e., with important border crossings. In 1887–1888 the Gaudan Highway ({{langx|ru|Гауданское шоссе}}) was built between Ashgabat and the Persian border at Gaudan Pass, and Persian authorities extended it to [[Mashhad]], allowing for easier commercial relations. Municipal bus service began in Ashgabat in 1925 with five routes, and taxicab service began in 1938 with five vehicles. The road network was extended in the 1970s with construction of republic-level highways connecting Ashgabat and Kazanjyk (Bereket), Ashgabat and Bayramaly, Nebit Dag (Balkanabat) and Krasnovodsk (Türkmenbaşy), Çärjew (Turkmenabat) and Kerki, and Mary and Kushka (Serhetabat).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=1984 |title=Транспорт / Железнодорожный транспорт |encyclopedia=Туркменская ССР |publisher=Chuvash Obkom CPSU |pages=236–237 |language=Russian |trans-title=Transport / Rail transport}}</ref>

The primary west–east motor route is the [[M37 highway (Turkmenistan)|M37]] highway linking the [[Turkmenbashi International Seaport|Turkmenbashy International Seaport]] to the [[Farap]] border crossing via Ashgabat, Mary, and Turkmenabat. The primary north–south route is the Ashgabat-Dashoguz Automobile Road ({{langx|tk|Aşgabat-Daşoguz awtomobil ýoly}}), built in the 2000s. Major international routes include [[European route E003]], [[European route E60]], [[European route E121]], and Asian Highway (AH) routes AH5, AH70, AH75, AH77, and AH78.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asian Highway Database |url=http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/Turkmenistan.xls |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828160707/https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/Turkmenistan.xls |archive-date=28 August 2021 |access-date=14 February 2021 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref>

A new toll motorway is under construction between Ashgabat and Turkmenabat by the Turkmen Awtoban company, which will construct the 600-km highway in three phases: Ashgabat-Tejen by December 2020, Tejen-Mary by December 2022 and Mary-Turkmenabat by December 2023.{{Needs update|date=February 2025}} A sister project to link Türkmenbaşy and Ashgabat was suspended when the Turkish contractor [[Polimeks]] walked away from the project, reportedly because of non-payment.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 October 2020 |title=Turkmenistan Country Commercial Guide: Transportation |url=https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/turkmenistan-transportation |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131232314/https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/turkmenistan-transportation |archive-date=31 January 2021 |access-date=26 January 2021 |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce}}</ref>

As of 29 January 2019, the Turkmen Automobile Roads state concern ({{langx|tk|Türkmenawtoýollary}}) was subordinated by presidential decree to the Ministry of Construction and Architecture, and responsibility for road construction and maintenance was shifted to provincial and municipal governments.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 January 2019 |title=УКАЗ Президента Туркменистана О преобразовании Государственного концерна "Türkmenawtoýollary" |language=Russian |publisher=parahat.info |url=https://www.parahat.info/edict/1627 |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128153256/https://www.parahat.info/edict/1627 |archive-date=28 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 January 2019 |title=Строительство автодорог в Туркменистане переходит в ведение городских и региональных властей |language=Russian |publisher=Orient |url=https://orient.tm/stroitelstvo-avtodorog-v-turkmenis/ |url-status=dead |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024133/https://orient.tm/stroitelstvo-avtodorog-v-turkmenis/ |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> Operation of motor coaches (buses) and taxicabs is the responsibility of the Automobile Services Agency ({{langx|tk|Türkmenawtoulaglary Agentligi}}) of the Ministry of Industry and Communication.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenawtoulaglary agency |url=https://awtoulag.gov.tm/en/site/a/index |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303060809/https://www.awtoulag.gov.tm/en/site/a/index |archive-date=3 March 2021 |access-date=14 February 2021 |website=awtoulag.gov.tm}}</ref>

=== Air transport ===
{{See also|List of airports in Turkmenistan|List of Turkmenistan Airlines destinations}}
[[File:Boeing 777-22KLR EZ-A778.jpg|thumb|[[Turkmenistan Airlines]] [[Boeing 777]]-200LR]]
Air service began in 1927 with a route between Çärjew (Turkmenabat) and Tashauz (Dashoguz), flying German Junkers 13 and Soviet K-4 aircraft, each capable of carrying four passengers. In 1932 an aerodrome was built in Ashgabat on the site of the current Howdan neighborhoods, for both passenger and freight service, the latter mainly to deliver supplies to sulfur mines near Derweze in the Karakum Desert.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=1984 |title=Транспорт / Воздушный транспорт |encyclopedia=Туркменская ССР |publisher=Chuvash Obkom CPSU |pages=237 |language=Russian |trans-title=Transport / Air transport}}</ref>

Airports serving the major cities of [[Ashgabat]], [[Dashoguz]], [[Mary, Turkmenistan|Mary]], [[Turkmenabat]], and [[Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenistan|Türkmenbaşy]], which are operated by Turkmenistan's civil aviation authority's airline, Türkmenhowaýollary, feature scheduled domestic commercial air service.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Uçuşlaryň ugry we rejesi |url=https://turkmenistanairlines.tm// |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414144432/https://turkmenistanairlines.tm/ |archive-date=14 April 2021 |access-date=5 April 2021 |website=Turkmenistan Airlines}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ОБЩАЯ ИНФОРМАЦИЯ |url=https://caa.gov.tm/ru/item/159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121213024/https://caa.gov.tm/ru/item/159 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |access-date=14 February 2021 |language=Russian}}</ref> Under normal circumstances international scheduled commercial air service is limited to Ashgabat. During the COVID-19 pandemic, however, international flights take off from and land at Turkmenabat, where quarantine facilities have been established.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 October 2020 |title=Turkmenistan Travel Advisory |url=https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/traveladvisories/traveladvisories/turkmenistan-travel-advisory.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205180123/https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/traveladvisories/traveladvisories/turkmenistan-travel-advisory.html |archive-date=5 February 2021 |access-date=14 February 2021 |publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2 November 2020 |title=Четырнадцать потерянных дней жизни. О нахождении в карантинном лагере в Туркменабаде |language=Russian |publisher=Turkmen.news |url=https://turkmen.news/news/karantin-turkmenista/ |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225025324/https://turkmen.news/news/karantin-turkmenista/ |archive-date=25 February 2021}}</ref>

State-owned [[Turkmenistan Airlines]] is the only Turkmen air carrier. Turkmenistan Airlines' passenger fleet is composed of [[Boeing]] and [[Bombardier Aerospace]] aircraft.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Мы не подведём |url=http://www.ogoniok.com/archive/2001/4680-2/80-20-21/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521175039/http://www.ogoniok.com/archive/2001/4680-2/80-20-21/ |archive-date=21 May 2013 |access-date=25 November 2013 |publisher=Ogoniok.com}}</ref> Air transport carries more than two thousand passengers daily in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |last=V@DIM |title=Могучие крылья страны |url=http://turkmenistan.gov.tm/?id=715 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208073112/http://turkmenistan.gov.tm/?id=715 |archive-date=8 February 2013 |access-date=25 November 2013 |publisher=Turkmenistan.gov.tm}}</ref> Under normal conditions, international flights annually transport over half a million people into and out of Turkmenistan, and Turkmenistan Air operates regular flights to [[Moscow]], [[London]], [[Frankfurt]], [[Birmingham]], [[Bangkok]], [[Delhi]], [[Abu Dhabi]], [[Amritsar]], [[Kyiv]], [[Lviv]], [[Beijing]], [[Istanbul]], [[Minsk]], [[Almaty]], [[Tashkent]], and [[St. Petersburg]].

Small airfields serve industrial sites near other cities, but do not feature scheduled commercial passenger service. Airfields slated for modernization and expansion include those serving [[Garabogaz]], Jebel, and [[Galaýmor]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 December 2020 |title=Международный тендер на проектирование и строительство нового аэропорта в посёлке городского типа Джебел города Балканабат |language=Russian |publisher=Нейтральный Туркменистан}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 January 2019 |title=Aspects of modernization of segments of Turkmenistan's economy are discussed at the session of the Government |publisher=Türkmen Döwlet Habarlary |url=http://tdh.gov.tm/news/en/articles.aspx&article16348&cat26 |url-status=dead |access-date=2 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214165910/http://tdh.gov.tm/news/en/articles.aspx%26article16348%26cat26 |archive-date=14 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=19 May 2018 |title=Президент Туркменистана провёл совместное заседание Кабинета Министров и Госсовета безопасности |language=Russian |publisher=Turkmenportal |url=https://turkmenportal.com/blog/14616/prezident-turkmenistana-provel-sovmestnoe-zasedanie-kabineta-ministrov-i-gossoveta-bezopasnosti}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=3 February 2018 |title=В Гарабогазе будет построен новый аэропорт |language=Russian |publisher=Turkmenportal |url=https://turkmenportal.com/blog/13377/v-garabogaze-budet-postroen-novyi-aeroport |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024510/https://turkmenportal.com/blog/13377/v-garabogaze-budet-postroen-novyi-aeroport |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=15 December 2020 |title=Рядом с курортом "Моллакара" в Туркменистане планируют построить аэропорт |language=Russian |publisher=Turkmen.news |url=https://turkmen.news/lenta/airport-jebel/ |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116201043/https://turkmen.news/lenta/airport-jebel/ |archive-date=16 January 2021}}</ref> The new [[Turkmenabat International Airport]] was commissioned in February 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 February 2018 |title=В Туркменабаде построили международный аэропорт |language=Russian |publisher=Авиатранспортное обозрение |url=http://www.ato.ru/content/v-turkmenabade-postroili-mezhdunarodnyy-aeroport |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415035815/http://www.ato.ru/content/v-turkmenabade-postroili-mezhdunarodnyy-aeroport |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> In June 2021, an international airport was opened in [[Kerki Airport|Kerki]].

=== Maritime transport ===
[[File:Independence Day Parade - Flickr - Kerri-Jo (314).jpg|thumb|Workers in the service of Maritime and River Transport of Turkmenistan]]
Since 1962, the [[Turkmenbashi International Seaport|Turkmenbashy International Seaport]] has operated a passenger ferry to the port of [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]] as well as rail ferries to other ports on the [[Caspian Sea]] (Baku, [[Aktau]]). In recent years tanker transport of oil to the ports of Baku and Makhachkala has increased.

In May 2018, construction was completed of a major expansion of the Turkmenbashy seaport.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan – Country Commercial Guide |url=https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/turkmenistan-transportation |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116155956/https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/turkmenistan-transportation |archive-date=16 January 2021 |access-date=15 October 2020 |website=International Trade Administration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Порт Туркменбаши будет полностью реконструирован |date=16 May 2011 |url=http://portnews.ru/news/65119/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203002408/http://portnews.ru/news/65119/ |archive-date=3 December 2013 |access-date=25 November 2013 |publisher=Portnews.ru}}</ref> Cost of the project was $1.5 billion. The general contractor for the project was Gap Inşaat, a subsidiary of [[Çalık Holding]] of Turkey. The expansion added 17 million tons of annual capacity, making total throughput including previously existing facilities of over 25 million tons per year. The international ferry and passenger terminals will be able to serve 300,000 passengers and 75,000 vehicles per year, and the container terminal is designed to handle 400,000 TEU (20-foot container equivalent) per year.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tuchman |first=Janice L. |date=26 September 2018 |title=Global Best Project, Airport/Port & Project of the Year Finalist: Turkmenbashi International Seaport Project |publisher=Enineering News-Record, BNP Media |url=https://www.enr.com/articles/45265-global-best-project-airportport-turkmenbashi-international-seaport-project |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033608/https://www.enr.com/articles/45265-global-best-project-airportport-turkmenbashi-international-seaport-project |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 May 2018 |title=Most important pit-stop on the Silk Road: Turkmenbashi International Seaport |url=https://www.calik.com/en/press-room/press-releases/most-important-pit-stop-on-the-silk-road-turkmenbashi-international-seaport |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415035801/https://www.calik.com/en/press-room/press-releases/most-important-pit-stop-on-the-silk-road-turkmenbashi-international-seaport |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=14 February 2021 |publisher=Çalık Holding}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Hasanov |first=Huseyn |date=2 May 2018 |title=Turkish company completes seaport project in Turkmenbashi city |publisher=Trend |url=https://en.trend.az/casia/turkmenistan/2896894.html |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033336/https://en.trend.az/casia/turkmenistan/2896894.html |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref>

=== Railway transport ===
{{Main|Rail transport in Turkmenistan}}

{{Main|Türkmendemirýollary}}

[[File:Turkmen_Diesel_locomotive2.jpg|thumb|Turkmen diesel locomotive]]
The first rail line in Turkmenistan was built in 1880, from the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea to Mollagara. By October 1881 the line was extended to [[Serdar (city)|Kyzyl-Arvat]], by 1886 had reached [[Türkmenabat|Çärjew]]. In 1887 a wooden rail bridge was built over the [[Amu Darya]], and the line was continued to [[Samarkand]] (1888) and [[Tashkent]] (1898).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=1984 |title=Транспорт / Железнодорожный транспорт |encyclopedia=Туркменская ССР |publisher=Chuvash Obkom CPSU |pages=235–236 |language=Russian |trans-title=Transport / Rail transport}}</ref> Rail service in Turkmenistan began as part of Imperial Russia's [[Trans-Caspian railway|Trans-Caspian Railway]], then of the Central Asian Railway. After the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], the railway network in Turkmenistan was transferred to and operated by the state-owned [[Türkmendemirýollary]]. The rail gauge is the same as the Russian (and former Soviet) one-1520 millimeters.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

The total length of railways is 3181 km. Only domestic passenger service is available, except for special trains operated by tour operators.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Расписание |url=https://www.railway.gov.tm/ru/schedule |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119214435/https://railway.gov.tm/ru/schedule |archive-date=19 January 2021 |access-date=14 February 2021 |language=Turkmen, Russian}}</ref> The railway carries approximately 5.5 million passengers and moves nearly 24 million tons of freight per year.<ref name="stat2020" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=О НАС |url=https://www.railway.gov.tm/ru/about |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305201612/https://railway.gov.tm/ru/about |archive-date=5 March 2021 |access-date=14 February 2021 |publisher=Türkmendemirýollary |language=Russian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ORIENT SILK ROAD EXPRESS TRAIN |url=https://www.scottdunn.com/us/uzbekistan/tours/orient-silk-road-express-train |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033358/https://www.scottdunn.com/us/uzbekistan/tours/orient-silk-road-express-train |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=5 April 2021}}</ref>

Turkmen Railways is currently constructing a rail line in Afghanistan to connect [[Serhetabat]] to [[Herat]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=22 September 2020 |title=Turkmenistan and Afghanistan discussed construction of Akina-Andhoy and Turgundi-Herat railway lines |publisher=Turkmenportal |url=https://turkmenportal.com/en/blog/30606/turkmenistan-and-afghanistan-discussed-construction-of-akinaandhoy-and-turgundiherat-railway-lines |url-status=live |access-date=5 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415035755/https://turkmenportal.com/en/blog/30606/turkmenistan-and-afghanistan-discussed-construction-of-akinaandhoy-and-turgundiherat-railway-lines |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref>{{Needs update|date=February 2025}} Upon completion, it may connect to the proposed rail line to connect Herat to [[Khaf, Iran|Khaf]], [[Iran]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Khaf-Herat Railway Project |url=https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/khaf-herat-railway-project/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429054702/https://www.railway-technology.com/projects/khaf-herat-railway-project/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=5 April 2021 |publisher=Railway Technology}}</ref>{{Needs update|date=February 2025}}

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Turkmenistan}}

[[File:Independence Day Parade - Flickr - Kerri-Jo (215).jpg|thumb|Turkmens in [[folk costume]] at the 20th [[Independence Day (Turkmenistan)|Independence Day]] parade, 2011]]
The last census to be published in full was held in 1995. Detailed results of every census since then have been kept secret, although a total figure for the 2022 census was released. Available figures indicate that most of Turkmenistan's citizens are [[Turkmen people|ethnic Turkmens]] with sizeable minorities of [[Uzbeks]] and [[Russians]]. Smaller minorities include [[Kazakhs]], [[Tatars]], [[Ukrainians]], [[Kurds]] (native to the [[Kopet Dagh]] mountains), [[Armenians]], [[Azerbaijani people|Azeris]], [[Baloch of Turkmenistan|Balochs]] and [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]]. The percentage of ethnic [[Russians in Turkmenistan]] dropped from 18.6% in 1939 to 9.5% in 1989. The ''CIA World Factbook'' estimated the ethnic composition of Turkmenistan in 2003 as 85% Turkmen, 5% Uzbek, 4% Russian and 6% other.<ref name="World Factbook" /> According to official data announced in Ashgabat {{As of|2001|02|alt=in February 2001}}, 91% of the population were Turkmen, 3% were Uzbeks and 2% were Russians. Between 1989 and 2001 the number of Turkmen in Turkmenistan doubled (from 2.5 to 4.9 million), while the number of Russians dropped by two-thirds (from 334,000 to slightly over 100,000).<ref>{{Cite journal |date=14 April 2001 |title=Ethnic composition of Turkmenistan in 2001 |url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/037/evro010.php |url-status=live |journal=Demoscope Weekly |issue=37–38 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208143733/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/037/evro010.php |archive-date=8 December 2013 |access-date=25 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 г. Численность городского населения союзных республик, их территориальных единиц, городских поселений и городских районов по полу |url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng89_reg2.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226132826/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng89_reg2.php |archive-date=26 February 2009 |access-date=10 April 2021}}</ref> As of 2021, the number of Russians in Turkmenistan was estimated at 100,000.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 April 2021 |title=Численность русских в Туркменистане снизилась до уровня 1930–х годов |language=ru |publisher=Turkmen.News |url=https://turkmen.news/lenta/turkmenistan-russkie-chislennost/ |url-status=live |access-date=23 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423222606/https://turkmen.news/lenta/turkmenistan-russkie-chislennost/ |archive-date=23 April 2021}}</ref>
Opposition media reported that some results of the 2012 census had been surreptitiously released, including a total population number of 4,751,120. According to this source, as of 2012 85.6% of the population was ethnically Turkmen, followed by 5.8% ethnic Uzbek and 5.1% ethnic Russian. In contrast, an official Turkmen delegation reported to the [[UN]] in January 2015 some different figures on national minorities, including slightly under 9% ethnic Uzbek, 2.2% ethnic Russian, and 0.4% ethnic Kazakh. The 2012 census reportedly counted 58 different nationalities.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 February 2015 |title=Результаты переписи населения в Туркменистане |language=Russian |publisher=Chronicles of Turkmenistan |url=https://www.hronikatm.com/2015/02/rezultatyi-perepisi-naseleniya-v-turkmenistane/ |url-status=live |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603140011/https://www.hronikatm.com/2015/02/rezultatyi-perepisi-naseleniya-v-turkmenistane/ |archive-date=3 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Goble |first=Paul |date=10 February 2015 |title=Unpublished Census Provides Rare and Unvarnished Look at Turkmenistan |url=https://jamestown.org/program/unpublished-census-provides-rare-and-unvarnished-look-at-turkmenistan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604143637/https://jamestown.org/program/unpublished-census-provides-rare-and-unvarnished-look-at-turkmenistan/ |archive-date=4 June 2021 |access-date=30 March 2021 |publisher=Jamestown Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=19 August 2021 |title=Госкомстат Узбекистана раскрыл численность этнических туркменов в стране |language=ru |publisher=Turkmen News |url=https://turkmen.news/lenta/uzbekistan-turkmeny/ |url-status=live |access-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819172754/https://turkmen.news/lenta/uzbekistan-turkmeny/ |archive-date=19 August 2021}}</ref>

Official population estimates are likely too high, given known emigration trends.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moya Flynn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YLeAxHLmgR8C&pg=PA15 |title=Migrant Resettlement in the Russian Federation: Reconstructing 'homes' and 'homelands' |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-84331-117-1 |page=15 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203123138/https://books.google.com/books?id=YLeAxHLmgR8C&pg=PA15 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Population growth has been offset by emigration in search of permanent employment.<ref name="meteo2" /> In July 2021 opposition media reported, based on three independent anonymous sources, that the population of Turkmenistan was between 2.7 and 2.8 million.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 July 2021 |title=Источники: Туркменистан в состоянии депопуляции. В стране осталось 2,7 миллиона населения |language=ru |publisher=[[RFE/RL]] |url=https://rus.azathabar.com/a/turkmenistan-in-state-of-depopulation-with-under-three-million-people/31338392.html |url-status=live |access-date=7 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210703091207/https://rus.azathabar.com/a/turkmenistan-in-state-of-depopulation-with-under-three-million-people/31338392.html |archive-date=3 July 2021}}</ref>

A once-in-a-decade national census was conducted 17–27 December 2022. Opposition media reported that many people claimed not to have been interviewed by census workers, or that census workers merely telephoned respondents, and did not visit them to count residents.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 January 2023 |title=Тайная перепись. Как в Туркменистане прошло важнейшее статистическое исследование |language=ru |publisher=[[Turkmen.News]] |url=https://turkmen.news/tajnaya-perepis-kak-v-turkmenistane-proshlo-vazhnejshee-statisticheskoe-issledovanie/ |url-status=live |access-date=13 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114014723/https://turkmen.news/tajnaya-perepis-kak-v-turkmenistane-proshlo-vazhnejshee-statisticheskoe-issledovanie/ |archive-date=14 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan: Deaths of despair {{!}} Eurasianet |url=https://eurasianet.org/turkmenistan-deaths-of-despair |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185726/https://eurasianet.org/turkmenistan-deaths-of-despair |archive-date=9 July 2021 |access-date=9 July 2021 |website=eurasianet.org |language=en}}</ref> According to the official results of the 2022 census published in July 2023, the population of Turkmenistan was 7,057,841.<ref>{{citation| url=https://tdh.gov.tm/ru/post/36778/rasshirennoe-zasedanie-kabineta-ministrov-turkmenistana-17 | title=Расширенное заседание Кабинета Министров Туркменистана |date= 14 July 2023 | language=ru |publisher = Туркменистан сегодня}}</ref><ref>{{citation| url=https://turkmenportal.com/tm/blog/64479/ilat-yazuwy--2022-turkmenistanyn-ilaty-7-million-57-mun-841-adama-den-boldy | title="Ilat ýazuwy — 2022": Türkmenistanyň ilaty 7 million 57 müň 841 adama deň boldy |language=tk |date=14 July 2023 |publisher=Turkmenportal}}</ref> However, offshore media disputed that figure, with one source claiming it came out of "thin air".<ref>{{citation | url=https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmenistan-census-fake-numbers-population-decline/32516559.html |title='Out Of Thin Air': Turkmen Unconvinced By New Census Results Amid Severe Population Decline |date=24 July 2023 |publisher=[[RFE/RL]]}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=https://turkmen.news/turkmenistan-oficialno-raskryl-chislennost-naseleniya/ |title=Туркменистан официально раскрыл численность населения |date=15 July 2023 |language=ru |publisher=Turkmen.News}}</ref>

{{Largest cities
| country = Turkmenistan
| stat_ref =[[List of cities in Turkmenistan#Municipalities designated as cities|List of cities in Turkmenistan]]
| div_name = Province

|city_1 = Ashgabat
|div_1 = Ashgabat{{!}}Capital
|pop_1 = 947,221

|city_2 = Türkmenabat
|div_2 = Lebap Province{{!}}Lebap
|pop_2 = 279,765

|city_3 = Daşoguz
|div_3 = Daşoguz Province{{!}}Daşoguz
|pop_3 = 245,872

|city_4 = Mary, Turkmenistan{{!}}Mary
|div_4 = Mary Province{{!}}Mary
|pop_4 = 126,141

|city_5 = Serdar (city){{!}}Serdar
|div_5 = Balkan Province{{!}}Balkan
|pop_5 = 93,692

|city_6 = Baýramaly
|div_6 = Mary Province{{!}}Mary
|pop_6 = 91,713

|city_7 = Balkanabat
|div_7 = Balkan Province{{!}}Balkan
|pop_7 = 90,149

|city_8 = Tejen
|div_8 = Ahal Province{{!}}Ahal
|pop_8 = 79,324

|city_9 = Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenistan{{!}}Türkmenbaşy
|div_9 = Balkan Province{{!}}Balkan
|pop_9 = 73,803

|city_10 = Magdanly
|div_10 = Lebap Province{{!}}Lebap
|pop_10 = 68,133

}}

===Migration===
{{See also|Demographics of Turkmenistan#Demographic trends}}
Based on data from receiving countries, MeteoZhurnal estimated that at least 102,346 Turkmenistani citizens emigrated abroad in 2019, 78% of them to Turkey, and 24,206 apparently returned home, for net migration of 77,014.<ref name="meteo2">{{Cite news |date=1 May 2021 |title=В 2019 году из Туркменистана эмигрировало порядка 110 тысяч человек или 2,2% населения страны |language=ru |publisher=МетеоЖурнал |url=http://meteojurnal.ru/stati/v-2019-godu-iz-turkmenistana-emigrirovalo-poryadka-110-tysyach-chelovek-ili-22-naseleniya-strany/ |url-status=live |access-date=4 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504063838/http://meteojurnal.ru/stati/v-2019-godu-iz-turkmenistana-emigrirovalo-poryadka-110-tysyach-chelovek-ili-22-naseleniya-strany/ |archive-date=4 May 2021}}</ref> According to leaked results of a 2018 survey, between 2008 and 2018 1,879,413 Turkmenistani citizens emigrated permanently out of an estimated base population of 5.4 million.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Najibullah |first=Farangis |date=8 June 2019 |title=Escape From Turkmenistan: Almost 2 Million Have Fled, But The President Looks The Other Way |publisher=[[RFE/RL]] |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/escape-from-turkmenistan-almost-2-million-have-fled-but-the-president-won-t-hear-of-it/29987972.html |url-status=live |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024233/https://www.rferl.org/a/escape-from-turkmenistan-almost-2-million-have-fled-but-the-president-won-t-hear-of-it/29987972.html |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=7 July 2018 |title=Turkmenezuela: Turkmenistan finds a novel solution to mass emigration |publisher=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2018/07/05/turkmenistan-finds-a-novel-solution-to-mass-emigration |url-status=live |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024116/https://www.economist.com/asia/2018/07/05/turkmenistan-finds-a-novel-solution-to-mass-emigration |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> Deputy Foreign Minister [[Vepa Hajiyev]] stated publicly in August 2023 that in 2022 267,330 Turkmenistan citizens had traveled abroad, but without indicating either how many of these had emigrated or how many had returned.<ref>{{citation |url=https://turkmen.news/vepa-hadzhiev-zayavil-o-roste-chisla-vezzhayushchih-v-stranu/ |title= Вепа Хаджиев заявил о росте числа въезжающих в страну |date=24 August 2023 |language=ru |publisher=Turkmen.News | trans-title=Vepa Hajiyev announced growth of arrivals in the country}}</ref>

===Turkmen tribes===
{{Main|Turkmen tribes}}

The tribal nature of Turkmen society is well documented. The major modern Turkmen tribes are [[Teke (Turkmen tribe)|Teke]], [[Yomut]], [[Ersari]], [[Chowdur]], Gokleng and [[Saryk]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peyrouse |first=Sebastien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uGKmBgAAQBAJ&q=turkmen+tribes+teke&pg=PA52 |title=Turkmenistan: Strategies of Power, Dilemmas of Development |date=12 February 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317453260 |page=52 |language=en |access-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203123159/https://books.google.com/books?id=uGKmBgAAQBAJ&q=turkmen+tribes+teke&pg=PA52 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edgar |first=Adrienne Lynn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Q11AQAAQBAJ&q=turkmen+tribes+teke&pg=PA21 |title=Tribal Nation: The Making of Soviet Turkmenistan |date=5 September 2006 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9781400844296 |page=21 |language=en |access-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203123202/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Q11AQAAQBAJ&q=turkmen+tribes+teke&pg=PA21 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> The most numerous are the Teke.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adle |first=Chahryar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPfcfF8LRWQC&q=turkmen+tribes+teke&pg=PA47 |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Towards the contemporary period : from the mid-nineteenth to the end of the twentieth century |date=1 January 2005 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=9789231039850 |page=47 |language=en |access-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203123202/https://books.google.com/books?id=XPfcfF8LRWQC&q=turkmen+tribes+teke&pg=PA47 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{fv|date=July 2025}}

=== Languages ===
{{Further|Turkmenization}}

[[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] is the [[official language]] of Turkmenistan (per the [[Constitution of Turkmenistan|1992 Constitution]]), a language that shares to some degree [[Mutually intelligible|mutual intelligibility]] with [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Keith |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |date=2010 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-87775-4 |page=1117}}</ref> Since the late 20th century, the government of Turkmenistan has taken steps to distance itself from the [[Russian language]] (which has been seen as a soft power tool for Russian interests). The first step in this campaign was the shift to the Latin alphabet in 1993,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bekmurzaev |first=Nurbek |date=28 February 2019 |title=Russian Language Status in Central Asian Countries |url=https://cabar.asia/en/russian-language-status-in-central-asian-countries |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920173149/https://cabar.asia/en/russian-language-status-in-central-asian-countries |archive-date=20 September 2022 |access-date=22 June 2022 |publisher=Central Asian Bureau for Analytical Reporting}}</ref> and Russian lost its status as the ''language of inter-ethnic communication'' in 1996.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Введение | language=ru | trans-title=Introduction |url=http://www.fundeh.org/files/publications/90/vedenie_obshchee_sostoyanie_russkogo_yazyka.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304122143/http://www.fundeh.org/files/publications/90/vedenie_obshchee_sostoyanie_russkogo_yazyka.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=16 October 2015}}</ref> As of 1999, Turkmen was spoken by 72% of the population, [[Russian language|Russian]] by 12% (349,000), [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] by 9%<ref name="World Factbook" /> (317,000), and other languages by 7% ([[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] (88,000), [[Tatar language|Tatar]] (40,400), [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] (37,118), [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] (33,000), [[Armenian language|Armenian]] (32,000), [[Northern Kurdish]] (20,000), [[Lezgian language|Lezgian]] (10,400), [[Persian language|Persian]] (8,000), [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] (5,290), [[Erzya language|Erzya]] (3,490), [[Korean language|Korean]] (3,490), [[Bashkir language|Bashkir]] (2,610), [[Karakalpak language|Karakalpak]] (2,540), [[Ossetic language|Ossetic]] (1,890), [[Dargwa language|Dargwa]] (1,600), [[Lak language|Lak]] (1,590), [[Tajik language|Tajik]] (1,280), [[Georgian language|Georgian]] (1,050), [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] (224), [[Tabasaran language|Tabasaran]] (180), and [[Dungan language|Dungan]]).<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 February 1999 |title=Ethnologue |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/country/TM |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303103433/http://www.ethnologue.com/country/TM |archive-date=3 March 2013 |access-date=25 November 2013 |publisher=Ethnologue}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Further|Religion in Turkmenistan|Islam in Turkmenistan}}

[[File:Ashgabat mosque IMG 5756 (26111145635).jpg|thumb|Ashgabat Mosque, 2013]]
According to [[The World Factbook]], [[Muslims]] constitute 93% of the population while 6% of the population are followers of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the remaining 1% religion is reported as ''non-religious.''<ref name="World Factbook" /> According to a 2009 [[Pew Research Center]] report, 93.1% of Turkmenistan's population is Muslim.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2009 |title=MAPPING THE GLOBAL MUSLIM POPULATION : A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population |url=http://pewforum.org/uploadedfiles/Topics/Demographics/Muslimpopulation.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810075151/http://pewforum.org/uploadedfiles/Topics/Demographics/Muslimpopulation.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2011 |access-date=14 February 2016 |website=Pewforum.org}}</ref>

The first migrants were sent as [[Dawah|missionaries]] and often were adopted as patriarchs of particular clans or tribal groups, thereby becoming their "founders." Reformulation of communal identity around such figures accounts for one of the highly localized developments of Islamic practice in Turkmenistan.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mark Juergensmeyer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1312 |title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion |last2=Wade Clark Roof |date=18 October 2011 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4522-6656-5 |pages=1312–}}</ref>

In the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] era, all religious beliefs were attacked by the communist authorities as superstition and "vestiges of the past." Most religious schooling and religious observance were banned, and the vast majority of mosques were closed. However, since 1990, efforts have been made to regain some of the cultural heritage lost under Soviet rule.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pannier |first=Bruce |date=2 February 2012 |title=Our Imperiled Cultural Heritage |language=en |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1077492.html |url-status=live |access-date=5 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129003800/https://www.rferl.org/a/1077492.html |archive-date=29 November 2020}}</ref>

Former president [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] ordered that basic Islamic principles be taught in public schools. More religious institutions, including religious schools and mosques, have appeared, many with the support of [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Kuwait]], and [[Turkey]]. Under Niyazov, religious classes were held in both schools and mosques, with instruction in [[Arabic language]], the [[Qur'an]] and the [[hadith]], and history of Islam.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Larry Clark |last2=Michael Thurman |last3=David Tyson |name-list-style=amp |date=March 1996 |editor-last=Glenn E. Curtis |title=A Country Study: Turkmenistan |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/about.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120710004153/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/about.html |archive-date=10 July 2012 |access-date=25 November 2013 |publisher=Library of Congress Federal Research Division}}</ref> At present, the only educational institution teaching religion is the theological faculty of [[Turkmen State University]].
[[File:Pokrovkaya Church, Mary.jpg|thumb|[[Eastern Orthodoxy in Turkmenistan|Russian Orthodox]] church in [[Mary, Turkmenistan|Mary]]]]

{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Religion in Turkmenistan ([[Association of Religion Data Archives|ARDA]] 2020 est.)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=227c|title=Religions in Turkmenistan | Arda|website=www.thearda.com|access-date=14 January 2026}}</ref>
| label1 = [[Sunni]]
| value1 = 93.69
| color1 = Green
| label2 = [[Shia]]
| value2 = 1.10
| color2 = Light Green
| label3 = [[Eastern Orthodox|Orthodox]]
| value3 = 0.81
| color3 = Dark Blue
| label4 = [[Christianity|Other Christian]]
| value4 = 0.44
| color4 = Blue
| label5 = [[Irreligion|None]]
| value5 = 3.9
| color5 = Black
| label6 = Other
| value6 = 0.06
| color6 = White
}}

President Niyazov wrote his own religious text, published in separate volumes in 2001 and 2004, entitled the ''[[Ruhnama]]'' ("Book of the Soul"). The Turkmenbashy regime required that the book, which formed the basis of the educational system in Turkmenistan, be given equal status with the Quran (mosques were required to display the two books side by side). The book was heavily promoted as part of the former president's personality cult, and knowledge of the ''Ruhnama'' was required even for obtaining a driver's license.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 August 2004 |title=Asia-Pacific | Turkmen drivers face unusual test |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3528746.stm |url-status=live |access-date=3 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100208122431/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3528746.stm |archive-date=8 February 2010}}</ref> Quotations from the ''Ruhnama'' are inscribed on the walls of the [[Türkmenbaşy Ruhy Mosque]], which many Muslims consider sacrilegious.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2020 |title=Kipchak Mosque |url=https://caravanistan.com/turkmenistan/kipchak-mosque/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421183116/https://caravanistan.com/turkmenistan/kipchak-mosque/ |archive-date=21 April 2021 |access-date=31 March 2021 |publisher=Caravanistan}}</ref>

Most [[Christianity in Turkmenistan|Christians in Turkmenistan]] belong to [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] (about 5% of the population).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Столетие.ru: "Туркменбаши хотел рухнамезировать Православие" / Статьи / Патриархия.ru |url=http://www.patriarchia.ru/db/text/192008.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809112657/http://www.patriarchia.ru/db/text/192008.html |archive-date=9 August 2020 |access-date=23 February 2012 |publisher=Patriarchia.ru}}</ref> There are 12 Russian Orthodox churches in Turkmenistan, four of which are in [[Ashgabat]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Православие в Туркменистане / Приходы |url=http://pravoslavie.tm/prikhody |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616010432/http://www.pravoslavie.tm/prikhody |archive-date=16 June 2015 |access-date=31 March 2021 |language=Russian}}</ref> An archpriest resident in Ashgabat leads the Orthodox Church within the country. Until 2007 Turkmenistan fell under the religious jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox archbishop in [[Tashkent]], [[Uzbekistan]], but since then has been subordinate to the Archbishop of [[Pyatigorsk]] and [[Cherkessia]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Православие в Туркменистане / История и современность |url=http://pravoslavie.tm/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810225459/http://pravoslavie.tm/ |archive-date=10 August 2011 |access-date=31 March 2021 |language=Russian}}</ref> There are no Russian Orthodox [[seminaries]] in Turkmenistan.

There are also small communities of the following denominations: the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], the [[Roman Catholic Church]], [[Pentecostal Christians]], the [[Kale Heywet Word of Life Church|Protestant Word of Life Church]], the [[Greater Grace World Outreach]] Church, the [[New Apostolic Church]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Judaism|Jews]], and several unaffiliated, nondenominational evangelical Christian groups. In addition, there are small communities of [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]], [[Baptists]], [[Seventh-day Adventists]], and [[Hare Krishnas]].<ref name="state2004" />

The history of [[Baháʼí Faith in Turkmenistan]] is as old as the religion itself, and Baháʼí communities still exist today.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan |url=http://bahai-library.com/momen_encyclopedia_turkmenistan |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805203330/http://bahai-library.com/momen_encyclopedia_turkmenistan |archive-date=5 August 2011 |access-date=12 September 2011 |publisher=Bahai-library.com}}</ref> The first [[Baháʼí House of Worship]] was built in Ashgabat at the beginning of the twentieth century. It was seized by the Soviets in the 1920s and converted to an art gallery. It was heavily damaged in the earthquake of 1948 and later demolished. The site was converted to a public park.<ref>Herrmann, Duane L. (Fall 1994) "Houses As perfect As Is Possible" ''[[World Order (journal)|World Order]]'' pp. 17–31</ref>

The Russian Academy of Sciences has identified many instances of [[Syncretism#Religious syncretism|syncretic]] influence of pre-Islamic [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] belief systems on practice of Islam among Turkmen.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Demidov |first=Sergey Mikhaylovich |url=http://static.iea.ras.ru/news/%21%21%20Book%20Flora%26Fauna_COLOR.pdf |title=Растения и Животные в Легендах и Верованиях Туркмен |date=2020 |publisher=Staryy sad |location=Moscow |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033254/http://static.iea.ras.ru/news/%21%21%20Book%20Flora%26Fauna_COLOR.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Turkmenistan}}

The [[Turkmens|Turkmen people]] have traditionally been [[nomad]]s and [[equestrianism|equestrians]]; even today after the fall of the [[USSR]], attempts to urbanize the Turkmens have not been very successful.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blackwell |first=Carole |url=https://www.routledge.com/Tradition-and-Society-in-Turkmenistan-Gender-Oral-Culture-and-Song/Blackwell/p/book/9781138862487 |title=Tradition and Society in Turkmenistan: Gender, Oral Culture and Song |date=2001 |publisher=Curzon |isbn=0-7007-1354-9 |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429102944/https://www.routledge.com/Tradition-and-Society-in-Turkmenistan-Gender-Oral-Culture-and-Song/Blackwell/p/book/9781138862487 |archive-date=29 April 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> They never really formed a coherent nation or ethnic group until they were forged into one by [[Joseph Stalin]] in the 1930s. Turkmen are divided into clans, and each clan has its own dialect and style of dress.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Clement |first=Victoria |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/book/learning-to-become-turkmen-literacy-language-and-power-1914-2014 |title=Learning to Become Turkmen |date=2018 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=978-0822964636 |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421080226/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/book/learning-to-become-turkmen-literacy-language-and-power-1914-2014 |archive-date=21 April 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Turkmens are famous for making ''[[Turkmen rug|knotted Turkmen carpet]]s'', often mistakenly called ''[[Bukhara rug]]s'' in the West. These are elaborate and colorful hand-knotted carpets, which help indicate the distinctions among the various [[Turkmens|Turkmen clans]]. Ethnic groups throughout the region build [[yurt]]s, circular houses with dome roofs, made of a wooden frame covered in felt from the hides of sheep or other livestock. Horses play a vital role in various recreational pursuits across the region, from the horse racing to horseback fighting, where skilled riders attempt to unseat their opponents.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ali Abbas Çınar |title=Turkmen Horses and Equine Culture |date=2001 |publisher=Rota Matbaacilik |isbn=9789759581114 |page=48 |oclc=237881620}}</ref>

Turkmen men wear traditional ''[[telpek]]'' or "mekan telpek" hats, which are large black or white [[Sheepskin (material)|sheepskin]] hats. Traditional dress for men consists of these high, shaggy sheepskin hats and red robes over white shirts. Women wear long sack-dresses over narrow trousers (the pants are trimmed with a band of embroidery at the ankle). Female headdresses usually consist of silver jewelry. Bracelets and brooches are set with semi-precious stones.

=== Mass media ===
{{Main|Mass media in Turkmenistan}}

{{Further|Telecommunications in Turkmenistan}}
Newspapers and monthly magazines are published by state-controlled media outlets, primarily in [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]. The daily official newspaper is published in both Turkmen (''Türkmenistan'')<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gazetler | TDNG |url=https://metbugat.gov.tm/newspapers?id=10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415035750/https://metbugat.gov.tm/newspapers?id=10 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=metbugat.gov.tm}}</ref> and Russian [[Neytralny Turkmenistan|(''Нейтральный Туркменистан'')]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gazetler | TDNG |url=https://metbugat.gov.tm/newspapers?id=11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033446/https://metbugat.gov.tm/newspapers?id=11 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=metbugat.gov.tm}}</ref> Two online news portals repeat official content, [[Turkmenportal]] and Parahat.info,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parahat Info |url=https://www.parahat.info/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226213037/https://www.parahat.info/ |archive-date=26 February 2021 |access-date=14 February 2021 |website=www.parahat.info}}</ref> in addition to the official "Golden Age" ({{langx|tk|Altyn Asyr}}, {{langx|ru|Золотой век}}) news website,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan Altyn Asyr |url=https://turkmenistan.gov.tm/tk |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318074754/https://turkmenistan.gov.tm/tk |archive-date=18 March 2021 |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=turkmenistan.gov.tm}}</ref> which is available in Turkmen, Russian, and English. Two Ashgabat-based private news organizations, Infoabad<ref>{{Cite web |title=Новости Туркменистана сегодня |url=http://infoabad.com/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330143544/http://infoabad.com/ |archive-date=30 March 2021 |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=infoabad.com}}</ref> and Arzuw,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Главная |url=https://arzuw.news/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024514/https://arzuw.news/ |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=Arzuw NEWS – новости Туркменистана}}</ref> offer online content.

Articles published by the state-controlled newspapers are heavily censored and written to glorify the state and its leader. Uncensored press coverage specific to Turkmenistan is provided only by news organizations located outside Turkmenistan: Azatlyk Radiosy,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Azatlyk Radiosy |url=https://www.azathabar.com/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210328194551/https://www.azathabar.com/ |archive-date=28 March 2021 |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=Azatlyk Radiosy}}</ref> the Turkmen service of [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] based in [[Prague]]; Chronicles of Turkmenistan,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Хроника Туркменистана – Новости Туркменистана о которых не сообщат официальные СМИ |url=https://www.hronikatm.com/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817015954/https://www.hronikatm.com/ |archive-date=17 August 2019 |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=Хроника Туркменистана}}</ref> the Vienna-based outlet of the Turkmen Initiative for Human Rights; Turkmen.news,<ref>{{Cite web |title=New |url=https://turkmen.news/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217190623/https://turkmen.news/ |archive-date=17 February 2021 |access-date=14 February 2021 |website=turkmen.news}}</ref> previously known as Alternative News of Turkmenistan, based in the Netherlands; and Gündogar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Гундогар :: Главная страница |url=https://www.gundogar.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414222348/http://www.gundogar.org/ |archive-date=14 April 2021 |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=www.gundogar.org}}</ref> In addition, Mediazona Central Asia,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Медиазона Центральная Азия |url=https://mediazona.ca/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415024122/https://mediazona.ca/ |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=Медиазона Центральная Азия}}</ref> Eurasianet<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home | Eurasianet |url=https://eurasianet.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001034029/https://eurasianet.org/ |archive-date=1 October 2019 |access-date=14 February 2021 |website=eurasianet.org}}</ref> and Central Asia News<ref>{{Cite web |title=Новости Центральной Азии |url=https://centralasia.news/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224235411/https://centralasia.news/ |archive-date=24 February 2021 |access-date=14 February 2021 |website=centralasia.news}}</ref> provide some reporting on events in Turkmenistan.

Turkmenistan currently broadcasts eight national TV channels<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://turkmenportal.com/blog/63901/telekanal-arkadag-nachal-veshchanie-v-turkmenistane|title=Телеканал «Аркадаг» начал вещание в Туркменистане | Общество|website=Туркменистан, интернет портал о культурной, деловой и развлекательной жизни в Туркменистане}}</ref> via satellite. They are [[Altyn Asyr (TV channel)|Altyn Asyr]], Ýaşlyk, [[Miras (TV channel)|Miras]], [[Turkmenistan (TV channel)|Turkmenistan]] (in seven languages), [[Türkmen Owazy]] (music), Aşgabat, [[Sport (Turkmen TV channel)|Turkmenistan Sport]] and Arkadag. There are no commercial or private TV stations. The nightly official news broadcast, ''Watan'' (Homeland), is available on [[YouTube]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Watan Habarlary – YouTube |url=https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC89qzYVCh6y1sUq5_JtcoXA |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415222906/https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC89qzYVCh6y1sUq5_JtcoXA |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=www.youtube.com}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=March 2023}}
{{external media
| float = right
| video1 = Example of Turkmenistan TV News<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan TV News "Watan", 25.06.2014 (Part 1) | Ghostarchive |url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/cDiO4btIKfs |access-date=2023-04-07 |website=ghostarchive.org}}</ref>
| video2 = Turkmen President celebrates Independence Day<ref>{{Cite web |title=Президент Туркменистана наградил медалями чиновников и получил золотые статуи | Ghostarchive |url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/BvI9W_f8UgA |access-date=2023-04-07 |website=ghostarchive.org}}</ref>
}}

Although officially banned,<ref name="at20150422" /> widespread use of satellite dish receivers allows access to foreign programming, particularly outside Ashgabat.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Danilin |first=Nikita |date=4 May 2020 |title=Лагеря, молчание и надежда на могильник. Что происходит в Туркменистане во время пандемии |language=Russian |publisher=«Медиазона Центральная Азия» |url=https://mediazona.ca/article/2020/05/04/virusbashi |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033446/https://mediazona.ca/article/2020/05/04/virusbashi |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> Due to the high mutual intelligibility of the Turkmen and [[Turkish language]]s, Turkish-language programs have grown in popularity despite official efforts to discourage viewership.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tursunbaeva |first=Kanykei |date=7 August 2014 |title=Central Asia's Rulers View Turkish "Soap Power" with Suspicion |publisher=Global Voices |url=https://globalvoices.org/2014/08/07/central-asias-rulers-view-turkish-soap-power-with-suspicion/ |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033252/https://globalvoices.org/2014/08/07/central-asias-rulers-view-turkish-soap-power-with-suspicion/ |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=15 March 2021 |title=Рубрика "Туркмены Мира": Ограничение турецких мультфильмов в туркменских детских садах и турецких сериалов на узбекском телевидении |language=Russian |publisher=RFE/RL |url=https://rus.azathabar.com/a/31151243.html |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411033523/https://rus.azathabar.com/a/31151243.html |archive-date=11 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=9 March 2021 |title=Turkmenistan: A ban on all news, ye who enter here |publisher=Eurasianet |url=https://eurasianet.org/turkmenistan-a-ban-on-all-news-ye-who-enter-here |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210407111013/https://eurasianet.org/turkmenistan-a-ban-on-all-news-ye-who-enter-here |archive-date=7 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 January 2021 |title=Запрет на TikTok и иностранное ТВ. В школах Туркменистана "нравственное воспитание" девушек снова на повестке дня |language=Russian |publisher=RFE/RL |url=https://rus.azathabar.com/a/31075710.html |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033743/https://rus.azathabar.com/a/31075710.html |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref>

Turkmenistan's internet services are the least developed in Central Asia. Access to Internet services is provided by the government's [[Internet service provider|ISP]] company, Turkmentelekom. As of 27 January 2021, Turkmenistan reported an estimated 1,265,794 internet users, or roughly 21% of the total population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Retrieved: 5 April 2013 |url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/asia.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430095416/https://www.internetworldstats.com/asia.htm |archive-date=30 April 2019 |access-date=25 November 2013 |publisher=Internetworldstats.com}}</ref><ref name="World Factbook" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Individuals using the Internet (% of population) – Turkmenistan |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.ZS?locations=TM |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415025356/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.ZS?locations=TM |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=27 January 2021 |website=World bank}}</ref>

=== Holidays ===
{{Main|Public holidays in Turkmenistan}}

Holidays in Turkmenistan are laid out in the [[Constitution of Turkmenistan]]. Holidays in Turkmenistan practiced internationally include [[New Year's Day]], [[Nowruz]], [[Eid al-Fitr]], and [[Eid al-Adha]]. Turkmenistan exclusive holidays include [[Melon Day]], [[International Women's Day|Turkmen Woman's Day]], and the Day of Remembrance for Saparmurat Niyazov.

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Turkmenistan}}

[[File:Independence Day Parade - Flickr - Kerri-Jo (251).jpg|thumb|Turkmeni students in university uniform]]
Education is universal and mandatory through the secondary level. Under former President Niyazov, the total duration of primary and secondary education was reduced from 10 to 9 years. President Berdimuhamedov restored 10-year education as of the 2007–2008 school year. Effective 2013, general education in Turkmenistan was expanded to three-stages lasting 12 years: elementary school (grades 1–3), high school – the first cycle of secondary education with duration of 5 years (grades 4–8), and secondary school (grades 9–12).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 March 2013 |title=Turkmenistan adopts 12-year secondary education |url=http://en.trend.az/regions/casia/turkmenistan/2125523.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504041327/http://en.trend.az/regions/casia/turkmenistan/2125523.html |archive-date=4 May 2013 |access-date=28 July 2014 |website=Trend}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkmenistan: golden age |url=http://turkmenistan.gov.tm/_eng/?id=1950 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809053308/http://turkmenistan.gov.tm/_eng/?id=1950 |archive-date=9 August 2014 |website=turkmenistan.gov.tm}}</ref>

At the end of the 2019–20 academic year, nearly 80,000 Turkmen pupils graduated from high school.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 May 2020 |title=Состоялись мероприятия по случаю окончания учебного года |url=http://tdh.gov.tm/news/articles.aspx&article22752&cat15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527225019/http://tdh.gov.tm/news/articles.aspx%26article22752%26cat15 |archive-date=27 May 2020 |access-date=16 December 2021 |publisher=Государственное информационное агентство Туркменистана (TDH) – Туркменистан сегодня |language=ru}}</ref> As of the 2019–20 academic year, 12,242 of these students were admitted to institutions of higher education in Turkmenistan. An additional 9,063 were admitted to the country's 42 vocational colleges.<ref>{{Cite news |title=ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ |language=ru |url=https://www.mfa.gov.tm/ru/articles/8 |url-status=live |access-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033554/https://www.mfa.gov.tm/ru/articles/8 |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref> An estimated 95,000 Turkmen students were enrolled in institutions of higher education abroad as of Autumn 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 December 2019 |title=Эксперт назвал количество туркменских студентов за рубежом |language=Russian |publisher=CentralAsia.news |url=https://centralasia.news/5665-jekspert-nazval-kolichestvo-turkmenskih-studentov-za-rubezhom.html |url-status=live |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415033254/https://centralasia.news/5665-jekspert-nazval-kolichestvo-turkmenskih-studentov-za-rubezhom.html |archive-date=15 April 2021}}</ref>

=== Architecture ===
{{See also|Ashgabat#Architecture}}
The capital city of Ashgabat is the center of Turkmenistan's new post-soviet architecture. In the early 2000s the government of Turkmenistan began to rebuild the city of Ashgabat in a style partially inspired by Soviet Architecture, emphasizing grandiosity. The city was rebuilt with a standardized design of white marble. In fact, the city has the most white marble covered buildings of any city in the world, over 543. Much of the city's design has been because of former President Berdimuhamedow's ambition to break numerous obscure world records. This includes the white marble buildings, but also is the cause behind the design of Alem Entertainment Center, which features the world's largest enclosed Ferris wheel.<ref name="The City of White Marble">{{cite web |title=The City of White Marble: Ashgabat, Turkmenistan |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2013/06/the-city-of-white-marble-ashgabat-turkmenistan/100528/|website=The Atlantic |access-date=16 November 2025}}</ref> Also notable is the Wedding Palace, an ornate gold and white building topped by a massive globe.<ref name="Wedding Palace">{{cite web |title=Wedding Palace |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/wedding-palace/|website=Atlas Obscura |access-date=16 November 2025}}</ref>

=== Sports ===
{{Further|Sports in Turkmenistan}}{{No sources|section|date=April 2025}}
The most popular sport in Turkmenistan is [[Association football|football]]. The [[Turkmenistan national football team|national team]] has never qualified for the [[FIFA World Cup]]. However, the team has appeared twice at the [[AFC Asian Cup]], in 2004 and 2019; they failed to advance past the group stage in both editions. Another popular sport is [[archery]]; Turkmenistan holds league and local competitions for archery. International sports events hosted in Turkmenistan include; the [[2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games]] and the [[2018 World Weightlifting Championships]].

