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Jass Bhatia

2026-05-05T14:35:23Z

Realhimachal: Created New Details!

{{Short description|Indian actor and model|bot=PearBOT 5}}
{{Notability|1=Biographies|date=October 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2026}}
{{Infobox person
| image =
| image_caption = Bhatia in 2013
| name = Jass Bhatia
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Ludhiana]], [[Punjab, India]]
| other_names = Jaskaran Singh Bhatia
| known_for =
| spouse = Sarvjyot Kaur Bhatia
| education =
| alma_mater =
| years_active = 2007–present
| occupation = Actor
}}

'''Jass Bhatia''' (born '''Jaskaran Singh Bhatia''') is an Indian [[actor]] and [[Model (person)|model]]. He began his career by working in several [[television commercials]] and print ads. He made his [[Bollywood]] debut with a supporting role in the Indian [[romantic drama film]] ''[[Mausam (2011 film)|Mausam]]'' in 2011. He followed it with a role in the less successful film ''[[I Don't Luv U]]''. In 2013, the Indian biographical sports drama film ''[[Bhaag Milkha Bhaag]]'' directed by [[Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra]] proved to be his first commercially successful film in 5 years. In 2014, Bhatia portrayed Parineeti Chopra's friend named "Chimsy" in [[Shaad Ali]]'s Indian crime drama film ''[[Kill Dil]]''. In the television circuit, Jass featured as Happy in ''[[Rab Se Sona Ishq]]'' and played the character Bakshish in ''[[Firangi Bahu]]''.

==Early life and family==
Jass was born in [[Ludhiana]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], to businessman Gurpal Bhatia and Pinky Bhatia. His elder brother Gagan Bhatia is a [[commercial pilot]] with [[Indigo Airlines]]. Bhatia's family moved to [[Delhi]] in 1991. He studied at Guru Nanak Public School. Bhatia comes from a non-film background and is the first one in his family to be a part of Bollywood.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://punjabimania.com/the-punjabi-guy-making-it-to-bollywood-jass-bhatia/|title=The Punjabi Guy making it to Bollywood: Jass Bhatia|last=Bajwa|first=Sukhpal|date=2013-05-13|website=Punjabi Mania|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-30|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402122646/http://punjabimania.com/the-punjabi-guy-making-it-to-bollywood-jass-bhatia/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Bhatia uses his grandmother's first name "Jass" as his screen name.

==Career==
Before starting his career as an actor Jass worked in several TV commercials and advertisements, including Alto K10 and [[Indian National Lok Dal]] (a [[Haryana]] political party) in 2009. He started his career as a model and participated in ''Singh and Kaur of the Year'' in 2007.
In 2011 Jass played his first supporting role as Kartar, a young [[Sardar]] man in [[Pankaj Kapur]]'s [[romantic drama film]] ''[[Mausam (2011 film)|Mausam]]'', opposite [[Aditi Sharma (actress, born 1983)|Aditi Sharma]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-07-06 |title=Jass Bhatia had to chop off his hair for his role in his next film |url=https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/bollywood-news/article/jass-bhatia-had-to-chop-off-his-hair-for-his-role-in-his-next-film-221333 |access-date=2025-10-31 |website=Mid-day |language=en}}</ref> The film received a mixed response from critics.
He also acted in movies like ''[[I Don't Luv U]]'' (2013), ''[[Bhaag Milkha Bhaag]]'' (2013) and ''[[Kill Dil]]'' (2014). His television career began with ''[[Rab Se Sona Ishq]]'' in 2012 on [[Zee TV]], followed by ''[[Firangi Bahu]]'' in 2013 on [[Sahara One]].
As of July 2015, he has completed work on Dreamspark Movies' ''[[DNA of Love]]'', a film described as a "thriller love story", in which he will appear as Jass. The film will release next year on Valentine's Day.

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Character
|-
|2011
|''[[Mausam (2011 film)]]'', Cinergy
|Kartar
|-
|2013
|''[[I Don't Luv U]]'' – Amrapali Media Vision
|Lovely
|-
|2013
|''[[Bhaag Milkha Bhaag]]'' – ROMP/ Viacom18
|Mahinder
|-
|2014
|''[[Kill Dil]]'' – Yashraj Films
|Chimsy
|-
|2016
|''[[DNAoflove]]'' – Dreamspark movies
|Jass
|-
|}

==Television==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
|-
|2012
|''[[Rab Se Sona Ishq]]'' (TV series)
|-
|2013
|''[[Firangi Bahu]]'' (TV series)
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*{{facebook.com|jassbhatiaofficial}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150402152725/http://www.nettv4u.com/television-celebrity/Hindi/Actor/jass-bhatia Nettv4u Profile]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhatia, Jass}}
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:Indian Sikhs]]
[[Category:Male actors from Mumbai]]
[[Category:1988 births]]
[[Category:Indian male soap opera actors]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]

Malcolm Adiseshiah

2026-04-24T17:51:13Z

Realhimachal: made a post

{{short description|Indian development economist and UN official}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{essay|date=March 2009}}
{{cleanup rewrite|date=October 2021}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{infobox person
| name = Malcolm Adiseshaiah
| image = Malcolm S. Adiseshiah.tif
| birth_name = Malcolm Sathyanathan Adiseshaiah
| birth_date = 18 April 1910
| parents = Paul Varanasi Adiseshaiah, Grace Nesamma Adiseshaiah
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* Helen Paranjothi
* Elizabeth Pothen
}}
| birth_place = [[Vellore]], [[Madras Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1994|11|21|1910|4|18}}
| alma_mater = [[Loyola College, Chennai]], [[London School of Economics]], [[University of Cambridge]]
| occupation = Development economist, educator
| module = {{Infobox officeholder
| embed = yes
| office = Member of Parliament, [[Rajya Sabha]]
| constituency = [[List of nominated members of Rajya Sabha|Nominated]]
| term_start = 14 April 1978
| term_end = 13 April 1984
}}
}}

'''Malcolm Sathiyanathan Adiseshiah''' (18 April 1910 – 21 November 1994),<ref name="Who Was Who">{{cite book|title=Who Was Who in America, 1993-1996, vol. 11|year=1996|publisher=Marquis Who's Who|location=New Providence, N.J.|isbn=0837902258|page=[https://archive.org/details/whowaswhoinameri11marq/page/2 2]|chapter=Adiseshiah, Malcolm Sathianathan|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/whowaswhoinameri11marq}}</ref> was an Indian development economist and educator. In 1976 he was awarded the [[Padma Bhushan]], India's third-highest civilian award.<ref name="Padma Awards">{{cite web|url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |title=Padma Awards |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India |date=2015 |access-date=21 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015193758/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |archive-date=15 October 2015 }}</ref> In 1998, [[UNESCO]] created the Malcolm Adiseshiah International Literacy Prize in recognition of his contribution to [[education]] and [[literacy]]. He was nominated to the [[Rajya Sabha]], the upper house of the [[Parliament of India]], in 1978.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://rajyasabha.nic.in/rsnew/publication_electronic/Member_Biographical_Book.pdf | title=RAJYA SABHA MEMBERS BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 1952-2019 | publisher=Rajya Sabha | accessdate=6 October 2021}}</ref>

==Early years and education==
Adiseshiah was born on 18 April 1910 in [[Vellore]], [[Tamil Nadu]]. He is the second of the five children of Paul Varanasi Adiseshiah and Grace Nesamma Adiseshiah. His father was a [[professor]] of [[philosophy]]<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/publications/ThinkersPdf/adiseshiahe.PDF|title=Malcolm Adiseshiah|publisher=UNCESCO|year=1995}}</ref> and the first Indian [[Principal (academia)|principal]] of [[Voorhees College (India)|Voorhees College]], [[Vellore district|Vellore]], [[Tamil Nadu]] State, India. His mother was a musician who had studied up to the [[Senior Cambridge]] (High School) and was the first woman Councilor of the [[Vellore]] Municipality.<ref name="UNESCO"/> She taught her five children until they were ten years of age. Malcolm Adiseshiah obtained a doctorate in [[economics]] at the [[London School of Economics]], William, the eldest brother, in philosophy at [[Cambridge]], Padmini in [[education]], and Noble in [[medicine]].

Adiseshiah studied in [[Voorhees High School (India)|Voorhees High School]], where he obtained two double promotions. He completed his [[secondary school]] education at the age of thirteen to join Voorhees College for his 'intermediate' course (equivalent to +2 course now.) Then he shifted to [[Loyola College, Chennai]], for his BA (Honours), where [[Ramaswamy Venkataraman]], the former [[President of India]], was his classmate. After a six-year teaching [[interregnum]] at the [[St. Paul's Cathedral Mission College]] in Calcutta (now [[Kolkata]]), he proceeded to [[King's College, Cambridge]], for his [[Master of Arts|MA]] (Banking) and then to the London School of Economics (1937–40) for pursuing his doctoral research with specialization in [[currency]]. Late Dr. R. N. Poduval, who served in FAO and then was Chairman of Centre for Research in Economic and Social Development, Chennai, was two years his junior in LSE.

In later life, after his retirement from UNESCO, Adiseshiah recalled his training and research"

{{cquote|under the wise guidance of Father Basneck and Professor P.J. Thomas in Madras, Benoy Kumar and [[Nalini Ranjan Sarkar]] in Calcutta, Percy Barrat Whale and [[John Maynard Keynes]] in London and Cambridge.}}

==Teaching career==
In 1930 Adiseshiah joined as a lecturer in [[St. Paul's Cathedral Mission College]], an affiliate of the [[University of Calcutta]], and continued until 1936. He worked on planning a rural service program in the college in cooperation with the [[Visva-Bharati University]] associates at [[Sriniketan]] and [[Santiniketan]].

In 1940, after obtaining his [[doctorate]] at the age of thirty, he joined [[Madras Christian College]], [[Chennai]],<ref name="UNESCO"/> as its first [[professor]] and head of the [[economics]] department. His role and support for the British government in the notorious and deadly Bengal famines of 1940s is controversial. He remained there until 1946. Prof. K. N. Raj, founder of Centre for Developmental Studies, Tiruvananthapuram, and G. Jagathpathy, former Chief Secretary of the government of [[Madhya Pradesh]], were his students in the 1941-44 batch of BA Honours course. Raj recalled this experience:

{{cquote|in the villages of [[Bengal]] and [[South India]] with their rural service centres where we worked out the economics of hand pound rice, hand-made paper, hand-loomed textiles, [[crop rotation]] and rural credit, rural medicine and [[sanitation]], [[adult literacy]] and curriculum reform. It was there that I found the testing ground for the many ideas and plans that I carried with me to UNESCO in Paris and from there to the four corners of the earth.}}

His publications in the 1940s included books on [[banking]], [[rural development]], and [[agricultural]] transformation. He was engaged, with his fellow economists in the Madras University, in work on planning the future [[industrialization]] of India and Madras State.

==Personal life==
Adiseshiah married Helen Paranjothi, with whom he had a son and a daughter. The separation process with Helen Paranjothi started in 1946, and the [[annulment]] of the marriage came in 1956. Adiseshiah then married Elizabeth Pothen, a history professor he met at the Madras Women's Christian College.

==UNESCO and UN service==
From 1946 to 1948, Adiseshiah served as Associate General Secretary of the World University Service in [[Geneva]]. This association later helped him to support steps for the construction of the World University Service Centre in [[Chennai]] and women's [[hostel]]s in [[Delhi]] and [[Rajasthan]]. During that period, he was also connected with the [[World Student Christian Federation]] and Student Volunteer Service.

From 1 to 16 November 1945, a [[United Nations]] Conference was convened in [[London]] to establish of an educational and cultural organization (ECO/CONF). In the conference, a new organization was created to establish the "intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind" and thus prevent the outbreak of another [[world war]]. The [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO) was founded by thirty-seven countries. Its Constitution to promote collaboration between member states in the fields of [[education]], [[science]] and [[culture]] was signed on 16 November 1945 and came into force on 4 November 1946. [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], former [[President of India]], was a former student of Adiseshiah's father. He made a referral to Sir [[Julian Huxley]], then Director-General of UNESCO, who invited Adiseshiah to the organization in 1948. He was posted as deputy director of the department of exchange of persons. In that capacity, Adiseshiah signed the UNESCO Fellowship letter in 1949 to [[M. S. Swaminathan]], eminent scientist, and administrator, to pursue research at the Agricultural University in [[Wageningen]], the Netherlands, which was the starting point illustrious career.

In March 1950, Adiseshiah was promoted to the Director of [[technical assistance]] department, and he was one of its six top executives. Adiseshiah was authorized to represent the Director-General at the technical assistance board set up by the UN.

[[Rene Ochs]], a fellow member of staff, who later rose to be a Director at UNESCO, wrote about this period:

{{cquote|The stage was set for the beginning of a new era. Everything was possible; yet everything remained to be done with non-existent resources. It was done, though in a surprisingly short time, by very few people, among whom Malcolm Adiseshiah held a prominent, if not a unique place. Those who had the privilege of working with him from the early years of technical assistance, and the following years of growing success and achievements, witnessed the outstanding performance of man whose extraordinary vision immediately recognized the opportunity offered, projected its potentialities into the future and made the dream come true. This required no less than the towering quality of his intelligence, his rare organizational ability and resourcefulness, his uncommon physical stamina, his unrelenting pace of work and unflinching dedication to the task at hand and a faith coupled with realism which carried mountains.}}

UNESCO's tentative proposals were submitted for Technical Assistance for Economic Development in 1950–51. Adiseshiah organized the new department, established area desks corresponding to UN [[geographical region]]s, instituted the procedures and methods of operation, and set up a 'report and information unit' which periodically produced a technical assistance bulletin.

In 1955, he was promoted as one among the three Assistant Directors General of UNESCO and put in charge of development.

The third stage of UNESCO's activities dates from the early sixties, when many [[Africa]]n countries became independent and joined it. In 1962, he was promoted to the post of Deputy Director-General of UNESCO. Then he was the sole incumbent to that office. The UNESCO began organizing important regional conferences of ministers of education or ministers of sciences along with [[economic development]] ministries. The first Asian Ministers of Education Conference was held in [[Karachi]] in 1959 and the first conference for Africa in [[Addis Ababa]] in 1960.

In 1991, Sylvain Lourie, Assistant Director General of UNESCO, wrote:

{{cquote|Radical changes which had affected educational demand and supply are forcing a reconsideration of the very foundations of educational planning such as they prevailed in their heyday some 30 years ago, when Dr. Adiseshiah played a historical role, guiding UNESCO in setting regional targets for public spending on education throughout the world and in establishing [[UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning]].}}

Adiseshiah was responsible for developing the Karachi Plan for Universal Primary Education for Asia, the [[Addis Ababa]] and [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]] plans for the African and [[Latin America]]n educational development, and the corresponding science plans for [[Asia]], [[Africa]], and Latin America. He worked with David Owen, Executive Chairman of the Technical Assistance Board, to convince donor countries since the financing of the expanded program rested on voluntary contributions made by them at pledging conferences. In the need of additional sources, he established relations with the [[International Development Association]] (IDA), [[Inter-American Development Bank]], and other regional [[Multilateral Development Bank|development bank]]s. In 1962 UNESCO approached the [[World Bank]], also known as [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (IBRD), for medium [[trade credit]] for funding a project in [[Tunisia]]. The IBRD, until then, was concentrating on investments in physical capital. Adiseshiah contributed to the persuasion to shift IBRD's focus exclusively from the expansion of physical capital towards the development of [[human capital]], especially the extension of education. In 1964 he participated in negotiating the memorandum of understanding between the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and UNESCO. He introduced flexibility in utilizing [[multilateral aid]]. Adiseshiah used a substantial part of [[USSR]]'s contribution for technical assistance to establish [[IIT, Mumbai]]. The expanded technical assistance program was merged with the United Nations Special Fund to form the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP), which was launched in 1966. He formulated a program of technical and financial assistance in each country, which he started with a global outlay of $3 million per annum in 1950. When he retired from the organization, the outlay had increased to $300 million.

Adiseshiah said:
{{cquote|UNESCO has had a double responsibility. First it has had to coordinate the entire educational programmes of the United Nations family and give each part of the programme the expertise and help it needed. Secondly, for the UN system, it has had to act as the focal point and leader in all matters of education and science... there has been a continuing process by UNESCO of clarifying, refining and consolidating its own educational and scientific mandate. ... education and science also have wider connotations in their application to peace and understanding...}}

Adiseshiah kindled efficiency by arousing [[team spirit]]. He had mastered the art of training a team to fulfill the aspirations of the mission. He made two rounds of [[round the world trip]]s each year which took him to as many as twenty-five countries in succession. He organized more than 120 projects in various countries for their economic and [[Social change|social development]] through education, science, and culture.

Adiseshiah visited the hundred and twenty-seven [[member states of the UN]] several times. He visited each one of the [[Third World]] countries that were becoming a member of the UNESCO, studied its economic situation first hand, assessed its need for literacy and education, and made recommendations as to how those needs could be met in the 'Mission Reports.' Each of the 'Mission Reports' was reported to be pioneering contributions about the specific regions on which the reports focused on the emerging discipline of development economics.

In 1970 the then Director-General, [[Rene Maheu]], was reluctant to let him retire. Adiseshiah insisted on leaving. Rene Maheu obtained the sanction of the executive board of UNESCO to replace Adiseshiah with two Deputy Director-Generals.

There are in the UNESCO archives 118 Adiseshiah files covering approximately 48,000 pages.

As a UNESCO official, he rendered assistance to Indian projects. The publication of the UNESCO Art Album on [[Ajanta Caves|Ajantha]] was mainly due to his [[yeomen]] efforts. It was due to his vision that the [[heritage site]]s of humankind must be preserved for all posterity.

UNESCO assisted in the setting up of the [[National Council of Educational Research and Training]] (NCERT), [[New Delhi]]: the establishment of first TV broadcasts in India; the reorganization of [[Films Division of India]]; the provision of twenty renowned Professors of engineering and science; the supply of $12 million worth of equipment to IITs of Bombay and Kharagpur; the expansion of aeronautical engineering in [[Madras Institute of Technology]]; and the provision of experts and equipment to [[Alagappa Chettiar College of Engineering and Technology]] in Madras (now Chennai), [[Tamil Nadu]].

He was instrumental in rendering such assistance to all member nations of UNESCO, emphasizing to Asian, African, and South American countries.

After his retirement from UNESCO until 1991, he had visited countries of Africa, Latin America, and Asia at their invitation three times a year to advise them on their development plans.

In January 1981, Adiseshiah was elected chairman of the governing board of the [[UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning]] (IIEP) for a five-year period. In 1986 he was re-elected for a second term for five years. In 1987, 1991, and 1992 he was the chairman of the jury for the selection of the international literacy prize winners. In 1989 he delivered the Presidential Address at the [[International Literacy Day|World Literacy Day]] function in Paris.

Adiseshiah was a member of the UN International Committee of Consultants on Environment. He was the co-coordinator of the UNESCO Working Group on the [[New International Economic Order]]. He reviewed India's experience with the UN during the first forty years of its existence in an assessment of the role of the International Bank of Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the powerful interests working behind the scenes in shaping their policies in a book which he edited.

==MIDS==

In September 1970, Adiseshiah and his wife Elizabeth registered in [[Paris]] a [[trust fund]] for starting [[Madras Institute of Development Studies]] (MIDS hereafter). MIDS was conceived to undertake studies and research on developmental issues on the economy, polity, and society with particular reference to [[Tamil Nadu]] state. MIDS started functioning in January 1971 in one of their properties in Gandhinagar, Adyar, a Chennai suburb. Adiseshiah was its first director. Adiseshiah started publishing the publishing of 'Bulletin – Madras Development Seminar Series' in February 1971 and wrote its editorials every month from February 1971, covering international, national, and Tamil Nadu issues until his death. 'This surely' wrote Prof.S. Subramanian, in the prolegomena of the special issue of the Bulletin, bought out after his demise, 'is the stuff of which archives are made'.

As Dr. Barbara Harris-White of IDC, [[Oxford University]] writes,

{{cquote|It is more accurate to say that he enabled MIDS to be built. He created a place where motivated scholars could work at their projects with a minimum of direction or regulation. This kind of scholarly environment is now extremely rare anywhere in the world.}}

In the early 1990s, he apprehended that the Central and State governments might not fulfill their financial commitments to the institute to the fullest extent necessary. It made him sad. With his wide contacts, he, who had succeeded in finding resources for UNESCO's massive technical assistance program, could have easily raised additional resources for the institute had he solicited for it. But he was reluctant to ask. He, who insisted that all departments of Madras University should combine both teaching and research programs, failed to introduce a teaching program in his institute. Nor was he successful in the construction of [[Lodging|accommodation]] for the doctoral scholars of his institute.

==Educationalist==
His early teaching career, his [[Vice Chancellor]]ship of the [[Madras University]], and his various activities in his entire life had their focal point in [[education]]. A major part of his [[UNESCO]] service was spent formulating educational programs for the [[developing world]].

The General Conference of UNESCO, in its fifteenth session, authorized the publication of a work designed to clarify the basic concepts concerning the contribution of education, science, and culture to develop. In the course of the discussions about the resolution, reference was made to the many speeches of Adiseshiah on related themes delivered in [[Oxford]], United Kingdom in 1961; [[Cambridge]], UK, and [[Tananarive]], [[Madagascar]] in 1962; [[Madras]], India in 1963; [[Toronto|Toronto, Ontario]], Canada in 1964; [[Washington, DC]], USA in 1968 and many others. He was requested to write a book based on the facts and ideas presented in those speeches about that book, [[U Thant]], then [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]], in his 'Foreword' writes:

{{cquote|In his humanistic approach to the role of education, science and culture in the development process, Dr. Malcolm Adiseshiah has reviewed the past in order to seek improvement in the future. The philosophy of development set forth in this volume is a bright beacon which should help guide UNESCO successfully into the Second Development Decade.}}

That was the respect he commanded in the UN as an educationalist of eminence.

He undertook a survey of the school education in [[Tamil Nadu]] in the late 1970s and published an influential [[report]]. His contributions to the growth dynamics of education are numerous. These include the devising of the [[curricula]] for [[primary education|primary]] and [[secondary education]], vocationalization, preparation of teaching material, the introduction of science and technology at appropriate levels, preparation of [[syllabi]] for a collegiate education, examination reform, giving a new thrust to the quality, content, direction, and methodology of [[social science]] research, compilation, and analysis of educational data and financing of education.

He was instrumental in setting up the [[Asian Social Science Research Council]], [[New Delhi]], and was its first President. He was a member of the Central Advisory Board of Education, the Indian National Commission for Co-operation with UNESCO, the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), and the National Council of Teacher Education. The ICSSR requested him to undertake a review of its work and suggest the lines it should develop. His meticulously compiled two-volume report, one on a retrospect and the other on the prospect, had been an influential guide in the development of social science of research in India at that period.

He was the chairman of the panel which reviewed the functioning of the [[Tata Institute of Social Sciences]] (TISS). [[Andhra University]] entrusted to him the review of the working of the social science departments at [[Waltair]]. He chaired the committee set up to recommend the establishment of [[Mother Teresa Women's University]] in [[Kodaikanal]], Tamil Nadu.

==Non-formal education==
[[Non-formal education]] to cover the vast multitudes that were denied a chance to join formal educational institutions was attempted in various forms in India. The [[Farmer]]s Functional Literacy Project of 1967 was among the earliest attempts in India. Adiseshiah founded the [[Tamil Nadu]] Board of Continuing Education in 1976 and took all steps to sustain and advance its activities. He was its president for four terms. He chaired the Non-Formal Education Curriculum Preparation Committee in 1976. When the National Adult Education Programme (NAEP) was launched on 2 October 1978, Adiseshiah, then [[Vice-Chancellor]] of [[Madras University]] was appointed President of the Indian Adult Education Association. Soon he became a member of the [[Rajya Sabha]] and used the opportunity to expand the adult education program to cover all parts of the country.

He was president of the [[Viswayuvak Kendra]]. He was a member of the UGC Standing Committee on [[Adult Education]]. When the country launched the [[National Literacy Mission Programme|National Literacy Mission]] on 5 November 1988, Adiseshiah was the natural choice for its leadership. The Mission searched for an alternative agency and a strategy to create a country-wide churning for literacy and created the Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samithi (BGVS) in August 1989 and invited Adiseshiah to be its president. BGVS facilitated the shift of adult education from a government-controlled, government-sponsored program to acquire a status of a mass movement. Adiseshiah had the satisfaction of witnessing the declaration of [[Ernakulam district]] in Kerala as having achieved the status of total literacy on 4 February 1990. The new premises of the State Resources Centre of the Tamil Nadu Board of Continuing Education was named after him and was declared open on his 83rd birthday on 18 April 1992.

==Offer of Governorship==
Late [[V. R. Nedunchezhiyan]], who was a [[cabinet minister]] in the DMK and AIADMK ministries in [[Tamil Nadu]], recalled the memorial meeting held in the Centenary Hall of the [[Madras University]] in December 1995 that Adiseshiah refused to accept the offer of a Governorship of a state in 1977. He said that a central cabinet minister asked Adiseshiah's consent for appointment as [[Governor of Goa]]. Adiseshiah immediately refused the offer stating that he was not willing to accept any task which would cause his long separation from his beloved MIDS. After consulting with the then [[Prime Minister of India]], the central Cabinet minister offered Adiseshiah the [[Governor of Tamil Nadu|Governorship of Tamil Nadu]], knowing full well that it was against the prevailing convention that no person born in any state would be appointed governor of that state.

Adiseshiah was in a tight corner. He requested a day to make up his mind. The next day, during the morning constitutional along the Marina beach, he asked Nedunchezhian, who was his walk companion for many years, for his opinion about the offer. Nedunchezhian replied that Adiseshiah was always a man of action. The state governor was more a [[ceremonial post]] that would only put fetters around his multi-pronged activities. Later in the day, Adiseshiah conveyed to the central cabinet minister that he was not accepting the offer of the Governorship of Tamil Nadu. Nedunchezhian also recalled that it was the only occasion when Adiseshiah consulted him about a 'political' decision in his more than two decades of friendship! Surprisingly, Adiseshiah had sought the opinion of his staff, including his [[car driver]]s, whether he should accept the governorship or not!

==Parliamentarian==
Adiseshiah was nominated to the Rajya Sabha in April 1978 for a six-year term as one of the twelve persons under the category of those having special knowledge and practical experience in literature, science, art, and social service. There were rapid changes in the composition of the central government during his term. He eschewed [[party politics]]. His erudition and experience were appreciated, and his speeches, mainly on economics and education, were listened to with respect. They were interspersed with homely proverbs and quotations. He urged quick redistribution of land. He recommended the imposition of [[income tax]] on rich peasants. He pleaded for a level playing field and opposed special concessions to non-resident Indians when they invested in India. He longed for larger two-way traffic between the Central and State Planning Commissions. He advocated a national energy policy. He opposed the nationalization of sick mills in the [[private sector]]. In education, he was opposed to haphazard expansion and steadfastly stood for consolidation. He provided a strong voice for teachers. As a humanist, he was deeply concerned with the reduction of poverty, especially in the rural areas. He showed his courage to dissent when the occasion demanded. He provided an outstanding example of a role model for what a nominated member of the Rajya Sabha should be.

==Author==
Adiseshiah wrote elegant prose, lucid and precise. He was a prolific writer. He edited MIDS Bulletin for twenty-four years. Predictably a very major portion of his writings was on education in all its dimensions – literacy, school and [[higher education]], [[adult education]], [[women's education]], non-formal education, [[continuing education]], [[technical education]], [[science education]], university education, research methods, and the like. [[Social science]]s commanded a great deal of his attention. But he had a much broader perspective. He had written extensively on the [[environmental policy|environment]] and edited a book on that theme. He was very concerned about [[Nuclear power|nuclear energy]]. [[Globalisation|Globalization]] and the new international economic order drew a lot of his notice. [[Rural]] [[poverty]] and inequality were other of his core topics. Next to education, these occupied his prime attention. [[Price policy]], [[foreign trade]], [[economic planning]], [[statistics]], [[panchayat raj]], and [[Brownfield land|wasteland development]] are among the many areas on which he had written. His writings were marked by analytical rigor.

He employed all printed media such as [[book]]s, [[report]]s, [[Academic journal|journal]]s, [[magazine]]s, and [[newspaper]]s to carry his message. The final issue of MIDS Bulletin (Vol. XXV No.1, Nov. 1995) contains an incomplete list of his written material, classified into editorials, books, edited books, presidential addresses, convocation addresses, keynote addresses, inaugural addresses, valedictory addresses, journals/magazines, newspaper articles, papers for souvenirs/commemoration volumes /essays /surveys /books and miscellaneous papers /lectures. They cover a total of23 pages! They do not include his many volumes in the [[UNESCO]] archives, the numerous reports of committees and commissions in which he was a member, his writings in the period 1930–48, and most of his writings as [[Vice Chancellor|Vice-Chancellor]] of [[Madras University]].

==In the cause of Tamil and Tamil Nadu==
Adiseshiah loved [[Tamil people|Tamil]] but was no [[chauvinist]]. He was instrumental in obtaining [[UNESCO]] assistance to the translation programs of [[Tamil literature|Tamil classics]]. ''The Ayodhya canto of the Ramayana, as told by Kamban'' [[translated]] from Tamil by C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji), was published in 1961 under UNESCO-sponsored programs and publications. ''The Interior Landscape: love poems from a classical Tamil anthology'' translated by A.K. Ramanujan was published in 1967 under the same program.

He encouraged the publication of research articles in Tamil. MIDS brought out, and still brings out, Tamil translations and Tamil books.

He brought out the [[Hindi]] and Tamil versions of UNESCO's [[Academic journal|journal]] 'Courier'.

He lent a helping hand in launching the [[World University Centre]] in Spur Tank Road in [[Chennai]].

He desired the [[heritage site]]s to be well preserved. So he arranged for UNESCO funding for the renovation of [[Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple|Sri Rangam Ranganatha]], [[Madurai Meenakshi temple|Madurai Meenakshi]], [[Brihadisvara Temple|Thanjavur Brahadeeswara]], and seven other [[temple]]s. He initiated a pioneering research work by a French scholar tracing the history and traditions of the [[Sri Rangam]] temple in [[Tamil Nadu]].

He lent a helping hand in obtaining assistance from UNESCO and the [[French government]] for organizing the Third World Tamil Conference in [[Paris]] in 1969. As Acting Director-General of UNESCO, he inaugurated it, delivering his address in three languages, Tamil, English, and French.

The speed with which he acted could be gauged from the fact that the General Conference of UNESCO at its session in November 1968 accepted the recommendation of the Second International Conference on Tamil Studies held at Madras on 3–10, January 1968 and authorized the Director-General of UNESCO to assist in the creation of an International Institute of [[Tamil Studies]] at [[Madras]]. In 1970, his last year at UNESCO, he was satisfied with witnessing the setting up of the Institute at Madras, Tamil Nadu.

Though it was personally inconvenient for him because he had lost touch with the language during his long vacation in Europe, he still would write articles in Tamil whenever requested to do so. At a function to commemorate his 83rd birthday on 18 April 1992, when the new office premises of the Tamil Nadu Board of Continuing Education was named after him, he gave a stirring speech in chaste Tamil, which was well appreciated.

He strove hard to reply in Tamil all letters addressed to him in Tamil.

==Other activities==
Adiseshiah was President of the [[Indian Economic Association]] in 1973-74 and presided over the Waltair session of its Annual Conference in 1974. Subsequently, as a past President, he evinced keen interest in putting the association's finances in sound order. He took steps to advance its publishing record.

He was also a member of the [[Royal Economic Society]].

He was a member of the Governing Body of [[Centre for Development Studies]] (CDS) since 1980 and was its chairman for six years, 1986–92. Under his chairmanship, the Centre entered into an agreement with the [[United Nations Fund for Population Activities]] and the [[Government of India]] for conducting an international training program in population and development.

Adisehsiah succeeded Prof. Lakdawala as Chairman of the Institute of Social Sciences (ISS) and last presided over the Governing Body meeting on 11 November 1994. It was in the inaugural address to the [[seminar]] on [[Panchayati Raj]] in [[Karnataka]] in October 1985 at ISS that Adiseshiah made the following often-quoted comment:

{{Cquote|Tamil Nadu, for instance, has had no panchayat elections for the last 15 years since 1971. In these fifteen years, the Tamil Nadu Government has put forward 20 reasons for the postponement of local elections. It announced election 20 times and postponed it as many times. The reasons given were: [[drought]], [[flood]], [[cyclone]], villagers being busy with agricultural operations, revision of electoral rolls, delay in printing electoral rolls, lowering the age limit, reservations, court stay on reservations, appeals against those reservations in the Supreme Court, school examinations, student unrest, by-elections, mid-term elections, general elections, delimitation of wards, issue of identity cards to voters and Census operations. In addition to these 18 reasons, we have now had four postponements.}}

==Death==
His life came to a quick end. He was hospitalized for less than a week with [[kidney]] and [[heart]] ailments. He was conscious till the last day. He died on 21 November 1994, aged 84 years.

Elizabeth Adiseshiah died in 1986, leaving all her property to her husband. In Adiseshiah's will, he had bequeathed his valuable residential property to MIDS, and his remaining wealth for setting up Malcolm and Elizabeth Adiseshiah (M&EA) Trust for conducting programmes in the broad area of economics – teaching and research, both fundamental and applied.

In 1993 and 1994, UNESCO PROSPECTS: Quarterly review of comparative education published a series of profiles of 100 famous educators from around the world. In the company of intellectuals like [[Aristotle]], [[Confucius]], [[Freud]], [[Gramsci]], [[John Locke|Locke]], [[Plato]], and [[Rousseu|Rousseau]], the list includes seven Indians. They are Malcolm Adiseshiah, [[Sri Aurobindo]], [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]], [[Jiddu Krishnamurti]], [[J.P. Naik]], [[Rabindranath Tagore]], and [[Vivekananda]]. These articles have subsequently been collected and published under the title "Thinkers on Education" in three volumes, edited by Tedesco, Juan Carlos and Morsy, Zaghloul, [Paris, UNESCO; New Delhi, Oxford & IBH Publishing, 1997].

==In his honour==
Adiseshiah is remembered for significant awards, prizes, [[scholarship]]s, and endowed chairs. The annual Malcolm Adiseshiah International Literacy Prize (value US$15,000) was awarded by [[UNESCO]] in 1998. The prize rewards organizations or individuals who displayed outstanding merit and achieved with particularly effective results in contributing to the fight for literacy among the member countries of UNESCO.

The National Council of Applied Economic Research<ref>[http://www.ncaer.org/ National Council of Applied Economic Research]</ref> (NCAER]), New Delhi, in partnership with the Indian International Centre,<ref>[http://www.iicdelhi.nic.in/ Indian International Centre]</ref> New Delhi, and support of the Malcolm and Elizabeth Adiseshiah Trust, has organized the Malcolm Adiseshiah Mid-Year Review of the Indian Economy since 2011.NCAER prepares the annual review, and the proceedings are jointly published.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ncaer.org/publication_details.php?pID=182|title=Publications|website=www.ncaer.org|access-date=2017-11-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ncaer.org/publication_details.php?pID=237|title=Mid-Year Review of the Indian Economy 2013-14|website=www.ncaer.org|access-date=2017-11-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ncaer.org/publication_details.php?pID=249|title=Mid-Year Review of the Indian Economy 2014-15|website=www.ncaer.org|access-date=2017-11-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ncaer.org/publication_details.php?pID=273|title=Mid-Year Review of the Indian Economy 2015-16|website=www.ncaer.org|access-date=2017-11-04}}</ref>

A Founder's Day Lecture by a distinguished [[social scientist]] is arranged annually in MIDS, [[Chennai]]. To commemorate Professor Adiseshiah's [[cosmopolitanism]], a Visiting Professorial Chair has been instituted there whereby a scholar of distinction is invited to that position. The Malcolm and Elizabeth Adiseshiah Ph.D. Merit Scholarship is created to provide training and facilities for talented researchers to pursue high-quality academic research dedicated to development issues in [[Tamil Nadu]].

The Malcolm Adiseshiah Award carries a cash grant of 200,000 [[rupees]] and a citation. It is given every year to a mid-career scholar who has made outstanding contributions to the field of [[Development Studies]]. It is instituted by M&EA Trust and presented in a special ceremony in Chennai.

Malcolm S. Adiseshiah, Chair of Development Economics and Decentralised Planning, is instituted by M&EA Trust in the [[Tata Institute of Social Sciences|Institute for Social Sciences]], [[New Delhi]].

The Emerald Jubilee Malcolm S. Adiseshiah Award, consisting of a [[gold medallion]], a certificate and a shield, is given by the State Resource Centre, Chennai, every year to a district Collector who had made a significant contribution to the rehabilitation of [[child labour|child labor]] and for imparting [[vocational education]] to improve their lot. Adiseshiah was the first president of the center (an autonomous body under the Union Ministry of Human Resource) at its inception in 1973 and held the post for a decade. Dr. Malcolm Adiseshiah Award by the Tamil Nadu Board of Continuing Education and State Resource Centre for [[Non-Formal Education]] is given to a person recognizing his contribution to [[Adult Education]] at a function in commemoration of [[World Science Day]]. Dr. Malcolm Adiseshiah Award of Honour is also provided by them for outstanding [[community service]].

[[Voorhees College]], Vellore has instituted annual awards of Dr. Malcolm S. Adiseshiah Prize for Proficiency in History to the best III year student of the B.A.(History) Class; Dr. Malcolm S. Adiseshiah Prize for Proficiency in Chemistry to the best III Year Student of the B.Sc., (Chemistry) Class and The Adiseshiah Memorial Gold Medal for Proficiency in English to the best student of the III Year B.A./B.Sc., class. It is unclear whether the last-mentioned prize is awarded in his honor or in honor of his father, who was principal of that college. [[Indian Institutes of Technology|IIT]] Delhi Academician Reetika Khera, Avijit Pathak from the Centre for the Study of Social Systems, [[Jawaharlal Nehru University|JNU]], Research Scholar V. Kalyan Shankar and Kannan Vishwanatth received the Malcolm Adiseshiah award.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-04-18|title=Three social scientists get award|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/three-social-scientists-get-award/article34347999.ece|access-date=2021-07-12|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.mids.ac.in Madras Institute of Development Studies]
*[http://www.meatrust.in Malcolm & Elizabeth Adiseshiah Trust, Chennai, Tamil Nadu]

{{PadmaBhushanAwardRecipients 1970–79}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adiseshiah, Malcolm}}
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1994 deaths]]
[[Category:UNESCO officials]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Calcutta]]
[[Category:Indian Tamil academics]]
[[Category:Vice chancellors of the University of Madras]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in civil service]]
[[Category:Nominated members of the Rajya Sabha]]
[[Category:Members of the Planning Commission of India]]
[[Category:Indian officials of the United Nations]]

Mizo Zirlai Pawl

2026-04-17T04:43:30Z

Realhimachal: made a info.

{{Short description|Student Association of Mizoram}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}

{{More cn|date=June 2025}}{{Infobox organization
| name = Mizo Zirlai Pawl
| native_name = Mizo Students Association
| named_after =
| image = MZP logo.jpg
| image_size =
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| abbreviation = MZP
| predecessor = Lushai Students Association
| merged_into = 
| successor =
| formation = 27 October 1935 (90yrs ago)
| founder = [[R.Buchhawna]] B.A.
| founding_location = [[Shillong]]
| extinction =  
| merger = 
| type = [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]
| status = 
| purpose =  
| professional_title = 
| headquarters = Aizawl, [[Mizoram]]
| location = Treasury Square
| coordinates = 
| region_served = Zofa inhabitant area
| services = Voluntary, pressure group
| membership = All [[mizo people|mizo]] students
| num_members_year = 
| language = Zo language (Zo Tawng)
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| affiliations = SR. 35 of 1969–70
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| website = {{url|https://mzpmizoram.com/}}
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}}

'''Mizo Zirlai Pawl''' (lit. ''Mizo students' Association'') is a [[Mizo people|Mizo]] multinational student organization and apex students body based in [[Mizoram]] state, India. Established on 27 October 1935 in [[Shillong]] by Mizo earlier educated students. Originally as the Lushai Students Association (LSA), which was later replaced with the "Mizo Zirlai Pawl" (Mizo Students Association) on 1 September 1946. As Mizoram State government notified MZP raising day 27 October was observed as '''"Zirlaite Ni"''' (Students' Day) from 2008 in Mizoram. It was registered as SR No. 35 of 1969–70 under [[Indian Societies Registration Act]]. Its general headquarters is in the state capital of [[Mizoram]], [[Aizawl]]. And it has 12 headquarters inside and outside of [[Mizoram]] state,<ref name="mzpmizoram1">{{cite web|url=http://mzpmizoram.org/mizo-zirlai-pawl-history/|publisher=mzpmizoram.org|title=Mizo Zirlai Pawl History | Mizo Zirlai Pawl |accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref> such as [[Churachandpur]] (in [[Manipur]]), Behliangchhip (in [[Tripura]]), and in [[Mizoram]] state - [[Serchhip]], [[Biate (town)|Biate]], [[Champhai]], [[Darlawn]], [[Kolasib]], [[Mamit, India|Mamit]], [[Zawlnuam]], [[Saitual]], [[Lunglei]] and [[Khawzawl]]. It has 50 Sub-Headquarters and many branches.