== See also ==
{{Portal|Asia|Turkmenistan|}}
* [[Outline of Turkmenistan]]
{{Clear}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{See also|Bibliography of the history of Central Asia}}
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Abazov |first=Rafis |title=Historical Dictionary of Turkmenistan |date=2005 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-5362-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Blackwell |first=Carole |url=https://www.routledge.com/Tradition-and-Society-in-Turkmenistan-Gender-Oral-Culture-and-Song/Blackwell/p/book/9781138862487 |title=Tradition and Society in Turkmenistan: Gender, Oral Culture and Song |date=2001 |publisher=Curzon |isbn=0-7007-1354-9 |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429102944/https://www.routledge.com/Tradition-and-Society-in-Turkmenistan-Gender-Oral-Culture-and-Song/Blackwell/p/book/9781138862487 |archive-date=29 April 2021 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brummel |first=Paul |title=Bradt Travel Guide: Turkmenistan |date=2006 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-84162-144-9}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Clammer |first1=Paul |title=Lonely Planet Guide: Central Asia |last2=Kohn |first2=Michael |last3=Mayhew |first3=Bradley |date=2014 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-74179-953-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Clement |first=Victoria |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/book/learning-to-become-turkmen-literacy-language-and-power-1914-2014 |title=Learning to Become Turkmen |date=2018 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=978-0822964636 |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421080226/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/book/learning-to-become-turkmen-literacy-language-and-power-1914-2014 |archive-date=21 April 2022 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Edgar |first=Adrienne Lynn |url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691127996/tribal-nation |title=Tribal Nation: The Making of Soviet Turkmenistan |date=2004 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12799-6 |access-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421080226/https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691127996/tribal-nation |archive-date=21 April 2022 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hopkirk |first=Peter |title=The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia |title-link=The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia |date=1992 |publisher=Kodansha International |isbn=978-1-56836-022-5 |author-link=Peter Hopkirk}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Robert |title=Eastward to Tartary: Travels in the Balkans, the Middle East, and the Caucasus |date=2001 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-0-3757-0576-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kropf |first=John |title=Unknown Sands: Journeys Around the World's Most Isolated Country |date=2006 |publisher=Dusty Spark Publishing |isbn=978-0-9763-5651-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lobanov-Rostovsky |first=Andrei |title=Russia and Asia |date=1965 |publisher=George Wahr Publishing Co. |isbn=978-1-1259-8932-6 |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Nahaylo |first1=Bohdan |title=Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities problem in the USSR |last2=Swoboda |first2=Victor |date=1990 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=0029224012}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Ted |url=https://archive.org/details/silkroadtoruinis0000rall |title=Silk Road to Ruin: Is Central Asia the New Middle East? |date=2006 |publisher=NBM Publishing |isbn=978-1-56163-454-5 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rashid |first=Ahmed |title=The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? |date=2017}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Rasizade |first=Alec |date=October 2003 |title=Turkmenbashi and his Turkmenistan |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-110266765.html |journal=Contemporary Review |publisher=Oxford |volume=283 |pages=197–206 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070106030453/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-110266765.html |archive-date=6 January 2007 |number=1653}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union |date=1995 |editor-last=Smith |editor-first=Graham |edition=2nd}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Theroux |first=Paul |date=28 May 2007 |title=The Golden Man: Saparmurat Niyazov's reign of insanity |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2007/05/28/the-golden-man |url-status=live |magazine=The New Yorker |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522115155/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2007/05/28/the-golden-man |archive-date=22 May 2021 |access-date=2 November 2015}}
* {{Cite book |last=Vilmer |first=Jean-Baptiste |title=Turkménistan |date=2009 |publisher=Editions Non Lieu |isbn=978-2352700685 |language=French}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Turkmenistan}}
* [https://turkmenistan.gov.tm/en Turkmenistan State News Agency]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20260118054222/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkmenistan/ "Turkmenistan"]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [http://vk.com/moderntm Modern Turkmenistan photos]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085919/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/turkmenistan.htm Turkmenistan] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-16094646 Turkmenistan profile] from the [[BBC News]]
* {{wikiatlas|Turkmenistan}}
* [https://www.openstreetmap.org/#map=7/39.419/58.447 OpenStreetMap online atlas of Turkmenistan]
* [https://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Turkmenistan OpenStreetMap wiki article on Turkmenistan]
* {{Wikivoyage inline}}
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=TM Key Development Forecasts for Turkmenistan] from [[International Futures]]
; Government
* [https://www.turkmenistan.gov.tm/ Turkmenistan government information portal]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090114091910/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-t/turkmenistan.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140722015659/http://tourism.gov.tm/en/ Tourism Committee of Turkmenistan]
; Other
* [https://en.hronikatm.com/ "Chronicles of Turkmenistan". Publication of Turkmen Initiative for Human Rights.]
* [https://www.ashgabat.us/ Official photo gallery from Turkmenistan and Ashgabat]
* [http://www.turkiye-turkmenistan.com/ daily news and analysis in Turkish English and Turkmen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151103092439/http://www.turkiye-turkmenistan.com/ |date=3 November 2015 }}
{{Turkmenistan topics}}
{{Navboxes
| title = Related articles
| list =
{{Countries of Asia}}
{{Economic Cooperation Organization}}
{{Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)|state=collapsed}}
{{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)|state=collapsed}}
{{TURKSOY}}
}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Coord|39|N|60|E|type:country|display=title}}

[[Category:Turkmenistan| ]]
[[Category:Countries in Asia]]
[[Category:Countries in Central Asia]]
[[Category:Iranian plateau]]
[[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1991]]
[[Category:Totalitarian states]]
[[Category:1991 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:Members of the International Organization of Turkic Culture]]
[[Category:Observer states of the Organization of Turkic States]]

Mumbai Central–Ahmedabad Shatabdi Express

2026-03-23T01:47:05Z

RodEsters254334: starting basic info added tags

{{Short description|Shatabdi Express train in India}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{italic title}}
{{Infobox rail service
| color = ADD8E6
| name = Mumbai Central - Ahmedabad Junction ''Shatabdi Express''
| image = Mumbai Central Ahmedabad Shatabdi Express - Train board.jpg
| caption =
| type = [[Shatabdi Express]]
| locale = [[Maharashtra]] & [[Gujarat]]
| first = {{start date and age|1994|5|1}}
| last =
| operator = [[Western Railways]]
| ridership =
| start = {{stnlnk|Mumbai Central}} (MMCT)
| stops = 7
| end = {{stnlnk|Ahmedabad Junction}} (ADI)
| distance = {{convert|495|km|0|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 6 hours 20 minutes
| frequency = Except Sunday
| class = [[Indian Railways coaching stock|Anubhuti]], [[Indian Railways coaching stock|Executive Chair Car]], [[Indian Railways coaching stock|AC Chair Car]], [[Indian Railways coaching stock|Vistadome]]
| seating = Yes
| sleeping = No
| autorack =
| catering = No [[pantry car]] but arranged onboard
| observation = Large windows
| entertainment =
| baggage = Overhead racks
| otherfacilities =
| stock = [[LHB coach]]
| gauge = {{track gauge|1676mm|allk=on}}
| el =
| trainnumber = 12009 / 12010
| line_used = *[[Ahmedabad–Mumbai main line|Mumbai–Ahmedabad main line]]
| speed = {{convert|78|km/h|0|abbr=on}} average Including Halts
| map = [[File:Shatabdi Express and Double Decker Express (Mumbai - Ahmadabad) Route map.png|250px]]
| map_state =
}}

The 12009 / 12010 '''Mumbai Central - Ahmedabad Shatabdi Express''' is an [[Express trains in India|Express]] train of [[Shatabdi Express|Shatabdi class]] belonging to [[Indian Railways]] that runs between {{stnlnk|Mumbai Central}} and {{stnlnk|Ahmedabad Junction}} in India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mumbai-Ahmedabad Shatabdi Express New time table, route {{!}} Train number 12009, 12010 schedule - Indian Railways |url=https://www.zeebiz.com/indian-railways/news-mumbai-ahmedabad-shatabdi-express-new-time-table-schedule-route-train-number-12009-12010-stoppage-indian-railways-201132 |access-date=2026-03-20 |website=Zee Business |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Livemint |date=2021-12-25 |title=Indian Railways extends Mumbai - Ahmedabad Shatabdi Express. Details here {{!}} Today News |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/indian-railways-extends-mumbai-ahmedabad-shatabdi-express-details-here-11640396825532.html |access-date=2026-03-20 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref> It is a 6 days in week service. Earlier it would operate excluding Fridays, later it was changed to exclude Sundays. It is the first Shatabdi Express which contains [[Vistadome]] coach on both ends.

It operates as train number 12009 from Mumbai Central to Ahmedabad Junction and as train number 12010 in the reverse direction.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-11-28 |title=Soon, OTP authentication introduced for Tatkal booking on Mumbai Central Ahmedabad Shatabdi |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/soon-otp-authentication-introduced-for-tatkal-booking-on-mumbai-central-ahmedabad-shatabdi/articleshow/125643318.cms |access-date=2026-03-20 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> This train is the fastest train among other trains on the Mumbai - Ahmedabad route.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} It is faster than [[Ahmedabad - Mumbai Central Tejas Express]] and [[Mumbai Central-Ahmedabad Double Decker Express]].

== Traction ==
It is hauled by a [[Electric Loco Shed, Vadodara|Vadodara]]-based [[WAP-7]] and [[WAP-5]] locomotive from end to end.<ref>{{Cite web |title=12009 Shatabdi Express Train Schedule & Route Details - RailYatri |url=http://www.railyatri.in/app |access-date=2026-03-20 |website=www.railyatri.in |language=en}}</ref>

=== 12009 - Mumbai Central - Ahmedabad Shatabdi Express time table ===
{| class="wikitable"
! S. No
! Station Name & Code
! Arrives
! Departs
! Halt Time
! Distance
! Avg. Delay
! Day
|-
| 1
| [[Mumbai Central railway station|Mumbai Ctrl - MMCT]]
| Start
| 06:20
| -
| 0.0 km
| 2 Min
| 1
|-
| 2
| [[Borivali railway station|Borivali - BVI]]
| 06:43
| 06:45
| 2m
| 29.5 km
| 9 Min
| 1
|-
| 3
| [[Vapi railway station|Vapi - VAPI]]
| 08:07
| 08:09
| 2m
| 168.0 km
| 4 Min
| 1
|-
| 4
| [[Surat railway station|Surat - ST]]
| 09:15
| 09:18
| 3m
| 263.0 km
| 2 Min
| 1
|-
| 5
| [[Bharuch Junction railway station|Bharuch Jn - BH]]
| 09:56
| 09:58
| 2m
| 322.2 km
| 3 Min
| 1
|-
| 6
| [[Vadodara Junction railway station|Vadodara Jn - BRC]]
| 10:48
| 10:53
| 5m
| 392.8 km
| 3 Min
| 1
|-
| 7
| [[Anand Junction railway station|Anand Jn - ANND]]
| 11:24
| 11:26
| 2m
| 428.2 km
| 2 Min
| 1
|-
| 8
| [[Nadiad Junction railway station|Nadiad Jn - ND]]
| 11:40
| 11:42
| 2m
| 447.0 km
| 2 Min
| 1
|-
| 9
| [[Ahmedabad Junction railway station|Ahmedabad Jn - ADI]]
| 12:40
| End
| -
| 492.8 km
| 7 Min
| 1
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mumbai Central-Ahmedabad Shatabdi Express}}
[[Category:Shatabdi Express trains]]
[[Category:Mumbai–Ahmedabad trains]]
[[Category:Railway services introduced in 1994]]
[[Category:Trains with Vistadome coaches in India]]

Jackie Shroff

2026-03-23T00:40:32Z

RodEsters254334: add formatting for consistency for consistency

{{Short description|Indian actor (born 1957)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jackie Shroff
| image = JackieShroff.jpg
| image_caption = Shroff in 2011
| other_names = Jaggu Dada<ref name=K>{{cite web |title=Dekhiye Jaggu Dada Ki Cute Dadagiri Hamari Office Me {{!}}{{!}} Mukesh Khanna {{!}}{{!}} Jackie Shroff {{!}}{{!}}the MK Show |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=pcvpOEwgbeE |website=YouTube | date=3 June 2023 |publisher=Bheeshm International |access-date=7 September 2023}}</ref>
| birth_name = Jaikishan Kakubhai Saraf
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1957|2|1}}
| birth_place = [[Bombay]], [[Bombay State]], India
| children = {{hlist|[[Tiger Shroff|Tiger]]|[[Krishna Shroff|Krishna]]}}
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Ayesha Dutt]]|1987}}
| relatives = [[Ranjan Dutt]] (father-in-law)
| years_active = 1982–present
| occupation = Actor
| works = [[Jackie Shroff filmography|Full list]]
| known_for =
| website =
}}

'''Jaikishan Kakubhai Saraf'''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.anandandanand.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Order.pdf|title=In the Hight Court of Delhi at New Delhi|work=Anand & Anand|date=15 May 2024|access-date=23 September 2025}}</ref> (born 1 February 1957), known by his [[Stage name|screen name]] '''Jackie Shroff''', is an Indian actor and former model who primarily works in the [[Hindi film industry]]. In a career spanning over four decades, he has appeared in [[Jackie Shroff filmography|250 films]] in 13 languages.{{refn|group=n|The 13 languages are [[Hindi]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Kannada]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Malayalam]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] and [[English language|English]], as can be verified from [[Jackie Shroff filmography]]}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/i-still-work-with-my-heart-veteran-actor-jackie-shroff-ians-interview-118102000306_1.html|title=I still work with my heart: Veteran actor Jackie Shroff (IANS Interview)|last=Chakravarty|first=Durga|date=20 October 2018|work=Business Standard India|access-date=4 January 2019|archive-date=4 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104231119/https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/i-still-work-with-my-heart-veteran-actor-jackie-shroff-ians-interview-118102000306_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{IMDb name|0006763}}</ref> He has received several accolades including four [[Filmfare Awards]].

After an uncredited small appearance in ''[[Swami Dada]]'' (1982), Shroff made his lead debut with [[Subhash Ghai]]'s blockbuster actioner ''[[Hero (1983 film)|Hero]]'' (1983), which made him an overnight star.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=4612|title=2018 Has High Number Of Blockbusters|date=9 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="Top Actors">{{cite web |title=Top Actors |url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/cpages.php?pageName=top_actors |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219165002/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/cpages.php?pageName=top_actors |archive-date=19 February 2008 |access-date=24 April 2020 |work=Box Office India}}</ref> He went onto establish himself as an actor with top-grossing films, almost every year in the 1980s and 1990s, such as ''[[Andar Baahar]]'' (1984), ''[[Teri Meherbaniyan]]'' (1985), ''[[Aaj Ka Daur]]'' (1985), ''[[Karma (1986 film)|Karma]]'' (1986), ''[[Kudrat Ka Kanoon]]'' (1987), ''[[Sridevi|Jawab Hum Denge]]'' (1987), ''[[Ram Lakhan]]'' (1989), ''[[Tridev]]'' (1989), ''[[Baap Numbri Beta Dus Numbri]]'' (1990), ''[[Izzat (1991 film)|Izzat]]'' (1991), ''[[Karisma Kapoor|Police Officer]]'' (1992), ''[[Khalnayak]]'' (1993), ''[[Rangeela (1995 film)|Rangeela]]'' (1995), ''[[Agni Sakshi (1996 film)|Agni Sakshi]]'' (1996), ''[[Border (1997 film)|Border]]'' (1997) and ''[[Bandhan (1998 film)|Bandhan]]'' (1998).<ref>{{cite journal|author=Pinto, Jerry |journal=Filmfare |date=April 1997 |title=Tangy titbits from the Filmfare past |url=http://www.filmfare.com/site/apr97/fact1.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980705041114/http://www.filmfare.com/site/apr97/fact1.htm |archive-date=5 July 1998 |access-date=13 January 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.boxofficeindia.com/actor.php?actorid=76|title=Jackie Shroff (Filmography)}}</ref> He won the Filmfare Award for Best Actor for ''[[Parinda]]'' (1989) and [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor]] for ''[[1942: A Love Story]]'' and ''[[Rangeela (1995 film)|Rangeela]]''.<ref name="Filmfare">{{Cite web |url=http://deep750.googlepages.com/FilmfareAwards.pdf |title=Filmfare Awards (1953–2005)|access-date=5 November 2007 |archive-date=12 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612065210/http://deep750.googlepages.com/FilmfareAwards.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the 2000s, Shroff took on more supporting and negative roles in ''[[Refugee (2000 film)|Refugee]]'' (2000), ''[[Mission Kashmir]]'' (2000), ''[[Devdas (2002 Hindi film)|Devdas]]'' (2002), ''[[Hulchul (2004 film)|Hulchul]]'' (2004), ''[[Bhagam Bhag]]'' (2006), ''[[Apna Sapna Money Money]]'' (2006), ''[[Dhoom 3]]'' (2013), ''[[Happy New Year (2014 film)|Happy New Year]]'' (2014), ''[[Housefull 3]]'' (2016), ''[[Bharat (film)|Bharat]]'' (2019), and ''[[Sooryavanshi]]'' (2021). Shroff has worked in films of other languages including Punjabi film ''[[Sardar Saab]]'' (2017), Konkani film ''[[Soul Curry]]'' (2017), Tamil films ''[[Bigil]]'' (2019), ''[[Jailer (2023 Tamil film)|Jailer]]'' (2023) and Telugu film ''[[Saaho]]'' (2019).<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 October 2023 |title=Rajinikanth's Jailer recorded approximately 2.80 crore footfalls this year |url=https://www.india.com/entertainment/jawan-becomes-most-watched-indian-movie-of-2023-with-record-breaking-3-50-crore-footfalls-pathaan-and-gadar-2-follow-check-report-6397386/ |website=India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=5398 |title=Saaho Is A Hit in Hindi |publisher=Box Office India |date=9 September 2019 |access-date=8 September 2019 |archive-date=23 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220923194108/https://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=5398 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In addition to his acting career, Shroff is an environmentalist. He is married to model and producer [[Ayesha Dutt]], with whom he has two children, actor [[Tiger Shroff]] and entrepreneur [[Krishna Shroff]].<ref>{{cite news |title=8 facts you didn't know about Tiger Shroff |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/report/slide-show-1-8-facts-you-didnt-know-about-tiger-shroff/20140422.htm |access-date=24 February 2022 |work=Rediff |date=22 April 2014 |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Shroff was born as Jaikishan Kakubhai Saraf<ref name="YTKhanna23">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pcvpOEwgbeE |title=#83 Dekhiye Jaggu Dada Ki Cute Dadagiri Hamari Office Me {{!}} Jackie ShroffF {{!}} The Mukesh Khanna Show |publisher=Bheeshm International |date=3 June 2023 |access-date=5 August 2024 |via=YouTube}}</ref>{{Efn|In an interview with [[Mukesh Khanna]], Shroff, said his surname was 'Saraf', later it became 'Shroff'.<ref name=K/>}} on 1 February 1957 in [[Bombay]] (present Mumbai), [[Bombay State]], India.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jackie Shroff birthday: Ayesha Shroff and Tiger Shoff post heartfelt wishes for Bhidu |url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/jackie-shroff-birthday-ayesha-shroff-and-tiger-shoff-post-heartfelt-wishes-for-bhidu/20327194 |work=Mid-Day |access-date=14 April 2019 |date=1 February 2019 |archive-date=14 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414114428/https://www.mid-day.com/articles/jackie-shroff-birthday-ayesha-shroff-and-tiger-shoff-post-heartfelt-wishes-for-bhidu/20327194 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Sur |first=Prateek |title=Jackie Shroff Birthday Special: 5 Films Of The Charismatic Actor To Watch On His Special Day |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/jackie-shroff-birthday-special-5-films-of-the-charismatic-actor-to-watch-on-his-special-day-news-258580/amp |access-date=25 July 2023 |magazine=Outlook |date=1 February 2023}}</ref> His father, Kakubhai Haribhai Shroff, was a [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]]. His mother was a [[Turkmens|Turkmen]] who fled the [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic]] (present-day [[Kazakhstan]]) during a coup, according to Shroff.{{efn|While a coup did not take place in Kazakhstan in the 20th-century, the crisis mentioned by Shroff likely to refers to any of [[population transfers in the Soviet Union]] (see also [[Kazakh famine of 1919–1922]], [[Kazakh famine of 1930–1933]]).}}<ref name="birthplace" /><ref name="rstv" /> His maternal grandmother escaped to [[Ladakh]], along with her seven daughters, and migrated to [[Delhi]], finally reaching [[Mumbai]].<ref name="birthplace" /><ref name="rstv">{{cite AV media |date=19 September 2017 |title=Guftagoo with Jackie Shroff |language=hi |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ef3zTBkrXI4 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/Ef3zTBkrXI4 |archive-date=13 December 2021 |url-status=live|access-date=14 April 2019 |time=7:17-9:17 |quote="Humari ammi Turkmani", meaning "My mom is a Turkmen"|publisher= [[Rajya Sabha TV]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Shroff's father came from a family of merchants and traders. However, they lost all of their money in the stock market and his father had to leave home at the age of 17. His father met his mother when they were both teenagers and got married.<ref name="birthplace">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news-interviews/I-am-reckless-Jackie-Shroff/articleshow/34292726.cms|title=I am reckless: Jackie Shroff|work=The Times of India|date=28 April 2014|access-date=29 August 2014|archive-date=1 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501114902/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news-interviews/I-am-reckless-Jackie-Shroff/articleshow/34292726.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

Shroff dropped out of junior college after finishing his 11th class. He was raised in the Teen batti locality of Mumbai. In his childhood, he fought many street fights for his friends and often got beat up. His father Kakubhai was an astrologer.<ref name="YTKhanna23" />

As a youngster, he modelled in a few advertisements including Savage perfumes. It was one of his classmates in school who gave Shroff his name "Jackie" and then filmmaker Subhash Ghai stuck to this name when he launched him in the film ''[[Hero (1983 film)|Hero]]''.<ref name="ht">{{cite news|title=Koffee With Karan: How Jackie Shroff put his house at stake and got it back|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/how-jackie-shroff-put-his-house-at-stake-and-got-it-back/story-ZXvSWj2jk06RyGsp0CtG3K.html|access-date=27 November 2017|publisher=Hindustan Times|date=16 April 2017|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201040206/http://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/how-jackie-shroff-put-his-house-at-stake-and-got-it-back/story-ZXvSWj2jk06RyGsp0CtG3K.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="GhaiHeroImp">{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/hero-was-an-important-film-for-me-subhash-ghai-1588815.html|title=Hero Was an Important Film for Me: Subhash Ghai|website=News18|access-date=4 January 2019|date=27 November 2017|archive-date=4 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104175851/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/hero-was-an-important-film-for-me-subhash-ghai-1588815.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Shroff regularly revisits his childhood home in Teen Batti.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://t2online.com/entertainment/jackie-shroff-goes-back-to-his-one-room-pad-at-teen-batti-where-he-grew-up/cid/19195|title=Jackie Shroff goes back to his one-room pad at Teen Batti, where he grew up|last=Ghosh|first=Debasmita|date=28 March 2018|website=t2online.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104231219/http://t2online.com/entertainment/jackie-shroff-goes-back-to-his-one-room-pad-at-teen-batti-where-he-grew-up/cid/19195|archive-date=4 January 2019|url-status=live|access-date=4 January 2019}}</ref>

== Career ==

=== Initial work ===
Jackie Shroff dropped out of school after his 11th standard as his family did not have much money. He tried his hand working as an apprentice chef at [[Taj Hotels]] and as a [[flight attendant]] at [[Air India]], but he was rejected from both places because of his lack of qualifications.<ref name="ToI5unknown" /> He then started working as a travel agent in a local company called Trade Wings near [[Jehangir Art Gallery]].<ref name="rstv" /> An advertising agency accountant spotted him at the bus stand and asked him if he would be interested in modelling. The next day, Shroff went to the advertising agency (National advertising agency) located in the same building as Davar's college near [[Flora Fountain]] for the photo shoot during his lunch time. This photo shoot for a suit shirt launched Shroff on his modelling path.<ref name="offsite">{{cite web |title=Jackie Shroff profile |url=http://jackieshroff.in/biography.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904073902/http://www.jackieshroff.in/biography.html |archive-date=4 September 2015 |access-date=29 August 2015 |work=Jackieshroff.in}}</ref> Aasha K Chandra, who was running an acting school, asked Shroff to join her class. Initially, Shroff refused, but after she said that [[Dev Anand]]'s son [[Suneil Anand]] is also attending her class, Shroff enrolled there. Suneil Anand introduced Shroff to his father, Dev Anand, who gave Shroff his first acting role.<ref name="YTKhanna23" />

=== Films ===
In 1982, Shroff made his acting debut in [[Dev Anand]]'s 1982 film ''[[Swami Dada]]''. In his first meeting with Anand, he was offered the second lead role but after 15 days, Anand changed his mind and gave the role to [[Mithun Chakraborty]]. Shroff was cast as one of the henchmen of [[Shakti Kapoor]] in an uncredited role.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Dev Anand 'demoted' Jackie Shroff to henchman role after offering him second lead in Swami Dada: 'Mithun Chakraborty will do it, he knows how to dance' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/dev-anand-offered-second-lead-role-to-jackie-shroff-in-swami-dada-but-demoted-him-in-15-days-mithun-chakraborty-8652912/ |work=The Indian Express |date=8 June 2023 |access-date=22 August 2023}}</ref>

[[File:Ranbir and Jackie.jpg|thumb|Shroff during a script narration session]]
In 1983, Subhash Ghai cast Shroff in the lead role for the action romance ''[[Hero (1983 film)|Hero]]'', paired with [[Meenakshi Sheshadri]]. The film was a major commercial success, and one of the highest grossers of 1983. The film made Shroff and Seshadri into overnight stars.<ref name="GhaiHeroImp" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.muktaarts.com/Media/Hero%20made%20Jackie%20and%20Meenakshi%20into%20overnight%20stars%20but%20%27the%20flute%27%20was%20the%20real%20hero%20in%20the%20film%20-%20Subhash%20Ghai.php|title="'Hero' made Jackie and Meenakshi into overnight stars but 'the flute' was the real hero in the film" – Subhash he also appeared in 2010 film bhoot and friends Ghai|website=Mukta Arts|access-date=4 January 2019|archive-date=4 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704015130/http://www.muktaarts.com/Media/Hero%20made%20Jackie%20and%20Meenakshi%20into%20overnight%20stars%20but%20'the%20flute'%20was%20the%20real%20hero%20in%20the%20film%20-%20Subhash%20Ghai.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Shroff continued to work in Subhash Ghai films, irrespective of any role that was offered. After ''Hero'', Shroff did several other films, such as ''[[Andar Baahar]]'' (1984), ''[[Jaanoo]]'' and ''[[Yudh (film)|Yudh]]'' (both released in 1985). All of these films were successful. In 1986, he was seen in ''[[Karma (1986 film)|Karma]]'', which became the highest-grossing film of the year. His next film to be released was ''[[Kaash]]'' (1987). Later films, such as ''[[Dahleez (film)|Dahleez]]'' (1986) and ''[[Sachché Ká Bol-Bálá]]'' (1989) failed at the box office. However, he came back to success through films such as ''[[Ram Lakhan]]'', ''[[Tridev]]'' and ''[[Parinda]]'' (all 1989). His performance in ''Parinda'' won him his only [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor]].

In the 1990s, he starred in successful films such as ''[[Saudagar (1991 film)|Saudagar]]'' (1991), ''[[Angaar (1992 film)|Angaar]]'' (1992), ''[[Gardish]]'' (1993), ''[[Khalnayak]]'' (1993), ''[[1942: A Love Story]]'' (1994), ''[[Rangeela (1995 film)|Rangeela]]'' (1995) ''[[Agni Sakshi (1996 film)|Agni Sakshi]]'' (1996), ''[[Border (1997 film)|Border]]'' (1997) and ''[[Shapath]]'' (1997).<ref name="ShroffNetTV">{{Cite web|url=https://nettv4u.com/celebrity/hindi/movie-actor/jackie-shroff|title=Hindi Movie Actor Jackie Shroff|website=NetTV4U|language=en|access-date=4 January 2019}}</ref> During this period, he received a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor for ''Gardish'', and nominations for the [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor]] for ''Khalnayak'' and ''Agni Sakshi,'' winning twice consecutively for ''1942: A Love Story'' and ''Rangeela''.

During the 2000s, he appeared in supporting roles in ''[[Mission Kashmir]]'' (2000), which earned him his only nomination for the [[Filmfare Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role|Filmfare Award for Best Villain]], [[Yaadein (2001 film)|''Yaadein'']] (2001), ''[[Devdas (2002 Hindi film)|Devdas]]'' (2002) and [[Hulchul (2004 film)|''Hulchul'']] (2004), earning two nominations for the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor for ''Yaadein'' and ''Devdas''. In 2006, Shroff acted in the children's film ''[[Bhoot Unkle|Bhoot Ukle]]''. He played negative roles in ''[[Bhagam Bhag]]'' (2006) and [[Housefull 3|''Housefull'' ''3'']] (2016).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.webindia123.com/movie/national/preview/buncle/index.htm|title=Bhoot Unkle preview-Bhoot Unkle Hindi movie preview-Hindi Movie Preview|website=WebIndia123.com|access-date=4 January 2019|archive-date=4 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104180041/https://www.webindia123.com/movie/national/preview/buncle/index.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> During this period, he also appeared in two [[Marathi cinema|Marathi films]].

In 2010, he appeared in the film ''[[Bhoot and Friends]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bhoot And Friends |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/bhoot-and-friends/ |access-date=8 April 2022 |work=The Indian Express |date=17 December 2010 |language=en}}</ref> In 2011, he appeared in a cameo role in the film ''Shraddha In The Name Of God'' directed by Gurubhai Thakkar.<ref>{{cite web |title=Shraddha In The Name Of God |url=https://www.hungama.com/movie/shraddha-in-the-name-of-god/60552754/ |website=Hungama |access-date=8 April 2022 |archive-date=2 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102131651/https://www.hungama.com/movie/shraddha-in-the-name-of-god/60552754/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2017, Shroff made his debut in [[Konkani language|Konkani]], acting in the film ''[[Soul Curry]]'', which earned him the Goa State Award for Best Actor. Subsequently, he acted in another Konkani film released in 2019, titled ''[[Kantaar]]''.<ref name="NavhindGomes2018">{{Cite news |url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/a-mumbaikars-perspective-of-goa-on-reel/ |title=A Mumbaikar's perspective of Goa on reel |last=Gomes |first=Venita |date=2 August 2018 |language=en-US |access-date=28 December 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181228130723/https://www.navhindtimes.in/a-mumbaikars-perspective-of-goa-on-reel/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=525772 |title=Shooting of Jackie Shroff-Ester Noronha starrer Konkani film 'Kantaar' completes |date=27 August 2018 |website=Daijiworld.com |access-date=28 December 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181228130822/http://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay.aspx?newsID=525772 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In October 2018, he acted in a short film, ''The Playboy Mr. Sawhney''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/jackie-shroff-on-metoo-bollywood-5416815/|title=Jackie Shroff: People are washing their dirty linen in public, others enjoying it|last=Sharma|first=Priyanka|date=25 October 2018|website=The Indian Express|language=en-IN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104175952/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/jackie-shroff-on-metoo-bollywood-5416815/|archive-date=4 January 2019|url-status=live|access-date=4 January 2019}}</ref> He was also seen in ''[[Paltan (film)|Paltan]]'' (2018). He features in many films in 2019 like ''Firrkie'', ''Bharat'', ''[[Saaho]]'', and ''[[Romeo Akbar Walter]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1830698/4-40-years-bollywood-jackie-shroff-still-dedicated-craft/|title=40 years in Bollywood, Jackie Shroff still dedicated to his craft|date=21 October 2018|website=The Express Tribune|language=en-US|access-date=4 January 2019|archive-date=4 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104233946/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1830698/4-40-years-bollywood-jackie-shroff-still-dedicated-craft/|url-status=live}}</ref> He is also going to star in ''[[Prasthanam (2019 film)|Prasthanam]]'', which Hindi remake of Telugu film with same name alongside [[Ali Fazal]] and [[Sanjay Dutt]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-jackie-shroff-is-the-coolest-cat-in-b-town-ali-fazal-2645726|title=Jackie Shroff is the coolest cat in B-Town: Ali Fazal|date=4 August 2018|website=dna|language=en|access-date=4 January 2019|archive-date=4 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104175626/https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-jackie-shroff-is-the-coolest-cat-in-b-town-ali-fazal-2645726|url-status=live}}</ref>

He next appeared in ''[[Housefull 5]]'' in 2025. The film features an [[ensemble cast]] including [[Dino Morea]], [[Akshay Kumar]], [[Abhishek Bachchan]], [[Riteish Deshmukh]], [[Sanjay Dutt]], [[Fardeen Khan]], [[Shreyas Talpade]], [[Nana Patekar]], [[Jacqueline Fernandez]], [[Nargis Fakhri]], [[Chitrangada Singh]], [[Sonam Bajwa]], [[Soundarya Sharma]], [[Chunky Pandey]], [[Nikitin Dheer]] and [[Johnny Lever]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Karishma |date=27 September 2024 |title=Housefull 5 EXCLUSIVE: Akshay Kumar and team brave the sea storm; show continues for the whole gang |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/exclusives/housefull-5-exclusive-akshay-kumar-and-team-brave-the-sea-storm-show-continues-for-the-whole-gang-1350639 |access-date=26 January 2025 |website=Pinkvilla |language=en}}</ref>

=== Television ===
Shroff has hosted many television shows like ''Lehrein'', ''Chirtrahar'' and ''Missing''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/jackie-shroff-returns-to-tv/story-CU1F04j17qzplTLpMPlw9N.html|title=Jackie Shroff returns to TV|date=30 June 2010|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104181157/https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/jackie-shroff-returns-to-tv/story-CU1F04j17qzplTLpMPlw9N.html|archive-date=4 January 2019|url-status=live|access-date=4 January 2019}}</ref> Dealing with stories of missing people who were never found, ''Missing'' was popular for its creative narration by Shroff. The show was broadcast on [[Sony Entertainment Television (India)|Sony TV]], of which he owned some shares.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nettv4u.com/about/Hindi/tv-serials/missing|title=Hindi Tv Serials Missing|website=NetTV4U|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104182645/https://nettv4u.com/about/Hindi/tv-serials/missing|archive-date=4 January 2019|url-status=live|access-date=4 January 2019}}</ref> Shroff was also a judge on the magic show ''[[India's Magic Star]]'', broadcast on Indian channel [[STAR One]]. The show began on 3 July 2010 and ended on 5 September 2010.<ref>[http://us.startv.com/recaps/indias-magic-star-recaps Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817165901/http://us.startv.com/recaps/indias-magic-star-recaps |date=17 August 2017 }}, startv.com; accessed 15 August 2015.</ref> In 2014, Shroff and his son [[Tiger Shroff]] made an appearance on ''[[Comedy Nights with Kapil]]''.<ref name="ShroffNetTV" /> In 2019, Shroff made his digital debut with the series ''[[Criminal Justice (Indian TV series)|Criminal Justice]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Criminal Justice: Jackie Shroff Opens up About His Digital Debut |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/criminal-justice-jackie-shroff-opens-up-about-his-digital-debut-2080799.html |access-date=28 November 2019 |work=News18 |date=28 March 2019 |archive-date=28 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128172308/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/criminal-justice-jackie-shroff-opens-up-about-his-digital-debut-2080799.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Dubbing ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Film title !! Actor !! Character !! Dub Language !! Original Language !! Original Year Release !! Dub Year Release !! Notes
|-
|''[[Bhola Shankar]]''
|[[Chiranjeevi]]
|Bhola Shankar aka Shankar
|Hindi
|Telugu
|2023
|2023
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Chiranjeevi's 'Bhola Shankar' to release in Hindi on Aug 25 |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/trending/entertainment/story/chiranjeevis-bhola-shankar-to-release-in-hindi-on-aug-25-394214-2023-08-15 |work=Business Today |date=15 August 2023 |access-date=28 March 2024}}</ref>
|}

== Personal life ==
Shroff married his longtime girlfriend [[Ayesha Dutt]], a model who later became a film producer, on 5 June 1987, her birthday.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Joshi |first1=Tushar |title=Ayesha and I have separate lives: Jackie Shroff |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Ayesha-and-I-have-separate-lives-Jackie-Shroff/articleshow/14645089.cms |access-date=1 February 2021 |work=The Times of India |date=4 July 2012 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ToI5unknown">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/photo-features/5-things-you-did-not-know-about-jackie-shroff/photostory/34333661.cms|title=5 things you did not know about Jackie Shroff|website=The Times of India|access-date=4 January 2019|archive-date=14 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114193247/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/photo-features/5-things-you-did-not-know-about-jackie-shroff/photostory/34333661.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The couple runs a media company Jackie Shroff Entertainment Limited. They jointly owned 10% shares in [[Sony Entertainment Television (India)|Sony TV]] from its launch until 2012, when they sold their stake and ended their 15-year-long association with Sony TV.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiatimes.com/culture/who-we-are/jackie-shroff-and-his-family-secrets-exposed-277826.html|title=Jackie Shroff and his family secrets exposed|date=27 April 2016|website=indiatimes.com|access-date=3 November 2019|archive-date=3 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191103150721/https://www.indiatimes.com/culture/who-we-are/jackie-shroff-and-his-family-secrets-exposed-277826.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They have two children - son, actor [[Tiger Shroff]] (born 1990) and a daughter, entrepreneur and filmmaker [[Krishna Shroff]] (born 1993).<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Sur |first=Prateek |date=2 March 2023 |title=Tiger Shroff Birthday Special: Here's how he has become an Action Star |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/tiger-shroff-birthday-special-here-s-how-he-has-become-an-action-star-news-266635/amp |magazine=Outlook |access-date=10 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bhargava |first=Eshita |date=26 March 2023 |title=Krishna Shroff on being an entrepreneur, her gym MMA Matrix, fitness & more |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/lifestyle/exclusive-interview-krishna-shroff-on-being-an-entrepreneur-her-gym-mma-matrix-fitness-more/3022432/lite/ |work=Financial Express |access-date=10 October 2022}}</ref>

Shroff's personality rights were maintained by the [[Delhi High Court]] in 2024, which forbade the use of his name, image, or even nicknames without his consent.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cz08y4ppvr5o|title=Bollywood stars fight for personality rights amid deepfake surge|work=BBC News|first=Cherylann|last=Mollan|date=23 September 2025|access-date=24 September 2025}}</ref>

=== Social activism ===
Shroff owns an organic farm where he grows organic plants, trees and herbs. He is also the brand ambassador of [[Thalassemia]] India<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/exclusive-interviews/son-tiger-inspiration-jackie-shroff-1502708661.html|title=My son Tiger is my inspiration: Jackie Shroff|last=Vohra|first=Lakshita|date=16 November 2018|website=The Statesman|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104232444/https://www.thestatesman.com/exclusive-interviews/son-tiger-inspiration-jackie-shroff-1502708661.html|archive-date=4 January 2019|url-status=live|access-date=4 January 2019}}</ref> and over the years has supported many causes like [[HIV/AIDS]] awareness and abolishment of [[female foeticide]]. He has also funded the treatment and education of many underprivileged children.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scoopwhoop.com/jackie-shroff-silent-samaritan/|title=10 Selfless Acts By Jackie Shroff That Prove Why He's The Real Superhero Of Bollywood|last=Patel|first=Dipali|date=31 March 2018|website=ScoopWhoop|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104175927/https://www.scoopwhoop.com/jackie-shroff-silent-samaritan/|archive-date=4 January 2019|url-status=live|access-date=4 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/jackie-shroff-turns-good-samaritan/127254|title=Jackie Shroff turns Good Samaritan|date=5 July 2011|website=mid-day|language=en|access-date=4 January 2019|archive-date=4 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104175714/https://www.mid-day.com/articles/jackie-shroff-turns-good-samaritan/127254|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.in/mark-manuel/jackie-shroff-is-60-but-hes-a-senior-citizen-with-swag_a_21704620/|title=Jackie Shroff Is 60, But He's A 'Senior Citizen' With Swag|last=Manuel|first=Mark|date=1 February 2017|website=HuffPost India|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104230936/https://www.huffingtonpost.in/mark-manuel/jackie-shroff-is-60-but-hes-a-senior-citizen-with-swag_a_21704620/|archive-date=4 January 2019|url-status=live|access-date=4 January 2019}}</ref> On 5 March 2021, Shroff donated an ambulance to a [[Lonavala]]-based animal shelter in the memory of his late pet dog Rocky.<ref>{{cite news |last=Vijayakar |first=Rajiv |title=Birthday Special: 15 things you may not have known about Jackie Shroff! : Bollywood News - Bollywood Hungama |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/birthday-special-15-things-may-not-known-jackie-shroff/ |access-date=20 November 2022 |work=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=1 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
{{Main|Jackie Shroff filmography}}

== Awards and accolades ==
* 1990: Won: [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor]] – ''[[Parinda]]''
* 1994: Nominated: Filmfare Award for Best Actor – ''[[Gardish]]''
* 1994: Nominated: [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor]] – ''[[Khalnayak]]''
* 1995: Won: Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – ''[[1942: A Love Story]]''
* 1996: Won: Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – ''[[Rangeela (1995 film)|Rangeela]]''
* 1997: Nominated: Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – ''[[Agni Sakshi (1996 film)|Agni Sakshi]]''
* 2002: Nominated: Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – ''[[Yaadein (2001 film)|Yaadein]]''
* 2001: Nominated: [[Filmfare Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role]] – ''[[Mission Kashmir]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://movieboxofficecollection.com/jackie-shroff-movies-box-office-collection-hits-flops-analysis/|title=Jackie Shroff All Movies Box Office Collection Hits or Flops Analysis List|date=27 August 2017|website=MBOC|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105042816/http://movieboxofficecollection.com/jackie-shroff-movies-box-office-collection-hits-flops-analysis/|archive-date=5 January 2019|url-status=live|access-date=4 January 2019}}</ref>
* 2003: Nominated: Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor – ''[[Devdas (2002 Hindi film)|Devdas]]''
* 2007: [[Asianet Film Awards#Special Honour Jury Award|Special Honour Jury Award]] for outstanding contribution to Indian cinema
* 2011: Won: [[Ananda Vikatan|Vikatan Awards]] for Best Villain – ''[[Aaranya Kaandam]]''
* 2014: Won: The Original Rockstar [[GQ (Indian edition)|GQ]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gqindia.com/content/2014-gq-men-year-awards-winners/|title=2014 GQ Men Of The Year Awards: Winners|access-date=28 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202005702/http://www.gqindia.com/content/2014-gq-men-year-awards-winners/|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* 2016: Won: HT Most Stylish Living Legend Award.
* 2017: Won: [[Raj Kapoor Special Contribution Award]] – Received by actress [[Rakhee Gulzar|Raakhee]]: 30 April 2017.
* 2017: Won: Received the 20th anniversary of JP Dutta's Border movie Award: 12 June 2017.
* 2017: Won: Recipient of National Award-Hindi Cinema Gaurav Samman at Vigyan Bhawan
* 2018: Won: Filmfare Short Film Award for Best Actor — ''[[Khujli]]''
* 2018: Won: Best Actor Award for the Konkani film ''[[Soul Curry]]'' at Goa State Awards ceremony<ref name="NavhindGomes2018" />

He has received a Doctor of Arts for his valuable contribution in the field of Cinema from the [[Invertis University]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.invertisuniversity.ac.in/events/3rd-convocation-ceremony-/176/|title=3rd Convocation Ceremony|website=www.invertisuniversity.ac.in|access-date=3 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191103152219/https://www.invertisuniversity.ac.in/events/3rd-convocation-ceremony-/176/|archive-date=3 November 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=n}}
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama person}}

{{Filmfare Award for Best Actor}}
{{Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shroff, Jackie}}
[[Category:1957 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Indian male models]]
[[Category:Film producers from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Gujarati actors]]
[[Category:Indian people of Turkmenistan descent]]
[[Category:Male actors from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Male actors in Bengali cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Marathi cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Odia cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Punjabi cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Bhojpuri cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Gujarati-language films]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Filmfare Awards winners]]
[[Category:People named in the Pandora Papers]]

Arasiyal

2026-03-17T07:27:18Z

RodEsters254334: corrected article and fixed typos for clarity

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Arasiyal (1997).jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[R. K. Selvamani]]
| writer = R. K. Selvamani [[Liaquat Ali Khan (director)|Liaquat Ali Khan]] (dialogues)
| starring = {{ubl|[[Mammootty]]|[[Shilpa Shirodkar]]|[[Roja Selvamani|Roja]]}}
| cinematography = [[M. V. Panneerselvam]]
| editing = Udhaya Sankar
| music = [[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]]
| studio = Motherland Movies Internationals
| released = {{Film date|1997|12|12|df=yes}}
| runtime = 140 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Arasiyal''''' ({{translation|Politics}}) is a 1997 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[political drama]] film directed by [[R. K. Selvamani]]. The film stars [[Mammootty]], [[Shilpa Shirodkar]] and [[Roja Selvamani|Roja]]. It was released on 12 December 1997.

== Plot ==

Chandrasekhar ([[Mammootty]]) is an honest collector who arrests Vikram ([[Anandaraj]]), an international terrorist, in Delhi. He's transferred to Madras to eradicate the corruption. Chandrasekhar has two sisters, Priya (Jeeva) and Supriya ([[Roja Selvamani|Roja]]). Priya is in love with Marudapandi ([[Charan Raj]]), a hopeless police officer and Chandrasekhar's friend. Meanwhile, Chandrasekhar is in love with Anita Sharma ([[Shilpa Shirodkar]]), a Punjabi girl, who he met in Delhi. Venkatraman ([[Mansoor Ali Khan (actor)|Mansoor Ali Khan]]), a corrupt politician, is suspected by Chandrasekhar for corruption. Chandrasekhar takes actions against his brothers-in-law, Vishnu ([[Madhan Bob]]) and Ramkumar ([[Uday Prakash (actor)|Uday Prakash]]) and sent them to jail. Chandrasekhar gets a job promotion because his superiors hate his honest work, but he resigned and showed the journalists the corruption proofs of all corrupted politicians. The people becomes angry and beats all corrupted politicians, and Venkatraman's politic party doesn't even win a seat at the parliament. Chandrasekhar gets married with his lover in Punjab. Venkatraman's wife Vasanthi ([[Pallavi (entertainer)|Pallavi]]) was sent to jail for corruption. Venkatraman loses all his money and decides to take vengeance. Vikram, released from jail, wants also to revenge Chandrasekhar and becomes friends with Venkatraman. When Vikram decides to kill Chandrasekhar, he sees his sister Anita Sharma and promised her to protect his husband. Venkatraman's henchmen kidnaps Priya; but when she escaped, she fell from the building and died. They also put a bomb in Supriya's handbag which exploded by killing Supriya and Marudapandi. Venkatraman kills Vikram but Chandrasekhar is suspected for Vikram's murder. Chandrasekhar escapes from the police and kills all corrupted politicians. Finally, Chandrasekhar gets applause for his actions, but the court sends him to jail.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
*[[Mammootty]] as Chandrasekhar
*[[Shilpa Shirodkar]] as Anita Sharma
*[[Roja Selvamani|Roja]] as Supriya
*[[Mansoor Ali Khan (actor)|Mansoor Ali Khan]] as Venkatraman (R. K. V)
*[[Anandaraj]] as Vikram (guest appearance)
*[[Charan Raj]] as Marudapandi
*Jeeva as Priya
*[[Jai Ganesh]] as Shanmugasundaram, Chandrasekhar's father
*[[Sumithra (actress)|Sumithra]] as Chandrasekhar's mother
*John Amirtharaj as the [[Chief minister (India)|Chief Minister]]
*[[Thyagu (actor)|Thyagu]] as Thiruvasagam
*[[Madhan Bob]] as Vishnu
*[[Uday Prakash (actor)|Uday Prakash]] as Ramkumar
*[[Pallavi (actress)|Pallavi]] as Vasanthi
}}

== Production ==
After the success of ''[[Makkal Aatchi]]'', the actor Mammootty and director Selvamani reunited for another political film titled ''Arasiyal''. The director, prior to release, played down any potential controversial story plots and indicated it would be more about a politician's personal life rather than his work. The team shot across North India in 1997 with scenes also filmed at the [[Golden Temple]], Punjab.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sandya |title=Deepavali Releases |url=http://www.indolink.com/tamil/cinema/Specials/97/Nov/deepavali/deepavali1.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817104937/http://www.indolink.com/tamil/cinema/Specials/97/Nov/deepavali/deepavali1.htm |archive-date=17 August 2010 |access-date=15 September 2014 |work=Indolink}}</ref> The film's shoot was delayed for few months due to poor health of Mammootty and Jai Ganesh, in addition to the [[1997 FEFSI strike]].<ref name="kalki">{{cite magazine |date=2 November 1997 |title=ஸ்ட்ரைக்கை மீறி வெளியாகும் படங்கள்! |url=https://archive.org/download/kalki1997-11-02/kalki1997-11-02.pdf |access-date=31 May 2023 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |pages=4–6 |language=Ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[Vidyasagar (composer)|Vidyasagar]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Arasiyal / Chithiramae Nee Solladi |url=https://avdigital.in/products/arasiyal-chithiramae-nee-solladi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529184815/https://avdigital.in/products/arasiyal-chithiramae-nee-solladi |archive-date=29 May 2023 |access-date=31 May 2023 |work=AVDigital}}</ref> The film marked the debut of singer [[Harish Raghavendra]] in cinema.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=14 November 2002 |title=In conversation with Harish Raghavendra |url=http://archives.chennaionline.com/interviews/hraghav.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100129155614/http://archives.chennaionline.com/interviews/hraghav.asp |archive-date=29 January 2010 |access-date=13 January 2022 |website=Chennai Online}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=பாண்டியராஜன் |first=மா. |date=3 March 2020 |title="அஜித் ப்ளேலிஸ்ட்ல இந்தப் பாடலானு ஷாக் ஆகிட்டேன்..!" - ஹரிஷ் ராகவேந்திரா |url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/kollywood/singer-harish-raghavendra-speaks-about-his-career |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230525143754/https://cinema.vikatan.com/kollywood/singer-harish-raghavendra-speaks-about-his-career |archive-date=25 May 2023 |access-date=25 May 2023 |work=[[Ananda Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singer(s)!! Lyrics !! Duration
|-
| "Arasiyal Arasiyal" || [[Pushpavanam Kuppusamy]], [[Anitha Kuppusamy]] || [[Vairamuthu]] || 3:49
|-
| "Hello Nanthalaala" || [[Sujatha Mohan]] || rowspan="2" |Vaasan || 4:19
|-
| "Sindhubathi" || Sundar Rajan, Anupama || 5:00
|-
| "Vaa Sagi Vaa Sagi" || [[Harish Raghavendra]], [[Uma Ramanan]] ||[[Arunmozhi]]|| 4:53
|-
| "Varai En Thozhiyae" || [[S. P. B. Charan]], [[Harini (singer)|Harini]], [[Shubha Mudgal]] || rowspan="2" |[[Piraisoodan]] || 4:37
|-
| "Varai En Thozhiyae" II || Sujatha Mohan, [[Swarnalatha]], Shubha Mudgal || 4:34
|}

== Release and reception ==
The film was initially supposed to release in the [[Diwali]] season of 1997,<ref name="kalki" /> but got postponed to 12 December.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arasiyal (1997) |url=https://screen4screen.com/movies/arasiyal |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240110045457/https://screen4screen.com/movies/arasiyal |archive-date=10 January 2024 |access-date=10 January 2024 |website=Screen 4 Screen}}</ref> Ji of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' praised the performances of Mammootty and Mansoor Ali Khan, Liyakath Ali Khan's dialogues and Panneer Selvam's cinematography but felt since many of the political incidents have been analysed earlier, it feels like watching action replay with no thrills.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=ஜி. |date=18 January 1998 |title=அரசியல் |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1998-01-18/page/n65/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230525143625/https://archive.org/details/kalki1998-01-18/page/n65/mode/2up |archive-date=25 May 2023 |access-date=25 May 2023 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=64 |language=Ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> Despite the film receiving primarily mixed reviews, Mammootty's performance was well noted by critics and fans.<ref>{{Cite news |title='Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar' – Mammootty's best works outside Mollywood |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/photo-features/mammoottys-best-works-outside-mollywood/dr-babasaheb-ambedkar/photostory/63784307.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024154607/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/photo-features/mammoottys-best-works-outside-mollywood/dr-babasaheb-ambedkar/photostory/63784307.cms |archive-date=24 October 2022 |access-date=24 October 2022 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The film won the [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Film|Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Third Best Film]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 November 1998 |title=Awards Tamilnadu Government Cinema Awards For 1997 Announced: Best Film Award For "Arunachalam", "Surya Vamsam" |url=http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/awards/27-11-98/g_award.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101131515/http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/awards/27-11-98/g_award.htm |archive-date=1 January 2008 |access-date=27 June 2023 |website=[[Dinakaran]]}}</ref> Liaquat Ali Khan received the Dinakaran Award for Best Dialogue writer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DINAKARAN CINEMA AWARD – 1997 |url=http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/awards/dkn1997/1997dkn.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980615070355/http://www.dinakaran.com/cinema/english/awards/dkn1997/1997dkn.htm |archive-date=15 June 1998 |access-date=11 January 2025 |website=[[Dinakaran]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}
*{{Rotten Tomatoes}}
{{R. K. Selvamani}}
{{TamilNaduStateFilmAwardBestFilm}}

[[Category:1997 Indian films]]
[[Category:1990s political drama films]]
[[Category:1997 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1997 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by R. K. Selvamani]]
[[Category:Films scored by Vidyasagar (composer)]]
[[Category:Films shot in Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Indian political drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Mayor

2026-03-08T19:50:09Z

RodEsters254334: updated page

{{short description|Head of municipal government such as a town or city}}
{{other uses}}
{{Distinguish|Major}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Executive}}
In many countries, a '''mayor''' is the highest-ranking [[official]] in a [[Municipal corporation|municipal government]] such as that of a [[city]] or a [[town]]. Worldwide, there is a wide [[variance]] in local laws and customs regarding the powers and responsibilities of a mayor as well as the means by which a mayor is elected or otherwise mandated. Depending on the system chosen, a mayor may be the chief executive officer of the municipal government, may simply chair a multi-member governing body with little or no independent power, or may play a solely ceremonial role. A mayor's duties and responsibilities may be to appoint and oversee municipal managers and employees, provide basic governmental services to constituents, and execute the laws and ordinances passed by a municipal governing body (or mandated by a state, territorial or national governing
body). Options for selection of a mayor include direct election by the public, or selection by an elected governing council or board.

The term ''mayor'' shares a linguistic origin with the military rank of ''[[Major (rank)|major]]'', both ultimately derived from French {{Lang|fr|majeur}}, which in turn derives from Latin {{Lang|la|maior}}, the comparative form of the adjective {{Lang|la|magnus}}.

==History==
===United Kingdom===
{{anchor|England|Scotland|Wales}}{{further|Mayors in England|Mayors in Wales}}
In modern England and Wales, the position of mayor descends from the feudal lord's [[bailiff]] or [[Reeve (England)|reeve]] (''see [[borough]]''). The [[chief magistrate]] of [[London]] bore the title of [[portreeve]] for considerably more than a century after the [[Norman Conquest]]. This official was elected by popular choice, a privilege secured from [[John, King of England|King John]]. By the beginning of the 12th century, the title of portreeve gave way to that of mayor as the designation of the chief officer of London, followed around 1190 by that of [[Winchester]]. Other boroughs adopted the title later.{{citation needed|date=June 2025}}

In the 19th century, the [[Municipal Corporations Act 1882]], Section 15, regulated the election of mayors. The mayor was to be a fit person elected annually on 9 November by the council of the borough from among the aldermen or councilors or persons qualified to be such. His term of office was one year, but he was eligible for re-election. He might appoint a deputy to act during illness or absence, and such deputy must be either an alderman or councilor. A mayor who was absent from the borough for more than two months became disqualified and had to vacate his office. A mayor was ''ex officio'' a [[justice of the peace]] for the borough during his year of office and the following year. He received such remuneration as the council thought reasonable. These provisions have now been repealed.

In medieval Wales, the [[Laws of Hywel Dda]] codified the mayor ([[Medieval Latin|Latin]]: ''{{lang|la|maior}}''; [[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''{{lang|cy|maer}}'') as a position at the [[Welsh kingdoms|royal courts]] charged with administering the serfs of the [[demesne|king's lands]]. To maintain its dependence on and loyalty to the Crown, the position was forbidden to the leaders of the clan groups.<ref name="HyDda">[[Wade-Evans, Arthur]]. ''[[Page:Welsh Medieval Law.djvu/447|Welsh Medieval Law]]''. Oxford Univ., 1909. Accessed 1 February 2013.</ref> A separate mayor, known as the "cow dung mayor" ({{Lang|cy|maer biswail}}), was charged with overseeing the royal cattle.<ref name=HyDda/> There were similar offices at the Scottish and Irish courts.{{citation needed|date=February 2013}}

The office of [[mayors and provosts in the United Kingdom|mayor]] in most modern English and Welsh boroughs and towns did not in the 20th century entail any important administrative duties and was generally regarded as an honor conferred for local distinction, long service on the council, or for past services. The mayor was expected to devote much of their time to civic, ceremonial, and representational functions, and to preside over meetings for the advancement of the public welfare. The administrative duties of mayors were to act as returning officer at parliamentary elections and to chair the meetings of the council.

The mayor of a [[town council]] is officially known as "town mayor" (although in popular parlance, the word ''town'' is often dropped). The person is known as "mayor" regardless of gender; the wife of a male mayor is traditionally known as the "mayoress". Since the [[Local Government Act 1972|1974 local government reforms]], mayors are also appointed to English [[local government districts]] which have [[Borough status in the United Kingdom|borough status]]. This results in mayors of districts which include towns which also have separate mayors. In districts which do not have borough status, the role of civic leader is taken by the chairman of the council, who undertakes exactly the same functions as a mayor of a district with borough status.

Many major cities in the [[United Kingdom]] and throughout the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] have a [[lord mayor]], a special recognition bestowed by the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|sovereign]]. Although the position is often ceremonial, with executive responsibilities under the control of an elected mayor, lord mayors in several Commonwealth cities including [[Belfast]], [[Cardiff]], [[Brisbane]], and [[Dublin]] hold both ceremonial and executive duties. Some lord mayors, including the [[List of mayors, lord mayors and administrators of Sydney|lord mayor of Sydney (Australia)]], are elected.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lord Mayor and councillors |url=https://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/lord-mayor-and-councillors |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=City of Sydney |language=en}}</ref>

In [[Scotland]] the post holders are known as convenors, [[provost (civil)|provost]]s, or lord provosts depending on the local authority.

==== Directly elected mayors ====
{{main|Directly elected mayors in England}}
Since [[Local Government Act 2000|reforms]] introduced in 2000, a number of English local authorities have [[Elected mayors in the United Kingdom|directly elected mayors]] who combine the "civic" mayor role with that of [[leader of the council]] and have greater powers than either.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/sn05000/|title= Directly-elected mayors|website= www.commonslibrary.parliament.uk|access-date= 14 December 2020|archive-date= 26 July 2022|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220726013121/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/sn05000/|url-status= live}}</ref> Areas which now have directly elected mayors include cities, local government districts which cover several towns and rural areas.

In 2014 [[combined authority]] areas where created which, similarly to the [[Greater London Authority]], include two or more local authority districts. The mayors (also known as metro mayors or regional mayors) who lead these authority areas have much more expansive [[Devolution in the United Kingdom|devolved]] governmental powers compared to their local council counterparts who do not, and have responsibility for larger geographical areas that can include multiple cities and towns. These regional mayors have a much larger political significance and are seen as the chief representative for their region, they sit on the [[Mayoral Council for England]] and the [[Council of the Nations and Regions]], where they sit alongside leaders from the UK government and devolved governments of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

===Continental Europe===
{{see also|Mayor of the palace|Podestà}}
The original [[Franks|Frankish]] mayors or majordomos were {{ndash}} like the Welsh {{Lang|cy|meiri}} {{ndash}} lords commanding the king's lands around the [[Merovingians|Merovingian]] courts in [[Austrasia]], [[kingdom of Burgundy|Burgundy]], and [[Neustria]]. The mayorship of Paris eventually became hereditary in the [[Pippinids]], who later established the [[Carolingian dynasty]].

In modern [[France]], since the [[French Revolution|Revolution]], a mayor ({{Lang|fr|maire}}) and a number of mayoral adjuncts ({{Lang|fr|adjoints au maire}}) are selected by the municipal council from among their number. Most of the administrative work is left in their hands, with the full council meeting comparatively infrequently. The model was copied throughout Europe in Britain's mayors, Italy's [[sindaco]]s, most of the German states' [[burgomaster]]s, and Portugal's [[President of the Municipal Chamber|presidents of the municipal chambers]].

In [[medieval Italy]], the [[Italian city-states|city-states]] who did not consider themselves independent principalities or dukedoms {{ndash}} particularly those of the Imperial [[Ghibelline]] faction {{ndash}} were led by {{Lang|it|[[podestà]]s|italic=no}}.

The [[Greece|Greek]] equivalent of a mayor is the [[demarch]] ({{langx|el|δήμαρχος||[[archon]] of the [[deme]]}}).

====Scandinavia====
In [[Denmark]] all [[Municipalities of Denmark|municipalities]] are led by a political official called ''[[Burgomaster|borgmester]]'', 'mayor'. The mayor of [[Copenhagen]] is however called ''[[List of mayors of Copenhagen|overborgmester]]'' 'lord mayor'. In that city other mayors, {{Lang|da|borgmestre}} (plural), are subordinate to the lord mayor with different undertakings, like ministers to a prime minister. In other municipalities in Denmark there is only a single mayor.

[[File:1389-09-04, brev Iserlohn.jpg|thumb|Document of 1389 on the election of the [[mayor of Stockholm]]]]
In [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]] the mayoral title {{Lang|no|borgermester}}''/''{{Lang|sv|borgmästare}} has now been abolished. Norway abolished it in 1937 as a title of the non-political top manager of (city) municipalities and replaced it with the title {{Lang|no|rådmann}} ('[[alderman]]' or '[[magistrate]]'), which is still in use when referring to the top managers of the [[municipalities of Norway]]. The top ''elected'' official of the municipalities of Norway, on the other hand, has the title {{Lang|no|ordfører}}, which actually means 'word-bearer', i.e. 'chairperson' or 'president', an equivalent to the Swedish word ''[[:wikt:ordförande|ordförande]]''.

In [[Sweden]] {{Lang|sv|borgmästare}} was a title of the senior judge of the courts of the cities, courts which were called {{Lang|sv|rådhusrätt}}, literally 'town hall court', somewhat of an equivalent to an English [[magistrates' court (England and Wales)|magistrates' court]]. These courts were abolished in 1971. Until 1965, these mayor judges on historical grounds also performed some administrative functions in the board of magistrates, in Swedish known collectively as {{Lang|sv|magistrat}}. Until 1965 there were also municipal mayors ({{Lang|sv|kommunalborgmästare}}), who had these non-political administrative roles in smaller cities without a magistrates' court or {{Lang|sv|magistrat}}. This office was an invention of the 20th century as the smaller cities in Sweden during the first half of the 20th century subsequently lost their own courts and magistrates.

[[File:Arthur-Castren.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Arthur Castrén]] (1866–1946), the [[Mayor of Helsinki]], in the 1930s]]
In the 16th century in Sweden, king [[Gustav Vasa]] considerably centralised government and appointed the mayors directly. In 1693 king [[Charles XI]] accepted a compromise after repeated petitions from the Estate of the Burgesses over decades against the royal mayor appointments. The compromise was that the burgesses in a city could normally nominate a mayor under the supervision of the local governor. The nominee was then to be presented to and appointed by the king, but the king could appoint mayors directly in exceptional cases. This was codified in the [[Instrument of Government]] of 1720 and on 8 July the same year [[Privy Council of Sweden|Riksrådet ("the Council of the Realm")]] decided, after a petition from the said Estate, that only the city could present nominees, not the king or anyone else. Thus the supervision of the local governor and directly appointed mayors by the king ceased after 1720 (the so-called [[Age of Liberty]]). On 16 October 1723, it was decided after a petition that the city should present three nominees, of whom the king (or the Council of the Realm) appointed one.<ref name="NF">[https://runeberg.org/nfbc/0637.html The article ''Borgmästare'' (in Swedish)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605184600/http://runeberg.org/nfbc/0637.html |date=5 June 2013 }} in [[Nordisk Familjebok]].</ref> This was kept as a rule from then on in all later regulations<ref name=NF/> and was also kept as a tradition in the [[Instrument of Government (1809)|1809 Instrument of Government]] ([http://sv.wikisource.org/wiki/Regeringsform_1809#.C2.A731. § 31]) until 1965.

In [[Finland]], there are two mayors, in [[Tampere]] and [[Pirkkala]]. Usually in Finland the highest executive official is not democratically elected, but is appointed to a public office by the city council, and is called simply {{Lang|fi|kaupunginjohtaja}} 'city manager' or {{Lang|fi|kunnanjohtaja}} 'municipal manager', depending on whether the municipality defines itself as a city. The term {{Lang|fi|pormestari}} 'mayor', from Swedish {{Lang|sv|borgmästare}} confusingly on historical grounds has referred to the highest official in the registry office and in the city courts (abolished in 1993) as in Sweden, not the city manager. In addition, {{Lang|fi|pormestari}} is also an honorary title, which may be given for distinguished service in the post of the city manager. The city manager of Helsinki is called {{Lang|fi|ylipormestari}}, which translates to 'chief mayor', for historical reasons. Furthermore, the term ''city manager'' may be seen translated as ''mayor''.

====Spain====

The office of the ''[[alcalde]]'' evolved during the [[Reconquista]] as new lands were settled by the expanding kingdoms of [[Kingdom of León|León]] and [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]]. As fortified settlements in the area between the [[Douro]] and [[Tagus]] rivers became true urban centers, they gained, from their [[Feudalism|feudal lords]] or the kings of Leon and Castile, the right to have councils. Among the rights that these councils had was to elect a municipal judge ({{Lang|la|iudex}} in [[Medieval Latin|Latin]] and {{Lang|es|juez}} in Spanish). These judges were assisted in their duties by various assistant judges, called {{Lang|es|alcaldes}}, whose number depended on the number of parishes the town had.<ref>O'Callaghan, ''A History of Medieval Spain'', 269–271.</ref> The title {{Lang|es|alcalde}} was [[Loanword|borrowed]] from the Arabic ''[[qadi|al-qaḍi]]'' ({{Lang|ar|قاضي}}), meaning 'the judge'.<ref>The second L in ''alcalde'' evolved from the [[Spanish language|Castilian]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] attempts at pronouncing the [[emphatic consonant]] [[ḍād]]. The old Portuguese [[cognate]] ''alcalde'' was never applied to the presiding municipal officer and retained its original meaning of "judge". "Alcalde" in Corominas, ''Diccionario crítico'', Vol. A-CA (1), 127.</ref>

The word {{Lang|es|alcalde}} originally was used for simple judges, as in [[Andalusian Arabic]]. Only later was it applied to the presiding municipal magistrate.<ref>Corominas, "Alcalde", 127.</ref> This early use continued to be reflected in its other uses, such as {{Lang|es|alcaldes del crimen}}, the judges in the ''[[Audiencia Real|audiencia]]s''; {{Lang|es|Alcaldes de la Casa y Corte de Su Majestad}}, who formed the highest tribunal in Castile and also managed the royal court; {{Lang|es|alcaldes mayores}}, a synonym for [[Corregidor (position)|''corregidor'']]; and {{Lang|es|alcaldes de barrio}}, who were roughly the equivalent of British [[parish constable]]s. Because of this, the municipal {{Lang|es|alcalde}} was often referred to as an {{Lang|es|alcalde ordinario}}.

==Mayors by country==
===Armenia===
{{See also|Mayor of Yerevan}}
Mayors in [[Armenia]] are the head of the executive branch of [[Municipalities of Armenia|municipal government]]. Mayors are often elected by the respective city council and serve for a five-year term. The mayor heads the community administration, nominates members of the administration to various posts, and oversees the municipal budget.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Eastern Partnership Country|url=https://portal.cor.europa.eu/divisionpowers/Pages/Armenia.aspx|language=en|access-date=5 May 2023|archive-date=20 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230620034036/https://portal.cor.europa.eu/divisionpowers/Pages/Armenia.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Australia===

In Australian councils, the mayor is generally the member of the council who acts as a ceremonial figurehead at official functions, as well as carrying the authority of the council between meetings. Mayoral decisions made between meetings are subject to council and may be confirmed or repealed if necessary. Mayors in Australia may be elected either directly through a ballot for the position of mayor at a local-government election, or alternatively may be elected from within the council at a meeting.

The civic regalia and insignia of local government have basically remained unaltered for centuries. For ceremonial occasions a mayor may wear robes, a [[Livery collar|mayoral chain]] and a [[Ceremonial mace|mace]]. Mayors have the title of ''[[Worship (style)|His/Her Worship]]'' whilst holding the position.

In councils where [[councillors]] are elected representing political parties, the mayor is normally the leader of the party receiving the most seats on council. In [[Queensland]], the [[lord mayor]] and mayors are elected by popular vote at the general council election.

===Bangladesh===
{{see also|List of city corporations in Bangladesh}}
Mayors in [[Bangladesh]] are elected every five years. They are very powerful in municipal government. The mayor is the highest-ranking official in municipal governments in Bangladesh.

===Brazil===
Every municipality in Brazil elects a mayor (Portuguese: {{Lang|pt|prefeito/prefeita}}) and a vice-mayor (Portuguese: {{Lang|pt|vice-prefeito/vice-prefeita}}) for a four-year term, acting as an executive officer with the city council (Portuguese: {{Lang|pt|Câmara Municipal}}) functioning with legislative powers. The mayor can be re-elected and manage the city for two consecutive terms.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|title=Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil|url=https://www.senado.leg.br/atividade/const/con1988/con1988_05.10.1988/art_29_.asp|access-date=2021-10-03|website=www.senado.leg.br|language=pt-br|doi=|archive-date=5 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805092446/http://www.senado.leg.br/atividade/const/con1988/CON1988_05.10.1988/art_29_.asp|url-status=live}}</ref>

Mayoral elections in Brazil occur in two different ways: in municipalities with more than 200,000 inhabitants, the voting happens in a [[two-round system]], like the [[Presidential elections in Brazil|presidential]] and [[Federative units of Brazil|gubernatorial]] elections. In municipalities with less than 200,000 inhabitants, the voting happens in a [[Plurality (voting)|relative majority system]] (with only one round).<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Eleições 2020: 95 municípios com mais de 200 mil eleitores poderão ter 2º turno em novembro|url=https://www.tse.jus.br/imprensa/noticias-tse/2020/Setembro/eleicoes-2020-95-municipios-com-mais-de-200-mil-eleitores-poderao-ter-2o-turno-em-novembro|access-date=2021-10-03|website=www.tse.jus.br|language=pt-br|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003003910/https://www.tse.jus.br/imprensa/noticias-tse/2020/Setembro/eleicoes-2020-95-municipios-com-mais-de-200-mil-eleitores-poderao-ter-2o-turno-em-novembro}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=PDF.js viewer|url=https://www.tse.jus.br/imprensa/noticias-tse/arquivos/municipios-2-turno-eleicoes-2020/rybena_pdf?file=https://www.tse.jus.br/imprensa/noticias-tse/arquivos/municipios-2-turno-eleicoes-2020/at_download/file|access-date=2021-10-03|website=www.tse.jus.br|language=pt-br|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003003916/https://www.tse.jus.br/imprensa/noticias-tse/arquivos/municipios-2-turno-eleicoes-2020/rybena_pdf?file=https://www.tse.jus.br/imprensa/noticias-tse/arquivos/municipios-2-turno-eleicoes-2020/at_download/file}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-16|title=Brazil's Municipal Elections 2020: 2nd round to be held in 57 cities|url=https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/en/eleicoes-2020/noticia/2020-11/brazils-municipal-elections-2020-2nd-round-be-held-57-cities|access-date=2021-10-03|website=Agência Brasil|language=en|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003003927/https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/en/eleicoes-2020/noticia/2020-11/brazils-municipal-elections-2020-2nd-round-be-held-57-cities|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Brazilian system works similarly to the [[mayor-council government]] in the United States.

===Canada===
{{see also|Local government in Canada|Municipal elections in Canada}}

The chief executives of [[borough#Canada|boroughs]] (''[[Arrondissement#Quebec|arrondissements]]'') in [[Quebec]] are termed mayors ({{Lang|fr|maires/mairesses}} in French). A borough mayor simultaneously serves as head of the borough council and as a regular councillor on the main city council. The scheduling of municipal elections in Canada varies by jurisdiction, as each province and territory has its own laws regarding municipal governance.

As is the practice in most Commonwealth countries, in Canada a mayor is addressed as His/Her Worship while holding office.

====Reeve====

In a few [[List of municipalities in Ontario|municipalities]] and [[township]]s in [[Ontario]], the '''reeve''' is the elected head of the municipality, and the second-in-command is referred to as the '''deputy reeve'''. Historically, in some small [[township (Canada)|townships]], the title ''reeve'' was used instead of mayor. In some other municipalities, ''mayor'' and ''reeve'' were two separate offices, with the mayor retaining leadership powers while the reeve was equivalent to what other municipalities called an ''[[at-large]] councillor''. Today most municipalities in the province now designate their elected municipal government heads as mayors, but a small handful retain the position. This continues to be the case in the following municipalities and [[township]]s:
* [[Howick, Ontario|Howick Township]], [[Huron County, Ontario|Huron County]]
* [[North Huron, Ontario|North Huron Township]], [[Huron County, Ontario|Huron County]]
* [[Beckwith, Ontario|Beckwith Township]], [[Lanark County]]
* [[Drummond/North Elmsley|Drummond/North Elmsley Township]], [[Lanark County]]
* [[Lanark Highlands]], [[Lanark County]]
* [[Montague, Ontario|Montague Township]], [[Lanark County]]
* [[Tay Valley|Tay Valley Township]], [[Lanark County]]
* [[The Archipelago|Township of The Archipelago]], [[Parry Sound District]]
* [[Alberton, Ontario|Alberton Township]], [[Rainy River District]]
* [[Chapple, Ontario|Chapple Township]], [[Rainy River District]]
* [[La Vallee, Ontario|La Vallee Township]], [[Rainy River District]]
* [[Morley, Ontario|Morley Township]], [[Rainy River District]]
* [[Dorion, Ontario|Dorion Township]], [[Thunder Bay District]]
* [[Gillies, Ontario|Gilles Township]], [[Thunder Bay District]]
* [[Brethour|Brethour Township]], [[Timiskaming District]]
* [[Casey, Ontario|Casey Township]], [[Timiskaming District]]
* [[Chamberlain, Ontario|Chamberlain Township]], [[Timiskaming District]]
* [[Charlton and Dack|Municipality of Charlton and Dack]], [[Timiskaming District]]
* [[Evanturel|Evaturel Township]], [[Timiskaming District]]
* [[Gauthier, Ontario|Gauthier Township]], [[Timiskaming District]]
* [[Harley, Ontario|Harley Township]], [[Timiskaming District]]
* [[Harris, Ontario|Harris Township]], [[Timiskaming District]]
* [[Hilliard, Ontario|Hilliard Township]], [[Timiskaming District]]
* [[Hudson, Ontario|Hudson Township]], [[Timiskaming District]]
* [[James, Ontario|James Township]], [[Timiskaming District]]
* [[Kerns, Ontario|Kerns Township]], [[Timiskaming District]]
* [[Thornloe, Ontario|Village of Thornloe]], [[Timiskaming District]]

The reeve is also the chief elected official in most of [[Alberta]]'s [[List of municipal districts in Alberta|municipal districts]].

The elected heads of rural municipalities (RM) in the provinces of [[Manitoba]] and [[Saskatchewan]] are usually referred to as a reeve.

===Dominican Republic===
The mayor of a municipality in the [[Dominican Republic]] is called indistinctly {{Lang|es|alcalde}} or {{Lang|es|síndico}}. The latter name is preferred to avoid confusing the title with the similar-sounding {{Lang|es|alcaide}} (lit. '[[prison warden]]'). Such a person is the governor of the municipality whose township elected him (or her) by [[direct vote]] for a term of four years. The daily duties of the mayor's office are restricted to local governance, and as such, it is responsible for the coordination of [[waste collection]], [[Maintenance, repair, and operations|upkeep]] of [[public spaces]] (e.g., parks, undeveloped urban parcels, streets), traffic light control, sewage, and most public utilities. In practice, most of its duties are centered on minor street repairs (new or large road projects, like overpasses, bridges, pedestrian crossings, etc. are handled by the Ministry of Public Works ({{Langx|es|Ministerio de Obras Públicas|links=no}}), under the direct control of the central government. Subcontracting [[Waste collection|garbage collection]] and management, overseeing the use of public spaces, and arbitrating neighborhood land use disputes, which are managed by the National Property office ({{Langx|es|Oficina de Bienes Nacionales|links=no}}), is also controlled by the mayor's office. Water, electrical supply and public transportation coordination are handled by several central government offices, and as such, are not under the control of the mayor.

===France===
{{main|Mayor (France)}}

Mayors ({{Lang|fr|maires}}) are elected for a six-year term by the municipal council, whose members are elected by direct universal suffrage in [[Elections in France#Municipal|local elections]] held every six years.

===Germany===
In Germany, local government is regulated by [[states of Germany|state]] statutes. Nowadays only the mayors of the three city-states (Berlin, Hamburg and [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]]) are still elected by the respective city-state parliaments. In all the other states the mayors are now elected directly by the [[EU citizen]]s living in that area. The post of mayor may be said to be a professional one, the mayor being the head of the local government, and requiring, to be eligible, training in administration. In big cities (details are regulated by state statutes) the official title is {{Lang|de|'''Oberbürgermeister'''}} (mayor). In these cities, a "simple" mayor is just a deputy responsible for a distinct task (e.g., welfare or construction works). Big cities are usually ''[[Kreisfreie Stadt|kreisfrei]]'' ('district-free'). That means that the city council also has the powers and duties of a rural district council. The leader of a rural district council is called {{Lang|de|Landrat}} ('land counsellor'). In that case, the chief mayor also has the duties and powers of a {{Lang|de|Landrat}}.

There are also some German states that allow smaller cities to have an ''Oberbürgermeister'' as well. In [[Saarland]], for instance, every city with more than 35,000 inhabitants has one, and in [[Saxony-Anhalt]] every city with a population bigger than 25,000 has one. The term {{Lang|de|Oberbürgermeister}} is not used in the three city-states, where the mayors are simultaneously [[minister-president|head of state governments]], but {{Lang|de|Regierender Bürgermeister}} ([[Governing Mayor of Berlin]]), {{Lang|de|Erster Bürgermeister}} ([[First Mayor of the city-state of Hamburg]]) and {{Lang|de|Präsident des Senats und Bürgermeister}} ([[Mayor of Bremen|President of the Senate and Mayor of Bremen]]) are used. However, the term {{Lang|de|Oberbürgermeister}} was used for the head of the state government of [[West Berlin]] until 1951 and was also used in [[East Berlin]] from 1948 to January 1991.

===Greece===
{{See also|Mayor of Athens|Mayor of Thessaloniki}}

Mayors ({{Lang|el|δήμαρχοι}}, {{Lang|el-latn|dēmarchoi}}, sing. {{Lang|el|δήμαρχος}}, ''[[demarchos|dēmarchos]]'') in [[Greece]] were previously elected every four years in [[Elections in Greece#Local elections|local elections]] and are the head of various municipal governments in which the state is divided. Starting in 2014, mayors are elected for a five-year term. Local administration elections for the new, consolidated municipalities and peripheries will henceforth be held together with the [[Elections in the European Union|elections]] for the [[European Parliament]].

Local administration in Greece recently underwent extensive reform in two phases: the first phase, implemented in 1997 and commonly called the [[Kapodistrias Plan]], consolidated the country's numerous municipalities and communities down to approximately 1000. The second phase, initially called Kapodistrias II but eventually called the [[Kallikratis Plan]], was implemented in 2010, further consolidated municipalities down to 370, and merged the country's 54 prefectures, which were disbanded in favour of the larger 13 regions. The Kallikratian municipalities were designed according to several guidelines; for example, each island (except [[Crete]]) was incorporated into a single municipality, while the majority of small towns were consolidated so as to have an average municipal population of 25,000.

===India===
{{main|Mayor (India)}}

In [[India]], the mayor is the first citizen of a city and the head of [[Municipal corporation (India)|municipal corporation]] which is a local government of cities with a population over one million. They have a number of roles, both ceremonial and functional. In most Indian states mayors are elected indirectly among the [[Councillor|corporators]] (who are directly elected by the people of their respective [[Ward (electoral subdivision)|wards]]) of the municipal corporation, except in nine states: [[Bihar]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Haryana]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Odisha]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Telangana]] and [[Uttarakhand]], where mayors are elected directly by the public.

===Indonesia===
In [[Indonesia]], mayor ({{langx|id|wali kota}}, formerly called {{Lang|id|walikotamadya}} and {{Lang|id|walikota}}) is a regional head of a city or town. A mayor has the same level as a [[regent]] (''bupati''), head of a regency (''kabupaten''). A mayor has the duty and authority to lead the implementation of the policies established by the region along with the city council (''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah Kota'', DPRD Kota; formerly called Tier 2-DPRD (''DPRD Tingkat II'')). A mayor is elected in a pair with a vice mayor through direct elections and is a political office. An exception is [[Jakarta|Special Capital Region of Jakarta]], where mayoralty is a civil-service career position with limited authority and is designated by [[Governor of Jakarta|the governor]]. Their regions are called [[Jakarta#Administrative divisions|administration cities]] (''kota administrasi'').

Before 1999, there were administrative cities (''kota administratif'', [[:id:Kota administratif|[id]]]) which were headed by administrative mayors.

===Ireland===
In the [[Republic of Ireland]], the head of a [[borough#Ireland|borough]] corporation was called "mayor" from the [[Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840]] until boroughs were abolished by the [[Local Government Reform Act 2014]]. [[City status in Ireland|City]] council chairs are "mayor" (or "lord mayor" in the cases [[Lord Mayor of Dublin|of Dublin]] and [[Lord Mayor of Cork|of Cork]]). The [[Local Government Act 2001]] allowed [[Counties of Ireland|county]] councils to style their chairperson as "mayor" and some do so. Since 2000 [[Proposed directly elected mayor for the Dublin Metropolitan Area|there have been proposals]] for a directly elected mayor of the [[Dublin Metropolitan Area]]. The [[2019 Irish local elections|2019 local elections]] included plebiscites in three areas on directly elected mayors, of which that for [[Mayor of Limerick]] was passed, with the first direct election due as part of the [[2024 Irish local elections|2024 local elections]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Martyn |first1=Petula |title=Limerick prepares to vote for directly elected mayor |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/munster/2024/0206/1430705-limerick-prepares-to-vote-for-directly-elected-mayor/ |access-date=8 March 2024 |work=RTÉ News |date=6 February 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

===Iran===
In [[Iran]], the mayor is the executive manager of a city and is elected by the Islamic city council. The mayor is elected for a four-year term

===Italy===
{{Main|Metropolitan mayor}}

In Italy, the mayor is called {{Lang|it|sindaco}}, or informally {{Lang|it|primo cittadino}} ('first citizen'). Every municipality ({{langx|it|comune}}) has a mayor who represents the local government. The mayor is directly elected every five years by the inhabitants of the ''[[comune]]''; the mayor cannot serve for more than two consecutive terms, except in municipalities of up to 5,000 inhabitants, those having a three consecutive terms limit.<ref>{{in lang|it}} [https://www.academia.edu/11358245/Del_terzo_mandato_dei_sindaci {{lang|it|No ai tre mandati dei sindaci. Principio di legalità batte disobbedienti}}] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204222029/http://www.academia.edu/11358245/Del_terzo_mandato_dei_sindaci |date=4 February 2019 }}.</ref>

The mayor is a member of the city council, the legislative body which checks the mayor's policy guidelines and is able to enforce his resignation by a [[motion of no confidence]], and is entitled to appoint and release the members of the executive body ({{langx|it|giunta}}).

===Japan===
Japan's [[Local Autonomy Law|Local-Autonomy Law]] of 1947 defines the structure of Japanese local governments, which were strengthened after World War II. It gives strong executive power to the mayor in local politics like [[mayor-council government#Executive or Strong Mayor Form|strong mayors]] in large cities in the United States of America. The titles that are translated as ''mayor'' by the governments are those of the heads of [[cities of Japan|cities]] {{Nihongo||市長|shichō}}, [[towns of Japan|towns]] {{Nihongo||町長|chōchō}}, [[villages of Japan|villages]] {{Nihongo||村長|sonchō}}, and Tokyo's [[special wards of Tokyo|special wards]] {{Nihongo||区長|kuchō}} (The head of the [[Tokyo|Tokyo prefecture]] is the {{Nihongo|governor|知事|Chiji}}).

A mayor is elected every four years by direct popular votes held separately from the assembly. A mayor can be [[recall election|recalled]] by a popular initiative but the [[prefectures of Japan|prefectural]] and the national governments cannot remove a mayor from office. Towards the assembly the mayor prepares budgets, proposes local [[Act of Parliament|acts]] and may veto local acts approved by the assembly which can be overridden by two-thirds assembly support. A mayor can dissolve the assembly if the assembly passes a [[motion of no confidence]] or if the mayor thinks the assembly has no confidence in fact.

===Kazakhstan===
{{main|Akim}}

In Kazakhstan, the mayor is called ''akim'', who is the head of an {{Lang|kk|akimat}}, a municipal, district, or provincial government ({{Lang|kk|mayorat}}), and serves as the presidential representative. {{Lang|kk|Akim}}''s'' of provinces and cities are appointed to the post by the president on the advice of the prime minister. Meanwhile, the {{Lang|kk|akim}}''s'' of other administrative and territorial units are appointed or elected to the post in an order defined by the president. The president may also dismiss {{Lang|kk|akim}}''s'' from their posts. The {{Lang|kk|akims}}' powers end upon the newly elected president of the republic taking office. Thus, the {{Lang|kk|akims}} continue to fulfill their duties before the appointment of the corresponding {{Lang|kk|akim}} by the President of Kazakhstan.

===Malaysia===
{{See also|Mayor of Kuala Lumpur|Mayor of Penang Island}}
The mayor functions as the head of the local government of the cities in Malaysia. To date, there are [[List of cities in Malaysia#Cities of Malaysia|14 officially-recognised cities in the country]].

In cities which lie within the jurisdiction of any one of the [[States and federal territories of Malaysia|13 Malaysian states]], the mayor is appointed by the state government.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Elect local leaders |url=http://www.thesundaily.my/news/2017/10/24/elect-local-leaders |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617165044/http://www.thesundaily.my/news/2017/10/24/elect-local-leaders |archive-date=17 June 2018 |access-date=17 June 2018 |website=www.thesundaily.my |language=en}}</ref> [[Kuala Lumpur]], the country's capital, is a notable exception, as it forms part of the [[Federal Territories (Malaysia)|Federal Territories]] which come under the purview of the [[Government of Malaysia|Malaysian federal government]], via the [[Ministry of Federal Territories (Malaysia)|Ministry of Federal Territories]]. Thus, the mayor of Kuala Lumpur is selected by, and subordinate to, the [[Minister of Federal Territories (Malaysia)|Minister of Federal Territories]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 June 2018 |title=Teresa Kok: Federal Territories Ministry should be abolished |work=The Edge Markets |url=https://www.theedgemarkets.com/article/teresa-kok-federal-territories-ministry-should-be-abolished |access-date=17 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617165117/https://www.theedgemarkets.com/article/teresa-kok-federal-territories-ministry-should-be-abolished |archive-date=17 June 2018}}</ref>

Following the [[Malaysian general election, 2018|2018 general election]], which saw the country undergoing its first ever regime change, there have been calls to revive local government elections, which had been the practice in certain cities such as Kuala Lumpur, [[George Town, Penang|George Town]], [[Ipoh]] and [[Malacca City|Melaka]] until their abolishment in 1965.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Non-partisan local elections the way forward, says Ipoh NGO {{!}} Malay Mail |url=https://www.malaymail.com/s/1631905/non-partisan-local-elections-the-way-forward-says-ipoh-ngo |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617165055/https://www.malaymail.com/s/1631905/non-partisan-local-elections-the-way-forward-says-ipoh-ngo |archive-date=17 June 2018 |access-date=17 June 2018 |website=www.malaymail.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=28 May 2018 |title=Local elections to begin as soon as economy stabilises |work=The Edge Markets |url=http://www.theedgemarkets.com/article/local-elections-begin-soon-economy-stabilises |url-status=live |access-date=17 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617165049/http://www.theedgemarkets.com/article/local-elections-begin-soon-economy-stabilises |archive-date=17 June 2018}}</ref> The reinstatement of local government elections would lead to the mayoral position being elected, instead of being appointed as per the current system.

===Malta===
In Malta, the mayor ({{Langx|mt|sindku}}) is the leader of the majority party in the [[Local councils of Malta|local council]]. The members of the local councils are directly elected and collectively serve as a basic form of local government.

===Moldova===
The mayor of the municipality in Moldova is elected for four years.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-REF(2016)031-e |title=Electoral Code of the Republic of Moldova |publisher=Central Electoral Commission |year=2015 |location=Chisinau}}</ref> In [[Chișinău]], the last mayoral elections{{when|date=January 2023}} had to be repeated three times because of the low rate of participation.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}}

===Nepal===
{{further|List of mayors of municipalities in Nepal }}
Mayors in Nepal are elected every five years in the [[Elections in Nepal|local elections]]. They are very powerful in municipal government. The mayor is the highest-ranking official in a municipal government in Nepal.

===Netherlands===
{{Main|Burgemeester}}

In the [[Netherlands]], the mayor ({{langx|nl|burgemeester}}) is the leader of the college of mayor and aldermen (''[[college van burgemeester en wethouders]]''), the municipal executive. In the Netherlands, {{Lang|nl|burgemeester}}''s'' are ''de facto'' appointed by the national [[Cabinet of the Netherlands|cabinet]], ''de jure'' by the [[Dutch Monarchy|monarch]]. Appointment is generally preceded by a selection procedure and nomination by the municipal council and king's commissioner (head of the provincial executive), and a nomination is only very rarely not followed by an appointment. Mayors preside over both the municipal executive and the legislative (''[[gemeenteraad]]''), although they can vote in the former and not in the latter. The title is sometimes translated as [[burgomaster]], to emphasise the appointed, rather than elected, nature of the office.

The appointment procedure was brought for discussion in the early 2000s (decade), as some of the political parties represented in parliament regarded the procedure as undemocratic. Generally, mayors in the Netherlands are selected from the established political parties, although since the late 2010s mayors without political affiliation have become more common.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2021/04/16/partijloze-burgemeester-in-opmars-korpschef-schouten-voorgedragen-in-alkmaar-a4040113|title=Partijloze burgemeester in opmars: Korpschef Schouten voorgedragen in Alkmaar|newspaper=NRC |date=16 April 2021 |access-date=24 June 2021|archive-date=3 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103201159/https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2021/04/16/partijloze-burgemeester-in-opmars-korpschef-schouten-voorgedragen-in-alkmaar-a4040113|url-status=live |last1=Borst |first1=Thomas }}</ref> Alternatives proposed were direct election of the mayor by the people or official appointment by the municipal council ({{Lang|nl|gemeenteraad}}). A constitutional change to allow for this failed to pass the [[Senate of the Netherlands|Senate]] in March 2005, but succeeded in 2018.

===New Zealand===
{{Main|Mayors in New Zealand}}

Mayors in New Zealand are elected every three years in the [[Elections in New Zealand|local body elections]].

===Pakistan===
{{further|Nazim}}
In [[Pakistan]], a city is headed by the [[Districts of Pakistan|district]] ''nazim'' (the word means 'administrator' in Urdu, but is sometimes translated as 'mayor') and assisted by the [[Naib Nazim|''naib nazim'']], who is also speaker of the district council. The district {{Lang|ur-latn|nazim}} is elected by the {{Lang|ur-latn|nazims}} of [[Union councils of Pakistan|union councils]], union councillors and by [[tehsil]] {{Lang|ur-latn|nazims}}, who themselves are elected directly by the votes of the local public. Council elections are held every four years.

===Philippines===
In the [[Philippines]], mayors ({{langx|tl|punong bayan / punong lungsod / alkalde}}) are the head of a [[List of cities and municipalities in the Philippines|municipality or a city]], with the vice mayor as the second-highest position in the city. They are elected every three years during the midterm and national elections, and they can serve up to three consecutive terms of office. {{As of|2012|September}}, there are 1,635 mayors in the Philippines.<ref>{{cite web | last1=Jazul | first1=Leanne | url=https://www.rappler.com/nation/elections/city-mayor-vice-councilor-philippines-powers-duties/ | title=Powers and Duties: City Mayor, Vice Mayor, Councilor in the Philippines | work=RAPPLER | date=May 2021 | access-date=8 August 2022 | archive-date=8 August 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808010418/https://www.rappler.com/nation/elections/city-mayor-vice-councilor-philippines-powers-duties/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

===Poland===
{{see also|List of cities and towns in Poland#Cities}}
As of 30 April 2022, there are altogether 2477 municipalities ([[gmina]]) in Poland, including 1513 rural gminas, while the remaining 968 ones contain cities and towns. Among them, 666 towns are part of an urban-rural gmina while 302 cities and towns are standalone as an urban gmina. The latter group includes 107 cities (governed by a ''prezydent miasta''), including 66 [[city with powiat rights|cities with powiat rights]]. 37 cities among the latter group are over 100,000, including 18 cities serving as a seat for [[voivode]] or [[voivodeship sejmik]], informally called voivodeship cities.

All municipalities in Poland including cities and towns are governed under the mandatory [[mayor–council government]] system. Executive power is vested in an official called one of the following:
* a city mayor (''prezydent miasta'')
* a town mayor (''burmistrz'')
* a ''[[wójt]]'' which is the equivalent office in a rural municipality (''[[gmina|gmina wiejska]]'')

They are elected by a [[two-round system|two-round]] [[direct election]] for a five-year term concurrently with the five-year term of the [[municipal council]] and cannot serve in the latter or in any higher-level deliberative bodies: a [[county council]], a [[voivodeship sejmik]], the [[Parliament of Poland]] or the [[European Parliament]]. Citizens with a criminal record cannot run for mayor, but only if sentenced for intentional criminal offence prosecuted [[ex officio]]. The [[municipal council|municipal/town/city council]] is the legislative, budget-making and oversight body. Mayor is obliged to appoint his deputy. A town or city mayor may be scrutinized or denied funding for his/her projects by the council, but is not politically responsible to it and does not require its confidence to remain in office; therefore, [[Cohabitation (government)|cohabitation]] is not uncommon. A [[Recall election|recall referendum]] may however be triggered through a petition supported by at least 1/10 of eligible voters, but the turnout in the recall referendum must be at least 3/5 of the number of people voting in the original election for the referendum to be valid and binding. A town/city mayor can also be dismissed by the [[prime minister]] in case of persistent transgression of the law.

Town/city mayors manage the municipal estate, issue administrative decisions and minor regulations, and incur [[liability (financial accounting)|liabilities]] within limits set by the municipal council. They prepare and present the planned budget to the municipal council, subject to its acceptation and amendments. After the municipal council votes to accept the budget, the town/city mayor is responsible for its realization. Town/city mayors are heads of the [[town hall|town/city hall (office)]], the [[register office]] (the town/city mayor may appoint deputies for these specific tasks), as well as the parent authority for all public [[kindergarten]]s and [[elementary school]]s in the municipality. They are also personally responsible for the [[emergency management]] and [[civil defense]] in a municipality. A municipality itself is responsible among others for [[public transport]], [[water supply]] and [[water treatment|treatment]], and [[waste management]]. A town/city mayor has the legal capacity to act as employer for all the officials of a town/city hall. Town/city mayors in Poland have wide administrative and staffing authority: the only municipal executive official that the town/city mayor cannot appoint or dismiss is a [[city treasurer]], who is appointed by the town/city council. Although they do not have in Poland power to veto city council resolutions, their position is relatively strong and should be classified as a [[mayor-council government]].In a [[city with powiat rights]], the city mayor also has the powers and duties of a powiat executive board and a [[starosta]].

In addition, an office of quarter mayor (''burmistrz dzielnicy'') exists in the [[Quarters and neighbourhoods of Warsaw|auxiliary units of the city of Warsaw, called quarters]]. In spite of remaining an integral part of the city as an entity, the quarters have a degree of autonomy legally guaranteed through a form of an own local self-government exercising some powers devolved by law from the city. Each of the 18 city quarters has an own council (''rada dzielnicy'') which elects an executive board (''zarząd dzielnicy'') headed by a quarter mayor (''burmistrz dzielnicy''), the latter elected by the council among several candidates nominated by the city mayor of Warsaw among the council's members, as opposed to a town or a city mayor, both elected under direct suffrage.

===Portugal===
In [[Portugal]] and many other Portuguese-speaking countries the mayor of a municipality is called the {{Lang|pt|Presidente da Câmara Municipal}} ('[[President of the Municipal Chamber]]').

===Romania===
In [[Romania]], the mayor of a commune, town or city is called {{Lang|ro|primar}}. The {{Lang|ro|primar}} is elected for a period of four years. In carrying out their responsibilities they are assisted by an elected local council ({{Lang|ro|consiliu local}}). [[Bucharest]] has a general mayor ({{Lang|ro|primar general}}) and six sector mayors ({{Lang|ro|primar de sector}}), one for each [[Sectors of Bucharest|sector]]. The responsibilities of the mayor and of the local council are defined by Law 215/2001 of the Romanian Parliament.<ref>{{Cite web |last=APD-Timișoara |title=Legea nr. 215/2001 |url=http://legislatie.resurse-pentru-democratie.org/legea/215-2001.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104170314/http://legislatie.resurse-pentru-democratie.org/legea/215-2001.php |archive-date=4 November 2014 |access-date=13 December 2014 |website=resurse-pentru-democratie.org}}</ref>

===Russia===
In Russia, the {{Lang|ru|Мэр}}, from French {{Lang|fr|maire}} (transliteration: {{Lang|ru-latn|mer}} – not to be confused with the NATO [[OF-3]] rank {{Lang|ru|Майор}} – English: ''[[Major (rank)|major]]''), is one of the possible titles of the head of the administration of a city or municipality. This title is equivalent to that of the head of a Russian rural district. Exceptionally, the {{Lang|ru-latn|mer}} of [[Moscow]], [[Saint-Petersburg]] and [[Sevastopol]] are equivalent to governors in Russia, since these three federal cities are Russian [[federal subject]]s.

Except for the aforementioned three large cities, the governance system of a Russian municipality (city, county, district or town) is subordinate to the representative council of the federation in which it is located. The {{Lang|ru-latn|mer}} is either directly elected in municipal elections (citywide referendum) or is elected by the members of the municipality's representative council. Election by council members is now more widespread because it better integrates with the Russian federal three-level vertical governance structure:

# National government:
## President (executive)
## [[Federal Assembly (Russia)|Federal Assembly]]
# Federation governments:
## Heads of federation (commonly governors)
## Regional representative councils
# Local governments:
## Heads of administration (who have the official title of {{Lang|ru-latn|mer}}, whether or not local law defines it as such)
## Local representative councils

The typical term of office of a {{Lang|ru-latn|mer}} in Russia is four years. The {{Lang|ru-latn|mer}}''<nowiki/>'s'' office administers all municipal services, public property, police and fire protection, and most public agencies, and enforces all local and state laws within a city or town.

According to Medialogy,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Рейтинги мэров |url=http://www.mlg.ru/ratings/mayors/2949/6/2014/4/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222162625/http://www.mlg.ru/ratings/mayors/2949/6/2014/4/ |archive-date=22 December 2015 |access-date=14 June 2014}}</ref> the {{Lang|ru-latn|mer}} of [[Novosibirsk]], Anatoly Lokot', is mentioned in the media more than any other Russian mayor. The {{Lang|ru-latn|mer}} of [[Kazan]], Il'sur Metshin, is the most popular in Russia, scoring 76 out of 100, according to the Russian People's Rating of {{Lang|ru-latn|Mer}}''s''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Регионы России: Рейтинг Мэров (Май, 2014) |url=http://russia-rating.ru/info/1530.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220100742/http://russia-rating.ru/info/1530.html |archive-date=20 February 2015 |access-date=14 June 2014 |website=russia-rating.ru|date=12 May 2014 }}</ref>

The status of the post in Sevastopol is not legally recognized outside of the [[Russian Federation]].

===Serbia===
In [[Serbia]], the mayor is the head of the city or a town. The mayor acts on behalf of the city, and performs an executive function. The position of the mayor of [[Belgrade]] is important as the capital city is the most important hub of economics, culture and science in [[Serbia]]. Furthermore, the post of the mayor of Belgrade is the third most important position in the government after the [[Prime Minister of Serbia|prime minister]] and [[President of Serbia|president]]. The ''Local Administration Act of 2007'' establishes a mayor-council system for all municipalities, except city municipalities that are part of a city. The title of the mayor varies: the formal title of municipality heads is the ''President of Municipality'' (''{{langx|sr|председник општине|predsednik opštine}}'') while cities are headed by mayors (''{{langx|sr|градоначелник|gradonačelnik}}''); both are, however, called ''gradonačelnik'' in everyday parlance. The mayor is elected indirectly by the city council for a term of 4 years, without a term limit; previously, from 1990 to 2006 mayors were elected directly by voters in local elections alongside the municipal council.

===Spain and Hispanic America===
{{main|Alcalde}}

''Alcalde'' is the most common Spanish term for the mayor of a town or city. It is derived from the {{langx|ar-Latn|[[Qadi|al-qaḍi]]}} ({{lang|ar|قاضي|rtl=yes}}), i.e., 'the ([[Sharia]]) judge', who often had administrative, as well as judicial, functions. Although the [[Crown of Castile|Castilian]] {{Lang|es|alcalde}} and the [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] {{Lang|ar-latn|qaḍi}} had slightly different attributes (the {{Lang|ar-latn|qaḍi}} oversaw an entire province, the {{Lang|es|alcalde}} only a municipality; the former was appointed by the ruler of the state but the latter was elected by the [[Cabildo (council)|municipal council]]), the adoption of this term reflects how much Muslim society in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] influenced the Christian one in the early phases of the ''[[Reconquista]]''. As Spanish Christians took over an increasing part of the Peninsula, they adapted the Muslim systems and terminology for their own use.

Today, it refers to the executive head of a municipal or local government, who usually does not have judicial functions. The word ''[[Intendant|intendente]]'' is used in [[Argentina]] and [[Paraguay]] for the office that is analogous to a mayor.

In [[municipio|''municipios'']] and larger cities in [[Mexico]], the chief executive is known as both {{Lang|es|alcalde}} or as {{Lang|es|presidente municipal}} ('municipal president'), with the latter being more widely used.

===Sweden===
The Swedish title {{Lang|sv|borgmästare}} ([[burgomaster]]) was abolished in the court reform of 1971 when also the [[stad (Sweden)|towns of Sweden]] were officially abolished.

===Switzerland===
The function and title for mayor vary from one canton to another. Generally, the mayor presides over an executive council of several members governing a [[municipalities of Switzerland|municipality]].

The title is:
* In Italian: {{Lang|it|sindaco}} ([[Ticino]]), {{Lang|it|podestà}} ([[Grigioni]])
* In French: {{Lang|fr|maire}} ([[Canton of Geneva|Geneva]], [[Canton of Jura|Jura]], [[Canton of Bern|Bern]]), {{Lang|fr|syndic}} ([[Vaud]], [[Canton of Fribourg|Fribourg]]), {{Lang|fr|président du conseil municipal}} ([[Valais]]), {{Lang|fr|président du conseil communal}} ([[Canton of Neuchâtel|Neuchâtel]])
* In German: e.g. {{Lang|de|Stadtpräsident}}, {{Lang|de|Stadtammann}}, {{Lang|de|Gemeindepräsident}}, {{Lang|de|Gemeindeammann}}

===Taiwan===
In the [[Republic of China]] in Taiwan the mayor is the head of the city's government and its city's council, which is in charge of legislative affairs. The mayor and city council are elected separately by the city's residents.