==Scope==
The following Mizo (used as an umbrella term for all peoples who speak one of the [[Mizo languages]]) student organizations are affiliated to it:<ref name="mzpmizoram1"/>
*Lai Students' Association (LSA)
*Mizoram Bawm Students' Association (MBSA)
*Pang zirlai Pawl (PZP)
*Mara Students' Organization<ref name="wordpress">{{cite web|url=https://msohqrssiaha.wordpress.com/about/|publisher=msohqrssiaha.wordpress.com|title=About | Mara Students' Organisation General Hqrs Siaha|date=20 June 2013 |accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref> (MSO)
*Ranglong Students' Union (RSU)
*Thadou Students' Association (TSA)
*Siamsinpawlpi<ref name="siamsinpawlpi">{{cite web|url=http://www.siamsinpawlpi.org/about.html|publisher=siamsinpawlpi.org|title=Siamsinpawlpi General Heaquarters | Who We Are|accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref> (SSPP)

It is itself a constituent unit of [[North-East Students' Organisation]] (NESO)

Most of College Students Union in [[Mizoram]], Women Politechnic, [[Aizawl]] and [[Mizoram University]] Students Council; Chairman/Vice President and General Secretary is the Ex-Officio Member in General Headquarters.

In different parts of [[India]], Cities and Institution based Mizo Students Association is also affiliated to Mizo Zirlai Pawl; like, Mizo Students Union Pune (MSUP), Delhi Mizo Zirlai Pawl (DMZP) and many more.

==History==
[[File:MZP Leaders.jpg|thumb|right|MZP General Headquarters Leaders (1965-1966)]]
The Lushai Students Association previously founded in 1926 at Shillong and which had almost collapsed was revived in October 1935. Its main objectives were to look after the welfare of the Lushai Students, to prepare them to become leaders of future, and to preserve the Lushai traditional and cultural values. At the first general elections held on 24 October 1939, Buchhawn was elected as its president, Lalhmuaka as its general secretary, Hrawva as its treasurer and Saptea as its student secretary. The general meeting at Aizawl on 1 September 1946 had changed its name into Mizo Zirlai Pawl (MZP) and shifted its base from Shillong to Aizawl.<ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Indirect Rule In Mizoram 1890-1954|author=Zorema, J.|date=2007|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=9788183242295|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BYwpt38dYIIC&pg=PA110|page=110|accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref>

The association was established on 27 October 1935.<ref name="mzpmizoram1"/>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="6"|Brief Chronicle of MZP
|-
|1926 ||Lushai Students Association was formed in [[Calcutta]], [[Gauhati]] and [[Shillong]]. Unfortunately, the organisation collapsed and ceased to exist.
|-
|1935 || Lushai Students Association was again newly established in [[Shillong]]. R. Buchhawna B.A in-charged President, Lalhmuaka as General Secretary and Hrawva B.A as Treasurer.
|-
|1938 || Published its newspaper 'LSA CHANCHINBU' for the first time.
|-
|1939 || [[World War II]] affected the association. It could not function properly and its newspaper couldn't be published either.
|-
|1945 || When [[World War II]] ended, it was reformed and the constitutions were amended.
|-
|1946 || Lushai Students Association changed its name into Mizo Zirlai Pawl, in short MZP shifted its base from Shillong to Aizawl. The Magazine LSA Newsletter also changed to MZP Chanchinbu.
|-
|1959 || After the shock of Mautam ([[famine]]) MZP was reformed again. At that time it had offices in Mizo District Council Office and in Govt. Mizo High School. MZP demanded the Special Scholarship for Mizo Students to the Assam Government. For the first time in Mizoram and to promote mizo literature and songs, MZP organised 'Hla Kutpui' (Song Festival) in Aizawl. Formed the committee of Mizo Vernicular.
|-
|1966 || [[Mizo National Front]] uprising and Mizo Independent Movement influenced most of MZP leaders. Many leaders joined the movement. Therefore, the organisation became weak.
|-
|1970s || MZP became one of the strongest and biggest organisation in Mizoram. Around 1000 branches in Mizoram and outside Mizoram state, in Mizoram most high school and village run the organisation.
|-
|1973 || MZP revived and re-organised Mizo [[Traditional]] festival and 'Chapchar Kut'. This festival is one of the most valued festival till today by the Mizo [[society]] which is still celebrated today since that time.
|-
|1978 || MZP Conference held in Kolasib decided, the extension for the term of MZP Leaders from one year to two years.
|-
|1979 || MZP support the MNF-India peace accord. it submitted the [[memorandum]] to the Govt. of India regarding peace in [[Mizoram]].
|-
|1981 || Protest the selection of non-mizo in state quota of [[Vocational education|Technical]] Course. In that movement most of MZP Leaders were arrested and were imprisoned. Protest and demand to abolish Chakma District Council.
|-
|1982 || MZP took an action for peace in Mizoram. The [[Union Territory]] Government blame MZP as anti-national and BANNED the organisation. That issued shocked the MZP and it became weakened. But, the organisation was run secretly by a few leaders.
|-
|1985 || The new government withdrew the ban of MZP. Northeast Students Coordination Committee (NESCC) organised North East Cultural Festival in Aizawl based MZP. But, MZP could not function properly. During the ban of the organisation, various students associations were formed in Mizoram for different issues and purposes.
|-
|1993 || 14 August, seven students association meeting decided to demolish their own organisation and [[amalgamation (politics)|amalgamated]] to MZP and reformed it again. In September special assembly amended the constitution and elected the new leaders. The Constitution added the Affiliation rules for Mizo Tribe-based students organisation and Federal Council System. The NECC also changed the name to NESO.
|-
|1993–1995 || Emphasized the theme of (Mizo hnam inpumkhatna) '[[Mizo people|Mizo]] Unification'.
|-
|1994 || MZP against the issue to abolish the ILP.
|-
|1995 || Proclaimed the Chakma Foreigner Quite Order. Most of [[Chakma people|Chakma]] foreigner deleted from electoral roll.
|-
|1996 || Organised the issue of Chakma Foreigners. Long march from Aizawl to Chawngte.
|-
|1995–1998 || Proposed and used the theme of (ram leh hnam humhalh) 'Mizo tribe preservation year'.
|-
|1997 || For the first time, MZP General Headquarters fall into 'Adviser Rule'. [[Constitution]] amendment and extended the term of elected office bearer to two years. The president can't elected more than one term.
|-
| 2002 || Organised ZOFEST in [[Churachandpur]] for the unification among Zo-hnahthlak of Zofa.
|-
|2007 || Demanded to the [[President of India]] to apologize to the people of Mizo for their bombing Mizoram.
|-
|2008 || The Govt. of Mizoram notified MZP rising day is to be observed as 'Zirlaite Ni' (Students' Day). [[Anniversary]] of Mizoram bombing day by the [[Indian Government]] during MNF Independent movement was celebrate as "Zoram Ni".
|-
| 2010 || Celebrated its [[Platinum Jubilee]].
|-
|2013 || MZP main office building, 'MZP PISAPUI' was inaugurated by Mizoram Chief Minister [[Lal Thanhawla]] in [[Aizawl]].
|-
|2014 || MZP constructed Zofate Chawlhbuk at [[Borapansury]] CADC area.
|-
|2018 || MZP constructed the Zofate Chawlhbuk at Zophai, Bairabi. However, it was demolished by the Assam Police, leading to tensions between the state of Mizoram and Assam.
|}

==Aims and objectives==
[[File:MZP Flag.jpg|thumb|right|MZP Flag]]
The [[motto]] is ''Ṭanrual hi chakna'' (lit. Unity is strength) and the [[theme (narrative)|theme]] (thuvawn) is ''Mizo students in service of Mizo Nation'' (Mizo zirlaite kan ram leh hnam tan). Its main aim is 'to prepare all [[Mizo peoples|Zohnahthlâk]] people to be ''valuable citizens'' for the Mizo nation and [[Zogam|Zoram]] ' and 'to help the government in the development of [[Mizoram|Zoram]] and Mizo nation'. The following are some of the main aims and objectives:<ref name="mzpmizoram1"/>
# to safeguard the rights and unity of all Mizo students
# to prepare Mizo people to become helpful citizens of Zoram
# to do its best to unite all Mizo people and create an independent Mizo state out of all the territories historically occupied by [[Mizo peoples]]<ref name="oneindia">{{cite web|url=http://news.oneindia.in/2007/10/30/mizoram-map-recollects-unfulfilled-dream-1193742421.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120713134330/http://news.oneindia.in/2007/10/30/mizoram-map-recollects-unfulfilled-dream-1193742421.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-07-13|publisher=Oneindia|title=Zoram Map recollects unfulfilled dream|access-date=2017-01-25}}</ref>
# to prevent and attack corruption in [[Mizoram]]
# to conserve traditional Mizo values.

==Functions==

[[File:MZP EOB 2023 - 2025.jpg|thumb|right|MZP Elected Office Bearers ''2023-2025'']]
[[File:Zofate Run, Farkawn.JPG|thumb|right|MZP Assembly 2014 pandal ''Zofate Run'' at [[Farkawn]], Mizoram]]

The [[Voluntary association|association]] is administered by the [[Headquarters|General Headquarters]], which constitutes six elected office bearers elected by an electoral college after every two years, and who in turn appoint not more than fifty executive committee members for a term of 1 year. Ten appointed secretaries are selected among the executive committee members who take charge of various posts to advice and assist the elected office bearer. And then, they run the office and activities actively.

The executive committee appoints the adviser and NESO Council member for one year. Various subcommittees and clubs are also formed in the general headquarters.
The following are the elected office bearers for the term 2025–2027-
* [[President (corporate title)|President]] – ''Dr. C. Lalremruata''
* [[Vice president]] – ''Sanghmingthanga''
* [[General secretary]] – ''C. Lalhmingsanga''
* [[Secretary (title)|Assistant Secretary]] – ''Lalentlinga''
* [[Treasurer]] – ''Rothanliana''
* [[Financial secretary|Finance Secretary]] – ''Nangsawmthanga''

At present Mr. Ricky Lalbiakmawia (finance secretary) represents MZP in the [[NESO]] committee.
MZP Assembly is the top authority in the association, and Federal Council Sitting is the second highest authority to rule the association.

==Presidents of the organisation==
{{more cn section|date=June 2025|find=Mizo Zirlai Pawl|find2=presidents}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Name
|-
|1935–1936
| rowspan="7" |R.Buchhawna<ref name="google2">{{cite book|title=Indirect Rule In Mizoram 1890-1954|author=Zorema, J.|date=2007|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=9788183242295|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BYwpt38dYIIC&pg=PA94|page=94|accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref>
|-
|1936–1937
|-
|1937–1938
|-
|1938–1939
|-
|1939–1940
|-
|1940–1941
|-
|1941–1942
|-
|1942–1943
| rowspan="4" |Hrawva<ref name="blogspot">{{cite web|url=http://thezopa.blogspot.sg/2013/07/lal-hrawva-khiangte.html|publisher=thezopa.blogspot.sg|title=THE ZOPA: LAL HRAWVA KHIANGTE|date=31 July 2013 |accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref>
|-
|1943–1944
|-
|1944–1945
|-
|1945–1946
|-
|1946–1947
|Khawtinkhuma<ref name="google3">{{cite book|title=Indirect Rule In Mizoram 1890-1954|author=Zorema, J.|date=2007|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=9788183242295|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BYwpt38dYIIC&pg=PA143|page=143|accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref>
|-
|1947–1948
|R.Buchhawna
|-
|1948–1949
| rowspan="2" |[[Zairema]]
|-
|1949–1950
|-
|1950–1951
|Sangliana
|-
|1951–1952
| rowspan="2" |Lalsiama
|-
|1952–1953
|-
|1953–1954
|Sangliana
|-
|1954–1955
| rowspan="2" |K.C.Lalvunga<ref name="hlakungpui">{{cite web|url=http://www.hlakungpui.com/luahtute.php?article_id=22| publisher=hlakungpui.com| title=K.C.LALVUNGA (1929 - 1994)|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610193316/http://www.hlakungpui.com/luahtute.php?article_id=22| archive-date=2015-06-10}}</ref>
|-
|1955–1956
|-
|1956–1957
|[[J. Malsawma]]{{citation needed|date=December 2018}}
|-
|1957–1958
| rowspan="2" |Sangliana
|-
|1958–1959
|-
|1959–1960
|H.K.Bawichhuaka<ref name="inpui">{{cite web|url=http://www.inpui.com/2014/10/mizo-union-pachal-hk-bawichhuaka.html|publisher=inpui.com|title=Mizo Union pachal H.K. Bawichhuaka chanchin | INPUI.COM: Hmar Mizo News & Info|accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref>
|-
|1960–1961
|H.Raltawna<ref name="aizawl">{{cite web|url=http://aizawl.nic.in/dclist.htm|publisher=aizawl.nic.in|title=Aizawl District - List of Incumbency|accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref>
|-
|1961–1962
|H.K.Bawichhuaka
|-
|1962–1963
| rowspan="2" |Romawia
|-
|1963–1964
|-
|1964–1965
| rowspan="5" |Rozinga
|-
|1965–1966
|-
|1966–1967
|-
|1967–1968
|-
|1968–1969
|-
|1969–1970
|L.Pachunga
|-
|1970–1971
|J.Lalduhawma
|-
|1971–1972
|R.L.Thanzawna
|-
|1972–1973
|Zoliana Royte
|-
|1973–1974
|Lalnuntluanga
|-
|1974–1975
|
|-
|1975–1976
|
|-
|1976–1977
| rowspan="2" |[[J.V. Hluna]]<ref name="pucollege">{{cite web|url=http://www.pucollege.in/index.php/newslist/333-congratulations-dr-jv-hluna|publisher=pucollege.in|title=crusher machine,profissing Stone crusher for sale.|accessdate=2017-01-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619134634/http://www.pucollege.in/index.php/newslist/333-congratulations-dr-jv-hluna|archive-date=19 June 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|1977–1978
|-
|1978–1980
|T.C.Kapmawia
|-
|1980–1982
|Rochunga Ralte
|-
|1982–1984
|Zokailiana Khiangte
|-
|1984–1986
|
|-
|1986
|
|-
|1987–1989
|B.C.Lalbiakngura
|-
|1989–1993
|F.Lalchhawnkima
|-
|1993
(Ad hoc 1 month)
| rowspan="3" |[[Lalmuanpuia Punte]]
|-
|1993–1994
|-
|1994–1995
|-
|1995–1996
|[[K Vanlalvena]]
|-
|1996–1997
|Lalmuanpuia Punte
|-
|1997–1999
|Lalruatkima<ref name="myneta">{{cite web|url=http://myneta.info/mizoram2013/candidate.php?candidate_id=136|publisher=myneta.info|title=Lalruatkima(MNF):Constituency- AIZAWL WEST - 2(AIZAWL) - Affidavit Information of Candidate|accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref>
|-
|1999–2001
|R.Vanlalvena<ref name="myneta2">{{cite web|url=http://myneta.info/2008Mizoram/candidate.php?candidate_id=6|publisher=myneta.info|title=R.VANLALVENA(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- Aizawl South-I(AIZAWL) - Affidavit Information of Candidate|accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref>
|-
|2001–2003
|[[Lalchhandama Ralte]]<ref name="myneta3">{{cite web|url=http://myneta.info/mizoram2013/candidate.php?candidate_id=45|publisher=myneta.info|title=Lalchhandama Ralte(MNF):Constituency- AIZAWL NORTH - 3(AIZAWL) - Affidavit Information of Candidate|accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref>
|-
|2003–2005
|C.Lalrokhuma
|-
|2005–2007
|PC.Laltlansanga
|-
|2007–2009
|C.Lalhmachhuana
|-
|2009–2011
|V.L.Krosshnehzova
|-
|2011–2013
|James Thanghmingmawia
|-
|2013–2015
|Lalhmachhuana
|-
|2015–2017
|Lalsangzuala Ngente
|-
|2017–2019
|L. Ramdinliana Renthlei
|-
|2019–2021
|B.Vanlaltana (L)
|-
|2021–2023
|Lalnunmawia Pautu
|-
|2023–2025
|H. Lalthianghlima
|-
|2025-2027
|Dr. C. Lalremruata
|}

==Event==

=== Assembly ===
[[File:RAL06518.jpg|thumb|right|MZP Assembly 2024, Tlangsam]]
The Mizo Zirlai Pawl (MZP) Assembly is the highest decision-making body of the organization. Convening annually, it deliberates on the future direction and activities of the MZP. During this gathering, the Assembly approved the organization's activity plan, which outlines key initiatives and strategies for the upcoming period. This plan is designed to guide MZP's efforts in student welfare, cultural preservation, and advocacy for the Mizo community.{{Cn|date=June 2025}}

=== Federal Council Sitting ===
The Mizo Zirlai Pawl (MZP) Federal Council Sitting serves as the second-highest decision-making body within the organization. It convenes to set and filter agendas for the MZP Assembly and to oversee the implementation of the Assembly's decisions and plans. The Federal Council has the authority to formulate and plan the organization's future activities. Additionally, it possesses the power to dissolve both the General Headquarters and Sub-Headquarters of MZP. The General Headquarters has the prerogative to summon the Federal Council as needed.{{Cn|date=June 2025}}

=== Zofest ===
[[File:Sialsuk 2022.jpg|thumb|right|Zofest 2022 Sialsuk]]
The Mizo Zirlai Pawl (MZP) has organized Zofest to unite the [[Zofate]]—[[Mizo people|Mizo]] ethnic communities—residing in various parts of the world, particularly in [[India]], [[Myanmar]], and [[Bangladesh]].{{Cn|date=June 2025}} These regions share common borders, cultures, histories, traditions, languages, beliefs, and faiths.{{Cn|date=June 2025}}

The inaugural Zofest was held in 2002 at [[YPA Hall]] in [[Lamka]], [[Manipur]]. Since then, the event has been hosted in various locations, including [[Aizawl]], [[Mizoram]] (2004, 2006, 2009); [[Darchawi]], [[Tripura]] (2012); [[Manipur]] (2012); [[Haflong]], [[Assam]] (2014); [[Zokhawthar]], [[Mizoram]] (2016); [[Reiek]], [[Mizoram]] (2018); [[Sialsuk]], [[Mizoram]] (2022); and [[W. Phaileng]], [[Mizoram]] (2024).

In 2024, Zofest was held from December 3 to 6 in W. [[Phaileng]], [[Mizoram]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/mizoram-cm-advocates-for-population-growth-among-ethnic-mizo-tribes/articleshow/115981553.cms | title='Ethnic Mizos need to grow': Mizoram CM calls for population growth, hints at incentives | work=The Times of India | date=5 December 2024 }}</ref> The theme for this year's event was "Hrui Khat Vuanin" ''(Marching Together as One)'', and the gathering venue was named "Lalbuanga Run" in honor of the Chief of W. Phaileng. The event attracted participants from Zofa ethnic groups across Mizoram, [[Myanmar]], Bangladesh, Manipur, [[Tripura]], [[Assam]], the United States, and beyond, making it a truly international celebration of culture.{{Cn|date=June 2025}}

''Objectives of Zofest:''
''Promote Unity Among Zofa Communities:'' Encourage a sense of unity among the various Zofa tribes across different regions, emphasizing their shared heritage and common aspirations.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://northeastlivetv.com/topnews/cm-lalduhoma-urges-population-growth-mizoram-has-room-for-more/ | title=Lalduhoma Urges Population Growth, Mizoram Has Room for More | date=5 December 2024 }}</ref>

''Cultural Exchange and Enrichment:'' Provide a platform for participants to showcase their unique cultures, traditions, and practices, fostering mutual learning and enriching the broader Zofa community.{{Cn|date=June 2025}}

''Strengthen Brotherhood and Sisterhood:'' Highlight the familial bonds that unite all Zofa people, reinforcing the understanding that, despite political boundaries, they are connected by blood and a common ancestry.{{Cn|date=June 2025}}

''Celebrate Linguistic Similarities:'' Highlight the shared linguistic heritage of the Zofa community, noting that over 60% of [[Zofa languages]] exhibit similarities, despite the presence of approximately 30 distinct languages within the group.{{Cn|date=June 2025}}

=== Remna Ni ===
Remna Ni, or "Peace Day," is observed annually on June 30 in Mizoram to commemorate the signing of the [[Mizo Peace Accord]] in 1986. This historic agreement between the Government of India and the [[Mizo National Front]] (MNF) ended two decades of insurgency and unrest in the region, ushering in an era of peace and stability.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bhattacharjee |first=Sudipta |date=30 June 2011 |title=Accord most successful in the country, says Mizo CM 'Sundry factors ensured peace' |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/accord-most-successful-in-the-country-says-mizo-cm-sundry-factors-ensured-peace/cid/380006 |access-date=7 June 2025 |work=Telegraph India}}</ref>

Since 2018, the Mizo Zirlai Pawl (MZP), the apex student body, has been at the forefront of organizing Remna Ni celebrations, providing a platform for all political parties and organizations to unite in honoring the spirit of peace and reconciliation. These observances serve as a reminder of the sacrifices made and the importance of maintaining harmony among the diverse communities in Mizoram.<ref>https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/chief-minister-graced-remna-ni-celebration-organised-by-mzp</ref>

On this day, the MZP also recognizes and appreciates individuals and organizations that have made significant contributions to the peace process. The following individuals have been honored for their exemplary roles:{{Cn|date=June 2025}}

2018: Pu [[Lal Thanhawla]], Pu [[Laldenga]], Pu Lalkhama (IAS Retd.)

2019: Rev. Dr. H.S. Luaia, Rev. Dr. [[Zairema]], Rev. Dr. Lalngurauva Ralte, Pu [[Lalduhoma]]

2022: Rev. Dr. Lalsawma

2023: Mizoram Kohhran Hruaitute Committee

2024: Pu J.H. Rothuama, Pu P. Lalupa, Pu Lalthanzauva, Pu Ngurchhina

These awards acknowledge their unwavering commitment and significant contributions to fostering peace and unity in Mizoram.{{Cn|date=June 2025}}

=== Zoram Ni ===
On March 1, 1966, the [[Mizo National Front]] (MNF) declared Mizoram's independence.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://northeasttoday.in/2022/03/05/mizoram-uneventful-air-raids-in-aizawl-on-march-5-1966-day-concealed-under-history-sheets/ | title=Mizoram: Uneventful Air Raids in Aizawl on March 5, 1966; Day Concealed Under History Sheets - Northeast Today | date=5 March 2022 }}</ref> In response, the [[Indian Air Force]] launched an airstrike on [[Aizawl]] on March 5, 1966, using jet fighters to bomb the city.{{cn|date=May 2025}} This resulted in significant civilian casualties and widespread destruction. The affected areas included [[Republic Veng]], [[Hmeichhe Veng]], [[Dawrpui Veng]], [[Chhinga Veng]] and different parts of Mizoram.{{Cn|date=June 2025}} The bombing remains the only instance of India using its air force against its own citizens.{{Cn|date=June 2025}}

The Indian government's justification for the bombing was that it was targeting MNF installations.<ref>https://newsvoice.info/article/page/nenow/north-east-news/drone-clap-wail-still-haunt-mizo-elders-march-5.html</ref> However, many civilians were killed, and the distinction between combatants and non-combatants was not clear from the air. This led to widespread condemnation and demands for accountability.{{Cn|date=June 2025}}

In 2008, the Mizo Zirlai Pawl (MZP), the apex student body in [[Mizoram]], began observing March 5 as "Zoram Ni" (Zoram Day) to remember the tragic events of that day.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://northeastlivetv.com/around-ne/mizoram/mizoram-solemnly-remembers-1966-iaf-bombing-of-aizawl/ | title=Mizoram solemnly remembers 1966 IAF bombing of Aizawl | date=6 March 2023 }}</ref> The day is marked with various activities, including seminars, discussions, and cultural programs, to instill a sense of nationalism and to honor the sacrifices made by the people of Mizoram.{{Cn|date=June 2025}}

On August 10, 2023, [[Prime Minister Narendra Modi]] addressed the [[Indian Parliament]], acknowledging the events of March 5, 1966, and the impact on the Mizo people. He emphasized the importance of understanding and reconciliation.{{Cn|date=June 2025}}

==Publication==

Mizo Zirlai Pawl publishes a monthly magazine MZP CHANCHINBU<ref name="google4">{{cite book|title=The Mizo Uprising: Assam Assembly Debates on the Mizo Movement, 1966-1971|author1=Hluna, J.V.|author2=Tochhawng, R.|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publisher|isbn=9781443845021|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SbMwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA107|page=107|accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref> in [[Mizo language]] since 1938. It has a circulation of 1,000 copies. It registered under [[Registrar of Newspapers for India]]<ref name="rni">{{cite web|url=http://rni.nic.in/display_main100_reg.asp|publisher=rni.nic.in|title=display_main100_reg|accessdate=2017-01-25}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Northeast Students' Organization]]
* [[Wesean Student Federation]]
* [[Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Mizo]]
[[Category:Student organisations in India]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Mizoram]]

Paanai Pidithaval Bhaagyasaali

2026-04-13T04:00:34Z

Realhimachal: creating the biography from scratch - done

{{short description|1958 film by T. S. Durairaj}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Paanai Pidithaval Bhaagyasaali.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[T. S. Durairaj]]
| screenplay = T. K. Sundara Vathiyar Makkalanban
| story = Gangeyan
| producer = T. S. Durairaj
| starring = [[Savitri (actress)|Savitri]] [[K. Balaji]] T. S. Durairaj [[P. S. Veerappa]]
| cinematography = [[Kamal Ghosh]]
| editing = R. B. Natarajan
| music = [[S. V. Venkatraman]] [[S. Rajeswara Rao]]
| studio = Marakatha Pictures
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1958|1|10}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}
'''''Paanai Pidithaval Bhaagyasaali''''' ({{translation|She who has the pot is lucky}}) is a 1958 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[comedy film]] produced and directed by [[T. S. Durairaj]], starring himself, [[Savitri (actress)|Savitri]], [[K. Balaji]], [[T. P. Muthulakshmi]], [[P. S. Veerappa]] and [[V. S. Raghavan]]. It was released on 10 January 1958.

== Plot ==
{{More plot|date=December 2021}}
There is an illiterate and orphaned woman (Savitri) who was raised by her brother (Durairaj). She witnesses a thief (R. Nageswara Rao) raiding a wealthy man's house and committing two murders and he is after her. Savithri goes through numerous adventures involving various men but manages to escape all of them. She later meets a wealthy young man (Balaji) and falls in love with him. After many other incidents, she walks in helped by Durairaj and marries her lover who was originally set to marry another girl against his will.

== Cast ==
* [[T. S. Durairaj]]
* [[Savitri (actress)|Savitri]]
* [[K. Balaji]]
* [[P. S. Veerappa]]
* [[V. S. Raghavan]]
* R. Nageswara Rao as the thief
* T. P. Muthulakshmi
* Saayiram
* Angamuthu
* T. N. Kamalam

== Production ==
''Paanai Pidithaval Bhaagyasaali'' was produced and directed by [[T. S. Durairaj]] via his studio Marakatha Pictures, and he also starred as the male lead.<ref name="lakshmansruthi" /> Gangeyan was the writer. Shooting took place at many Madras studios such as Paramount, Revathi, [[Gemini Studios|Gemini]] and Majestic.<ref name="thehindu" />

== Soundtrack ==
The music of the film was composed by [[S. V. Venkatraman]] and [[S. Rajeswara Rao]]. The song "Purushan Veetil Vaazha Pora Penney" performed by Loganathan was criticised by social activists for its seemingly misogynistic nature.<ref name="thehindu" />

{| class="wikitable"
! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length
|-
| "Purushan Veetil Vaazha Pora Ponney" || Thiruchi Loganathan || rowspan="3" | T. K. Sundara Vathiyar || 03:26
|-
| "Maancholai Thannile.... Aasai Mugam Maarinadho" || Jikki || 03:33
|-
| "Chaldhe Chaldhe Podaa" || T. M. Soundararajan || 02:24
|-
| "Thikku Theriyaadha Kaattil" || Jikki || rowspan="3" | [[Subramanya Bharathi|Mahakavi Subramanya Bharathiyar]]|| 04:24
|-
| "Penne Unadhazhagai Kandu" || Thiruchi Loganathan & Jikki || 02:16
|-
| "Kannaa Vedan Engu Ponaan" || Jikki || 01:12
|-
| "Soalaikkulle Kuyilu Kunju" || Sirkazhi Govindarajan & P. Susheela || rowspan="2" | T. K. Sundara Vathiyar || 03:28
|-
| "Ushaaru Ushaaru" || K. Rani & G. Kasthoori || 05:58
|-
| "Pachadikkettha Kichadi Sambaa" || Thiruchi Loganathan & T. V. Rathnam || [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]]|| 02:52
|}

== Release and reception ==
''Paanai Pidithaval Bhaagyasaali'' was released on 10 January 1958.<ref name="lakshmansruthi" /> ''[[The Indian Express]]'' said, "In [''Paanai Pidithaval Bhaagyasaali''], comedian Durairaj promotes himself to a producer and a competent director. The picture designed with economy of language, quickness of action and deftness of movement, makes an impression because of the skillfully woven plot, pleasing songs and lively antics." ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote, "Good acting combined with pleasing and dance highlight Marakatha Pictures ''[Paanai Pidithaval Bhaagyasaali]''. [Savitri] turns in a fine performance, so does [T. S. Durairaj]."<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 January 1958 |title=The press acclaim and the public applaud |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19580124&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=9 May 2017 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=3 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> According to historian [[Randor Guy]], the film was not successful because of the "weak" screenplay and on-screen narration, but the music was its "redeeming feature".<ref name="thehindu" />The story of this film only inspired the later film Navarathri

== References ==
<references>

<ref name="thehindu">{{Cite news |last=Guy |first=Randor |author-link=Randor Guy |date=9 February 2013 |title=Paanai Pidithaval Bhaagyasaali 1958 |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/paanai-pidithaval-bhaagyasaali-1958/article4396960.ece |url-status=live |access-date=9 May 2017 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170509131626/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/paanai-pidithaval-bhaagyasaali-1958/article4396960.ece |archive-date=9 May 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="lakshmansruthi">{{Cite web |title=1958 – பானை பிடித்தவள் பாக்கியசாலி – மரகதா பிக். |trans-title=1958 – Paanai Pidithaval Bhaagyasaali – Marakatha Pic. |url=http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1958-cinedetails23.asp |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170509130904/http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1958-cinedetails23.asp |archive-date=9 May 2017 |access-date=9 May 2017 |website=[[Lakshman Sruthi]] |language=Tamil}}</ref>

</references>

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

[[Category:1958 Indian films]]
[[Category:1958 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1958 comedy films]]
[[Category:1958 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:1958 films]]
[[Category:Films scored by S. Rajeswara Rao]]
[[Category:Films scored by S. V. Venkatraman]]
[[Category:Indian comedy films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language comedy films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian black-and-white films]]

Semnopithecus

2026-04-12T14:44:50Z

Realhimachal: creating a stub

{{Short description|Genus of Old World monkeys}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Gray langur Mudumalai 02.jpg
| image_caption = Gray langur in Mudumalai, Tamil Nadu
| taxon = Semnopithecus
| authority = [[Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest|Desmarest]], 1822
| display_parents = 2
| type_species = ''[[Semnopithecus entellus|Simia entellus]]'' <ref name=msw3/>
| type_species_authority = [[Louis Dufresne|Dufresne]], 1797
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = ''[[Nepal gray langur|S. schistaceus]]'' 
''[[Kashmir gray langur|S. ajax]]'' 
''[[Tarai gray langur|S. hector]]'' 
''[[Northern plains gray langur|S. entellus]]'' 
''[[Black-footed gray langur|S. hypoleucos]]'' 
''[[Nilgiri langur|S. johnii]]'' 
''[[Tufted gray langur|S. priam]]'' 
''[[Purple-faced langur|S. vetulus]]''
}}

'''''Semnopithecus''''' is a genus of [[Old World monkey]]s native to the [[Indian subcontinent]], with all species with the exception of two being commonly known as '''gray langurs'''.<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Groves |pages=174–175 |id=12100693 |heading=Genus ''Semnopithecus''}}</ref> Traditionally only the species ''Semnopithecus entellus'' was recognized, but since about 2001 additional species have been recognized. The taxonomy has been in flux, but currently eight species are recognized.

Members of the genus ''Semnopithecus'' are [[Terrestrial animal|terrestrial]], inhabiting forest, open lightly wooded habitats, and urban areas on the Indian subcontinent. Most species are found at low to moderate altitudes, but the [[Nepal gray langur]] and [[Kashmir gray langur]] occur up to {{convert|4000|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the [[Himalaya]]s.<ref name="IUCNNepalgraylangur"/><ref name="IUCNKashmirgraylangur"/>

==Characteristics==
These langurs are largely gray (some more yellowish), with a black face and ears. Externally, the various species mainly differ in the darkness of the hands and feet, the overall color and the presence or absence of a crest.<ref name=Groves2001>{{cite book |last1=Groves |first1=C. |year=2001 |title=Primate taxonomy |location=Washington DC |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |isbn=1-56098-872-X}}</ref><ref name=Brandon-Jones>{{cite journal |last1=Brandon-Jones |first1=D. |year=2004 |title=A taxonomic revision of the langurs and leaf monkeys (Primates: Colobinae) of South Asia |journal=Zoos' Print Journal |volume=19 |issue=8 |pages=1552–1594 |doi=10.11609/jott.zpj.971.1552-94 |url=http://www.zoosprint.org/ZooPrintJournal/2004/August/1552-94.pdf |doi-access=free |archive-date=2018-06-02 |access-date=2011-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602053827/http://www.zoosprint.org/ZooPrintJournal/2004/August/1552-94.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Typically all north Indian gray langurs have their tail tips looping towards their head during a casual walk whereas all south Indian and Sri Lankan gray langurs have an inverted "U" shape or a "S" tail carriage pattern.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Roonwal, M.L. |title=Intraspecific variation in size, proportion of body parts and weight in the hanuman langur, ''Presbytis entellus'' (Primates), in South Asia, with remarks on subspeciation |journal=Records of the Zoological Survey of India |volume=79 |pages=125–158 |year=1981 |issue=1–2 |doi=10.26515/rzsi/v79/i1-2/1981/161760 |s2cid=251696925 |url=http://faunaofindia.nic.in/PDFVolumes/records/079/01-02/0125-0158.pdf}}</ref> There are also significant variations in the size depending on the sex, with the male always larger than the female. The head-and-body length is from {{convert|51|to|79|cm|in|abbr=on}}. Their tails, at {{convert|69|to|102|cm|in|abbr=on}} are always longer than their bodies.<ref name="Burnie"/> Langurs from the southern part of their range are smaller than those from the north. At {{convert|26.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, the heaviest langur ever recorded was a male [[Nepal gray langur]].<ref name=Brandon-Jones/> The larger gray langurs are rivals for the largest species of monkey found in Asia. The average weight of gray langurs is {{convert|18|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in the males and {{convert|11|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in the females.<ref name="Burnie"/>

Langurs mostly walk quadrupedally and spend half of their time on the ground and the other half in trees. They will also make bipedal hops, climbing and descending supports with the body upright, and leaps. Langurs can leap {{convert|3.6|–|4.7|m|ft|abbr=on}} horizontally and {{convert|10.7|–|12.2|m|ft|abbr=on}} in descending.<ref name="Ripley 1967"/>

==Taxonomy==
[[File:Gray Langur - Young.jpg|thumb|Young gray langur at [[Nagarhole National Park]], [[Mysore]]]]
[[File:Hanuman Langur or Gray Langur.jpg|thumb|Hanuman langur in [[Nandankanan Zoological Park]] in Bhubaneshwar]]
Traditionally, only ''Semnopithecus entellus'' was recognized as a species, the remainder all being treated as [[subspecies]]. In 2001, it was proposed that seven species should be recognized.<ref name=Groves2001/> This was followed in ''[[Mammal Species of the World]]'' in 2005,<ref name=msw3/> though several of the seven species [[intergrade]], and alternative treatments exist where only two species (a northern and a southern) are recognized.<ref name=Brandon-Jones/> [[Phylogenetic]] evidence supports at least three species: a north Indian, a south Indian and a Sri Lankan one.<ref name=Phylogenetic>{{cite journal |last1=Osterholz |first1=M. |last2=Walter |first2=L. |last3=Roos |first3=C. |title=Phylogenetic position of the langur genera ''Semnopithecus'' and ''Trachypithecus'' among Asian colobines, and genus affiliations of their species groups |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=8 |year=2008 |issue=1 |article-number=58|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-8-58 |pmid=18298809 |pmc=2268674 |bibcode=2008BMCEE...8...58O |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=molecular>{{cite journal |last=Karanth |first=P. |title=Molecular systematics and conservation of the langurs and leaf monkeys of South Asia |journal=Journal of Genetics |year=2010 |url=https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/jgen/089/04/0393-0399 |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=393–399 |doi=10.1007/s12041-010-0057-3 |pmid=21273689 |s2cid=17712174 |access-date=2019-02-08|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

It has been suggested that the ''[[Tufted gray langur|Semnopithecus priam]] thersites'' is worthy of treatment as a species rather than a subspecies, but at present this is based on limited evidence.<ref>{{Cite iucn |author=Molur, S. |author2=Singh, M. |author3=Kumar, A. |title=''Semnopithecus priam'' |article-number=e.T135440A4128558 |date=2008}}</ref> During a study based on external [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] and [[ecological niche modelling]] in [[Peninsular India]] six main types were found, but continued to label all as subspecies. Coat color is highly variable, possible due to [[phenotypic plasticity]] and therefore of questionable value in species delimitation.<ref name=Nag>{{cite journal |last=Nag |first=C. |author2=Karanth, P. |title=Taxonomic implications of a field study of morphotypes of hanuman langurs (''Semnopithecus entellus'') in Peninsular India |journal=International Journal of Primatology |year=2011 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=830–848 |doi=10.1007/s10764-011-9504-0 |s2cid=22233326 |url=http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/pubs/ces_pubs/pubs_2011/theme1_05.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Nag, C. |author2=Praveen, K. K. |author3=Vasudeva, G. K. |title=Delineating ecological boundaries of hanuman langur species complex in Peninsular India using MaxEnt modeling approach |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=2 |article-number=e87804 |year=2014 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0087804 |pmid=24498377 |pmc=3912124 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...987804C |doi-access=free}}</ref>

It has been suggested that ''[[Trachypithecus]]'' should be considered only a subgenus of ''Semnopithecus''.<ref name=Brandon-Jones/> If maintaining the two as separate [[monophyletic]] genera, the [[purple-faced langur]] and [[Nilgiri langur]] belong in ''Semnopithecus'' instead of their former genus ''Trachypithecus''. At present it is unclear where the ''T. pileatus'' species group (consisting of the [[capped langur]], [[Shortridge's langur]] and [[Gee's golden langur]]) belongs, as available [[mtDNA]] data place it in ''Semnopithecus'', while [[Y chromosome]] data place it in ''Trachypithecus''.<ref name=Phylogenetic/> A possible explanation for this is that the ''T. pileatus'' species group is the result of fairly recent [[hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] between ''Semnopithecus'' and ''Trachypithecus''.<ref name=molecular/>

As of 2005, the authors of ''[[Mammal Species of the World]]'' recognized the following seven ''Semnopithecus'' species<ref name=msw3/>
* [[Nepal gray langur]] ''Semnopithecus schistaceus''
* [[Kashmir gray langur]] ''Semnopithecus ajax''
* [[Tarai gray langur]] ''Semnopithecus hector''
* [[Northern plains gray langur]] ''Semnopithecus entellus''
* [[Black-footed gray langur]] ''Semnopithecus hypoleucos''
* [[Southern plains gray langur]] ''Semnopithecus dussumieri''
* [[Tufted gray langur]] ''Semnopithecus priam''