===Turkey===
Mayors ({{Langx|tr|belediye başkanı}}) in Turkey are elected by popular vote for five years alongside the municipal council. As a rule, there are municipalities in all province centers and district centers as well as towns ({{langx|tr|belde}}) which are actually villages with a population in excess of 2000. However, beginning by 1983, a new level of municipality was introduced in the Turkish administrative system. In big cities, metropolitan municipalities ({{langx|tr|Büyükşehir belediyesi}}) are established. (See [[metropolitan municipalities in Turkey]]) In a metropolitan municipality there may be several district municipalities (hence mayors). Mayors are elected in [[Elections in Turkey|local elections.]]

===Ukraine===
In [[Ukraine]] the title "head of the city" ({{Langx|uk|міський голова|misky holova}}; unofficially the foreign adaptation {{Langx|uk|мер|mer}} also is present) was introduced in 1999. Since then, the post is elected by all residents of the city. Before that date, the post was elected by members of the city council only and was known as head of the city council, which ''ex officio'' also serves as the head of the executive committee. For the cities that carry special status such as [[Kyiv]] and [[Sevastopol]] (currently occupied by Russia), the head of the city was a matter of long debate and the post is regulated by special laws.

Since 2015 a post of {{Langx|uk|староста|starosta}} ('elder') has been implemented at the lower level of the administrative-territorial pyramid. Candidates to the post are also elected by members of the territorial community ({{Langx|uk|громада|hromada}}). The post is historical and existed in the territory of Ukraine during the times of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].

===United States===

{{Main|Mayoralty in the United States}}

The mayor is the municipal head of government, the maximum civil authority at the municipal level, in most United States municipalities (such as cities, townships, etc.). In the [[Mayoralty in the United States|United States]], there are several distinct types of mayors, depending on whether the system of local government is [[council-manager government]] or [[mayor-council government]].

Under the council-manager government system, the mayor is a [[first among equals]] on the [[city council]], which acts as a legislative body while executive functions are performed by the appointed manager. The mayor may chair the city council, but lacks any special legislative powers. The mayor and city council serve part-time, with day-to-day administration in the hands of a professional city manager. The system is most common among medium-sized cities from around 25,000 to several hundred thousand, usually rural and suburban municipalities.

Under the mayor-council system, the mayoralty and city council are separate offices. This system may be of two types, either a strong mayor system or a weak mayor system. Under the ''strong mayor'' system, the mayor acts as an elected executive with the city council exercising legislative powers. They may select a [[chief administrative officer]] to oversee the different departments. This is the system used in most of the United States' large cities, primarily because mayors serve full-time and have a wide range of services that they oversee. In a ''weak mayor'' or ''ceremonial mayor'' system, the mayor has appointing power for department heads but is subject to checks by the city council, sharing both executive and legislative duties with the council. This is common for smaller cities, especially in [[New England]]. [[Charlotte, North Carolina]], and [[Minneapolis]], [[Minnesota]], are two notable large cities with a ceremonial mayor.

Many American mayors are styled "His Honor" or "Her Honor" while in office.

A 2014 analysis found no difference in performance between male and female mayors in the United States, and no evidence of a positive role model effect from female mayors inspiring future candidates.<ref>Ferreira, Fernando, and Joseph Gyourko. 2014. "Does Gender Matter for Political Leadership? The Case of U.S. Mayors." Journal of Public Economics 112 (April): 24–39.</ref> In 2016 author Mirya R. Holman wrote that female mayors "emphasize nurturer parent frames more frequently whereas male mayors emphasize strict father frames, but they discuss economic development at very similar levels".<ref>Holman, Mirya R. 2016. "Gender, Political Rhetoric, and Moral Metaphors in the State of the City Addresses." ''Urban Affairs Review'' 52 (4): 501–530.</ref>

===Uruguay===
[[Uruguay]] has a [[first-level administrative division]], the 19 [[Departments of Uruguay|Departments]]. Since 1908 they were headed by the ''Intendente Municipal'', which covered the functions of [[Intendant|Intendancy]] and [[municipal government]] at the same time.

On 13 September 2009 the Law No. 18567 created a [[second-level administrative division]], the ''[[Municipalities of Uruguay|Municipio]]'', headed by an ''alcalde''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ley N° 18567 |url=https://www.impo.com.uy/bases/leyes-originales/18567-2009 |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=www.impo.com.uy |language=es}}</ref> Further, the Law No. 19272 of 18 September 2014 established the regulation provided that in settlements with more than 2,000 inhabitants a municipality was to be created including their surrounding territories, as long as it consisted in a social and cultural unit with their own common interests, that justified the creation of this kind of political entity. Settlements with less than 2,000 inhabitants were allowed to establish a municipality if the Departmental Board voted for it after the Intendant proposal, or by popular initiative of at least the 15% of voters in the settlement. Municipalities in departmental seats were only allowed to be created by Departmental Boards after the Intendant's proposal.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Ley N° 19272 |url=https://www.impo.com.uy/bases/leyes/19272-2014 |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=www.impo.com.uy |language=es }}</ref>

Further, the current system renamed the first-level administrative head as ''Intendente Departamental''.

There is an ongoing debate regarding this ''municipios'' system, due to the high cost and low quality of public services, ambiguous mandates for citizen participation, and inefficient bureaucracy. Critics highlight, particularly in Montevideo, issues like slow responses to local infrastructure needs, excessive personnel, and a lack of effective horizontal coordination between different municipal jurisdictions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Freigedo |first1=Martín |last2=Milanesi |first2=Alejandro |last3=Rodríguez |first3=José Raúl |date= |title=Decentralizing Under Uncertainty: Informal Relations and Results-Based Management in the Municipalization Process in Uruguay |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11115-022-00693-y |journal=Public Organiz Rev |volume=23 |year=2023 |publisher= |pages=927-944 |access-date=8 March 2023 }}</ref>

==Multi-tier local government==
In several countries, where there is no local [[autonomy]], mayors are often appointed by some branch of the national or regional government. In some cities, subdivisions such as [[borough]]s may have their own mayors; this is the case, for example, with the [[arrondissement]]s of Paris, [[Montreal]], and [[Mexico City]]. In Belgium, [[Brussels]] is administratively one of the federation's three regions, and is subdivided, without the other regions' provincial level, into 19 rather small municipalities, with one, the [[City of Brussels]], being the kingdom's capital, which each have an elected—formally appointed—burgomaster (i.e., mayor, responsible to his/her elected council); while [[Antwerp]], the other major metropolitan area, has one large city (where the boroughs, former municipalities merged into it, elect a lower level, albeit with very limited competence) and several smaller surrounding municipalities, each under a normal burgomaster as in Brussels.

In the People's Republic of China, the mayor ({{Lang|zh|市长}}) may be the administrative head of any municipality, provincial, prefecture-level, or county-level. The mayor is usually the most recognized official in cities, although the position is the second-highest-ranking official in charge after the local Communist Party secretary. In principle, the mayor (who also serves as the deputy Communist Party secretary of the city) is responsible for managing the city administration while the Communist Party secretary is responsible for general policy and managing the party bureaucracy, but in practice the roles blur, frequently causing conflict.

==Acting mayor==
'''Acting mayor''' is a temporary office created by the charter of some [[municipal]] governments.

In many cities and towns, the charter or some similar fundamental document provides that in the event of the death, illness, resignation, or removal from office of the [[incumbent]] mayor, another official will lead the municipality for a temporary period, which, depending on the jurisdiction, may be for a stated period of days or months until a [[special election]] can be held, or until the original end of the term to which the vacating mayor was elected.

Some cities may also provide for a [[deputy mayor]] to be temporarily designated as "acting mayor" in the event that the incumbent mayor is temporarily unavailable, such as for health reasons or out-of-town travel, but still continues to hold the position and is expected to return to the duties of the office. In this latter capacity, the acting mayor's role is to ensure that city government business can continue in the regular mayor's absence, and the acting mayor is not deemed to have actually held the office of mayor. In some jurisdictions, however, when a mayor resigns or dies in office, the mayor's successor is not considered to be an acting mayor but rather fully mayor in their own right.

The position of acting mayor is usually of considerably more importance in a [[mayor-council]] form of municipal government, where the mayor performs functions of day-to-day leadership, than it is in a [[council-manager]] or [[Executive arrangements#Committee system|committee system]] forms of government, where the [[city manager]] or the local council's committees respectively provide day-to-day leadership and the position of mayor is either a largely or entirely ceremonial one.

==See also==
* [[Lists of mayors by country]]
* [[Deputy mayor]]
* [[Governor]]

===Concepts===
* [[Acting (law)]]
* [[Burgomaster]]
* [[Sarpanch]]
* [[World Mayor]]

===Local government===
* [[Seat of government]]
* [[Council–manager government]]
* [[Mayor–council government]]

===Historical===
* ''[[Schultheiß]]''
* ''[[Praefectus urbi]]''

==Citations==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last1=Fairlie |first1=John Archibald |author-link=John Archibald Fairlie |title=Municipal Administration |date=1910 |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924014071116}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lowell |first1=A. Lawrence |author-link=A. Lawrence Lowell |title=The government of England |date=1908 |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000349002}}
* {{cite book |last1=Redlich |first1=Josef |last2=Hirst |first2=Francis Wrigley |author1-link=:de:Josef Redlich |author2-link=Francis Wrigley Hirst |title=Local government in England |date=1903 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London }} [https://archive.org/details/localgovernmenti01redluoft/page/n7 Vol. I]; [https://archive.org/details/localgovernmenti02redluoft/page/n7 Vol.II]
* {{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Albert |author-link=Albert Shaw (journalist) |title=Municipal Government in Continental Europe |date=1895 |publisher=Century |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.205105 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Webb |first1=Sidney |last2=Webb |first2=Beatrice |author1-link=Sidney Webb |author2-link=Beatrice Webb |title=English Local Government from the Revolution to the Municipal Corporations Act: The Manor and the Borough |date=1908 |publisher=Longmans, Green |location=London |url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/510257.html }}

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
{{commons category|Mayors}}
* [http://www.citymayors.com/government/europe_mayors.html Comparative database of European mayors]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mayors| ]]
[[Category:Government occupations]]
[[Category:Local government in the United States]]
[[Category:Management occupations]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]
[[Category:Titles]]
[[Category:Heads of local government]]

Khaki (2007 film)

2026-03-03T21:33:40Z

RodEsters254334: Adding new entry

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Khakhee
| image =
| caption =
| director = Bibin Prabhakar
| producer = Valiyaveettil Siraj
| writer = [[T. A. Shahid]]
| screenplay =
| starring = [[Prithviraj Sukumaran]] [[Mukesh (actor)|Mukesh]]
| music = [[Deepak Dev]]
| cinematography = [[Saloo George]]
| editing = [[Ranjan Abraham]]
| studio = Valiyaveettil Release
| distributor = Valiyaveettil Movie International
| released = {{Film date|2007|05|11|df=yes}}
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
}}

'''''Khakhee''''' is a 2007 Indian Malayalam-language [[action film]], directed by Bibin Prabhakar, starring [[Prithviraj Sukumaran]] and [[Mukesh (actor)|Mukesh]] in the lead roles. The film received mixed reviews.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/may/18sskhaki.htm|title=Khaki could have been better|website=www.rediff.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/khaki-review-malayalam-movie-9141 | title=Khaki review. Khaki Malayalam movie review, story, rating }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/mukesh-and-prithviraj-team-up-malayalam-news-29893|title=Mukesh and Prithviraj team up - Malayalam News|date=15 March 2007|website=IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref> The film was shot in Kozhikode.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/entertainment/2019/12/31/why-prithviraj-turned-down-rajinikanths-offer-to-direct-his-next-movie.html|title=Why Prithviraj turned down Rajinikanth's offer to direct his next movie|website=The Week}}</ref>

==Cast==
{{colbegin}}
*[[Prithviraj Sukumaran]] as [[Sub-inspector|SI]] Paduthuveettil Unnikrishnan Nair, Ramakrishna's Younger brother
*[[Mukesh (actor)|Mukesh]] as [[Head constable|Head Constable]] Paduthuveettil Ramakrishnan Nair, Unnikrishnan's elder brother
*[[Meera Vasudev]] as Sethulakshmi, Ramakrishnan's wife
*[[Nawab Shah (actor)|Nawab Shah]] as Parthiban, the main antagonist
*[[Nedumudi Venu]] as Padathuveettil Balakrishnan Nair, Unnikrishnan's and Ramakrishnan's father
*[[Janardhanan (actor)|Janardhanan]] as Bahuleyan
*[[Jagathy Sreekumar]] as Karunakaran Nair
*[[Mamukkoya]] as [[Constable]] Chekkutty
*[[Sudheesh]] as Advocate Harikrishnan
*[[Chandra Lakshman]] as Meenakshi Nair, Unnikrishnan's and Ramakrishnan's younger sister
*[[Bindu Panicker]] as Lathika, Harikrishnan's mother
*[[Kalabhavan Shajohn]] as [[Constable]] Suraj
*[[Bheeman Raghu]] as [[Director general of police|DGP]] Vikraman [[Indian Police Service|IPS]]
*[[Kundara Johny]] as [[Superintendent (police)|SP]] Mahesh [[Indian Police Service|IPS]]
*[[P. Sreekumar]] as Peethambaran, Chairman
*[[Subair]] as Sugunan, advocate
*[[Santhosh (actor)|Santhosh]] as Sukumaran, member of anti piracy cell
*[[Santhosh Jogi]] as Vasudev, party member
*[[Jayan Cherthala]] as Jayakumar, md blue moon communications
*[[Ponnamma Babu]] as Padmini
*[[Bindu. C. C]] as lady constable
*Manasa as TV reporter
{{colend}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|1102249}}

[[Category:2007 films]]
[[Category:2007 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kozhikode]]
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of the Kerala Police]]

{{2000s-Malayalam-film-stub}}

National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences

2026-03-03T15:35:32Z

RodEsters254334: Revised content for better accuracy

{{short description|Mental hospital in Bangalore, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{about|the institute in India|other institutes with a similar name|National Institute of Mental Health (disambiguation){{!}}National Institute of Mental Health}}
{{Infobox university
| name = National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences
| image = File:Nimhans_logo.png
| image_size = 200px
| caption = Official insignia of the institute<ref>{{Cite web |title=Logo and Anthem – Nimhans |url=https://nimhans.ac.in/logo-and-anthem/ |access-date=2022-09-26 |language=en-US |archive-date=19 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519115051/https://nimhans.ac.in/logo-and-anthem/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| motto = {{lang|sa|samatvaṃ yoga ucyate}}
| established = * {{start date and age|1847}} as Bangalore Lunatic Asylum<ref name="History and Milestones – Nimhans">{{Cite web |title=History and Milestones – Nimhans |url=https://nimhans.ac.in/history-and-milestones/ |access-date=2022-09-26 |language=en-US |archive-date=30 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240530213737/https://nimhans.ac.in/history-and-milestones/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{start date and age|1925}} as Government Mental Hospital
* {{start date and age|27 December 1974}} as NIMHANS
| budget = {{INRConvert|917.21|c}}(2026)<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 Feb 2025 |title=DEMAND NO. 46, Department of Health and Family Welfare, MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE |url=https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sbe46.pdf |access-date=1 Feb 2025 |website=Indiabudget.gov.in}}</ref>
| administrative_staff =
| president = [[Union Minister of Health and Family Welfare]]
| head_label = Director
| head = Dr. Pratima Murthy<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chauhan|first=Bala|title=Senior psychiatrist Pratima Murthy Appointed as director of NIMHANS for five years|work=[[The New Indian Express]] June 19, 2021 10:18 AM IST|location=Bengaluru|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2021/jun/19/senior-psychiatrist-pratima-murthy-appointed-as-director-ofnimhans-for-five-years-2318528.html|access-date=25 June 2021|archive-date=25 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625132602/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2021/jun/19/senior-psychiatrist-pratima-murthy-appointed-as-director-ofnimhans-for-five-years-2318528.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| academic_staff = 249 <ref name=nirf_stud/>
| students = 553 <ref name=nirf_stud>{{cite web|title=NIRF 2022|url=https://www.nirfindia.org/nirfpdfcdn/2022/pdf/Medical/IR-D-U-0236.pdf|publisher=[[NIRF]]|access-date=16 January 2025|archive-date=28 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240828070957/https://www.nirfindia.org/nirfpdfcdn/2022/pdf/Medical/IR-D-U-0236.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| postgrad = 269 <ref name=nirf_stud/>
| doctoral = 284 <ref name=nirf_stud/>
| city = [[Bengaluru]]
| state = [[Karnataka]]
| country = India
| type = [[Public university|Public]] [[medical school]]
| coor = {{coord|12|56|22.4|N|77|35|55.7|E|region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| campus = [[Urban area|Urban]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Campus |first=NIMHANS |date=September 2022 |title=Campus Area |url=https://nimhans.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/LAND_0.pdf |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=nimhans.ac.in |archive-date=19 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519115048/https://nimhans.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/LAND_0.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref group=note name="Campus Area">Total area of the institute includes 144 acres of the existing campuses and 30 acres of land acquired for the construction of Bangalore north campus</ref>
| campus_size = {{Convert|174|acre}}
| colours =
| mascot = White Swan
| affiliations =
| logo = Nimhans official logo.png
| website = {{URL|https://nimhans.ac.in/}}
}}

The '''National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro-Sciences''' ('''NIMHANS''') is a medical institution in [[Bengaluru, India]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/NIMHANS-to-be-declared-institute-of-national-importance/article15786689.ece|title=NIMHANS to be declared institute of national importance|first=Aarti|last=Dhar|newspaper=The Hindu|date=21 October 2010|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> NIMHANS serves as the apex centre for mental health education and neuroscience research in the country. It is an [[Institute of National Importance]] operating autonomously under the [[Ministry of Health and Family Welfare]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://presidentofindia.nic.in/speeches-detail.htm?473|title=Speeches Detail - The President of India|website=PresidentOfIndia.nic.in|access-date=17 May 2017|archive-date=13 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413075247/http://presidentofindia.nic.in/speeches-detail.htm?473|url-status=live}}</ref> NIMHANS is ranked 4th best medical institute in India, in the current [[National Institutional Ranking Framework]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=MHRD, National Institute Ranking Framework (NIRF)|url=https://www.nirfindia.org/2021/MedicalRanking.html|website=www.nirfindia.org|access-date=16 January 2025|archive-date=23 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023023231/https://www.nirfindia.org/2021/MEDICALRanking.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==History==
The history of the institute dates back to 1847, when the Bangalore Lunatic Asylum was founded. In 1925, the [[Government of Mysore]] renamed the asylum as the Mental Hospital. The [[Mysore]] Government Mental Hospital became the first institute in India for postgraduate training in psychiatry.<ref name="History and Milestones – Nimhans"/>

The National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS) was the result of the amalgamation of the erstwhile State Mental Hospital and the [[All India Institute of Mental Health]] (AIIMH) in 1954. The institute was established on 27 December 1974 as an autonomous body under the [[Societies Registration Act, 1860|Societies Registration Act]] to lead in the area of medical service and research in the country.

On 14 November 1994, NIMHANS was conferred a [[deemed university]] status by the [[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission]] with academic autonomy. The institute has been declared as an [[Institute of National Importance]] by an [[National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences, Bangalore Act, 2012|act of parliament]] in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prsindia.org/billtrack/the-national-institute-of-mental-health-and-neuro-sciences-bangalore-bill-2010-1401/|title=PRS - Bill Track - The National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro-Sciences, Bangalore Bill, 2010|website=www.PRSIndia.org|access-date=17 May 2017}}</ref> In March 2017, the Government of India passed the [[Mental Healthcare Act, 2017|Mental Healthcare Bill 2016]], which also proposes to set up NIMHANS-like institutions across the nation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/govt-to-set-up-nimhans-like-institutes-every-20th-indian-depressed-nadda-117040701383_1.html|title=Govt to set up NIMHANS-like institutes; every 20th Indian depressed: Nadda|last=IANS|newspaper=[[Business Standard]] |date=8 April 2017|access-date=17 May 2017|via=Business Standard|archive-date=16 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516170406/http://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/govt-to-set-up-nimhans-like-institutes-every-20th-indian-depressed-nadda-117040701383_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/NIMHANS-like-institute-proposed-for-Vadodara/articleshow/49300093.cms|title=NIMHANS-like institute proposed for Vadodara - Times of India|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=10 October 2015|access-date=17 May 2017|archive-date=9 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109182900/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/NIMHANS-like-institute-proposed-for-Vadodara/articleshow/49300093.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/odisha-seeks-a-nimhans-like-institution-in-cuttack/articleshow/38370509.cms|title=Odisha seeks a NIMHANS like institution in Cuttack - The Economic Times|newspaper=[[The Economic Times]]|access-date=17 May 2017|archive-date=14 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414165444/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/odisha-seeks-a-nimhans-like-institution-in-cuttack/articleshow/38370509.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>In 2017, then-Governor of Jharkhand, [[Droupadi Murmu]], advocated for upgrading the [[Central Institute of Psychiatry]] (CIP) in Ranchi similar to the NIMHANS in Bengaluru.<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 May 2017 |title=Governor for upgrading CIP as NIMHANS, Bengaluru |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ranchi/governor-for-upgrading-cip-as-institute-of-national-importance/articleshow/58729353.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518225813/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ranchi/governor-for-upgrading-cip-as-institute-of-national-importance/articleshow/58729353.cms |archive-date=18 May 2017 |access-date=17 May 2017 |work=[[The Times of India]] May 18, 2017, 11.27 AM IST}}</ref>

==Campus==
NIMHANS has five campuses in the city, spread over an area of 174 acres of urban establishments, which includes 30 acres of an under-construction Bangalore North campus.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Campus |first=NIMHANS |date=September 2022 |title=Campus Area |url=https://nimhans.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/LAND_0.pdf |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=nimhans.ac.in |archive-date=19 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519115048/https://nimhans.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/LAND_0.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/nimhans-north-campus-plan-inches-ahead/articleshow/69509819.cms|title=NIMHANS North Campus plan inches ahead|website=Bangalore Mirror|access-date=16 January 2025|archive-date=1 December 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241201022801/https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/nimhans-north-campus-plan-inches-ahead/articleshow/69509819.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/NIMHANS+NORTHERN+CAMPUS+(KYALASANAHALLI)/@13.0637878,77.6613628,15z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x0:0x957dd163d40f583f!8m2!3d13.0638324!4d77.6613721?shorturl=1|title=NIMHANS NORTHERN CAMPUS (KYALASANAHALLI)|website=NIMHANS NORTHERN CAMPUS (KYALASANAHALLI)}}</ref> The main campuses of the institute are located in Byrasandra (hospital wing) and Lakkasandra (academic and administrative wing) localities on either side of the [[Hosur Road]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Locate Us – Nimhans |url=https://nimhans.ac.in/locate-us/ |access-date=2022-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> The 'Community Mental Health Center' is located in the Sakalawara area on [[Bannerghatta Road]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sakalawara Community Mental Health Center – Nimhans |url=https://nimhans.ac.in/sakalawara-community-mental-health-center/ |access-date=2022-09-26 |language=en-US |archive-date=16 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716062319/https://nimhans.ac.in/sakalawara-community-mental-health-center/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The 'NIMHANS Centre for Well Being' is situated in a residential area in [[BTM Layout]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=NIMHANS Centre for Well Being – Nimhans |url=https://nimhans.ac.in/nimhans-centre-for-well-being/ |access-date=2022-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> A state-of-the-art convention centre located in the main campus frequently hosts international conferences, seminars, trade shows, expositions, and media events.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NIMHANS Convention Centre – Nimhans |url=https://nimhans.ac.in/nimhans-convention-centre/ |access-date=2022-09-26 |language=en-US |archive-date=19 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240719101437/https://nimhans.ac.in/nimhans-convention-centre/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://digitalterminal.in/news/3rd-edition-of-iot-india-congress-2018-started-in-bengaluru/13859.html|title=3rd Edition of IoT India Congress 2018 Started in Bengaluru|website=digitalterminal.in|access-date=16 January 2025|archive-date=1 December 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241201021935/https://digitalterminal.in/news/3rd-edition-of-iot-india-congress-2018-started-in-bengaluru/13859.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Gallery
|align = center
|title = NIMHANS campus
|width = 150
|File:Nimhans main.jpg|Department of Psychiatry
|File:NBRC nimhans.jpg|[[Neurobiology Research Centre]]
|File:Govindaswamy nimhans.jpg|MV Govindaswamy Centre
|File:Nimhans_Convention_Center.jpg|NIMHANS Convention Centre
|File:Nimhans garden 0.jpg|Rehabilitation Centre Park
|File:Nimhans garden 5.jpg|NIMHANS Central Garden
|File:Nimhans hostel.jpg|NIMHANS Men's Hostel
|File:NIMHANS Lakkasandra.jpg|NIMHANS Lakkasandra campus
|File:NIMHANS campus, Bengaluru.jpg|NIMHANS Byrasandra campus
}}

==Organization and administration==
===Governance ===
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin-right:1em; font-size:85%; background:#ffc; color:black; width:20.5em; max-width:25%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
! style="background:#ccc;"| Directors of the AIIMH/NIMHANS<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |title=Past Directors – Nimhans |url=https://nimhans.ac.in/past-directors/ |access-date=2022-09-26 |language=en-US |archive-date=27 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240527152806/https://nimhans.ac.in/past-directors/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align: left;" |
* M. V. Govindaswamy (1954–59)
* D. L. N. Murti Rao (1960–62)
* B. D. Punekar (1963)
* Keki Masani (1963–64)
* N. C. Surya (1965–68)
* K. Bhaskaran (1969)
* [[R. Marthanda Varma]] (1969–77)
* K. S. Mani (1977–78)
* [[R. Marthanda Varma]] (1978–79)
* G. N. Narayana Reddy (1979–89)
* S. M. Channabasavanna (1989–97)
* M. Gourie-Devi (1997–2002)
* D. Nagaraja (2002–10)
* [[S. K. Shankar]] (2010)
* P. Satish Chandra (2010–15)
* N. Pradhan (2015)
* G. S. Umamaheswara Rao (2015)
* B. N. Gangadhar (2016–2020)
* G. Gururaj (2020–2021)
* Satish Chandra Girimaji (2021)
* Pratima Murthy (2021–present)
|-
|}

The National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences is a multidisciplinary institute for patient care and academic pursuit in the frontier area of mental health and neurosciences. The priority gradient adopted at the institute is service, manpower development and research. A multidisciplinary integrated approach is the mainstay of this institute, paving the way to translate the results from the bench to the bedside. Several national and international funding organizations provide resources for academic and research activities.

===Departments===
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*[[Biophysics]]
*[[Biostatistics]]
*[[Neuroscience|Basic Neurosciences]]
*[[Human Genetics]]
*[[Neurochemistry]]
*[[Microbiology|Neuromicrobiology]]
*[[Neuropathology]]
*[[Neurophysiology]]
*[[Neurovirology]]
*[[Mental health literacy|Mental Health Education]]<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealtheducationnimhans.org/|title=Mental Health Education Nimhans|access-date=16 January 2025|archive-date=14 January 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250114122953/https://www.mentalhealtheducationnimhans.org/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Clinical Psychology]]
*[[Child and adolescent psychiatry]]
*[[Social psychiatry|Psychiatric Social Work]]
*[[Psychiatry]]
*[[Nursing]]
*[[Clinical Neuroscience]]
*[[Neurosurgery]]
*[[Psychopharmacology|Clinical Psychopharmacology]] and [[Neurotoxicology]]
*[[Interventional neuroradiology|Neuroimaging and Interventional Radiology]]
*[[Neurology]]
*[[Epidemiology]]
*Neurological Rehabilitation
*[[Neurosurgical anesthesia|Neuroanaesthesia]] and [[Neurocritical care]]
*[[Psychiatric rehabilitation]]
*[[Speech-language pathology|Speech Pathology and Audiology]]
*[[Transfusion Medicine]] and [[Haematology]]
{{colend}}

===Central Facilities===
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*Advanced Centre for Ayurveda in Mental Health and Neurosciences<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ccras.nic.in/content/advanced-center-ayurveda-mental-health-neurosciences-bengaluru|title=Advanced Center for Ayurveda in Mental Health & Neurosciences, Bengaluru &#124; Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences, Ministry of AYUSH, Government of India|website=ccras.nic.in|access-date=16 January 2025|archive-date=24 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124071402/http://www.ccras.nic.in/content/advanced-center-ayurveda-mental-health-neurosciences-bengaluru|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Central Animal Research Facility
*Sakalwara Community Mental Health Centre<ref name="auto"/>
*Centre for Public Health
*Centre for Addiction Medicine
*Biomedical Engineering
*Engineering Section
*Library and Information Centre
*Magneto-encephalography Centre
*PET MRI Centre
*[[Neurobiology Research Centre]]
*NIMHANS Centre for Well Being
*Virtual Learning Centre
*Center for Molecular Imaging
*Centre for Brain Mapping
*Gamma Knife Centre
*NIMHANS Health Centre
*NIMHANS Integrated Centre for Yoga<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nimhans.ac.in/nimhans-integrated-centre-for-yoga/|title=ACADEMICS &#124; NICY|access-date=16 January 2025|archive-date=25 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240725012903/https://nimhans.ac.in/nimhans-integrated-centre-for-yoga/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*NIMHANS Gymkhana
*Nutrition and Dietetics Centre
*Physiotherapy Centre
*NIMHANS Digital Academy<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nimhans.ac.in/nimhans-digital-academy/|title=NIMHANS DIGITAL ACADEMY: "Translating Best Practices" – Technology for Training and Transformation|access-date=16 January 2025|archive-date=19 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240719202444/https://nimhans.ac.in/nimhans-digital-academy/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*NIMHANS Convention Centre
*NIMHANS Gymkhana
*WHO Collaborating Centre for Injury Prevention and Safety Promotion<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/about/collaborating_centres/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040722175218/http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/about/collaborating_centres/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 July 2004|title=WHO &#124; Collaborating centres|website=WHO}}</ref>
{{colend}}

==Academics==
===Academic programs===

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}

====Doctor of Philosophy====
* Ph.D. in Biophysics
* Ph.D. in Biostatistics
* Ph.D. in Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
* Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology
* Ph.D. in Clinical Neurosciences (ICMR Fellowship)
* Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology
* Ph.D. in Clinical Psychopharmacology & Neurotoxicology
* Ph.D. in Epidemiology
* Ph.D. in History of Psychiatry
* Ph.D. in Human Genetics
* Ph.D. in Integrative Medicine
* Ph.D. in Mental Health Rehabilitation
* Ph.D. in Neurochemistry
* Ph.D. in Neuroimaging & Interventional Radiology
* Ph.D. in Neurological Rehabilitation
* Ph.D. in Neurology
* Ph.D. in Neuroimaging & Interventional Radiology
* Ph.D. in Neuromicrobiology
* Ph.D. in Neuropathology
* Ph.D. in Neurophysiology
* Ph.D. in Neurovirology
* Ph.D. in Nursing
* Ph.D. in Psychiatric Social Work
* Ph.D. in Psychosocial Support
* Ph.D. in Psychiatry
* Ph.D. in Public Health
* Ph.D. in Speech Pathology & Audiology

====Super Speciality Medicine Courses====
* DM in Neuroimaging and Interventional Radiology
* DM in Neurology (Post MBBS)
* DM in Neurology (Post MD/DNB)
* DM in Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
* DM in Addiction Psychiatry
* DM in Forensic Psychiatry
* DM in Geriatric Psychiatry
* DM in Neuroanaesthesia & Neurocritical Care
* DM in Neuropathology
* M.Ch. in Neurosurgery (Post MBBS)
* M.Ch. in Neurosurgery (Post MS/DNB)

====Post-graduate Degree/Fellowship====
* MD in Psychiatry
* MD in Ayurveda Manovigyan Evam Manasa Roga
* Fellowship in Psychosocial Support in Disaster Management
* Fellowship in Geriatric Mental Health Care
* Fellowship in Mental Health Education
* Fellowship in Geriatric Mental Health Nursing
* Fellowship in Psychiatric Rehabilitation
* Fellowship in Psychosocial Care for elderly
* M.Phil. in Clinical Psychology
* M.Phil. in Psychiatric Social Work
* M.Sc. in Biostatistics
* M.Sc. in Neurosciences
* M.Sc. in Yoga Therapy
* Master in Public Health
* M.Sc. in Neuroscience Nursing
* M.Sc. in Psychiatric Nursing

====Post-doctoral Fellowship====
* Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
* Neuroanaesthesia
* Neurocritical Care
* Neuroinfection
* Hospital Infection Control
* Epilepsy
* Movement Disorders
* Neuromuscular Disorder
* Stroke
* Neuropathology
* Paediatric Neurology
* Transfusion Medicine
* Neurological Rehabilitation
* Acute Care & Emergency Psychiatry
* Community Mental Health
* Addiction Medicine
* Forensic Psychiatry
* Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry
* Geriatric Psychiatry
* Obsessive Compulsive disorder & related disorders
* Clinical Neurosciences & Therapeutics in Schizophrenia
* Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation of Psychiatric disorders
* Cognitive Neurosciences
* Women's Mental Health

====Undergraduate Programmes====
* B.Sc. Nursing
* B.Sc. Anaesthesia Technology
* B.Sc. Radiography
* B.Sc. Clinical Neurophysiology Technology
{{colend}}

===Rankings===
{{Infobox India university ranking
| type = University

|NIRF_M_2023=4}}

The National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences has been ranked 4th among medical institution in India by the [[National Institutional Ranking Framework]] medical ranking for 2023.<ref name="Rankings_NIRF_M_2023" />

=== Mental Health Outreach ===
NIMHANS experts criticized a report on mental health in India published by the [[World Health Organization]]. Professor of Psychiatry, Dr. S K Chaturvedi, said that the figures by the [[World Health Organization|WHO]] were highly inflated. Where, in the report, it alleges that 36% of Indians have [[Depression (mood)|depression]], the highest among all the countries, the NIMHANS faculty state that the incidence of depression is much lower due to a stronger social support system and family structure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.frenchtribune.com/teneur/116451-nimhans-criticizes-who-s-report-claiming-india-depressed-nation|title=NIMHANS Criticizes WHO's Report Claiming India A 'Depressed Nation' - French Tribune|website=www.FrenchTribune.com|access-date=17 May 2017|archive-date=14 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314082741/http://frenchtribune.com/teneur/116451-nimhans-criticizes-who-s-report-claiming-india-depressed-nation|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the lifetime prevalence of depression in India measured by the study was only 9%, and the figure of 36% was a different metric that was mistakenly reported.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Cross-national epidemiology of DSM-IV major depressive episode|first1=Evelyn|last1=Bromet|first2=Laura Helena|last2=Andrade|first3=Irving|last3=Hwang|first4=Nancy A.|last4=Sampson|first5=Jordi|last5=Alonso|first6=Giovanni de|last6=Girolamo|first7=Ron de|last7=Graaf|first8=Koen|last8=Demyttenaere|first9=Chiyi|last9=Hu|first10=Noboru|last10=Iwata|first11=Aimee N.|last11=Karam|first12=Jagdish|last12=Kaur|first13=Stanislav|last13=Kostyuchenko|first14=Jean-Pierre|last14=Lépine|first15=Daphna|last15=Levinson|first16=Herbert|last16=Matschinger|first17=Maria Elena Medina|last17=Mora|first18=Mark Oakley|last18=Browne|first19=Jose|last19=Posada-Villa|first20=Maria Carmen|last20=Viana|first21=David R.|last21=Williams|first22=Ronald C.|last22=Kessler|date=26 July 2011|journal=BMC Medicine|volume=9|issue=1|pages=90|doi=10.1186/1741-7015-9-90|pmid=21791035|pmc=3163615 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
In May 2015, the faculty association of the institute lodged criticism against the 'Juvenile Justice Bill' which was tabled in parliament.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/juveniles-need-reform-not-prison/article7134888.ece|title=Juveniles need reform, not prison|first=Arlene Manoharan, Swagata Raha, amp, Shruthi|last=Ramakrishnan|newspaper=The Hindu|date=23 April 2015|access-date=17 May 2017|archive-date=13 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413074413/http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/juveniles-need-reform-not-prison/article7134888.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> Preeti Jacob, from the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, was quoted as saying "Juveniles are less culpable and are much more amenable to rehabilitative efforts and thus should not be transferred to the adult criminal justice system. The assessments that are being proposed in the bill in order to ascertain the mental capacity to commit an offence are arbitrary and unscientific."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oneindia.com/india/legal-experts-express-concern-over-juvenile-justice-bill-1751632.html|title=Legal experts express concern over Juvenile Justice Bill|website=OneIndia.com|date=19 May 2015|access-date=17 May 2017|archive-date=16 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516155806/http://www.oneindia.com/india/legal-experts-express-concern-over-juvenile-justice-bill-1751632.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/opinion/the-danger-of-treating-children-as-adults-758849|title=Opinion: The Danger of Treating Children As Adults|website=NDTV.com|access-date=17 May 2017|archive-date=16 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516155449/http://www.ndtv.com/opinion/the-danger-of-treating-children-as-adults-758849|url-status=live}}</ref>

In December 2014, it was reported that a soldier from the Indian Navy was being held in NIMHANS for a month to evaluate whether he was suffering from mental illness, after acting as a whistleblower. After the month-long evaluation, it was concluded that the Navy person was not suffering from any mental illness.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/Navy-Sailor-not-Suffering-from-Mental-Illness-Nimhans/2014/12/09/article2562463.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151113122408/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/Navy-Sailor-not-Suffering-from-Mental-Illness-Nimhans/2014/12/09/article2562463.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 November 2015|title=Navy Sailor not Suffering from Mental Illness: Nimhans|website=NewIndianExpress.com|access-date=17 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Nimhans-report-gives-clean-chit-to-whistleblower-sailor/articleshow/45427834.cms|title=Nimhans report gives clean chit to 'whistleblower' sailor - Times of India|website=IndiaTimes.com|access-date=17 May 2017|archive-date=25 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225152116/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Nimhans-report-gives-clean-chit-to-whistleblower-sailor/articleshow/45427834.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
In July 2013, [[Times of India|TOI]] reported that NIMHANS was collaborating with the [[Central Bureau of Investigation]] to train its staff with interrogation techniques.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Neeraj Chauhan|date=Jul 15, 2013|title=NIMHANS to train CBI in grilling bigshots {{!}} India News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/nimhans-to-train-cbi-in-grilling-bigshots/articleshow/21075532.cms|access-date=2021-09-21|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> In 2012, the central government approached NIMHANS to suppress [[anti-nuclear protests]] in regard to building the [[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant]]. The government asked NIMHANS to dispatch psychiatrists to Kudankulam to counsel protesters. To fulfil the plan, NIMHANS developed a team of six members, all of them from the Department of Social Psychiatry. The psychiatrists were sent to get a "peek into the protesters' minds" and help them learn the importance of the plant.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Koodankulam counselling for protestors flayed|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2012/jun/20/koodankulam-counselling-for-protestors-flayed-378860.html|access-date=2021-09-21|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Plan to counsel anti-nuclear protesters draws flak|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2012/jun/20/plan-to-counsel-anti-nuclear-protesters-draws-flak-378986.html|access-date=2021-09-21|website=The New Indian Express|archive-date=3 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203231743/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2012/jun/20/plan-to-counsel-anti-nuclear-protesters-draws-flak-378986.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2008, a reality show contestant, Shinjini Sen, after getting reprimanded by the TV show judges, temporarily lost her voice, and physical mobility. It was alleged by the media that the television show judges' behaviour caused such disability. To resolve her case, she was flown from Kolkata to Bangalore's NIMHANS to be treated for a neurobiological condition.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-06-29 |title=Hope floats as docs work to get Shinjini back on feet - Times Of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/hope-floats-as-docs-work-to-get-shinjini-back-on-feet/articleshow/3176565.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130629121506/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-06-29/bangalore/27763816_1_depression-shinjini-sengupta-nimhans |url-status=live |archive-date=2013-06-29 |access-date=2022-09-26 |website=archive.ph}}</ref><ref name="indiatimes1">{{Cite web |date=2013-06-29 |title=Shinjini talks, Guv wishes her speedy recovery - Times Of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata-/Shinjini-talks-Guv-wishes-her-speedy-recovery/articleshow/3186493.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130629124323/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-02/kolkata/27920261_1_speedy-recovery-shinjini-sengupta-nimhans |url-status=live |archive-date=2013-06-29 |access-date=2022-09-26 |website=archive.ph}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-06-29 |title=Shinjini stable, say doctors - Times Of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata-/Shinjini-stable-say-doctors/articleshow/3195091.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130629122955/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-07-04/kolkata/27912189_1_shinjini-sengupta-condition-doctors |url-status=live |archive-date=2013-06-29 |access-date=2022-09-26 |website=archive.ph}}</ref> Professor B N Gangadhar, the then medical superintendent, told the press, "We can say at this juncture that she could be suffering from depression. Depression does not lead to permanent loss of speech or physical disability. We are diagnosing why that has happened. There could be complex neurological factors leading to such conditions."<ref name="indiatimes1"/>

==Controversies==
In February 2014, NIMHANS approached the Karnataka Film Chamber of Commerce to complain about a film to be released with the same name. Although initially, the institution was able to block the release of the film if it was named as such, subsequently, the film-maker was able to launch his film without renaming it, once the Censor Board and KFCC approved the name in its second round.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/After-a-one-year-fight-Nimhans-gets-stay-on-film-name/articleshow/30010680.cms|title=After a one-year fight, Nimhans gets stay on film name - Bangalore Mirror -|website=BangaloreMirror.com|access-date=17 May 2017|archive-date=16 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516161628/http://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/After-a-one-year-fight-Nimhans-gets-stay-on-film-name/articleshow/30010680.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Notable people==
NIMHANS has a strong alumni network of medical scientists and doctors, taking over many prestigious positions across the world. Some of the prominent people associated with the institute include clinical psychologists [[H. Narayan Murthy]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://srikanta-sastri.kk5.org/|title=Dr S. Srikanta Sastri &#124; Official Website|website=srikanta-sastri.kk5.org|access-date=16 January 2025|archive-date=26 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026011250/http://srikanta-sastri.kk5.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Radhika Chandiramani]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2MlDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT272%7Cdate|title=Nothing to Fix: Medicalisation of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity|last1=Narrain|first1=Arvind|last2=Chandran|first2=Vinay|date=2015-12-17|publisher=SAGE Publications India|isbn=9789351509165|language=fr}}</ref> [[Satwant Pasricha]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/most-rebirth-claims-are-true/story-EvYSLxDBP3JQDaajvYIwlO.html|title=Most rebirth claims are true|date=5 August 2007|website=hindustantimes.com}}</ref> [[Psycho Mohammed|Elayidath Muhammad]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Psycho Mohmed|url=https://greenbooksindia.com/psycho-mohmed|access-date=2021-07-23|website=greenbooksindia.com}}</ref> philosophers and yoga therapists [[S. K. Ramachandra Rao]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://profskr.com/?page_id=9|title=Life - S. K. Ramachandra Rao Memorial Website|website=profskr.com|access-date=16 January 2025|archive-date=14 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414174016/http://profskr.com/?page_id=9|url-status=live}}</ref> [[H. R. Nagendra]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/know-dr-h-r-nagendra-who-pm-modi-recommended-to-kejriwal-47767.html|title=Get to know Dr HR Nagendra, Modi's yoga guru recommended to Arvind Kejriwal {{!}} IndiaTV News|access-date=2017-07-25|language=en-US|archive-date=3 December 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203200521/https://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/know-dr-h-r-nagendra-who-pm-modi-recommended-to-kejriwal-47767.html|url-status=live}}</ref> psychiatrists [[M. Sarada Menon]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/lsquoPeople-didnrsquot-understand-mental-illnessrsquo/article11643550.ece|title='People didn't understand mental illness'|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-07-25|language=en|archive-date=7 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007234856/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/lsquoPeople-didnrsquot-understand-mental-illnessrsquo/article11643550.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Shekhar Seshadri]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry-faculty – Nimhans |url=https://nimhans.ac.in/child-adolescent-psychiatry/child-adolescent-psychiatry-faculty/ |access-date=2022-09-30 |language=en-US |archive-date=16 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716115042/https://nimhans.ac.in/child-adolescent-psychiatry/child-adolescent-psychiatry-faculty/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Jaswant Singh Neki]],{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} [[Valsamma Eapen]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Eapen|first=Valsamma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KoqfDwAAQBAJ&q=Valsamma+Eapen+nimhans&pg=PR5|title=Autism: A Neurodevelopmental Journey from Genes to Behaviour|date=2011-08-17|publisher=BoD – Books on Demand|isbn=978-953-307-493-1|language=en}}</ref> neuroscientists, [[Akhilesh Pandey]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr. Akhilesh Pandey |url=https://icga-conference.ctcr.in/tcga2020/speakers/dr-akhilesh-pandey/ |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=Indian Cancer Genome Atlas Conference 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=28 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240528113830/https://icga-conference.ctcr.in/tcga2020/speakers/dr-akhilesh-pandey/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Turaga Desiraju]],<ref name="Neurosciences - An Overview">{{Cite web |date=2017 |title=Neurosciences - An Overview |url=http://neuroscienceacademy.org.in/downloads/pub/Set1.pdf |publisher=Neuroscience Academy}}</ref> [[S. K. Shankar]], [[Vijayalakshmi Ravindranath]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.msctr.org/profile/dr-vijayalakshmi-ravindranath/|title=Dr. Vijayalakshmi Ravindranath - MSCTR {{!}} Cancer Research {{!}}Translational Research|work=MSCTR {{!}} Cancer Research {{!}}Translational Research|access-date=2017-07-25|language=en-US|archive-date=28 December 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241228093102/https://www.msctr.org/profile/dr-vijayalakshmi-ravindranath/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Ganesan Venkatasubramanian]]<ref name="Nimhans Faculty Profile">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nimhans.ac.in/users/dr-g-venkatasubramanian |title=Nimhans Faculty Profile |date=2018-12-25 |website=www.nimhans.ac.in |language=en |access-date=2018-12-25 |archive-date=12 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712001624/http://www.nimhans.ac.in/users/dr-g-venkatasubramanian |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Bilikere Dwarakanath]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6988-2601|title=Bilikere S. Dwarakanath (0000-0001-6988-2601)|website=orcid.org|access-date=16 January 2025|archive-date=7 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307041110/https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6988-2601|url-status=live}}</ref> neurologists Naeem Sadiq,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/parkinsons-disease-cured-after-successful-stem-cell-therapy/article6913019.ece|title=Parkinson's disease cured after successful stem cell therapy|website=@businessline|date=19 February 2015|access-date=16 January 2025|archive-date=1 December 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241201021840/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/parkinsons-disease-cured-after-successful-stem-cell-therapy/article6913019.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Sunil Pradhan]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/padma-shri-neurologist-conferred-dsc-by-mp-university-114103100892_1.html|title=Padma Shri neurologist conferred DSc by MP university|agency=Press Trust of India|date=2014-10-31|work=Business Standard India|access-date=2017-07-25|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180924/http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/padma-shri-neurologist-conferred-dsc-by-mp-university-114103100892_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and neurosurgeons, [[N. K. Venkataramana]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sehat.com/dr-nk-venkataramana-neurosurgeon-bangalore|title=Dr.N.K. Venkataramana, Neurosurgeon in Bangalore - BGS Global Hospitals {{!}} sehat|website=www.sehat.com|access-date=2017-07-25|archive-date=30 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130052008/https://www.sehat.com/dr-nk-venkataramana-neurosurgeon-bangalore|url-status=live}}</ref> [[R. Marthanda Varma]] among others.<ref name="auto1"/>

== Bibliography ==

* {{cite journal |last=Willford |first=Andrew |date=24 Jan 2022 |title='Do You Hear Voices, or Do You Think You Hear Voices?': Malevolence and Modernity in the Psychiatric Clinic |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080%2F00856401.2022.2018639 |pages=164–182 |issn= |oclc= |access-date= |journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies |volume=45 |issue=1|doi=10.1080/00856401.2022.2018639 |s2cid=246342737 |url-access=subscription }}

== See also ==
*[[Mental health in India]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}

* {{Official}}
{{Bangalore topics}}
{{Mental Health in India}}
{{Education in Bangalore}}
{{Universities in Karnataka}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:National Institute Of Mental Health And Neurosciences}}
[[Category:Neuroscience research centres in India]]
[[Category:Medical research institutes in India]]
[[Category:Medical and health sciences universities in India]]
[[Category:Hospitals in Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Research institutes in Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Mental health organisations in India]]
[[Category:1974 establishments in Karnataka]]
[[Category:WHO laureates]]

Anjjan Bhattacharya

2026-03-03T11:12:40Z

RodEsters254334: slightly correct citations as per guidelines further and updated info to improve readability

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Anjjan Bhattacharya
| image =
| image_upright =
| image_size = 650×750
| landscape = 
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| birth_name =
| alias =
| birth_date ={{Birth date and age|1973|06|01|df=y}}
| birth_place =[[Barasat]], [[North 24 Parganas district]], West Bengal
| origin = India
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| genre = Film scores, Bollywood
| occupation = Music director, composer
| instrument =
| years_active = 
| label =
| website = 
}}

'''Anjjan Bhattacharya''' is an Indian [[composer]], film score composer and singer.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/screen/rewriting-history-4/ |title=Rewriting history: Anjjan Bhattacharya |date=2015-02-13 |website=[[The Indian Express]] |language=en-US |access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> Bhattacharya was part of [[Meet Bros]] but parted ways in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/music/hangover-hitmakers-meet-bros-anjjan-bhattacharya-part-ways/story-amqVC7gHBs35xzoPSOTrvO.html |title=Hangover hitmakers Meet Bros, Anjjan Bhattacharya part ways |date=2015-07-16 |website=[[Hindustan Times]] |language=en |access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/lifestyle/music/story/baby-doll-meet-bros-sunny-leone-anjjan-bhattacharya-chittiyaan-kalaiyaan-hangover-282831-2015-07-16 |title=Baby Doll music composers Meet Bros, Anjjan Bhattacharya part ways |website=[[India Today]] |language=en |access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref>

==Bollywood discography==
===As Meet Bros Anjjan (2010-2015, 2020, 2023-2024)===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Film
! Track(s)
|-
| rowspan="2"|2010 || ''[[Isi Life Mein]]'' || All Songs (Debut film)
|-
|''[[Do Dooni Chaar]]'' || "Baaja Bajya" "Ek Haath De" 
|-
| 2011 || ''[[Yeh Dooriyan]]'' || "Baat Jo Thi" "Lets Rock Sarasarahat"
|-
| rowspan="3"|2012 || ''[[Paan Singh Tomar (film)|Paan Singh Tomar]]'' ||"Kero Mama"
|-
| ''[[Kyaa Super Kool Hain Hum]]'' || "Shirt Da Button"1 "Hum Toh Hain Cappucino" "Volume High Karle"2 "Shirt Da Button Version 2"
|-
| ''[[OMG – Oh My God!]]'' || "Mere Nishaan" "Krishna Theme (Flute)"
|-
| rowspan="6"|2013 || ''[[Shootout at Wadala]]'' || "Goli" "Aye Manya"
|-
| ''[[Warning (2013 film)|Warning 3D]]'' || "Bebasi"
|-
| ''[[Policegiri]]'' || "Robinhood"
|-
| ''[[Zanjeer (2013 film)|Zanjeer]]'' || "Pinky" "Katilana"2 "Khoche Pathan Ki Jubaan Qawaali"
|-
| ''[[Satyagraha (film)|Satyagraha]]'' || "Janta Rocks"
|-
| ''[[Boss (2013 Hindi film)|Boss]]'' || "Boss" (Along with [[Yo Yo Honey Singh]])2 "Pitah Se Hai Naam Tera" "Boss Entry - Theme"
|-
| rowspan="6"|2014 || ''[[Ragini MMS 2]]'' || "[[Baby Doll (Kanika Kapoor song)|Baby Doll]]"2
|-
| ''[[Bhoothnath Returns]]'' || "Party Toh Banti Hai" (Along with [[Palash Muchhal]])
|-
| ''[[Hate Story 2]]'' || "Pink Lips"2
|-
| ''[[Kick (2014 film)|Kick]]'' ||"Hangover"1 2 "Hai Yehi Zindagi"1 "Hai Yehi Zindagi Version 2" "Hai Yehi Zindagi Version 3"
|-
| ''[[Singham Returns]]'' || "Singham Returns Theme"2
|-
| ''[[Kkoli: A Journey of Love]]'' || "Elitin Beletin" "Jodi Chao"1 "Tumi Acho"2 "Jodi Chao (Reprise)"
|-
|rowspan=6|2015
| ''[[Sharafat Gayi Tel Lene]]'' || "Selfiyaan"
|-
|''[[Baby (2015 Hindi film)|Baby]]'' || "Beparwah"
|-
| ''[[Roy (2015 film)|Roy]]'' || "[[Chittiyaan Kalaiyaan]]"
|-
| ''[[Ek Paheli Leela]]'' || "Glamorous Ankhiyaan" "Dhol Baaje" "Main Hoon Deewana Tera"
|-
| ''[[Calendar Girls (2015 film)|Calendar Girls]]'' || "Awesome Mora Mahiya" "We Will Rock The World"
|-
| ''[[Dharam Sankat Mein]]''
| "Tu Takke"
|-
|2020 || ''[[Shimla Mirchi]]'' ||"Sau Galtiyaan" "Ishq Di Feeling" "Mirchi Shimle Di" (Last collaboration, late release)
|-
|2023 || ''[[Satyaprem Ki Katha]]'' || "Gujju Pataka" (Collaboration after 8 years)
|-
|2024 || ''[[Love Sex Aur Dhokha 2]]'' || "Gulabi Ankhiyan"
|}

1 A different version of this song is included in the soundtrack. 
2 One or more remixed version of this song is included in the soundtrack.

===As Anjjan Bhattacharya (2016-present)===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Film
! Track(s)
|-
| 2016
| ''[[Ishq Junoon]]'' || "Sirf Tu...."
|-
| 2017
| ''[[Shrestha Bangali]]'' || "Chaap Nishna"
|-
| 2018
| ''[[Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster 3]]'' || "Kesariya Jugni"
|-
|}

==Awards and nominations==
===As Meet Bros Anjjan===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Award
! Category
! Nominated work
! Result
! class="unsortable" | {{Abbr|Ref(s)|Reference(s)}}
|-
| 2015
| [[7th Mirchi Music Awards]]
| Best Song Producer (Programming & Arranging)
| "[[Baby Doll (Kanika Kapoor song)|Baby Doll]]" from ''[[Ragini MMS 2]]'' (with Bharat Goel)
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"| <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mirchimusicawards.com/hindi2014/winners/|title=Winners - Mirchi Music Awards 2014|website=MMAMirchiMusicAwards|access-date=2018-04-15}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=9| 2016
| [[61st Filmfare Awards]]
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Director]]
| rowspan=9| ''[[Roy (2015 film)#Soundtrack|Roy]]'' (with [[Amaal Mallik]] and [[Ankit Tiwari]])
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"| <ref name="F">{{cite web|last=Ghosh|first=Raya|title=Filmfare Awards 2016: Complete List of Winners|url=http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/filmfare-awards-2016-complete-list-of-winners-1266376|website=[[NDTV India|NDTV Movies]]|date=16 January 2016|accessdate=23 January 2017}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"| [[Global Indian Music Academy Awards|6th GiMA Awards]]
| [[GiMA Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Director]]
| {{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"| <ref>{{cite web|title=Film Nominees 2016 |url=http://www.gima.co.in/film-nominations.php |website=GiMA |accessdate=24 January 2017 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160330063435/http://www.gima.co.in/film-nominations.php |archivedate=30 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
| [[GiMA Award for Best Film Album|Best Film Album]]
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"| <ref>{{cite web|title=Film Music Winners 2016 |url=http://www.gima.co.in/film-award.php |website=GiMA |accessdate=24 January 2017 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412084441/http://www.gima.co.in/film-award.php |archivedate=12 April 2016 }}</ref>
|-
| [[17th IIFA Awards]]
| [[IIFA Award for Best Music Director|Best Music]]
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"| <ref name="I">{{cite web|title=IIFA Awards 2016: Bajirao Mastani to Bajrangi Bhaijaan - Here's the complete list of winners!|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-iifa-awards-2016-here-s-the-complete-list-of-all-the-winners-2227982|website=Daily News and Analysis|date=10 July 2016|accessdate=23 January 2017}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"| [[8th Mirchi Music Awards]]
| Album of the Year
| {{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"| <ref>{{cite web|title=Nominations |url=http://www.mirchimusicawards.com/hindi-2015/Nomination/ |website=Mirchi Music Awards |accessdate=26 January 2017 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160330062839/http://www.mirchimusicawards.com/hindi-2015/Nomination/ |archivedate=30 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
| Listeners' Choice Album of the Year
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"| <ref>{{cite web|title=Winners|url=http://www.mirchimusicawards.com/hindi-2015/winners/|website=Mirchi Music Awards|accessdate=26 January 2017}}</ref>
|-
| [[Screen Awards|22nd Screen Awards]]
| [[Screen Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Director]]
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"| <ref name="S">{{cite web|last=Ghosh|first=Raya|title=Screen Awards 2016: Complete List of Winners|url=http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/screen-awards-2016-complete-list-of-winners-1263815|website=[[NDTV India|NDTV Movies]]|accessdate=23 January 2017|date=11 January 2016}}</ref>
|-
| [[Producers Guild Film Awards|11th Star Guild Awards]]
| [[Producers Guild Film Award for Best Music Director|Best Music]]
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"| <ref>{{cite web|title=Nominations for 11th Renault Sony Guild Awards|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/nominations-for-11th-renault-sony-guild-awards/|website=Bollywood Hungama|accessdate=24 January 2017|date=21 December 2015}}</ref>
|-
| [[Zee Cine Awards|Zee Cine Awards 2016]]
| [[Zee Cine Award for Best Music Director|Best Music]]
| {{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"| <ref>{{cite web|title=Zee Cine Awards 2016 Complete Winners List: Who won what?|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-zee-cine-awards-2016-complete-winners-list-who-won-what-2185941|website=Daily News and Analysis|accessdate=24 January 2017|date=5 March 2016}}</ref>
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb name|nm6584411}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhattacharya, Anjjan}}
[[Category:Indian male composers]]
[[Category:Indian male singers]]
[[Category:Musicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian composers]]
[[Category:1973 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{India-composer-stub}}
{{India-singer-stub}}

Kadhal Meipada

2026-03-03T03:26:39Z

RodEsters254334: Adding pg

{{Use Indian English|date=December 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kadhal Meipada
| image =
| caption =
| director = Ravi Acharya
| producer = Harshi
| writer = Kumar (dialogues)
| screenplay = Ravi Acharya
| story = Kumar
| starring = [[Vishnupriyan]] [[Madhumitha]]
| music = Murshak
| cinematography = G. Chiranjeevi
| editing = [[Suresh Urs]]
| distributor =
| studio = Dvarakamai Cine Production
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2011|04|29}}
| runtime = 145 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Kadhal Meipada''''' ({{translation|Love is real}}) is a 2011 Indian [[Tamil language]] [[romance film]] directed by Ravi Acharya. The film stars [[Vishnupriyan]] and [[Madhumitha]], with [[Thalaivasal Vijay]], [[Kadhal Dhandapani]], [[Ganja Karuppu]], [[Kuyili (actress)|Kuyili]], Viji Ketti, [[Kadhal Sukumar]], [[Chaams]] and [[Soori (actor)|Soori]] playing supporting roles. It was released on 29 April 2011.

==Plot==
Shiva and Aishwarya are college students who fall in love with each other. Shiva is from a middle-class family, while Aishwarya is the daughter of the heartless gang lord Natarajan. Natarajan is hell-bent to save his family's prestige, so he is against love marriage. Aishwarya, who is scared for Shiva's life, decides to break up with him, but Shiva convinces to believe in their love. When Natarajan learns about their love affair, he makes the police arrest Shiva, and they beat him up in the police lockup. Natarajan then blackmails Aishwarya and forces her to forget Shiva. The couple eventually elopes. Thereafter, their families accept for the marriage, but Shiva and Aishwarya decide to finish their studies first and then marry.

==Cast==
{{colbegin}}
*[[Vishnupriyan]] as Shiva
*[[Madhumitha]] as Aishwarya
*[[Thalaivasal Vijay]] as Shiva's father
*[[Kadhal Dhandapani]] as Natarajan, Aishwarya's father
*[[Ganja Karuppu]] as Azhagar, Shiva's uncle
*[[Kuyili (actress)|Kuyili]] as Shiva's mother
*Viji Ketti as Kamakshi, Aishwarya's mother
*[[Kadhal Sukumar]] as Shiva's friend
*[[Chaams]] as Narayanan, Shiva's friend
*[[Soori (actor)|Soori]] as Shiva's friend
*Vadivelu David as House owner
*[[Karate Raja]] as Aadhi, Aishwarya's uncle
*[[Sampath Ram]] as Police inspector
*Sasi as Sasi
*[[Krishnamoorthy (actor)|Krishnamoorthy]] as Fraud
*[[Suruli Manohar]] as House Owner
*Kumtaz as Professor
*Archana Harish as Poongavanam
*Julie as Gayathri
*Sopna as Sopna, Shiva's sister
*Minnal Deepa as Deepa
{{colend}}

==Production==
Ravi Acharya made his directorial debut with ''Kadhal Meipada'' under the banner of Dvarakamai Cine Production.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}} The film started production in late 2007. [[Vishnupriyan]] was cast to play the lead role, while [[Madhumitha]] was chosen to play the heroine. [[Ganja Karuppu]] was also cast to play the comedian.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tamil.webdunia.com/tamil-cinema-news-movie-film/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE-%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF-%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D-109050500075_1.htm|title=கஞ்சா கருப்பின் தனி ட்ராக்|access-date=19 December 2020|language=Tamil|trans-title=Ganja Karuppu's solo track|publisher=webdunia.com|archive-date=18 December 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231218123239/https://tamil.webdunia.com/tamil-cinema-news-movie-film/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE-%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF-%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D-109050500075_1.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2009/may/06/i-wouldnt-be-here-without-dad-46778.html|title=I wouldn't be here without dad|access-date=19 December 2020|publisher=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album|
| name = Kadhal Meipada
| type = [[soundtrack]]
| artist = Murshak
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2009
| recorded = 2009
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 29:13
| label =
| producer = Murshak
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

The soundtrack was composed by Murshak. The soundtrack, released in 2009, features 7 tracks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.raaga.com/tamil/album/kaadhal-meipada-songs-T0001916|title=Kaadhal Meipada Songs|access-date=19 December 2020|website=[[Raaga.com]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624000417/https://www.raaga.com/tamil/album/kaadhal-meipada-songs-T0001916|archive-date=24 June 2021}}</ref> ''[[Shree (2002 film)|Shree]]'' fame T. S. Muralidharan and his assistant Shakthi composed the music of the film under the name of Murshak. The song "Enna Kobam" from ''[[Kuzhandhaiyum Deivamum]]'' was remixed in this film.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dinamani.com/weekly-supplements/dinamani-kathir/2009/may/02/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81-%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE-6987.html|title=திரைக்கதிர்: என்ன கோபம் சொல்லு பாமா...|access-date=19 December 2020|language=Tamil|publisher=[[Dinamani]]|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231218123718/https://www.dinamani.com/weekly-supplements/dinamani-kathir/2009/may/02/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81-%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE-6987.html|archive-date=18 December 2023}}</ref>

{{track listing|
|extra_column=Singer(s)
|headline=Tracklist
|total_length=29:13
|title1=Ragasiya Thiruda|extra1=[[Rahul Nambiar]], Vinaya|writer1=Tamil Kumaran|length1=4:56
|title2=Enna Kobam|extra2=[[Yugendran]], Vinaya|writer2=[[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]]|length2=3:25
|title3=Dheemtha Nagida|extra3=Shalini Singh|writer3=[[Snehan]]|length3=3:56
|title4=Mazhaiyae|extra4=[[Ranjith (singer)|Ranjith]], Priya Prakash|writer4=Yosi|length4=4:44
|title5=Enna Pannura|extra5=Sajan Madhav, [[Priya Himesh]]|writer5=Snehan|length5=5:16
|title6=Gnabagam|extra6=Shalini Singh|writer6=Tamil Kumaran|length6=1:53
|title7=Oh Manidha|extra7=Balram|writer7=Tamil Kumaran|length7=5:03
}}

==Reception==
[[Kungumam (magazine)|Kungumam]] gave the film a mixed review.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://kungumam.co.in/VArticalinnerdetail.aspx?id=417&id1=45&issue=20110509|title=காதல் மெய்பட|date=9 May 2011|access-date=19 December 2020|language=Tamil|trans-title=Kadhal Meipada|magazine=[[Kungumam (magazine)|Kungumam]]|archive-url=https://archive.today/20231218121949/http://kungumam.co.in/VArticalinnerdetail.aspx?id=417&id1=45&issue=20110509|archive-date=18 December 2023}}</ref> [[Dinamalar]] called it a "good film".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://cinema.dinamalar.com/movie-review/589/kadhal%20meipada/|title=காதல் மெய்பட - விமர்சனம்|access-date=19 December 2020|language=Tamil|trans-title=Kadhal Meipada - Review|publisher=[[Dinamalar]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2011 films]]
[[Category:2011 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2011 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian romance films]]
[[Category:2011 romance films]]
[[Category:2011 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Nadendla Manohar

2026-02-26T15:55:40Z

RodEsters254334:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{BLP sources|date=October 2018}}
{{Update|date=June 2024}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Nadendla Manohar
| image = Nadendla_Manohar_AP_Speaker.jpg
| caption = Nadendla Manohar
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1964|4|6}}
| birth_place = [[Tenali]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]]
| residence =
| office = [[Ministry of Civil Supplies, Food and Consumer Affairs|Minister of Civil Supplies, Food and Consumer Affairs]] [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]]
| term_start = 12 June 2024
| tern_end =
| governor = [[S. Abdul Nazeer]]
| 1blankname = Chief Minister
| 1namedata = [[N. Chandrababu Naidu]]
| predecessor = [[Karumuri Venkata Nageswara Rao]]
| successor =
| office1 = [[Janasena Party |Chairperson of Janasena Party]]
| term_start1 = 12 October 2018
| 1blankname1 = President
| 1namedata1 = [[Pawan Kalyan]]
| predecessor1 = ''Office Established''
| office2 = 18th [[List of speakers of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly| Speaker of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start2 = 4 June 2011
| term_end2 = 18 June 2014
| 1blankname2 = Deputy
| 1namedata2 = [[Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka]]
| predecessor2 = [[N. Kiran Kumar Reddy]]
| successor2 = [[Kodela Siva Prasada Rao]] (''residuary andhra'')
| office3 = 18th [[List of speakers of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly| Deputy Speaker of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start3 = 9 June 2009
| term_end3 = 3 June 2011
| 1blankname3 = Speaker
| 1namedata3 = [[Nallari Kiran Kumar Reddy]]
| predecessor3 = G. Kuthuhulamma
| successor3 = [[Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka]]
| office4 = [[Member of Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of Legislative Assembly]], [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Andhra Pradesh]]
| term_start4 = 4 June 2024
| predecessor4 = [[Annabathuni Siva Kumar]]
| successor4 =
| constituency4 = [[Tenali Assembly constituency|Tenali]]
| term_start5 = 11 May 2004
| term_end5 = 16 May 2014
| predecessor5 = Gogineni Uma
| successor5 = [[Alapati Rajendra Prasad]]
| constituency5 = [[Tenali Assembly constituency|Tenali]]
| spouse = Nadendla Manoharam
| parents = [[N. Bhaskara Rao|Nadendla Bhaskara Rao]] (father)
| relatives =
| party = [[Janasena Party]] (2018 – present)
| otherparty = [[Indian National Congress]] (2004 – 2018)
| children = Mitul Nadendla, Lalith Nadendla
| website =
| signature =
}}
'''Nadendla Manohar''' (born 6 April 1964) is an Indian politician who has been serving as the Minister of Civil Supplies, Food and Consumer Affairs in [[Government of Andhra Pradesh|Andhra Pradesh government]]. He is a [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] from [[Tenali Assembly constituency]]. He previously served as the [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Speaker of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]. He was the last speaker of the United [[Andhra Pradesh]] before the formation of the [[Telangana]] state on 2 June 2014. Nadendla Manohar was sworn in as the 18th Speaker of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly on 4 June 2011. He is a two-time [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] in Andhra Pradesh. On 12 October 2018 he joined [[Jana Sena Party]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/politics/121018/nadendla-manohar-joins-pawan-kalyan-party.html|title=Nadendla Manohar joins Pawan Kalyan party|date=12 October 2018}}</ref>

==Education==
Nadendla Manohar is an MBA graduate from College of Commerce and Business Management, [[Osmania University]], with specialization in Marketing and [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] from Nizam College, [[Osmania University]], [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/cities/hyderabad/speaker-son-former-cm-374 |title=Speaker is son of former CM |access-date=5 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011042345/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/cities/hyderabad/speaker-son-former-cm-374 |archive-date=11 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Political career==
Manohar was elected as the Speaker in June 2011. He is an elected Member of the [[Indian National Congress]] from [[Tenali Assembly constituency|Tenali Constituency]] of [[Guntur district]] in Andhra Pradesh during 2004 and 2009 Assembly elections. He contested and trailed in the 2019 Assembly elections.

In 2024, he contested and was elected from [[Tenali Assembly constituency|Tenali]] with a landslide margin. Currently, Nadendla Manohar is serving as the [[Ministry of Civil Supplies, Food and Consumer Affairs|Minister of Civil Supplies, Food and Consumer Affairs]].

==Interests==
Manohar was a nationally ranked [[Tennis]] player. He has participated in several tournaments in the country and abroad. He was Bronze Medallist in the [[National Games of India|National Games]], 1986.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gatturadha.wordpress.com/2011/06/05/after-cricketeer-now-a-tennis-player-at-helm-in-ap/|title = After Cricketeer, now a Tennis player at helm in AP|date = 5 June 2011}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{facebook.com|NadendlaManoharOnline}}
{{Fourth N. Chandrababu Naidu ministry}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Manohar, Nadendla}}
[[Category:Telugu politicians]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Telangana]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1964 births]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Speakers of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:Deputy speakers of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:Jana Sena Party politicians]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 2004–2009]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh MLAs 2009–2014]]

Harsud Assembly constituency

2026-02-22T17:30:26Z

RodEsters254334:

{{Short description|Constituency of the Madhya Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Harsud
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 176
| map_image = 176-Harsud.svg
| state = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| district = [[Khandwa district|Khandwa]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Betul Lok Sabha constituency|Betul]]
| established = 1972
| reservation = ST
| mla = [[Kunwar Vijay Shah]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| preceded_by = Aasharam Petu Patel
}}
'''Harsud''' is one of the 230 [[Madhya Pradesh Vidhan Sabha|Vidhan Sabha]] (Legislative Assembly) constituencies of [[Madhya Pradesh]] state in central [[India]].<ref name="election2013">{{cite web|title=Madhya Pradesh 2013|url=http://www.myneta.info/mp2013/index.php?action=show_candidates&constituency_id=175|website=myneta.info|publisher=National Election Watch|access-date=18 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="election2018">{{cite web|title=List of Assembly Constituencies|url=http://eci.nic.in/archive/se98/background/S12/ListACs-MP.html|website=eci.nic.in|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=18 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="election2018-1">{{cite web|title=Vidhansabha Seats|url=http://www.electionsinindia.com/madhyapradesh/statepc.aspx|website=electionsininda.com|publisher=Election In India|access-date=18 May 2018}}</ref>

It is part of [[Khandwa District]] and has been reserved for Scheduled Tribes since 1977. Since 1990, it has been represented by [[Kunwar Vijay Shah]] of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] who is from the former [[Makrai State|Makrai]] Royal Family.{{update after|2029|2}}

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Election
!Name
!colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[1957 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|Ramsingh Galba
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1962 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|Rao Bhimsingh
|{{Full party name with color|Swatantra Party}}
|-
|[[1967 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| rowspan="2" |Kalicharan Sakargaye
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1972 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|-
|[[1977 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Suraj Mal Balu
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1980 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|Motilal Manang
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1985 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|Aasharam Petu Patel
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1990 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|rowspan=8|[[Kunwar Vijay Shah]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=8}}
|-
|[[1993 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|-
|[[1998 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1998]]
|-
|[[2003 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2003]]
|-
|[[2008 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2008]]<ref name=election2008>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3739-madhya-pradesh-2008/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2008 to the Legislative Assembly of Madhya Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |accessdate=22 December 2021}}</ref>
|-
|[[2013 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2013]]<ref name=election2013 name="election2013-1">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3740-madhya-pradesh-2013/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2013 to the Legislative Assembly of Madhya Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |accessdate=22 December 2021}}</ref>
|-
|[[2018 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2018]]<ref name=election2018 name="election2018-2">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9685-madhya-pradesh-legislative-election-2018-statistical-report/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2018 to the Legislative Assembly of Madhya Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |accessdate=30 September 2021}}</ref>
|-
| [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]<ref name="Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly Election Result 2023 - Harsud">{{cite news |date=3 December 2023 |title=Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly Election Result 2023 - Harsud |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/candidateswise-S12176.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250519143455/https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenDecNew2023/candidateswise-S12176.htm |archivedate=19 May 2025 |accessdate=19 May 2025 |publisher=Election Commission of India}}</ref>
|}

==Election results==
=== 2023 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Harsud<ref name="Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly Election Result 2023 - Harsud"/>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Kunwar Vijay Shah]]
|votes = {{formatnum:116580}}
|percentage = 64.27
|change = +12.27
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Sukhram Salve
|votes = {{formatnum:56584}}
|percentage = 31.2
|change = -8.57
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Vijaysingh Uike
|votes = {{formatnum:2192}}
|percentage = 1.21
|change = -0.07
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Bindya Bai Gopichand Patel
|votes = {{formatnum:1717}}
|percentage = 0.95
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:3061}}
|percentage = 1.69
|change = -1.14
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:59996}}
|percentage = 33.07
|change = +20.84
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:181384}}
|percentage = 79.89
|change = +0.91
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 ===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2018 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Harsud<ref name=election2018 name="election2018-3">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9685-madhya-pradesh-legislative-election-2018-statistical-report/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2018 to the Legislative Assembly of Madhya Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |accessdate=30 September 2021}}</ref><ref name="election2018"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Kunwar Vijay Shah]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:80556}}
|percentage = 52.0
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Sukhram Salve
|votes = {{formatnum:61607}}
|percentage = 39.77
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Vijay Singh S/O Ramsingh Uikey
|votes = {{formatnum:1981}}
|percentage = 1.28
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Shiv Sena
|candidate = Dayaram
|votes = {{formatnum:1749}}
|percentage = 1.13
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Bindiyabai
|votes = {{formatnum:1616}}
|percentage = 1.04
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Bhaiyalal Maikal
|votes = {{formatnum:1607}}
|percentage = 1.04
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:4385}}
|percentage = 2.83
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:18949}}
|percentage = 12.23
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:154919}}
|percentage = 78.98
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Khandwa district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Madhya Pradesh}}
{{coords|22.10|76.74|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Khandwa district]]
[[Category:Constituencies established in 1972]]
[[Category:1972 establishments in Madhya Pradesh]]

James Achilles Kirkpatrick

2026-02-07T23:01:06Z

RodEsters254334: small enhance details per standard format and added references based on references

{{Short description|Madras Army officer (1764–1805)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = James Achilles Kirkpatrick
| image = James Achilles Kirkpatrick.jpg
| alt =
| caption = {{circa|1805}} portrait of Kirkpatrick by [[George Chinnery]]
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 1764
| birth_place = [[Fort St. George, India|Fort St. George]], [[Chennai|Madras]]
| death_date = 15 October 1805 (aged 40–41)
| death_place = [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], [[Bengal Presidency]]
| death_cause =
| resting_place =
| occupation = Army officer
| known_for = Built the historic [[Koti Residency]] in Hyderabad, a landmark and major tourist attraction. Documented [[Race (classification of human beings)|interracial]] love affair and marriage between him and Indian noblewoman Khair-un-Nissa Begum.
| party =
| spouse = Khair-un-Nissa
| children = [[Kitty Kirkpatrick]] William Kirkpatrick
| father = Colonel James Kirkpatrick
| footnotes =
| url =
}}

[[Lieutenant colonel (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-Colonel]] '''James Achilles Kirkpatrick''' (1764 – 15 October 1805) was a [[Madras Army]] officer who served as the [[Resident minister|Resident]] at [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad Deccan]] from 1798 until 1805. Kirkpatrick also ordered the construction of the [[Koti Residency]] in [[Hyderabad]], which has since come to serve as a major [[Tourism in India|tourist attraction]].<ref name="Rangan">{{cite news |last1=Datta |first1=Rangan |title=A visit to Hyderabad's British Residency — home of the White Mughal |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/places/a-visit-to-hyderabads-british-residency-home-of-the-white-mughal/cid/1998314 |access-date=20 February 2024 |agency=My Kolkata |publisher=The Telegraph |date=4 February 2024}}</ref>

==Biography==
[[File:James Achilles Kirkpatrick in Mughal dress painted by his friend the court painter Tajali Ali Shah.jpg|thumb|upright|Kirkpatrick in Mughal dress similar to what he would have worn at his marriage to Khair-un-Nissa, painted by the Hyderabadi court painter and friend of Kirkpatrick's Tajallī ʻAlī Shāh|left]]
James Achilles Kirkpatrick was born in 1764 at [[Fort St George]], [[Chennai|Madras]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sumgenius.com.au/kirkpatrick_family_tree.htm |title=KIRKPATRICK Family Tree |website=www.sumgenius.com.au |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060820154729/http://www.sumgenius.com.au/kirkpatrick_family_tree.htm |archive-date=2006-08-20}}</ref> He replaced his brother [[William Kirkpatrick (East India Company officer)|William]] and arrived in [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]] in 1795 to assume the position of [[Resident minister|Resident]], which had previously been held by his brother. During his initial few months in Hyderabad, James became enamoured with the Indo-Persian culture at the [[Nasir-ud-Daulah|Nizam of Hyderabad]]'s court, and substituted his [[Dress#18th century|European dress]] for [[Persian clothing|Persian attire]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050305080540/http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/02/27/stories/2005022700420700.htm Colonial Grandeur], ''[[The Hindu]]'', 27 February 2005.</ref>

Although a [[Lieutenant colonel (United Kingdom)|lieutenant colonel]] in the [[Madras Army]], Kirkpatrick wore [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]]-style clothing at home, smoked a ''[[hookah]]'', chewed [[betelnut]], enjoyed ''[[nautch]]'' parties, and maintained a small [[harem]] in his ''[[zenana]]khana''. Born in India, Kirkpatrick was educated in [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], spoke Tamil as his first language, wrote poetry in Urdu, and added Persian and Hindustani to his "linguistic armoury".<ref>[http://www.theartsdesk.com/tv/love-and-betrayal-india-white-mughal-bbc-four] – theartsdesk.com, best specialist journalism website, 4 September 2015</ref>

With fluency in [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] and [[Persian language|Persian]], he openly mingled with the [[Elite|social elite]] of Hyderabad. Kirkpatrick was [[Adoption|adopted]] by the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]], who invested him with many titles: ''mutamin ul mulk'' ('Safeguard of the kingdom'), ''hushmat jung'' ('Valiant in battle'), ''nawab fakhr-ud-dowlah bahadur'' ('Governor, pride of the state, and hero').<ref name="Kirk"/>

==Marriage==
[[File:British Residency of Hyderabad 3.jpg|thumb|[[Koti Residency|Residence]] of Kirkpatrick at [[Hyderabad]], now the [[Osmania University College for Women|Veeranari Chakali Ilamma Women's University]]]]
In 1800, in a strictly private Muslim marriage ceremony Kirkpatrick wed Khair-un-Nissa, who was fourteen years old, not an unusual age for a girl of her social class to be married. She was the granddaughter of Nawab Mahmood Ali Khan, the prime minister of Hyderabad. However, the marriage was not recorded and does not appear to have been legally valid; in his will he described the offspring of the relationship as his "natural" children, a polite euphemism for illegitimate children that a father recognized as his own offspring.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dalrymple|2004|p=6}} "Finally, and perhaps most shockingly for the authorities in Bengal, some said that Kirkpatrick had actually, formally, married the girl, which meant embracing Islam, and had become a practising Shi'a Muslim."</ref> In his will, Kirkpatrick emphasized his devotion to Khair-un-Nissa, stipulating that he left her only a token bequest in light of the fact that in addition to her jewels, she possessed a large, landed fortune inherited from her father, leaving large fortunes to their two children instead. Before their father's unexpected, early death, at ages 3 and 5, the children had been sent to be reared by Kirkpatrick's relatives in England, as was usual among the British families in India in that period.<ref name="Dalrymple 2004">{{Harvnb|Dalrymple|2004}}</ref>

"''Hashmat Jang'' was believed by some of his Muslim staff and by the bride's female relations to secretly embraced Islam before a Shi'a ''Mujtahid'' (cleric); he is said to have presented a certificate from him to Khair-un-Nissa Begum, who sent it to her mother." Towards the end of autumn of 1801, a major scandal broke out in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] over Kirkpatrick's behaviour at the Hyderabad court.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/dec/09/britishidentity.india White mischief] - The Guardian, 9 December 2002</ref> A scandal arose due to the ethnically and racially mixed nature of the marriage.<ref name="Dalrymple 2004"/>

[[File:Khair-un-Nissa.jpg|thumb|left|upright|{{circa|1805}} portrait of Khair-un-Nissa by [[George Chinnery]]]]
[[File:Interior of St. John's Church, Kolkata9.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Memorial of James Achilles Kirkpatrick at [[St. John's Church, Kolkata|St. John's Church]], [[Kolkata]] by [[John Bacon (sculptor, born 1777)|John Bacon]]]]

The conditions under which Kirkpatrick operated as [[Resident minister|Resident]] were affected by [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Lord Richard Wellesley]]’s appointment as [[Governor-General of India]]. Wellesley favored taking a assertive diplomatic stance with the Nizam, which included reducing the amount of autonomy he wielded. In addition, Wellesley strongly disapproved of Kirkpatrick's marriage to Khair-un-Nissa.<ref name="Dalrymple 2004"/>

After Kirkpatrick died in Calcutta on 15 October 1805, Khair-un-Nissa, who was only 19 years old, had a brief love affair with Kirkpatrick's assistant, [[Sir Henry Russell, 2nd Baronet|Henry Russell]], who would become the Resident in Hyderabad in 1810. After what Russell appears to have regarded as a brief fling, he abandoned Khair-un-Nissa who, with her reputation now ruined, was unable to prevent greedy relatives from taking over the valuable landed estates she had inherited from her father.<ref name="ChatterjeeUnfamiliar">{{cite book|last1=Chatterjee|first1=indrani|title=Unfamiliar Relations: Family and History in South Asia|date=2004|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=0813533805|page=147}}</ref> Russell married a half-Portuguese woman. Although she, as a disgraced woman consequent to the love affair with Russell, was not allowed by her family to return to Hyderabad for some years, after the death of a senior male relative she was eventually allowed to return, and died in Hyderabad on 22 September 1813 aged 27.<ref name="Kirk">[https://archive.today/20130203220218/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1021130/asp/opinion/story_1429564.asp Lolita of the Mughal Times] - The Telegraph, 30 November 2002</ref>

Kirkpatrick and Khair-un-Nissa together had two children: a son, Mir Ghulam Ali Sahib Allum and a daughter, Noor-un-Nissa Sahib Begum. Their father had sent them to England to live with their grandfather Colonel James Kirkpatrick, in London and Keston, Kent, shortly before his own, unexpected death at a young age. The two children were baptised on 25 March 1805 at St. Mary’s Church, [[Marylebone Road]], and were thereafter known by their new Christian names, William George Kirkpatrick and [[Kitty Kirkpatrick|Katherine Aurora "Kitty" Kirkpatrick]]. William was disabled in 1812 after falling into a copper of boiling water and had to have an arm amputated;<ref name="Dalrymple">{{Harvnb|Dalrymple|2004|p=xx}}</ref> he married and had three children but died in 1828 aged 27. Kitty was for a few years the love interest of the Scottish writer and philosopher [[Thomas Carlyle]], then a young tutor of no fortune, an ineligible match for an heiress. She married Captain James Winslowe Phillipps and they had seven children. She died in [[Torquay]], [[Devon]], in 1889.<ref>[http://www.pakistanlink.com/Opinion/2006/Jan06/06/04.HTM East Did Meet West - 3 - Pakistan Link.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120130745/http://www.pakistanlink.com/Opinion/2006/Jan06/06/04.HTM |date=2008-11-20 }} - Dr. Rizwana Begum</ref>

==Popular culture==
A large part of ''[[White Mughals]]'', a book by the historian [[William Dalrymple (historian)|William Dalrymple]], concerns Kirkpatrick's relationship with Khair-un-Nissa.

==Citations==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book
|last=Dalrymple
|first=William
|author-link=William Dalrymple (historian)
|publisher=Penguin Books
|title=White Mughals: love and betrayal in eighteenth-century India
|year=2004
|isbn=978-0-14-200412-8
}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.rangan-datta.info/photo/viewpic.php?gallery=41&id=200 James Achilles Kirkpatrick's Memorial at St. John's Church, Calcutta (Kolkata)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307145210/http://www.rangan-datta.info/photo/viewpic.php?gallery=41&id=200 |date=2012-03-07 }}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kirkpatrick, James Achilles}}
[[Category:1764 births]]
[[Category:1805 deaths]]
[[Category:Administrators in British India]]
[[Category:British East India Company Army officers]]
[[Category:British Muslims]]
[[Category:Converts to Islam from Protestantism]]

Ports in Karnataka

2026-02-03T20:15:00Z

RodEsters254334: article

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2019}}

'''Karnataka's''' coastline, known as [[Karavali]], stretches 300 km between [[Mangalore]] in the [[Dakshina Kannada]] district and [[Karwar]] in the [[Uttara Kannada district]]. This coastline runs along the western shore of the [[Arabian Sea]]. Karnataka has [[New Mangalore Port|one major]] and ten minor ports in this coastal belt. Important rivers in this area, including the Kali, Belekeri, [[Gangavali River|Gangavali]], Aghanashini Sharavathi, Sharabi, Kollur, Gangolli, Sitanadi, Gurpur, and [[Netravati]], flow into the Arabian Sea. Sea erosion, the migration of river mouths, and siltation of ports and harbours are some of the common problems facing this region.

The development of ports is a state subject, and the Government of Karnataka established the Department of Ports and Inland Water Transport in 1957. The department manages one major port and ten minor ports between [[Mangalore]] in the south and Karwar in the north. The only major port is the [[New Mangalore Port]]. The minor ports are located at [[Karwar]], [[Old Mangalore]], [[Belekeri]], [[Tadadi]], [[Honnavar]], [[Bhatkal]], [[Kundapur]], [[Hangarakatta]], [[Malpe]], and [[Padubidri]]. Of these, Karwar is the only all-weather port, while the others are riverine fair-weather lighterage ports.

In light of the economic reforms implemented by the central government in the early 1990s, the Karnataka government has also been making serious efforts to improve its port infrastructure. In 1997, a "Port Policy" was formulated to develop all ports with private participation. The policy is based on the BOOST (Build-Own-Operate-Share and Transfer) concept and primarily aims to improve cargo handling capacity.

==Maritime Board==
The Karnataka Maritime Board was established on 23 August 2017 as a statutory body by the Government of Karnataka to provide for the rapid development and management of Ports, Inland Waterways, Islands and the coastal region in the state.<ref>{{cite web |title=State Maritime Board |url=https://sagarmala.gov.in/state-maritime-board |website=sagarmala.gov.in |access-date=27 November 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Brief History |url=https://karnatakamaritime.in/brief-history/ |website=karnatakamaritime.in |access-date=27 November 2025 }}</ref>

== New Mangalore Port ==
[[New Mangalore Port]] is a deep-water, all-weather port located at [[Panambur]], [[Mangalore]]. It is the only major port in Karnataka and is currently the seventh largest port in India.[[New Mangalore Port#cite note-nmpt-about-3|[3]]]

== Old Mangalore Port ==
Old Mangalore Port is located south of [[New Mangalore Port]] and is popularly known by the name Bunder. The port was once used to ferry goods and passengers to [[Lakshadweep]] Island and Middle Eastern countries. Now, fishing has become the main activity at this harbour.

== Karwar Port ==
Karwar Port is acclaimed as one of the best natural all-weather ports on the West Coast. It is located in the [[Uttara Kannada]] district on the southern side of the [[Kali River (Karnataka)|Kali River]] and caters to the trading needs of northern [[Karnataka]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], and [[Maharashtra]]. The port is situated beside [[National Highway 66 (India)|National Highway 66 (NH66)]], which connects [[Mumbai]] and [[Kochi]], making it one of the country's busiest corridors. Additionally, it is only 8 km away from the [[Konkan Railway zone|Konkan Railway network]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://karnatakamaritime.in/karwar-port/ | title=Karwar Port – Karnataka Ports }}</ref>

Recently, the [[Karnataka High Court|High Court of Karnataka]] directed the state government to stop all developmental activities being undertaken at Karwar Port under the [[Sagar Mala project|Sagarmala project]].

== Belekeri port ==

Belekeri Port is located at Binge Bay, south of the Kali estuary and 27 km south of [[Karwar]] in the Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka. It is currently one of the second largest port in Karnataka after the Mangalore Port. One of its main advantages is its proximity to [[Hospet]] and [[Ballari|Bellary]], which are major producers of an iron ore. This port is primarily used for exporting iron ore. Vessels do not come to shore or berth; instead, ore is transported to ships at sea through barges. Currently, there are three jetties available for barge loading, but the port is not well dredged, and some private companies are operating there.

== Tadadi port ==

Tadadi Port, is situated at the estuary of the [[Aghanashini River]]. The backwaters of the Aghanashini River create a vast waterfront at this port, providing an opportunity for development with modern infrastructures. The [[Konkan Railway zone|Konkan railway line]] and [[National Highway 17 (India)|NH 17]] pass close to the port area. Additionally, [[National Highway 67 (India)|NH 63]], the proposed Hubli-Ankola railway line, and Honnavar-Tumkur [[National Highway 206 (India)|NH 206]] contribute to the overall development of Tadadi Port. This port is projected for development under the BOOST (Build, Own, Operate, Share, and Transfer) concept through private participation. A vast area is available for the port's development with negligible rehabilitation issues. Tadadi Port has an effective hinterland of about 200,000 square meters, encompassing central and northern parts of Karnataka and some areas of Andhra Pradesh, which are rich in minerals, forests, agriculture, and marine resources.

== Hangarakatte port ==
Hangarakatte Port is located in the [[Udupi district]] of Karnataka. It is primarily used by fishing boats and is situated on the banks of the [[Swarna River]] and the [[Seetha River|Sita River]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Mangalore/karnataka-budget-2023-24-greenfield-ports-keni-pavinakurve-uttara-kannada-district-under-ppp-marina-at-byndoor-beach/article66520152.ece | title=Karnataka Budget 2023-24: Greenfield ports at Keni and Pavinakurve in Uttara Kannada district under PPP, marina at Byndoor beach | newspaper=The Hindu | date=17 February 2023 }}</ref>

== Honnavar port ==
Honnavar Port is located where the [[Sharavati]] River meets the [[Arabian Sea]], near the town of [[Honnavar]] in the [[Uttara Kannada]] district. Efforts to develop this port for handling larger ships have not been successful. [[National Highway 17]] and the Honnavar railway station on the [[Konkan Railway]] route are nearby.

==Bhatkal port==
Bhatkal Port is a well-protected port located on the bank of the Sharabhi River. During the [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagar Empire]], this port was used for trade with the Arabs. Currently, fishing vessels utilize the facilities of this port. Bhatkal Port has the potential to be developed into a modern fishing harbor with full-fledged fish handling facilities. The port is surrounded by hills and the river.

==Kundapura (Gangolli) port==
Kundapura (Gangolli) Port is located at the confluence of the Pancha Gangolli River, near the town of [[Gangolli]] in the [[Kundapura]] region of [[Udupi district]]. Although [[National Highway 17 (India)|National Highway 17]] and the [[Konkan Railway zone|Konkan Railway]] pass nearby, the development of this port has not yet occurred. It is primarily used for fishing.

==Hangarakatta port==
Hangarakatta Port is located in the [[Udupi district]] of Karnataka. It is primarily used by fishing boats and is situated on the banks of the Swarna River and the Sita River.

==Malpe port==
[[Malpe]] Port is situated near the town of [[Udupi]]. It is located at the confluence of the [[Udyavara]] River and the Arabian Sea. The port primarily handles fishing activities but also occasionally accommodates cargo.

== Padubidri port ==
[[Padubidri]] Port is located in the [[Udupi district]] of Karnataka. There are discussions about developing Padubidri Port to handle coal required for the thermal power generating station being set up in the nearby village of [[Nandikur]].

== Inland water transport ==
{{Empty section|date=July 2010}}
There is no major inland route for water transport in Karnataka.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.karnatakaports.in Karnataka ports introduction]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060523214855/http://www.newmangalore-port.com/default.asp?city=PORT&channelid=2759 New Mangalore Port]}}

{{coord missing|Karnataka}}

[[Category:Ports and harbours of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of India|K]]
[[Category:Lists of ports]]

Colonel Nizamuddin

2026-02-01T22:05:12Z

RodEsters254334: Added basic stub initial version

{{Short description|Indian Independence activist}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = Colonel Nizamuddin
| birth_name = Saifuddin
| birth_date = 1901
| death_date = {{death date and age|2017|02|06|1901|01|01}}
| birth_place = Dhakwan, Azamgarh, [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh]], British India
| death_place = Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh, India
| allegiance = {{flagicon|India}} [[Indian National Army]]
| rank = Colonel (honorary, as reported in media)
| unit = Azad Hind Fauj
| battles = [[Burma Campaign]] (World War II)
| awards =
}}

'''Colonel Nizamuddin''' (born '''Saifuddin'''; 1901 – 6 February 2017) was an Indian freedom fighter who, according to Indian media reports, is described as having served as a driver and bodyguard for [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] during the operations of the [[Indian National Army]] (INA) in Southeast Asia.<ref name="TOI_Obit">{{cite news |last1=Pandey |first1=Kashif |title=Netaji's personal driver Colonel Nizamuddin passes away at 117 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/netajis-personal-driver-colonel-nizamuddin-passes-away-at-117/articleshow/57002011.cms |work=The Times of India |date=6 February 2017}}</ref>

== Military service ==
Nizamuddin was a member of the [[Indian National Army]] (Azad Hind Fauj). Media accounts published in later decades state that in 1943, Nizamuddin was wounded while attempting to protect Bose during an encounter in the forests of [[Burma]].<ref name="DNA_India">{{cite web |title=The man who took three bullets to save Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-the-man-who-took-three-bullets-to-save-netaji-subhas-chandra-bose-2213192 |website=DNA India |access-date=2024-05-20}}</ref>

Bose is said to have informally referred to him as "Colonel," a title described in news reports as honorary rather than a formal commissioned military rank.<ref>{{cite web |last=Pal |first=Sanchari |title='Colonel' Nizamuddin, the Forgotten Driver Who Took 3 Bullets to Save Netaji Bose |url=https://thebetterindia.com/143203/colonel-nizamuddin-driver-subhash-chandra-bose/ |website=The Better India |date=2018-05-29 |access-date=2024-05-22 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Later life and recognition ==
After the dissolution of the INA, Nizamuddin lived in [[Yangon|Rangoon]] for several decades before returning to his ancestral village in [[Azamgarh district|Azamgarh]], Uttar Pradesh, in 1969.

He received national media attention in 2014 when Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] met him during an event in [[Varanasi]].<ref>{{cite news |title=PM Modi meets Netaji's aide Colonel Nizamuddin |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/pm-narendra-modi-netaji-subhash-chandra-bose-aide-colonel-nizamuddin-varanasi-192131-2014-05-09 |work=India Today |date=9 May 2014}}</ref> At the time of his death in 2017, several media reports described him as being among the oldest living people in India, based on personal documents cited in news coverage which suggested an age of approximately 116 years.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Indian independence activists]]
[[Category:1901 births]]
[[Category:2017 deaths]]
[[Category:Men supercentenarians]]

Ayesha Kidwai

2026-01-28T17:09:42Z

RodEsters254334: made new info!

{{Short description|Indian theoretical linguist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ayesha Kidwai
| alma_mater = [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]]
| occupation = [[Linguist]]
| awards = [[Infosys Prize]]
}}

'''Ayesha Kidwai''' is an Indian [[Theoretical linguistics|theoretical linguist]]. She is a professor at the [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]] in [[New Delhi]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-12|title=JNU's academic council to discuss common university admission test|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/delhi-news/jnus-academic-council-to-discuss-common-university-admission-test-101641927876808.html|access-date=2022-02-15|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref> and an awardee of the [[Infosys Prize]] for Humanities in 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2013-11-14 |title=Five eminent scientists awarded Infosys prize |url=https://thepeninsulaqatar.com/article/14/11/2013/five-eminent-scientists-awarded-infosys-prize |access-date=2022-02-15 |website=thepeninsulaqatar.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Biography==
She is the grand-daughter of [[Anis Kidwai]]. Kidwai obtained a master's and doctoral degree in linguistics from the Jawaharlal Nehru University.<ref name="infosys">{{cite web|url=http://www.infosys-science-foundation.com/prize/laureates/2013/ayesha-kidwai.asp|title=Prof. Ayesha Kidwai|publisher=Infosys Prize|access-date=31 December 2017}}</ref>

In 2023 Ayesha Kidwai was elected Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy.<ref name="fba">{{cite web|url=https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/fellows/ayesha-kidwai-fba/|title=Professor Ayesha Kidwai FBA|publisher=British Academy|access-date=21 July 2023}}</ref>

==Career==
===Academic===
Kidwai's theoretical linguistics work has applied [[Noam Chomsky]]'s notion of [[Universal grammar]] to South Asian languages.{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}} In particular, she studied the parameters that explain the syntactic properties of [[Meitei language|Meiteilon]], [[Santali language|Santali]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]] and [[Malayalam]]. She proposed a novel theory on free word order, exemplified by [[Scrambling (linguistics)|scrambled]] noun-phrases in Hindi-Urdu.<ref name=infosys/>

Kidwai undertook several research projects in field linguistics. Between 1999 and 2001, she investigated the acquisition of the Hindi language among children, and she studied the Urdu's socio-cultural effects on other Indian languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jnu.ac.in/sllcs/cl_project|title=Completed Projects|publisher=Centre for Linguistics, JNU|access-date=26 December 2017}}</ref>

In 2008, Kidwai showed that because Sanskrit-speaking ruling classes captured only the public domain, this prestige language was unable to completely cripple less prestigious languages (Indo-Aryan, Dravidian and Austro-Asiatic) that pervaded the subcontinent. Still, the smaller the language, the likelier it was to be dismissed as undeveloped, resulting in its speakers choosing not to take up education in it, fearing that they would be disadvantaged.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Language Endangerment: The Fate of Indigenous Languages (A Theoretical Approach)|author=Meti Mallikarjun|year=2008|pages=46, 50|journal=Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences|url=https://www.inflibnet.ac.in/ojs/index.php/SHSS/article/viewFile/2930/2180|access-date=26 December 2017}}{{Dead link|date=October 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Her grandmother, [[Anis Kidwai]]'s Urdu memoir ''Azadi ki chhaon mein'' (''In Freedom's Shade''), was translated by Kidwai into English in 2011. Anis's husband Shafi had been murdered in Mussoorie in 1947 following the [[Partition of India]], which prompted Anis to become a social activist. Her memoir documents the efforts of the citizenry to stop the cycle of murders and retributions, the activities of the Shanti Dal, an organisation that helped to protect victims of the violence, and the attempts to recover abducted women.<ref>{{cite news|title=Where violence is free|newspaper=DNA India|author=A Faizur Rahman|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/report-where-violence-is-free-1629728|date=25 December 2011|access-date=26 December 2017}}</ref> Kidwai continued the investigation of the fates of women abducted during the Partition, reporting in 2014 that nearly 80,000 women had been found in the massive recovery operations in the aftermath of the Partition.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Countercurrents.org|url=http://www.countercurrents.org/kaul300714.htm|title=An Invitation To Remember: The Lightning Testimonies Comes To India|date=30 July 2014|author=Shivani Kaul|access-date=26 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.knma.in/node/358|title=A Lecture on Re-viewing Partition, Reclaiming Lost Ground : A Critical Recovery of the Recovery Operation|work=Kiran Nadar Museum of Art |date=4 December 2016 |access-date=26 December 2017}}</ref>

===Activism ===
In 1999, Kidwai set up a committee to help orient and sensitise against sexual harassment on the campus of Jawaharlal Nehru University. It was responsible for crisis management as well as mediation, investigation, and redress in response to complaints of sexual harassment. The template was adopted by other universities across India.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/a-model-plan-for-campuses/article4302330.ece|title=A model plan for campuses|author=Smriti Kak Ramachandran|date=12 January 2013|access-date=26 December 2017}}</ref> In 2013, a survey she co-organised with Madhu Sahni revealed that more than half the women in JNU had suffered sexual harassment.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=DNA India|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-53-jnu-women-face-sexual-harassment-says-survey-1914238|author=Hakeem Irfan|title=53% JNU women face sexual harassment, says survey|date=6 November 2013|access-date=26 December 2017}}</ref>

In 2016, Kidwai headed the Jawaharlal Nehru University Teachers' Association (JNUTA). When the student union president [[Kanhaiya Kumar]] was arrested on charges of sedition, she joined in the ensuing protests on behalf of the JNUTA.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=Daily O|url=https://www.dailyo.in/politics/jnushutdown-delhi-police-shehla-rashid-nivedita-menon-ayesha-kidwai-kavita-krishnan-abvp-afzal-guru/story/1/9064.html|title=JNU Crackdown: 4 powerful voices you can't ignore|author=Ursila Ali|date=17 February 2016|access-date=26 December 2017}}</ref>

==Selected works==
===Articles and presentations===
* {{cite journal|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|title=The Question of Language in Education|author=Ayesha Kidwai|volume=51|number=35|date=27 August 2016}}
* {{cite speech |author=Ayesha Kidwai|title= Re-Viewing Partition, Re-Claiming Lost Ground: A Critical Recovery of the Recovery Operation|date=8 July 2014|location=New Delhi|publisher=[[Kiran Nadar Museum of Art]]|language=en}}
* {{cite journal|journal=Linguistic Analysis|url=http://www.linguisticanalysis.com/volumes/40issue3-4/Introduction-To-Formal-Syntax,-Semantics,-And-Morphology-Of-South-Asian-Languages|volume=40|issue=3&4|title=Introduction To Formal Syntax, Semantics, And Morphology Of South Asian Languages|year=2014|author1=Emily Manetta|author2=Ayesha Kidwai|issn=0098-9053|access-date=26 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180105004835/http://www.linguisticanalysis.com/volumes/40issue3-4/Introduction-To-Formal-Syntax,-Semantics,-And-Morphology-Of-South-Asian-Languages|archive-date=5 January 2018|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Generation Palestine: Voices from the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions Movement|editor=Rich Wiles|title=India's Freedom Struggle and Today's BDS Movement|author1=Prabir Purukayathra|author2= Ayesha Kidwai|url=http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/distributed/G/bo21634464.html|publisher=University of Chicago|date=March 2013|isbn= 9780745332444}}
* {{cite journal|journal=Language and Language Teaching|volume=2|number=1|date=January 2013|author=Ayesha Kidwai|title=Chomsky's Innateness Hypothesis: Implications for Language Learning and Teaching|url=http://azimpremjiuniversity.edu.in/SitePages/pdf/January-issue-of-LLT.pdf|pages=57–61}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=The cartography of phases: fact and inference in Meiteilon|encyclopedia=Edges, Heads, and Projections: interface properties|location=Amsterdam|publisher=John Benjamins|year=2010|editor1=A.M. Di Sciullo|editor2=V. Hill|author=Ayesha Kidwai}}
*{{cite journal|title=Managing Multilingual India|author=Ayesha Kidwai|volume=XXIV|number=2|year=2008|journal=The Marxist|url=http://cpim.org/marxist/200802_marxist_multilingual%20india-ayesha%20kidwai.pdf}}
* {{cite journal|title=Whose language is Urdu? |author1=Anvita Abbi |author-link=Anvita Abbi |author2=Imtiaz Hasnain|author3=Ayesha Kidwai|journal=Heidelberg Papers in South Asian and Comparative Politics|year=2004}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|author=Ayesha Kidwai|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-2719-2_9|chapter=The Topic Interpretation in Universal Grammar|editor1=V. Dayal|editor2=A. Mahajan A.|encyclopedia=Clause Structure in South Asian Languages|series=Studies in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory|year=2004|volume=61|pages=253–289|publisher=Springer|location= Dordrecht|isbn=978-1-4020-2717-8}}
* {{citation |title=Unaccusatives, Expletives and the EPP- feature of υ|author=Ayesha Kidwai|year=2002|publisher=Delhi University}}

===Books===
* {{cite book|author=Anis Kidwai|authorlink=Anis Kidwai|translator=Ayesha Kidwai|title=Dust of the Caravan|location=|publisher=Zubaan|isbn=9789385932892|year=2021}}
* {{cite book|author=Anis Kidwai|translator=Ayesha Kidwai|title=In the Shadow of Freedom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xv2xAAAACAAJ|date=1 July 2004|publisher=Zubaan|isbn=978-81-89013-07-3}}
* {{cite book|editor3=Ayesha Kidwai|editor2=R.S. Gupta|editor1=Anvita Abbi|title=Linguistic Structure and Language Dynamic in South Asia : Papers from the Proceedings of SALA XVIII Roundtable|publisher=Motilal Banarsidas|year=2001}}
* {{cite book|author=Ayesha Kidwai|title=Xp-Adjunction in Universal Grammar: Scrambling and Binding in Hindi-Urdu|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University|isbn= 9780198030393}}
* {{cite thesis|title= Binding and Free Word Order Phenomenon in Hindi-Urdu|author=Ayesha Kidwai|year=1995|type=PhD|publisher=Jawaharlal Nehru University}}

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.jnu.ac.in/content/ayesha Kidwai's webpage at JNU]
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kidwai, Ayesha}}

[[Category:Academic staff of Jawaharlal Nehru University]]
[[Category:Jawaharlal Nehru University alumni]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian women linguists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian linguists]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian linguists]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women writers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women writers]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women]]

Anantavarman Chodaganga

2026-01-28T14:48:30Z

RodEsters254334: adjusted intro per sources to improve readability

{{Short description|Eastern Ganga emperor from 1078 to 1150}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| image = Chodaganga Deva.jpg
| caption = Sculpture of Chodaganga Deva at Chudanga Sahi, [[Puri]]
| succession = [[Eastern Ganga Empire|Eastern Ganga emperor]]
| image_size = 200px
| name = Anantavarman Chodaganga
| title = Raja Parameswara Trikalingaadhipati Gangesvara Paramavaishnava Paramabhattaraka Paramabrahmanya Kunjaradhipati
| reign = 17 February 1078 – 1150<ref name="p264">{{cite web | publisher=Kitabistam, Allahabad | title=Full text of "Historical Inscriptions Of Southern India" | website=Internet Archive | date=23 October 2016 | url=https://archive.org/stream/historicalinscri035270mbp/historicalinscri035270mbp_djvu.txt | access-date=27 February 2025}}</ref>
| coronation = 17 February 1078
| predecessor = [[Rajaraja Devendravarman|Rajaraja Deva I]]
| successor = Kamarnnava Deva
| birth_place = [[Mukhalingam|Kalinganagari]], [[Kalinga (region)|Kalinga]], Eastern Ganga dynasty (modern day Srimukhalingam, [[Andhrapradesh]])
| death_date = 1150
| death_place = [[Cuttack|Kataka]], [[Kalinga (region)|Kalinga]], Eastern Ganga dynasty (modern day Cuttack, [[Odisha]])
| spouse =
* Chodadevi
* Kasturikamodini
* Indira devi
* Lakshmi
* Chandralekha
* Prithvi-Mahadevi
* Somala-Mahadevi
| issue =
* Kamarnnava Deva
* Raghava
* Raja Raja II
* Aniyanka Bhima
* Umavallabha
| regnal name = Kunjaradhipati Gangesvara Anantavarman Chodaganga deva
| house = [[Eastern Ganga dynasty]]
| father = [[Rajaraja Devendravarman|Rajaraja Deva I]]
| mother = Rajasundari
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
}}

'''Gangesvara Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva''' (died 1150) was the [[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Eastern Ganga]] emperor from 1078 until his death in 1150. He was a great patron of arts and architecture who built many temples, one of them being the [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath Temple]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Tripathy |first=Dr. Kunjabihari |title=A Brief History of Oriya Literature|publisher=Bijoy Book Store |year=1972 |volume=1 -Part I |location=Berhampur-1, Ganjam ,Odisha |pages=e-f |chapter=No 1 - Introduction |author-link=Dr.Kunjabihari Tripathy}}</ref> in [[Puri]]. He was the ruler of the [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] region from river [[Ganga]] to [[Godavari]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haldar |first=Narotam |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.265493 |title=Gangaridi - Alochana O Parjalochana |date=1988}}</ref> and later the early medieval [[Odisha]] region with the incorporation of the constituent regions with the decline of the [[Somavamshi dynasty|Somavamshi]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rajaguru|first=Satyanarayan|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924063477313|title=Inscriptions of Orissa, Volume III, Part I|publisher=Orissa Sahitya Akademi|year=1960|location=Bhubaneswar|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924063477313/page/n189 174], 175}}</ref><ref>* {{cite book |author=Walter Smith |title=The Mukteśvara Temple in Bhubaneswar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y0MQmNx8g2gC&pg=PA21 |year=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0793-8 |page=26 }}</ref> He is often considered as the founder and significant ruler of Eastern ganga dynasty.<ref name=":0" /> He is related to the [[Chola dynasty]] through his mother's side and the Eastern Gangas through his father's side. His mother, Rajasundari, was a Chola princess and the daughter of emperor [[Virarajendra Chola]] and granddaughter of Chola king [[Rajendra Chola I]].His father was king Rajaraja [[Rajaraja Devendravarman|I]] of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. He possessed a vast number of elephants which made him used the title ''navanavati sahasta kunjaradhisvara'' or the lord of ninety-nine thousand elephants, though this is an exaggeration but it is likely that he possessed a vast number of elephants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sah |first=Ayodhya Prasad |date=1968 |title=FEUDATORIES AND BENEFICIARIES IN MEDIAEVAL ORISSA (Cir. A. D. 600-1200) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141454 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=30 |pages=73–79 |jstor=44141454 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>

According to ''vallala-charitam'' Anantavarman had diplomatic relations with Vijayasena of Bengal.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Banerji |first=R. d |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45579 |title=History Of Orissa Vol. 1}}</ref>

Anantavarman ruled for a very long reign of 72 years according to his own inscription.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Banerji |first=R. d |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45579 |title=History Of Orissa Vol. 1}}</ref> This makes him one of the longest ruling monarchs in the [[Middle Ages]]. He was succeeded by his son Kamarnava Deva from the queen Kasturikamodini.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Banerji |first=R. d |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45579 |title=History Of Orissa Vol. 1}}</ref>

==Life and reign==
[[File:Temple-Jagannath.jpg|thumb|Present [[Jagannath temple]] in [[Puri]] built by Anantavarman Chodaganga.|263x263px]]
He was the son of [[Rajaraja devendravarman|Rajaraja Deva I]] alias Devendravarman and Kalinga Mahadevi Rajasundari and grandson of Trikalingadhipati Anantavarman Vajrahasta Deva V. Anantavarman's mother Rajasundari was the daughter of emperor [[Virarajendra Chola]] and granddaughter of Chola king [[Rajendra Chola I]]. However, historian S.N. Sen states that Anantavarman was the maternal grandson of [[Kulottunga I]].