Results of analysis of mitochondrial [[cytochrome b]] gene and two [[nuclear DNA]]-encoded genes of several colobine species revealed that Nilgiri and purple-faced langurs cluster with gray langur, while ''Trachypithecus'' species form a distinct clade.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of langurs and leaf monkeys of South Asia (Primates: Colobinae) |author=Karanth, K. P. |author2=Singh, L. |author3=Collura, R. V. |author4=Stewart, C. B. |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=46 |year=2008 |issue=2 |pages=683–694 |pmid=18191589 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2007.11.026 |bibcode=2008MolPE..46..683K |url=http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/pubs/ces_pubs/pubs_2008/theme1_08.pdf}}</ref> Since then, two other species have been moved from ''Trachypithecus'' to ''Semnopithecus'':<ref name=handbook>{{cite book |title=Handbook of the Mammals of the World, Volume 3: Primates |chapter=Introduction |edition=1st |author=Wilson, Don E. |author2=Mittermeier, Russell A. |author3=Rylands, Anthony B. |url=https://www.lynxeds.com/hmw/introduction/introduction-hmw-volume-3-primates |access-date=2018-08-30 |year=2013 |publisher=Lynx Edicions |isbn=978-84-96553-89-7}}</ref><ref name=asian>{{cite journal |author=Roos, C. |author2=Boonratana, R. |author3=Supriatna, J. |author4=Fellowes, J. R. |author5=Groves, C. P. |author6=Nash, S. D. |author7=Rylands, A. B. |author8=Mittermeier, R. A. |year=2014 |title=An updated taxonomy and conservation status review of Asian primates |journal=Asian Primates Journal |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=2–38 |url=http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/1200343/25106535/1403670682630/2014June24_APJ_Vol4_1.pdf?token=EY6Cm%2BAdyf9lSBug8Jv%2BeF%2B%2BPDM%3D}}</ref>
* [[Purple-faced langur]] ''Semnopithecus vetulus''
* [[Nilgiri langur]] ''Semnopithecus johnii''

In addition, ''Semnopithecus dussumieri'' has been determined to be invalid.<ref name=Nag/><ref name=asian/><ref name=mdd>{{cite web |title=Semnopithecus |url=https://mammaldiversity.org/#c2Vtbm9waXRoZWN1cyZnbG9iYWxfc2VhcmNoPXRydWUmbG9vc2U9dHJ1ZQ |publisher=Mammal Diversity Database |access-date=2019-02-01}}</ref><ref name=itis>{{cite web |title=Semnopithecus |url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt |publisher=ITIS |access-date=2019-02-01}}</ref> Most of the range that had been considered ''S. dussumieri'' is now considered ''S. entellus''.<ref name=handbook/><ref name=asian/>

Thus the current generally accepted species within the genus ''Semnopithecus'' are:<ref name=asian/><ref name=mdd/><ref name=itis/>
{{Species table |no-note=y |genus=Semnopithecus |authority-name=[[Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest|Desmarest]] |authority-year=1822 |species-count=eight}}
{{Species table/row
|name=[[Black-footed gray langur]] |binomial=S. hypoleucos
|image=File:Black_Footed_Langur_Log_Nagarhole_Dec21_D72_21387.jpg |image-size=135px |image-alt=Gray monkey
|authority-name=[[Edward Blyth|Blyth]] |authority-year=1841
|subspecies={{Collapsible list |expand=yes |title=Three subspecies |bullets=on
| ''S. h. achates''
| ''S. h. hypoleucos''
| ''S. h. iulus''
}}
|range=Southern India |range-image=File:Black-footed_Gray_Langur_area.png |range-image-size=161px
|size={{convert|41|–|78|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, plus {{convert|69|–|108|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} tail<ref name="PrimWorld160"/>
|habitat=Forest and shrubland<ref name="IUCNBlack-footedgraylangur"/>
|hunting=Leaves, fruit, and flowers<ref name="PrimWorld160"/>
|iucn-status=LC |population=Unknown
|direction={{decrease|Population declining}}<ref name="IUCNBlack-footedgraylangur"/>
}}
{{Species table/row
|name=[[Kashmir gray langur]] |binomial=S. ajax
|image= |image-size=180px |image-alt=
|authority-name=[[Reginald Innes Pocock|Pocock]]|authority-not-original=yes |authority-year=1928
|range=[[Himalayas]] |range-image=File:Kashmir_Gray_Langur_area.png |range-image-size=161px
|size={{convert|41|–|78|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, plus {{convert|69|–|108|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} tail<ref name="PrimWorld160"/>
|habitat=Forest<ref name="IUCNKashmirgraylangur"/>
|hunting=Leaves, bark, and seeds<ref name="IUCNKashmirgraylangur"/>
|iucn-status=EN |population=1,400–1,500
|direction={{decrease|Population declining}}<ref name="IUCNKashmirgraylangur"/>
}}
{{Species table/row
|name=[[Nepal gray langur]] |binomial=S. schistaceus
|image=File:Nepal_gray_langur,_Bhutan.jpg |image-size=128px |image-alt=Gray monkey
|authority-name=[[Brian Houghton Hodgson|Hodgson]] |authority-year=1840
|range=Himalayas |range-image=File:Nepal_Gray_Langur_area.png |range-image-size=161px
|size={{convert|41|–|78|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, plus {{convert|69|–|108|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} tail<ref name="PrimWorld160"/>
|habitat=Forest, shrubland, and rocky areas<ref name="IUCNNepalgraylangur"/>
|hunting=Leaves and fruit, as well as seeds, roots, flowers, bark, twigs, coniferous cones, moss, lichens, ferns, shoots, rhizomes, grass, and invertebrate animals<ref name="IUCNNepalgraylangur"/>
|iucn-status=LC |population=Unknown
|direction={{decrease|Population declining}}<ref name="IUCNNepalgraylangur"/>
}}
{{Species table/row
|name=[[Nilgiri langur]] |binomial=S. johnii
|image=File:Nilgiri langur (1) by N. A. Naseer.jpg |image-size=122px |image-alt=Gray monkey
|authority-name=[[Johann Baptist Fischer|J. Fischer]] |authority-year=1829 |authority-not-original=yes
|range= |range-image=File:Nilgiri Langur area.png |range-image-size=180px
|size={{convert|41|–|78|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, plus {{convert|69|–|108|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} tail<ref name="PrimWorld160"/>
|habitat=Forest<ref name="IUCNNilgirilangur"/>
|hunting=Leaves, fruit, and flowers<ref name="PrimWorld160"/>
|iucn-status=VU |population=9,500–10,000
|direction={{steady|Population steady}}<ref name="IUCNNilgirilangur"/>
}}
{{Species table/row
|name=[[Northern plains gray langur]] |binomial=S. entellus
|image=File:Northern_plains_gray_langur.jpg |image-size=120px |image-alt=Gray monkey
|authority-name=[[Louis Dufresne|Dufresne]] |authority-year=1797 |authority-not-original=yes
|range=India |range-image=File:Bengal_Gray_Langur_area.png |range-image-size=161px
|size={{convert|41|–|78|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, plus {{convert|69|–|108|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} tail<ref name="PrimWorld160"/>
|habitat=Forest, savanna, and shrubland<ref name="IUCNNorthernplainsgraylangur"/>
|hunting=Leaves, fruit, and flowers, as well as insects, bark, gum, and soil<ref name="ADWNorthernplainsgraylangur"/>
|iucn-status=LC |population=Unknown
|direction={{decrease|Population declining}}<ref name="IUCNNorthernplainsgraylangur"/>
}}
{{Species table/row
|name=[[Tarai gray langur]] |binomial=S. hector
|image=File:Tarai_Grey_Langur.jpg |image-size=135px |image-alt=Gray monkey
|authority-name=[[Reginald Innes Pocock|Pocock]]|authority-not-original=yes |authority-year=1928
|range=Himalayas |range-image=File:Tarai_Gray_Langur_area.png |range-image-size=161px
|size={{convert|41|–|78|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, plus {{convert|69|–|108|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} tail<ref name="PrimWorld160"/>
|habitat=Forest<ref name="IUCNTaraigraylangur"/>
|hunting=Leaves, fruit, and flowers<ref name="PrimWorld160"/>
|iucn-status=NT |population=Unknown
|direction={{decrease|Population declining}}<ref name="IUCNTaraigraylangur"/>
}}
{{Species table/row
|name=[[Tufted gray langur]] |binomial=S. priam
|image=File:Tufted_grey_langur_(Semnopithecus_priam).jpg |image-size=119px |image-alt=Brown monkey
|authority-name=[[Edward Blyth|Blyth]] |authority-year=1844
|subspecies={{Collapsible list |expand=yes |title=Three subspecies |bullets=on
| ''S. p. anchises''
| ''S. p. priam''
| ''S. p. thersites''
}}
|range=Southern India and Sri Lanka |range-image=File:Tufted_Gray_Langur_area.png |range-image-size=180px
|size={{convert|41|–|78|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, plus {{convert|69|–|108|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} tail<ref name="PrimWorld160"/>
|habitat=Forest and shrubland<ref name="IUCNTuftedgraylangur"/>
|hunting=Leaves and fruit<ref name="IUCNTuftedgraylangur"/>
|iucn-status=NT |population=Unknown
|direction={{decrease|Population declining}}<ref name="IUCNTuftedgraylangur"/>
}}
{{Species table/row
|name=[[Purple-faced langur]] |binomial=S. vetulus
|image=File:Purple-faced langur (Semnopithecus vetulus vetulus).jpg |image-size=120px |image-alt=Gray monkey
|authority-name=[[Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben|Erxleben]] |authority-year=1777 |authority-not-original=yes
|subspecies={{Collapsible list |expand=yes |title=Four subspecies |bullets=on
| ''T. v. monticola'' (Montane purple-faced langur)
| ''T. v. nestor'' ([[Western purple-faced langur]])
| ''T. v. philbricki'' (Dryzone purple-faced langur)
| ''T. v. vetulus'' (Southern lowland wetzone purple-faced langur)
}}
|range=Sri Lanka |range-image=File:Purple-faced Langur area.png |range-image-size=180px
|size={{convert|41|–|78|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long, plus {{convert|69|–|108|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} tail<ref name="PrimWorld160"/>
|habitat=Forest<ref name="IUCNPurple-facedlangur"/>
|hunting=Leaves, fruit, flowers, and seeds<ref name="IUCNPurple-facedlangur"/>
|iucn-status=EN |population=Unknown
|direction={{decrease|Population declining}}<ref name="IUCNPurple-facedlangur"/>
}}
{{Species table/end}}

A 2013 genetic study indicated that while ''S. entellus'', ''S. hypoleucos'', ''S. priam'' and ''S. johnii'' are all valid taxa, there has been [[hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] between ''S. priam'' and ''S. johnii''.<ref name=genet>{{cite journal |title=Molecules support morphology: species status of South Indian populations of the widely distributed Hanuman langur |author=Ashalakshmi, N.C. |author2=Nag, K. S. C. |author3=Karanth, K. P. |year=2014 |journal=Conservation Genetics |doi=10.1007/s10592-014-0638-4 |volume=16 |pages=43–58 |s2cid=13993193 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264312011}}</ref>
It also indicated that there has been some hybridization between ''S. entellus'' and ''S. hypoleucos'' where their ranges overlap, and a small amount of hybridization between ''S. hypoleucos'' and ''S. priam''.<ref name=genet/> It also suggested that ''S. priam'' and ''S. johnii'' diverged from each other fairly recently.<ref name=genet/>

==Distribution and habitat==

The entire distribution of all gray langur species stretches from the [[Himalayas]] in the north to Sri Lanka in the south, and from [[Bangladesh]] in the east to Pakistan in the west.<ref>Roonwal, M.L., Mohnot, S.M. (1977) ''Primates of South Asia: ecology, sociobiology, and behavior''. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (MA)</ref> They possibly occur in Afghanistan.<ref name=Brandon-Jones/> The bulk of the gray langur distribution is within India, and all seven currently recognized species have at least a part of their range in this country.<ref name=Groves2001/>

Gray langurs can adapt to a variety of habitats.<ref name= "Oppenheimer 1977"/> They inhabit [[arid]] habitats like deserts, tropical habitats like tropical rainforests and temperate habitats like coniferous forests, deciduous habitats and mountains habitats. They are found at sea level to altitudes up to {{convert|4000|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="IUCNNepalgraylangur"/><ref name="IUCNKashmirgraylangur"/> They can adapt well to human settlements, and are found in villages, towns and areas with housing or agriculture.<ref name= "Bennett 1994"/> They live in densely populated cities like [[Jodhpur]], which has a population numbering up to a million.<ref name=r2/>

== Ecology and behavior ==
[[File:GREY LANGUR.jpg|thumb|Gray langur]]
Gray langurs are [[Diurnality|diurnal]]. They sleep during the night in trees but also on man-made structures like towers and electric poles when in human settlements.<ref name=r3/> When resting in trees, they generally prefer the highest branches.<ref name=r4/>
[[File:Langurs Grooming in Community.webm|thumb|Langurs Grooming in Community]]
[[Ungulate]]s like [[bovine]] and [[deer]] will eat food dropped by foraging langurs.<ref name=r5/> Langurs are preyed upon by [[Indian leopard|leopards]], [[dhole]]s and [[Bengal tiger|tigers]].<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Boggess |first=J. E. |year=1976 |title=Social behavior of the Himalayan langur (''Presbytis entellus'') in eastern Nepal |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=University of California, Berkeley}}</ref> [[Indian wolf|Wolves]], [[jackal]]s, [[Asian black bear]]s and [[pythonidae|pythons]] may also prey on langurs.

===Diet===
[[File:Gary Langur, RJ IN 2011.jpg|thumb|Gray Langur near a village in [[Rajasthan]]]]
Gray langurs are primarily [[herbivore]]s. However, unlike some other colobines they do not depend on leaves and leaf buds of herbs, but will also eat [[conifer]]ous needles and cones, fruits and fruit buds, evergreen [[petiole (botany)|petioles]], shoots and roots, seeds, grass, [[bamboo]], [[fern]] rhizomes, [[moss]]es, and [[lichen]]s. Leaves of trees and shrubs rank at the top of preferred food, followed by herbs and grasses. Non-plant material consumed include spider webs, termite mounds and insect larvae.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Srivastava |first1=A. |title=Insectivory and its significance to langur diets |doi=10.1007/BF02381181 |journal=Primates |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=237–241 |year=1991 |s2cid=32090680}}</ref> They forage on agricultural crops and other human foods, and even accept handouts.<ref name="Vogel 1977" /> Although they occasionally drink, langurs get most of their water from the moisture in their food.<ref name="r6" />

===Social structure===
[[File:Juvenile Indian Grey Langur.jpg|thumb|Juvenile gray langur]]
Gray langurs exist in three types of groups:
* one-male groups, comprising one adult male, several females and offspring;
* multiple-male groups, comprising males and females of all ages;
* all-male groups.<ref name="Rajpurohit 1992"/><ref name="Newton 1994"/>
All-male groups tend to be the smallest of the groups and can consist of adults, subadults, and juveniles. Some populations have only multiple-male groups as mixed sex groups, while others have only one-male groups as mixed sexed groups.<ref name="Rajpurohit 1992"/>

Some evidence suggests multiple-male groups are temporary and exist only after a takeover, and subsequently split into one-male and all-male groups.<ref name=r7/>

Social hierarchies exist for all group types.<ref name="Srivastava 1992"/><ref name="Rajpurohit 2005"/> In all-male groups, dominance is attained through aggression and mating success.<ref name="Rajpurohit 2008"/> With sexually mature females, rank is based on physical condition and age.<ref name="Koenig 2000"/><ref name="Borries 1991"/> The younger the female, the higher the rank. Dominance rituals are most common among high-ranking langurs.<ref name="Rajpurohit 2005"/> Most changes in social rank in males take place during changes in group members. An adult male may remain in a one-male group for 45 months.<ref name="Newton 1987"/> The rate of male replacement can occur quickly or slowly depending on the group.<ref name=r8/>

Females within a group are matrilineally related. Female memberships are also stable, but less so in larger groups.<ref name="Newton 1994"/><ref name="Koenig 2000"/> Relationships between the females tend to be friendly. They will do various activities with each together, such as foraging, traveling and resting. They will also groom each other regardless of their rank. However, higher-ranking females give out and receive grooming the most.<ref name=r9/> In addition, females groom males more often than the other way around.<ref name=r10/> Male and female relationships are usually positive. Relationships between males can range from peaceful to violent. While females remain in their natal groups, males will leave when they reach adulthood.<ref name="Newton 1994"/> Relationships between groups tend to be hostile. High-ranking males from different groups will display, vocalize, and fight among themselves.

===Reproduction and parenting===
[[File:Semnopithecus priam.jpg|thumb|Tufted gray langur with young]]
[[File:GrayLangurWithNewBorn1.JPG|thumb|Gray langur with newborn]]
In one-male groups, the resident male is usually the sole breeder of the females and sires all the young. In multiple-male groups, the highest-ranking male fathers most of the offspring, followed by the next-ranking males and even outside males will father young.<ref name=r11/> Higher-ranking females are more reproductively successful than lower-ranking ones.<ref name="Borries 1991"/>

Female gray langurs do not make it obvious that they are in [[estrous]]. However, males are still somehow able to deduce the reproduction state of females.<ref name=r12/> Females signal that they are ready to mate by shuddering the head, lowering the tail, and presenting their anogenital regions.<ref name="Sommer 1992"/> Such solicitations do not always lead to copulation. When langurs mate, they are sometimes disrupted by other group members.<ref name="Newton 1987"/> Female langurs have been recorded mounting other females.<ref name=b1/>

The [[gestation]] period of gray langur lasts around 200 days, at least at Jodhpur, India. In some areas, reproduction is year-around.<ref name="Sommer 1992"/> Year-round reproduction appears to occur in populations that capitalize on human-made foods. Other populations have seasonal reproduction.<ref name="Newton 1987"/>
[[Infanticide (zoology)|Infanticide]] is common among gray langurs. Most infanticidal langurs are males that have recently immigrated to a group and driven out the prior male. These males only kill infants that are not their own.<ref name=b2/> Infanticide is more commonly reported in one-male groups, perhaps because one male monopolizing matings drives the evolution of this trait. In multiple-male groups, the costs for infanticidal males are likely to be high as the other males may protect the infants and they can't ensure that they'll sire young with other males around. Nevertheless, infanticide does occur in these groups, and is suggested that such practices serve to return a female to estrous and gain the opportunity to mate.<ref name="Borries 1997"/>

Females usually give birth to a single infant, although twins do occur. Most births occur during the night.<ref name="Agoramoorthy 1992"/> Infants are born with thin, dark brown or black hair and pale skin. Infants spend their first week attached to their mothers' chests and mostly just suckle or sleep.<ref name="Sugiyama 1965"/> They do not move much in terms of locomotion for the first two weeks of their life. As they approach their sixth week of life, infants vocalize more.<ref name=r13/> They use squeaks and shrieks to communicate stress. In the following months, the infants are capable of quadrupedal locomotion and can walk, run and jump by the second and third months. [[Alloparenting]] occurs among langurs, starting when the infants reach two years of age. The infant will be given to the other females of the group. However, if the mother dies, the infant usually follows.<ref name="Sugiyama 1965"/> Langurs are weaned by 13 months.

===Vocalizations===
Gray langurs are recorded to make a number of vocalizations:<ref name="Bhaker 2004"/><ref name="Hohmann 1989"/>
*loud calls or whoops made only by adult males during displays;
*harsh barks made by adult and subadult males when surprised by a predator;
*cough barks made by adults and subadults during group movements;
*grunt barks made mostly by adult males during group movements and agonistic interactions;
*rumble screams made in agonistic interactions;
*pant barks made with loud calls when groups are interacting;
*grunts made in many different situations, usually in agonistic ones;
*honks made by adult males when groups are interacting;
*rumbles made during approaches, embraces, and mounts;
*hiccups made by most members of a group when they find another group.

==Status and conservation==
Gray langurs have stable populations in some areas and declining ones in others.<ref name=r14/> Both the [[black-footed gray langur]] and [[Kashmir gray langur]] are considered [[Threatened species|threatened]].<ref name="IUCNKashmirgraylangur"/><ref name="IUCNBlack-footedgraylangur"/> The latter is the rarest species of gray langur, with less than 250 mature individuals remaining.<ref name="IUCNKashmirgraylangur"/>

In India, gray langurs number at around 300,000.<ref name=r15/> India has laws prohibiting the capturing or killing of langurs, but they are still hunted in some parts of the country.<ref name=Nag/> Enforcement of these laws has proven to be difficult and it seems most people are unaware of their protection.<ref name= "Choudhury 2001"/> Populations are also threatened by mining, forest fires and deforestation for wood.<ref name=r16/>

Langurs can be found near roads and can become victims of automobile accidents. This happens even in protected areas, with deaths by automobile collisions making nearly a quarter of mortality in Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan, India.<ref name=r17/> Langurs are considered sacred in the Hindu religion and are sometimes kept for religious purposes by Hindu priests and for roadside performances. However, some religious groups use langurs as food and medicine, and parts of gray langurs are sometimes kept as amulets for good luck.<ref name= "Ahmed 2001"/>

Because of their sacred status and their less aggressive behavior compared to other primates, langurs are generally not considered pests in many parts of India. Despite this, research in some areas show high levels of support for the removal of langurs from villages, their sacred status no longer important.<ref name=r18/> Langurs will raid crops and steal food from houses, and this causes people to persecute them.<ref name=r18/> While people may feed them in temples, they do not extend such care to monkeys at their homes.<ref name=b3/> Langurs stealing and biting people to get food in urban areas may also contribute to more persecutions.<ref name=r19/>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="Burnie">Burnie D and Wilson DE (Eds.), ''Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife''. DK Adult (2005), {{ISBN|0-7894-7764-5}}</ref>
<ref name= "Vogel 1977">Vogel, C. (1977) "Ecology and sociology of ''Presbytis entellus''. In: [[Malur R. Narasimha Prasad|Prasad, M.R.N.]], Anand Kumar, T.C. (eds.) ''Use of non-human primates in biomedical research''. International Symposium held in New Delhi, India, November 1975. Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi. pp. 24–45.</ref>
<ref name=b1>Sommer, V., Schauer, P., Kyriazis, D. (2006) "A wild mixture of motivations: same-sex mounting in Indian langur monkeys". In: Sommer, V., Vasey, P.L. (eds.) ''Homosexual behaviour in animals: an evolutionary perspective''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 238–372 {{ISBN|0-521-86446-1}}.</ref>
<ref name=b2>Borries, C., Koenig A. (2000) [https://books.google.com/books?id=BlSOzDzo0IYC&pg=PA99 "Infanticide in hanuman langurs: social organization, male migration, and weaning age"]. In: van Schaik, C.P., Janson, C.H. (eds.) ''Infanticide by males and its implications''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 99–122 {{ISBN|0-521-77498-5}}.</ref>
<ref name=b3>Manohar BR. (1999) "Jaipur monkeys-perspective of ecology and management". Sharma BD, editor. ''Indian wildlife resources ecology and development''. Daya Pub House: Delhi. pp. 153–7 {{ISBN|81-7035-202-9}}.</ref>
<ref name= "Oppenheimer 1977">Oppenheimer, J.R. (1977) "''Presbytis entellus'', the Hanuman langur". In: Rainier III (Grimaldi) Prince of Monaco, Bourne, G.H. (eds.) ''Primate conservation''. New York: Academic Press {{ISBN|0-12-576150-3}}</ref>
<ref name= "Bennett 1994">Bennett, E.L., Davies, A.G. (1994) "The ecology of Asian colobines". In: Davies, A.G., Oates, J.F. (eds.) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xfMT7KD5STMC&q=%22Grey+langur%22 Colobine monkeys: their ecology, behaviour and evolution]''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–171 {{ISBN|0-521-33153-6}}.</ref>
<ref name= "Ripley 1967">{{cite journal |author=Ripley S. |year=1967 |title=The leaping of langurs: a problem in the study of locomotor adaptation |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=26 |pages=149–170 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330260206 |issue=2 |bibcode=1967AJPA...26..149R }}</ref>
<ref name=r2>{{cite journal|author=Waite, T.A.|author2=Chhangani, A.K.|author3=Campbell, L.G.|author4=Rajpurohit, L.S.|author5=Mohonot, S.M. |year=2007|title=Sanctuary in the city: urban monkeys buffered against catastrophic die-off during ENSO-related drought|journal=EcoHealth|volume= 4|issue=3|pages= 278–286|doi=10.1007/s10393-007-0112-6|bibcode=2007EcoH....4..278W |s2cid=23603380}}</ref>
<ref name=r3>{{cite journal|author=Sharma SK |year=2002 |title=High-tension electric poles used as a night roost by troops of Hanuman langur Presbytes [sic] entellus at Nahargarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Jaipur |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=99 |issue=1 |page=103}}</ref>
<ref name=r4>{{cite journal|vauthors=Ramakrishnan U, Coss RG |year=2001|title=A comparison of the sleeping behavior of three sympatric primates|journal=Folia Primatology |volume=7 2|issue=1|pages=51–53 |doi=10.1159/000049922|pmid=11275752|s2cid=349258}}</ref>
<ref name=r5>{{cite journal|author=Punekar, S.A.|year=2002|title=Some food plants of Hanuman langur Semnopithecus entellus (Dufresne) in the western Ghats of Maharashtra, India|journal=Zoos' Print Journal|volume=17|issue=6|pages=797–801|url=http://www.zoosprint.org/zooprintjournal/2002/june/797-801.pdf|doi=10.11609/jott.zpj.17.6.797-801|doi-access=free|archive-date=2017-08-11|access-date=2012-08-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811200613/http://www.zoosprint.org/ZooPrintJournal/2002/June/797-801.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name=r6>{{cite journal|author=Starin, E.D. |year=1978|title=A preliminary investigation of home range use in the Gir Forest langur|journal=Primates |volume=19 |issue=3|pages= 551–568 |doi=10.1007/BF02373316|s2cid=1067514}}</ref>
<ref name=r7>{{cite journal|author=Mathur, R.|author2=Manohar, B.R. |year=1990|title=Density of Macaca mulatta and Presbytis entellus in the old city of Jaipur: a three year survey |journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science |volume=27|issue=4|pages= 351–361|doi=10.1016/0168-1591(90)90130-6}}</ref>
<ref name=r8>{{cite journal|author=Rajpurohit, L.S.|author2=Chhangani, A.K.|author3=Rajpurohit, R.S.|author4=Mohnot, S.M. |year=2003|title=Observation of a sudden resident-male replacement in a unimale bisexual troop of Hanuman langurs, Semnopithecus entellus, around Jodhpur (India)|journal=Folia Primatol|volume= 74|issue=2|pages=85–87 |doi=10.1159/000070002|pmid=12778910|s2cid=46828619}}</ref>
<ref name=r9>{{cite journal|author=Borries, C.|author2=Sommer, V.|author3=Srivastava, A. |year=1994|title=Weaving a tight social net: allogrooming in a free-ranging female langurs (''Presbytis entellus'')|journal=International Journal of Primatology|volume= 15|issue=3|pages= 421–443|doi=10.1007/BF02696102|s2cid=4718111}}</ref>
<ref name=r10>{{cite journal|author=Ahsan, M.F.|author2=Khan, M.A.R. |year=2006|title=Eco-ethology of the common langur Semnopithecus entellus (Dufresne) in Bangladesh|journal=University Journal of Zoology, Rajshahi University |volume= 25|pages= 3–10|url=http://www.banglajol.info/index.php/UJZRU/article/view/317|doi=10.3329/ujzru.v25i0.317|doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name=r11>{{cite journal|author=Launhardt, K.|author2=Borries, C.|author3=Hardt, C.|author4=Epplen, J.T.|author5=Winkler, P. |year=2001|title=Paternity analysis of alternative male reproductive routes among the langurs (''Semnopithecus entellus'') of Ramnagar|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume= 61|issue=1|pages= 53–64 |doi=10.1006/anbe.2000.1590|pmid=11170696|bibcode=2001AnBeh..61...53L |s2cid=29570442}}</ref>
<ref name=r12>{{cite journal|author=Ostner, J.|author2=Chalise, M.K.|author3=Koenig, A.|author4=Launhardt, K.|author5=Nikolei, J.|author6=Podzuweit, D.|author7=Borries, C. |year=2006|title=What hanuman langur males know about female reproductive status|journal=American Journal of Primatology|volume= 68|issue=7|pages= 701–712 |doi=10.1002/ajp.20260 |pmid=16786522|s2cid=26498604}}</ref>
<ref name=r13>{{cite journal|author=Dolhinow, P.|author2=Murphy, G. |year=1982|title=Langur monkey (''Presbytis entellus'') development: the first 3 months of life|journal=Folia Primatologica|volume= 39|issue=3–4|pages= 305–331|doi=10.1159/000156082|pmid=7166290 }}</ref>
<ref name=r14>{{cite journal|vauthors=Srinivasulu C, Nagulu V |year=2001|title=Status of primates in Andhra Pradesh|journal=ENVIS Bulletin of Wildlife and Protected Areas |volume=1 |issue=1|pages=109–112}}</ref>
<ref name=r15>{{cite journal|author=Mukherjee RP |year=2001|title=Status and conservation of non-human primates in India|journal=ENVIS Bulletin of Wildlife and Protected Areas|volume= 1|issue=1|pages=136–137}}</ref>
<ref name=r16>{{cite journal|vauthors=Rao RJ, Bhatnagar A |year=2001|title=Primates of the Amarkantak forests, Madhya Pradesh|journal=ENVIS Bulletin of Wildlife and Protected Areas |volume= 1|issue=1|pages=120–123}}</ref>
<ref name=r17>{{cite journal|author=Chhangani, A.K. |year=2004|title=Killing of Hanuman langur (''Semnopithecus entellus'') in road accidents in Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, India |journal=Prim Rep|volume= 69|pages=49–57}}</ref>
<ref name=r18>{{cite journal|vauthors=Chaudhuri S, Murmu A, Talukder B, Alfred JR |year=2004|title=A population survey of Hanuman langurs in the district of Purulia, west Bengal|journal=Rec. Zool. Surv. India |volume=103|issue=3–4|pages=47–54|doi=10.26515/rzsi/v103/i3-4/2004/159337 |s2cid=251714842 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name=r19>{{cite journal|vauthors=Pirta RS, Gadgil M, Kharshikar AV |year=1997|title=Management of the rhesus monkey ''Macaca mulatta'' and Hanuman langur ''Presbytis entellus'' in Himachal Pradesh, India|journal=Biol Conserv|volume= 79|issue=1|pages=97–106|doi=10.1016/0006-3207(95)00131-X |bibcode=1997BCons..79...97P }}</ref>
<ref name= "Rajpurohit 1992">{{cite journal|author=Rajpurohit, L.S. |year=1992|title=Origin and composition of the unisexual unit — an all-male band in Hanuman langur, ''Presbytis entellus'', around Jodhpur, India|journal=Prim Rep|volume= 34|pages= 47–52}}</ref>
<ref name= "Newton 1994">{{cite journal|author=Newton P. |year=1994|title=Social stability and change among forest Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus)|journal=Primates|volume=35 |issue=4|pages= 489–498|doi=10.1007/BF02381957|s2cid=40545787}}</ref>
<ref name= "Srivastava 1992">{{cite journal|author= Srivastava, A.|author2= Mohnot, S.M. |year=1992|title=Existence of multimale troops and their transformation into unimale troops in Hanuman langurs|journal=Prim Rep|volume= 34 |pages=71–75}}</ref>
<ref name= "Rajpurohit 2005">{{cite journal|author=Rajpurohit, D.S.|author2=Rajpurohit, L.S. |year=2005|title=Displacement interactions-the determinants of dominance hierarchy in Hanuman langur, ''Semnopithecus entellus'' around Jodhpur (India)|journal=Journal Adv Zoology|volume=26|issue=2|pages= 64–68}}</ref>
<ref name= "Rajpurohit 2008">{{cite journal|author=Rajpurohit, L.S.|author2=Chhangani, A.K.|author3=Rajpurohit, R.S.|author4=Bhaker, N.R.|author5=Rajpurohit, D.S.|author6=Sharma, G. |year=2008|title=Recent observation on resident male change followed by infanticide in Hanuman langurs (''Semnopithecus entellus'') around Jodhpur|journal=Prim Rep|volume= 75 |pages= 33–40}}</ref>
<ref name="Koenig 2000">{{cite journal|author=Koenig, A. |year=2000|title=Competitive regimes in forest-dwelling Hanuman langur females (''Semnopithecus entellus'')| journal=Behav Ecol Sociobiology |volume= 48|issue=2|pages= 93–109|doi=10.1007/s002650000198|bibcode=2000BEcoS..48...93K |s2cid=22000806}}</ref>
<ref name= "Borries 1991">{{cite journal|author=Borries, C.|author2=Sommer, V.|author3=Srivastava, A. |year=1991|title=Dominance, age, and reproductive success in free-ranging female Hanuman langurs (''Presbytis entellus'')|journal=Int J Primatol|volume= 12|issue=3|pages= 231–257|doi=10.1007/BF02547586|bibcode=1991IJPri..12..231B |s2cid=19555929}}</ref>
<ref name= "Sommer 1992">{{cite journal|author=Sommer, V.|author2=Srivastava, A.|author3=Borries, C. |year=1992|title=Cycles, sexuality, and conception in free-ranging langurs (''Presbytis entellus'')|journal=American Journal of Primatology|volume= 28|issue=1|pages= 1–27|doi=10.1002/ajp.1350280102|pmid=31941223|s2cid=85066777}}</ref>
<ref name= "Newton 1987">{{cite journal|author=Newton, P.N. |year=1987|title= The social organization of Hanuman langurs (''Presbytis entellus'')|journal=International Journal of Primatology |volume=8 |issue=3|pages= 199–232|doi=10.1007/BF02735173|s2cid=10501648}}</ref>
<ref name= "Borries 1997">{{cite journal|author=Borries, C. |year=1997|title=Infanticide in Seasonally Breeding Multimale Groups of Hanuman Langurs" (''Presbytis entellus'') in Ramnagar|journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology|volume= 41|issue=3|pages= 139–150|doi=10.1007/s002650050373|s2cid=37230153}}</ref>
<ref name= "Agoramoorthy 1992">{{cite journal|author=Agoramoorthy, G. |year=1992|title=Reproductive biology of the Hanuman langur ''Presbytis entellus'' in Jodhpur, western India|journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume= 89|issue=1|pages= 84–93}}</ref>
<ref name= "Sugiyama 1965">{{cite journal|author=Sugiyama Y. |year=1965|title=Behavioral development and social structure in two troops of Hanuman langurs (''Presbytis entellus'')|journal=Primates|volume= 6|issue=2|pages= 213–247|doi=10.1007/BF01730967|s2cid=10784560}}</ref>
<ref name= "Bhaker 2004">{{cite journal|author=Bhaker, N.R.|author2=Rajpurohit, D.S.|author3=Rajpurohit, LS. |year=2004|title=Vocalization in Hanuman langur, Semnopithecus entellus around Jodhpur, Rajasthan|journal=Uttar Pradesh Journal of Zoology |volume=24 |issue=3|pages= 227–233}}</ref>
<ref name= "Hohmann 1989">{{cite journal|author=Hohmann, G. |year=1989|title=Comparative study of vocal communication in two Asian leaf monkeys, ''Presbytis johnii'' and ''Presbytis entellus''|journal=Folia Primatologica |volume=52|issue=1–2|pages= 27–57|doi=10.1159/000156380|pmid=2807093}}</ref>
<ref name= "Choudhury 2001">{{cite journal|author=Choudhury A. |year=2001|title=Primates in northeast India: an overview of their distribution and conservation status|journal=ENVIS Bulletin of Wildlife and Protected Areas |volume=1|issue=1|pages=92–101}}</ref>
<ref name= "Ahmed 2001">{{cite journal|author=Ahmed A.|year=2001|title=Illegal trade, and utilization of primates in India |journal=ENVIS Bulletin of Wildlife and Protected Areas |volume=1|issue=1|pages=177–184 |url=http://oldwww.wii.gov.in/envis/primates/downloads/page177illegal.pdf}}{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
<ref name="PrimWorld160">[[#CITEREF_PrimWorld|Nowak 1999]], p. 160</ref>
<ref name="IUCNKashmirgraylangur">{{cite iucn |last1=Kumar |first1=A. |last2=Singh |first2=M. |last3=Anandam |first3=M. |last4=Ahuja |first4=V. |last5=Kumara |first5=H. N. |last6=Molur |first6=S. |title=''Semnopithecus ajax'' |volume=2020 |article-number=e.T39833A17943210 |date=2020 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T39833A17943210.en}}</ref>
<ref name="IUCNNorthernplainsgraylangur">{{cite iucn |last1=Kumara |first1=H. N. |last2=Kumar |first2=A. |last3=Singh |first3=M. |title=''Semnopithecus entellus'' |volume=2020 |article-number=e.T39832A17942050 |date=2020 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T39832A17942050.en}}</ref>
<ref name="ADWNorthernplainsgraylangur">{{cite web |first1=Rebecca |last1=Semke |title=''Semnopithecus entellus'' |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Semnopithecus_entellus/ |date=2011 |website=[[Animal Diversity Web]] |publisher=[[University of Michigan]] |access-date=July 24, 2023 |archive-date=July 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724210739/https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Semnopithecus_entellus/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="IUCNTaraigraylangur">{{cite iucn |last1=Singh |first1=M. |last2=Kumar |first2=A. |last3=Kumara |first3=H. N. |last4=Ahuja |first4=V. |title=''Semnopithecus hector'' |volume=2020 |article-number=e.T39837A17942651 |date=2020 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T39837A17942651.en}}</ref>
<ref name="IUCNBlack-footedgraylangur">{{cite iucn |last1=Singh |first1=M. |last2=Kumara |first2=H. N. |last3=Kumar |first3=A. |last4=Nag |first4=C. |title=''Semnopithecus hypoleucos'' |volume=2020 |article-number=e.T167543916A17942313 |date=2020 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T167543916A17942313.en}}</ref>
<ref name="IUCNTuftedgraylangur">{{cite iucn |last1=Singh |first1=M. |last2=Kumara |first2=H. N. |last3=Dittus |first3=W. |last4=Kumar |first4=A. |last5=Nag |first5=C. |title=''Semnopithecus priam'' |volume=2020 |article-number=e.T167546892A17942964 |date=2020 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T167546892A17942964.en}}</ref>
<ref name="IUCNNepalgraylangur">{{cite iucn |last1=Singh |first1=M. |last2=Kumara |first2=H. N. |last3=Long |first3=Y. |last4=Chetry |first4=D. |last5=Kumar |first5=A. |title=''Semnopithecus schistaceus'' |volume=2020 |article-number=e.T39840A17942792 |date=2020 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T39840A17942792.en}}</ref>
<ref name="IUCNNilgirilangur">{{cite iucn |last1=Singh |first1=M. |last2=Kumara |first2=H. N. |last3=Kumar |first3=A. |title=''Semnopithecus johnii'' |volume=2020 |article-number=e.T44694A17958623 |date=2020 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T44694A17958623.en}}</ref>
<ref name="IUCNPurple-facedlangur">{{cite iucn |last1=Rudran |first1=R. |last2=Dittus |first2=W. |last3=Gamage |first3=S. N. |last4=Nekaris |first4=K. A. I. |title=''Semnopithecus vetulus'' |volume=2020 |article-number=e.T22042A17959452 |date=2020 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T22042A17959452.en}}</ref>
}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |title=Walker's Primates of the World |last=Nowak |first=Ronald M. |date=1999 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8018-6251-9 |ref=CITEREF_PrimWorld}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons and category|Semnopithecus|Semnopithecus}}
{{Wikispecies|Semnopithecus|gray langur}}
{{Portal|Mammals|Animals|Primates}}
*{{cite web | url = http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/gray_langur/taxon | title = Gray langur Semnopithecus | access-date = 30 September 2010 | work = Primate Info Net | date = 28 October 2008 | author = Kurt Gron}}
*{{cite web | url = https://vimeo.com/82790773 | title = Save Earth Series – Hanuman Langur | author = Shah Jahan}}

{{C.Colobinae nav}}
{{Haplorhini|C.}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q721407}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Semnopithecus| ]]
[[Category:Monkeys in India| ]]
[[Category:Primates of South Asia| ]]
[[Category:Primate genera]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest]]
[[Category:Taxa described in 1822]]

Association of Friends of Astronomy

2026-04-07T03:22:51Z

Realhimachal: New!

{{Short description|Astronomical society in Goa, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Association of Friends of Astronomy
| formation = 1982
| logo = Logo of Association of Friends of Astronomy Goa.png
| abbreviation = AFA
| type = Nonprofit organization
| purpose = Popularize astronomical knowledge
| location = [[Goa]], India
| founder = [[Percival Noronha]]
| website = {{URL|https://afagoa.org|afagoa}}
}}
'''Association of Friends of Astronomy''', known by the abbreviation '''AFA''', is a society of [[Amateur astronomy|amateur]] [[astronomer]]s and other interested individuals, based in [[Goa]], India.

==History==
The Association of Friends of Astronomy began under the guidance of [[Percival Noronha]] in 1982. It has a public astronomical observatory that is set up on the terrace of [[Panaji#Governance|Junta House]], then the tallest building in [[Panjim]] city. Later, the Department of Science, Technology and Environment, Government of Goa, began funding the AFA, funding [[telescope]]s. In 2022, the observatory was renovated.<ref name="YoungHerald23">{{Cite web |date=2023-04-12 |title=One of the oldest sciences, Astronomy in Goa attracts young minds |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Cafe/One-of-the-oldest-sciences-Astronomy-in-Goa-attracts-young-minds/203749 |access-date=2025-01-30 |website=Herald Goa |language=en}}</ref>

In 2023, the AFA inaugurated a completely automated observation dome, the first in Goa, at the observatory in Panjim. It is equipped with a 14-inch automated [[Celestron]] telescope, allowing people to see the planets up to [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]]. It was donated by the Economic Development Corporation of Goa as a [[corporate social responsibility]] initiative. The Panjim observatory is said to be the first in India.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sayed |first=Nida |date=2023-04-29 |title=Goa's first automated astronomy observation dome in Panaji to be star attraction |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/goas-first-automated-astronomy-observation-dome-in-state-capital-to-be-star-attraction/articleshow/99857904.cms |access-date=2025-01-30 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The telescope was donated by members of the Goan [[diaspora]] based in [[California]] through the organisation, Goa Sudharop.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gracias |first=Franky |date=2024-12-17 |title=Know about the Public Astronomical Observatory in Goa |url=https://www.gomantaktimes.com/lifestyle/know-about-the-public-astronomical-observatory-in-goa |access-date=2025-01-30 |website=Goa News on Gomantak Times |language=en}}</ref>

==Activities==
Since 2009, the AFA organises events across Goa during Global Astronomy Month. They also organise programmes for [[World Book Day]], [[Earth Day]], [[Astronomy Day]] and [[World Heritage Day]]. Besides Panjim, where the observatory is located, they conduct programmes in [[Vasco da Gama, Goa|Vasco da Gama]], [[Mapusa]], [[Porvorim]], [[Margao]]<ref name="YoungHerald23" /> and [[Canacona]]. They also conduct activities in rural areas, being the first in India to do so, having conducted activities in villages like [[Morjim]], [[Borim]] and [[Sanquelim]].<ref name="MonteiroAstronomyGT23">{{Cite web |last=Monteiro |first=Casey |date=2023-04-29 |title=Astronomy Day: 40 years of reaching for the stars in Goa |url=https://www.gomantaktimes.com/lifestyle/astronomy-day-40-years-of-reaching-for-the-stars-in-goa |access-date=2025-01-30 |website=Goa News on Gomantak Times |language=en}}</ref>

AFA also has an Astro Kids Club that meets every Saturday and an Astro Photography Club. They also organise an annual Astro Film Festival and Documentary Festival. They also regularly organise programmes in schools and even conduct workshops and astronomy observations at beaches.<ref name="MonteiroAstronomyGT23" />

AFA's publications include ''Astronomy Simplified, a Concise Info Booklet'' and their periodical, ''Via Lactea'', which translates to [[Milky Way]] in [[Latin]].<ref name="MonteiroAstronomyGT23" />

AFA worked with the Directorate of Education in Goa and was successful in introducing Astronomy as a subject in schools for classes 9 and 10.<ref name="MonteiroAstronomyGT23" />

==Membership==
{{As of|2023|April}}, the AFA had about 2000 student members and 460 life members.<ref name="YoungHerald23" /> Their membership fee is {{INR}}500 per year for adults and {{INR}}500 for a lifetime membership for students.<ref name="MonteiroAstronomyGT23" />

== See also ==
* [[List of astronomical societies]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|https://afagoa.org/}}

{{Portal bar|India|Astronomy|Stars|Spaceflight|Outer space|Solar System|Education|Science}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Association of Friends of Astronomy}}
[[Category:Astronomy organizations]]
[[Category:Scientific organizations established in 1982]]
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Gombegala Love

2026-04-05T20:23:17Z

Realhimachal: Stub

{{short description|Indian Kannada-language romantic drama film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Gombegala Love
| image = Gombegala Love.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Promotional poster
| native_name = 
| director = Santhosh
| writer = Santhosh
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on = 
| producer = Ajay Raj Urs
| starring = Arun [[Paavana Gowda]]
| narrator =
| cinematography = Kiran Hampapura
| editing = K Eshwar
| music = Srinath Vijay
| studio = Apple Films
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2013|2|8|df=yes}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Gombegala Love''''' ({{Translation|Love of dolls}}) is a 2013 Indian Kannada-language [[romantic drama film]] written and directed by newcomer Santhosh starring debutantes Arun and [[Paavana Gowda]].

The film was released to positive reviews from critics and audiences alike, who praised the film for showcasing a different kind of love story.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/ravichandran-praises-gombegala-love/articleshow/18629417.cms|title=Ravichandran praises Gombegala Love|date=22 February 2013|work=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Khajane |first1=Muralidhara |url=http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/parthiban-acts-in-a-kannada-film/article18722874.ece|title=Parthiban all set to woo Kannadigas |work= The Hindu|date=5 June 2017 |accessdate=2017-07-26|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111215440/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/parthiban-acts-in-a-kannada-film/article18722874.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first=Shilpa |last=Sebastian |date=2019-12-09 |title=Pavana Gowda on her next film 'Rudri', and why it's a dream role for her |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/pavana-gowda-on-her-next-film-rudri-and-why-its-a-dream-role-for-her/article30249152.ece |access-date=2023-01-24 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/gombegala-love-to-be-made-in-tamil/articleshow/19067676.cms|title=Gombegala Love to be made in Tamil|date=20 March 2013|work=The Times of India}}</ref>

== Cast ==
*Arun as Panju
*[[Paavana Gowda]] as Kamala
*[[Ramakrishna (Kannada actor)|Ramakrishna]] as Kamala's father
*[[Shruti (actress)|Shruti]] as Panju's mother
*[[Achyuth Kumar]] as Panju's father

== Music ==
The music was composed by Srinath Vijay with lyrics by [[V. Nagendra Prasad]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Gombegala Love - All Songs |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/gombegala-love/K0cnb45eBhM_ |website=[[JioSaavn]] |date=9 November 2018}}</ref>
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Ayyo Namage Preethityu
| length1 = 4:16
| extra1 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], [[Kavita Krishnamurthy|Kavitha]]
| title2 = Premave Jeeva
| length2 = 4:10
| extra2 = [[Chinmayi Sripada]], [[Haricharan]]
| total_length = 8:26
}}

== Reception ==
G S Kumar of ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the film 3.5/5 and wrote, "With a philosophical touch to a sentimental story, the film is a brilliant one with a strong message".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/gombhegala-love/movie-review/18420218.cms|title=Gombhegala Love Movie Review {3.5/5}: Critic Review of Gombhegala Love by Times of India|website=The Times of India}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]]'' rated the film 4/5 and wrote, "<nowiki>'</nowiki>''Gombegala Love''<nowiki>'</nowiki>, a fresh attempt by newcomers, will captivate the audience with its realistic and absorbing narration".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiaforums.com/article/gombegala-love-engaging-newcomers-wow-audience-movie-review_41059|title=<nowiki>'</nowiki>''Gombegala Love''<nowiki>'</nowiki> engaging, newcomers wow audience Movie Review)|date=10 February 2013|work=[[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]]|via=India Forums|access-date=21 August 2025}}</ref> A critic from ''[[IBN Live]]'' wrote, "<nowiki>'</nowiki>''Gombegala Love''<nowiki>'</nowiki>, a fresh attempt by newcomers, will captivate the audience with its realistic and absorbing narration.".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/gombegala-love-review-this-kannada-film-is-a-balanced-romance-drama/372155-71-205.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225193213/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/gombegala-love-review-this-kannada-film-is-a-balanced-romance-drama/372155-71-205.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-12-25|title=<nowiki>'</nowiki>''Gombegala Love''<nowiki>'</nowiki> Review: This Kannada film is a balanced romantic drama with an entire fresh cast|website=[[IBN Live]]|access-date=21 August 2025}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links ==
*{{IMDb title|3202972}}

[[Category:2013 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Films about polio]]

Salman Khan filmography

2026-03-29T09:32:16Z

Realhimachal: expand article as per guidelines and fixed typos per sources

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
[[File:Salman Khan.jpg|thumb|Salman Khan]]
[[Salman Khan]] is an Indian actor and producer, known for his work in [[Hindi]] films. He made his film debut with a brief role in ''[[Biwi Ho To Aisi]]'' (1988), before having his breakthrough with [[Sooraj Barjatya]]'s [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]] romance ''[[Maine Pyar Kiya]]'' (1989) that won him the [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Goyal |first1=Divya |title=Debut Deception: You Might or Might Not Know the Real First Films of These Stars |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/debut-deception-you-might-or-might-not-know-the-real-first-films-of-these-stars-660974 |publisher=[[NDTV]] |access-date=13 February 2015 |date=8 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216231637/http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/debut-deception-you-might-or-might-not-know-the-real-first-films-of-these-stars-660974 |archive-date=16 December 2014 }}</ref> In the early 1990s, he earned success with the action film ''[[Baaghi: A Rebel for Love]]'' (1990) and the romance ''[[Sanam Bewafa]]'', ''[[Saajan]]'' (both 1991).<ref>{{cite web|title=Box Office 1990 |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=196&catName=MTk5MA== |publisher=[[Box Office India]] |access-date=7 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115230135/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=196&catName=MTk5MA%3D%3D |archive-date=15 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Box Office 1991 |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=197&catName=MTk5MQ== |publisher=Box Office India |access-date=7 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115230117/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=197&catName=MTk5MQ%3D%3D |archive-date=15 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name="films">{{cite web|last1=Malhotra |first1=Navneet |title=Salman Khan turns 47: How the loveable 'Prem' became 'Dabangg' Chulbul Pandey |url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/india/salman-turns-47-how-prem-became-physicsfail-pandey-528591.html |publisher=[[CNN-IBN]] |access-date=7 February 2015 |date=27 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150827183210/http://www.ibnlive.com/news/india/salman-turns-47-how-prem-became-chulbul-pandey-528591.html |archive-date=27 August 2015 }}</ref>

The success of the [[family]] drama ''[[Hum Aapke Hain Koun..!]]'' (1994) and the melodramatic action ''[[Karan Arjun]]'' (1995) revitalised Khan's career and established him in Bollywood.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rishi|first=Tilak|title=Bless You Bollywood!: A Tribute to Hindi Cinema on Completing 100 Years|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r623sWyGm0sC|year=2012|publisher=[[Trafford Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-4669-3963-9|page=42|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-date=3 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603035143/https://books.google.com/books?id=r623sWyGm0sC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Biggest Blockbusters Ever In Hindi Cinema |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=350&catName=QmlnZ2VzdCBCbG9ja2J1c3RlcnMgRXZlcg== |publisher=Box Office India |access-date=7 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116001556/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=350&catName=QmlnZ2VzdCBCbG9ja2J1c3RlcnMgRXZlcg%3D%3D |archive-date=16 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Box Office 1995 |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=201&catName=MTk5NQ== |publisher=Box Office India |access-date=8 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012162639/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=201&catName=MTk5NQ%3D%3D |archive-date=12 October 2012 }}</ref> Also in 1994, he co-starred with [[Aamir Khan]] in the comedy movie ''[[Andaz Apna Apna]]'', which was poorly received at that time, but later became a [[cult film]] in India.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sayeed |first1=Raza Ali |title=Weekly Classics: Andaz Apna Apna |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/742886/weekly-classics-andaz-apna-apna |access-date=7 February 2015 |work=[[DAWN (newspaper)|Dawn]] |date=17 August 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208000027/http://www.dawn.com/news/742886/weekly-classics-andaz-apna-apna |archive-date= 8 February 2015 }}</ref> Among his three film releases of 1996 were [[Sanjay Leela Bhansali]]'s critically acclaimed musical drama ''[[Khamoshi: The Musical|Khamoshi]]'' and the [[Raj Kanwar]]-directed drama ''[[Jeet (1996 film)|Jeet]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://movies.rediff.com/slide-show/2010/sep/30/slide-show-1-the-return-of-sanjay-leela-bhansali.htm|title = Khamoshi to Guzaarish: Do you see the difference?|date = 30 September 2010|access-date = 4 March 2015|work = [[Rediff.com]]|last = |first = |archive-date = 2 April 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150402161358/http://movies.rediff.com/slide-show/2010/sep/30/slide-show-1-the-return-of-sanjay-leela-bhansali.htm|url-status = live}}</ref> The following year, he played dual roles in [[David Dhawan]]'s comedy ''[[Judwaa]]''. In 1998, Khan featured in [[Sohail Khan]]'s ''[[Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya (1998 film)|Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya]]'', and appeared briefly in the romantic drama ''[[Kuch Kuch Hota Hai]]'', both of which ranked among the [[List of Bollywood films of 1998|top-earning Bollywood productions of 1998]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Box Office 1998|url=http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=204&catName=MTk5OA==|publisher=Box Office India|access-date=7 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115230127/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=204&catName=MTk5OA==|archive-date=15 January 2013}}</ref> For the latter, he was awarded the [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-23055646.html |title='Kuch Kuch Hota Hai' wins all top Filmfare honors |work=[[India Abroad]] |date=26 February 1999 |access-date=7 February 2015 |archive-date=8 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140608083928/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-23055646.html }}</ref>

In 1999, Khan starred in three commercially successful productions: the comedy ''[[Biwi No.1]]'', the romantic drama ''[[Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam]]'', and the family drama ''[[Hum Saath-Saath Hain]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Box Office 1999 |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=205&catName=MTk5OQ== |publisher=Box Office India |access-date=7 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012162607/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=205&catName=MTk5OQ%3D%3D |archive-date=12 October 2012 }}</ref> After starring in BoxOffice Hits and Success in Musical Romantic Dramas, he earned critical acclaim for playing a scorned lover in the romance ''[[Tere Naam]]'' and a brief role in the family drama ''[[Baghban (2003 film)|Baghban]]'' (both 2003).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Adarsh |first1=Taran |title=Tere Naam (2003) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/533202 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=7 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122090135/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/533202 |archive-date=22 January 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Thakkar |first1=Mehul S |title=Salman Khan set to revive 'Tere Naam' magic |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Salman-Khan-set-to-revive-Tere-Naam-magic/articleshow/17474136.cms |access-date=7 February 2015 |work=The Times of India |date=4 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005213212/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Salman-Khan-set-to-revive-Tere-Naam-magic/articleshow/17474136.cms |archive-date= 5 October 2015 }}</ref> He went on to star in the top-grossing comedies ''[[Mujhse Shaadi Karogi]]'' (2004), ''[[No Entry]]'' (2005) and ''[[Partner (2007 film)|Partner]]'' (2007).<ref>{{cite news|last1=Andre |first1=Borges |title=Salman Khan hits the 25 year mark in Bollywood |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-salman-khan-hits-the-25-year-mark-in-bollywood-1878359 |access-date=7 February 2015 |work=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |date=23 August 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207215829/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-salman-khan-hits-the-25-year-mark-in-bollywood-1878359 |archive-date= 7 February 2015 }}</ref> Khan made his television debut by hosting two seasons of the game show ''[[10 Ka Dum]]'' (2008–09). Following a series of commercial failures in 2006 and 2008, his career saw a resurgence with the financially successful action films ''[[Wanted (2009 film)|Wanted]]'' (2009) and ''[[Dabangg]]'' (2010).<ref name="films"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Box Office 2008 |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=215&catName=MjAwOA== |publisher=Box Office India |access-date=8 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922022204/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=215&catName=MjAwOA%3D%3D |archive-date=22 September 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Box Office 2009 |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=288&catName=MjAwOQ== |publisher=Box Office India |access-date=7 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115223053/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=288&catName=MjAwOQ%3D%3D |archive-date=15 January 2013 }}</ref> In 2010, Khan began hosting the television game show ''[[Bigg Boss]]'', later hosting nine more seasons. He won the [[National Film Award for Best Children's Film]] for producing ''[[Chillar Party]]'' (2011) under Salman Khan Being Human Productions, and starred in [[List of Bollywood films of 2011|the year's top grossers]]—the action comedies ''[[Ready (2011 film)|Ready]]'' and ''[[Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)|Bodyguard]]''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/news-interviews/Chillar-Party-wins-3-National-Awards/articleshow/12176211.cms?referral=PM |title=Chillar Party wins 3 National Awards! |date=7 May 2012 |work=The Times of India |last1=Vyavahare |first1=Renuka |access-date=7 February 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211133100/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/news-interviews/Chillar-Party-wins-3-National-Awards/articleshow/12176211.cms?referral=PM |archive-date=11 February 2015 }}</ref>

Khan's next releases ''[[Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)|Bodyguard]]'' (2011), ''[[Ready (2011 film)|Ready]]'' (2011), ''[[Ek Tha Tiger]]'' (2012), ''[[Dabangg 2]]'' (2012), ''[[Kick (2014 film)|Kick]]'' (2014), ''[[Jai Ho (film)|Jai Ho]]'' (2014), ''[[Bajrangi Bhaijaan]]'' (2015) and ''[[Prem Ratan Dhan Payo]]'' (2015) were among the most successful Indian films, making him the first actor with several consecutive films earning over {{INR}}1 billion at the box-office.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Roy |first1=Gitanjli |title=Salman Khan's Bajrangi Bhaijaan Makes Quickest 100 Cr, Sets New Khan Record |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/salman-khans-bajrangi-bhaijaan-makes-100-cr-breaks-pks-record-783210 |publisher=NDTV |access-date=12 September 2015 |date=20 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820120947/http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/salman-khans-bajrangi-bhaijaan-makes-100-cr-breaks-pks-record-783210 |archive-date=20 August 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=100-crore blockbuster: Bajrangi Bhaijaan sets box office on fire |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/bajrangi-bhaijaan-box-office-collection-salman-khan-rs-100-crore-opening-weekend-blockbuster-kareena-kapoor-khan-kabir-khan-twitter-283383-2015-07-20 |access-date=12 September 2015 |work=[[India Today]] |date=20 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150821060605/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/bajrangi-bhaijaan-box-office-collection-salman-khan-rs-100-crore-opening-weekend-blockbuster-kareena-kapoor-khan-kabir-khan-twitter/1/452559.html |archive-date=21 August 2015 }}</ref> Among these, ''Bajrangi Bhaijaan'' earned over {{INR}}969 crore worldwide and gained Khan a [[National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment]] and a Filmfare Award nomination for Best Actor, making him the most nominated actor in the category without ever winning.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.in/salman-khan-never-won-a-Filmfare-Award-for-best-actor/articleshow/50635123.cms |title=If Filmfare Awards are India's Oscars, Salman Khan is our Leonardo DiCaprio, know how! |work=[[Business Insider]] |date=19 January 2016 |access-date=14 June 2016 |author=Sharma, Nanoni |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629151013/http://www.businessinsider.in/salman-khan-never-won-a-Filmfare-Award-for-best-actor/articleshow/50635123.cms |archive-date=29 June 2016 }}</ref> He collaborated with director [[Ali Abbas Zafar]] to play titular lead in the top-grossing productions ''[[Sultan (2016 film)|Sultan]]'' (2016) and ''[[Tiger Zinda Hai]]'' (2017).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=3640 |access-date=4 February 2018 |title=Tiger Zinda Hai To Cross PK Nett Figure Today – Box Office India |author=boxofficeindia |archive-date=3 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203062341/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=3640 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bharat Box Office Collection Day 22: Salman Khan's film breaches Rs 325-crore mark worldwide |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/trending/box-office/bharat-box-office-collection-day-22-salman-khan-film-breaches-rs-325-crore-mark-worldwide/story/359320.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702162011/https://www.businesstoday.in/trending/box-office/bharat-box-office-collection-day-22-salman-khan-film-breaches-rs-325-crore-mark-worldwide/story/359320.html |archive-date=2 July 2019 |access-date=6 April 2022 |website=[[Business Today (India)|Business Today]]|date=27 June 2019 }}</ref> He has since received criticism for producing and starring in panned action films like ''[[Race 3]]'' (2018), ''[[Dabangg 3]]'' (2019), ''[[Radhe (2021 film)|Radhe]]'' (2021), ''[[Kisi Ka Bhai Kisi Ki Jaan]]'' (2023) and [[Sikandar (2025 film)|''Sikandar'']] (2025).<ref>{{cite web |title=Radhe: Your Most Wanted Bhai (2021) |url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/radhe_the_most_wanted_bhai |access-date=6 April 2022 |publisher=[[Rotten Tomatoes]] |archive-date=8 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508053633/https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/radhe_the_most_wanted_bhai |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Radhe's IMDb rating falls to 2.1, is Salman Khan's second-lowest score after Race 3 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/radhes-imdb-rating-falls-to-2-1-is-salman-khan-s-second-lowest-score-after-race-3-101621057218415.html |access-date=18 August 2022 |work=Hindustan Times |date=15 May 2021 |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229182202/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/radhes-imdb-rating-falls-to-2-1-is-salman-khan-s-second-lowest-score-after-race-3-101621057218415.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Film==
{{pending films key}}
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|+ List of Salman Khan film credits
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role(s)
! scope="col" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{refh}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1988
! scope="row" |''[[Falak (1988 film)|Falak]]''
|{{n/a}}
|Assistant director
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/jackie-shroff-says-salman-khan-handled-his-clothes-and-boots-as-assistant-director-i-was-instrumental-in-him-getting-a-break-101621217725070.html|title=Jackie Shroff says Salman Khan 'handled his clothes and boots' as AD: 'I was instrumental in him getting a break'|date=17 May 2021|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Biwi Ho To Aisi]]''
|{{Sort|Bhandari|Vikram "Vicky" Bhandari}}
|Debut film
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Biwi Ho To Aisi (1988)|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|date=13 August 2011 |access-date=20 September 2014|archive-date=4 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304081732/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/55848/Biwi%20Ho%20To%20Aisi|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 1989
! scope="row" |''[[Maine Pyar Kiya]]''
| {{Sort|Choudhary|Prem Choudhary}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="awards">{{cite web|title = Salman Khan: Awards & Nominations|url = http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/awards/10961/index.html|website = [[Bollywood Hungama]]|access-date = 4 February 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110629150300/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/awards/10961/index.html|archive-date = 29 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Maine Pyar Kiya (1989) |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=13 August 2011 |access-date=20 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207172223/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201788/Maine%20Pyar%20Kiya |archive-date= 7 February 2015 }}</ref>
|-
| 1990
! scope="row" |''[[Baaghi (1990 film)|Baaghi]]''
|{{Sort|Sood|Saajan Sood}}
| Also screenwriter
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Baaghi (1990) |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=13 August 2011 |access-date=20 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071015/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/538869/Baaghi |archive-date= 4 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5" | 1991
! scope="row" |''[[Sanam Bewafa]]''
|{{Sort|Khan|Salman Khan}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Sanam Bewafa (1991) |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=13 August 2011 |access-date=20 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070401/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/508563/Sanam%20Bewafa |archive-date= 4 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Patthar Ke Phool]]''
|{{Sort|Verma|Suraj Verma}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Patthar Ke Phool (1991) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/508307 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=20 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901060714/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/508307 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Kurbaan (1991 film)|Kurbaan]]''
| Akash
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Kurbaan (1991) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/539746 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=20 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913123705/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/539746 |archive-date=13 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Saajan]]''
|{{Sort|Varma|Akash Varma}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Saajan (1991) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201633 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=20 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901043227/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201633 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Love (1991 Indian film)|Love]]''
| Prithvi
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Love (1991) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534621 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=20 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902140750/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534621 |archive-date= 2 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1992
! scope="row" |''[[Suryavanshi (film)|Suryavanshi]]''
|{{Sort|Singh|Suryavanshi Vikram Singh}} / Vicky{{efn|name=dual|Khan played dual roles in the film.<ref>{{cite video|title=Suryavanshi |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sh1wwILGvp0 |date=2 November 2011 |access-date=18 February 2015 |publisher=Venus Movies |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607060613/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sh1wwILGvp0 |archive-date= 7 June 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ghosh |first=Tapan K |title=Bollywood Baddies: Villains, Vamps and Henchmen in Hindi Cinema |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0d6GAwAAQBAJ |date=26 March 2013 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|SAGE Publications]] |isbn=978-81-321-1326-3 |page=185 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222200437/https://books.google.com/books?id=0d6GAwAAQBAJ |archive-date=22 February 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Judwaa |website=Amazon |url=https://www.amazon.com/Judwaa-Salman-Khan/dp/B00009QNV4 |access-date=18 February 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218154505/http://www.amazon.com/Judwaa-Salman-Khan/dp/B00009QNV4 |archive-date=18 February 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Adarsh |first1=Taran |title=Heroes (2008) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/56203 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=18 February 2015 |date=23 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218155439/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/56203 |archive-date=18 February 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Guha |first1=Kunal |title=Film Review: Prem Ratan Dhan Payo |url=http://www.mumbaimirror.com/entertainment/bollywood/Film-review-Prem-Ratan-Dhan-Payo/articleshow/49774631.cms |access-date=15 November 2015 |work=[[Mumbai Mirror]] |date=14 November 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115112811/http://www.mumbaimirror.com/entertainment/bollywood/Film-review-Prem-Ratan-Dhan-Payo/articleshow/49774631.cms |archive-date=15 November 2015 }}</ref>}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Suryavanshi (1992) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/508211 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=20 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902041041/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/508211 |archive-date= 2 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Jaagruti]]''
| Jugnu
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Ek Ladka Ek Ladki (1992) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534269 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=20 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902012723/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534269 |archive-date= 2 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Nishchaiy]]''
| Vasudev Gujral / Rohan Yadav
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Jagruti (1992) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534804 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=20 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140920220806/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534804 |archive-date=20 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Ek Ladka Ek Ladki]]''
|Raja
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web |title=Ek Ladka Ek Ladki (1992) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534269 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=20 September 2014 |archive-date=2 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902012723/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534269 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1993
! scope="row" |''[[Chandra Mukhi]]''
| {{Sort|Rai|Raja Rai}}
| Also screenwriter
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web |title=Chandramukhi Cast List |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/chandramukhi-2/cast/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=22 October 1993 |access-date=28 January 2024}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Dil Tera Aashiq]]''
| Vijay Singh
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Dil Tera Aashiq (1993) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534238 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=20 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901215247/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534238 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1994
! scope="row" |''[[Hum Aapke Hain Koun..!]]''
|Prem Nath
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|last1=Verma |first1=Sukyana |title=Why I like Andaz Apna Apna |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2003/aug/11andaz.htm |work=Rediff.com |access-date=26 February 2015 |date=11 August 2003 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030023655/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2003/aug/11andaz.htm |archive-date=30 October 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Chaand Kaa Tukdaa]]''
| Shyam Malhotra
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hegde |first1=Rajul |title=Hum Aapke Hain Koun comes once in a lifetime |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/interview/hum-aapke-hain-koun-comes-once-in-a-lifetime-tv/20120314.htm |work=Rediff.com |access-date=26 February 2015 |date=14 March 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150119191702/http://www.rediff.com/movies/interview/hum-aapke-hain-koun-comes-once-in-a-lifetime-tv/20120314.htm |archive-date=19 January 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Andaz Apna Apna]]''
|Prem Bhopali
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Chaand Ka Tukdaa (1994) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534099 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=20 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901202304/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534099 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Sangdil Sanam]]''
| Kishan
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Sangdil Sanam (1994) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/508568 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=20 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901205325/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/508568 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1995
! scope="row" |''[[Karan Arjun]]''
| Ajay / Karan{{efn|name=dual}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="awards" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Karan Arjun (1995) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201865 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=20 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901101350/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201865 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Veergati]]''
| Ajay
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Veergati (1995) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/508686 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=20 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901122833/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/508686 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1996
! scope="row" |''[[Majhdhaar]]''
| Gopal
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Majhdhaar (1996) |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=13 August 2011 |access-date=29 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061203/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534775/Yeh%20Majhdhaar |archive-date= 4 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Khamoshi: The Musical]]''
| Raj Kashyap
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Khamoshi (1996) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140118170849/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201933/Khamoshi%20The%20Musical |archive-date=18 January 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Jeet (1996 film)|Jeet]]''
| Rajnath "Raju" Sahay
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="awards" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Jeet (1996) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/539581 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901014515/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/539581 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Dushman Duniya Ka]]''
| Salman
| Cameo
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="GulazāraChatterjee2003">{{cite book|author1=Gulazāra |author2=Saibal Chatterjee |title=Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8y8vN9A14nkC&pg=PT513 |year=2003 |publisher=[[Popular Prakashan]] |isbn=978-81-7991-066-5 |page=489 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117120716/https://books.google.com/books?id=8y8vN9A14nkC |archive-date=17 January 2017 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1997
! scope="row" |''[[Judwaa]]''
|Raja / Prem{{efn|name=dual}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Judwaa (1997) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141124211352/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201902/Judwaa |archive-date=24 November 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Auzaar]]''
|{{Sort|Prakash|Suraj Prakash}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Auzaar (1997) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028143649/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201663/Auzaar |archive-date=28 October 2012 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Deewana Mastana]]''
| Prem Kumar
| Cameo
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Deewana Mastana (1997) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/533188 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=22 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903090655/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/533188 |archive-date= 3 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5" | 1998
! scope="row" |''[[Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya (1998 film)|Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya]]''
|{{Sort|Khanna|Suraj Khanna}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="awards" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya (1963) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/540246 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140831110700/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/540246 |archive-date=31 August 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Jab Pyaar Kisise Hota Hai]]''
|{{Sort|Dhanrajgir|Suraj Dhanrajgir}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Jab Pyar Kisi Se Hota Hai (1995) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/539472 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902101442/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/539472 |archive-date= 2 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Bandhan (1998 film)|Bandhan]]''
| Raju
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Bandhan (1998) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/538941 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901184753/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/538941 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Kuch Kuch Hota Hai]]''
|{{Sort|Mehra|Aman Mehra}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="awards" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Kuch Kuch Hota Hai (1998) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201863 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901150757/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201863 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Sar Utha Ke Jiyo]]''
|Himself
|Cameo
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gqindia.com/binge-watch/collection/after-powerful-performance-rrr-watch-ajay-devgn-5-best-cameo-roles-movies-netflix-zee5-more/ | title=After his powerful performance in 'RRR', watch Ajay Devgn's 5 best cameo roles in these movies on Netflix, ZEE5 and more | date=29 March 2022 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="6" | 1999
! scope="row" |''[[Jaanam Samjha Karo]]''
| Rahul
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Jaanam Samjha Karo (1999) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534949 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902163023/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534949 |archive-date= 2 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Biwi No.1]]''
| Prem Mehra
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="awards" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Biwi No. 1 (1999) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534076 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140831210805/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534076 |archive-date=31 August 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Sirf Tum]]''
| Prem
| Cameo
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Sirf Tum (1999) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/54588 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=22 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903070731/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/54588 |archive-date= 3 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam]]''
| Sameer Rosselline
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="awards" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam (1999) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/movies/movie/230229/Hum-Dil-De-Chuke-Sanam/overview |access-date=26 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227022650/http://www.nytimes.com/movies/movie/230229/Hum-Dil-De-Chuke-Sanam/overview |department=Movies & TV Dept. |work=[[The New York Times]] |author=Mark Deming |date=2015 |archive-date=27 February 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Hello Brother (1999 film)|Hello Brother]]''
| Hero
| Also playback singer for the song "Chandi Ki Daal Par"
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Hello Brother (1999) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201830 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901013644/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201830 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Hum Saath-Saath Hain]]''
| Prem Chaturvedi
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news|last1=Chopra |first1=Anupama |title=More family values |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-and-the-arts/films/story/19991115-movie-review-hum-saath-saath-hain-salman-khan-karisma-kapoor-saif-ali-khan-781557-1999-11-14 |access-date=26 February 2015 |work=India Today |date=15 November 1999 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227013345/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/movie-review-hum-saath-saath-hain-salman-khan-karisma-kapoor-saif-ali-khan/1/254891.html |archive-date=27 February 2015 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2000
! scope="row" |''[[Dulhan Hum Le Jayenge]]''
|{{Sort|Oberoi|Raja Oberoi}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Dulhan Hum Le Jayenge (2000) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201727 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902044016/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201727 |archive-date= 2 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Chal Mere Bhai]]''
|{{Sort|Oberoi|Prem Oberoi}}
| Also playback singer for the song "Chal Mere Bhai" With Sanjay Dutt
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Chal Mere Bhai (2000) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/54482 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903021718/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/54482 |archive-date= 3 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Har Dil Jo Pyar Karega]]''
| Raj / Romi{{efn|name=single|Khan played a single character in the film who has two different names.}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Har Dil Jo Pyaar Karega |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201760 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227172239/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201760 |archive-date=27 December 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Dhai Akshar Prem Ke]]''
| Truck Driver
|Special appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Dhaai Akshar Prem Ke (2000) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/54492 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=22 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902043959/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/54492 |archive-date= 2 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Kahin Pyaar Na Ho Jaaye]]''
|{{Sort|Kapoor|Prem Kapoor}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Kahi Pyaar Na Ho Jaaye (2000) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534411 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902093444/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534411 |archive-date= 2 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| 2001
! scope="row" |''[[Chori Chori Chupke Chupke]]''
|{{Sort|Malhotra|Raj Malhotra}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|last1=Verma |first1=Sukyana |title=It's finally out! |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2001/mar/09cccc.htm |work=Rediff.com |access-date=26 February 2015 |date=9 March 2001 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160124104455/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2001/mar/09cccc.htm |archive-date=24 January 2016 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2002
! scope="row" |''[[Tumko Na Bhool Paayenge]]''
| Ali / Veer Singh Thakur{{efn|name=single}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Tumko Na Bhool Paayenge (2002) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/55961 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901161323/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/55961 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Hum Tumhare Hain Sanam]]''
| Suraj Singh
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Hum Tumhare Hain Sanam (2002) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/55962 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140922061216/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/55962 |archive-date=22 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Yeh Hai Jalwa]]''
|{{Sort|Mittal|Raj Mittal}} / Raj "Raju" Saxena{{efn|name=single}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Yeh Hai Jalwa (2002) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201817 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006113720/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201817 |archive-date= 6 October 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2003
! scope="row" |''[[Love at Times Square]]''
| Himself
|Special appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Love At Times Square (2003) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534630 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=22 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902035546/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/534630 |archive-date= 2 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Stumped (film)|Stumped]]''
| Himself
| Cameo appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Stumped (2003) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201652 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=22 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901211317/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201652 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Tere Naam]]''
| {{Sort|Mohan|Radhe Mohan}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="awards" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Tere Naam (2003) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/533202 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006122625/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/533202 |archive-date= 6 October 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Baghban (2003 film)|Baghban]]''
|{{Sort|Malhotra|Alok Malhotra}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="awards" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Baghban (2003) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/538505 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006074617/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/538505 |archive-date= 6 October 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2004
! scope="row" |''[[Garv: Pride & Honour]]''
|{{Sort|Ranavat|[[Assistant Commissioner of Police|ACP]] Arjun Ranavat}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Garv (2004) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/510905 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006100258/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/510905 |archive-date= 6 October 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Mujhse Shaadi Karogi]]''
|{{Sort|Malhotra|Sameer Malhotra}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|last1=Verma |first1=Sukyana |title='Mujhse Shaadi Karogi' is another 'Main Hoon Na' |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2004/jul/30mujhse.htm |work=Rediff.com |access-date=26 February 2015 |date=30 July 2004 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101214911/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2004/jul/30mujhse.htm |archive-date= 1 November 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Phir Milenge (2004 film)|Phir Milenge]]''
|{{Sort|Manchanda|Rohit Manchanda}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Phir Milenge (2004) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/54568 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018070355/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/54568 |archive-date=18 October 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Dil Ne Jise Apna Kahaa]]''
| Rishabh
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Dil Ne Jise Apna Kahaa (2004) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/55989 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401104917/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/55989 |archive-date= 1 April 2015 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2005
! scope="row" |''[[Lucky: No Time for Love]]''
| Aditya
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Lucky – No Time For Love (2005) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/54547 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401153957/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/54547 |archive-date= 1 April 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Maine Pyaar Kyun Kiya?]]''
|{{Sort|Malhotra|Dr. Sameer Malhotra}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Maine Pyaar Kyun Kiya (2005) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151012221100/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/54551/Maine%20Pyaar%20Kyun%20Kiya |archive-date=12 October 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[No Entry]]''
| {{Sort|Khanna|Prem Khanna}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="awards" /><ref>{{cite news|last1=Chopra |first1=Anupama |title=Comic wane |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/your-week/story/20050912-movie-review-no-entry-starring-anil-kapoor-salman-khan-bipasha-basu-787120-2005-09-11 |access-date=26 February 2015 |work=India Today |date=12 September 2005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227011334/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/movie-review-no-entry-starring-anil-kapoor-salman-khan-bipasha-basu/1/193145.html |archive-date=27 February 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Kyon Ki]]''
| {{Sort|Sharma|Anand Sharma}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Kyon Ki (2006) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080739/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/508854/Kyon%20Ki |archive-date= 4 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2006
! scope="row" |''[[Shaadi Karke Phas Gaya Yaar]]''
| Ayaan
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|last1=Jain |first1=Priyanka |title=Salman and Shilpa don't arouse interest |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/aug/04shaadi.htm |work=Rediff.com |access-date=26 February 2015 |date=4 August 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221317/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/aug/04shaadi.htm |archive-date= 3 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Saawan... The Love Season|Saawan]]''
| Sameer ||Special appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Saawan – The Love Season (2006) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055828/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/505074/Saawan%20-%20The%20Love%20Season |archive-date= 4 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Baabul (2006 film)|Baabul]]''
|{{Sort|Kapoor|Avinash Kapoor}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gates |first1=Anita |title=From Bollywood to New York, a Tale of Lovers Lost and Found |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/20/movies/20swee.html?_r=0 |access-date=26 February 2015 |work=The New York Times |date=20 October 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202040101/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/20/movies/20swee.html?_r=0 |archive-date= 2 December 2016 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Jaan-E-Mann]]''
|{{Sort|Kapoor|Suhaan Kapoor}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Baabul (2006) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224200/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/54349/Baabul |archive-date= 3 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2007
! scope="row" |''[[Salaam-e-Ishq]]''
|{{Sort|Khanna|Rahul Khanna}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Salaam-e-Ishq |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/531137 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214095724/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/531137 |archive-date=14 December 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Partner (2007 film)|Partner]]''
| Prem
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Partner (2007) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/538407 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150330135353/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/538407 |archive-date=30 March 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Marigold (2007 film)|Marigold]]''
| Prem
|English film
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |title=Marigold: An Adventure in India (2007) |date=13 August 2011 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065913/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/507990/Marigold%3A%20An%20Adventure%20in%20India |archive-date= 4 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Om Shanti Om]]''
| Himself
|Special appearance in the song "Deewangi Deewangi"
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news|last1=Prabhakar|first1=Jyothi|title=Salman Khan: The king of cameos|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Salman-Khan-The-king-of-cameos/articleshow/14430633.cms|access-date=26 February 2015|work=The Times of India|date=28 June 2012|archive-date=5 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105211659/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Salman-Khan-The-king-of-cameos/articleshow/14430633.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Saawariya]]''
| Imaan Qazi
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Saawariya (2007) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201636 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=22 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903084811/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/201636 |archive-date= 3 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2008
! scope="row" |''[[God Tussi Great Ho]]''
|{{Sort|Prajapati|Arun Prajapati}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=God Tussi Great Ho (2008) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070134/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/54393/God%20Tussi%20Great%20Ho |archive-date= 4 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Hello (2008 film)|Hello]]''
| Himself
|Cameo appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Hello (2008) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/58517 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=22 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901061623/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/58517 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Heroes (2008 film)|Heroes]]''
|{{Sort|Singh|Balkar Singh}} / Jassvinder Singh AKA Jassi{{efn|name=dual}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Heroes (2008) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151012130945/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/56203/Heroes |archive-date=12 October 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Yuvvraaj]]''
|{{Sort|Yuvvraaj|Deven Yuvvraaj}}
| Also playback singer for the song "Main Hoon Yuvraaj"
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Yuvvraaj (2008) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065651/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/56206/Yuvvraaj |archive-date= 4 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2009
! scope="row" |''[[Wanted (2009 film)|Wanted]]''
| Rajveer "Radhe" Shikhawat{{efn|name=single}}
| Also playback singer for the song "Most Wanted Track"
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Wanted (2009) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301180107/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/538456/Wanted |archive-date= 1 March 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Main Aurr Mrs Khanna]]''
|{{Sort|Khanna|Sameer Khanna}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Main Aurr Mrs Khanna (2009) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224553/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/65160/Main%20Aurr%20Mrs%20Khanna |archive-date= 3 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[London Dreams]]''
|{{Sort|Khosla|Manjit Khosla}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=London Dreams (2009) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003354/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/65185/London%20Dreams |archive-date= 4 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani]]''
| Himself
|Special appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani (2009) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/510223 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=22 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901091748/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/510223 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2010
! scope="row" |''[[Veer (2010 film)|Veer]]''
| Veer / Veera {{efn|name=dual}}
|Also screenwriter
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Veer (2010) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/540541 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213124535/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/540541 |archive-date=13 December 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Prem Kaa Game]]''
| The Sutradhaar (Narrator)
|Special appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Prem Kaa Game (2010) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/508418 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=22 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924041114/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/508418 |archive-date=24 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Dabangg]]''
|{{Sort|Pandey|[[Chulbul Pandey]]}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mande |first1=Abhishek |title=Dabangg is for Salman fans |url=http://movies.rediff.com/report/2010/sep/10/review-dabangg.htm |work=Rediff.com |access-date=26 February 2015 |date=10 September 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217045837/http://movies.rediff.com/report/2010/sep/10/review-dabangg.htm |archive-date=17 February 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=It's SRK vs Salman at Filmfare |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Its-SRK-vs-Salman-at-Filmfare/articleshow/7276967.cms? |access-date=7 February 2015 |work=The Times of India |date=13 January 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223134223/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Its-SRK-vs-Salman-at-Filmfare/articleshow/7276967.cms |archive-date=23 December 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Tees Maar Khan (2010 film)|Tees Maar Khan]]''
| Himself
|Special appearance in the song "Wallah Re Wallah"
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|last1=Adarsh |first1=Taran |title=Tees Maar Khan review: It?s Akshay and Farah?s show all the way! |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/i-tees-maar-khan-i-review-it-s-akshay-and-farah-s-show-all-the-way-review-bollywood-pclxNmcdfadid.html |website=[[Sify]] |access-date=26 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810082631/http://www.sify.com/movies/i-tees-maar-khan-i-review-it-s-akshay-and-farah-s-show-all-the-way-review-bollywood-pclxNmcdfadid.html |archive-date=10 August 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Isi Life Mein...!]]''
| {{N/A}}
|Special appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Isi Life Mein (2010) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/537916 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=22 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901114554/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/537916 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2011
! scope="row" |''[[Ready (2011 film)|Ready]]''
|{{Sort|Kapoor|Prem Kapoor}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news|last=Kazmi|first=Nikhat|author-link=Nikhat Kazmi|title=Ready: Movie Review|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/Ready/movie-review/8696671.cms|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=3 June 2011|date=2 June 2011|archive-date=11 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511024014/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/ready/movie-review/8696671.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Chillar Party]]''
| {{N/A}}
| Producer only
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Chillar Party (2011) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/504525 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=7 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214203938/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/504525 |archive-date=14 December 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title='Chillar party' wins National Award for best children's film |url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/india/national-awards-chillar-best-childrens-film-453423.html |publisher=CNN-IBN |access-date=7 February 2015 |date=7 March 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150827183203/http://www.ibnlive.com/news/india/national-awards-chillar-best-childrens-film-453423.html |archive-date=27 August 2015 }}</ref>
|-