The [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath Temple]] at [[Puri]] was rebuilt in the 11th century<ref name="sen">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=36–37}}</ref> atop its ruins by Anantavarman Chodaganga. He was known as the first Gajapati/Kunjaradhiparti as per Ronaki Stone inscription.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asianart.com/articles/patachitra/index.html#4 |title=Bernard Cesarone: Pata-chitras of Orissa |first=Bernard |last=Cesarone |work=asianart.com |year=2012 |quote=This temple was built between approximately 1135-1150 by Codaganga |access-date=2 July 2012 |archive-date=23 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120923063936/http://www.asianart.com/articles/patachitra/index.html#4 |url-status=live }}</ref> Emperor Chodaganga was originally a [[Shaivite]] from [[Srimukhalingam]]. But he embraced [[Sri Vaishnavism]] under the influence of [[Ramanuja]] when the latter visited the Sri Jagannath Puri temple.<ref>{{cite book|title=Orissa Review, Volume 44|author=Orissa (India). Public Relations Dept, Orissa (India). Home Dept|publisher=Home Department, Government of Orissa, 1987|page=56}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Traditional Paintings of Orissa|author=Dinanath Pathy|publisher=Working Artists Association of Orissa, 1990 - Painting, Indic - 93 pages|page=16}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Studies in the cult of Jagannātha|author=Oḍiśa Saṃskr̥ti Parishada|publisher=Institute of Orissan Culture, 1991 - Religion - 256 pages|page=150}}</ref>
[[File:Outside wall design of Srikurmam Temple, Srikakulam district.jpg|thumb|In saka 1035 CE Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva converted the Kurmanathaswamy temple to a Vaishnava khetra from a Siva temple.]]
In his Sindurapura grant (1118 A.D) Anantavarma styles himself ''Paramavaishnava''. He re-established [[Kurmanathaswamy temple, Srikurmam]] after Ramanuja's visit to Kalinga.<ref>{{cite book|title=Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India|author=Joanna Gottfried Williams|publisher=BRILL, 1981 - Art, Indic - 183 pages|page=39}}</ref> Despite being related to Anantavarman, [[Kulothunga Chola I]] did not stop from burning Anantavarman's empire. Tamil historians propose that it was probably because the king failed to pay his rent for two consecutive years. He was ousted by Kulothunga's general Karunakara Thondaiman and this victory is detailed in the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] classic ''Kalingattupparani''. However, this could be a far fetch from the actual truth considering that such poems often exaggerate the Kings they are praising and often overlook the defeats the Kings have faced. Monarchs from this region of the subcontinent regularly assumed the title Chodaganga Deva throughout the ancient and medieval periods to allude to their [[Chola]] and Eastern Ganga heritage.<ref name=":0" />

From various inscriptions it is known that King Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva established the present temple some time near the end of the eleventh century. A copper plate inscription made by King Rajaraja III found on the [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple]] near the north entrance states that Jagannath temple was built by Gangesvara, i.e., Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva.<ref name=":1" />

Later, King [[Anangabhima Deva III|Ananga Bhima Deva II]] (1170–1198) did much to continue the work of Chodaganga Deva, building the walls around the temple and many of the other shrines on the temple grounds. He is thus often considered one of the builders of the temple. He also did much to establish the regulations around the service to the Deity.<ref name=":1" />

A scion of this dynasty made extensive donations to the [[Koneswaram temple]], [[Trincomalee]] on [[Puthandu]], 1223 CE in the name of King Chodaganga Deva. Shortly afterwards, the [[Konark temple]] was constructed in Odisha. A brother of the king titled Ulagaikonda Permadi is known to us from several inscriptions.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|title=Epigraphia Indica, Volume 30|author=Archaeological Survey of India, India. Dept. of Archaeology|publisher=Manager of Publications, 1987|page=92}}</ref>

== Administration ==
[[File:Royal court scene of Chodaganga at Garedi Panchana Temple.jpg|thumb|A depiction of Eastern Ganga Emperor Chodaganga Deva.. a Royal court scene at Buddhanath Temple, Garedi Panchana.]]
Anantavarman's Capital was Kataka. Puri had a great religious importance where the king built the magnificent Jagannath Temple, influenced by Ramanuja.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mukherjee |first=P. |date=1949 |title=The Influence of Vaishnavism in Medieval Orissa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44140555 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=12 |pages=291–295 |jstor=44140555 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref> The king's inscription sheds light on a well organized form of administration. Empire was divided into several mandalams or provinces and each mandala into several Vishayas or districts and each Vishaya into several gramas or villages. there are several nadus mentioned in the inscription and most of the villages or agraharas granted to Brahmins or temples or ministers or commanders are found in these nadus.

Rastrakuta Pramukhas or Janapada ministers are exempted from paying taxes, they advise the king in several matters.

Several officers both civil and military are mentioned in the inscriptions such as:

* Karanam
* Purohit
* Puravasi
* Talvari
* Dandanayaka
* Dandapasi
* Raja Guru
* Maha Pradain
* Mahasenapati
* Mahamandalika

The King's Revenue was derived from tributes, custom dues and crown lands. Royal expenditure was divided into four kinds:

* Administrative charges
* Religious benefactions
* Public works
* Household expenses

=== Coinage ===
[[File:Eastern Ganga fanam Chodaganga.png|thumb|Gold fanam of Anantavarman Chodaganga depicting a Bull (Reverse) and saka year]]
The Coinage under Chodaganga are of varied type and metals such as:

* Madas
* Ganda-Madas
* Malla-Madas
* Matsya-Madas
* Ganga-Madas
* Fanams
* Tankas (Gold, Silver, Copper)
* Chinuams<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rao |first=R. Subba |date=1944 |title=Life and Times of Anantavarma Chodaganga of Kalingadesa, a. D. 1076-1147 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45436561 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=7 |pages=228–230 |jstor=45436561 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>

== Conquests ==
[[File:Royal Elephant Procession Scene of Chodaganga Deva.jpg|thumb|A Royal elephant procession depiction of Chodaganga Deva along with his consort possibly Gundi Chodi Debi at Buddhanath Temple, Garedi Panchana.]]
Anantavarman was a benevolent and absolute ruler who was served by several faithful generals, commanders and ministers who assisted him in his conquests, some of whom were ; Banapati, the Brahmin general who served his father in Vengi campaigns; and took Kimidi, Kosala, Oddadesa and was made a governor; Pinnayabhata a learned Brahmin; Sommula Rechana the foreign minister.

=== Conquest of Utkala ===
According to the Sindurapura grant issued in the saka year 1040 (1118 A.D), Anantavarman Chodaganga had sovereignty over entire of the whole Utkala. Madalapanji states that he defeated the last Kesari king Mahasivagupta and shifted the capital to Chaudwar Cuttack.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Walter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y0MQmNx8g2gC&pg=PA21 |title=The Mukteśvara Temple in Bhubaneswar |date=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0793-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Rao |first=R. Subba |date=1944 |title=Life and Times of Anantavarma Chodaganga of Kalingadesa, a. D. 1076-1147 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45436561 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=7 |pages=228–230 |jstor=45436561 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>

=== Conquest of Vengi ===
Vengi kingdom was being ruled by Kulotthunga Chola who was related to Anantavarman Chodaganga from his mother's side. After the death of Kulottunga in 1118 AD vengi came under the rule of Vikramchola, But Vikramchola left the Vengi viceroyalty to Velnati Cholas. As there was no strong ruler in Vengi, the kingdom suffered from internal strife and foreign invasions. It seems that Chodaganga saw this as an advantage and conquered the part of Vengi lying north to river Godavari. but was failed to conquer the whole of Vengi.<ref name=":2" />

=== Conquest of Bengal ===
Bengal was being ruled by the Pala dynasty, which ruled over Bengal from 8th century to 11th century. After the death of Rampala, Chodagangadeva attacked Bengal beyond Danda Bhukti.

According to the inscription by his successors, Anantavarman Chodagangadeva defeated the king of mandara. The accounts describe how Anantavavarman destroyed the fortified town of Aramya. The location of Aramya has been identified as modern-day [[Arambagh]], situated approximately eight miles from [[Gar Mandaran|Garh Mandaran]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Banerji |first=R. d |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45579 |title=History Of Orissa Vol. 1}}</ref>

== Extent of the Empire ==
Kalinga remained formidable under Anantavavarman. According to his own inscription and those of his successors it seems that Anantavarman's empire extended to river Godavari in the south, the city of midnapore in the north, the bay of Bengal in the east and the Eastern ghats in the west.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rao |first=R. Subba |date=1944 |title=Life and Times of Anantavarma Chodaganga of Kalingadesa, a. D. 1076-1147 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45436561 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=7 |pages=228–230 |jstor=45436561 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>

== Family ==
{{Chart top}}

{{Tree chart/start}}

{{Tree chart|||Panchavan Mahadevi|y|Rajaraja I|y|Tribhuvana Mahadevi||Rajaraja I=[[Rajaraja I]]|Tribhuvana Mahadevi=[[Tribhuvana Mahadevi]]|Panchavan Mahadevi=Panchavan Mahadevi||||13=y|boxstyle_Rajaraja I=border-width:2px; border-color:#FF0000}}

{{Tree chart||||||!||||!|||||||||||||}}

{{Tree chart|||||Araiyan Rajarajan||Rajendra I|y|Mukkokilan Adigal|||||17=|Araiyan Rajarajan=[[ Araiyan Rajarajan]]|Rajendra I=[[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]]|Mukkokilan Adigal=Mukkokilan Adigal|boxstyle_Araiyan Rajarajan=border-width:2px; border-color:#FF0000|boxstyle_Rajendra I=border-width:2px; border-color:#FF0000}}

{{Tree chart||,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|.|||||||||}}

{{Tree chart|Rajadhiraja I||Rajendra II||Virarajendra Chola|y|Arulmolinangai||Amangai Devi|||13=|14=|15=|16=|Amangai Devi=[[Amangai Devi]]|Rajadhiraja I=[[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja I]]|Rajendra II=[[Rajendra Chola II|Rajendra II]]|Virarajendra Chola=[[Virarajendra Chola]]|Arulmolinangai=Arulmolinangai|boxstyle_Virarajendra Chola=border-width:2px; border-color:#FF0000|boxstyle_Rajendra II=border-width:2px; border-color:#FF0000|boxstyle_Rajadhiraja I=border-width:2px; border-color:#FF0000|boxstyle_Amangai Devi=border-width:2px; border-color:#FF0000}}

{{Tree chart||||||||||,|-|^|-|.|||||||||||||}}

{{Tree chart|||||Rajaraja Devendravarman|y|Rajasundari||Athirajendra Chola||Madhurandhagi=Madhurandhagi|12=y|14=|15=|16=|17=|Athirajendra Chola=[[Athirajendra Chola]]|Rajaraja Devendravarman=Rajaraja Devendravarman|Rajasundari=Rajasundari|boxstyle_Rajasundari=border-width:2px; border-color:#FF0000|boxstyle_Athirajendra Chola=border-width:2px; border-color:#FF0000|boxstyle_Rajaraja Devendravarman=border-width:2px; border-color:#0000FF}}

{{Tree chart||||||||!||||||||}}

{{Tree chart|||||||Anantavarman Chodaganga||||||14=|15=Vira Chola|16=|17=Vikrama Chola|Vikrama Chola=[[Vikrama Chola]]|Anantavarman Chodaganga=Anantavarman Chodaganga|Vira Chola=Vira Chola|boxstyle_Vira Chola=border-width:2px; border-color:#FF0000|boxstyle_Vikrama Chola=border-width:2px; border-color:#FF0000|boxstyle_Anantavarman Chodaganga=border-width:2px; border-color:#0000FF|boxstyle_Rajaraja Chodaganga=border-width:2px; border-color:#0000FF}}

{{Tree chart/end}}
{{Chart bottom}}

== Art and Architecture ==
Anantavarman was a patron of arts. ''Bhasvati'', a work on astronomy, was composed in the ''Saka year'' 1021 (1099 A.D) by Satananda, Son of Sankara, an inhabitant of Puri. The tradition of keeping records in Madala Panji, the Odia chronicle is believed to be started with Anantavarman Chodagangadeva.
[[File:View of the Dol-Mandapa, Puri from outside the exterior wall.jpg|thumb|The main shrine, with a towered sanctuary and mandapa with a pyramidal roof, is attributed to Anantavarman Chodaganga of the Eastern Ganga dynasty (r.1077-1147).]]
He is credited with the construction of the Jagannath temple at puri. According to Mr. Manmohan Chakravarti the ''Vimana'' and the ''Mandapa'' and the ''Jagmohana'' were erected by Chodaganga towards the close of 11th Century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Banerji |first=R. d |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45579 |title=History Of Orissa Vol. 1}}</ref>

He was a great patron of architecture. According to a Sanskrit inscription excavated from the [[Koneswaram Temple]] , Chodaganga Deva made rich donations to the temple after visiting the temple on [[Puthandu|Tamil New Years Day]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=de Silva |first=K. M. |title=History of Ceylon |publisher=Ceylon University Press |year=1959–1973 |location=[[Colombo]] |pages=112 |oclc=952216 |quote=The inscription, found in the Hindu temple premises dates the landing of ''Chodaganga Deva'' at ''Gokaranna'' to Friday 14th April, 1223 A.D. (recorded as [[Saka]] Era Year 1145), and details donations this royal made to Konamamalai temple}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book | first= K. A. Nilakanta| last=Sastri| author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri | orig-year= 1935| year= 2000| title= The Cōlas| publisher= [[University of Madras]] | location= Madras| pages=322–323|ref=Sastri}}

[[Category:1150 deaths]]
[[Category:Eastern Ganga kings]]
[[Category:11th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:12th-century Indian monarchs]]

List of players who have scored 10,000 or more runs in One Day International cricket

2026-01-20T06:55:49Z

RodEsters254334:

{{Short description|None}}
[[File:sachin-Tendulkar.jpg|thumb|India's [[Sachin Tendulkar]] is the first player to cross the 10,000 run mark in ODIs.]]
Scoring over 10,000 [[Run (cricket)|runs]] across a playing career in any format of [[cricket]] is considered a significant achievement,<ref>{{cite web|last=Ugra|first=Sharda|title=1987 &ndash; Gavaskar is the first to score 10,000 test runs: A 10 tonne toast|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20091228-1987-gavaskar-is-the-first-to-score-10000-test-runs-a-10-tonne-toast-741618-2009-12-23|website=[[India Today]]|date=24 December 2019|access-date=22 August 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150822133940/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/1987-Gavaskar%20is%20the%20first%20to%20score%2010%2C000%20test%20runs%3A%20A%2010%20tonne%20toast/1/76385.html|archive-date=22 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=S|first=Santhosh|title=Sachin Tendulkar's brilliance sinks the Australians|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/105716.html|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|access-date=28 August 2015|date=31 March 2001|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801072255/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/105716.html|archive-date=1 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Australia take noninduajsnjsj charge after Lankan collapse|url=http://www.wisdenindia.com/match-report/australia-charge-lankan-collapse/41960|website=Wisden India Almanack|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|access-date=28 August 2015|date=26 December 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002074927/http://www.wisdenindia.com/match-report/australia-charge-lankan-collapse/41960|archive-date=2015-10-02}}</ref> while in the case of [[One Day Internationals]] (ODIs) it is often referred as the '''10,000 run club in ODI cricket'''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/971674|title=MS Dhoni becomes fifth to 10,000 runs for India|website=www.icc-cricket.com}}</ref>

West Indian [[Desmond Haynes]] retired as the most prolific run scorer in ODIs, with a total of 8,648 runs in 1994. His record stood for four years until it was broken by India's [[Mohammed Azharuddin]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Kahate|first=Atul|title=Azharuddin's world record|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/76416.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=22 August 2015|date=9 November 1998|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924160953/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/76416.html|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref> who remained the top scorer in the format until his compatriot Tendulkar surpassed his tally in October 2000.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gupta|first=Rajneesh|title=Tendulkar overhauls Azharuddin's record tally of runs in one-day Internationals|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/93304.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=22 August 2015|date=18 October 2000|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924161211/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/93304.html|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref> In 2001, Tendulkar became the first player to cross the 10,000 run mark in ODIs, during the third match of the [[Australian cricket team in India in 2000–01|bilateral series against Australia at home]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Time Line of Tendulkar's cricketing achievements|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/time-line-of-tendulkars-cricketing-achievements/article5221879.ece|access-date=22 August 2015|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=10 October 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218205426/http://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/time-line-of-tendulkars-cricketing-achievements/article5221879.ece|archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2023|09}}, fifteen players—from six teams that are [[List of International Cricket Council members#Full members|Full Members of the International Cricket Council]] (ICC)—have scored 10,000 runs in ODIs. Out of these, six are from [[Indian cricket team|India]], four are from [[Sri Lanka cricket team|Sri Lanka]] and two are from the [[West Indies cricket team|West Indies]]. One player each from [[Australia cricket team|Australia]], [[Pakistan cricket team|Pakistan]] and [[South Africa cricket team|South Africa]] form the rest.<ref name=Bishen>{{cite web|last=Jeswant|first=Bishen|title=Dilshan joins the 10,000 club|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/sri-lanka-v-pakistan-2015/content/story/903361.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=22 August 2015|date=26 July 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150821232035/http://www.espncricinfo.com/sri-lanka-v-pakistan-2015/content/story/903361.html|archive-date=21 August 2015}}</ref> No player from [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]], [[England cricket team|England]], [[New Zealand national cricket team|New Zealand]], [[Afghanistan cricket team|Afghanistan]], [[Ireland cricket team|Ireland]] or [[Zimbabwe national cricket team|Zimbabwe]] has passed the 10,000 run mark in ODIs yet.

In terms of [[innings]], India's [[Virat Kohli]]{{emdash}}the fifth Indian to reach the milestone after Tendulkar, [[Sourav Ganguly]], [[Rahul Dravid]] and [[MS Dhoni]]{{emdash}}is the fastest (205) to reach the 10,000 run mark,{{efn|Kohli is also the fastest in terms of time span (10 years and 67 days).}} while Sri Lanka's [[Mahela Jayawardene]] is the slowest to achieve the feat (333). Kohli also holds the record of highest number of [[Century (cricket)|centuries]] (54). Tendulkar holds multiple records{{emdash}}most appearances (463 matches), most runs (18,426) and [[Half century|half-centuries]] (96).<ref name=fastest>{{cite web|title=Records / One-Day Internationals / Batting records / Fastest to 10000 runs|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/india/content/records/283192.html|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=23 February 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329031549/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/india/content/records/283192.html|archive-date=29 March 2014}}</ref> Kohli has the highest [[Batting average (cricket)|average]] (58.00) and [[strike rate]] (93.71) among players who have performed the feat. Sri Lanka's Sanath Jayasuriya also features in the [[List of bowlers who have taken 300 or more wickets in One Day International cricket|list of bowlers who have taken 300 or more wickets]] in the format. As of 2025, [[Virat Kohli]] and [[Rohit Sharma]] are the only active players in the format on this list.

==Key==
* '''Career'''&nbsp;– denotes the years between the player's debut and the latest match
* '''Mat.'''&nbsp;– denotes the number of matches played
* '''Inn.'''&nbsp;– denotes the number of innings batted
* '''No''' - denotes the number of innings the player remains not out
* '''HS''' - denotes the player highest score in this format
* '''Date'''&nbsp;– denotes the date on which the player reached the 10,000 run mark
* '''Span'''&nbsp;– denotes the time span between the player's debut and the date on which the player reached the 10,000 run mark
* '''10KI'''&nbsp;– denotes the number of innings the player took to reach 10,000 runs
* {{dagger}}&nbsp;– denotes that the player is active in ODIs

==Players with 10,000 or more ODI runs==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="text-align: center"
|+ 10,000 or more runs in ODIs<ref name="Most runs">{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/83548.html |title=Records / One-Day Internationals / Batting records / Most runs in career |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=24 October 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101118065927/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/83548.html |archive-date=18 November 2010 }}</ref><ref name=fastest />
|-
! scope="col" | No.
! scope="col" | Player
! scope="col" | Portrait
! scope="col" | Team
! scope="col" | Career
! scope="col" | Mat.
! scope="col" | [[Innings|Inn.]]
!No
! scope="col" | [[Run (cricket)|Runs]]
!HS
! scope="col" | [[Batting average (cricket)|Avg.]]
! scope="col" | [[Strike rate|S/R]]
! scope="col" | [[Century (cricket)|100s]]
! scope="col" | [[Half century|50s]]
! scope="col" | Date<ref name=fastest />
! scope="col" | Span<ref name=fastest />
! scope="col" | 10KI<ref name=fastest />
|-
|| '''1'''
|{{sortname|Sachin|Tendulkar}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/35320.html |title=Sachin Tendulkar &#124; Cricket Players and Officials |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111231090501/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/35320.html |archive-date=2011-12-31 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[File:Sachin at Castrol Golden Spanner Awards (crop).jpg|100x130px|alt=Sachin Tendulkar]]|| {{cr|IND}} || 1989-2012 || 463 || 452
|41
! 18,426
|200*
|| 44.83 || {{sort|86231|86.23}} || {{sort|490|49}} || {{sort|960|96}} || {{dts|format=dmy|2001|3|31}} || {{nowrap|{{sort|11103|11 years, 103 days}}}}
| 259
|-
| '''2'''
|{{sortname|Virat|Kohli}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/player/253802.html|title=Virat Kohli; Cricket Players and Officials|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=24 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225193217/http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/player/253802.html|archive-date=2014-02-25|url-status=live}}</ref> {{dagger}}
|[[File:The_President,_Shri_Pranab_Mukherjee_presenting_the_Padma_Shri_Award_to_Shri_Virat_Kohli,_at_a_Civil_Investiture_Ceremony,_at_Rashtrapati_Bhavan,_in_New_Delhi_on_March_30,_2017_(cropped).jpg|100x130px|alt=Virat Kohli]]|| {{cr|IND}}|| 2008-2026 || 311 || 299
|47
! 14,797
|183
|| 58.71 ||93.82||54|| {{sort|740|77}}||{{dts|format=dmy|2018|10|24}} || {{sort|10067|10 years, 67 days}} || 205
|-
|| '''3'''
|{{sortname|Kumar|Sangakkara}}{{efn|Sangakkara's aggregate includes matches played for [[ACC Asia XI cricket team|Asia XI]] and [[List of World XI ODI cricketers|ICC World XI]].}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/50710.html |title=Kumar Sangakkara &#124; Cricket Players and Officials |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150822143338/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/50710.html |archive-date=2015-08-22 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[File:Kumar Sangakkara.jpg|100x130px|alt=Kumar Sangakkara]]|| {{cr|SL}} || 2000-2015 || 404 || 380
|41
! 14,234
|169
|| 41.98 || {{sort|78860|78.86}} || {{sort|250|25}} || {{sort|930|93}} || {{dts|format=dmy|2012|2|17}} || {{sort|11227|11 years, 227 days}} || 296
|-
|| '''4'''
|{{sortname|Ricky|Ponting}}{{efn|Ponting's aggregate includes matches played for [[List of World XI ODI cricketers|ICC World XI]].}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/7133.html |title=Ricky Ponting &#124; Cricket Players and Officials |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150826120911/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/7133.html |archive-date=2015-08-26 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[File:Ricky Ponting 2015.jpg|100x130px|alt=Ricky Ponting]]|| {{cr|AUS}} || 1995-2012 || 375 || 365
|39
! 13,704
|164
|| 42.03 || {{sort|80390|80.39}} || {{sort|300|30}} || {{sort|820|82}} || {{dts|format=dmy|2007|3|24}} || {{sort|12037|12 years, 37 days}} || 266
|-
|| '''5'''
|{{sortname|Sanath|Jayasuriya}}{{efn|Jayasuriya's aggregate includes matches played for [[ACC Asia XI cricket team|Asia XI]].}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/49209.html |title=Sanath Jayasuriya &#124; Cricket Players and Officials |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150826010215/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/49209.html |archive-date=2015-08-26 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[File:Sanath jayasuriya portrait.jpg|100x130px|alt=Sanath Jayasuriya]]|| {{cr|SL}} || 1989-2011 || 445 || 433
|18
! 13,430
|189
|| 32.36 || {{sort|91200|91.20}} || {{sort|280|28}} || {{sort|680|68}} || {{dts|format=dmy|2005|8|9}} || {{sort|15226|15 years, 226 days}} || 328
|-
|| '''6'''
|{{sortname|Mahela|Jayawardene}}{{efn|Jayawardene's aggregate includes matches played for [[ACC Asia XI cricket team|Asia XI]].}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/49289.html |title=Mahela Jayawardene &#124; Cricket Players and Officials |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150824211141/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/49289.html |archive-date=2015-08-24 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[File:Mahela Jayawardene 3.JPG|100x130px|alt=Mahela Jayawardene]]|| {{cr|SL}} || 1998-2015 || 448 || 418
|39
! 12,650
|144
|| 33.37 || {{sort|78960|78.96}} || {{sort|190|19}} || {{sort|770|77}} || {{dts|format=dmy|2011|11|18}} || {{sort|13289|13 years, 289 days}} || 333
|-
|| '''7'''
|[[Inzamam-ul-Haq]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/40570.html |title=Inzamam-ul-Haq &#124; Cricket Players and Officials |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150812103503/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/40570.html |archive-date=2015-08-12 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[File:Inzamam-ul-Haq.jpg|100x130px|alt=Inzamam-ul-Haq]]|| {{cr|PAK}} || 1991-2007 || 378 || 350
|53
! 11,739
|137*
|| 39.52 || {{sort|74240|74.24}} || {{sort|100|10}} || {{sort|830|83}} || {{dts|format=dmy|2004|9|19}} || {{sort|12302|12 years, 302 days}} || 299
|-
|| '''8'''
|{{sortname|Jacques|Kallis}}{{efn|Kallis' aggregate includes matches played for [[Africa XI cricket team|Africa XI]] and [[List of World XI ODI cricketers|ICC World XI]].}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/45789.html |title=Jacques Kallis &#124; Cricket Players and Officials |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150822075342/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/45789.html |archive-date=2015-08-22 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[File:JAQUES KALLIS (3175901786).jpg|100x130px|alt=Jacques Kallis]]|| {{cr|RSA}} || 1996-2014 || 328 || 314
|53
! 11,579
|139
|| 44.36 || {{sort|72890|72.89}} || {{sort|170|17}} || {{sort|860|86}} || {{dts|format=dmy|2009|1|23}} || {{sort|13014|13 years, 14 days}} || 272
|-
|| '''9'''
|{{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/player/34102.html |title=Rohit Sharma; Cricket Players and Officials |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=12 September 2023}}</ref> {{dagger}}
|[[File:Rohit Sharma during the India vs Australia 4th Test match at Narendra Modi Stadium.jpg|100x130px|alt=Rohit Sharma]]|| {{cr|IND}} || 2007-2026 || 282 || 274
|37
! 11,577
|264
|| 48.84 || 92.74|| {{sort|320|33}}|| {{sort|601|61}}|| {{dts|format=dmy|2023|9|12}} || {{sort|16081|16 years, 81 days}} || 241
|-
|| '''10'''
|{{sortname|Sourav|Ganguly}}{{efn|Ganguly's aggregate includes matches played for [[ACC Asia XI cricket team|Asia XI]].}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/28779.html |title=Sourav Ganguly &#124; Cricket Players and Officials |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150829050748/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/28779.html |archive-date=2015-08-29 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[File:Sourav Ganguly crop.jpg|100x130px|alt=Sourav Ganguly]]|| {{cr|IND}} || 1992-2007 || 311 || 300
|23
! 11,363
|183
|| 41.02 || {{sort|73700|73.70}} || {{sort|221|22}} || {{sort|720|72}} || {{dts|format=dmy|2005|8|3}} || {{nowrap|{{sort|13204|13 years, 204 days}}}}{{efn|name=ganguly|After making his ODI debut in January 1992, Ganguly was dropped and made a comeback to the side in May 1996.<ref>{{cite web|title=Factbox on Sourav Ganguly|url=http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2005/aug/03fact.htm|work=[[Rediff.com]]|access-date=22 August 2015|date=3 August 2005|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924120803/http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2005/aug/03fact.htm|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Statistics / Statsguru / SC Ganguly / One-Day Internationals|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?class=2;template=results;type=allround;view=match|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=22 August 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410220257/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?class=2%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dallround%3Bview%3Dmatch|archive-date=10 April 2016}}</ref><ref name="Ganguly landmark no consolation">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ioc/content/story/215022.html |title=Ganguly landmark no consolation |first=Nagraj |last=Gollapudi |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |date=3 August 2005 |access-date=24 October 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717202434/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ioc/content/story/215022.html |archive-date=17 July 2012 }}</ref>}} || 263
|-
|| '''11'''
|{{sortname|Rahul|Dravid}}{{efn|Dravid also played for [[ACC Asia XI cricket team|Asia XI]] and [[List of World XI ODI cricketers|ICC World XI]].}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/28114.html |title=Rahul Dravid &#124; Cricket Players and Officials |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111231211258/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/28114.html |archive-date=2011-12-31 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[File:Rahul Dravid at GQ Men Of The Year 2012 AWARD.jpg|100x130px|alt=Rahul Dravid]]|| {{cr|IND}} || 1996-2011 || 344 || 318
|40
! 10,889
|153
|| 39.16 || {{sort|71230|71.23}} || {{sort|120|12}} || {{sort|831|83}} || {{dts|format=dmy|2007|2|14}} || {{sort|10317|10 years, 317 days}} || 287
|-
|| '''12'''
|{{sortname|MS|Dhoni}}{{efn|Dhoni's aggregate includes matches played for [[ACC Asia XI cricket team|Asia XI]].}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/player/28081.html |title=MS Dhoni &#124; Cricket Players and Officials |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=29 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729142010/http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/player/28081.html |archive-date=2018-07-29 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[File:MS Dhoni (Prabhav '23 - RiGI 2023).jpg|100x130px|alt=MS Dhoni]] || {{cr|IND}} || 2004-2019 || 350 || 297
|84
! 10,773
|183*
|| 50.57 || {{sort|87550|87.56}} || {{sort|101|10}}|| {{sort|730|73}}|| {{dts|format=dmy|2018|07|14}} || {{sort|13203|13 years, 203 days}} || 273
|-
|| '''13'''
|{{sortname|Chris|Gayle}}{{efn|Gayle's aggregate includes matches played for [[List of World XI ODI cricketers|ICC World XI]].}}{{efn|At age 39, he was also the oldest player to score 10,000 runs.}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/westindies/content/player/51880.html|title=Chris Gayle {{!}} Cricket Players and Officials|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=27 February 2019}}</ref>
|[[File:ChrisGayle Cropped.jpg|100x130px|alt=Chris Gayle]]|| {{cr|WIN}} || 1999-2019 || 301 || 294
|17
! 10,480
|215
|| 37.83 || {{sort|87190|87.19}} || {{sort|250|25}} || {{sort|540|54}} || {{dts|format=dmy|2019|2|27}} || {{sort|19169|19 years, 169 days}} || 282
|-
|| '''14'''
|{{sortname|Brian|Lara}}{{efn|Lara's aggregate includes matches played for [[List of World XI ODI cricketers|ICC World XI]].}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/52337.html |title=Brian Lara &#124; Cricket Players and Officials |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908095352/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/52337.html |archive-date=2013-09-08 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|[[File:Brian Lara stance swinging 4-19-09.JPG|100x130px|alt=Brian Lara]]|| {{cr|WIN}} || 1990-2007 || 299 || 289
|32
! 10,405
|169
|| 40.48 || {{sort|79510|79.51}} || {{sort|190|19}} || {{sort|630|63}} || {{dts|format=dmy|2006|12|16}} || {{sort|16037|16 years, 37 days}} || 278
|-
|| '''15'''
|{{sortname|Tillakaratne|Dilshan}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/48472.html |title=Tillakaratne Dilshan &#124; Cricket Players and Officials |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810181833/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/48472.html |archive-date=10 August 2015 }}</ref>
|[[File:Tillakaratne Dilshan portrait.jpg|100x130px|alt=Tillakaratne Dilshan]]|| {{cr|SRI}} || 1999-2016 || 330 || 303
|41
! 10,290
|161*
|| 39.27 || {{sort|86230|86.23}} || {{sort|220|22}} || {{sort|470|47}} || {{dts|format=dmy|2015|7|26}} || {{sort|15227|15 years, 227 days}} || 293
|-
|}

==By country==

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center"
|+10,000 or more runs by country in ODIs
! style="width:120px" |Teams !! style="width:75px" |Number of players
|-
!scope="row"|{{cr|India}}
|6
|-
!scope="row"|{{cr|Sri Lanka}}
|4
|-
!scope="row"|{{cr|West Indies}}
|2
|-
!scope="row"|{{cr|Australia}}
|rowspan="3"|1
|-
!scope="row"|{{cr|Pakistan}}
|-
!scope="row"|{{cr|South Africa}}
|-
!Total|| 15
|}

==See also==
* [[List of One Day International cricket records]]
* [[List of players who have scored 10,000 or more runs in Test cricket]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|30em}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150926011924/http://www.wisdenindia.com/cricket-article/elites-10000-run-club-2015-history-hundreds/174298 Elites of the 10,000-run club, and 2015 makes history with hundreds at the 2015 ''Wisden India Almanack'']

{{featured list}}
{{Batsmen who have scored 10000 Runs in ODI Cricket}}
{{Cricket records}}

[[Category:One Day International cricket records]]

Religion of the Indus Valley Civilisation

2026-01-01T12:42:06Z

RodEsters254334: stub

{{Short description|none}}
[[File:Female figurine 3. Mature Harappan period. Indus civilization (detail).jpg|thumb|Female figurine. Mature Harappan period, 2700–2000 BCE. Indus Valley Civilisation. National Museum, New Delhi.]]
[[File:Indus pottery figure of horned deity.jpg|thumb|Indus Civilization pottery figure of [[horned deity]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mackay |first1=Ernest |title=Indus civilisation |date=1935 |page=Plate J |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.22579/page/n229/mode/2up}}</ref>]]

The religion and belief system of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] (IVC) people have received considerable attention, with many writers concerned with identifying precursors to the religious practices and deities of much later [[Indian religions]]. However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the [[Indus script]] remains undeciphered,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hiltebeitel |first=Alf |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40459645 |title= The Indus Valley "Proto-Śiva", Reexamined through Reflections on the Goddess, the Buffalo, and the Symbolism of vāhanas|journal=Anthropos |date=1978 |volume=73 |issue=5/6 |pages=767–797 |jstor=40459645}}</ref>{{sfn|Parpola|2015}} the conclusions are partly speculative and many are largely based on a retrospective view from a much later [[Hindu]] perspective.{{Sfn|Wright|2009|pp=281–282}}

==Indus Valley Civilisation==
{{Main article|Indus Valley Civilisation}}

The Indus Valley Civilisation was a [[Bronze Age India|Bronze Age]] civilisation in the northwestern regions of [[South Asia]], lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE.{{Sfn|Wright|2009|p=1}}{{refn|group=note|Wright: "Mesopotamia and Egypt ... co-existed with the Indus civilization during its fluorescence between 2600 and 1900 BC."{{Sfn|Wright|2009|p=1}}}} Together with [[ancient Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]], it was one of three early civilizations of the [[Near East]] and [[South Asia]], and of the three, the most widespread, its sites spanning an area stretching from today's northeast [[Afghanistan]], through much of what is now [[Pakistan]], and into western and northwestern [[Indian Republic]].{{sfn|Wright|2009}}{{refn|group=note|Wright: "The Indus civilization is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilization in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer-lived, but coexisted with the Indus civilization during its fluorescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today’s northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."{{sfn|Wright|2009}}}} It flourished in the basins of the [[Indus River]], which flows through modern-day republics of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] along a system of perennial, mostly [[monsoon]]-fed, rivers.{{Sfn|Wright|2009|p=1}}{{Sfn|Giosan|Clift|Macklin|Fuller|2012}}

In these other civilizations, large temples were a central key element of cities, and religious imagery abounded. Once the scripts had been deciphered, the names of deities and the characteristics attributed to them became fairly clear. None of this is the case for the IVC.

==Scholarly views on IVC-religion==
Early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harappan sites was that of [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]],{{sfn|Ratnagar|2004}} who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or veneration of animals and plants; a symbolic representation of the phallus and vulva; and, use of baths and water in religious practice. Marshall's interpretations have been much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades.{{sfn|Marshall|1931|pp=48–78}}{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154 141–156]}}{{sfn|Marshall|1931|pp=48–78}}<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Srinivasan|first=Doris|date=1984|title=Unhinging Śiva from the Indus Civilization|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25211627|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|volume=116|issue=1|pages=77–89|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00166134|jstor=25211627|s2cid=162904592 |issn=0035-869X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[Geoffrey Samuel]], writing in 2008, finds all attempts to make "positive assertions" about IVC religions as conjectural and intensely prone to personal biases — at the end of the day, scholars knew nothing about Indus Valley religions.<ref name=":11">{{Citation|title=Introduction|date=2008|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/origins-of-yoga-and-tantra/introduction/AC8EFB094BC7E06B1ABAE4682F80E660|work=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century|pages=1–14|editor-last=Samuel|editor-first=Geoffrey|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511818820.002|isbn=978-0-521-87351-2|access-date=2021-08-09|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

In contrast to contemporary [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] and [[Ancient Near East|Mesopotamian]] civilizations, Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering knowledge.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|p=18}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=85}} This suggests that religious ceremonies, if any, may have been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, or the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purposes, but at present only the [[Great Bath]] at Mohenjo-Daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=141–145}}{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|pp=275–277, 292}} The funerary practices of the Harappan civilization are marked by fractional burial (in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment), and even cremation.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|pp=152, 157–176}}{{sfn|McIntosh|2008|pp=293–299}}

Contemporary scholars (most significantly [[Asko Parpola]]) continue to probe the roles of the IVC in the [[Hindu synthesis|formation of Hinduism]];{{Nbsp|1}}others remain ambivalent about these results.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=24-30, 50}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|1989}}{{refn|group=note|Reviews of Parpola's works have been fairly critical.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jamison|first=Stephanie W.|date=2020|title=Review of The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7817/jameroriesoci.140.1.0241|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=140|issue=1|pages=241–244|jstor=10.7817/jameroriesoci.140.1.0241|issn=0003-0279}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":18" />{{pb}}This notion of IVC-traces, says Hiltebeitel, is deemed as the "substratum theory" by scholars in opposition.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|1989}} Compare linear versus synthetic development in the [[Yoga#Origins|origins of yoga]].}} In reviewing a book by Parpola in 2017, [[Wendy Doniger]] wrote: "I have supported the thesis that there is some form of continuity between the IVC and later Hinduism. I am now more than ever persuaded that IVC culture survived the destruction of its cities and that later Hindu imagery, having entered Hinduism after the Vedic period, may well be derived from the IVC. But I remain skeptical about Parpola's reconstruction of the IVC's religion."<ref>Doniger, Wendy, "[https://inference-review.com/article/another-great-story Another Great Story"], August 2017, review of ''The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization'', by Asko Parpola, DOI: 10.37282/991819.17.40</ref>

==Seals==
The imagery on the great majority of [[Indus seal]]s centers on a single animal; generally, various attempts to attribute religious significance to these have not been widely accepted. But a minority are more complicated and prominently feature figures with a human form, and there has been much discussion of these.