! scope="row" |''[[Yeh Dooriyan]]''
| Himself
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Yeh Dooriyan (2011) |url= https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/yeh-dooriyan/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date= 26 August 2011 |access-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214032752/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/yeh-dooriyan/|archive-date=14 December 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)|Bodyguard]]''
|{{Sort|Singh|Lovely Singh}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Bodyguard (2011) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/537944 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214032752/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/537944 |archive-date=14 December 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Nominations for 57th Idea Filmfare Awards 2011 |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/2974/Nominations+for+57th+Idea+Filmfare+Awards+2011 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=7 February 2015 |date=11 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715230452/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/2974/Nominations%2Bfor%2B57th%2BIdea%2BFilmfare%2BAwards%2B2011 |archive-date=15 July 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Tell Me O Kkhuda]]''
| Himself
|Special appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Tell Me O Kkhuda (2011) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/546178 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=22 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901201159/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/546178 |archive-date= 1 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2012
! scope="row" |''[[Ek Tha Tiger]]''
|{{Sort|Chandra|Manish Chandra}} / [[Tiger (YRF Spy Universe)|Avinash Singh Rathore / Tiger]]
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Ek Tha Tiger (2012) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/545809 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402211617/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/545809 |archive-date= 2 April 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Son of Sardaar]]''
| Pathan
| Cameo appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news|title=FIRST LOOK: Salman Khan in Son of Sardaar item song |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/first-look-salman-khan-in-son-of-sardaar-item-song/story-Edx7PlVrngyV8GYXmTpr0H.html |access-date=26 February 2015 |work=Hindustan Times |date=2 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304120125/http://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/first-look-salman-khan-in-son-of-sardaar-item-song/story-Edx7PlVrngyV8GYXmTpr0H.html |archive-date= 4 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Dabangg 2]]''
|{{Sort|Pandey|[[Chulbul Pandey]]}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sen |first1=Raja |title=Review: Dabangg 2 is better than the first |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/review-dabangg-2-is-better-then-the-first/20121221.htm |work=Rediff.com |access-date=26 February 2015 |date=21 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227015557/http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/review-dabangg-2-is-better-then-the-first/20121221.htm |archive-date=27 February 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=58th Idea Filmfare Awards nominations are here! |url=http://www.filmfare.com/news/58th-idea-filmfare-awards-nominations-are-here-2123.html |access-date=7 February 2015 |work=[[Filmfare]] |date=13 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227075057/http://www.filmfare.com/news/58th-idea-filmfare-awards-nominations-are-here-2123.html |archive-date=27 December 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2013
! scope="row" |''[[Ishkq in Paris]]''
| rowspan="2" | Himself
| rowspan="2" |Special appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Ishkq in Paris (2013) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/547317 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=1 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150123180920/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/547317 |archive-date=23 January 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Phata Poster Nikhla Hero]]''
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Phata Poster Nikhla Hero (2013) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/563932 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018052721/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/563932 |archive-date=18 October 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="8" | 2014
! scope="row" |''[[Jai Ho (film)|Jai Ho]]''
|{{Sort|Agnihotri|Jai Agnihotri}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Jai Ho (2014) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/587748 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211010332/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/587748 |archive-date=11 February 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[O Teri]]''
| Himself || Cameo appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=O Teri (2014) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/597971 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001081613/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/597971 |archive-date= 1 October 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Main Tera Hero]]''
| God
| Voiceover
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news|title=Salman Khan dubs for God in 'Main Tera Hero' |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/salman-khan-dubs-for-god-in-main-tera-hero/ |access-date=26 February 2015 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=5 April 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227013648/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/salman-khan-dubs-for-god-in-main-tera-hero/ |archive-date=27 February 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Lai Bhaari]]''
| Bhau
| Marathi film; cameo appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Lai Bhaari: Salman Khan speaks great Marathi, says Riteish Deshmukh |url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/india/salman-khan-speaks-great-marathi-riteish-deshmukh-636156.html |publisher=CNN-IBN |access-date=1 February 2015 |date=2 September 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150827113053/http://www.ibnlive.com/news/india/salman-khan-speaks-great-marathi-riteish-deshmukh-636156.html |archive-date=27 August 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Fugly (film)|Fugly]]''
| Himself
| Cameo appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Fugly (2014) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/660170 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140920190013/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/660170 |archive-date=20 September 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Kick (2014 film)|Kick]]''
|Devi lal Singh "Devil"
| Also playback singer for the songs "Hangover", "Jumme Ki Raat", "Tu Hi Tu"
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Kick (2014) |date=13 August 2011 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=31 January 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150119191356/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/546231/Kick |archive-date=19 January 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/review-kicks-music-is-paisa-vasool/20140720.htm |title=Review: Kick's music is paisa vasool |last=Vijayanand |first=Nishevitha |work=Rediff.com |date=20 July 2014 |access-date=13 November 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117030055/http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/review-kicks-music-is-paisa-vasool/20140720.htm |archive-date=17 November 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''Being Bhaijaan''
| Himself
| Documentary
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sharma |first1=Suparna |title=Movie review 'Being Bhaijaan' (documentary): Being Salman |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140913/entertainment-movie-review/article/movie-review-being-bhaijaan-documentary-being-salman |access-date=20 February 2015 |work=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |date=13 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220220855/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/140913/entertainment-movie-review/article/movie-review-being-bhaijaan-documentary-being-salman |archive-date=20 February 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Dr. Cabbie]]''
| {{N/A}}
| Producer only
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news|last1=Bhushan |first1=Nyay |title=Bollywood Star Salman Khan Backs Canadian Project 'Dr Cabbie' |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/canadian-film-dr-cabbie-backed-438206 |access-date=7 February 2015 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=4 December 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141123083254/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/canadian-film-dr-cabbie-backed-438206 |archive-date=23 November 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2015
! scope="row" |''[[Bajrangi Bhaijaan]]''
| Pawan Kumar Chaturvedi / Bajrangi Bhaijaan{{efn|name=single}}
|Also producer
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news|title=Nominations for the 61st Britannia Filmfare Awards |url=http://www.filmfare.com/news/nominations-for-the-61st-britannia-filmfare-awards-11809.html |work=Filmfare |date=11 January 2016 |access-date=11 January 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413161505/http://www.filmfare.com/news/nominations-for-the-61st-britannia-filmfare-awards-11809.html |archive-date=13 April 2016 }}</ref><ref name="63rdaward">{{cite press release|title=63rd National Film Awards|url=http://dff.nic.in/writereaddata/Winners_of_63rd_NFA_2015.pdf|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|date=28 March 2016|access-date=28 March 2016|archive-date=7 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007194418/http://dff.nic.in/writereaddata/Winners_of_63rd_NFA_2015.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Hero (2015 Hindi film)|Hero]]''
| {{N/A}}
| Producer; also playback singer for the song "Main Hoon Hero Tera"
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news|title=Lavish budget for 'Hero' like my other films, says Salman Khan |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/lavish-budget-for-hero-like-my-other-films-says-salman-khan/ |access-date=11 September 2015 |work=The Indian Express |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911010157/http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/lavish-budget-for-hero-like-my-other-films-says-salman-khan/ |archive-date=11 September 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Prem Ratan Dhan Payo]]''
| Prem Dilwale / Yuvraj Vijay Singh{{efn|name=dual}}
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news|title=Prem Ratan Dhan Payo review: Double dose of Salman adds nothing to this regressive, low-IQ Rajshri film |url=http://www.firstpost.com/bollywood/prem-ratan-dhan-payo-review-a-double-dose-of-salman-not-enough-to-lift-this-half-baked-lifeless-low-iq-rajshri-film-2504642.html |last=Vetticad |first=Anna M. M. |work=Firstpost |date=13 November 2015 |access-date=13 November 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151113104625/http://www.firstpost.com/bollywood/prem-ratan-dhan-payo-review-a-double-dose-of-salman-not-enough-to-lift-this-half-baked-lifeless-low-iq-rajshri-film-2504642.html |archive-date=13 November 2015 }}</ref>
|-
| 2016
!scope="row" | ''[[Sultan (2016 film)|Sultan]]''
|Sultan Ali Khan
|
|style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news |title= 'Sultan' poster: Salman Khan will floor you with his killer intensity |url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Sultan-poster-Salman-Khan-will-floor-you-with-his-killer-intensity/articleshow/50940838.cms |access-date= 18 January 2021 |archive-date= 19 July 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180719095056/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Sultan-poster-Salman-Khan-will-floor-you-with-his-killer-intensity/articleshow/50940838.cms |url-status= live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2017
! scope="row" |''[[Hanuman: Da' Damdaar]]''
|[[Hanuman]]
|Animated film; voiceover
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/hanuman-da-damdaar-lacks-power-and-punch/article18707609.ece|title=Hanuman Da Damdaar: lacks power and punch|last=Joshi|first=Namrata|work=The Hindu|date=2 June 2017|access-date=2 June 2017|archive-date=11 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211083750/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/hanuman-da-damdaar-lacks-power-and-punch/article18707609.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Tubelight (2017 Hindi film)|Tubelight]]''
|Laxman Singh Bisht
| Also producer
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="time_Soha">{{Cite web|title=Sohail Khan: "I am only doing 'Tubelight' so that I can be around Kabir and Salman bhai" |last=Kotwani |first=Hiren |work=The Times of India |date=29 July 2016 |access-date=17 September 2016 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Sohail-Khan-I-am-only-doing-Tubelight-so-that-I-can-be-around-Kabir-and-Salman-bhai/articleshow/53443932.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803205012/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Sohail-Khan-I-am-only-doing-Tubelight-so-that-I-can-be-around-Kabir-and-Salman-bhai/articleshow/53443932.cms |archive-date= 3 August 2016 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Judwaa 2]]''
|Raja / Prem
| Cameo appearance
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Salman khan's cameo in Judwaa 2 |date=23 September 2017 |url=https://www.mensxp.com/entertainment/bollywood/39785-we-finally-get-a-glimpse-of-salman-khan-rsquo-s-cameo-in-lsquo-judwaa-2-rsquo-and-it-rsquo-s-electrifying.html |access-date=23 September 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923132735/https://www.mensxp.com/entertainment/bollywood/39785-we-finally-get-a-glimpse-of-salman-khan-rsquo-s-cameo-in-lsquo-judwaa-2-rsquo-and-it-rsquo-s-electrifying.html |archive-date=23 September 2017 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Tiger Zinda Hai]]''
|[[Tiger (YRF Spy Universe)|Tiger / Avinash Singh Rathore]]
|
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref name="m.mid-day.com">{{cite web|title=Tiger Zinda Hai shooting to start in March |date=30 January 2017 |url=http://m.mid-day.com/articles/salman-khan-katrina-kaif-movies-ali-abbas-zafar-tiger-zinda-hai-bollywood-news/17952161 |access-date=31 January 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131042933/http://m.mid-day.com/articles/salman-khan-katrina-kaif-movies-ali-abbas-zafar-tiger-zinda-hai-bollywood-news/17952161 |archive-date=31 January 2017 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2018
! scope="row" |''[[Welcome to New York (2018 film)|Welcome to New York]]''
|Himself
|Cameo appearance
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{cite news |title=Welcome To New York: Salman Khan, Sonakshi Sinha reunite in new song Nain Phisal Gaye |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/welcome-to-new-york-salman-khan-sonakshi-sinha-reunite-in-new-song-nain-phisal-gaye/story-HKZkoHOtNagn7wxr1zz0GN.html |access-date=22 June 2018 |work=Hindustan Times |date=12 February 2018 |language=en |archive-date=23 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623004727/https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/welcome-to-new-york-salman-khan-sonakshi-sinha-reunite-in-new-song-nain-phisal-gaye/story-HKZkoHOtNagn7wxr1zz0GN.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Race 3]]''
| Sikander "Sikku" Singh
| Also producer, lyricist and playback singer
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref name="m.mid-day.com" />
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Yamla Pagla Deewana: Phir Se]]''
| Himself
| Special appearance in the song "Rafta Rafta Medley"
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chauhan |first1=Soumyata |title='Yamla Pagla Deewana Phir Se' trailer lacks jokes but makes do with Salman Khan, Rekha's cameos – Watch |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-yamla-pagla-deewana-phir-se-trailer-lacks-jokes-but-makes-do-with-salman-khan-rekha-s-cameos-watch-2648180 |access-date=20 October 2018 |work=Daily News and Analysis |date=10 August 2018 |archive-date=12 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112000726/https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-yamla-pagla-deewana-phir-se-trailer-lacks-jokes-but-makes-do-with-salman-khan-rekha-s-cameos-watch-2648180 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Loveyatri]]''
| {{N/A}}
| Producer; voiceover for the teaser
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gulfnews.com/life-style/celebrity/case-charged-against-salman-khan-for-his-latest-movie-love-yatri-1.2281460|title=Case charged against Salman Khan for his latest movie "Love Yatri"|last=IANS|date=23 September 2018|publisher=gulfnews.com|access-date=7 October 2018|archive-date=25 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925031550/https://gulfnews.com/life-style/celebrity/case-charged-against-salman-khan-for-his-latest-movie-love-yatri-1.2281460|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Zero (2018 film)|Zero]]''
| Himself
|Special appearance
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{cite news |title=Salman Khan's special cameo – 'Zero': Interesting facts about the Shah Rukh Khan starrer film |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/photo-features/zero-interesting-facts-about-the-shah-rukh-khan-starrer-film/Salman-Khans-special-cameo/photostory/62377089.cms |access-date=22 June 2018 |work=The Times of India |archive-date=17 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717083007/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/photo-features/zero-interesting-facts-about-the-shah-rukh-khan-starrer-film/Salman-Khans-special-cameo/photostory/62377089.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2019
! scope="row" |''[[Notebook (2019 film)|Notebook]]''
| {{N/A}}
| Special appearance in a song; also producer
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment/news/bollywood-news/article/salman-khan-films-produced-notebook-starring-pranutan-bahl-zaheer-iqbal-gets-a-release-date/328768|title='The most beautiful love story', Salman Khan's Notebook to release on March 29, 2019|first=Gaurang|last=Chauhan|date=10 December 2018|publisher=Times Now|access-date=16 February 2019|archive-date=16 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416131639/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment/news/bollywood-news/article/salman-khan-films-produced-notebook-starring-pranutan-bahl-zaheer-iqbal-gets-a-release-date/328768|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Bharat (film)|Bharat]]''
| Bharat Kumar
| Also producer
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businesstoday.in/trending/box-office/bharat-box-office-collection-day-22-salman-khan-film-breaches-rs-325-crore-mark-worldwide/story/359320.html|title=Bharat Box Office Collection Day 22: Salman Khan's film breaches Rs 325-crore mark worldwide|website=www.businesstoday.in|date=27 June 2019 |access-date=2 July 2019|archive-date=2 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702162011/https://www.businesstoday.in/trending/box-office/bharat-box-office-collection-day-22-salman-khan-film-breaches-rs-325-crore-mark-worldwide/story/359320.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/photo-features/bollywood-celebs-instagram-pics-you-should-not-miss/Bharat-Director-Ali-Abbas-Zafar-gives-us-a-sneak-peek-from-the-first-day-of-the-films-shoot/photostory/63794393.cms |title='Bharat': Director Ali Abbas Zafar gives us a sneak peek from the first day of the film's shoot – Bollywood celebs' Instagram pics you should not miss! |work=The Times of India |date=25 June 2018 |access-date=20 October 2018 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330230337/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/photo-features/bollywood-celebs-instagram-pics-you-should-not-miss/Bharat-Director-Ali-Abbas-Zafar-gives-us-a-sneak-peek-from-the-first-day-of-the-films-shoot/photostory/63794393.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Dabangg 3]]''
||{{Sort|Pandey|[[Chulbul Pandey]]}}
| Also producer and screenwriter
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bollywoodmascot.com/bollywood-news/salman-khan-starrer-dabangg-3-shooting-begins-today/|title=Salman Khan starrer Dabangg 3 Shooting Begins Today|first=Gaurav|last=Bhardva|date=1 April 2019|publisher=Bollywood Mascot|access-date=1 April 2019|archive-date=1 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401134235/https://bollywoodmascot.com/bollywood-news/salman-khan-starrer-dabangg-3-shooting-begins-today/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="3"| 2021
! scope="row" |''[[Kaagaz]]''
| {{N/A}}
| Producer only
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/television/news-pankaj-tripathi-starrer-kagaaz-to-stream-on-zee5-film-presented-by-salman-khan-2862085/amp|title=Pankaj Tripathi starrer 'Kagaaz' to stream on Zee5; film presented by Salman Khan|date=15 December 2020|work=Daily News & Analysis|access-date=21 December 2019|archive-date=18 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818181046/https://www.dnaindia.com/television/news-pankaj-tripathi-starrer-kagaaz-to-stream-on-zee5-film-presented-by-salman-khan-2862085/amp|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Radhe (2021 film)|Radhe]]''
| Radhe
| rowspan="2" | {{no wrap | Also producer}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/salman-khan-begins-shooting-of-radhe-with-disha-patani-and-randeep-hooda-see-pic-1614808-2019-11-01|title=Salman Khan begins Radhe shoot with Disha Patani and Randeep Hooda|date=1 November 2019|publisher=India Today|access-date=1 November 2019|archive-date=1 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101110451/https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/movies/bollywood/story/salman-khan-begins-shooting-of-radhe-with-disha-patani-and-randeep-hooda-see-pic-1614808-2019-11-01|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"|''[[Antim: The Final Truth|Antim]]''
|Rajveer Singh
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/salman-khan-begins-shooting-aayush-sharma-antim-nikitin-dheer-joins-cast/|title=Salman Khan begins shooting with Aayush Sharma for Antim; Nikitin Dheer joins the cast|date=10 December 2020|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|access-date=21 December 2020|archive-date=18 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218054936/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/amp/news/bollywood/salman-khan-begins-shooting-aayush-sharma-antim-nikitin-dheer-joins-cast/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"|2022
! scope="row"|''[[Godfather (2022 film)|Godfather]]''
| Masoom Bhai
|[[Telugu film]]; cameo appearance
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite news|date=10 November 2021|title=Mega Collaboration! S Thaman Confirms Salman Khan, Chiranjeevi's Dance Number in ''Godfather''|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/entertainment-news-mega-collaboration-s-thaman-confirms-salman-khan-chiranjeevis-dance-number-in-godfather/400429|work=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]|access-date=1 February 2022|archive-date=25 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325183636/https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/entertainment-news-mega-collaboration-s-thaman-confirms-salman-khan-chiranjeevis-dance-number-in-godfather/400429|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Ved (film)|Ved]]''
| Bhau
|[[Marathi cinema|Marathi film]]; cameo appearance
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{cite news |title=Riteish Deshmukh pens emotional note for Salman Khan as he shares their pictures from ''Ved'' set: 'Love you Bhau' |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/others/riteish-deshmukh-pens-sweet-note-for-salman-khan-as-he-shares-pics-from-ved-sets-101657439167118-amp.html |access-date=10 July 2022 |work=Hindustan Times |date=10 July 2022 |language=en |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818181048/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/others/riteish-deshmukh-pens-sweet-note-for-salman-khan-as-he-shares-pics-from-ved-sets-101657439167118-amp.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |2023
! scope="row" | ''[[Pathaan (film)|Pathaan]]''
| [[Tiger (YRF Spy Universe)|Tiger / Avinash Singh Rathore]]
| Cameo appearance
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 November 2020 |title=Shah Rukh Khan's Film Pathan To Have Salman Khan's Cameo? Details Inside |url=https://www.zee5.com/zee5news/shah-rukh-khans-film-pathan-to-have-salman-khans-cameo-details-inside |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005100828/https://www.zee5.com/zee5news/shah-rukh-khans-film-pathan-to-have-salman-khans-cameo-details-inside |archive-date=5 October 2021 |access-date=5 October 2021 |website=[[ZEE5]]}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Kisi Ka Bhai Kisi Ki Jaan]]''
| Bhaijaan alias Jaan
| {{no wrap |Also producer}}
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 June 2022 |title=EXCLUSIVE: After parting ways with DSP aka Devi Sri Prasad, Salman Khan ropes in KGF fame Ravi Basrur for background score & a special track for Bhaijaan |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/exclusive-parting-ways-dsp-aka-devi-sri-prasad-salman-khan-ropes-kgf-fame-ravi-basrur-background-score-special-track-bhaijaan/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |''[[Tiger 3]]''
| [[Tiger (YRF Spy Universe)|Tiger / Avinash Singh Rathore]]
|
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{cite news |title=Salman Khan snapped at a studio as he begins 'Tiger Zinda Sequel' shoot with Katrina Kaif |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/salman-khan-snapped-at-a-studio-as-he-begins-tiger-3-shoot-with-katrina-kaif/articleshow/81431043.cms |access-date=21 March 2021 |work=The Times of India |date=10 March 2021 |language=en |archive-date=12 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312055424/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/salman-khan-snapped-at-a-studio-as-he-begins-tiger-3-shoot-with-katrina-kaif/articleshow/81431043.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"|2024
! scope="row" |''[[Singham Again]]''
| [[Dabangg (film series)|Chulbul Pandey]]
| rowspan="2" |Cameo appearance
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-22 |title=Breaking News: Salman Khan shoots for Singham Again cameo as Chulbul Pandey today in Mumbai |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/exclusives/breaking-news-salman-khan-shoots-for-singham-again-cameo-as-chulbul-pandey-today-in-mumbai-1354680?amp |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=Pinkvilla}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Baby John (film)|Baby John]]''
|Agent Bhaijaan
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailyjagran.com/entertainment/varun-dhawan-baby-john-glimpse-promises-high-octane-action-salman-khan-cameo-excites-fans-for-kalees-movie-10191534|title=Varun Dhawan's Baby John Glimpse Promises High-Octane Action; Salman Khan's Cameo Excites Fans For Kalees' Movie|last=Pandey|first=Srishti|work=[[Jagran English]]|date=2024-10-01|access-date=2024-10-01}}</ref>
|-
|2025
! scope="row" | ''[[Sikandar (2025 film)|Sikandar]]''
| Sanjay "Sikandar" Rajkot<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2024 |title=Salman Khan begins AR Murugadoss' 'Sikandar' shooting, shares pic from sets|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/salman-khan-begins-ar-murugadoss-sikandar-shooting-pic-from-sets-sajid-nadiadwala-rashmika-mandanna-2555115-2024-06-19|work=India Today|access-date=19 June 2024|language=en-US}}</ref>
|
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-03-20 |title='Sikandar' release date: Salman Khan and Rashmika Mandanna's action drama to hit theatres on 30th March, to have a 2-hour-20-minute runtime |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/sikandar-release-date-salman-khan-and-rashmika-mandannas-action-drama-to-hit-theatres-on-30th-march-to-have-a-2-hour-20-minute-runtime/articleshow/119241577.cms |access-date=2025-11-21 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2026
| {{Pending film|[[Raja Shivaji (film)|Raja Shivaji]]}}
| Jiva Mahala
| Bilingual film; Cameo appearance; Post-production
|<ref>{{cite web |access-date= 6 November 2025 |title=Salman Khan to play warrior Jeeva Mahala in Riteish Deshmukh's Raja Shivaji; Sanjay Dutt to essay Afzal Khan |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/salman-khan-to-play-warrior-jeeva-mahala-in-riteish-deshmukhs-raja-shivaji-sanjay-dutt-to-essay-afzal-khan/articleshow/125091711.cms |website=Times of India |date=6 November 2025 }}</ref>
|-
| {{Pending film| [[Maatrubhumi]]}}
| [[Colonel (India)|Colonel]] [[B. Santosh Babu]]
| Filming
|<ref>{{cite web |access-date=21 August 2025 |title=Salman Khan's First Picture From Battle Of Galwan Set Goes Viral As Actor Starts Shooting In Ladakh |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/bollywood/salman-khan-first-picture-from-battle-of-galwan-set-goes-viral-as-actor-starts-shooting-in-ladakh-article-152503465 |website=Times Now |date=21 August 2025 }}</ref>
|}

==Television==
{| class="wikitable unsortable plainrowheaders"
|+ List of Salman Khan television credits
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title

! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{refh}}
|-
| 2008–2009; 2018
! scope="row" |''[[10 Ka Dum]]''
|Host
|
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|last1=Krishna|first1=Sonali|title=Dus Ka Dum|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2008-06-10/news/27691692_1_average-rating-tvr-amap|access-date=21 September 2014|work=[[The Economic Times]]|date=10 June 2008|archive-date=28 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228160756/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2008-06-10/news/27691692_1_average-rating-tvr-amap}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=How To Watch Salman Khan's Dus 10 Ka Dum 2018 Online Free On Mobile, TV |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/entertainment/how-to-watch-salman-khan-dus-10-ka-dum-2018-online-free-on-mobile-tv/1193077/ |access-date=18 August 2022 |work=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |date=4 June 2018 |language=en |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818181045/https://www.financialexpress.com/entertainment/how-to-watch-salman-khan-dus-10-ka-dum-2018-online-free-on-mobile-tv/1193077/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|2009; 2014
! scope="row" |[[CID (Indian TV series)|''C.I.D'']]
|Himself
|2 episodes
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 September 2009 |title=Salman Khan weaves his magic on the audience |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/entertainment-others/salman-khan-weaves-his-magic-on-the-audience/ |access-date=25 October 2024 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=24 July 2014 |title=Kick: Salman Khan promotes the film on CID |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/kick-salman-khan-promotes-the-film-on-cid/photostory/38973291.cms |access-date=25 October 2024 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| 2010–2025
! scope="row" |[[Bigg Boss (Hindi TV series)|''Bigg Boss'']]
| rowspan="3" |Host
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite news |last=A |first=Kameswari |date=2021-10-03 |title=Bigg Boss 15: Everything you need to know about Salman Khan's show |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/bigg-boss-15-everything-we-know-about-salman-khans-show-7542171/ |access-date=18 August 2022 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |language= |archive-date=26 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220726061007/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/bigg-boss-15-everything-we-know-about-salman-khans-show-7542171/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|2013
! scope="row" | [[Star Guild Awards|8th Star Guild Awards]]
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=Salman to host 8th Renault Star Guild Awards |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/1712577/Salman-to-host-8th-Renault-Star-Guild-Awards |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=7 February 2015 |date=12 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207162428/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/1712577/Salman-to-host-8th-Renault-Star-Guild-Awards |archive-date= 7 February 2015 }}</ref>
|-
| 2014
! scope="row" | [[Star Guild Awards|9th Star Guild Awards]]
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news|title=9th Star Guild Awards |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/salman-khan-to-host-star-guild-awards-2014/1212321/ |access-date=21 September 2014 |work=The Indian Express |date=27 December 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140509132004/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/salman-khan-to-host-star-guild-awards-2014/1212321/ |archive-date= 9 May 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| 2017
! scope="row" |''[[Super Night with Tubelight]]''
|Guest
|
|style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sharma |first1=Priyanka |title=Super Night With Tubelight: Salman Khan episode got aired a day before leaving fans shocked. But the reason is justified |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/super-night-with-tubelight-salman-khan-episode-got-aired-a-day-before-leaving-fans-shocked-but-the-reason-is-justified-4710025/ |access-date=18 August 2022 |work=The Indian Express |date=18 June 2017 |language=en |archive-date=28 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228100155/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/super-night-with-tubelight-salman-khan-episode-got-aired-a-day-before-leaving-fans-shocked-but-the-reason-is-justified-4710025/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 2019–2023
! scope="row" |''[[The Kapil Sharma Show]]''
| rowspan="2" |Producer
|
|style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news |last1=Farzeen |first1=Sana |title=The Kapil Sharma Show: Bharat stars Salman Khan, Katrina Kaif ready to enthrall the audience |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/the-kapil-sharma-show-preview-bharat-stars-salman-khan-katrina-kaif-photos-5759902/ |access-date=18 August 2022 |work=The Indian Express |date=1 June 2019 |language=en |archive-date=14 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614184234/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/the-kapil-sharma-show-preview-bharat-stars-salman-khan-katrina-kaif-photos-5759902/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 2019
! scope="row" |''[[Nach Baliye|Nach Baliye 9]]''
|
|style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news |title=Nach Baliye 9: Everything that happened in the grand premiere of Salman Khan show |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/nach-baliye-9-everything-that-happened-in-the-grand-premiere-of-salman-khan-show-5838884/ |access-date=18 August 2022 |work=The Indian Express |date=20 July 2019 |archive-date=29 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229071038/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/nach-baliye-9-everything-that-happened-in-the-grand-premiere-of-salman-khan-show-5838884/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 2021
! scope="row" |''[[Bawara Dil]]''
|Narrator
|Voiceover for first episode
|style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news |title=Salman Khan lends his voice for upcoming show Bawara Dil |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/lifestyle/salman-khan-lends-his-voice-for-upcoming-show-bawara-dil-215926 |access-date=18 August 2022 |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |date=22 February 2021 |language=en |archive-date=4 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304094130/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/lifestyle/salman-khan-lends-his-voice-for-upcoming-show-bawara-dil-215926 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2023
!scope="row"|[[Bigg Boss OTT (Hindi TV series)|''Bigg Boss OTT 2'']]
|Host
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web |title=After Karan Johar, Salman Khan is all set to host Bigg Boss OTT Season 2. Details here |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/binge-watch/story/after-karan-johar-salman-khan-is-all-set-to-host-bigg-boss-ott-season-2-details-here-2384605-2023-05-26 |website=[[Living Media|India Today]] |access-date=21 September 2023 |date=26 May 2023}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"|''[[The Romantics (TV series)|The Romantics]]''
| rowspan="4" |Himself
|Documentary series
|style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Romantics: Season 1 |url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/tv/the_romantics/s01 |access-date=2024-04-18 |website=Rotten Tomatoes}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2024
! scope="row"|''[[Angry Young Men (mini series)|Angry Young Men]]''
| Documentary series; also executive producer
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.primevideo.com/detail/Angry-Young-Men/0PCKSMVTFQD30VBOCO3CMTDIXJ|title=Angry Young Men|work=[[Prime Video]]|access-date=2025-01-21}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"|''Yo Yo Honey Singh: Famous''
| Documentary series
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-i-was-going-to-die-honey-singh-clarifies-on-shah-rukh-khan-slapping-him-during-us-tour-3123535|title='I was going to die...': Honey Singh clarifies on Shah Rukh Khan slapping him during US tour|last=Agarwal|first=Varsha|work=[[DNA India]]|date=2024-12-21|access-date=2025-01-21}}</ref>
|-
| 2025
! scope="row" |''[[The Ba***ds of Bollywood]]''
| Cameo Appearance
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mensxp.com/entertainment/bollywood/179536-bads-of-bollywood-aryan-khan-achieves-what-farah-khan-couldnt-om-shanti-om.html|title=With The Ba***ds of Bollywood, Aryan Khan Achieved What Farah Khan Couldn't 18 Years Ago|last=Chauhan|first=Gaurang|work=MensXP|date=2025-09-09|access-date=2025-09-09}}</ref>
|}

==Music videos==
{| class=wikitable
|-
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Singer(s)
!Album
!Notes
!Ref
|-
| 2003
| "Zid Na Karo Ye Dil Ka Mamla Hai"
| Himself
|Roop Johri, [[Kunal Ganjawala]]
|''Tera Mera Dil''
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Watch Popular Hindi Music Video - 'Zid Na Karo Ye Dil Ka Mamla Hai' (Honey Honey) Sung By Roop Johri, Kunal Ganjawala {{!}} Hindi Video Songs - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/hindi/watch-popular-hindi-music-video-zid-na-karo-ye-dil-ka-mamla-hai-honey-honey-sung-by-roop-johri-kunal-ganjawala/videoshow/78646912.cms |access-date=22 July 2021 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=22 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722131812/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/hindi/watch-popular-hindi-music-video-zid-na-karo-ye-dil-ka-mamla-hai-honey-honey-sung-by-roop-johri-kunal-ganjawala/videoshow/78646912.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|-
| 2020
| "Bhai Bhai"
| Himself
| Salman Khan
|
|
|<ref>{{|https://youtube.com/bU7ICJPPlYQ?si=E-ae6x9UsHU3aCew }}</ref>
|-
|-
| 2022
| "Dance With Me: Salman Khan"
| Himself
| Salman Khan
|
|
|<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejVRjZRw7kI</ref>
|-
|}

==See also==
* [[List of awards and nominations received by Salman Khan]]

==Notes==

===Footnotes===
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://m.imdb.com/name/nm0006795/filmotype?ref_=m_nm_flmg/ Salman Khan filmography] on [[IMDb]]
* [https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrity/salman-khan/filmography/ Salman Khan filmography] on [[Bollywood Hungama]]

{{Salman Khan}}
{{featured list}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Salman filmography}}
[[Category:Indian filmographies]]
[[Category:Male actor filmographies]]
[[Category:Salman Khan|Filmography]]

President of Afghanistan

2026-03-27T22:46:11Z

Realhimachal: typo fix

{{Short description|Defunct political office in Afghanistan}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox official post
| post = President
| body = the Republic of Afghanistan
| native_name = د افغانستان جمهور رئیس ([[Pashto]]) رئیس جمهور افغانستان ([[Dari]])
| insignia = Emblem of Afghanistan (2004–2021).svg
| insigniasize = 125px
| insigniacaption = [[Emblem of Afghanistan|Emblem of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan]]
| flag = Standard of the President of Afghanistan (2004-2021).svg
| flagborder = yes
| flagcaption = [[Flag of Afghanistan|Presidential standard]]
| image =
| imagesize =
| imagecaption =
| status = Office abolished
| residence = [[Arg, Kabul|The Arg]]
| seat = [[Kabul]]
| appointer = [[Direct election]]
| member_of = [[Cabinet of Afghanistan|Cabinet]]
| termlength = 5 years, renewable once
| first = [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]]
| last = [[Ashraf Ghani]]
| formation = {{indented plainlist|
* {{start date|df=y|1973|7|17}} (original)
* {{start date|df=y|2004|12|7}} (latest form)
}}
| abolished = {{end date|df=y|2021|8|15}}
| precursor = [[King of Afghanistan]]
| superseded_by = [[Supreme Leader of Afghanistan|Supreme Leader]]
| deputy = [[Vice President of Afghanistan|Vice President]]
| salary = {{currency|960000|AFN}} monthly<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wadsam.com/afghan-business-news/afghanistans-lower-house-approves-president-karzais-salary-and-expenses-amount-2323/|title=Afghanistan's lower house approves President Karzai's salary and expenses amount|work=Wadsam|date=1 June 2013|access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref>
| website = president.gov.af (inactive) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20210815124034/https://president.gov.af/en/ 15 August 2021 archive])
}}
The '''President of Afghanistan'''  was constitutionally the [[head of state]] and [[head of government]] of the [[Islamic Republic of Afghanistan]] and [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[Afghan Armed Forces]].

==Eligibility and selection process==
Article 62 of the [[2004 Constitution of Afghanistan]] stated that a candidate for the office of President had to:<ref>{{Cite web| url=https://president.gov.af/en/afghan-constitution-2/ |title=The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan |publisher=[[Government of Afghanistan]] |access-date=5 February 2013|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20180528152122/https://wadsam.com/afghan-business-news/afghanistans-lower-house-approves-president-karzais-salary-and-expenses-amount-2323/|archive-date=2018-05-28}}</ref>
* be a citizen of Afghanistan, Muslim, born of Afghan parents;
* not be a [[multiple citizenship|citizen of another country]];
* be at least forty years old when declaring candidacy;
* not have been convicted of [[crimes against humanity]], a criminal act or deprived of civil rights by a court;
* not have previously served [[term limit|more than two terms]] as president.

==Powers==
The 2004 Constitution granted the president wide powers over military and legislative affairs, with a relatively weak national [[bicameral]] [[National Assembly (Afghanistan)|National Assembly]], the [[House of the People (Afghanistan)|House of the People]] (Wolesi Jirga) and the [[House of Elders (Afghanistan)|House of Elders]] (Meshrano Jirga). A president could only serve up to two five-year terms.

[[Hamid Karzai]] began his first five-year term in 2004.<ref name=MeshranoJirgaMembers>
{{cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/04/world/asia/election-of-karzai-is-declared-official.html|title= Election of Karzai Is Declared Official|work=The New York Times|date= November 4, 2004|first=Carlotta|last=Gall |access-date=August 15, 2021}}</ref> After his second term ended in 2014, [[Ashraf Ghani]] was elected as the next Afghan president.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29375438 |title=Ashraf Ghani sworn in as new Afghan president |work=BBC News |date=29 September 2014 |access-date=July 25, 2021}}</ref>

==Last election==
{{main|2019 Afghan presidential election}}
{{Election results
|party1=[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|cand1=[[Ashraf Ghani]]
|votes1=923592

|party2=[[National Coalition of Afghanistan|National Coalition]]
|cand2=[[Abdullah Abdullah]]
|votes2=720841

|party3=[[Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin]]
|cand3=[[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]]
|votes3=70241

|party4=[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|cand4=[[Rahmatullah Nabil]]
|votes4=33919

|party5=[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|cand5=[[Faramarz Tamanna]]
|votes5=18063

|party6=[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|cand6=[[Noorullah Jalili]]
|votes6=15519

|party7=[[National Congress Party of Afghanistan|National Congress Party]]
|cand7=[[Abdul Latif Pedram]]
|votes7=12608

|party8=[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|cand8=[[Enayatullah Hafiz]]
|votes8=11375

|party9=[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|cand9=[[Mohammad Hakim Torsan]]
|votes9=6500

|party10=[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|cand10=[[Ahmad Wali Massoud]]
|votes10=3942

|party11=[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|cand11=[[Mohammad Shahab Hakimi]]
|votes11=3318

|party12=[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|cand12=[[Ghulam Farooq Najrabi]]
|votes12=1608

|party13=[[Truth and Justice (Afghanistan)|Truth and Justice]]
|cand13=[[Mohammad Hanif Atmar]]
|votes13=1567

|party14=[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|cand14=[[Noor Rahman Lewal]]
|votes14=855

|electorate=9665745
|turnout= 18.87
|source=[http://www.iec.org.af/results/en/home IEC]
}}
[[File:200229-D-AP390-1529 (49603221753).jpg|thumb|[[Arg, Kabul|The Arg]] (the presidential palace)]]

== List of presidents ==
{{see|List of heads of state of Afghanistan#Non-monarchs}}

==See also==
*[[Prime Minister of Afghanistan]]
*[[Chief Executive (Afghanistan)]]

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{notelist}}

{{-}}
{{Heads of state of Afghanistan}}

[[Category:Presidents of Afghanistan| ]]
[[Category:1973 establishments in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:2021 disestablishments in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Heads of state of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan]]

Medak Lok Sabha constituency

2026-03-27T16:12:00Z

Realhimachal: made a details.

{{Short description|Lok sabha constituency in Telangana}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = LS
| name = Medak {{Small|TG-6}}
|map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Lok Sabha constituencies/2019/Andhra Pradesh/Medak.map}}
| map_caption = Medak Lok Sabha constituency in Telangana
| established = 1957
| reservation = None
| mp = [[Raghunandan Rao]]
| party = {{Party index link|Bharatiya Janta Party}}
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
| state = [[Telangana]]
| electors = 1,536,715<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140702210941/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/GE2014/PC_WISE_TURNOUT.htm Parliamentary Constituency wise Turnout for General Election - 2014"]</ref>
| assembly_cons = [[Siddipet Assembly constituency|Siddipet]] [[Medak Assembly constituency|Medak]] [[Narsapur Assembly constituency|Narsapur]] [[Sangareddy Assembly constituency|Sangareddy]] [[Patancheru Assembly constituency|Patancheru]] [[Dubbak Assembly constituency|Dubbak]] [[Gajwel Assembly constituency|Gajwel]]
}}
'''Medak Lok Sabha constituency''' is one of the 17 [[Lok Sabha]] (Lower House of the Parliament) constituencies in [[Telangana]] state in southern [[India]].<ref name="ceo">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|publisher=The Election Commission of India|page=29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Kavita-versus-Vijayashanti-in-Andhras-Medak-Lok-Sabha-seat/articleshow/33203179.cms|title=Kavita versus Vijayashanti in Andhra's Medak Lok Sabha seat?|newspaper=The Times of India|date=4 April 2014|first=Shiva|last=Shankar|access-date=21 February 2020}}</ref> Former prime minister Indira Gandhi represented this.

==Overview==
Since its inception in 1957 Medak seat is a [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] stronghold, various political outfits like the [[Telangana Praja Samithi]], [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and the [[Telugu Desam Party]] have won it during different general elections.

After the formation of [[Telangana Rashtra Samithi]] the seat has been won by four different candidates in three general elections including its founder and former Chief Minister of Telangana [[Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao|K. Chandrashekar Rao]] and actress [[Vijayashanti]]

==Assembly segments==
Medak Lok Sabha constituency comprises the following Legislative Assembly segments:<ref name="ceo"/>

{|class="wikitable"
!No
!Name
!District
!Member
!colspan=2 |Party
! colspan="2" |Leading
{{small|(in 2024)}}
|-
|33
|[[Siddipet Assembly constituency|Siddipet]]
|[[Siddipet district|Siddipet]]
|[[T. Harish Rao]]
|{{party name with color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}
|{{party name with color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}
|-
|34
|[[Medak Assembly constituency|Medak]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Medak district|Medak]]
|[[Mynampally Rohit]]
|{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|37
|[[Narsapur Assembly constituency|Narsapur]]
|[[Vakiti Sunitha Laxma Reddy]]
|{{party name with color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi|rowspan=5}}
|{{party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|39
|[[Sangareddy Assembly constituency|Sangareddy]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Sangareddy district|Sangareddy]]
|[[Chinta Prabhakar]]
|-
|40
|[[Patancheru Assembly constituency|Patancheru]]
|[[Gudem Mahipal Reddy]]
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|41
|[[Dubbak Assembly constituency|Dubbak]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Siddipet district|Siddipet]]
|[[Kotha Prabhakar Reddy]]
|{{party name with color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi|rowspan=2}}
|-
|42
|[[Gajwel Assembly constituency|Gajwel]]
|[[K. Chandrashekar Rao]]
|-
|}

==Members of Parliament==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
| [[1952 Indian general election|1952]]
| N. M. Jaisoorya
|{{party color cell|Communist Party of India}}
|[[People's Democratic Front (Hyderabad)]]
|-
| [[1957 Indian general election|1957]]
| rowspan="2" |[[P. Hanmanth Rao]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
|-
| [[1967 Indian general election|1967]]
|[[Sangam Laxmi Bai]]
|-
| [[1971 Indian general election|1971]]
| rowspan="2" |Mallikarjun Goud
|{{Full party name with color|Telangana Praja Samithi}}
|-
| [[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
|[[Indira Gandhi]] †
|-
| [[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
|P. Manik Reddy
|{{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|-
| [[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
| rowspan="4" |[[M. Baga Reddy]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
| [[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
|-
| [[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
|-
| [[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
|-
| [[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
| rowspan="2" |[[A. Narendra]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
| {{Full party name with color|Telangana Rashtra Samithi|rowspan=5}}
|-
| [[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
|[[Vijaya Shanthi]]
|-
| [[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
|[[K. Chandrashekar Rao]]
|-
| 2014^
| rowspan="2" |[[Kotha Prabhakar Reddy]]
|-
|[[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|-
| [[2024 Indian general election|
2024]]
|[[Raghunandan Rao]]
|{{party color cell|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|}
^By-Poll

==Election results==
{{bar box
|float=right
|title= Vote share of winning candidates
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=300px
|barwidth=275px
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[#2021|2024]]|{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}|33.99}}
{{bar percent|[[#2016|2019]]|{{party color|Telangana Rashtra Samithi}}|51.82}}
{{bar percent|[[#2016|2014]]|{{party color|Telangana Rashtra Samithi}}|55.24}}
{{bar percent|[[#2016|2014]]|{{party color|Telangana Rashtra Samithi}}|55.20}}
{{bar percent|[[#2016|2009]]|{{party color|Telangana Rashtra Samithi}}|36.67}}
{{bar percent|[[#2016|2004]]|{{party color|Telangana Rashtra Samithi}}|50.36}}
{{bar percent|[[#2021|1999]]|{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}|48.20}}
{{bar percent|[[#2021|1998]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|34.12}}
{{bar percent|[[#2021|1996]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|37.42}}
{{bar percent|[[#2021|1991]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|50.67}}
}}
=== General election, 2024 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Indian general elections]]: [[Medak]]<ref name="2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Medak">{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |title=2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Medak |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S296.htm |access-date=6 June 2024 |date=6 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606160137/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S296.htm |archive-date=6 June 2024}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Raghunandan Rao]]|votes=471,217|percentage=33.99|change={{increase}}16.47}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Nilam Madhu Mudiraj|votes=432,078|percentage=31.17|change={{increase}}6.86}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bharat Rashtra Samithi|candidate|candidate=Venkatarami Reddy|votes=396,790|percentage=28.62|change={{decrease}}23.20}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=None of the above|candidate=[[None of the Above]]|votes=4,617|percentage=0.33|change={{down}}1.01}}{{Election box majority|votes=39,139|percentage=2.82|change={{down}}24.69}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=1,386,239|percentage=75.09|change={{increase}}3.34}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
| loser = Bharat Rashtra Samithi
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== General election, 2019 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Indian general elections]]: [[Medak]]<ref>[https://www.news18.com/lok-sabha-elections-2019/telangana/medak-election-result-s29p06/ MEDAK LOK SABHA POLLS RESULT]</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Telangana Rashtra Samithi|candidate=[[Kotha Prabhakar Reddy]]|votes=596,048|percentage=51.82|change={{decrease}}6.21}}

{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Gali Anil Kumar|votes=279,621|percentage=24.31|change={{increase}}2.95}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Raghunandan Rao]]|votes=201,567|percentage=17.52|change={{decrease}}0.39}}
{{Election box candidate |
|party=[[Independent politician|IND.]]
|candidate=Thumalapally Pruthviraj
|votes=18,813
|percentage=1.64
|change=
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party=None of the above
|candidate=None of the above
|votes=15,390
|percentage=1.34
|change=
}}
{{Election box majority|votes=316,427|percentage=27.51|change={{increase}}3.34}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=1,150,331|percentage=71.75|change={{increase}}3.96}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== General By-Election, 2014 ===
{{Election box begin | title= By-Election, 2014: Medak<ref name="TRS wins Medak Lok Sabha seat">{{cite news |last1=The Hindu |date=16 September 2014 |title=TRS wins Medak Lok Sabha seat |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/medak-lok-sabha-constituency-result/article6414911.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522144934/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/medak-lok-sabha-constituency-result/article6414911.ece |archive-date=22 May 2024 |access-date=22 May 2024 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/medak-lok-sabha-constituency-result/article6414911.ece MEDAK LOK SABHA BY-ELECTIONS RESULT]</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Telangana Rashtra Samithi|candidate=[[Kotha Prabhakar Reddy]]|votes=5,71,810|percentage=55.24|change={{increase}}0.04}}

{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=[[Vakiti Sunitha Laxma Reddy]] |votes=2,10,524|percentage=20.34|change={{decrease}}1.53}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Jagga Reddy]]|votes=1,86,343|percentage=18.00|change={{increase}}2.74}}
{{Election box majority|votes=3,61,286|percentage=34.54|change={{increase}}1.21}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=10,46,114|percentage=67.79|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Election, 2014===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general elections]]: [[Medak]]<ref>[http://www.elections.in/andhra-pradesh/parliamentary-constituencies/medak.html MEDAK LOK SABHA (GENERAL) ELECTIONS RESULT]</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| candidate = [[K. Chandrashekar Rao]]
| votes = 6,57,492
| percentage = 55.20
| change = {{increase}}18.53
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = P. Shravan Kumar Reddy
|votes = 2,60,463
|percentage = 21.87
|change = {{decrease}}14.25
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Chaganla Narendra Nath
|votes = 1,81,804
|percentage = 15.26
|change = {{decrease}}21.36
}}
{{Election box candidate |
|party = [[Independent (politician)|IND.]]
|candidate = Kundeti Ravi
|votes = 33,507
|percentage = 2.81
|change = New
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = YSR Congress Party
|candidate = Prabhugoud Pullaiahgari
|votes = 27,412

|percentage = 0.98
|change = New
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the above
|votes = 10,696
|percentage = 0.90
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 3,97,029
| percentage = 33.33
| change = {{increase}}32.78
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 12,93,548
| percentage = 77.70
| change = {{increase}}1.41
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Election, 2009===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Indian general elections]]: [[Medak]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| candidate = Vijaya Shanthi. M
| votes = 388,839
| percentage = 36.67
| change = {{decrease}}13.69
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Narendra Nath Chengala
| votes = 382,762
| percentage = 36.12
| change = {{decrease}}9.42
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Praja Rajyam Party
| candidate = Khaja Quayum Anwar
| votes = 120,812
| percentage = 11.39
| change = {{increase}}11.39
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 6,077
| percentage = 0.55
| change = {{decrease}}13.19
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 1,060,272
| percentage = 76.29
| change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Election, 2004===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Indian general elections|General Election, 2004]]: Medak}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| candidate = [[A. Narendra]]
| votes = 453,738
| percentage = 50.36
| change = +50.36
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = P Ramchandra Reddy
| votes = 329,972
| percentage = 36.62
| change = -11.58
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Suryaprakash Nalla
| votes = 52,273
| percentage = 5.80
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Md Ulfathali
| votes = 34,476
| percentage = 3.83
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = K Laxmaiah Yadav
| votes = 18,457
| percentage = 2.05
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = P Jeevula naik
| votes = 12,099
| percentage = 1.34
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 124,766
| percentage = 13.74
| change = +61.94
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 901,015
| percentage = 71.60
| change = +0.41
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
| swing = +50.36
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Election, 1999===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1999 Indian general election|General Election, 1999]]: Medak}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = [[A. Narendra]]
| votes = 400,244
| percentage = 48.20
| change = {{increase}}16.17
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = M. Baga Reddy
| votes = 378,161
| percentage = 45.54
| change = {{increase}}11.42
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Syed Muneeroddin
| votes = 14,505
| percentage = 1.75
| change = N/A
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Golla Vittal
| votes = 11,525
| percentage = 1.39
| change = N/A
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 22,083
| percentage = 2.66
| change = {{increase}}0.57
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes =
| percentage =
| change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
| loser = Indian National Congress
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Election, 1998===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1998 Indian general election|General Election, 1998]]: Medak}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = M. Baga Reddy
| votes = 269,122
| percentage = 34.12
| change = {{decrease}}3.30
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Ale Narendra
| votes = 252,642
| percentage = 32.03
| change = {{increase}}12.15
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = Patlolla Manik Reddy
| votes = 240,166
| percentage = 30.44
| change = {{decrease}}3.39
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Samajwadi Party
| candidate = Gurujada Beeraiah Yadav
| votes = 12,465
| percentage = 1.58
| change = New
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Mohd. Waheed Ahmed
| votes = 8,634
| percentage = 1.09
| change = New
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Ganta Babu
| votes = 2,066
| percentage = 0.26
| change = N/A
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 16,480
| percentage = 2.09
| change = {{decrease}}1.50
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes =
| percentage =
| change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Election, 1996===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1996 Indian general election|General Election, 1996]]: Medak}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = M. Baga Reddy
| votes = 286,278
| percentage = 37.42
| change = {{decrease}}13.25
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = Patlolla Manik Reddy
| votes = 258,789
| percentage = 33.83
| change = {{increase}}5.79
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Ale Narendra
| votes = 152,070
| percentage = 19.88
| change = {{increase}}4.09
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = NTR Telugu Desam Party (Lakshmi Parvathi)
| candidate = G. Laxmi Narsinga Rao
| votes = 30,374
| percentage = 3.97
| change = New
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = MinuPoori Ramchandraiah
| votes = 8,148
| percentage = 1.07
| change = New
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 27,489
| percentage = 3.59
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes =
| percentage =
| change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Election, 1991===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1991 Indian general election|General Election, 1991]]: Medak}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = M. Baga Reddy
| votes = 313,740
| percentage = 50.67
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=D. Rama Krishna|votes=173,590|percentage=28.04|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=Allani Kishan Rao|votes=97,791|percentage=15.79|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=Nalla Suryaprakash|votes=17,743|percentage=2.87|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent (politician)|candidate=Ganta Babu|votes=4,417|percentage=0.71|change=}}
{{Election box majority|votes=140,150|percentage=22.63|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=619,281|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Election, 1989===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1989 Indian general election |General Election, 1989]]: Medak}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Bagareddy M
| votes = 383,586
| percentage = 54.42
| change = {{increase}}6.55
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = P Manik Reddy
| votes = 287,490
| percentage = 40.79
| change = {{decrease}}7.42
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Naikwadi Vittalaiah
| votes = 12,904
| percentage = 1.83
| change = N/A
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Errolla Rathnaiah
| votes = 7,797
| percentage = 1.11
| change = N/A
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 96,096
| percentage = 13.63
| change = {{increase}}13.29
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 736,786
| percentage = 69.69
| change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Indian National Congress
| loser = Telugu Desam Party
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Election, 1984===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1984 Indian general election |General Election, 1984]]: Medak}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = P Manik Reddy
| votes = 263,524
| percentage = 48.21
| change = New
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = P Shiv Shankar
| votes = 261,708
| percentage = 47.87
| change = {{decrease}}20.06
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Ganta Babu
| votes = 6,407
| percentage = 1.17
| change = N/A
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = B Venkateshwara Rao
| votes = 6,903
| percentage = 1.11
| change = N/A
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 1,816
| percentage = 0.34
| change = {{decrease}}49.02
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 561,154
| percentage = 67.61
| change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Telugu Desam Party
| loser = Indian National Congress
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Election, 1980===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1980 Indian general election|General Election, 1980]]: Medak}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress (Indira)
| candidate = [[Indira Gandhi]]
| votes = 301,577
| percentage = 67.93
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Janata Party
| candidate = S. Jaipal Reddy
| votes = 82,453
| percentage = 18.57
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Janata Party (Secular)
| candidate = Kesava Rao Jadav
| votes = 26,149
| percentage = 5.89
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Ganta Babu
| votes = 15,456
| percentage = 3.48
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = [[Shakuntala Devi]]
| votes = 6,514
| percentage = 1.47
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 219,124
| percentage = 49.36
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes =
| percentage =
| change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress (Indira) |loser= |swing= + }}
{{Election box end}}

===General Election, 1977===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1977 Indian general election|General Election, 1977]]: Medak}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[Mallikarjun Goud]]
| votes = 239,813
| percentage = 67.00
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Janata Party
| candidate = Narasimba Reddy
| votes = 96,303
| percentage = 26.91
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Other 4 Independent Candidates
| votes = 21,805
| percentage = 6.10
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 143,510
| percentage = 40.09
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes =
| percentage =
| change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress|loser= |swing= + }}
{{Election box end}}

===General Election, 1952===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1952 Indian general election|General Election, 1952]]: Medak}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = People's Democratic Front (Hyderabad)
| candidate = Jaisooriya
| votes = 90,366
| percentage = 45.72
| change = New
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Srinivas Rao
| votes = 70,686
| percentage = 35.77
| change = New
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Bal Reddy
| votes = 36,585
| percentage = 18.51
| change = New
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 19,680
| percentage = 9.95
| change = N/A
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 197,637
| percentage =
| change =
}}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=People's Democratic Front (Hyderabad) |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==Trivia==
* Former Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] was holding the seat when she was assassinated in 1984.
* Telangana first Chief Minister, [[Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao]] won the seat by a margin of 3.7 lakh votes in [[2014 Indian general elections|2014 General Election]], but he later vacated it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-trs-chief-k-chandrasekhara-rao-resigns-from-medak-lok-sabha-seat-1991597 |title=TRS chief K Chandrasekhara Rao resigns from Medak Lok Sabha seat {{pipe}} Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis |publisher=Dnaindia.com |date=2014-05-27 |access-date=2014-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/many-aspirants-for-medak-lok-sabha-seat/article6029976.ece |title=Many aspirants for Medak Lok Sabha seat |publisher=The Hindu |date=2014-05-20 |access-date=2014-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=' + val.created_at + ' |url=http://www.ndtv.com/elections/article/election-2014/trs-chief-k-chandrasekhar-rao-likely-to-have-smooth-sailing-in-medak-lok-sabha-seat-510285 |title=TRS chief K Chandrasekhar Rao likely to have smooth sailing in Medak Lok Sabha seat |publisher=NDTV.com |date=2014-04-18 |access-date=2014-06-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/ns5YkZkgqhSwvFaTg6mk9J/TRS-chief-to-contest-both-Lok-Sabha-assembly-polls-in-Telan.html |title=TRS, AIMIM announce candidates; KCR to contest from Medak |publisher=Livemint |date=2014-04-08 |access-date=2014-06-05}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Medak district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.indiaelections2014.info/parliament/2019/states/telangana/medak/lok_sabha_parliamentary_election_2019_dates.html Medak lok sabha constituency election 2019 date and schedule]

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|in-lwr}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Baghpat Lok Sabha constituency|Baghpat]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Constituency represented by the [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]]|years=1980-1984}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Amethi Lok Sabha constituency|Amethi]]}}
{{end}}

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Telangana}}
{{Coord|18.0|78.3|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Medak Lok Sabha constituency}}
[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Telangana]]
[[Category:Medak district]]
[[Category:Indira Gandhi]]
[[Category:K. Chandrashekar Rao]]

The Raj Palace

2026-03-26T02:46:41Z

Realhimachal: put up a pg - done

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox hotel
| name = The Raj Palace
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| location = [[Jaipur]], [[Rajasthan]], India
| coordinates = {{Coord|26.935289|N|75.833858|E|display=inline,title}}
| opening_date =
| closing_date =
| developer =
| architect =
| operator =
| owner =
| number_of_restaurants =
| number_of_rooms =
| number_of_suites =
| floor_area =
| floor_count =
| parking =
| website =
| Social Website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''The Raj Palace''' in [[Jaipur]] [[Rajasthan]], India is more than two and a half centuries old palace converted into a grand heritage hotel.<ref name="slh.com">{{Cite web|title = The Raj Palace, Jaipur Hotel, Luxury City Retreat, India, SLH|url = http://www.slh.com/hotels/the-raj-palace-hotel/|website = www.slh.com|accessdate = 2015-09-25}}</ref>

The hotel is awarded as "the best heritage hotel of India" by the Government of India and voted as "The leading heritage hotel of the world" consecutively for seven times by World Travel Awards.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Raj Palace on World Travel Awards|url = http://www.worldtravelawards.com/profile-27482-the-raj-palace|accessdate = 2015-09-25}}</ref> The property is a member of "Small Luxury Hotel" of the World (SLH).<ref name="slh.com"/> It is managed by the flagship company GKV group which is also a major player in Mining and Information Technology industries.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Raj Palace Hotel Jaipur Heritage Hotels|url = http://www.rajpalace.com/about-us.html|website = www.rajpalace.com|accessdate = 2015-09-25}}</ref>

== History ==
In 1503 AD, Maharaja [[Prithviraj Singh I]] was the ruler of Amber, capital before Jaipur was built. One of his descendants in 1568 AD Thakur Manohardas Ji, the then Prime Minister of Amber was one of the greatest warriors in the Rajput history, ruling over the territories of Chaumoo, Samode and Mohanna. Thakur Sahib along with Maharaja Man Singh Ji of Jaipur gained victories in overall 22 battles including the battle of Kandhar in Afghanistan where he defeated the army bravely and snatched their flags to present to the King, in return the Thakur Sahib got the original flag of Amber and a great fortune of wealth.<ref>{{Cite web|title = CHOMU|url = http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~princelystates/states/c/chomu.html|website = freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com|accessdate = 2015-09-25}}</ref>

One of his descendants Thakur Mohan Singh Ji,<ref>{{Cite web|title = CHOMU|url = http://members.iinet.net.au/~royalty/ips/c/chomu.html|website = members.iinet.net.au|accessdate = 2015-09-25}}</ref> ruler of Chaumoo and the then Prime Minister of Raj built the first Palace of Jaipur in 1727 which is Today known as "The Raj Palace". The Palace is still being inhabited by his 16th generation descendant and current owner Princess Jayendra Kumari.

== Now ==
Under the supervision of Princess Jayendra Kumari, a team of 800 workers began renovating the palace's arched corridors, residential quarters and courtyards in 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Raj Palace is ‘best heritage hotel’ - The Times of India|url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/Raj-Palace-is-best-heritage-hotel/articleshow/5364189.cms|accessdate = 2015-10-06}}</ref> The renovation preserved the palace's historic magnificence while introducing modern day amenities. After around 110000 sq ft covered area restoration, 7 million Man hours, 50000 sq ft of Stucco Restoration, 50000 sq ft of hand painting and 8000 sq ft of Gold foiling, the palace opened as a grand heritage hotel on 10 August 1997. "Museum Suites" were also created i.e. every suite having a private museum, making the hotel the first palace hotel with such accommodations in the world.<ref name=whopping>{{Cite web|title = Jaipur: Raj Palace's most luxurious suite to cost a whopping R 48 lakh a night|url = http://daily.bhaskar.com/news/RAJ-JPR-raj-palace-jaipur-most-luxurious-suite-to-cost-a-whopping-rs-48-lakh-a-night-4567080-PHO.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151006222818/http://daily.bhaskar.com/news/RAJ-JPR-raj-palace-jaipur-most-luxurious-suite-to-cost-a-whopping-rs-48-lakh-a-night-4567080-PHO.html|url-status = dead|archive-date = 6 October 2015|website = daily.bhaskar.com|accessdate = 2015-10-06}}</ref> The renovated palace's facilities are also easily accessible to special needs and handicapped guests.<ref name=whopping />

The hotel became a member of "Small Luxury Hotels of the World", "Five Star Alliance" and "VISA Luxury Collection".{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

The present General Manager of the hotel is Mrs. Ankur Rara Jethlia.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

==Awards and recognition==
* 2007 World's Leading Heritage Hotel <ref name=world>{{Cite web|title = The Raj Palace|website= World Travel Awards|url = http://www.worldtravelawards.com/profile-27482-the-raj-palace|accessdate = 2015-09-24}}</ref>
* 2008 Asia's Leading Hotel Suite<ref name=world />
* 2008 World's Leading Heritage Hotel<ref name=world />
* 2009 Asia's Leading Hotel Suite<ref name=world />
* 2009 World's Leading Heritage Hotel<ref name=world />
* 2010 Asia's Leading Hotel Suite<ref name=world />
* 2010 World's Leading Heritage Hotel<ref name=world />
* 2011 Asia's Leading Hotel Suite<ref name=world />
* 2011 World's Leading Heritage Hotel<ref name=world />
* 2012 Asia's Leading Hotel Suite<ref name=world />
* 2012 World's Leading Heritage Hotel<ref name=world />
* 2013 Asia's Leading Hotel Suite<ref name=world />
* 2013 World's Leading Heritage Hotel<ref name=world />
* 2014 Asia's Leading Hotel Suite<ref name=world />
* Rashtriya Rattan Award 1999
* International Gold Star Millennium Award 2002 in Bangkok
* The Golden Award for Quality & Business Prestige-New Millennium Award-Total Quality Satisfaction of Customer, nominated by American travel agents Association in Geneva Switzerland 2005
* 32nd International award for Hotel Catering and Tourism, 2006 in Madrid Spain
* 2006 National Tourism award for the best heritage hotel (For earning 2006 National Tourism award for the best heritage hotel (For earning the highest foreign Exchange)
* CNN calls hotel's Presidential suite "Asia's best suite and world's first in-suite museum"<ref>{{Cite web|title = Rocking Rajasthan palaces: Live with, not like, an Indian prince|url = http://travel.cnn.com/mumbai/visit/what-makes-rajasthans-leading-hotel-suite-016952|accessdate = 2015-09-24}}</ref>
* CNN calls The Raj Palace "most luxurious destination in the world"
* Member of "Small Luxury Hotels Of The World" (SLH) <ref>{{Cite web|title = The Raj Palace, Jaipur Hotel, Luxury City Retreat, India, SLH|url = http://www.slh.com/hotels/the-raj-palace-hotel/|website = www.slh.com|accessdate = 2015-09-24}}</ref>
* Member of Five Star Alliance <ref>{{Cite web|title = Get to Know The Raj Palace - Five Star Alliance|url = http://www.fivestaralliance.com/jaipur/get-know-the-raj-palace|website = www.fivestaralliance.com|accessdate = 2015-09-24}}</ref>
* Member of VISA Luxury Collection

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Jaipur}}

[[Category:Heritage hotels in India]]
[[Category:Palaces in Jaipur]]

Ujir Singh Thapa

2026-03-25T01:46:02Z

Realhimachal: minor edit

{{Short description|Nepalese administrator and military officer}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|honorific_prefix= [[Sri]] [[Colonel]] [[Kaji (Nepal)|Kaji]]
|name= Ujir Singh Thapa
|native_name= श्री कर्णेल काजी उजिरसिंह थापा
|image= Ujir Singh Thapa in crown.jpg
|caption= Colonel Ujir Singh Thapa Kaji wearing noble attire at young age
|birth_date = [[Chaitra]], 1852 [[Bikram Samwat]] (1796 A.D.)
|birth_place =
|death_date = 20th [[Mangshir]], 1881 B.S. (aged 29)<ref name="annapurnapost">{{Cite web|url=http://annapurnapost.com/news-details/70416|title = उजिरसिंह थापाको सालिक}}</ref>
|death_place = Aryaghat, [[Kathmandu]]
|office = [[Governor of Palpa]]
|term_start = 8th [[Mangshir]], 1871 B.S.<ref name="annapurnapost"/>
|term_end = circa 1825
|predecessor = [[Amar Singh Thapa (born 1759)|Amar Singh Thapa]]
|successor =
|rank= Colonel (Nepali convention)
|father = [[Nain Singh Thapa]]
|mother = Rana Kumari Pande
|relations = [[Bhimsen Thapa]] (uncle) [[Ranajit Pande]] (maternal grandfather) [[Queen Tripurasundari of Nepal]] (sister) [[Mathabarsingh Thapa]] (brother) [[Jung Bahadur Rana]] (nephew)
|nickname=
|battles=[[Anglo-Nepalese war]]
|allegiance={{flag|Nepal}}
|signature= Black seal of Ujir Singh Thapa.gif
}}

'''Ujir Singh Thapa''' or '''Uzir Singh Thapa''' ({{langx|ne|उजिरसिंह थापा}}), also known as '''Wazir Simha Thapa''', anglicized as '''Wuzeer Singh''', was a Nepalese administrator and military officer. He was the son of Kaji [[Nain Singh Thapa]], a nephew of the [[Mukhtiyar]] [[Bhimsen Thapa]] and elder brother of [[Mathabar Singh Thapa]]. His mother was Rana Kumari Pande, daughter of [[Mulkaji]] [[Ranajit Pande]] and granddaughter of Kaji [[Tularam Pande]]. During his late teenage, he was the military commander at the Palpa-Butwal axis during the [[Anglo-Nepalese War]]. He became the Governor (Bada Hakim) and the commander of armed forces deployed in Palpa administrative sector in 1814 AD on substitute of his grandfather [[Amar Singh Thapa (born 1759)|Amar Singh Thapa (sanukaji)]] who died that year.

==Family and early life==
{{further|Thapa dynasty}}
Ujir Singh was born on [[Chaitra]] ''Shukla Pratipada'' [[Tithi]] in the year 1852 of [[Bikram Samvat]] (1796 A.D.).<ref name="annapurnapost"/> He was the son of Kaji [[Nain Singh Thapa]] and grandson of [[Amar Singh Thapa (born 1759)|Sanu Sardar Amar Singh Thapa]].{{sfn|Acharya|2012}} His grandfather died on 7th Kartik 1871 B.S. He traveled 20 days from Kathmandu to Palpa and took the control of the office of Governor of [[Palpa District|Palpa]] Gauda (Province) on 8th [[Mangshir]], 1871 B.S. aged 19 years old.<ref name="annapurnapost"/>

==Military and administrative career==
He was [[Colonel]]{{refn|group=note|The use of English terms for their grades of command was common in the Nepalese army, but the powers of the different ranks did not correspond with those of the British system. The title of General was assumed by [[Bhimsen Thapa]], as Commander-in-chief, and enjoyed by himself alone; of Colonels there were three or four only; all principal officers of the court, commanding more than one battalion. The title of Major was held by the adjutant of a battalion or independent company; and Captain was the next grade to colonel, implying the command of a corps. Luftun, or Lieutenant, was the style of the officers commanding companies under the Captain; and then followed the subaltern ranks of Soobadar, Jemadar, and Havildar, without any Ensigns.{{sfn|Prinsep|1825|pp=86-87}}}} in the ranks of Nepalese Army and was awarded an official private black seal which can be seen in the letter of 1821 A.D. to the [[Mukhtiyar]] [[Bhimsen Thapa]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bilder-aus-nepal.de/Pages/Philatelie/Thapa-Brief/Thapa-Brief-1821.html|title=Cover with the seal of Ujir Singh Thapa}}</ref> He obtained a famous victory against the British forces at the Battle of [[Jit Gadhi]] during the [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] of 1814–1816.<ref name="kathmandupost1"/> He was the military commander at the Mid-Western (Palpa-Butwal) axis during the [[Anglo-Nepalese War]]. He had deployed 1200 troops in defenses of Jit Gadhi, Nuwakot Gadhi, and Kathe Gadhi. He was famous for exploiting an advantage in men, material, natural resources and well versed in mountain tactics.<ref name="nepalarmy"/> [[Henry Thoby Prinsep]] quoted about the Jeetgadh administered by Ujir Singh as :{{Blockquote|....that Goorkhas under Colonel Wuzeer Singh, a nephew of [[Bhimsen Thapa|Bheem Sein]]'s, had taken post at the mouth of the pass, within which [[Butwal|Bootwul]] is situated, and had built there a stockade called Jeetgurh, it was resolved to reconnoitre the works, and carry them, if possible, before processing further.{{sfn|Prinsep|1825|p=115}}}}
[[File:Jitgadi Fort.png|thumb|[[Jitgadi Fort]] ]]
Before entering the war, Ujir Singh had constructed roads, bridges, culverts and fortified garrisons in the Butwal-Palpa region.<ref name="Bhagwati"/> The British advance began on 22 Poush, 1871 B.S.(January 1814 A.D.) to Jit Gadhi. While crossing [[Tinau River]] to attack the fortress Ujir's forces opened the fire and made them fall back. Similarly, at Tansen Bazaar the British fell back with a total loss of 300 men while 70 Nepalese lost their lives.<ref name="nepalarmy">{{cite web |url=http://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/history.php?page=two |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607215048/http://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/history.php?page=two |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-06-07 |title=Nepalese Army | नेपाली सेना |publisher=Nepalarmy.mil.np |access-date=2016-10-06 }}</ref>

In 1825, a complaint of border incursions was lodged at the jurisdiction of Ujir Singh's administration. Such was done to oppose the [[Mukhtiyar]] [[Bhimsen Thapa]] in the policy of forging alliance with the Burmese government.{{sfn|Pradhan|2012|p=116}}

==Sindoor Jatra procession==
[[File:Ranaujeshwori Bhagawati Temple.jpg|thumb|173x173px|Rana Ujireshwori Bhagawati Temple of [[Tansen, Nepal|Tansen, Palpa]]]]
Various deities were worshipped and auspicious time was determined to ensure victory before initiating war with British forces on the [[Anglo-Nepalese War|1814-1816 war]]. Ujir Singh then touched the feet of a 16 handed Mahishashur Mardini [[Rana Ujeshwori Bhagwati temple|Bhagwati]] deity in [[Tansen, Nepal|Tansen Bazaar]] and took solemn vow to spread her fame by constructing a temple and initiating a [[Sindoor]] Jatra (procession of vermillion) upon the victory of Gorkhali forces in the war.<ref name="Bhagwati">{{Cite web|url=http://ecs.com.np/features/indifferent-cart-procession|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180815042836/http://ecs.com.np/features/indifferent-cart-procession|archive-date = 2018-08-15|title = Indifferent Cart Procession | Features | ECSNEPAL - the Nepali Way}}</ref> After the victory of the Gorkhali forces, he began the construction of a three storied temple in 1872 [[Vikram Samvat|V.S.]] which was accomplished in 1876 [[Vikram Samvat|V.S.]] After the completion of construction of the temple, he donated gold equivalent to his height as the Gajur (pinnacle) for the temple and constructed silver canopied Mahishashur Mardini Bhagwati whose 18 arms were built of [[Ashtadhatu]] (octo-alloy).<ref name="Bhagwati"/> He started the Khat Jatra, together with Palpa Bhagwati's Sindoor Jatra, on the day of Bhadra Krishna Nawami in 1877 V.S.<ref name="Bhagwati"/> For the purpose of worship and rituals, he had invited Chandramani Gubhaju of Patan to perform Nitya Naumaitik Puja, Barsha Bandhan Puja and Tantric rituals during [[Kalaratri]], [[Ram Nawami|Chaite Dashain]], and others. The procession is observed till date as celebration of victory.<ref name="Bhagwati"/>

== Military Laws ==
Ujir Singh Thapa had issued six rules in 1879 [[Vikram Samvat|V.S.]] for the purpose of both civil and military administration.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lawcommission.gov.np/en/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/rules-on-military-and-civil-service-by-ujir-singh-thapa-1879-b-s.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=www.lawcommission.gov.np |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102105524/http://www.lawcommission.gov.np/en/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/rules-on-military-and-civil-service-by-ujir-singh-thapa-1879-b-s.pdf |archive-date=2 January 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Legacy==
On Friday 7 April 2017, the [[Chief of Army Staff (Nepal)]] [[Rajendra Chhetri]] unveiled the [[life-size statue]] of Ujir Singh at [[Tansen, Nepal|Tansen, Palpa]].<ref name="kathmandupost1">{{Cite web|url=http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2017-04-08/statue-of-ujir-singh-unveiled-in-tansen.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410203737/http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2017-04-08/statue-of-ujir-singh-unveiled-in-tansen.html|archive-date=2017-04-10|title=Statue of Ujir Singh unveiled in Tansen - General - the Kathmandu Post}}</ref> The statue was constructed jointly by the Palpa Chambers of Commerce and Industry and the Chandi Prasad Battalion of [[Nepal Army]].<ref name="kathmandupost1"/> Another life-size statue of Ujir Singh and the largest national [[flag of Nepal]] was also planned to be installed at the Jitgadhi Killa fort which is located at the Western bank of [[Tinau River]] in [[Butwal]].<ref name="kathmandupost2">{{Cite web|url=http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2018-12-17/largest-nepali-flag-and-ujir-singhs-statute-for-jeetgadhi.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217214828/http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2018-12-17/largest-nepali-flag-and-ujir-singhs-statute-for-jeetgadhi.html|archive-date=2018-12-17|title=Country's largest national flag to be installed at the site of Anglo-Nepal war - General - the Kathmandu Post}}</ref> The fort was named Jeetgadh after the victory of Nepali forces against the British forces during the [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] of 1814–1816.<ref name="kathmandupost2"/> Jeetgadh was to be developed as symbol of nationalism and landmark of Butwal as per the Butwal Mayor Shivaraj Subedi.<ref name="kathmandupost2"/>

== Ancestry ==
{{Ahnentafel
|collapsed = no |align = center
|boxstyle_1 = background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2 = background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3 = background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4 = background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5 = background-color: #9fe;
|1 = 1. '''Ujir Singh Thapa'''
|2 = 2. [[Nain Singh Thapa]]
|3 = 3. Rana Kumari Pande
|4 = 4. [[Amar Singh Thapa (born 1759)|Amar Singh Thapa (sanukaji)]]
|5 = 5. Satyarupa Maya
|6 = 6. [[Ranajit Pande]]
|7 =
|8 = 8. [[Bir Bhadra Thapa]]
|9 =
|10 =
|11 =
|12 = 12. [[Tularam Pande]]
|13 =
|14 =
|15 =
|16 = 16. Vikrama Thapa
|17 =
|18 =
|19 =
|20 =
|21 =
|22 =
|23 =
|24 = 24. Valiram Pande
|25 =
|26 =
|27 =
|28 =
|29 =
|30 =
|31 =
}}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Ujir Singh Thapa letter.gif|Ujir Singh Thapa's letter to his uncle Mukhtiyar Bhimsen Thapa whom he refers to in the cover of letter as '''Babajyu Janaral''' (Father General);
File:Ujir Simha Thapa.jpg|Ujir Singh Thapa
File:Rana-Ujireshowri-Temple 01.jpg|Rana Ujireshowri Temple he build after victory over British
File:Ujir Singh Thapa.jpg|Colonel Ujir Simha Thapa
File:Balbhadra Kunwar and Ujir Singh Thapa.jpg|Colonel Ujir Simha Thapa and Captain [[Balbhadra Kunwar]] both fought in [[Anglo-Nepalese War]]
</gallery>

==References==
===Footnotes===
{{reflist|group=note}}

===Notes===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*{{citation | last = Acharya | first = Baburam | editor-last = Acharya | editor-first = Shri Krishna |title = Janaral Bhimsen Thapa : Yinko Utthan Tatha Pattan | location = Kathmandu | year = 2012 | pages = 228 | language = ne | publisher = Education Book House | isbn = 9789937241748}}
*{{citation | last = Pradhan | first = Kumar L. | title = Thapa Politics in Nepal: With Special Reference to Bhim Sen Thapa, 1806–1839 | publisher = Concept Publishing Company | year = 2012 | isbn = 9788180698132 | location = New Delhi | pages = 278 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7PP1yElRzIUC&q=the+assassination+of+rana+bahadur+shah }}
*{{citation | last = Prinsep |first= Henry Thoby| year=1825|title= ''History of the political and military transactions in India during the administration of the Marquess of Hastings, 1813-1823, Vol 1''|publisher = Kingsbury, Parbury & Allen |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Tq1jAAAAMAAJ}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thapa, Ujir Singh}}
[[Category:Nepalese military personnel]]
[[Category:Anglo-Nepalese War]]
[[Category:Bagale Thapa]]
[[Category:Nepalese Hindus]]
[[Category:1796 births]]
[[Category:1825 deaths]]
[[Category:People of the Anglo-Nepalese War]]
[[Category:Gurkhas]]

Mahendranath Ray

2026-03-22T12:44:14Z

Realhimachal: made stub.