===Pashupati seal===
{{Main article|Pashupati|Pashupati seal}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| perrow=2/2
| direction =horizontal
| header=Pashupati seal
| total_width=400
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Shiva Pashupati.jpg
| caption1 = Seal
| image2 = Pashupati seal impression.jpg
| caption2 = Impression
| footer=The [[Pashupati seal]] discovered during excavation of the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] archaeological site of [[Mohenjo-Daro]]. Circa 2350-2000 BCE.<ref name="jstor.org">{{cite journal |last1=Srinivasan |first1=Doris |title=The So-Called Proto-śiva Seal from Mohenjo-Daro: An Iconological Assessment |journal=Archives of Asian Art |date=1975 |volume=29 |page=50 |jstor=20062578 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20062578 |issn=0066-6637}}</ref><ref name="Indus civilization">{{cite book |last1=Mackay |first1=Ernest |title=Indus civilization |date=1935 |page=Plate I |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.22579/page/n229/mode/2up}}</ref>
}}

Many discussions of religion in IVC center around the most famous of the [[Indus seal]]s; though interpretations of it have varied greatly, almost all do accord it some religious significance. The broken seal given the find number 420 shows a large central figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly [[Phallus|ithyphallic]] as well as [[Polycephaly|tricephalic]],<ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. ''Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization''. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref> seated in a posture reminiscent of the [[Lotus position|Yogic Lotus position]], surrounded by four wild animals – elephant, tiger, buffalo, and rhinoceros.<ref name="Figure 1 1996 p. 29">For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 ''in'': Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref><ref name=":15" /> Marshall concluded the figure to be [[Pashupati]] (Lord of Animals; epithet of the [[Hindu deities|Hindu deity]] Shiva the [[Rudra]]) and it remained a piece of unassailable evidence in favor of IVC influencing Hinduism for a few decades.{{sfn|Sullivan|1964}}<ref>{{cite book| title = Essential Hinduism|author1=Steven Rosen |author2=Graham M. Schweig | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group| year = 2006| page = 45}}</ref> This identification (and terminology) is now rejected by modern scholars – [[Jonathan Mark Kenoyer]] notes that the figure cannot be linked to later icons without deciphering the script: even if they look apparently similar, conveyed meanings might have been radically different.<ref name=":19">{{Cite book|last=Kenoyer|first=Jonathan Mark|title=The Master of Animals in Old World Iconography|publisher=Archaeolingua Alapítvány|year=2010|editor-last=Counts|editor-first=Derek B.|pages=50|chapter=Master of Animals and Animal Masters in the Iconography of the Indus Tradition|editor-last2=Arnold|editor-first2=Bettina}}</ref>

In 1976, [[Doris Meth Srinivasan]] mounted the first substantial critique of Marshall's identification.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Srinivasan|first=Doris|date=1975|title=The So-Called Proto-śiva Seal from Mohenjo-Daro: An Iconological Assessment|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20062578|journal=Archives of Asian Art|volume=29|pages=47–58|jstor=20062578|issn=0066-6637}}</ref> She accepted the figure to be indicative of cultic divinity, that people bowed towards such a posture (on other seals) but rejected the proto-Shiva identification: Pashupati of Vedic Corpus is the protector of domestic animals.<ref name=":15" /> On comparison to facial particulars from horned masks and painted vessels, Srinivasan went on to propose the central figure to be a Buffalo-man, who had a "humanized bucranium" and whose headdress imparted powers of fertility.<ref name=":15" /> [[Gavin Flood]], about two decades later, noted that neither the Lotus position nor the anthropomorphic form of the central figure was deducible to any certainty.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=28–29}} [[Alf Hiltebeitel]] rejects a proto-Shiva identification; he supports Srinivasan's thesis with additional arguments, and hypothesize the Buffalo-man to have formed the [[Mahishasura#Legend|legend of Mahishasura]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hiltebeitel|first=Alf|date=1978|title=The Indus Valley "Proto-Śiva", Reexamined through Reflections on the Goddess, the Buffalo, and the Symbolism of vāhanas|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40459645|journal=Anthropos|volume=73|issue=5/6|pages=767–797|jstor=40459645|issn=0257-9774}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Mahishasura is a Sanskrit word composed of ''Mahisha'' meaning buffalo and ''asura'' meaning demon, thus meaning ''Buffalo Demon''. Mahishasura had gained the boon that no man could kill him. In the battles between the Devas and the demons (asuras), the Devas, led by [[Indra]], were defeated by Mahishasura. Subjected to defeat, the Devas assembled in the mountains where their combined divine energies coalesced into Goddess [[Durga]]. The newborn Durga led a battle against Mahishasura, riding a lion, and killed him. Thereafter, she was named Mahishasuramardini, meaning ''The Killer of Mahishasura''.<ref name="Lochtefeld2002p410">{{cite book|first=James G.|last=Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/n367 410]}}</ref>}} Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too far.<ref name=":18" />

[[File:Yogi seal Mohenjodaro EAMd13.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Triangular prism sealing, depicting a male cult figure seated in a yogic posture on a throne, a bull-like animal, and five characters in the Indus script. From Mohenjo-daro, Mature Harrapean period, c. 2600-1900 BC. Ashmolean Museum.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ashmolean Museum |url=https://collections.ashmolean.org/collection/browse-9148/object/32662 |website=collections.ashmolean.org}}</ref>]]
Some scholars of Yoga – [[Karel Werner]], [[Thomas McEvilley]] et al – have since used it to trace back the roots of Yoga to IVC. However, [[Geoffrey Samuel]], writing in 2008, rejects Marshall's theory as mere anachronistic speculation and goes on to reject that yoga has its roots in IVC, as does Andrea R. Jain (2016) in ''[[Selling Yoga]]''.<ref name=":11" /> Paleontologist-cum-Indologist Alexandra Van Der Geer, in her 2008 survey of Indian mammals in art, comments the figure to remain "unknown" until the script is deciphered.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Geer|first=Alexandra Van Der|title=Animals in Stone : Indian Mammals Sculptured Through Time|publisher=Brill|year=2008|isbn=9789004168190|pages=384|chapter=Rhinoceros Unicornis}}</ref> Samuel as well as [[Wendy Doniger]] had taken a similar stance.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Doniger|first=Wendy|date=2011|title=God's Body, or, The Lingam Made Flesh: Conflicts over the Representation of the Sexual Body of the Hindu God Shiva|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23347187|journal=Social Research|volume=78|issue=2|pages=485–508|jstor=23347187|issn=0037-783X}}</ref> Kenoyer (as well as [[Michael Witzel]]) now consider the image to be an instance of Lord of the Beasts found in Eurasian neolithic mythology or the widespread motif of the [[Master of Animals]] found in ancient [[Near East]]ern and Mediterranean art, and the many other traditions of horned deities.<ref name=":19" />{{sfn|Witzel|2008|pp=68–70, 90}}{{refn|group=note|name=Witzel_Pashupati|Witzel: "It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more eastern areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The oldest text, the Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of northern Syria/Iraq (1450–1350 BCE); ..." (p. 70) "a Vedic connection of the so-called Siva Pasupati found on some Harappa seals (D. Srinivasan 1984) cannot be established; this mythological concept is due, rather, to common Eurasian ideas of the “Lord of the Animals” who is already worshipped by many Neolithic hunting societies."{{sfn|Witzel|2008|pp=90}}}}

===Procession seal===
[[File:Horned deities on an Indus Valley seal with detail.jpg|thumb|350px|Procession seal: horned figure in a [[pipal tree]] with one-horned attendants and bull figure. 2000-1900 BCE. Islamabad Museum.<ref>""An anthropomorphic figure has knelt in front of a fig tree, with hands raised in respectful salutation, prayer or worship. This reverence suggests the divinity of its object, another anthropomorphic figure standing inside the fig tree. In the ancient Near East, the gods and goddesses, as well as their earthly representatives, the divine kings and queens functioning as high priests and priestesses, were distinguished by a horned crown. A similar crown is worn by the two anthropomorphic figures in the fig deity seal. Among various tribal people of India, horned head-dresses are worn by priests on sacrificial occasions." in {{cite book|last1=Conference|first1=Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe International|title=South Asian Archaeology, 1989: Papers from the Tenth International Conference of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe, Musée National Des Arts Asiatiques-Guimet, Paris, France, 3-7 July 1989|date=1992|publisher=Prehistory Press|isbn=9781881094036|page=227|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ye2s6ZZ09S0C|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Image of the seal with horned deity|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/indusvalley/sacrifice/sacrifice.html|website=www.columbia.edu}}</ref><ref name="Metropolitan Museum of Art">{{cite book|title=Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus|date=2003|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=9781588390431|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA403|language=en}}</ref><ref name="archive.org">{{cite book|title=The Indus Script. Text, Concordance And Tables Iravathan Mahadevan|page=139|url=https://archive.org/stream/TheIndusScript.TextConcordanceAndTablesIravathanMahadevan/Corpus%20of%20Indus%20Seals%20and%20Inscriptions.%20Collections%20in%20Pakistan#page/n173/mode/2up|language=en}}</ref>]]

Another seal from Mohenjo-daro (Find no. 420, now Islamabad Museum, 50.295), also called the "sacrifice" seal, of a type with a few examples found, is generally agreed to show a religious ritual of some kind, though readings of the imagery and interpretations of the scene vary considerably.<ref name="WU30">{{cite book |last1=Aruz |first1=Joan |title="Reflections on fantastic beasts in the Harappan world" in Walking with the Unicorn: Social Organization and Material Culture in Ancient South Asia: Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Felicitation Volume |date=13 August 2018 |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-78491-918-4 |pages=30–31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLETEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kenoyer |first1=Jonathan M. |last2=Heuston |first2=Kimberley Burton |title=The Ancient South Asian World |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-522243-2 |page=63 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CjvF88iEE8C&pg=PA63 |language=en}}</ref> It shows signs of wear from heavy usage. At top right, a figure with large horns and bangles on both arms stands in a [[Ficus religiosa|pipal]] tree; it is generally agreed this represents a deity. Another figure kneels on one knee in front of this, also shown as horned and perhaps with plumes in a headdress. This is interpreted as a worshipper, perhaps a priest. Beside this figure there is what may be "a human head with hair tied in a bun", resting on a stool. Behind this a large horned animal, usually agreed to be a ram, perhaps with a human head, completes the top tier of the images.<ref name="WU30"/><ref>Aruz, 403; [https://www.harappa.com/indus/34.html Harappa.com, with good photo]; Possehl (2002), 145-146</ref>

In a lower tier, seven more or less identical figures, shown in a line in right-facing profile (on the seal, so left-facing on impressions), wear plumed headdresses, bangles, and dresses falling to around knee-level. What seems to be their hair is tied in a braid and comes down to waist level. Their gender is unclear, though they are often thought to be female. Groups of seven figures are seen in other pieces,<ref>Aruz, 403; Possehl (2002), 145-146</ref> and a number of IVC seals show a variety of trees, that may have a religious significance, and do so in later Hinduism – [[banyan]], pipal, and [[acacia]].<ref name="WU30"/><ref name=":13" />

===Swastika seals===
[[File:IndusValleySeals swastikas.JPG|thumb|The [[swastika]], which is seen on artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilisation, is an important symbol in [[Indian religions]]]]

{{Main article|Swastika}}

The swastika is a symbol sacred to multiple [[Indian religions]] – [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Kenoyer|first=Jonathan Mark|date=2006–2007|title=Indus Seals: An overview of Iconography and Style|journal=Ancient Sindh: Annual Journal of Research|volume=9|pages=12}}</ref> Since the icon has been located in IVC artifacts, a continuum has been posited by a few scholars but it is a fringe view – Possehl finds such suppositions to be not "sound".<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|last=Robinson|first=Andrew|title=The Indus: Lost Civilizations|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2021|isbn=9781789143850|chapter=Trade}}</ref><ref name=":18" /> [[Jonathan Mark Kenoyer]] notes that these artifacts were utilized by political and religious leaders of the subcontinent to claim ties of Hinduism with IVC.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last=Kenoyer|first=Jonathan Mark|title=The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=9780203641880|editor-last=Bryant|editor-first=Edwin|pages=21|chapter=Culture change during the Late Harappan period at Harappa: new insights on Vedic Aryan issues|editor-last2=Patton|editor-first2=Laurie}}</ref>

IVC Swastikas were primarily engraved in button (and square) seals.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Parpola|first=Asko|title=Indus Seals and Glyptic Studies: An Overview|date=2018|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/seals-and-sealing-in-the-ancient-world/indus-seals-and-glyptic-studies-an-overview/C98636E09557C57E6F2D92A52EC45447|work=Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia|pages=127–143|editor-last=Jamison|editor-first=Gregg|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781108160186.011|isbn=978-1-107-19458-8|access-date=2021-08-09|editor2-last=Ameri|editor2-first=Marta|editor3-last=Scott|editor3-first=Sarah Jarmer|editor4-last=Costello|editor4-first=Sarah Kielt|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Manabu Koiso and other scholars classify the signs as "geometric motifs"{{refn|group=note|Other "geometric motifs" include concentric circles, knots, and stars.}}; these types became extremely predominant at the end of the Mature Harappan Phase and the relative sizing of these seals might have reflected socio-economic, political, and religious hierarchy.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Avari|first=Burjor|title=India: The Ancient Past : A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|isbn=9780415356152|pages=49|chapter=The Harappan Civilisation}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Konasukawa|first1=Ayumu|title=Walking with the Unicorn: Social Organization and Material Culture in Ancient South Asia: Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Felicitation Volume|last2=Koiso|first2=Manabu|publisher=ArchaeoPress|year=2018|isbn=9781784919184|chapter=The Size of Indus Seals and its Significance}}</ref> [[E. C. L. During Caspers]] found the Swastika Seals to have served "mercantile purposes" in certain trade routes; [[Gregory Possehl]] has separately documented relevant trade-circulation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Caspers|first=Elisabeth C.L. During|title=Harappan Trade in the Arabian Gulf in the Third Millennium B.c.|date=1973|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41223270|journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies|volume=3|pages=3–20|jstor=41223270|issn=0308-8421}}</ref> Kenoyer notes the IVC Swastika to be an abstract "decorative motif" that might have reflected contemporary ideology; he also posits a possible usage in trade – the seals either denoted the owners involved in a commercial transaction or were proto-bureaucratic certifications.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Kenower|first=Jonathan Mark|title=Historical Roots in the Making of the 'Aryan'|publisher=National Book Trust|year=2006|editor-last=Thapar|editor-first=Romila|chapter=Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition}}</ref>

Overall, the precise purpose of these seals in the IVC continues to remain inconclusive but it is unlikely that they served any religio-ritualistic purpose.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Also, the swastika had developed in multiple cultures of the world contemporaneous to or even pre-dating the IVC.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10" /> Since the swastika has been recorded in [[Andronovo culture|early Andronovo culture]], the roots of the Hindu swastika might easily lie in the [[Indo-Aryan migrations]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kuz’Mina|first1=E. E.|last2=Mallory|first2=J. P.|date=2007-01-01|chapter=Ceramics|chapter-url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789047420712/Bej.9789004160545.i-763_006.xml|title=The Origin of the Indo-Iranians|language=en|page=73}}</ref>

===Other peculiar seals===
[[File:Kalibangan cylinder seal (impression).jpg|thumb|300px|[[Kalibangan]] cylinder seal, with horned human-tiger, and two nude men fighting over a woman. Indus Valley Civilization.<ref name="WU"/>]]
Most Indus seals depict a single animal, without obvious narrative meaning. Several are more complex, with possible symbolic designs, as well as human or semi-human figures in action.

[[:File:Indus_bull-man_fighting_beast_(negative).jpg|A bull-man or bull-woman]], equipped with hooves, a tail and large horns, can be seen fighting a fantastic horned beast.<ref name="Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology"/><ref name="Pearson Education India"/> [[:File:Man in a tree fleeing a tiger. Mohenjo-daro.jpg|Men can be seen hiding in trees]] from tigers, [[:File:Man fighting lions. Mohenjo-daro.jpg|another]] fighting two tigers at a time in a motif reminiscent of the [[Master of animals]].{{sfn|Possehl|2002|p=146}}<ref name="Popular Prakashan"/>

The [[Kalibangan]] [[cylinder seal]] also depicts a human-tiger (in this case graphically represented by a human with horns to whom the body of a tiger is adjoined), with two nude men fighting over a woman, reminiscent of Mesopotamian [[cylinder seal]]s such as those depicting goddess [[Ishtar]].<ref name="WU">{{cite book |last1=Aruz |first1=Joan |title="Reflections on fantastic beasts in the Harappan world" in Walking with the Unicorn: Social Organization and Material Culture in Ancient South Asia: Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Felicitation Volume |date=13 August 2018 |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-78491-918-4 |pages=28–29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLETEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 |language=en}}</ref>

{{clear}}
<gallery>
File:Licorns emerging from a tree trunk. Mohenjo-daro.jpg|Unicorns emerging from a tree trunk. Mohenjo-daro.
File:Licorn emerging from a star. Mohenjo-daro.jpg|Unicorn emerging from a star-shaped object. Mohenjo-daro.
Indus bull-man fighting beast (negative).jpg |Bull-man or bull-woman fighting a horned beast.<ref name="Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology"/><ref name="Pearson Education India"/>
File:Man in a tree fleeing a tiger. Mohenjo-daro.jpg|Man in a tree seating on a branch, while a tiger looks up at him. Mohenjo-daro.
File:Man fighting lions. Mohenjo-daro.jpg|[[Master of animals|Man holding tigers]]. Mohenjo-daro.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|p=146}}<ref name="Popular Prakashan"/>
File:Mohenjo-daro three-faced seal.jpg|Mohenjo-daro three-faced seal, with [[swastika]] (top) and standing deity in pipal tree (bottom).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mackay |first1=E. J. H. |title=Further excavations at mohenjo-daro-vol.ii |date=1937 |page=Plate LXXXII |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.9954/page/n177/mode/1up}}</ref>
</gallery>

== Sculptures ==
=== Terracotta figurines ===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| perrow=2/2
| direction =horizontal
| header=
| total_width=400
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Picture of original Godess.jpg
| caption1 =
| image2 = Female figurine. Mature Harappan period. Indus civilization (detail).jpg
| caption2 =
| footer=Terracotta figurines excavated from Indus Valley Civilization.<ref name="jstor.org">{{cite journal |last1=Srinivasan |first1=Doris |title=The So-Called Proto-śiva Seal from Mohenjo-Daro: An Iconological Assessment |journal=Archives of Asian Art |date=1975 |volume=29 |page=50 |jstor=20062578 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20062578 |issn=0066-6637}}</ref><ref name="Indus civilization">{{cite book |last1=Mackay |first1=Ernest |title=Indus civilization |date=1935 |page=Plate I |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.22579/page/n229/mode/2up}}</ref>
}}
A common class of terracotta statuettes have been identified as figurines of a "[[mother goddess]]" (and goddess of fertility, by extension) by a spectrum of scholars — [[Ernest J. H. Mackay]], Marshall, [[Walter Fairservis]], [[Bridget Allchin]], Hiltebeitel,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|1989}} [[Jim G. Shaffer]], and Parpola<ref name=":2" /> among others — thus positing links to the [[Shaktism|Shakti tradition]] in Hinduism.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Ratnagar|first=Shereen|date=2016-12-01|title=A critical view of Marshall's Mother Goddess at Mohenjo-Daro|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/2348448916665714|journal=Studies in People's History|language=en|volume=3|issue=2|pages=113–127|doi=10.1177/2348448916665714|s2cid=191808666|issn=2348-4489|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Bhardwaj|first=Deeksha|date=18 October 2018|title=Traces of the Past: The Terracotta Repertoire From the Harappan Civilisation|url=https://www.sahapedia.org/traces-of-the-past-the-terracotta-repertoire-the-harappan-civilisation|website=[[Sahapedia]]}}</ref> Recent scholarship rejects such identification and links; a common function alternatively proposed for the figures is as dolls for young girls.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book|last=Sinopoli|first=Carla M.|title=Worlds of Gender: The Archaeology of Women's Lives Around the Globe|publisher=Rowman Altamira|year=2007|isbn=9780759110847|editor-last=Nelson|editor-first=Sarah M.|pages=79|chapter=Gender and Archaeology in South and Southwest Asia|editor-last2=Lyons|editor-first2=Diane}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Scholars like David Kinsley and Lynn Foulston accept the figurine-identifications, but rejects that there is any conclusive evidence to link them with Shaktism.<ref>Foulston, p. 4.</ref><ref>Kinsley(a), p. 217.</ref> Sree Padma, in an anthropological study of the [[Grāmadevatā]] tradition, finds pre-Hindu roots but declines to explicitly identify it with IVC.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Padma|first=Sree|title=Vicissitudes of the Goddess : Reconstructions of the Gramadevata in India's Religious Traditions|date=17 October 2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199325030}}</ref> Kenower remains ambiguous — the figurines might have been worshipers or deities — and does not mention of any links with Shaktism.<ref name=":13" /> Yuko Yukochi, in her "landmark publication" on Shaktism,<ref>{{Citation|last=Sarkar|first=Bihani|title=Durgā|date=2019-05-29|url=http://oxfordbibliographiesonline.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0219.xml|work=Hinduism|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0219|isbn=978-0-19-539931-8|access-date=2021-08-10|url-access=subscription}}</ref> refuses to discuss IVC influences — the undeciphered script did not allow integrating the archeological with the literary.<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Yuokochi|first=Yuko|title=The Rise of the Warrior-Goddess in Ancient India: A Study of the Myth of Kauśikī-Vindhyavāsinī in the Skanda-Purāṇa|date=2004|publisher=University of Groningen|page=7-8}}</ref>

[[Peter Ucko]] had challenged the very identification as early as 1967 but failed to make any noticeable dent.<ref name=":4" /> In the last three decades, the identification has been increasingly rejected by a newer generation of scholars — Sharri Clark, Ardeleanu-Jansen, Ajay Pratap, P.V. Pathak, and others.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":17" /> In 2007, [[Gregory Possehl]] found the evidence in favor of such an identification to be "not particularly robust".<ref name=":18">{{Citation|last=Possehl|first=Gregory L.|title=The Indus Civilization|date=2007|work=A Handbook of Ancient Religions|pages=418–489|editor-last=Hinnells|editor-first=John R.|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-80484-5}}</ref> [[Shereen Ratnagar]] (2016) rejects the identification, as being based on flimsy evidence.<ref name=":3" /> As does Doniger.<ref name=":2" /> Clark, in what has been described as a ground-breaking work on terracotta figurines of Harappa,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fritz|first=John M.|date=June 2019|title=Review of "The Social Lives of Figurines: Reconstructing the Third-Millennium-BC Terracotta Figurines from Harappa. Sharri R. Clark. Cambridge, MA: Papers of the Peabody Museum 86, 2017, 362 pp. + CD. $85.00, paper. ISBN 9780873652155."|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/702805|journal=Journal of Anthropological Research|volume=75|issue=2|pages=269–270|doi=10.1086/702805|s2cid=191946004|issn=0091-7710|url-access=subscription}}</ref> emphatically rejects that there exists any bases for the Mother Goddess identification or hypothesizing a continuance into Hinduism.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Clark|first=Sharri R.|title=The Social Lives of Figurines: Recontextualizing the Third-Millennium-BC Terracotta Figurines from Harappa|date=20 February 2017|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780873652155|series=Papers of the Peabody Museum: 86}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Harappan Earthenware Mask of Horned and Bearded God in National Museum, Delhi.jpg|Harappan mask of a bearded horned deity, National Museum, Delhi.<ref>{{cite book |title=Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus |date=2003 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-1-58839-043-1 |pages=388–389, see object 274 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA388 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mackay |first1=E. J. H. |title=Further excavations at mohenjo-daro-vol.ii |date=1937 |page=Plate LXXIV |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.9954/page/n161/mode/1up}}</ref>
File:Harappan Earthenware Figurines of Seated and Praying People in National Museum, Delhi.jpg|Harappan seated and praying figurines, National Museum, Delhi.<ref>"Seated male in Namaskar pose" {{cite web |title=National Museum, New Delhi |url=http://www.nationalmuseumindia.gov.in/en/collections/index/6 |website=www.nationalmuseumindia.gov.in}}</ref>
</gallery>

===Priest King===
[[File:Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg|thumb|[[Priest-King (sculpture)|The so-called ''Priest-King'']]]]
{{Main article|Priest-King (sculpture)}}
This, though broken off at the bottom, is agreed to be the best of a handful of small stone sculptures of male figures found at Mohenjo-daro. Mackay, the archaeologist leading the excavations at the site when the piece was found, thought the statuette might represent a "priest".<ref name="auto" /> [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]] agreed and regarded it as possibly a "king-priest", but it appears to have been his successor, Sir [[Mortimer Wheeler]], who was the first to use the designation of ''Priest-King'' in support of his proposition that the urban complexities had to necessarily result from a ruling class.<ref name="auto">Possehl, 115</ref>{{Sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|pp=480–83a}}<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Green|first=Adam S.|date=2021-06-01|title=Killing the Priest-King: Addressing Egalitarianism in the Indus Civilization|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-020-09147-9|journal=Journal of Archaeological Research|language=en|volume=29|issue=2|pages=153–202|doi=10.1007/s10814-020-09147-9|s2cid=224872813|issn=1573-7756|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|The absence of palatial structures meant that typical kings were not a good fit. So, the idea of a military-theocratic state was borrowed from Mesopotamia.}} One of the "seven principal pieces of human sculpture from Mohenjo-daro",<ref>Possehl, 113</ref> Parpola has even hypothesized that it resembles later Indian traditions of priesthood.{{sfn|Parpola|2015}}

The terminology is not preferred in modern scholarship{{refn|group=note|For an example, see [[Hermann Kulke]] and [[Dietmar Rothermund]] referring to the statuette as "'''so-called''' Priest King" in the latest edition of their classic introductory text for undergraduates, ''A History of India''.}} and scholars have increasingly shifted to the view that IVC was a far egalitarian society with some kind of clan rule.{{Sfn|Wright|2009|p=252}}{{Sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|pp=480–83a}}<ref name=":8" /><ref>Possehl, 57; Green; Singh (2008), 176-179; Matthiae and Lamberg-Karlovsky, 377</ref> Modern scholars find the term as well as the hypothesis to be highly speculative, problematic, and "without foundation" — [[Wendy Doniger]] in a scathing review noted that Parpola's "desire and imagination" surpassed available evidence.<ref>Possehl, 115 (quoted); Aruz, 385; Singh (2008), 178</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=McKay|first1=A. C.|last2=Parpola|first2=Asko|date=2017|title=Review of The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, ParpolaAsko|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/90017682|journal=Asian Ethnology|volume=76|issue=2|pages=431–434|jstor=90017682|issn=1882-6865}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Doniger|first=Wendy|date=2017-08-02|title=Another Great Story|url=https://inference-review.com/article/another-great-story|journal=Inference: International Review of Science|language=en|volume=3|issue=2|doi=10.37282/991819.17.40|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|Kenoyer|2014|p=424,b|ps= "The most famous of these stone figures was originally referred to as the “Priest-King” (Fig. 1.25.8) based on similar images from Mesopotamia, but there is no way to confirm this identification without the aid of written texts."}} The statuette is now believed by many to be the result of interactions with the culture to the north, the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]], around the [[Oxus river]].<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Vidale|first=Massimo|title=Treasures from the Oxus: The Art and Civilization of Central Asia|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2017|isbn=9781784537722|pages=56|chapter=Contacts with other regions and the Indus}}</ref>

=== Miscellaneous ===
A broken stone sculpture — after reconstruction of missing limbs — has been proposed to assume a dancer's pose, thus being evocative of [[Nataraja]].<ref name=":14" /> Another broken clay figurine has female breasts and male genitals, bearing some similarities with [[Ardhanarishvara]].<ref name=":14" />

== Architecture ==

=== Buildings ===
[[File:Mohenjodaro Sindh.jpeg|thumb|The [[Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro]], found in 1926. Behind is the later Buddhist [[stupa]], whose base has not been excavated.]]
Kenower notes that certain large structures might have been used as temples but their precise function cannot be determined; Possehl asserts there is a total absence of temples.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":18" /> Hiltebeitel and a few other scholars suggest that the elevated citadel complex might have served sacred functions — Possehl rejected such arguments.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|1989}}<ref name=":18" />

===Great Bath: Water and Cleanliness===
{{Main article|Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro}}

Some scholars, deriving from Marshall, propose the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro to be a forerunner of ritual bathing, central to Hinduism.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=McIntosh|first=Jane|title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives|date=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-907-2|pages=277|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|1989}}{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|1989}} Doniger rejects the hypotheses; to her, the Great Bath is only suggestive of Harappans having a propensity for water/bath.<ref name=":2" /> Possehl finds Marshall's theory of a ritual purpose to be convincing.<ref name=":18" />

Elaborate sewage networks suggest to Hiltebeitel and Parpola an excessive concern with personal cleanliness, which is correlated to the development of caste-pollution theories in Hinduism.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|1989}}<ref name=":2" />

=== Stones ===
==== Yonis ====
[[File:Lingam Mohenjo Daro.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|A hypothetical [[lingam]] from Mohenjo Daro]]
Marshall proposed certain ovular limestone stones to be the symbolic representation of ''[[yoni]]''s, thus drawing links to the cult of phallic worship in Hinduism.<ref name="aparpola19852">{{cite journal|author=Asko Parpola|author-link=Asko Parpola|year=1985|title=The Sky Garment - A study of the Harappan religion and its relation to the Mesopotamian and later Indian religions|journal=Studia Orientalia|publisher=The Finnish Oriental Society|volume=57|pages=101–107}}</ref><ref name=":15" /> Mackay, in his summary reports, rejected Marshall's view: they were architectural stones, probably from a stone pillar.<ref name="aparpola19852"/><ref name=":15" /> Despite this, Marshall's hypothesis went on to propagate in mainstream scholarship notwithstanding multiple critiques.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|1989}} Modern scholars have come to largely reject the hypothesis.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Vidale|first=Massimo|date=2010-04-19|title=Aspects of Palace Life at Mohenjo-Daro|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02666031003737232|journal=South Asian Studies|volume=26|issue=1|pages=59–76|doi=10.1080/02666031003737232|s2cid=191342150|issn=0266-6030|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

[[George F. Dales]] chose to outright reject the hypothesis about sexual aspects in Harappan religion — if such stones served cultic functions, they would be spread over all Harappan sites and Marshall's findings were untenable on an overall review of excavation finds — and Srinivasan as well as [[Asko Parpola]] agreed with his specific rebuttals; yet in light of other evidence, Parpola cautioned against ruling out Marshall's broader hypothesis in totality.<ref name="aparpola19852"/><ref name=":15" /> Later excavations have since vindicated Mackay's assumptions.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":16" /> [[Dilip Kumar Chakrabarti|Dilip Chakrabarti]] continue to support Marshall's identification.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lipner|first=Julius J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yDAlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39|title=Hindu Images and Their Worship with Special Reference to Vaisnavism: A Philosophical-theological Inquiry|publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group|year=2017|isbn=9781351967822|location=London; New York|page=39|language=en|oclc=985345208|author-link=Julius J. Lipner}}</ref>

==== Lingams ====
To a similar effect, Marshall argued certain cone/dome-shaped stone-pieces to be abstract representations of [[lingam]]s, as seen in modern-day Hinduism.<ref name=":15" /> Despite significant critiques, Marshall's view had propagated into scholarship.<ref name=":15" />

[[Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia|H. D. Sankalia]] rejected these identifications, too; he raised the issue of these stones being typically found in streets and drains, which ought not house objects with a sacred connotation.<ref name=":15" /> Srinivasan rejected Marshall's arguments, as well: (a) the more old a linga was, the more realistic (and non-abstract) was its appearance thus contradicting presentation expected from Harappan era, and (b) the sculpts of ancient lingams are found in the Brahminical heartland of India but not in IVC/post-IVC sites.<ref name=":15" />

==Mesopotamian parallels==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| perrow=2/2
| direction =horizontal
| header="Master of Animals" and "Bull-man fighting beast"
| total_width=300
| caption_align = center
| image1 = SumerianBulls.jpg
| caption1 = [[Uruk period]] [[Master of Animals]], from the [[Lyres of Ur|harp found at]] [[Ur]], dated circa 2600 BCE
| image2 = Indus valley civilization "Gilgamesh" seal (2500-1500 BC).jpg
| caption2 = Indus Valley Civilization seal, with man fighting two tigers (2500-1500 BCE).{{sfn|Possehl|2002|p=146}}<ref name="Popular Prakashan">{{cite book |last1=Kosambi |first1=Damodar Dharmanand |title=An Introduction to the Study of Indian History |date=1975 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=9788171540389 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fTvQiXVFB0gC&pg=PR64 |language=en}}</ref>
| image3 = Enkidu leon.jpg
| caption3 = [[Enkidu]], with horns, hooves and tail, fighting a lion. [[Akkadian Empire]] seal, Mesopotamia, circa 2200 BCE.
| image4 = Indus bull-man fighting beast.jpg
| caption4 = Man with horns, hooves and tail, fighting a beast. He has been compared to the Mesopotamian bull-man [[Enkidu]].<ref name="Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology">{{cite book |last1=Littleton |first1=C. Scott |title=Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology |date=2005 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=9780761475651 |page=732 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u27FpnXoyJQC&pg=PA732 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Marshall |first1=John |title=Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927 |date=1996 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=9788120611795 |page=389 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ds_hazstxY4C&pg=PA389 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Pearson Education India">{{cite book |last1=Singh |title=The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=9788131717530 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wsiXwh_tIGkC&pg=PA35 |language=en}}</ref> [[Indus Valley civilization]] seal.
| footer=
}}
{{see also|Indus–Mesopotamia relations}}
Various authors have described parallels between the religious iconography of [[Mesopotamia]] and the depictions on the seals of the Indus Valley civilizations.<ref name="SCL">"Possible influences from other cultures", citing Mesopotamian themes in Indus iconography {{cite book |last1=Littleton |first1=C. Scott |author-link=C. Scott Littleton|title=Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology: Inca-Mercury |date=2005 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-7565-1 |page=732 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u27FpnXoyJQC&pg=PA732 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Gregory Possehl]] notes "Mesopotamian themes in Indus iconography", particularly designs related to the [[Gilgamesh epic]], suggesting that "some aspects of Mesopotamian religion and ideology would have been accepted at face value is a reasonable notion".{{sfn|Possehl|2002|p=146}} Some Indus seals have a "[[Gilgamesh]]" motif of a man fighting two lions, well known in West Asia as the [[Master of Animals]] motif (2500-1500 BCE).{{sfn|Possehl|2002|p=146}}<ref name="Popular Prakashan"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Josh |first1=Jagat Pati |title=Memoirs Of The Archeological Survey Of India No.86; Vol.1 |date=1987 |page=76 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532743/page/n111}}</ref>

Several Indus Valley seals also show a fighting scene between a tiger-like beast and a man with horns, hooves and a tail, who has been compared to the Mesopotamian bull-man [[Enkidu]], also a partner of Gilgamesh, and suggests a transmission of Mesopotamian mythology.<ref name="Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology">{{cite book |last1=Littleton |first1=C. Scott |title=Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology |date=2005 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=9780761475651 |page=732 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u27FpnXoyJQC&pg=PA732 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Marshall |first1=John |title=Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927 |date=1996 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=9788120611795 |page=389 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ds_hazstxY4C&pg=PA389 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Pearson Education India">{{cite book |last1=Singh |title=The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=9788131717530 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wsiXwh_tIGkC&pg=PA35 |language=en}}</ref>

[[:File:Horned deities on an Indus Valley seal with detail.jpg|Other seals of the Indus Valley Civilization]], which appear to depict horned deities in ceremonial scenes, seem to have iconographical parallels in the [[Horned deity|horned deities]], priest and royal figures of Mesopotamia, who used to wear horned crowns.<ref>"An anthropomorphic figure has knelt in front of a fig tree, with hands raised in respectful salutation, prayer or worship. This reverence suggests the divinity of its object, another anthropomorphic figure standing inside the fig tree. In the ancient Near East, the gods and goddesses, as well as their earthly representatives, the divine kings and queens functioning as high priests and priestesses, were distinguished by a horned crown. A similar crown is worn by the two anthropomorphic figures in [[:File:Horned deities on an Indus Valley seal with detail.jpg|the fig deity seal]]. Among various tribal people of India, horned head-dresses are worn by priests on sacrificial occasions." in {{cite book|last1=Conference|first1=Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe International|title=South Asian Archaeology, 1989: Papers from the Tenth International Conference of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe, Musée National Des Arts Asiatiques-Guimet, Paris, France, 3-7 July 1989|date=1992|publisher=Prehistory Press|isbn=9781881094036|page=227|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ye2s6ZZ09S0C|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Metropolitan Museum of Art"/><ref name="archive.org"/>

These shared designs may point to a "common stratum of tradition between Mesopotamia and India".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kosambi |first1=Damodar Dharmanand |title=An Introduction to the Study of Indian History |date=1975 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7154-038-9 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fTvQiXVFB0gC&pg=PR64 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Aruz |first1=Joan |title="Reflections on fantastic beasts in the Harappan world" in Walking with the Unicorn: Social Organization and Material Culture in Ancient South Asia: Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Felicitation Volume |date=13 August 2018 |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-78491-918-4 |pages=26, 31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLETEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Indus Valley Civilisation]]
*[[History of Hinduism]]
*[[History of India]]
*[[History of Pakistan]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|3}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}

*Aruz, Joan (ed), ''Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus'', p. 404 (quoted) and 390 (terracotta), 2003, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC google books], catalogue entry by [[Jonathan Mark Kenoyer|Kenoyer, J.M.]]

* {{cite book |last1=Coningham |first1=Robin |last2=Young |first2=Ruth |date=2015 |title=Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}

*{{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo |url-access=registration |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn= 0-521-43878-0}}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Flood |editor-first=Gavin |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|year=2003 |publisher=Blackwell |location=Malden, Massachusetts |isbn=1-4051-3251-5 }}

* {{cite journal |display-authors=4 |vauthors=Giosan L, Clift PD, Macklin MG, Fuller DQ, Constantinescu S, Durcan JA, Stevens T, ((Duller GAT)), Tabrez AR, Gangal K, Adhikari R, Alizai A, Filip F, VanLaningham S, ((Syvitski JPM)) |title=Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=26 |year=2012 |pages=E1688–E1694 |issn=0027-8424 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1112743109 |pmid=22645375 |pmc=3387054 |bibcode=2012PNAS..109E1688G|doi-access=free }}

* {{cite book |last=Kenoyer |first=Jonathan Mark |chapter=The Indus Civilization |editor1=Colin Renfrew |editor2=Paul Bahn |title=The Cambridge World Prehistory |volume=1 |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107647756}}

* {{cite book |editor-last=Marshall|editor-first=John|editor-link=John Marshall (archaeologist) |year=1931 |title=Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927 |publisher=Arthur Probsthain|location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.722}}

* {{Cite book |last=Parpola |first=Asko | title=The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |date=2015-07-15 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-022693-0 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Possehl|first=Gregory L. |author-link=Gregory Possehl |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154 |year=2002 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-1642-9 }}

* {{Cite journal |last=Ratnagar |first=Shereen |date=April 2004 |title=Archaeology at the Heart of a Political Confrontation The Case of Ayodhya |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=239–259 |doi=10.1086/381044 |jstor=10.1086/381044 |s2cid=149773944 |url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/5696/1/5696.pdf}}

* {{cite journal |last=Sullivan |first=Herbert P. |date=1964 |title=A Re-Examination of the Religion of the Indus Civilization |journal=History of Religions |volume=4 |number=1 |pages=115–125 |doi=10.1086/462498 |jstor=1061875 |s2cid=162278147}}

* {{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|title=History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&q=History+of+Early+India:+From+the+Origins+to+AD+1300 |publisher=University of California Press|year=2004|isbn=0520242254}}

* {{cite book |last=Werness |first=Hope B. |title=Continuum Encyclopedia of Animal Symbolism in World Art |year=2006 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0826419132 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iBSDddO-9PoC&pg=PA270 |page=270}}
* {{cite book |last=Witzel |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Witzel |editor=Gavin Flood |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C&pg=PA68|year=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-99868-7|pages=68–70|chapter=Vedas and Upanisads}}
* {{cite book |last=Wright |first=Rita P. |author-link=Rita P. Wright |title=The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ |access-date=29 September 2013 |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57219-4}}
*{{Cite book|editor-last=Kitagawa|editor-first=Joseph|last =Hiltebeitel|first =Alf|chapter=Hinduism|title=The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture|date=1989|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-87590-8|language=en}}
{{refend}}

{{Indus Valley Civilisation}}

[[Category:History of Hinduism]]
[[Category:Indus Valley Civilisation]]
[[Category:Prehistoric religion|Indus]]

Aniruddh Brahmabhatt

2025-12-31T07:57:05Z

RodEsters254334: quick update

{{short description|Indian poet}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Aniruddh Brahmabhatt
| image = AniruddhBrahmabhattPic.jpg
| caption =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| pseudonym =
| birth_name = Aniruddh Lalji Brahmabhatt
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1937|11|11}}
| birth_place = [[Patan, Gujarat]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1981|7|31|1937|11|11}}
| death_place = [[Ahmedabad]], Gujarat
| occupation = Poet, critic, short story writer
| language = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| nationality = [[India]]n
| education = [[Master of Arts]]
| alma_mater = [[M. S. University]]
| period = Modern [[Gujarati literature]]
| genres =
| subjects =
| movement =
| notableworks = ''Aristotle Nu Kavyashastra'' (1969)
| spouse =
| children =
| relatives =
| awards =
| signature = Aniruddha Brahmbhatt autograph.svg
| years_active =
}}

'''Aniruddh Lalji Brahmabhatt''' was a Gujarati writer from Gujarat, India. He was poet, critic, biographer and short story writer.<ref name="Datta1987"/>

==Life==
He was born on 11 November 1937 at [[Patan, Gujarat]]. His family belonged to [[Detroj]]. He completed his school and college education from [[Vadodara]]. In 1958, he completed BA with Gujarati and Sanskrit from [[M. S. University]].  He passed MA with the same subject in 1960. He started teaching at Arts College of [[Dabhoi]] in 1959 and later joined college in [[Bilimora]]. In 1968, he became Reader in School of Languages, Gujarat University. He was an editor of ''Bhumika'' (later ''Kimapi'') magazine. He died in [[Ahmedabad]] on 31 July 1981 due to [[Leukemia]].<ref name= "agsi">{{cite book|title=અર્વાચીન ગુજરાતી સાહિત્યનો ઈતિહાસ - આધુનિક અને અનુઆધુનિક યુગ (History of Modern Gujarati Literature – Modern and Postmodern Era)|first=Prasad|last=Brahmabhatt |publisher=Parshwa Publication|location=Ahmedabad|year=2010|page=39-42|isbn=978-93-5108-247-7|language=gu}}</ref><ref name="GSP">{{cite web | title=અનિરુદ્ધ બ્રહ્મભટ્ટ્ (Anirudhh Brahmbhatt)| website=[[Gujarati Sahitya Parishad]] | url=http://gujaratisahityaparishad.com/prakashan/sarjako/savishesh/Savishesh-Anirudhh-Brahmbhatt.html | language=gu | accessdate=2 December 2016}}</ref>

He started his creative journey while studying at M.S. University, where he was a student of Suresh Joshi and a contemporary of emerging creative talents such as poet-painter Ghulam Mohammed Sheikh.
Through his writings and mentorship he inspired many modern-day poets and writers, including Yogesh Joshi and Tushar Shukla.

==Works==
He was a modernist Gujarati poet and critic.<ref name= "agsi"/>

His works have been translated into Hindi, English and Russian languages.<ref>{{cite web | title=Anirudhh Brahmbhatt Gujarati Sahitya| website=[[YouTube]] | date=16 July 2018 | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=P9FFGBBQK40 | language=gu | accessdate=7 January 2021}}</ref> ''Anviksha'' (1970) is his work of criticism which includes 24 essays; eight on work and authors and fifteen on books. ''Gujarati Sahityavivechanna Ketlak Payana Sanpratyayo'' is his important article on criticism. ''Bharatiya Sahityashastrama Gun ane Ritini Vicharana'' (1974) is study of literary contribution of historical Indian figures. ''Purvapar'' (1976) is a collection of articles from his column 'Alapjhalap' in Gujarati daily ''Janmabhoomi''. ''Puruandar'' (1970) was his another work of criticism. ''Sannikarsh'' (1982) is his posthumously published work of criticism.

''Aristotle Nu Kavyashastra'' (1969) was the first Gujarati translation of [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. ''Chekhov'' (1978) is short biography of Russian novelist [[Anton Chekhov]] published by Parichay Trust.<ref name= "agsi"/><ref name="Datta1987">{{cite book|author=Amaresh Datta|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: A-Devo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC&pg=PA577|year=1987|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1803-1|pages=577–578}}</ref>

''Kimapi'' (1983) is collection of original and translated poems. ''Ajanyu Station'' (1982) is collection of stories. ''Namroop'' (1981) is collection of short biographies and caricatures of people briefly associated with his life. ''Chal Man Vate Ghat'' (1981-82) is five parts collection of articles published in daily columns. ''Rishivani'' (1982) is collection of his column published in ''Akhandanand'' magazine under his pen name Parth. It is about Indian culture and thought based on [[Upnishad]].<ref name= "agsi"/><ref name="Datta1987"/>

He edited studies on authors such as ''[[Jhaverchand Meghani]]'' (1969), ''[[Kavi Kant|Manishankar Bhatt - Kant]]'' (1971), ''[[Ramanbhai Neelkanth]]'' (1973). He also edited studies on works such as ''[[Kanta (play)|Kanta]]'' (1973) by [[Manilal Nabhubhai]], ''Sudamacharitra'' (1975) and ''Premanandkrit Kunvarbainu Mameru'' (1982) by [[Premanand Bhatt]]. He also edited some works himself and with others such as ''[[Jayanti Dalal]]ni Pratinidhi Vartao'' (1971), ''Natak Vishe Jayanti Dalal'' (1974), ''Patilna Chuntela Kavyo'' (1974), ''Samvad'' (1974), ''Gujarati Vartao'' (1977) and ''Absurd'' (1977).<ref name= "agsi"/><ref name="Datta1987"/>

Audio recordings of some of his work in his voice have been made available at [https://www.ekatrafoundation.org/a/38 the Ekatra Foundation].These recordings underscore the observation by Umashankar Joshi that his voice had a great combination of melody and strength and his orations conveyed thought-stream not just word-stream.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Brahmabhatt, Aniruddh}}
[[Category:Gujarati-language Indian writers]]
[[Category:1937 births]]
[[Category:1981 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Patan district]]
[[Category:Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda alumni]]
[[Category:Gujarati-language poets]]
[[Category:Indian magazine editors]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian biographers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Indian literary critics]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian short story writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Gujarat]]

List of accolades received by Neerja

2025-11-25T06:33:52Z

RodEsters254334: Put up new entry

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:List of accolades received by ''Neerja''}}
{| class="infobox" style="width: 25em; text-align: left; font-size: 90%; vertical-align: middle;"
|+ List of accolades received by ''Neerja''
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:Sonam Kapoor snapped.jpg|267x267px|centre|alt=A picture of Sonam Kapoor during promotions of the film Neerja as she looks at the camera.]] [[Sonam Kapoor]]'s portrayal of the titular character in ''[[Neerja]]'' garnered her several awards.
|-
| colspan=3 |
{| class="collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%;"
! colspan="3" style="background:#d9e8ff; text-align:center;"| Accolades
|- style="background:#d9e8ff; text-align:center; text-align:center;"
|| '''Award'''
| style="background:#cec; text-size:0.9em; width:50px;"| '''Won'''
| style="background:#fcd; text-size:0.9em; width:50px;"| '''Nominated'''
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
;[[Asian Film Awards]]
|{{won|0}}
|{{nom|1}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
;[[Asiavision Awards]]
|{{won|1}}
|{{nom|1}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
;[[Filmfare Awards]]
|{{won|6}}
|{{nom|11}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
;[[Hello! (magazine)|HELLO! Hall of Fame Awards]]
|{{won|1}}
|{{nom|1}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
;[[Indian Film Festival of Melbourne]]
|{{won|1}}
|{{nom|3}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
;[[International Indian Film Academy Awards]]
|{{won|4}}
|{{nom|7}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
;[[Matri Shree Media Award]]
|{{won|1}}
|{{nom|1}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
;[[National Film Awards]]
|{{won|2}}
|{{nom|2}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
;[[Screen Awards]]
|{{won|4}}
|{{nom|5}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
;[[Stardust Awards]]
|{{won|4}}
|{{nom|4}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
;[[Zee Cine Awards]]
|{{won|7}}
|{{nom|9}}
|}
|- style="background:#d9e8ff;"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"|
;Total number of awards and nominations{{efn|Awards in certain categories do not have prior nominations and only winners are announced by the jury. For simplification and to avoid errors, each award in this list has been presumed to have had a prior nomination.}}
|-
|{{won|'''Totals'''}}
|{{won|'''31'''}}
|{{nom|'''45'''}}
|- style="background:#d9e8ff;"
| colspan="3" style="font-size: smaller; text-align:center;" | [[#References|References]]
|}

''[[Neerja]]'' is a 2016 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[biographical]] [[thriller (genre)|thriller]] film directed by [[Ram Madhvani]] and produced by [[Atul Kasbekar]].<ref name="Neerja Cast & Crew">{{cite news|title=Neerja Cast & Crew|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/neerja/|work=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|access-date=24 June 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231044954/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/neerja/|archive-date=31 December 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The film stars [[Sonam Kapoor]] as [[Neerja Bhanot]] and features [[Shekhar Ravjiani]], [[Shabana Azmi]] and [[Yogendra Tiku]] among others in supporting roles.<ref name="Sonam Kapoor: Feel Blessed to Play Neerja Bhanot in Biopic">{{cite news|url=http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/sonam-kapoor-feel-blessed-to-play-neerja-bhanot-in-biopic-1219568|title=Sonam Kapoor: Feel Blessed to Play Neerja Bhanot in Biopic|publisher=[[NDTV]]|date=22 September 2015|access-date=29 May 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160123111637/http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/sonam-kapoor-feel-blessed-to-play-neerja-bhanot-in-biopic-1219568|archive-date=23 January 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/it-was-very-difficult-to-play-neerjas-mother-shabana-azmi/|title=It was very difficult to play Neerja's mother: Shabana Azmi|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]|date=5 February 2016|access-date=13 June 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510012314/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/it-was-very-difficult-to-play-neerjas-mother-shabana-azmi/|archive-date=10 May 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/neerjadirector-ram-madhvani-on-sonam-kapoors-national-award-win-this-is-all-you-1680901|title=Neerja Director Ram Madhvani on Sonam Kapoor's National Award Win: 'This Is All You'|publisher=NDTV|date=13 April 2017|access-date=1 August 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801164709/http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/neerjadirector-ram-madhvani-on-sonam-kapoors-national-award-win-this-is-all-you-1680901|archive-date=1 August 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The film's script and screenplay were penned by [[Saiwyn Quadras]], the dialogue was written by Sanyuktha Chawla Sheikh, and the editing was handled by Monisha R Baldawa.<ref name ="Neerja Cast & Crew" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/neerja-review-a-story-well-worth-telling-this-is-sonam-kapoors-best-performance-to-date-2633848.html|title=Neerja review: A story well worth telling, this is Sonam Kapoor's best performance to date|newspaper=Firstpost|author=Anna MM Vetticad|date=22 February 2016|access-date=24 June 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126135315/http://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/neerja-review-a-story-well-worth-telling-this-is-sonam-kapoors-best-performance-to-date-2633848.html|archive-date=26 January 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Set in Karachi, the plot of ''Neerja'' centres on the [[Libyan]]-backed [[Abu Nidal Organization]]'s hijacking of [[Pan Am Flight 73]] in Karachi, Pakistan, on 5 September 1986. The film is shown from the point of view of the flight's [[Purser#Aircraft|head purser]], Neerja Bhanot, who died saving passengers on the hijacked flight.<ref name="Sonam Kapoor: Feel Blessed to Play Neerja Bhanot in Biopic" />

Made on a budget of [[Indian rupee sign|₹]]200 million (US$3.1 million),<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-neerja-flies-at-box-office-sonam-kapoor-starrer-grows-on-word-of-mouth-rakes-rs-760-crore-on-day-2-2180424|title=Neerja flies at box office|newspaper=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|date=21 February 2016|access-date=9 June 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820200232/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-neerja-flies-at-box-office-sonam-kapoor-starrer-grows-on-word-of-mouth-rakes-rs-760-crore-on-day-2-2180424|archive-date=20 August 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ''Neerja'' was released on 19 February 2016, and grossed {{INRconvert|1.35|b}} worldwide.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/box-office-special-features/box-office-worldwide-collections-of-neerja/|title=Box Office: Worldwide collections of Neerja|work=Bollywood Hungama|date=20 February 2016|access-date=21 February 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312072348/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/box-office-special-features/box-office-worldwide-collections-of-neerja/|archive-date=12 March 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The film won 31 awards from 45 nominations; its direction and performances of the cast members have received the most attention from award groups.