{{Short description|Indian barrister, politician and educationist (1861–1925)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix = [[The Honourable|The Hon'ble]] [[Babu (title)|Babu]]
| name = Mahendra Nath Ray
| honorific_suffix = [[Order of the Indian Empire|CIE]], [[Fellow of the Royal Society|HonFRS]], [[The Asiatic Society|FRASB]], [[Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science|FIAS]]
| native_name = বাবু মহেন্দ্রনাথ রায়
| image = File:MN Roy image.jpg
| birth_date = 29 October 1861
| birth_place = [[Howrah]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date = 16 August 1925
| death_place = [[Calcutta]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British India]]
| education = [[Howrah Zilla School]]
| alma_mater = [[Presidency University, Kolkata|Presidency College]], [[Calcutta]]
| citizenship = [[British Raj]]
| awards = {{ublist | [[File:Order of the Indian Empire Ribbon.svg|30px]] [[Order of the Indian Empire]] (CIE) |
Honorary Fellow of the [[Fellow of the Royal Society|Royal Society]] (HonFRS)|
Fellow of the [[The Asiatic Society]] (FRASB)|
Fellow of the [[Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science]] (FIAS) }}
| occupation = [[Lawyer]], [[Educationist]], [[Politician]]
| organization = {{ubl | [[Indian National Congress]]}}
| spouse = Prabodhmayee Debi
| mother = Phul Kumari Debi
| father = [[Babu (title)|Babu]] Girijaprasanna Ray
| family = [[Zamindar]] Ray Family of Tajpur
}}
[[The Honourable]] [[Babu (title)|Babu]] '''Mahendranath Ray''' {{small|[[Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire|CIE]] [[Fellow of the Royal Society|HonFRS]] [[The Asiatic Society|FRASB]] [[Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science|FIAS]]}} (1861–1925), was an Indian [[lawyer]], independence activist, [[social work]]er, [[mathematician]], [[educationist]] and a [[politician]].<ref name=":0" /> He was involved in the [[Indian freedom movement]] and was the first Indian elected chairperson of the [[Howrah Municipal Corporation|Howrah Municipal corporation]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Alok Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGZPAAAAMAAJ&q=%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A5+%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC+%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE |title=Howrah, a Study in Urbanization |date=1992 |publisher=Chatterjee Publishers |isbn=978-81-85089-08-9 |pages=109 and 123 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite news |title=The dirtiest since 1889 |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/the-dirtiest-since-1889/cid/247307 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241218063516/https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/the-dirtiest-since-1889/cid/247307 |archive-date=18 December 2024 |access-date=2025-06-04 |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> He was one of the founders of [[Asutosh College]] in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] and was one of the most influential people of [[Howrah]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asutosh College – University of Calcutta (C.U.) |url=https://asutoshcollege.in/new-web/administrative-history.html |access-date=2025-06-03 |website=asutoshcollege.in}}</ref> For his political works, commendable legal career and contributions to society, he was awarded the [[Companion of the Indian Empire]] in 1911 at the [[Delhi Durbar]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxQiAQAAMAAJ&q=mahendranath+ray |title=The Historical Record of the Imperial Visit to India, 1911 |date=1914 |publisher=government of India |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />

== Early life ==
He was born on 29 October 1861, in an aristocratic [[Mahishya]] family of Tajpur,<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mukherjee |first=Partha |date=June 2021 |title=Seeking New Identity |journal=Journal of People's History and Culture |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=131}}</ref> located in present-day [[Amta]] police station area of [[Howrah district]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Senapati and Das |first=Uma and Dulal Krishna |title=মাহিষ্য রত্নাবলী জীবনী শতক |publisher=Tuhina Publications |year=2018 |isbn=9788194434641 |edition=2nd |location=[[Kolkata]] |publication-date=2020 |pages=177 to 179 |language=Bengali |trans-title=Mahishya Ratnavali Biographical Century}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Rajat Kanta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K15uAAAAMAAJ&q=mahendranath+ray |title=Social Conflict and Political Unrest in Bengal, 1875-1927 |date=1984 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-561654-5 |language=en}}</ref> The Ray family of Tajpur, were the [[Zamindars of Bengal|Zamindars]] of [[Amta I|Amta]]. His father's name was ''Girija Prasanna Ray,'' and his mother was ''Phul Kumari Debi''. Mahendranath lost his father at an early age, and as a result, he was raised with great care and affection under the strict supervision of his grandfather ''[[Babu (title)|Babu]]'' ''Jadunath Ray.''<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Sayan De |url=http://archive.org/details/e-book-howrah-jeler-itihas-vol-ii-achal-bhattacherjee-compressed |title=Howrah Jeler Itihas Vol II Achal Bhattacherjee |date=1982-03-15 |pages=153}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Mukhopādhyāẏa |first=Ālokakumāra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PHkcAAAAIAAJ&q=%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A5+%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC+%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE |title=Nagara Hāoṛā |date=1990 |publisher=Pratimā Mukhopādhyāẏa |pages=140 |language=bn}}</ref>
[[File:Howrah Zilla School - Howrah 050037.JPG|thumb|The [[Howrah Zilla School]], now]]

''Jadunath Babu,'' who was a very successful businessman and a [[Zamindar]], built a large residence, almost resembling a palace, on the Khurut Road which is now known as [[Netaji Subhas Road, Kolkata|Netaji Subhas Road]] in [[Howrah]] and arranged for Mahendranath's upbringing there.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Alok Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGZPAAAAMAAJ&q=Mahendranath+Roy+ |title=Howrah, a Study in Urbanization |date=1992 |publisher=Chatterjee Publishers |isbn=978-81-85089-08-9 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Hindoo College, Calcutta by Francis Frith.jpg|thumb|The Presidency College in Calcutta, where Mahendranath Ray studied.]]

Mahendranath was a very bright student. He passed the Entrance Examination from [[Howrah Zilla School]] with high distinction and a scholarship, and then enrolled at [[Presidency College Calcutta|Presidency College]], [[Calcutta]]. He secured the first position in the F.A. (First Arts) examination, and in 1882, he passed the [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A]]. examination, standing first in the first division, earning the prestigious '''Ishan Scholarship''',<ref name=":0" /> awarded to the student who manages to score the highest marks and who tops the university by topping in every single paper particularly in [[Mathematics]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=DasSarma |first1=Basudeb |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0eyNAAAAQBAJ&dq=ishan+scholarship+calcutta+university&pg=PA36 |title=Journey of a Lifetime: Memoir of an Indian-American Chemist |last2=PhD |first2=Basudeb DasSarma |date=2010-11-09 |publisher=Xlibris Corporation |isbn=978-1-4653-3424-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Mukhopādhyāẏa |first=Ālokakumāra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PHkcAAAAIAAJ&q=%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A5+%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC+%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE |title=Nagara Hāoṛā |date=1990 |publisher=Pratimā Mukhopādhyāẏa |pages=141 |language=bn}}</ref> As well as the '''Vizianagaram Scholarship''', awarded by the [[Vizianagaram Estate]], to the most academically successful student of B.A. of the year in the [[University of Calcutta]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Misra |first=Atmanand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ms0EAAAAMAAJ&q=vizianagaram+scholarship+calcutta+university |title=Educational Finance in India |date=1962 |publisher=Asia Publishing House |language=en}}</ref> Subsequently, he earned his [[Master of Arts|M.A.]] from the [[University of Calcutta]] in 1884, also earning a first position in the First division. Winning the highly coveted '''Burdwan Scholarship''', awarded by the estate of the [[Burdwan Raj]].<ref name=":6" /> Furthermore, he was also selected for the famed [[Premchand Roychand|Premchand Roychand Scholarship]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Calcutta |first=University of |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uUQuAQAAIAAJ&dq=mahendranath+ray+prize+Calcutta+University&pg=PA14 |title=Minutes |date=1886 |language=en}}</ref> He was a classmate and a very close friend of [[Ashutosh Mukherjee|Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee]]. Following that he completed his [[Bachelor of Laws|B.L.]] from the [[University of Calcutta]] in 1885 while being a [[Lecturer]] of [[Mathematics]] at the [[City College, Kolkata]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Commission |first=India Indian Universities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M_UmQS0MXuAC&dq=mahendranath+ray+city+college&pg=PA88 |title=Report of the Indian Universities Commission: 1902 |date=1902 |publisher=Printed at the Government Central Printing Office |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6"/>

== Career ==
[[File:High Court of Calcutta (Second view) by Francis Frith.jpg|thumb|The [[Calcutta High Court]] in the 1890s]]
Roy established a lucrative legal practice in [[Howrah]] and [[Calcutta]]. In 1885, he joined the [[Calcutta High Court]] as a [[Pleader]] and represented many clients in many big cases in the [[Calcutta High Court|Calcutta High court]] and other district courts,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l6IYAAAAIAAJ&q=Mahendranath+ray+howrah+congress |title=Who was who: A Companion to Who's Who, Containing the Biographies of Those who Died During the Period |date=1929 |publisher=A. & C. Black |language=en}}</ref> he earned the reputation of a hugely learned and empathetic legal practitioner, he was respected by both his colleagues and adversaries.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7-yAAAAIAAJ&dq=babu+mahendranath+ray&pg=PA398 |title=The Indian Law Reports: Containing Cases Determined by the High Court at Calcutta. Calcutta series |date=1906 |publisher=West Bengal Government Press |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=India) |first=India High Court (Kolkata |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pmY9AQAAIAAJ&q=mahendranath+roy+pleader |title=The Indian Law Reports: Calcutta Series. Containing Cases Determined by the High Court at Calcutta |date=1911 |publisher=Superintendent, Government Print., West Bengal Government Press |publication-date=2011 |pages=683 to 685 |language=en}}</ref> He was known for his unmatched oratory in the courtroom.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DnYdAAAAMAAJ&q=mahendranath+roy+pleader |title=Bengal Provincial Conference, 1888: First Session |date=1976 |publisher=Ghosh : distributors, Firma KLM |pages=3 |language=en}}</ref> He also presented multiple cases before the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council|Privy Council]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6yUbAAAAYAAJ&dq=Mahendranath+ray&pg=RA2-PA473 |title=The Calcutta Law Journal: Reports of Cases Decided by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council on Appeals from India and by the High Court of Judicature at Fort William in Bengal |date=1906 |publisher=Calcutta law journal office |language=en}}</ref> He practiced in the [[Calcutta High Court]] for nearly forty years.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YYdDAQAAMAAJ&dq=Mahendranath+ray&pg=PA208 |title=The Indian Law Reports: Calcutta series |date=1903 |publisher=Superintendent, Government Print., West Bengal Government Press |language=en}}</ref> From, 1895, he became a member of the [[The Asiatic Society]] at [[Calcutta]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oGe6nPS6pWEC&dq=Mahendranath+ray&pg=PA191 |title=Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |date=1896 |publisher=The Society |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Bengal |first=Asiatic Society of |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4AXgAAAAMAAJ&dq=Mahendranath+ray&pg=PR9 |title=Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |date=1900 |publisher=The Society |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oGe6nPS6pWEC&dq=Mahendranath+ray+howrah+congress&pg=PA120 |title=Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |date=1896 |publisher=The Society |language=en}}</ref> Later in 1900, he was elected to be a Fellow of [[The Asiatic Society]].<ref name=":9" /> In 1901, he was appointed as one of the members among other members of the bar, to modernise the [[Calcutta High Court]].<ref>History of the Bar Association by Behari Lal Pal</ref> In 1924, he was elected the President of the [[Bar association]] of the [[Calcutta High Court]].<ref name=":7" /> In 1891, he was elected a Fellow of the [[University of Calcutta]], being one of its first Indian fellows,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Khagendra Nath |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=alBXAAAAMAAJ&q=mahendranath+ray |title=Education and the Nation: An Indian Perspective |date=1970 |publisher=University of Calcutta |language=en}}</ref> and in 1909, he was elected along with only one other Indian member to be an [[Fellow|ordinary fellow]] of the university.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AgIJXEDeH9MC&dq=babu+mahendranath+ray&pg=PA53 |title=The Calcutta Gazette |date=1909 |language=en}}</ref> and from 1911 to 1920, he served as a member of the [[Bengal Legislative Council]].<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p0MOAQAAMAAJ&q=mahendranath+ray+prize+Calcutta+University |title=Who was who |date=1929 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=West Bengal State Legislature |url=http://archive.org/details/westbengallegislature.council.490.2_490__1911__vol_XLIII |title=Proceedings: Bengal Legislative Council 1911 XLIII |date=1911 |language=English}}</ref> He became one of the most prominent members of the [[Indian National Congress]] from the district of Howrah.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ghosh |first=Pansy Chaya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VBhuAAAAMAAJ&q=Mahendranath+ray+howrah+congress |title=The Development of the Indian Natio[n]al Congress, 1892-1909 |date=1985 |publisher=Firma KLM |isbn=978-0-8364-1411-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DnYdAAAAMAAJ&q=Mahendranath+ray+howrah+congress |title=Bengal Provincial Conference, 1888: First Session |date=1976 |publisher=Ghosh : distributors, Firma KLM |language=en}}</ref> He also, attended many provincial conferences of the party, including the one held in 1888.<ref name=":2" /> He was also a professor of Mathematics and Law at [[City College, Kolkata|City College]], and served as the [[Department of Law, University of Calcutta|Dean of the Faculty of Law]] at the [[University of Calcutta]].<ref name=":1" /> He was among the official examiners of the university for the papers in [[Mathematics]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kukula |first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tnwDAAAAMAAJ&dq=babu+mahendranath+ray&pg=PA48 |title=Minerva: Jahrbuch der gelehrten Welt |last2=Trübner |first2=Karl Ignaz |date=1892 |publisher=W. de Gruyter. |language=de}}</ref> He was also elevated to be a [[Magistrate]] for the [[Howrah district]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=the |first=Bengal (India) Chief Secretary to the Government, Office of |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gDKflO3ciboC&dq=babu+mahendranath+ray&pg=PA321 |title=Half-yearly Civil List for Bengal |date=1908 |language=en}}</ref> In 1914, largely due to his efforts, the proposed relocation of [[Indian Institutes of Engineering Science and Technology|Shibpur Engineering College]] from [[Howrah]] to [[Dhaka]] was successfully prevented.<ref name=":6"/>

== Works ==

* '''Improvement of street lighting in the city'''

After [[Kedarnath Bhattacharya|Babu Kedarnath Bhattacharya]], Mahendranath Ray was the second elected Vice Chairman of the Howrah Municipal Board, from 1888 to 1896. Following that, he became the First elected chairperson of the [[Howrah Municipal Corporation]], winning the election with a huge majority.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Government – Howrah Municipal Corporation |url=https://www.myhmc.in/government/ |access-date=2025-06-30 |language=en-US}}</ref> During Ray's tenure as [[Chair (officer)|Chairman]] of the Howrah Municipality, electric lighting was installed on all paved roads. Even in unpaved roads and also in slum areas, the number of kerosene lamps was reduced and electric lighting was introduced. In 1916, the last gas lamp was removed from [[Howrah|Howrah city]].
[[File: Howrah Municipal Corporation building.jpg|thumb| [[Howrah Municipal Corporation]].]]
Under Act No.5 of 1873, the Howrah Municipality was empowered to levy an additional 3% tax to cover the expenses of gas lighting on the streets. Later, on 1 September 1932, a new agreement was signed between the [[Howrah Municipal Corporation|Howrah Municipality]] and the [[Calcutta electric supply corporation|Calcutta Electric Supply Company]], which significantly reduced electricity costs. As a result, the number of electric lamp posts increased, while the number of kerosene lamps declined.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Sayan De |url=http://archive.org/details/e-book-howrah-jeler-itihas-vol-ii-achal-bhattacherjee-compressed |title=Howrah Jeler Itihas Vol II Achal Bhattacherjee |date=1982-03-15 |pages=34}}</ref>

* '''Contributions in Academia'''

In 1893, he joined [[Mahendralal Sarkar|Dr. Mahendralal Sarkar]]'s [[Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science|Indian association for the cultivation of Science]] and was one of its earliest faculty members, and later becoming one of its fellows.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Science |first=Indian Association for the Cultivation of |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lC8yAQAAMAAJ&q=Mahendranath+Ray+indian+association+for+cultivation+of+sciences |title=Annual Report ... |date=1920 |pages=40 |language=en}}</ref> He had an aptitude for [[Mathematics]], and he was made the head of Mathematics department there and published many journals on the subject. He published two books by the name of "'''Algebra Part I & II'''". He was made an honorary member of the [[Fellow of the Royal Society|Royal Mathematical society]] in [[London]].<ref name=":1" /> He was also one of the early members of the [[Calcutta Mathematical Society]], since its inception.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Society |first=Calcutta Mathematical |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tsH3sX_ESIEC&q=Mahendranath+ray |title=Bulletin of the Calcutta Mathematical Society |date=1924 |language=en}}</ref> He was regarded as one of the best mathematicians of the country at that time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sinha |first=Dilip Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=csPaAAAAMAAJ&q=mahendranath+ray |title=Aspects of Mathematical Sciences and Mathematical Education: A Contemporary Critique |date=2002 |publisher=Progressive Publishers |language=en}}</ref>

* '''As a Senator of the University of Calcutta'''
[[File:The Calcutta University by Francis Frith.jpg|thumb|The University of Calcutta]]
In January 1891, Mahendranath Ray was elected as a member of the council ( [[Fellow]]) of the [[University of Calcutta]]. He was one of the first elected [[Fellow]] of the university.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sankhdher |first=B. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aEVU_czlGZMC&dq=Mahendranath+ray&pg=PA237 |title=Encyclopaedia of Education System in India: Lord Curzon to world war I, 1914 |date=1999 |publisher=Deep & Deep Publications |isbn=978-81-7100-947-3 |pages=237 |language=en}}</ref> In 1910, he also became a member of the [[Syndicate]] of the [[University of Calcutta]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sankhdher |first=B. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aEVU_czlGZMC&dq=mahendranath+ray&pg=PA237 |title=Encyclopaedia of Education System in India: Lord Curzon to world war I, 1914 |date=1999 |publisher=Deep & Deep Publications |isbn=978-81-7100-947-3 |language=en}}</ref> He was instrumental in the founding of the [[Rajabazar Science College]], [[Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee]] had personally entrusted him with the management of the massive educational project.<ref name=":1" />
[[File:Senate_Hall,_University_of_Calcutta.png|thumb|Senate Hall of University of Calcutta, early 1910s]]

== Styles ==

* 1861–1884: Mahendra Nath Ray
* 1884 – 1891: [[Babu (title)|Babu]] Mahendra Nath Ray
* 21 January 1891 – June 1895: [[Babu (title)|Babu]] Mahendra Nath Ray, [[Fellow of the Royal Society|HonFRS]], [[Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science|FIAS]]
* June 1895 – May 1910: [[The Honourable]] [[Babu (title)|Babu]] Mahendra Nath Ray, [[Fellow of the Royal Society|HonFRS]], [[Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science|FIAS]], [[The Asiatic Society|FRASB]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ghosh |first=Yatindrakumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QHYdAAAAMAAJ&q=Mahendranath+ray+howrah+congress |title=Bengal Provincial Conference, 1918: Hooghly Session |date=1972 |publisher=distributors] Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay |language=en}}</ref>
* May 1910 – March 1914: [[The Honourable]] [[Babu (title)|Babu]] Mahendra Nath Ray, [[Order of the Indian Empire|CIE]], [[Fellow of the Royal Society|HonFRS]], [[The Asiatic Society|FRASB]], [[Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science|FIAS]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxQiAQAAMAAJ&q=Mahendranath+ray |title=The Historical Record of the Imperial Visit to India, 1911 |date=1914 |publisher=government of India |language=en}}</ref>
* March 1914 – 16 August 1925: ''The Honourable Babu Mahendra Nath Ray, CIE, HonFRS, FRASB, FIAS''<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Committee |first=India Government Grant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xUL8VJiFSkwC&q=mahendranath+ray |title=Report of the Government Grant Committee Appointed by the Senate on the 9th September, 1922 |date=1922 |publisher=Calcutta University |language=en}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
In 1878, Mahendranath Ray married, Prabodhmayee Devi, the eldest daughter of [[Babu (title)|Babu]] Srinibash Panja, a famous [[Jotedar]].<ref name=":1" />

== Death and legacy ==
[[File:Calcutta Review 16(3) Mahendranath Ray 1925.jpg|thumb|Taken from the Vol 16, Issue 3 of the [[Calcutta Review]], published after his death as tribute to his works and contribution.]]
On 16 August 1925 Mahendranath Ray died at the age of 64 in his house at 2, Balaram Bose 1st Lane, [[Bhowanipore]], [[Calcutta]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MT0fAQAAMAAJ&q=mahendranath+ray |title=The Indian Year Book |date=1926 |publisher=Bennett, Coleman & Company |language=en}}</ref> His funeral was attended by most of the eminent personalities of the city and whole of [[Bengal]] at that time, such as [[Birendranath Sasmal]], [[Sarat Chandra Bose]] and [[Jatindra Mohan Sengupta|J M Sengupta]]. A huge procession was organised by the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref name=":1" />
[[File:Bust of Babu Mahendranath Ray.jpg|thumb|His bust at Tajpur Mahendranath Ray Institution, unveiled by [[Pranab Mukherjee]] himself. Who first started his career as a teacher in this very school.]]
In the city of [[Howrah]], near [[Shibpur]], there is a road called "Mahendra Nath Ray Ln" named after him which connects the [[Grand Trunk Road]] and the Netaji Subhash road. In the front of the building of [[Howrah Municipal Corporation]] his bust stands, a garland is placed every year, on the founding day of the corporation.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd6ZAAAAIAAJ&q=mahendranath+roy+pleader |title=Man and Life |date=1992 |publisher=Institute of Social Research and Applied Anthropology |language=en}}</ref> Moreover, in his native village of Tajpur, near [[Amta]], he founded a school called "Tajpur Mahendranath Ray institution" in 1895, which continues to perform well.<ref name=":1" /> The former [[President of India]], [[Pranab Mukherjee]] first began his career as an assistant teacher in this very school in 1957.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2012-06-23 |title='Pranabda lives simple, thinks big' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/pranabda-lives-simple-thinks-big/articleshow/14348756.cms |access-date=2025-11-21 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=সংবাদদাতা |first=নিজস্ব |date=28 January 2019 |title=প্রাক্তন শিক্ষক প্রণব ভারতরত্ন, স্কুলে উৎসব |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/west-bengal/howrah-hoogly/tajpur-m-n-roy-institution-is-happy-as-their-former-teacher-pranab-mukherjee-is-getting-bharat-ratna-1.940949 |access-date=21 November 2025 |work=[[Ananda Bazar Patrika]]}}</ref> He visited the school back in 2017, and also inaugurated a statue of Mahendra Nath Ray, during his visit.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-12-26 |title=Pranab falls ill during Howrah trip |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/pranab-falls-ill-during-howrah-trip/articleshow/62245123.cms |access-date=2025-11-21 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Fb |last2=Tw |last3=Linkdin |last4=Whatsapp |last5=Us |first5=GNFollow |title=Pranab Mukherjee no more: Tajpur mourns death of former President |url=https://newsable.asianetnews.com/india/pranab-mukherjee-no-more-tajpur-mourns-death-of-former-president-dbr-qfytzb |access-date=2025-12-27 |website=Asianet Newsable |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:1861 births]]
[[Category:1925 deaths]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta people]]
[[Category:Presidency University, Kolkata]]
[[Category:People from Howrah]]
[[Category:People from Howrah district]]
[[Category:Founders of Indian schools and colleges]]
[[Category:Indian social reformers]]
[[Category:People from the Bengal Presidency]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire]]
[[Category:Presidency University, Kolkata alumni]]
[[Category:Bengali zamindars]]
[[Category:Indian barristers]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian lawyers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian lawyers]]
[[Category:Lawyers in British India]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian politicians]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian politicians]]
[[Category:Indian academic administrators]]
[[Category:Indian lecturers]]
[[Category:Scholars from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Indian mathematicians]]
[[Category:Academic staff of City College, Kolkata]]
[[Category:Politicians from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Members of the West Bengal Legislative Council]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Calcutta]]
[[Category:London Mathematical Society]]
[[Category:Bengali lawyers]]
[[Category:Bengali Hindus]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian scholars]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian scholars]]
[[Category:Heads of universities and colleges in India]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian educators]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian educators]]
[[Category:Educators from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Indian jurists]]
[[Category:Linguists from Bengal]]
[[Category:Indian fellows of the Royal Society]]

Ahmednagar Fort

2026-03-19T12:27:05Z

Realhimachal:

{{Short description|Fort in the city of Ahmednagar, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
| name = Ahmednagar fort
| partof =
| location = [[Ahmednagar]], [[Maharashtra]]
| image = Ahmednagar Fort Main Gate.jpg
| caption =
| map_type = India Maharashtra#India
| map_size = 300
| map_caption = Shown within [[Maharashtra]]
| type = Land fort
| coordinates = {{coord|19|05|41.3|N|74|45|19.7|E}}
| materials = [[Basalt]], [[granite]], [[lime mortar]]
| used = Capital headquarter of [[Ahmednagar Sultanate]]
| ownership = Indian military
| controlledby = [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate]] {{small|(1562–1600)}} {{flagicon image|Alam of the Mughal Empire.svg}}[[Mughal Empire]] {{small|(1600–1724)}} {{flagcountry|Hyderabad State}} {{small|(1724–1759)}} {{flagcountry|Maratha Empire}} {{small|(1759–1803)}} {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg}} [[East India Company]] ({{small|1803–1857}})
* {{flagicon image|British Raj Red Ensign.svg}} [[India]] ({{small|1857–1947}})
{{flagcountry|India}} ({{small|1947–}})
| garrison =
| current_commander =
| past_commanders = [[Ahmad Nizam Shah]], [[Chand Bibi]], [[Aurangzeb]]
| occupants = [[Nana Phadanvis]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Abul Kalam Azad]], [[Sardar Patel]]
| battles = [[Siege of Ahmednagar]]
}}

The '''Ahmednagar Fort''' (''Ahmadnagar [[Qila]]'') is located close to the Bhingar Nala near [[Ahmednagar]] in<ref>In some older references '''Fort of Ahmednuggur'''</ref> [[Maharashtra]] state western India. It was the headquarters of the [[Ahmednagar Sultanate]]. In 1803, it was taken by the British during the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]]. It was used as a prison during the [[British Raj]]. Currently, the fort is under the administration of the [[Indian Army Armoured Corps|Armoured Corps]] of the Indian Army.

== Major features ==
In 1803, the Ahmednagar Fort was round in appearance, with twenty-four bastions, one large gate, and three small sally ports. It had a [[glacis]], no covered way; a [[ditch (fortification)|ditch]], revetted with stone on both sides, about {{convert|18|ft|m}} wide, with {{convert|9|ft|m}} water all around, which only reached within 6 or {{convert|7|ft|m}} of the top of the [[counterscarp|scarp]]; long reeds grew in it all around. The [[berm]] was only about one yard wide. The rampart was of black hewn stone; the parapet of brick in ''[[chunam]]'', and both together appeared from the crest of the glacis to be only as high as the pole of a field-officer's tent. The bastions were all about {{frac|4|1|2}} feet higher; they were round. One of them mounted eight guns ''en barbet'', pointing eastward; all the rest had jingies,{{typo help inline|date=March 2019}} four in each. In 1803 two guns were visible in each bastion, and 200 were said to be ready in the fort to be mounted.<ref name="Wellesley 1859, p. 100">{{citation-attribution|{{cite book |first=Arthur Richard |last=Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) |title=Supplementary despatches and memoranda of field marshal Arthur duke of Wellington 1797-1819 with a map of India |editor=J. Murray |year=1859 |page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=y9EgAAAAMAAJ&dq=Pettah+of+Ahmednuggur&pg=PA100 100] |chapter=Memorandum of the Ahmednuggur Fort}}}}</ref>

A gunshot to the west of the fort was the [[Pettah of Ahmednagar]]. The main gate of the fort faced the pettah, and was defended by a small half-circular work, with one traverse and several little towers for men. There was a wooden bridge over the ditch, which could be taken away in time of war, but it was not a drawbridge. It was reported that an iron trough as large as the bridge, could be placed upon it, or on the supporters of it, and fill with charcoal or other combustibles, to which could be ignited as an enemy approached.<ref name="Wellesley 1859, p. 100"/> The fort is also called as Bhuikot Killa which means it is a land fort and is not constructed on any hill.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.totalsafari.com/travel/places/ahmednagar-fort-bhuikot-fort-ahmednagar-maharashtra|title=Ahmednagar Fort (Bhuikot Fort) - Total Safari}}</ref> It should not be confused with other Bhuikot Killas in Maharashtra like [[Solapur Bhuikot Killa]].

A small river came from the northward, round the west side of the pettah, and passed to the southward of the fort. A [[nullah]] also passed from the northward, between the fort and a town called [[Bhingar]], about a gunshot to the eastward, and joined the river. A potential defensive weakness was a little hill or rising ground close to and east of Bhingar, from which shot from siege guns could reach the fort.<ref name="Wellesley 1859, p. 100"/>

Two nills or covered aqueducts came from the hills, a mile or more to the north, passed through and supplied the pettah and the town, and then went into the fort, either under or through the ditch, into which the wastewater fell.<ref name="Wellesley 1859, p. 100"/>

There were no passages across the ditch from the sally ports, and no part of the aqueducts appeared above the ditch. The nullah mentioned above had steep banks and passed within 60 yards of the fort; the aqueduct from Bhingar passed under it. There was no bridge or even a prominent crossing point at the nullah and hence no clearly defined route between the fort and the town of Bhingar.<ref name="Wellesley 1859, p. 100"/>

There were many small pagodas and mosques around the pettah and the fort, but none exactly between, or between the fort and Bhingar, or nearer to the fort than those towns.<ref name="Wellesley 1859, p. 100"/>

== History ==
[[File:GRAY(1852) pg339 AHMEDNUGGUR - DUMREE MUSJID.jpg|thumbnail|250px|Dumree Musjid, with Ahmednagar Fort in the background on the left side]]
The fort was built by [[Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah I]] (after whom the city of [[Ahmednagar]] is named) in 1427.<ref name="Bombay 1896, 238">{{cite book|title=Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency| publisher=Govt Central Press| date=1896| pages=238| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bkMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA238| accessdate=2009-03-10}}</ref> He was the first sultan of the [[Nizam Shahi]] dynasty and he built the fort to defend the city against invaders from neighbouring [[Idar, Gujarat|Idar]].<ref name="Bombay 1896, 238"/> Initially it was made of mud but major fortification began in 1559 under Hussain Nizam Shah. It took four years and was finally finished in 1563.<ref name="Cowley Chapter IX">{{cite book |last=Cowley |first=Capt Cecil |title=Tales of Ahmednagar |publisher=Thacker and Company Ltd |location=Bombay |date=1919 |chapter=IX |url=https://archive.org/stream/talesofahmednaga00cowlrich/talesofahmednaga00cowlrich_djvu.txt}}</ref> In February 1596, [[Chand Bibi]] the queen regent successfully repulsed the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] invasion but when [[Akbar]] attacked again in 1600 the fort went to the Mughals.<ref name="Cowley Chapter IX""/><ref name="mtdc">{{cite web|url=http://www.maharashtratourism.gov.in/MTDC/HTML/MaharashtraTourism/Default.aspx?strpage=../MaharashtraTourism/TouristDelight/Forts/AhmadnagarFort.html|title=Ahmednagar fort|publisher=Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation|access-date=2009-03-10}}</ref><ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=164}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Advanced study in the history of medieval India.|last=Mehta, Jaswant L.|date=1990|publisher=Sterling Publ|isbn=9788120710153|pages=271|oclc=633709290}}</ref>
[[File:Gateway of Ahmedabad Fort India 1882.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Gateway of Ahmednagar fort India, 1882<ref>{{Cite web |last=Photos |first=Old Indian |title=Gateway of Ahmednagar Fort, India - 1882 |url=https://www.oldindianphotos.in/2016/05/gateway-of-ahmedabad-fort-india-1882.html |access-date=2025-02-21}}</ref>]]
[[Aurangzeb]] died near Ahmednagar fort at the age of 88 on 3 March 1707. After Aurangzeb's death, the fort passed to the Nizams in 1724, to Marathas in 1759 and later the [[Scindia]]s in 1790. During the period of instability in the Maratha Empire following the death of [[Madhavrao II]], [[Daulat Scindia]] had the fort and its surrounding region ceded to him. In 1797, he imprisoned [[Nana Phadanvis]] the Peshwa diplomat at Ahmednagar fort.<ref name="Bombay 1884, p. 408">{{cite book|title=Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency |publisher=Govt. Central Press|date=1884|pages=409|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j7sMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA409|accessdate=2009-03-10}}</ref>

In 1803, during the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]], [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Arthur Wellesley]] defeated the Maratha forces and the East India Company came into possession of the fort.{{cn|date=July 2023}}

==Modern era==
The fort was known as '''Ahmednagar Fort''' and was used by the [[British Raj]] as a prison and this was where [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Maulana Azad]], [[Vallabhbhai Patel]] and nine other members of the [[Indian National Congress - Freedom Era|Indian National Congress]] were detained for almost three years after they passed the [[Quit India Movement#Resolution for immediate independence|Quit India Resolution]].<ref name="mufti">{{cite book|last=Mufti|first=Amir|title=Enlightenment in the Colony|publisher=Princeton University Press| date=2007| pages=129–130| chapter=3| isbn=978-0-691-05732-3| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5C1uRIotD4C&pg=PA129|access-date=2009-03-10}}</ref><ref name="tribune"/> Jawaharlal Nehru wrote his popular book -the [[Discovery of India]]- while he was imprisoned at the fort.<ref name="mtdc"/><ref name="tribune">{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060903/spectrum/main5.htm|title=Where freedom held fort|last=Gill|first=Himmat Singh|date=3 September 2006|publisher=The Sunday Tribune|access-date=2009-03-10}}</ref><ref name="tele">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1040815/asp/frontpage/story_3628047.asp|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204101225/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1040815/asp/frontpage/story_3628047.asp|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 February 2013|title=Tribute in the thick of toil|date=15 August 2004|publisher=The Telegraph-Calcutta|access-date=2009-03-10}}</ref> During the same time, Congress leader, [[Maulana Abul Kalam Azad]] also compiled his acclaimed "[[Ghubar-e-Khatir]]" (''Sallies of Mind'') ({{langx|ur|غبار خاطر}}) which is considered as the best example of "Epistolary Essays" in Urdu literature.{{cn|date=June 2019}}

During the same time, [[Odisha|Odisha's]] first Chief-Minister and ex-Governor of undivided Bombay State, [[Harekrushna Mahatab]] also compiled three volumes of the [[History of Odisha]] in [[Odia language|Odia]]. This has later been translated and published in [[English language|English]] and [[Hindi]].{{cn|date=July 2023}}

Currently, the fort is under the administration of the Armoured Corps of the [[Indian Army]].<ref name="tribune"/>

==Gallery==
<gallery heights="140">
File:Ahmednagar fort.jpg|Ahmednagar Fort with the national flag
File:Anagar fort main.jpg|Ahmednagar Fort ramparts
File:Anagar fort 10.jpg|Ahmednagar Fort bastion area
File:Ahmednagar fort inside of the fort gate.jpg|Inside view of Ahmednagar Fort's gate
File:Ahmednagar Fort Ditch.jpg|Part of the [[moat]] around Ahmednagar Fort
File:Jawaharlal Nehru's room at Ahmednagar fort - 20151226 031536.jpg|[[Jawaharlal Nehru]]'s room during his incarceration (1942–1945)
File:Main entrance passage.jpg|Main entrance passage
File:Bastion and fortification of Ahmednagar fort.jpg|[[Bastion]] and fortification
File:Secondary gate of Ahmednagar fort.jpg|Secondary gate
File:Fortification of Ahmednagar fort.jpg|Fortification
File:Inscription in Persian language at Ahmednagar fort.jpg|Inscription in [[Persian language|Persian]] language
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[List of forts in Maharashtra]]
* [[Daulatabad Fort|Daulatabad fort (Devgiri)]]
* [[Paranda Fort|Paranda fort]]
* [[commons:Category:Ahmad_Nizam_Shah's_Tomb|Bagh Rauza (Ahmed nizam Shah's tomb)]]
* [[Farah Bagh|Farah bagh]]
* [[Damri Masjid|Damri masjid]]
* [[Tomb of Salabat Khan II|Salabat Khan tomb]]

==References==
{{Commons category}}
{{reflist}}

{{Forts in Maharashtra}}
{{Forts in India}}
{{Ahmednagar topics}}

{{coord|19|05|41.3|N|74|45|19.7|E|display=title}}

[[Category:Forts in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Ahmednagar]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Ahmednagar district]]
[[Category:16th-century forts in India]]
[[Category:Ahmadnagar Sultanate]]
[[Category:Architecture of the Deccan sultanates]]

Supernatural

2026-03-18T18:15:23Z

Realhimachal:

{{Short description|Phenomena not subject to the laws of nature}}
{{About|unexplained or non-natural forces and phenomena|the American television series|Supernatural (American TV series){{!}}''Supernatural'' (American TV series)|other uses}}
{{redirect|Supernatural power|the popular cultural concept of imaginary superhuman abilities|Superpower (ability)}}
{{Anthropology of religion}}
{{Paranormal}}
'''Supernatural''' phenomena or entities are those beyond the [[Scientific law|laws of the nature]].<ref name="merriam" /> The term is derived from Medieval Latin {{lang|la|supernaturalis}}, from Latin {{lang|la|super-}} 'above, beyond, outside of' + {{lang|la|natura}} 'nature'.<ref name=merriam>{{cite dictionary|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/supernatural|dictionary=Merriam-Webster|entry=supernatural|access-date=2019-12-11|archive-date=2020-02-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207083444/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/supernatural|url-status=live}}</ref> Although the corollary term "nature" has had multiple meanings since the ancient world, the term "supernatural" emerged in the [[Middle Ages]]<ref name="Bartlett" /> and did not exist in the ancient world.<ref name="Oxford" />

The supernatural is featured in [[religious]] and [[folklore|folkloric]] contexts,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pasulka |first1=Diana |last2=Kripal |first2=Jeffrey |title=Religion and the Paranormal |url=https://blog.oup.com/2014/11/religion-supernatural-paranormal/ |website=Oxford University Press blog |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=23 November 2014 |access-date=24 October 2018 |archive-date=15 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215030427/https://blog.oup.com/2014/11/religion-supernatural-paranormal/ |url-status=live }}</ref> but can also feature as an explanation in more secular contexts, as in the cases of [[superstition]]s or belief in the [[paranormal]].<ref name="Halman 2010">{{cite book|last=Halman|first=Loek|title=Atheism and Secularity Vol.2: Gloabal Expressions|publisher=Praeger|year=2010|isbn=9780313351839|editor=Phil Zuckerman|chapter=8. Atheism And Secularity In The Netherlands|quote="Thus, despite the fact that they claim to be convinced atheists and the majority deny the existence of a personal god, a rather large minority of the Dutch convinced atheists to believe in a supernatural power!" (e.g. telepathy, reincarnation, life after death, and heaven)}}</ref> The term is attributed to [[non-physical entity|non-physical entities]], such as [[ghost|spirits]], [[angel]]s, [[demon]]s, [[gods]], and [[goddesses]]. It also includes claimed abilities embodied in or provided by such beings, including [[Magic (supernatural)|magic]], [[telekinesis]], [[levitation (paranormal)|levitation]], [[precognition]] and [[extrasensory perception]].

The supernatural is [[hypernym]]ic to religion. Religions are standardized supernaturalist worldviews, or at least more complete than single supernaturalist views. Supernaturalism is the adherence to the supernatural (beliefs, and not violations of causality and physical laws).