The film won two awards at the [[64th National Film Awards|64th ceremony]] of India's [[National Film Awards]]—[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi|Best Feature Film in Hindi]] and [[National Film Award – Special Mention (feature film)|Special Mention]] for Kapoor.<ref name="64th National Film Awards: Full winners' list" /> At the [[62nd Filmfare Awards]], ''Neerja'' won six awards, including [[Filmfare Critics Award for Best Film|Best Film (Critics)]] and [[Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress|Best Actress (Critics)]];<ref name="Winners of the Filmfare Awards 2017" /> the film was also nominated for [[Filmfare Award for Best Director|Best Director]] and [[Filmfare Award for Best Film|Best Film]].<ref name="62nd Jio Filmfare Awards 2017 Nominations" /> At the 2016 [[Screen Awards]], it received nomination for [[Screen Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]],<ref name="Dear Sonam Kapoor, you deserved to win your first award for Neerja at Star Screen" /> and won four awards, including [[Screen Award for Best Director|Best Director]].<ref name="22nd Star Screen Awards 2016: Full winners list, performance pictures and videos" /> ''Neerja'' won four awards at the [[18th IIFA Awards|18th ceremony]] of the [[International Indian Film Academy Awards]], including [[IIFA Award for Best Film|Best Film]] and [[IIFA Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]];<ref name="IIFA Awards 2017: Shahid-Alia win Best Actor and Actress, Neerja wins Best Film" /> it also garnered three nominations, including [[IIFA Award for Best Director|Best Director]] and [[IIFA Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]].<ref name="18th IIFA Awards 2017: List Of Nominations" /> At the 2017 [[Zee Cine Awards]], the film won awards in seven categories, including [[Zee Cine Award for Best Director|Best Director]] and [[Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Female|Best Supporting Actress]].<ref name="Winners of Zee Cine Awards 2017" />

== Accolades ==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
!scope="col"| Award
!scope="col"| Date of ceremony{{efn|Each date is linked to the article about the awards held that year, wherever possible.}}
!scope="col"| Category
!scope="col"| Recipients
!scope="col"| Result
! scope="col" class="unsortable"| {{Abbr|Ref.|References}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[Asian Film Awards]]
| [[11th Asian Film Awards|21 March 2017]]
| [[Asian Film Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
| [[Shabana Azmi]]
| {{nominated}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-cinema/shabana-azmi-nominated-for-asian-film-awards-for-neerja-biopic/story-J1sKct2g9tx8DiP7GLoq9K.html|title=Shabana Azmi nominated for Asian Film Awards for Neerja biopic|newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=31 March 2017|access-date=29 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729182100/http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-cinema/shabana-azmi-nominated-for-asian-film-awards-for-neerja-biopic/story-J1sKct2g9tx8DiP7GLoq9K.html|archive-date=29 July 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |[[Asiavision Awards]]
| 14 November 2016
| Best Actress
| [[Sonam Kapoor]]
| {{win}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/asiavision-movie-awards-2016-announced-sonam-kapoor-nivin-pauly-radhika-apte-ram-charan-others-704008|title=Asiavision Movie Awards 2016 announced: Sonam Kapoor, Nivin Pauly, Radhika Apte, Ram Charan, others to be honoured|newspaper=International Business Times|date=15 November 2016|access-date=29 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729214313/http://www.ibtimes.co.in/asiavision-movie-awards-2016-announced-sonam-kapoor-nivin-pauly-radhika-apte-ram-charan-others-704008|archive-date=29 July 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="10" scope="row" |[[Filmfare Awards]]
|rowspan="10"|[[62nd Filmfare Awards|14 January 2017]]
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Film|Best Film]]
| ''[[Neerja]]''
| {{nom}}
| rowspan="10" style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Winners of the Filmfare Awards 2017">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.filmfare.com/awards/filmfare-awards-2017/winners|title=Winners of the Filmfare Awards 2017|magazine=[[Filmfare]]|date=15 January 2017|access-date=28 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728134855/http://www.filmfare.com/awards/filmfare-awards-2017/winners|archive-date=28 July 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> <ref name="62nd Jio Filmfare Awards 2017 Nominations">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.filmfare.com/news/nominations-for-the-62nd-jio-filmfare-awards-17987.html|title=62nd Jio Filmfare Awards 2017 Nominations|magazine=Filmfare|date=10 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005152301/https://www.filmfare.com/news/nominations-for-the-62nd-jio-filmfare-awards-17987.html|archive-date=5 October 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Director|Best Director]]
| [[Ram Madhvani]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
| [[Sonam Kapoor]]
| {{nom}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]
|[[Jim Sarbh]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
|[[Shabana Azmi]]
|{{won}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Critics Award for Best Film|Best Film (Critics)]]
|''[[Neerja]]''
|{{won}}
|-
| [[Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress|Best Actress (Critics)]]
|[[Sonam Kapoor]]
| {{won}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]]
|Mitesh Mirchandani
|{{won}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Editing|Best Editing]]
|Monisha Baldawa
|{{won}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Production Design|Best Production Design]]
| Aparna Sud
|{{won}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[Hello! (magazine)|HELLO! Hall of Fame Awards]]
| 11 April 2016
| Critics Choice
|[[Sonam Kapoor]]
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.koimoi.com/bollywood-news/sonam-aishwarya-ranveer-sidharth-sizzle-at-hello-hall-of-fame-awards-2016/|title=Sonam, Aishwarya, Ranveer, Sidharth Sizzle at Hello! Hall of Fame Awards 2016|publisher=Koimoi|date=12 April 2016|access-date=9 June 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613102323/http://www.koimoi.com/bollywood-news/sonam-aishwarya-ranveer-sidharth-sizzle-at-hello-hall-of-fame-awards-2016/|archive-date=13 June 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" | [[Indian Film Festival of Melbourne]]
| rowspan="3"| 21 August 2016
| Best Film
| ''[[Neerja]]''
|{{nominated}}
|rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.iffm.com.au/iffm2016/nominees.html|title=IFFM Awards Nominees|publisher=Indian Film Festival of Melbourne|date=August 2016|access-date=27 July 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801120012/http://www.iffm.com.au/iffm2016/nominees.html|archive-date=1 August 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-sonam-kapoor-awarded-best-actress-at-the-indian-film-festival-melbourn-2244576|title=Sonam Kapoor bags the Best Actress award for 'Neerja' at the Indian Film Festival, Melbourne|newspaper=Daily News and Analysis|date=13 August 2016|access-date=27 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016020923/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-sonam-kapoor-awarded-best-actress-at-the-indian-film-festival-melbourn-2244576|archive-date=16 October 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|-
| Best Director
| [[Ram Madhvani]]
|{{nominated}}
|-
| Best Actress
| [[Sonam Kapoor]]
|{{won}}
|-
! rowspan="7" scope="row" | [[International Indian Film Academy Awards]]
| rowspan="7" |[[18th IIFA Awards|14–15 July 2017]]
|[[IIFA Award for Best Film|Best Film]]
|''[[Neerja]]''
|{{won}}
| rowspan="7" style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="IIFA Awards 2017: Shahid-Alia win Best Actor and Actress, Neerja wins Best Film">{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/iifa-awards-2017-shahid-kapoor-alia-bhatt-neerja-1024577-2017-07-16|title=IIFA Awards 2017: Shahid-Alia win Best Actor and actress, Neerja wins Best Film|newspaper=India Today|date=16 July 2017|access-date=27 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170719180223/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/iifa-awards-2017-shahid-kapoor-alia-bhatt-neerja/1/1003267.html|archive-date=19 July 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> <ref name="18th IIFA Awards 2017: List Of Nominations">{{cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/18th-iifa-awards-2017-list-of-nominations-1723760|title=18th IIFA Awards 2017: List of Nominations|publisher=NDTV|date=12 July 2017|access-date=14 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716052112/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/18th-iifa-awards-2017-list-of-nominations-1723760|archive-date=16 July 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-iifa-2017-karan-johar-s-ae-dil-hai-mushkil-leads-the-winners-list-in-technical-awards-category-2451853|title=IIFA 2017: Karan Johar's 'Ae Dil Hai Mushkil' LEADS the winners list in Technical Awards category!|date=26 May 2017|newspaper=Daily News and Analysis|access-date=14 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728162958/http://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-iifa-2017-karan-johar-s-ae-dil-hai-mushkil-leads-the-winners-list-in-technical-awards-category-2451853|archive-date=28 July 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|-
|[[IIFA Award for Best Director|Best Director]]
|[[Ram Madhvani]]
|{{nominated}}
|-
|[[IIFA Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
|[[Sonam Kapoor]]
|{{nominated}}
|-
|[[IIFA Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Actor in Supporting Role (Female)]]
|[[Shabana Azmi]]
|{{won}}
|-
|[[IIFA Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role|Best Actor in Negative Role]]
|[[Jim Sarbh]]
|{{won}}
|-
|[[IIFA Award for Best Story|Best Story]]
|[[Saiwyn Quadras]]
|{{nominated}}
|-
|Best Production Design
|Aparna Sud, Anna Ipe
|{{Won}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[Matri Shree Media Award]]
| 16 April 2016
| Best Feature Film
| ''[[Neerja]]''
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://echoofarunachal.in/newecho/2016/04/16/41st-matri-shree-media-awards-announced-3-uni-journos-in-list/|title=41st Matri Shree Media awards announced, 3 UNI journos in list|newspaper=Echo of Arunachal|date=16 April 2016|access-date=27 July 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801114247/http://echoofarunachal.in/newecho/2016/04/16/41st-matri-shree-media-awards-announced-3-uni-journos-in-list/|archive-date=1 August 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="2" scope="row" | [[National Film Awards]]
| rowspan="2"| [[64th National Film Awards|7 April 2017]]
| [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi|Best Feature Film in Hindi]]
| ''[[Neerja]]''
| {{won}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="64th National Film Awards: Full winners' list">{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/64th-national-film-awards-live-winners-list-970027-2017-04-07|title=64th National Film Awards: Full winners' list|newspaper=[[India Today]]|date=7 April 2017|access-date=28 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518202721/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/64th-national-film-awards-live-winners-list/1/922784.html|archive-date=18 May 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|-
| [[National Film Award – Special Mention (feature film)|Special Mention]]
| [[Sonam Kapoor]]
| {{won}}
|-
! rowspan="5" scope="row" | [[Screen Awards]]
|rowspan="5"|4 December 2016
|[[Screen Award for Best Director|Best Director]]
|[[Ram Madhvani]]
|{{won}}
|rowspan="5" style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Dear Sonam Kapoor, you deserved to win your first award for Neerja at Star Screen">{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/opinion-entertainment/dear-sonam-kapoor-you-deserved-to-win-your-first-award-for-neerja-at-star-screen-4411478/|title=Dear Sonam Kapoor, you deserved to win your first award for Neerja at Star Screen|work=The Indian Express|date=5 December 2016|access-date=13 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220204822/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/opinion-entertainment/dear-sonam-kapoor-you-deserved-to-win-your-first-award-for-neerja-at-star-screen-4411478/|archive-date=20 December 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> <ref name="22nd Star Screen Awards 2016: Full winners list, performance pictures and videos">{{cite news|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/22nd-star-screen-awards-2016-live-update-pictures-winners-show-706907|title=22nd Star Screen Awards 2016: Full winners list, performance pictures and videos|newspaper=[[International Business Times]]|date=4 December 2016|access-date=27 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801115522/http://www.ibtimes.co.in/22nd-star-screen-awards-2016-live-update-pictures-winners-show-706907|archive-date=1 August 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|-
|[[Screen Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
|[[Sonam Kapoor]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Screen Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
|[[Shabana Azmi]]
|{{won}}
|-
|[[Screen Award for Best Male Debut|Best Male Debut]]
|[[Jim Sarbh]]
|{{won}}
|-
|[[Screen Award for Best Story|Best Story]]
|[[Saiwyn Quadras]]
|{{won}}
|-
! rowspan="4" scope="row" |[[Stardust Awards]]
|rowspan="4"|19 December 2016
|[[Stardust Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
|[[Shabana Azmi]]
|{{won}}
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/sansui-colors-stardust-awards-anushka-sharma-amitabh-bachchan-bag-best-actor-titles-complete-709136|title=Sansui Colors Stardust Awards: Anushka Sharma, Amitabh Bachchan bag Best Actor titles; complete list of winners|newspaper=International Business Times|date=20 December 2016|access-date=27 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801113131/http://www.ibtimes.co.in/sansui-colors-stardust-awards-anushka-sharma-amitabh-bachchan-bag-best-actor-titles-complete-709136|archive-date=1 August 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|-
|Best Actor in a Negative Role
| [[Jim Sarbh]]
|{{won}}
|-
|Editor's Choice Best Filmmaker
|[[Ram Madhvani]]
|{{won}}
|-
|Editor's Choice Best Actress
|[[Sonam Kapoor]]
|{{won}}
|-
! rowspan="9" scope="row" | [[Zee Cine Awards]]
| rowspan="9"| 11 March 2017
| [[Zee Cine Award for Best Film|Best Film]]
| ''[[Neerja]]''
|{{nominated}}
|rowspan="9" style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/nominations-zee-cine-awards-2017/|title=Nominations for Zee Cine Awards 2017|work=Bollywood Hungama|date=2 March 2017|access-date=28 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20170612160354/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/nominations-zee-cine-awards-2017/|archive-date=12 June 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> <ref name="Winners of Zee Cine Awards 2017">{{cite news|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/winners-zee-cine-awards-2017/|title=Winners of Zee Cine Awards 2017|work=Bollywood Hungama|date=11 March 2017|access-date=28 July 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728230230/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/winners-zee-cine-awards-2017/|archive-date=28 July 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|-
| [[Zee Cine Award for Best Director|Best Director]]
| [[Ram Madhvani]]
|{{win}}
|-
| [[Zee Cine Award for Best Actor – Female|Best Actress]]
| [[Sonam Kapoor]]
|{{nominated}}
|-
| [[Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Female|Best Supporting Actress]]
| [[Shabana Azmi]]
|{{win}}
|-
| Best Actor in Negative Role
| [[Jim Sarbh]]
|{{win}}
|-
| [[Zee Cine Award for Best Male Debut|Best Male Debutant]]
| [[Jim Sarbh]]
|{{win}}
|-
| [[Zee Cine Award for Best Screenplay|Best Screenplay]]
| [[Saiwyn Quadras]]
|{{win}}
|-
| [[Zee Cine Award for Best Editing|Best Editing]]
| Monisha Baldawa
|{{win}}
|-
| Best Production Design
| Aparna Sud, Anna Ipe
|{{win}}
|}

== See also ==
* [[List of Bollywood films of 2016]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5286444/awards?ref_=tt_awd Accolades for ''Neerja''] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]

{{featured list}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Neerja}}
[[Category:Lists of accolades by Indian film]]

Rajiv Memani

2025-11-15T09:27:35Z

RodEsters254334: pg

{{Short description|Indian businessman}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rajiv Memani
| image = Rajiv Memani at CII Partnership Summit 2025, Visakhapatnam.jpg
| caption = Rajiv at CII Partnership Summit 2025, Visakhapatnam
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1968|01|28}}
| alma_mater = [[Delhi Public School, R. K. Puram|Delhi Public School (DPS) R K Puram]] (1985) [[Shri Ram College of Commerce]] (SRCC), [[Delhi University]] (1988) [[Chartered accountant|Chartered Accountant]] (1991)
| occupation = [[Chairman]], EY Global Growth Markets Council (GMC); Chairman & Regional Managing Partner of [[Ernst & Young|EY]] India
| employer = EY, India
}}
'''Rajiv Memani''' (born 28 January 1968) is the [[Chairman]], EY Global Growth Markets Council (GMC), Chairman & Regional Managing Partner of EY India, (formerly known as [[Ernst & Young]]).<ref name=HBL1>{{cite web|title=A successful innings at EY|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2004/03/31/stories/2004033101900200.htm|website=The Hindu Business Online}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Rajiv completed his schooling from the [[Delhi Public School, R. K. Puram|Delhi Public School (DPS) R K Puram]] in 1985. He received his [[Bachelor of Commerce]] (Hons) degree from [[Shri Ram College of Commerce]] (SRCC), [[Delhi University]], in 1988 and completed his [[chartered accountancy]] in 1991.<ref>{{cite web|title=India's Hottest Young Executives|url=http://archives.digitaltoday.in/businesstoday/20060326/cover2.html|website=digitaltoday.in}}</ref>

==Career==
Rajiv joined an India member-firm of EY Global<ref name=HBL1 /> in mid-1980s. He worked in the [[tax]] and assurance practices of an EY member firm in India. In 2004, he was appointed [[CEO]] and Regional Managing Partner of EY in India, succeeding his father to the role.<ref name=ET1>{{cite web|title=How Rajiv Memani of EY steered India's leading Big Four|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-12-06/news/44864238_1_ey-india-delhi-university-partners|website=India Times|access-date=20 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505094150/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-12-06/news/44864238_1_ey-india-delhi-university-partners|archive-date=5 May 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 2013, Rajiv was appointed on the Global Executive Board of EY as Chairman of the Global Growth Markets Council (GMC).<ref name="ET1" />

==Community Work==

Rajiv has been a driving force behind EY Foundation, which is active in the areas of education, entrepreneurship for rural women and environment.

==Memberships and achievements==
Rajiv is President of the [[Confederation of Indian Industry]] (CII), India’s premier industry body for 2025-26. In the past, he has been part of the Ministry of Finance Committee, and the [[Ministry of Railways (India)|Ministry of Railways]] Advisory Body. He is President of the Board of Himjyoti School in [[Uttarakhand]].
==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ey.com/GL/en/About-us/Our-global-approach/Our-leaders/Ernst---Young---Global-Executive---Rajiv-Memani--Biography Rajiv Memani corporate biography]

* [https://www.financialexpress.com/business/industry-cii-appoints-itcs-sanjiv-puri-as-president-r-mukundan-as-vice-president-rajiv-memani-as-president-designate-3493349/ CII appoints ITC's Sanjiv Puri as President, R Mukundan as Vice President, Rajiv Memani as President-designate]

* [https://www.businesstoday.in/wef-2024/video/davosbrainstorm2024-conversation-with-rajiv-memani-chairman-india-region-emc-ey-413797-2024-01-17 DavosBrainstorm2024: Conversation with Rajiv Memani, Chairman, India Region & EMC, EY.]

* [https://www.business-standard.com/companies/interviews/new-govt-should-see-how-to-boost-pvt-sector-capital-ey-india-chairperson-124051701204_1.html New govt should see how to boost private sector capital: EY India chairperson.]

* [https://currentaffairs.adda247.com/sanjiv-puri-elected-cii-president-for-2024-25-a-leadership-transition/ Sanjiv Puri elected CII President for 2024-25: A leadership transition.]

* [https://www.businesstoday.in/magazine/columns/story/can-large-scale-private-sector-deployment-of-ai-change-indias-corporates-for-the-better-426124-2024-04-19 Can large-scale private sector deployment of AI change India's corporates for the better?]

* [https://www.business-standard.com/opinion/columns/budget-reinforces-the-vision-of-a-confident-consistent-and-credible-india-124020101789_1.html Budget reinforces the vision of a confident, consistent, and credible India.]

* [https://www.business-standard.com/opinion/columns/budget-reinforces-the-vision-of-a-confident-consistent-and-credible-india-124020101789_1.html These are not so taxing times.]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Memani, Rajiv}}
[[Category:1968 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Ernst & Young people]]
[[Category:Indian accountants]]
[[Category:Delhi University alumni]]
[[Category:Shri Ram College of Commerce alumni]]

Polycarpus Geevarghese

2025-06-23T15:35:04Z

RodEsters254334: new

{{Infobox Christian leader
| type = Bishop of Arch Diocese
| name = Mor Polycarpose Geevarghese Metropolitan
| title = Metropolitan of [[E.A.E Arch Diocese]] and Honnavar Mission
| image =
| image_size = 280px
| alt =
| caption = Mor Polycarpus Geevarghese Metropolitan
| church = [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church]]
| archdiocese =
| diocese = [[E.A.E Arch Diocese]] and Honnavar Mission
| death_date = 6 March 2011
| see = [[Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch]]
| birth_date = 5 April 1933
| education = BA (Hons), Mangalore University , Theological Studies, Malecruz Dayro, Puthencruz, Kerala
| term = 1957—2011
| buried = St. Anthony's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral, [[Mangalore]], [[Karnataka]]
| predecessor = [[Mor Athanasius Paulose II Metropolitan]]
| ordination = 1956, (Kooroyo) by Mor [[Mor Yulios Elias Qoro]]
| consecration = 27 May 1990
| consecrated_by = Patriarch [[Ignatius Zakka I]]
| rank = Senior Metropolitan of [[E.A.E Arch Diocese]] & Honnavar Mission
| birth_place =
| residence = Nadayil House, Chennithala, Mavelikkara, Pathanamthitta Dt, Kerala
| successor = [[Mor Chrysostomos Markose]] [[Anthonios Yaqu'b]]
}}

'''Mor Polycarpus Geevarghese '''(1933{{ndash}}2011)<ref>{{cite web |last=Baby |first=Basil |title=HG Mor Polycarpose Geevarghese Passed away |url=http://www.miyasingapore.com/apps/blog/show/6339084-hg-mor-polycarpose-geevarghese-passed-away- |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627011510/http://www.miyasingapore.com/apps/blog/show/6339084-hg-mor-polycarpose-geevarghese-passed-away- |archive-date=2015-06-27 |accessdate=2016-02-10 |website=Mor Ignatius Youth Association Singapore}}</ref> was the [[Metropolitan bishop|Metropolitan]] of [[Evangelistic Association Of The East]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.eaepbr.org/ |title=The Evangelistic Association of the East |access-date=2019-03-05 |archive-date=2018-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006090533/http://eaepbr.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and Honnavar Mission<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.honavarmission.org/ |title=Honnavar Mission |access-date=2016-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218064424/http://www.honavarmission.org/ |archive-date=2015-02-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref> of [[Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bsmcathedral.org/pages/MOR%20POLYCARPUS%20GEEVARGHESE.htm |title=Mor Polycarpus Geevarghese |access-date=2016-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015143028/http://bsmcathedral.org/pages/MOR%20POLYCARPUS%20GEEVARGHESE.htm |archive-date=2012-10-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Early life==
Mor Polycarpus was born on April 5, 1933, to Mr. Mathew Philipose and Mrs. Eliyamma of Nadayil Mulanilkkunnathil Famil, Chennithala, [[Pathanamthitta]] District, Kerala. St. George Jacobite Syrian Church, [[Chennithala]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chennithalahoreb.com/site/|title=St.George Horeb Jacobite Syrian Church Chennithala|website=www.chennithalahoreb.com|access-date=2016-02-10|archive-date=2014-12-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141203095557/http://www.chennithalahoreb.com/site/|url-status=dead}}</ref> was his home parish. He attended Eramathoor Ilavumood Primary School and NSS High School in Mannar. He completed SSLC in 1950, but decided to devote his life to the church rather than going on to study civil engineering.

==Ordination==
He was ordained as a [[Korooyo]], or deacon, in the year 1956, then as Kassisso in 1957 at Manjanikkara Dayaro. He began his service in the Kozhichal and Kottamala parishes in Kasarkod district, also serving as vicar at [[St. Mary's Church Meenangadi]] in Kerala, St Marys Church Athyadi in Karnataka and various other churches in region <ref>{{cite web |title=EAE St. Mary's Sonooro Church Meenangadi |url=http://www.stmaryssoonorochurch.com/ |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201232811/http://www.stmaryssoonorochurch.com/ |archivedate=2016-02-01 |accessdate=2016-02-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.malankarasyriacvoice.com/2011/March2011Archives.htm |title=‘Tesmesto’ - the inaugural album from ‘Melthodhaye Musical’ has been released and is available for purchase. |access-date=2016-02-10 |archive-date=2015-12-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225072453/http://www.malankarasyriacvoice.com/2011/March2011Archives.htm |url-status=usurped }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://jacobitemedia.com/news/st-antonys-jacobite-syrian-cathedral-jeppu-mangalore-celebrated-the-eight-days-lent/|title=St. Antony's Jacobite Syrian cathedral, Jeppu, Mangalore celebrated the eight day's lent.Jacobite Media Cell - Jacobite Media Cell|website=jacobitemedia.com}}</ref>

==Metropolitan==
On May 27, 1990, George Cor Episcopo was ordained as the Metropolitan of EAE and conferred the name Mor Polycarpus Geevarghese by Mor [[Ignatius Zakka I]] Iwas. The additional charge of Honnavar Mission was also given to Mor Polycarpus. Established various charity and social services and visited the South Canara Region (including [[Mangalore]]). Thereafter new priests were ordained and regular Sunday services were started in almost all the churches under the EAE and Honnavar Mission.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Jacobite Syrian Christian Metropolitans}}

[[Category:Jacobite Syrian Christian Church bishops]]
[[Category:1933 births]]
[[Category:2011 deaths]]
[[Category:21st-century Oriental Orthodox archbishops]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian bishops]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian bishops]]
[[Category:20th-century Oriental Orthodox archbishops]]

Sakrigali

2025-06-06T03:33:15Z

RodEsters254334: general refine references after review and added references per standard format

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Sakrigali
| other_name = Sakrigali Ghat
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Jharkhand#India
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Jharkhand, India
| coordinates = {{coord|25.247278|N|87.715346|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Jharkhand]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Sahibganj district|Sahibganj]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 1119
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages (*For language details see [[Sahibganj (community development block)#Language and religion]])
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Urdu language|Urdu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code =
| area_code_type = Telephone/ STD code
| area_code = 06436
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Rajmahal (Lok Sabha constituency)|Rajmahal]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Rajmahal (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Rajmahal]]
| website = {{URL|sahibganj.nic.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Sakrigali''' (also known as Sakrigali Ghat/ Sakribazar/ Sakri) is a village in the [[Sahibganj (community development block)|Sahibganj]] [[Community development blocks in India|CD block]] in the [[Sahibganj subdivision]] of the [[Sahibganj district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Jharkhand]].

==Geography==
{{OSM Location map
| width=400| height=460| zoom=9
| coord={{coord|24|51|0|N|87|33|0|E}}| float=left|caption='''Cities, towns and locations in the Sahibganj, Godda and Pakur districts in Santhal Pargana Division''' M: municipality, CT: census town, R: rural/ urban centre, H: historical/ religious/ tourist centre Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly
|mark-coord1={{coord|25|5|15|N|87|28|20|E}} | label-pos1=top|label1= Bara Boarijore | numbered1=R| mark-title1=[[Bara Boarijore]] (R)|label-color1=#800000 |label-size1=11| mark-size1=12|shape1=l-circle|shape-color1= #C40000|shape-outline1=white|label-offset-x1=2
|mark-coord2={{coord|24|40|41|N|87|10|19|E}} | label-pos2=right|label2= Poraiyahat| numbered2=R| mark-title2=[[Poraiyahat]] (R)
|mark-coord3={{coord|24|59|41|N|87|12|7|E}} | label-pos3=left|label3= Basantrai| numbered3=R| mark-title3=[[Basantrai, Godda]] (R)
|mark-coord4={{coord|25|9|2|N|87|19|20|E}} | label-pos4=left|label4= Belbadda| numbered4=R| mark-title4=[[Belbadda]] (R)
|mark-coord5={{coord|25|12|52|N|87|23|28|E}} | label-pos5=left|label5= Dhamri| numbered5=R| mark-title5=[[Dhamri]] (R)
|mark-coord6={{coord|25|5|50|N|87|14|0|E}} | label-pos6=left|label6= Hanwara| numbered6=R| mark-title6=[[Hanwara]] (R)
|mark-coord7={{coord|25|3|45|N|87|22|0|E}} | label-pos7=top|label7= Lalmatia| numbered7=R| mark-title7=[[Lalmatia, Godda]] (R)
|mark-coord8={{coord|25|11|40|N|87|22|17|E}} | label-pos8=left|label8= Mehrma| numbered8=R| mark-title8=[[Mehrma]] (R)
|mark-coord9={{coord|24|49|46|N|87|7|50|E}} | label-pos9=left|label9= Motia| numbered9=R| mark-title9=[[Motia]] (R)
|mark-coord10={{coord|25|4|30|N|87|14|20|E}} | label-pos10=right|label10= Parsa| numbered10=R| mark-title10=[[Parsa, Godda]] (R)
|mark-coord11={{coord|24|56|44|N|87|16|37|E}} | label-pos11=left|label11= Pathargama| numbered11=R| mark-title11=[[Pathargama, Godda]] (R)
|mark-coord12={{coord|24|55|10|N|87|20|50|E}} | label-pos12=left|label12= Rajabhita| numbered12=R| mark-title12=[[Rajabhita]] (R)
|mark-coord13={{coord|24|45|18|N|87|21|43|E}} | label-pos13=left|label13= Sunderpahari| numbered13=R| mark-title13=[[Sunderpahari, Godda]] (R)
|mark-coord14={{coord|24|44|48|N|87|49|34|E}} | label-pos14=left|label14= Kotalpokhar| numbered14=R| mark-title14=[[Kotalpokhar]] (R)
|mark-coord15={{coord|25|8|37|N|87|29|55|E}} | label-pos15=top|label15= Mandro|labela15=Damin Bazar| numbered15=R| mark-title15=[[Mandro Damin Bazar]] (R)
|mark-coord16={{coord|25|14|40|N|87|29|48|E}} | label-pos16=left|label16= Mirzachauki| numbered16=R| mark-title16=[[Mirzachauki]] (R)
|mark-coord17={{coord|24|50|0|N|87|45|41|E}} | label-pos17=right|label17= Pathna| numbered17=R| mark-title17=[[Pathna, Sahibganj]] (R)
|mark-coord18={{coord|24|52|46|N|87|52|45|E}} | label-pos18=right|label18= Radhanagar| numbered18=R| mark-title18=[[Radhanagar, Sahibganj]] (R)
|mark-coord19={{coord|24|50|50|N|87|41|16|E}} | label-pos19=bottom|label19= Ranga| numbered19=R| mark-title19=[[Ranga, Sahibganj]] (R)
|mark-coord20={{coord|25|6|13|N|87|43|59|E}} | label-pos20=left|label20= Taljhari| numbered20=R| mark-title20=[[Taljhari, Sahibganj]] (R)
|mark-coord21={{coord|24|57|30|N|87|51|22|E}} | label-pos21=top|label21= Udhwa| numbered21=R| mark-title21=[[Udhwa]] (R)
|mark-coord22={{coord|24|32|0|N|87|34|18|E}} | label-pos22=right|label22= Amrapara| numbered22=R| mark-title22=[[Amrapara]] (R)
|mark-coord23={{coord|24|42|45|N|87|42|17|E}} | label-pos23=right|label23= Hiranpur| numbered23=R| mark-title23=[[Hiranpur]] (R)
|mark-coord24={{coord|24|41|41|N|87|37|1|E}} | label-pos24=left|label24= Litipara| numbered24=R| mark-title24=[[Litipara]] (R)
|mark-coord25={{coord|24|29|40|N|87|45|42|E}} | label-pos25=left|label25= Maheshpur| numbered25=R| mark-title25=[[Maheshpur, Pakur]] (R)
|mark-coord26={{coord|24|20|15|N|87|38|50|E}} | label-pos26= right|label26= Pakuria| numbered26=R| mark-title26= [[Pakuria]] (R)
|mark-coord27={{coord|24|32|14|N|87|30|17|E}} | label-pos27=top|label27= Panchuara| numbered27=R| mark-title27=[[Panchuara]] (R)
|mark-coord28={{coord|24|50|10|N|87|13|12|E}} | label-pos28=top|label28=Godda| numbered28=M| mark-title28= [[Godda]] (M) |label-size28=12 |label-color28=#800000
|mark-coord29={{coord|25|3|0|N|87|50|24|E}} | label-pos29=bottom|label29=Rajmahal| numbered29=M| mark-title29= [[Rajmahal]] (M) |label-size29=12 |label-color29=#800000
|mark-coord30={{coord|25|15|0|N|87|39|0|E}} | label-pos30=bottom|label30=Sahebganj| numbered30=M| mark-title30= [[Sahebganj]] (M) |label-size30=12 |label-color30=#800000
|mark-coord31={{coord|24|37|30|N|87|51|0|E}} | label-pos31=bottom|label31=Pakur| numbered31=M| mark-title31= [[Pakur]] (M) |label-size31=12 |label-color31=#800000
|mark-coord32={{coord|24|52|26|N|87|35|33|E}} | label-pos32=bottom|label32= Bhognadih| numbered32=H| mark-title32=[[Bhognadih]] (H) | shape-color32=#AA6666
|mark-coord33={{coord|25|15|39|N|87|32|18|E}} | label-pos33=top|label33= Teliagarhi| numbered33=H| mark-title33=[[Teliagarhi]] (H) | shape-color33=#AA6666
|mark-coord34={{coord|25|11|25|N|87|43|34|E}} | label-pos34=right|label34= Moti Jharna| numbered34=H| mark-title34=[[Moti Jharna]] (H) | shape-color34=#AA6666
|mark-coord35={{coord|25|14|50|N|87|42|55|E}} | label-pos35=right|label35= Sakrigali| numbered35=H| mark-title35=Sakrigali (H) |shape-color35=black| label-size35=13|label-color35=black 
|mark-coord36={{coord|25|3|10|N|87|20|20|E}} | label-pos36=left|label36=Rajmahal coalfield |numbered36=0 | mark-title36=[[Rajmahal coalfield]] (A)| label-size36=12| shape-color36=#AA6666
|mark-coord37={{coord|25|1|10|N|87|18|50|E}}| label-pos37=bottom|label37=Mahagama| numbered37=CT| mark-title37= [[Mahagama]] (CT) |shape-color3= #A40000
|mark-coord38={{coord|24|48|21|N|87|19|27|E}}| label-pos38=left|label38=Sarauni| numbered38=CT| mark-title38= [[Sarauni]] (CT) |shape-color38= #A40000
|mark-coord39={{coord|24|51|10|N|87|46|37|E}}| label-pos39=top|label39=Barharwa| numbered39=CT| mark-title39= [[Barharwa]] (CT) |shape-color39= #A40000
|mark-coord40={{coord|24|54|30|N|87|37|20|E}}| label-pos40=right|label40=Berhait Bazar| numbered40=CT| mark-title40= [[Berhait Bazar]] (CT) |shape-color40= #A40000
|mark-coord41={{coord|24|54|50|N|87|35|40|E}}| label-pos41=top|label41=Berhait Santali| numbered41=CT| mark-title41= [[Berhait Santali]] (CT) |shape-color41= #A40000
|mark-coord42={{coord|25|2|5|N|87|35|55|E}}| label-pos42=top|label42=Borio| numbered42=CT| mark-title42= [[Borio, Sahibganj]] (CT) |shape-color42= #A40000
|mark-coord43={{coord|24|57|20|N|87|49|20|E}}| label-pos43=left|label43=Patra| numbered43=CT| mark-title43= [[Patra, Sahibganj]] (CT) |shape-color43= #A40000
|mark-coord44={{coord|25|0|0|N|87|44|26|E}}| label-pos44=left|label44=Tin Pahar| numbered44=CT| mark-title44= [[Tin Pahar]] (CT) |shape-color44= #A40000
|mark-coord45={{coord|24|55|45|N|87|50|32|E}}| label-pos45=left|label45=Kumarpur| numbered45=CT| mark-title45= [[Kumarpur]] (CT) |shape-color45= #A40000
|mark-coord46={{coord|24|38|40|N|87|53|15|E}}| label-pos46=left|label46=Raghunandanpur| numbered46=CT| mark-title46= [[Raghunandanpur]] (CT) |shape-color46= #A40000
|mark-coord47={{coord|24|40|13|N|87|51|5|E}}| label-pos47=left|label47=Sagarmpur| numbered47=CT| mark-title47= [[Sagarmpur]] (CT) |shape-color47= #A40000
|mark-coord48={{coord|25|15|30|N|87|43|0|E}} |label48= Ganges| label-color48 = #77A1CB| label-angle48=0| label-pos48=top| label-size48=10| mark-size48=0| mark-title48 =none
|mark-coord49={{coord|24|38|38|N|87|18|29|E}} | label-pos49=left|label49= Dewdanr| numbered49=R| mark-title49=[[Dewdanr]] (R)
|arc-coordA={{coord|24|20|0|N|87|25|0|E}}|arc-textA= RAJMAHAL HILLS| arc-text-colorA=hard grey| arc-angleA=-101| arc-gapA=2.7| arc-radiusA=1.15
|arc-coordB={{coord|25|18|0|N|87|15|0|E}}|arc-textB= BIHAR| arc-text-colorB=hard grey| arc-angleB=-40| arc-gapB=7.5| arc-radiusB=0.35
|arc-coordC={{coord|25|20|50|N|87|53|40|E}}|arc-textC= WEST BENGAL| arc-text-colorC=hard grey| arc-angleC=40| arc-gapC=5.0| arc-radiusC=0.4}}

===Location===
Sakrigali is located at {{coord|25.247278|N|87.715346|E|display=inline}}.

Sakribazar has an area of {{convert|10|ha}}.<ref name=census2011>{{cite web| url = https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2007_PART_B_DCHB_SAHIBGANJ.pdf|title = District Census Handbook, Sahibganj, Series 21, Part XII B| work= Page 25: District Primary Census Abstract, 2011 census |publisher= Directorate of Census Operations Jharkhand | accessdate = 25 November 2020}}</ref>

===Overview===
The map shows a hilly area with the [[Rajmahal hills]] running from the bank of the [[Ganges]] in the extreme north to the south, beyond the area covered by the map into Dumka district. ‘Farakka’ is marked on the map and that is where [[Farakka Barrage]] is, just inside West Bengal. [[Rajmahal coalfield]] is shown in the map. The entire area is overwhelmingly rural with only small pockets of urbanisation.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3120/page/n1/mode/2up |title = Bihar District Gazetteers: Santhal Parganas| first= P.C.|last=Roychoudhury | work= Chapter I: General |publisher= Secretariat Press, Patna, 1965 | accessdate = 5 December 2020}}</ref>

Note: The full screen map is interesting. All places marked on the map are linked and you can easily move on to another page of your choice. Enlarge the map to see what else is there – one gets railway links, many more road links and so on.

==Demographics==
According to the [[2011 Census of India]], Sakribazar had a total population of 1,199, of which 644 (54%) were males and 555 (46%) were females. Population in the age range 0-6 years was 297. The total number of literate persons in Sakribazar was 601 (66.63% of the population over 6 years). <ref name=census2011/>

==Transport==
[[Sakrigali railway station]] is situated on the [[Sahibganj loop]]. <ref>{{cite web | url = https://indiarailinfo.com/train/-train-barharwa-sahibganj-passenger-53411/14256/1381/1382 | title = Barharwa-Sahibganj Passenger| publisher = IndiaRailInfo | accessdate = 26 November 2020}}</ref>

Before the [[Farakka Barrage]] across the Ganges was constructed, people going to the [[Darjeeling]] Hills or [[North Bengal]] from [[Kolkata]], used to travel by broad gauge train to Sakrigali Ghat and then cross the Ganges by steamer. On the other side of the river at [[Manihari#Manihari Ghat|Manihari Ghat]], they used to take a metre gauge train to [[Siliguri]]. Once Farakka Barrage became operational in 1975 (the barrage has a broad gauge rail line on it), this route became redundant.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.irfca.org/members/archive/messages.php?index=146 | title = IRFCA Miling list archive | work= Siliguri/ MG Coupling etc| publisher = IRFCA | accessdate = 26 November 2020}}</ref>

Sahibganj Multimodal Port, with a capacity to handle 2.24 million tonnes of cargo annually, is located at Sakrigali.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ranchi/august-date-likely-for-sahebganj-river-port-launch/articleshow/70235008.cms | title = August date likely for Sahebganj river port | work = The Times of India | accessdate = 26 November 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Commonscat-inline|Sakrigali}}
{{external media
| float=right
| video1=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j3hT3iQ_w90 Sahibganj multimodal terminal (with commentary in Hindi)]
}}

{{Santhal Parganas Division}}

[[Category:Villages in Sahibganj district]]

List of leaders of the house in the Punjab Legislative Assembly

2025-05-26T18:43:48Z

RodEsters254334: updated details

#REDIRECT [[Chief Minister of Punjab, India]]

2004–05 Duleep Trophy

2025-01-10T21:53:59Z

RodEsters254334:

{{Short description|Cricket tournament in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox cricket tournament
| name = 2004–05 Duleep Trophy
| image =
| imagesize =
| fromdate = 15 February 2005
| todate = 10 March 2005
| caption =
| administrator = [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]]
| cricket format = [[First-class cricket]]
| tournament format = [[Round-robin tournament|Round-robin]] and [[Knockout tournament|knockout]]
| host =
| champions = [[Central Zone cricket team|Central Zone]]
| count = 5
| participants = 6
| matches = 7
| attendance =
| most runs = [[Yuvraj Singh]] (NZ) (291)<ref>{{cite web|title=Batting and Fielding in Duleep Trophy 2004/05 (Ordered by Runs) |url-access=subscription |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/4/Duleep_Trophy_2004-05/Batting_by_Runs.html|publisher=CricketArchive|access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref>
| most wickets = [[Jai Prakash Yadav (cricketer)|Jai Prakash Yadav]] (CZ) (20)<ref>{{cite web|title=Bowling in Duleep Trophy 2004/05 (Ordered by Wickets) |url-access=subscription |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/4/Duleep_Trophy_2004-05/Bowling_by_Wickets.html|publisher=CricketArchive|access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref>
| website =
| previous_year = 2003–04
| previous_tournament = 2003–04 Duleep Trophy
| next_year = 2005–06
| next_tournament = 2005–06 Duleep Trophy
}}

The '''2004–05 Duleep Trophy''' was the 44th season of the [[Duleep Trophy]], a [[first-class cricket|first-class]] cricket tournament contested by five zonal teams of India: [[Central Zone cricket team|Central Zone]], [[East Zone cricket team|East Zone]], [[North Zone cricket team|North Zone]], [[South Zone cricket team|South Zone]] and [[West Zone cricket team|West Zone]]. In addition to these five teams, a guest team ([[Bangladesh Cricket Board]] XI) also featured in the tournament.

Central Zone won the title, defeating North Zone in the final.

==Results==
===Group stage===
;Group A points table
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center; width:75%"
|-
! Team !! Matches !! Won !! Lost !! Drawn (WF) !! Drawn (LF) !! No result !! Points !! Quotient
|--bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| [[North Zone cricket team|North Zone]] || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''8''' || 1.675
|-
| [[West Zone cricket team|West Zone]] || 2 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''4''' || 1.000
|-
| {{nobr|[[South Zone cricket team|South Zone]]}} || 2 || 0 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''0''' || 0.597
|-
|}

;Group B points table
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center; width:75%"
|-
! Team !! Matches !! Won !! Lost !! Drawn (WF) !! Drawn (LF) !! No result !! Points !! Quotient
|--bgcolor="#ccffcc"
| {{nobr|[[Central Zone cricket team|Central Zone]]}} || 2 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || '''6''' || 1.437
|-
| [[East Zone cricket team|East Zone]] || 2 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''5''' || 1.609
|-
| [[Bangladesh Cricket Board|BCB]] XI || 2 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 || '''0''' || 0.454
|-
|}

Source: [https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/Tables/4/Duleep_Trophy_2004-05.html]

===Final===
{{Test match | date = 8–10 March 2005
| team1 = [[North Zone cricket team|North Zone]] | team2 = [[Central Zone cricket team|Central Zone]]
| score-team1-inns1 = 104 (50.3 overs)
| runs-team1-inns1 = [[Reetinder Sodhi]] 27
| wickets-team1-inns1 = [[Jai Prakash Yadav (cricketer)|Jai Prakash Yadav]] 5/26
| score-team2-inns1 = 133 (49.3 overs)
| runs-team2-inns1 = [[Naman Ojha]] 55
| wickets-team2-inns1 = [[Reetinder Sodhi]] 3/10
| score-team1-inns2 = 169 (61.4 overs)
| runs-team1-inns2 = [[Ravneet Ricky]] 37
| wickets-team1-inns2 = [[Harvinder Singh (cricketer)|Harvinder Singh]] 3/17
| score-team2-inns2 = 142/1 (33.1 overs)
| runs-team2-inns2 = [[Sanjay Bangar]] 62*
| wickets-team2-inns2 = [[Gagandeep Singh (cricketer, born 1981)|Gagandeep Singh]] 1/25
| venue = [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Ground]], [[Nagpur]]
| toss = Central Zone won the toss and elected to field.
| report = [https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/81/81777.html Scorecard]
| result = Central Zone won by 9 wickets
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/4/Duleep_Trophy_2004-05.html Series home at CricketArchive]

{{Duleep Trophy}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:2004-05 Duleep Trophy}}
[[Category:Duleep Trophy seasons]]
[[Category:Domestic cricket competitions in 2004–05|Duleep Trophy]]
[[Category:2005 in Indian cricket|Duleep Trophy]]

{{Indian-domestic-cricket-competition-stub}}

Jawahar Nagar, Jaisalmer

2025-01-02T15:42:29Z

RodEsters254334: Adding a data

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}

{{Short description|Village in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, India}}

'''Jawahar Nagar''' is a [[Gram panchayat|Gram Panchayat]] in Mohangarh [[Panchayat samiti|Panchayat Samiti (Block)]] in Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan, India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gram Panchyat {{!}} District Jaisalmer, Rajasthan Government |url=https://jaisalmer.rajasthan.gov.in/sm/jankalyan-category-and-entry-type/12326/38/48/78 |access-date=2024-09-21 |website=jaisalmer.rajasthan.gov.in}}</ref> It is located approximately 35 km from the Panchayat Samiti headquarters in [[Shri Mohangarh|Mohangarh]]. Jawahar Nagar is primarily known for its agricultural landscape, supported by a branch distributary of the [[Indira Gandhi Canal|Indira Gandhi Nahar Project]]. Mohangarh is the nearest town to Jawahar Nagar, located around 35 km away.

{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Jawahar Nagar
| settlement_type = Village
| pushpin_map = India Rajasthan#India
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Rajasthan, India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| coordinates = {{coord|27.540195093978546|71.11412405416985|region:IN-RJ|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Rajasthan]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Jaisalmer district|Jaisalmer]]
| government_type = [[Panchayati Raj (India)]]
| governing_body = [[Gram Panchayat]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| population_total = 231
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_density_km2 = Auto
| demographics_type1 = Languages: [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]], [[Marwari language|Marwadi]]
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 345033
| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in India#RJ.E2.80.94Rajasthan|RJ]]- RJ15
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
}}

The total area of Jawahar Nagar is 847 hectares, as per data from 2009. The village has a population of 231 people living in 50 households. Of the total population, 129 are male and 102 are female. Jawahar Nagar has a lower [[Literacy|literacy rate]] compared to Rajasthan. In 2011, the literacy rate in Jawahar Nagar was 62.80%, while the average for Rajasthan was 66.11%. Male literacy in the village stands at 69.83%, while female literacy is 53.85%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jawahar Nagar Village Population - Jaisalmer - Jaisalmer, Rajasthan |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/village/85908-jawahar-nagar-rajasthan.html |access-date=2024-09-21 |website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Villages in Jaisalmer district]]

State electricity regulatory commission (India)

2024-11-23T18:51:32Z

RodEsters254334: new.

{{Short description|Government agencies in India}}
'''State electricity regulatory commissions''' in India are [[Autonomy|autonomous]], [[statutory]] and [[Regulation|regulatory]] bodies constituted for ensuring generation and distribution of [[Electricity generation|electricity]] in the [[states and union territories of India]]. They are formed by notification in official gazette in accordance with the Electricity Regulatory Commissions Act, 1998. The commissions are vested with legislative and judicial powers to resolve conflicts between licence holders of production and distribution of electricity, or consumers and electricity distribution entities, and authority to draft regulations and sub ordinate regulations. The president and other members of such commissions are appointed by [[State governments of India|state governments]] in consultation with the [[Chief justice|Chief Justice]] of the state [[High court|High Court]].

== History and objectives ==

State electricity regulatory commissions are formed with the following objectives:<ref name="serc ref2">{{cite news |title=Establishment and incorporation of State Commission {{!}} Company Vakil Legal Library |url=https://www.companyvakil.com/pro/legallibrary/bare-acts/electricity-regulatory-commissions-act-1998/establishment-and-incorporation-of-state-commission/ |access-date=2 February 2022 |publisher=companyvakil.com}}</ref><ref name="serc ref5">{{cite news |last1=Ranjan |first1=Rakesh |title=Ministry Directs Electricity Regulators to Ensure Timely Issue of Tariff Orders |url=https://mercomindia.com/ministry-directs-regulators-ensure-timely-tariff-orders/ |access-date=2 February 2022 |publisher=Mercom India |date=4 May 2021}}</ref><ref name="serc ref4">{{cite news |title=A comparison of renewable energy regulations |url=https://law.asia/renewable-energy-regulations-comparison/ |access-date=2 February 2022 |publisher=Law.asia |date=10 December 2021}}</ref><ref name="serc ref6">{{cite news |title=Power Of The State Electricity Regulatory Commission To Review Tariffs Under A Power Purchase Agreement - Energy and Natural Resources - India |url=https://www.mondaq.com/india/oil-gas-electricity/531366/power-of-the-state-electricity-regulatory-commission-to-review-tariffs-under-a-power-purchase-agreement |access-date=2 February 2022 |publisher=mondaq.com |date=29 September 2016}}</ref>

* Acts as a regulator for distribution licensees during the purchase and procurement of electricity by them .
* Facilitates the transmission of electricity between different states.
* Facilitates issuing of licences to transmission and distribution licensees applicants and electricity traders within the state.
* Fix the rates during wholesale, bulk or retail generation of electricity and its supply, transmission and wheeling within the state.
* Resolve conflicts between the licensees and/or the generating companies.
* Integrate state grid codes with the grid code designed by [[Central Electricity Regulatory Commission]] (CERC) .
* Streamlining electricity tariff.
* Transparency in designing subsidy related policies.
* Promoting environmental policity in matters relating to electricity.
* Any other matters connected or incidental with it.

== Advisory role ==

State electricity regulatory commissions also have advisory roles:<ref name="serc ref3">{{cite news |title=Functions of State Electricity Regulatory Commission |url=https://advocatetanmoy.com/2019/03/15/functions-of-state-electricity-regulatory-commission/ |access-date=2 February 2022 |publisher=Advocatetanmoy Law Library |date=15 March 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

* Designing schemes promoting electricity industry related investment.
* Planning initiatives in Electrical industry which promotes competition and improves efficiency and brings economy in activities.
* Initiating restructuring and reorganisation in Electricity industry.
* Guiding state government in any issues referred to it which are related to generation, transmission, distribution and trading of electricity in the state.

== Powers ==

State electricity regulatory commissions act as substitutes to civil courts and are vested with legislative and judicial powers to resolve conflicts between licence holders of production and distribution of electricity, or consumers and electricity distribution entities and with authority to draft regulations and sub ordinate regulations.<ref name="serc ref10">{{cite news |title=Government versus regulatory: The Centre must maintain the balance of power |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/government-versus-regulatory-the-centre-must-maintain-the-balance-of-power/2125899/ |access-date=2 February 2022 |publisher=The Financial Express |date=11 November 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="serc ref9">{{cite news |title=State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) are a substitute for civil courts and can execute their own orders. Appellate Tribunal and SERCs have the power to issue directions time bound payment: Supreme Court |url=https://www.jsalaw.com/deals-matter/state-electricity-regulatory-commissions-sercs-are-a-substitute-for-civil-courts-and-can-execute-their-own-orders-appellate-tribunal-and-sercs-have-the-power-to-issue-directions-time-bound-payment/ |access-date=2 February 2022 |publisher=JSA |date=11 October 2021}}</ref> They can also issue orders for the recovery of amounts from power consuming entities which are due to electricity generating companies.

== Composition==

State electricity regulatory commissions generally have three members, one of which is the chairperson.<ref name="serc ref7">{{cite news |title=India Code: Section Details |url=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/show-data?actid=AC_CEN_19_22_00001_200336_1517807317930&orderno=84 |access-date=2 February 2022 |publisher=indiacode.nic.in}}</ref>

Chairperson will be appointed by the state government in consultation with the Chief Justice of the state High Court. The eligibility for Chairperson is that he should be serving or served as Judge in any High Court; other members should have good ability, integrity and standing. They should also be proficient experience and expertise knowledge in subjects of accountancy, law, commerce, economics, industry, administration and public affairs and problem solving ability in same.

The Chairperson and members of state electricity regulatory commissions are not permitted to hold any other office of profit or any position which is connected with any political party and are also barred from carrying on any business or continuing any profession in any field.

== List of state electricity regulatory commissions ==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of state electricity regulatory commissions<ref name="serc ref8">{{cite news |title=State electricity regulatory commissions may become more autonomous |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/power/state-electricity-regulatory-commissions-may-become-more-autonomous/articleshow/34445237.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2 February 2022 |publisher=The Economic Times |date=1 May 2014}}</ref><ref name="serc ref11">{{cite news |title=Reforms jolt: Do we need competition in the power sector? |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/reforms-jolt-do-we-need-competition-in-the-power-sector/2394463/ |access-date=2 February 2022 |publisher=The Financial Express |date=31 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
! Rank || State || Agency
|-
|1
|[[Arunachal Pradesh]]
|[[Arunachal Pradesh Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|2
|[[Assam]]
|[[Assam Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|3
|[[Andhra Pradesh]]
|[[Andhra Pradesh Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|4
|[[Bihar]]
|[[Bihar Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|5
|[[Chhattisgarh]]
|[[Chhattisgarh State Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|6
|[[Delhi]]
|[[Delhi Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|7
|[[Gujarat]]
|[[Gujarat Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|8
|[[Himachal Pradesh]]
|[[Himachal Pradesh Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|9
|[[Haryana]]
|[[Haryana Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|10
|[[Jharkhand]]
|[[Jharkhand Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|11
|[[Karnataka]]
|[[Karnataka Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|12
|[[Kerala]]
|[[Kerala Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|13
|[[Madhya Pradesh]]
|[[Madhya Pradesh Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|14
|[[Maharashtra]]
|[[Maharashtra Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|15
|[[Meghalaya]]
|[[Meghalaya State Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|16
|[[Nagaland]]
|[[Nagaland Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|17
|[[Orissa]]
|Orissa Electricity Regulatory Commission
|-
|18
|[[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
|[[Punjab State Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|19
|[[Rajasthan]]
|[[Rajasthan Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-[Sikkim State Electricity Regulatory Commission]
|20
|[[Tamil Nadu]]
|[[Tamil Nadu Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|21
|[[Tripura]]
|[[Tripura Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|22
|[[Uttarakhand]]
|[[Uttarakhand Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|23
|[[Uttar Pradesh]]
|[[Uttar Pradesh Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|24
|[[West Bengal]]
|[[West Bengal Electricity Regulatory Commission]]
|-
|25
|[[Manipur]] and [[Mizoram]]
|Joint Electricity Regulatory Commission for the States of [[Manipur]] & [[Mizoram]]
|-
|26
|[[Union territory|Union Territories]]
|Joint Electricity Regulatory Commission for Union Territories
|-
|}

== See also ==
* [[Central Electricity Regulatory Commission]], the counterpart body of the central government

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.recregistryindia.nic.in/index.php/publics/SERCList Official Website]
* [https://cercind.gov.in/serc.html Official Website]


[[Category:Regulatory agencies of India]]
[[Category:Electric power in India]]
[[Category:Electricity authorities]]

DAISY Forum of India

2024-10-04T20:03:46Z

RodEsters254334: added references

{{Short description|Blindness organization based in India}}
'''DAISY Forum of India''' is a [[not for profit]] organisation involved in the production of books and other reading materials for persons with [[print disabilities]] including [[blindness]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Website of DFI|url=http://www.daisyindia.org/|publisher=DAISY Forum of India|accessdate=17 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Online Library for the blind and print disabled people |url=http://www.indg.in/primary-education/education-as-fundamental-human-right/online-library-for-the-blind-and-print-disabled-people |publisher=India Development Gateway |accessdate=17 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705150432/http://www.indg.in/primary-education/education-as-fundamental-human-right/online-library-for-the-blind-and-print-disabled-people |archivedate=5 July 2010 }}</ref> It is a network of more than 80 organisations working in different parts of [[India]] for the welfare of [[visually impaired]] people.<ref>{{cite web|title=List of DFI Members |url=http://www.daisyindia.org/list-of-dfi-members.aspx |publisher=DAISY Forum of India |accessdate=17 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018000944/http://www.daisyindia.org/list-of-dfi-members.aspx |archivedate=18 October 2013 }}</ref> The members of the Forum are categorised into different classes: Primary Members, Associate Members, Development Partners, Friends of the Society, Supporters of the Society and Partners in Governance. All categories of members, except Partners in Governance, have to pay a fixed amount to be eligible to become members. There are different committees like Technology Committee, Awareness Committee, Capacity Building Committee, and Policy and Regulations Intervention Committee to deal with various different activities of the organisation.

DAISY Forum of India is an Associate Member of [[DAISY Digital Talking Book|DAISY Consortium]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Member Detail: DAISY Forum of India|url=http://www.daisy.org/member/340/DAISY%20Forum%20of%20India|publisher=DAISY Consortium|accessdate=17 October 2013|archive-date=17 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017232127/http://www.daisy.org/member/340/DAISY%20Forum%20of%20India|url-status=dead}}</ref> which is a global consortium working for the development and promotion of the [[Digital accessible information system|DAISY]] standard.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*Website: [http://www.daisyindia.org DAISY Forum of India]

[[Category:Blindness organisations in India]]
[[Category:Charities based in India]]

Irandam Ulagam (soundtrack)

2024-09-13T10:51:31Z

RodEsters254334: created redirect

#REDIRECT [[Irandam Ulagam]]

Ilaiyaraaja 2005

2024-02-07T20:14:04Z

RodEsters254334: created redirect page

#REDIRECT [[List of film scores by Ilaiyaraaja 2000s]]

Namdapha Tiger Reserve

2024-01-29T17:44:49Z

RodEsters254334: Redirect article

#REDIRECT [[Namdapha National Park]]