==Etymology and history of the concept==
Occurring as both an [[adjective]] and a [[noun]], antecedents of the modern English [[compound word|compound]] ''supernatural'' enter the language from two sources: via [[Middle French]] ({{lang|frm|supernaturel}}) and directly from the Middle French's term's ancestor, post-[[Classical Latin]] ({{lang|la|supernaturalis}}). Post-classical Latin {{lang|la|supernaturalis}} first occurs in the 6th century, composed of the [[Latin]] [[prefix]] {{lang|la|super-}} and {{lang|la|nātūrālis}} (see [[nature]]). The earliest known appearance of the word in the English language occurs in a Middle English translation of [[Catherine of Siena]]'s ''[[Dialogue]]'' (''orcherd of Syon'', around 1425; {{lang|enm|Þei haue not þanne þe supernaturel lyȝt ne þe liȝt of kunnynge, bycause þei vndirstoden it not}}).<ref name="OED-SUPERNATURAL">{{Cite OED |supernatural |id=194422 |access-date=24 October 2018}}</ref>

The semantic value of the term has shifted over the history of its use. Originally the term referred exclusively to Christian understandings of the world. For example, as an adjective, the term can mean "belonging to a realm or system that transcends nature, as that of divine, magical, or ghostly beings; attributed to or thought to reveal some force beyond scientific understanding or the laws of nature; occult, paranormal" or "more than what is natural or ordinary; unnaturally or extraordinarily great; abnormal, extraordinary". Obsolete uses include "of, relating to, or dealing with [[metaphysics]]". As a noun, the term can mean "a supernatural being", with a particularly strong history of employment in relation to entities from the [[mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas]].<ref name="OED-SUPERNATURAL"/>

===History of the concept===
[[File:Saint Pierre tentant de marcher sur les eaux by François Boucher.jpg|thumb|''[[Saint Peter]] Attempting to [[Jesus walking on water|Walk on Water]]'' (1766), painting by [[François Boucher]]]]
The ancient world had no word that resembled "supernatural".<ref name="Oxford">{{cite web |title=Supernatural |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100543199?rskey=wA4CHW&result=20|website=A Concise Companion to the Jewish Religion|publisher=Oxford Reference Online – Oxford University Press |format=Online |quote=The ancients had no word for the supernatural any more than they had for nature.}}</ref> Dialogues from [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic philosophy]] in the third century AD influenced the development of the concept of the supernatural, which later evolved through [[Christian theology]].<ref name="Supernatural as a Western Category">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1525/eth.1977.5.1.02a00040|title = Supernatural as a Western Category| journal=Ethos| volume=5| pages=31–53|year = 1977|last1 = Saler|first1 = Benson|doi-access=free}}</ref> The term ''nature'' had existed since antiquity, with Latin authors like [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] using the word and its cognates at least 600 times in ''[[The City of God|City of God]]''. In the medieval period, "nature" had ten different meanings and "natural" had eleven different meanings.<ref name="Bartlett">{{cite book |last1=Bartlett |first1=Robert |title=The Natural and the Supernatural in the Middle Ages |date=14 March 2008 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d9O3PtKMPNsC&pg=PA1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521702553 |chapter=1. The Boundaries of the Supernatural |pages=1–34}}</ref> [[Peter Lombard]], a medieval scholastic of the 12th century, explored causes beyond nature, questioning how certain phenomena could be attributed solely to God. In his writings, he used the term ''praeter naturam'' to describe these occurrences.<ref name="Bartlett" /> In the scholastic period, [[Thomas Aquinas]] classified miracles into three categories: "above nature", "beyond nature" and "against nature". In doing so, he sharpened the distinction between nature and miracles more than the early [[Church Fathers]] had done.<ref name="Bartlett" /> As a result, he had created a dichotomy of sorts of the natural and supernatural.<ref name="Supernatural as a Western Category"/> Though the phrase ''"supra naturam"'' was used since the 4th century AD, it was in the 1200s that Thomas Aquinas used the term ''"supernaturalis".'' Despite this, the term had to wait until the end of the medieval period before it became more popularly used.<ref name="Bartlett" /> The discussions on "nature" from the scholastic period were diverse and unsettled with some postulating that even miracles are natural and that [[natural magic]] was a natural part of the world.<ref name="Bartlett" />

==Epistemology and metaphysics==
{{see also|Anthropology of religion}}
The [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] considerations of the existence of the supernatural can be difficult to approach as an exercise in philosophy or theology because any dependencies on its antithesis, the [[Naturalism (philosophy)|natural]], will ultimately have to be inverted or rejected. One complicating factor is that there is disagreement about the definition of "natural" and the limits of [[metaphysical naturalism|naturalism]]. Concepts in the supernatural domain are closely related to concepts in [[religion|religious]] [[spirituality]] and [[occultism]] or [[Spiritualism (beliefs)|spiritualism]].

{{quote|For sometimes we use the word ''[[nature]]'' for that ''Author of nature'' whom the [[scholasticism|schoolmen]], harshly enough, call ''[[natura naturans]]'', as when it is said that ''nature'' hath made man partly corporeal and [[Mind-body dualism|partly immaterial]]. Sometimes we mean by the ''nature'' of a thing the ''[[essence]]'', or that which the schoolmen scruple not to call the ''[[quiddity]]'' of a thing, namely, the ''[[property (philosophy)|attribute]]'' or ''attributes'' on whose score it is what it is, whether the thing be [[matter|corporeal]] or not, as when we attempt to define the ''nature'' of an ''[[angle]]'', or of a ''[[triangle]]'', or of a ''[[fluid]]'' body, as such. Sometimes we take ''nature'' for an internal principle of [[motion (physics)|motion]], as when we say that a stone let fall in the [[air (classical element)|air]] is by ''nature'' carried towards the centre of the [[earth (classical element)|earth]], and, on the contrary, that [[fire (classical element)|fire]] or flame does ''naturally'' move upwards toward [[firmament]]. Sometimes we understand by ''nature'' the established course of things, as when we say that ''nature'' makes the [[night]] succeed the [[day]], ''nature'' hath made [[respiration (physiology)|respiration]] necessary to the [[life]] of men. Sometimes we take ''nature'' for an [[physiology|aggregate of powers]] belonging to a body, especially a living one, as when [[physician]]s say that ''nature'' is strong or weak or spent, or that in such or such [[disease]]s ''nature'' left to herself [[immune system|will do the cure]]. Sometimes we take nature for the [[universe]], or system of the corporeal works of [[God]], as when it is said of a [[phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]], or a [[chimera (mythology)|chimera]], that there is no such thing in ''nature'', i.e. in the world. And sometimes too, and that most commonly, we would express by ''nature'' a [[mother nature|semi-deity]] or other strange kind of being, such as this discourse examines the notion of. And besides these more absolute acceptions, if I may so call them, of the word ''nature'', it has divers others (more relative), as ''nature'' is wont to be set or in [[opposite (semantics)|opposition]] or contradistinction to other things, as when we say of a stone when it falls downwards that it does it by a ''[[classical elements|natural motion]]'', but that if it be thrown upwards its motion that way is ''violent''. So chemists distinguish [[vitriol]] into ''natural'' and ''fictitious'', or made by art, i.e. by the intervention of human power or skill; so it is said that [[water (classical element)|water]], kept suspended in a sucking pump, is not in its ''natural'' place, as that is which is stagnant in the well. We say also that wicked men are still in the [[state of nature|state of ''nature'']], but the regenerate in a state of ''[[divine grace|grace]]''; that cures wrought by [[medicine]]s are natural operations; but the [[miraculous]] ones wrought by [[Christ]] and his [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostle]]s were ''supernatural''.<ref>
{{cite book |first1=Robert |last1=Boyle |first2=M.A. |last2=Stewart |year=1991 |title=Selected Philosophical Papers of Robert Boyle |series=HPC Classics Series |publisher=Hackett |isbn=978-0-87220-122-4 |lccn=91025480 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_tNzGMLGSGwC&pg=PA177 |pages=176–177}}</ref>
|[[Robert Boyle]]|''A Free Enquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature''
}}

[[Subjunctive possibility|Nomological possibility]] is possibility under the actual [[scientific laws|laws of nature]]. Most philosophers since [[David Hume]] have held that the laws of nature are metaphysically contingent—that there could have been different natural laws than the ones that actually obtain. If so, then it would not be logically or metaphysically impossible, for example, for you to travel to [[Alpha Centauri]] in one day; it would just have to be the case that you could travel faster than the speed of light. But of course there is an important sense in which this is not [[nomological]]ly possible; given that the laws of nature are what they are. In the philosophy of [[natural science]], impossibility assertions come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proved to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something not [[phenomenon|occurring]], combined with an underlying [[scientific theory]], very successful in making predictions, whose assumptions lead logically to the conclusion that something is impossible. While an impossibility assertion in natural science can never be absolutely proved, it could be refuted by the [[observation]] of a single [[counterexample]]. Such a counterexample would require that the assumptions underlying the theory that implied the impossibility be re-examined. Some philosophers, such as [[Sydney Shoemaker]], have argued that the laws of nature are in fact necessary, not contingent; if so, then nomological possibility is equivalent to metaphysical possibility.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00048400903159016|doi = 10.1080/00048400903159016|title = Some Laws of Nature are Metaphysically Contingent|year = 2010|last1 = Roberts|first1 = John T.|journal = Australasian Journal of Philosophy|volume = 88|issue = 3|pages = 445–457|s2cid = 170608423|access-date = 2021-09-07|archive-date = 2021-09-07|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210907071107/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00048400903159016|url-status = live|url-access = subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/SIDOTM|title=Conceivability and Possibility|chapter=On the Metaphysical Contingency of Laws of Nature|year=2002|pages=309–336|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=2021-09-07|archive-date=2021-09-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907071107/https://philpapers.org/rec/SIDOTM|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339957498 |title=The Contingency of Physical Laws |date= |accessdate=2022-02-11}}</ref>

The term ''supernatural'' is often used interchangeably with [[paranormal]] or [[preternatural]]—the latter typically limited to an adjective for describing abilities which appear to exceed what is possible within the boundaries of the laws of physics.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=znMqAQAAIAAJ&q=%22supernatural+beliefs%22+%22paranormal%22 |title=The paranormal |access-date=July 26, 2010|isbn=9780824210922 |year=2009 |last1=Partridge |first1=Kenneth |publisher=H.W. Wilson Company }}</ref> [[Epistemology|Epistemologically]], the relationship between the supernatural and the natural is indistinct in terms of natural phenomena that, ''ex hypothesi,'' violate the laws of nature, in so far as such laws are [[Philosophical realism|realistically accountable]].
{{quote|Parapsychologists use the term psi to refer to an assumed unitary force underlying the phenomena they study. Psi is defined in the ''Journal of Parapsychology'' as "personal factors or processes in nature which transcend accepted laws" (1948: 311) and "which are [[Non-physical entity|non-physical]] in nature" (1962:310), and it is used to cover both extrasensory perception (ESP), an "awareness of or response to an external event or influence not apprehended by sensory means" (1962:309) or inferred from sensory knowledge, and psychokinesis (PK), "the direct influence exerted on a physical system by a subject without any known intermediate energy or instrumentation" (1945:305).<ref name="Winkelman1982">{{cite journal |title=Magic: A Theoretical Reassessment [and Comments and Replies] |author=Winkelman, M.|journal=Current Anthropology |volume=23 |issue=1 |date=February 1982 |pages=37–66 |jstor=274255 |doi=10.1086/202778|s2cid=147447041|display-authors=etal}}</ref>|Michael Winkelman|''Current Anthropology''}}

Views on the "supernatural" vary, for example it may be seen as:
* '''indistinct from nature'''. From this perspective, some events occur according to the [[Natural law|laws of nature]], and others occur according to a separate set of principles external to known nature. For example, in [[Scholasticism]], it was believed that God was capable of performing any miracle so long as it did not lead to a logical [[contradiction]]. Some religions posit immanent deities, however, and do not have a tradition analogous to the supernatural; some believe that everything anyone experiences occurs by the will ([[occasionalism]]), in the mind ([[neoplatonism]]), or as a part ([[Nonduality (spirituality)|nondualism]]) of a more fundamental divine reality ([[platonism]]).
* '''incorrect human attribution'''. In this view all events have natural and only natural causes. They believe that human beings ascribe supernatural attributes to purely natural events, such as [[lightning]], [[rainbow]]s, [[flood]]s and the [[origin of life]].<ref name="Zhong1976">{{cite book |author=Zhong Yang Yan Jiu Yuan |author2=Min Tsu Hsüeh Yen Chiu So |year=1976 |title=Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, Issues 42–44 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yyQZAAAAIAAJ}}</ref><ref name="Ellis2004">{{cite book |first1=B.J. |last1=Ellis |first2=D.F. |last2=Bjorklund |year=2004 |title=Origins of the Social Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and Child Development |publisher=Guilford Publications |isbn=9781593851033 |lccn=2004022693 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-UjiZwYGdFoC&pg=PA413 |page=413}}</ref>

==Cross cultural studies==
Anthropological studies across cultures indicate that people do not hold or use natural and supernatural explanations in a mutually exclusive or dichotomous fashion. Instead, the reconciliation of natural and supernatural explanations is normal and pervasive across cultures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Legare |first1=Cristine H. |last2=Visala |first2=Aku |title=Between Religion and Science: Integrating Psychological and Philosophical Accounts of Explanatory Coexistence |journal=Human Development |date=2011 |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=169–184 |doi=10.1159/000329135|s2cid=53668380 }}</ref> Cross cultural studies indicate that there is coexistence of natural and supernatural explanations in both adults and children for explaining numerous things about the world, such as illness, death, and origins.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Legare |first1=Cristine H. |last2=Evans |first2=E. Margaret |last3=Rosengren |first3=Karl S. |last4=Harris |first4=Paul L. |title=The Coexistence of Natural and Supernatural Explanations Across Cultures and Development: Coexistence of Natural and Supernatural Explanations |journal=Child Development |date=May 2012 |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=779–793 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01743.x|pmid=22417318 |hdl=2027.42/91141 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aizenkot |first1=Dana |title=Meaning-Making to Child Loss: The Coexistence of Natural and Supernatural Explanations of Death |journal=Journal of Constructivist Psychology |date=11 September 2020 |volume=35 |pages=318–343 |doi=10.1080/10720537.2020.1819491|s2cid=225231409 }}</ref> Context and cultural input play a large role in determining when and how individuals incorporate natural and supernatural explanations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Busch |first1=Justin T. A. |last2=Watson-Jones |first2=Rachel E. |last3=Legare |first3=Cristine H. |title=The coexistence of natural and supernatural explanations within and across domains and development |journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology |date=March 2017 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=4–20 |doi=10.1111/bjdp.12164|pmid=27785818 |s2cid=24196030 |pmc=10676005 }}</ref> The coexistence of natural and supernatural explanations in individuals may be the outcomes two distinct cognitive domains: one concerned with the physical-mechanical relations and another with social relations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Whitehouse |first1=Harvey |title=The Coexistence Problem in Psychology, Anthropology, and Evolutionary Theory |journal=Human Development |date=2011 |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=191–199 |doi=10.1159/000329149|s2cid=145622566 }}</ref> Studies on indigenous groups have allowed for insights on how such coexistence of explanations may function.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Watson-Jones |first1=Rachel E. |last2=Busch |first2=Justin T. A. |last3=Legare |first3=Cristine H. |title=Interdisciplinary and Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Explanatory Coexistence |journal=Topics in Cognitive Science |date=October 2015 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=611–623 |doi=10.1111/tops.12162|pmid=26350158 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Supernatural concepts==
{{see also|Religion|Magic and religion}}

===Deity===
{{main|Deity}}
A ''deity'' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-uk-deity1.ogg|ˈ|d|iː|ə|t|i}} or {{IPAc-en|audio=en-uk-deity2.ogg|ˈ|d|eɪ|.|ə|t|i}})<ref>{{cite book|title=The American Heritage Book of English Usage: A Practical and Authoritative Guide to Contemporary English|date=1996|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|isbn=978-0395767856|page=[https://archive.org/details/americanheritage00edi_4cp/page/219 219]|url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage00edi_4cp/page/219}}</ref> is a supernatural being considered [[divinity|divine]] or [[sacred]].<ref name="OBrien">{{cite book|last1=O'Brien|first1=Jodi|title=Encyclopedia of Gender and Society|date=2009|publisher=SAGE|location=Los Angeles|isbn=9781412909167|page=191|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_nyHS4WyUKEC|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en|archive-date=January 13, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113144056/https://books.google.com/books?id=_nyHS4WyUKEC|url-status=live}}</ref> The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as "a god or goddess (in a [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] religion)", or anything revered as divine.<ref name="Stevenson">{{cite book|last1=Stevenson|first1=Angus|title=Oxford Dictionary of English|date=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780199571123|page=461|edition=3rd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=anecAQAAQBAJ|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en|archive-date=March 11, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311102542/https://books.google.com/books?id=anecAQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> [[C. Scott Littleton]] defines a deity as "a being with powers greater than those of ordinary humans, but who interacts with humans, positively or negatively, in ways that carry humans to new [[Higher consciousness|levels of consciousness]], beyond the grounded preoccupations of ordinary life."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Littleton]|first1=C. Scott|title=Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology|date=2005|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|location=New York|isbn=9780761475590|page=378|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ufSStXPECkC&pg=PA378|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en}}</ref> A male deity is a [[God (word)|god]], while a female deity is a [[goddess]].

Religions can be categorized by how many deities they worship. [[Monotheism|Monotheistic]] [[religion]]s accept only one deity (predominantly referred to as [[God]]),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Becking|first1=Bob|last2=Dijkstra|first2=Meindert|last3=Korpel| first3=Marjo|last4=Vriezen |first4=Karel|title=Only One God?: Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Veneration of the Goddess Asherah|date=2001|publisher=New York|location=London|isbn=9780567232120|page=189|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eMneBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA189|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en|quote=The Christian tradition is, in imitation of Judaism, a monotheistic religion. This implies that believers accept the existence of only one God. Other deities either do not exist, are seen as the product of human imagination or are dismissed as remanents of a persistent paganism}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Korte|first1=Anne-Marie|last2=Haardt|first2=Maaike De|title=The Boundaries of Monotheism: Interdisciplinary Explorations Into the Foundations of Western Monotheism|date=2009|publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004173163|page=9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-53d1iRsqDEC|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en}}</ref> [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] religions accept multiple deities.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Jeannine K.|title=Scripture as Communication: Introducing Biblical Hermeneutics|date=2007|publisher=Baker Academic|isbn=9780801027888|page=72|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tqNzBQAAQBAJ|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en}}</ref> [[Henotheism|Henotheistic]] religions accept one supreme deity without denying other deities, considering them as equivalent aspects of the same divine principle;<ref>{{cite book|last1=Taliaferro|first1=Charles|last2=Harrison|first2=Victoria S.|last3=Goetz|first3=Stewart|title=The Routledge Companion to Theism|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136338236|pages=78–79|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ct7fCgAAQBAJ|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en|archive-date=January 15, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115140609/https://books.google.com/books?id=ct7fCgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Reat|first1=N. Ross|last2=Perry|first2=Edmund F.|title=A World Theology: The Central Spiritual Reality of Humankind|date=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521331593|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldtheologycen0000reat/page/73 73]–75|url=https://archive.org/details/worldtheologycen0000reat|url-access=registration|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en}}</ref> and [[nontheistic religion]]s deny any supreme eternal [[creator deity]] but accept a [[pantheon (religion)|pantheon]] of deities which live, die and are reborn just like any other being.<ref name="Keown">{{cite book|last1=Keown|first1=Damien|title=Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=9780199663835|edition=New|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC|access-date=June 22, 2017|language=en}}</ref>{{rp|35–37}}<ref name="Bullivant">{{cite book|last1=Bullivant|first1=Stephen|last2=Ruse|first2=Michael|title=The Oxford Handbook of Atheism|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Publishing|isbn=9780199644650|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jbIVAgAAQBAJ|access-date=June 22, 2017|language=en|archive-date=October 3, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003172045/https://books.google.com/books?id=jbIVAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|357–358}}

Various cultures have conceptualized a deity differently than a [[God|monotheistic God]].<ref name=Hood/><ref name=Trigger/> A deity need not be [[Omnipotence|omnipotent]], [[Omnipresence|omnipresent]], [[Omniscience|omniscient]], [[Omnibenevolence|omnibenevolent]] or [[Immortality|eternal]],<ref name=Hood>{{cite book|last1=Hood|first1=Robert E.|title=Must God Remain Greek?: Afro Cultures and God-talk|date=1990|publisher=Fortress Press|location=Minneapolis|isbn=9780800624491|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mustgodremaingre0000hood/page/128 128–129]|quote=African people may describe their deities as strong, but not omnipotent; wise but not omniscient; old but not eternal; great but not omnipresent (...)|url=https://archive.org/details/mustgodremaingre0000hood/page/128}}</ref><ref name="Trigger">{{cite book|last1=Trigger|first1=Bruce G.|title=Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingear0000trig|url-access=registration|date=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780521822459|pages=[https://archive.org/details/understandingear0000trig/page/441 441–442]|edition=1st|quote=[Historically...] people perceived far fewer differences between themselves and the gods than the adherents of modern monotheistic religions. Deities were not thought to be omniscient or omnipotent and were rarely believed to be changeless or eternal}}</ref><ref name="Murdoch">John Murdoch, {{Google books|IHQAAAAAMAAJ|English Translations of Select Tracts, Published in India – Religious Texts}}, pages 141–142; '''Quote:''' "We [monotheists] find by reason and revelation that God is omniscient, omnipotent, most holy, etc, but the Hindu deities possess none of those attributes. It is mentioned in their [[Shastra]]s that their deities were all vanquished by the Asurs, while they fought in the heavens, and for fear of whom they left their abodes. This plainly shows that they are not omnipotent."</ref> The monotheistic God, however, does have these [[God#Specific_characteristics|attributes]].<ref name="Taliaferro">{{cite book|last1=Taliaferro|first1=Charles|last2=Marty|first2=Elsa J.|title=A Dictionary of Philosophy of Religion|date=2010|publisher=Continuum|location=New York|isbn=9781441111975|pages=98–99}}</ref><ref name="Wilkerson">{{cite book|last1=Wilkerson|first1=W.D.|title=Walking With The Gods|date=2014|publisher=Sankofa|isbn=978-0991530014|pages=6–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Trigger|first1=Bruce G.|title=Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingear0000trig|url-access=registration|date=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780521822459|pages=[https://archive.org/details/understandingear0000trig/page/473 473–474]|edition=1st}}</ref> Monotheistic religions typically refer to God in masculine terms,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kramarae|first1=Cheris|last2=Spender|first2=Dale|title=Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Global Women's Issues and Knowledge|date=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135963156|page=655|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QAOUAgAAQBAJ|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref name="OBrien2">{{cite book|last1=O'Brien|first1=Julia M.|title=Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Gender Studies|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press, Incorporated|isbn=9780199836994|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZU-nBAAAQBAJ|access-date=June 22, 2017|language=en}}</ref>{{rp|96}} while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways – masculine, feminine, androgynous and gender neutral.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bonnefoy|first1=Yves|title=Roman and European Mythologies|date=1992|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=9780226064550|url=https://archive.org/details/romaneuropeanmyt00yves|url-access=registration|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en|pages=[https://archive.org/details/romaneuropeanmyt00yves/page/274 274]–275}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Pintchman|first1=Tracy|title=Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess|date=2014|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=9780791490495|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXdGInecRIC|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en|pages=1–2, 19–20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Nathaniel|title=To Be Cared For: The Power of Conversion and Foreignness of Belonging in an Indian Slum|date=2016|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520963634|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVPQCwAAQBAJ|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en|page=xv}}</ref>

Historically, many ancient cultures – such as [[Ancient India]], [[Ancient Iraq]], [[Ancient Egyptian]], [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]], [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Roman]], [[Norsemen|Nordic]] and [[Culture of Asia|Asian culture]] – personified [[List of natural phenomena|natural phenomena]], variously as either their conscious causes or simply their effects, respectively.<ref name="Malandra">{{cite book|last1=Malandra|first1=William W.|title=An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion: Readings from the Avesta and the Achaemenid Inscriptions|date=1983|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|location=Minneapolis, Minnesota|isbn=978-0816611157|pages=9–10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZQMrjukmboC|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Fløistad">{{cite book|last1=Fløistad|first1=Guttorm|title=Volume 10: Philosophy of Religion|date=2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media B.V.|location=Dordrecht|isbn=9789048135271|pages=19–20|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BclABayC1QQC|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Daniel T. Potts |title=Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OdZS9gBu4KwC |year=1997|publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-3339-9|pages=186–187 }}</ref> Some [[Avesta]]n and [[Vedas|Vedic]] deities were viewed as ethical concepts.<ref name="Malandra"/><ref name="Fløistad"/> In [[Indian religions]], deities have been envisioned as manifesting within the temple of every living being's body, as sensory organs and mind.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Potter|first1=Karl H.|title=The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 3: Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils|date=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9781400856510|pages=272–274|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ydf_AwAAQBAJ|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Olivelle|first1=Patrick|title=The Samnyasa Upanisads: Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation.|date=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780195361377|page=47|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fB8uneM7q1cC|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cush|first1=Denise|last2=Robinson|first2=Catherine|last3=York|first3=Michael|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|date=2008|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=9781135189792|pages=899–900|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ|access-date=June 28, 2017|language=en|archive-date=January 17, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117102108/https://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Deities have also been envisioned as a form of existence ([[Saṃsāra]]) after [[reincarnation|rebirth]], for human beings who gain merit through an ethical life, where they become [[Tutelary deity|guardian deities]] and live blissfully in [[heaven]], but are also subject to death when their merit runs out.<ref name="Keown"/>{{rp|35–38}}<ref name="Bullivant"/>{{rp|356–359}}

===Angel===
{{main|Angel}}
[[File:GuidoReni MichaelDefeatsSatan.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Michael (archangel)|Archangel Michael]] wears a late Roman military cloak and cuirass in this 17th-century depiction by [[Guido Reni]].]]
[[File:Bernhard Plockhorst - Schutzengel.jpg|thumb|upright|''Schutzengel'' (English: "Guardian Angel") by [[Bernhard Plockhorst]] depicts a [[guardian angel]] watching over two children.]]
An angel is generally a supernatural being found in various [[religion]]s and [[Mythology|mythologies]]. In [[Abrahamic religions]] and [[Zoroastrianism]], angels are often depicted as benevolent celestial beings who act as intermediaries between [[God]] or [[Heaven]] and [[Earth]].<ref>The Free Dictionary [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/angel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108092531/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/angel|date=2012-11-08}} retrieved 1 September 2012</ref><ref name="ReligFacts">{{Cite web |url=http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/beliefs/angels.htm |title="Angels in Christianity." Religion Facts. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Dec. 2014 |access-date=2018-01-05 |archive-date=2015-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406134902/http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/beliefs/angels.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other roles of angels include protecting and guiding human beings and carrying out God's tasks.<ref>[http://www.augustinus.it/latino/esposizioni_salmi/index2.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009114455/http://www.augustinus.it/latino/esposizioni_salmi/index2.htm|date=2011-10-09}}[[Augustine of Hippo]]'s ''Enarrationes in Psalmos'', 103, I, 15'', augustinus.it'' {{in lang|la}}</ref> Within Abrahamic religions, angels are often organized into [[Hierarchy|hierarchies]], although such rankings may vary between sects in each religion, and are given specific names or titles, such as [[Gabriel]] or "[[Destroying angel (Bible)|Destroying angel]]". The term "angel" has also been expanded to various notions of spirits or figures found in other religious traditions. The theological study of angels is known as "[[angelology]]".

[[Angels in art|In fine art]], angels are usually depicted as having the shape of human beings of extraordinary beauty;<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/angel|title=Definition of ANGEL|website=www.merriam-webster.com|access-date=2016-05-02|archive-date=2023-06-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628235313/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/angel|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1521-angelology|title=ANGELOLOGY - JewishEncyclopedia.com|website=jewishencyclopedia.com|access-date=2016-05-02|archive-date=2016-05-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520024437/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1521-angelology|url-status=live}}</ref> they are often identified using the [[symbol]]s of [[Bird flight|bird wings]],<ref>Proverbio (2007), pp. 90–95; cf. review in ''[[La Civiltà Cattolica]]'', 3795–3796 (2–16 August 2008), pp. 327–328.</ref> [[Halo (religious iconography)|halos]]<ref>Didron, Vol 2, pp.68–71</ref> and [[light]].

===Prophecy===
{{main|Prophecy}}
Prophecy involves a process in which messages are communicated by a god to a [[prophet]]. Such messages typically involve inspiration, interpretation, or [[revelation]] of divine will concerning the prophet's social world and events to come (compare [[Light (theology)|divine knowledge]]). Prophecy is not limited to any one culture. It is a common property to all known ancient societies around the world, some more than others. Many systems and rules about prophecy have been proposed over several millennia.

===Revelation===
{{main|Revelation}}
In [[religion]] and [[theology]], revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of [[Religious views on truth|truth]] or [[Knowledge#Religion|knowledge]] through communication with a [[deity]] or other supernatural entity or entities.

Some religions have [[religious texts]] which they view as divinely or supernaturally revealed or inspired. For instance, [[Orthodox Jews]], [[Christians]] and [[Muslims]] believe that the ''[[Torah]]'' was received from [[Yahweh]] on [[biblical Mount Sinai]].<ref>Beale G.K., The Book of Revelation, NIGTC, Grand Rapids – Cambridge 1999. = {{ISBN|0-8028-2174-X}}</ref><ref>Esposito, John L. ''What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 7–8.</ref> Most Christians believe that both the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]] were [[Biblical inspiration|inspired]] by God. Muslims believe the [[Quran]] was revealed by God to [[Muhammad]] word by word through the angel [[Gabriel]] (''Jibril'').<ref name=Lambert>{{cite book|last1=Lambert|first1=Gray|title=The Leaders Are Coming!|date=2013|publisher=WestBow Press|isbn=9781449760137|page=287|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sV0mAgAAQBAJ&q=%22Muslims+believe+that+the+Quran+was+verbally+revealed%22&pg=PA287}}</ref><ref name="Williams & Drew">{{cite book|author1=Roy H. Williams|author2=Michael R. Drew|title=Pendulum: How Past Generations Shape Our Present and Predict Our Future|date=2012|publisher=Vanguard Press|isbn=9781593157067|page=143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mygRHh6p40kC&q=%22Muslims+believe+that+the+Quran+was+verbally+revealed%22&pg=PA143}}{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In [[Hinduism]], some [[Vedas]] are considered ''[[apaurusheyatva|{{IAST|apauruṣeya}}]]'', "not human compositions", and are supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called ''[[śruti]]'', "what is heard". [[Aleister Crowley]] stated that ''[[The Book of the Law]]'' had been revealed to him through a higher being that called itself ''[[Aiwass]]''.

A revelation communicated by a supernatural entity reported as being present during the event is called a [[Vision (spirituality)|vision]]. Direct conversations between the recipient and the supernatural entity,<ref>Michael Freze, 1993, ''Voices, Visions, and Apparitions'', OSV Publishing {{ISBN|0-87973-454-X}} p. 252</ref> or physical marks such as [[stigmata]], have been reported. In rare cases, such as that of Saint [[Juan Diego]], physical artifacts accompany the revelation.<ref>Michael Freze, 1989 ''They Bore the Wounds of Christ'' {{ISBN|0-87973-422-1}}</ref> The [[Roman Catholic]] concept of [[interior locution]] includes just an inner voice heard by the recipient.

In the [[Abrahamic religions]], the term is used to refer to the process by which [[God]] reveals knowledge of himself, his [[Will of God|will]] and his [[divine providence]] to the world of human beings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/revelation |title=Revelation | Define Revelation at Dictionary.com |publisher=Dictionary.reference.com |access-date=2013-07-14 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074441/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/revelation |url-status=live }}</ref> In secondary usage, revelation refers to the resulting human knowledge about God, [[prophecy]] and other [[divinity|divine]] things. Revelation from a supernatural source plays a less important role in some other religious traditions such as [[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]].

===Reincarnation===
{{main|Reincarnation}}
[[File:Gati or existences.jpg|upright|thumb|In [[Jainism]], a [[soul]] travels to any one of the four states of existence after death depending on its [[karma]]s.]]
Reincarnation is the [[Philosophy|philosophical]] or [[Religion|religious]] concept that an aspect of a living [[being]] starts a new [[life]] in a different [[physical body]] or form after each biological [[death]]. It is also called rebirth or [[Transmigration of a soul|transmigration]], and is a part of the [[Saṃsāra]] doctrine of cyclic existence.{{Sfn|Norman C. McClelland|2010|pp=24–29, 171}}{{Sfn|Mark Juergensmeyer|Wade Clark Roof|2011|pp=271–272}} It is a central tenet of all major [[Indian religions]], namely [[Jainism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Sikhism]].{{Sfn|Mark Juergensmeyer|Wade Clark Roof|2011|pp=271–272}}{{sfn|Stephen J. Laumakis|2008|pp=90–99}}<ref name="Gross1993p148">{{cite book|author=Rita M. Gross |title=Buddhism After Patriarchy: A Feminist History, Analysis, and Reconstruction of Buddhism |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhismafterpat00gros |url-access=registration |year=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-0513-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/buddhismafterpat00gros/page/148 148]}}</ref> The idea of reincarnation is found in many ancient cultures,{{Sfn|Norman C. McClelland|2010|pp=102–103}} and a belief in rebirth/[[metempsychosis]] was held by Greek historic figures, such as [[Pythagoras]], [[Socrates]] and [[Plato]].<ref>see Charles Taliaferro, Paul Draper, Philip L. Quinn, ''A Companion to Philosophy of Religion''. John Wiley and Sons, 2010, page 640, [https://books.google.com/books?id=SSCx-67Tk6cC&dq=reincarnation+and+rebirth&pg=PA640 Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212163105/https://books.google.com/books?id=SSCx-67Tk6cC&pg=PA640&dq=reincarnation+and+rebirth&cd=8 |date=2022-12-12 }}</ref> It is also a common belief of various ancient and modern religions such as [[Kardecist spiritism|Spiritism]], [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophy]] and [[Eckankar]] and as an esoteric belief in many streams of [[Orthodox Judaism]]. It is found as well in many tribal societies around the world, in places such as [[Australia]], [[East Asia]], [[Siberia]] and [[South America]].<ref>Gananath Obeyesekere, ''Imagining Karma: Ethical Transformation in Amerindian, Buddhist, and Greek Rebirth''. University of California Press, 2002, page 15.</ref>

Although the majority of denominations within [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of [[Catharism|Cathars]], [[Alawites]], the [[Druze]]<ref>Hitti, Philip K (2007) [1924]. ''Origins of the Druze People and Religion, with Extracts from their Sacred Writings (New Edition)''. Columbia University Oriental Studies. '''28'''. London: Saqi. pp. 13–14. {{ISBN|0-86356-690-1}}</ref> and the [[Rosicrucians]].<ref>[[Max Heindel|Heindel, Max]] (1985) [1939, 1908] ''The Rosicrucian Christianity Lectures (Collected Works)'': [http://www.rosicrucian.com/rcl/rcleng01.htm#lecture1 The Riddle of Life and Death] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100629063357/http://www.rosicrucian.com/rcl/rcleng01.htm#lecture1 |date=2010-06-29 }}. Oceanside, California. 4th edition. {{ISBN|0-911274-84-7}}</ref> The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of [[Neoplatonism]], [[Orphism (religion)|Orphism]], [[Hermeticism]], [[Manicheanism]] and [[Gnosticism]] of the [[Roman era]] as well as the Indian religions, have been the subject of recent scholarly research.<ref>An important recent work discussing the mutual influence of ancient Greek and Indian philosophy regarding these matters is ''The Shape of Ancient Thought'' by [[Thomas McEvilley]]</ref> [[Unity Church]] and its founder [[Charles Fillmore (Unity Church)|Charles Fillmore]] teaches reincarnation.

In recent decades, many [[Europeans]] and [[North Americans]] have developed an interest in reincarnation,<ref name="hi.is">{{cite web |url= http://www.hi.is/~erlendur/english/Nordic_Psychology_erlhar06.pdf |title= Popular psychology, belief in life after death and reincarnation in the Nordic countries, Western and Eastern Europe |access-date= 2018-10-23 |archive-date= 2009-09-30 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090930145456/http://www3.hi.is/~erlendur/english/Nordic_Psychology_erlhar06.pdf |url-status= live }} {{small|(54.8 KB)}}</ref> and [[Reincarnation in popular culture|many contemporary works]] mention it.

===Karma===
{{main|Karma}}
Karma ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɑr|m|ə}}; {{langx|sa|कर्म|karma}}, {{IPA|sa|ˈkɐɽmɐ|IPA|Karma.ogg}}; {{langx|pi|kamma|italic=yes}}) means action, work or deed;<ref>See:
* Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 15, New York, pp 679–680, Article on Karma; Quote – "Karma meaning deed or action; in addition, it also has philosophical and technical meaning, denoting a person's deeds as determining his future lot."
* The Encyclopedia of World Religions, Robert Ellwood & Gregory Alles, {{ISBN|978-0-8160-6141-9}}, pp 253; Quote – "Karma: Sanskrit word meaning action and the consequences of action."
* Hans Torwesten (1994), Vedanta: Heart of Hinduism, {{ISBN|978-0802132628}}, Grove Press New York, pp 97; Quote – "In the Vedas the word karma (work, deed or action, and its resulting effect) referred mainly to..."</ref> it also refers to the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual (cause) influence the future of that individual (effect).<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/312474/karma Karma] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503134927/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/312474/karma |date=2015-05-03 }} Encyclopædia Britannica (2012)</ref> Good intent and good deeds contribute to good karma and future happiness, while bad intent and bad deeds contribute to bad karma and future suffering.<ref name=halbfass2000>Halbfass, Wilhelm (2000), Karma und Wiedergeburt im indischen Denken, Diederichs, München, Germany</ref><ref>Lawrence C. Becker & Charlotte B. Becker, Encyclopedia of Ethics, 2nd Edition, {{ISBN|0-415-93672-1}}, Hindu Ethics, pp 678</ref>

With origins in [[History of India|ancient India]]'s [[Vedic civilization]], the philosophy of karma is closely associated with the idea of [[Reincarnation|rebirth]] in many schools of [[Indian religions]] (particularly [[Karma in Hinduism|Hinduism]], [[Karma in Buddhism|Buddhism]], [[Karma in Jainism|Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]]<ref name=KarmaParveshSingla>{{cite book|author=Parvesh Singla |title=The Manual of Life – Karma |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_1mXR35jX-TsC |access-date=4 June 2011 |publisher=Parvesh singla |pages=5–7 |id=GGKEY:0XFSARN29ZZ}}</ref>) as well as [[Taoism]].<ref name=evawong>Eva Wong, Taoism, Shambhala Publications, {{ISBN|978-1590308820}}, pp. 193</ref> In these schools, karma in the present affects one's future in the current life, as well as the nature and quality of future lives – one's ''[[saṃsāra]]''.<ref name=jbowker>"Karma" in: John Bowker (1997), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press.</ref><ref name=jamesloch>James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, pp 351–352</ref>

===Christian theology===
[[File:San Giuseppe di Copertino 18th century engraving.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[patron saint]] of air travelers, aviators, astronauts, people with a mental handicap, test takers and poor students is [[Saint Joseph of Cupertino]], who is said to have been gifted with [[Saints and levitation|supernatural flight]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Pastrovicchi |first=Angelo |title=St. Joseph of Copertino |editor=Rev. Francis S. Laing |publisher=B.Herder |location=St. Louis |year=1918 |page=iv |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nnc1.cr60937475;seq=18;view=1up;num=iv |isbn=978-0-89555-135-1 |access-date=2013-02-26 |archive-date=2021-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502053937/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nnc1.cr60937475;seq=18;view=1up;num=iv |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
{{Main|Supernatural order}}
In [[Catholic theology]], the supernatural order is, according to [[New Advent]], defined as "the ensemble of effects exceeding the powers of the created universe and gratuitously produced by God for the purpose of raising the rational creature above its native sphere to a God-like life and destiny."<ref name=NA>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14336b.htm|title=Supernatural Order|last=Sollier|first=J.|publisher=Robert Appleton Company|access-date=2008-09-11|archive-date=2008-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080914133738/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14336b.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The ''Modern Catholic Dictionary'' defines it as "the sum total of heavenly destiny and all the divinely established means of reaching that destiny, which surpass the mere powers and capacities of human nature."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/dictionary/index.cfm?id=36719|title=Supernatural Order|last=Hardon|first=Fr. John|publisher=Eternal Life|access-date=2008-09-15|archive-date=2011-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610122131/http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/dictionary/index.cfm?id=36719|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Process theology===
{{main|Process theology}}
Process theology is a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical [[process philosophy]] of [[Alfred North Whitehead]] (1861–1947) and further developed by [[Charles Hartshorne]] (1897–2000).
{{quote|It is not possible, in process metaphysics, to conceive divine activity as a "supernatural" intervention into the "natural" order of events. Process theists usually regard the distinction between the supernatural and the natural as a by-product of the doctrine of creation ''ex nihilo''. In process thought, there is no such thing as a realm of the natural in contrast to that which is supernatural. On the other hand, if "the natural" is defined more neutrally as "what is in the nature of things", then process metaphysics characterizes the natural as the creative activity of actual entities. In Whitehead's words, "It lies in the nature of things that the many enter into complex unity" (Whitehead 1978, 21). It is tempting to emphasize process theism's denial of the supernatural and thereby highlight that the processed God cannot do in comparison what the traditional God could do (that is, to bring something from nothing). In fairness, however, equal stress should be placed on process theism's denial of the natural (as traditionally conceived) so that one may highlight what the creatures cannot do, in traditional theism, in comparison to what they can do in process metaphysics (that is, to be part creators of the world with God).<ref name="sep-process-theism">{{cite encyclopedia |first=Donald |last=Viney |editor=Edward N. Zalta |year=2008 |title=Process Theism |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Winter 2008 |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2008/entries/process-theism/ |access-date=2012-08-06 |archive-date=2013-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202071650/http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2008/entries/process-theism/ |url-status=live }}</ref>|Donald Viney|"Process Theism" in ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''}}

=== Heaven ===
{{main|Heaven}}
''Heaven'', or ''the heavens'', is a common [[Religious cosmology|religious, cosmological]], or [[transcendence (philosophy)|transcendent]] place where beings such as [[Deity|gods]], [[angel]]s, spirits, [[saint]]s, or [[Veneration of the dead|venerated ancestors]] are said to originate, be [[throne|enthroned]], or live. According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to Earth or [[Incarnation|incarnate]], and earthly beings can ascend to heaven in the [[afterlife]], or in exceptional cases [[Entering heaven alive|enter heaven alive]].

Heaven is often described as a "higher place", the [[Sacred|holiest]] place, a [[Paradise]], in contrast to [[hell]] or the [[Underworld]] or the "low places" and [[Universal reconciliation|universally]] or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of [[divinity]], [[good and evil|goodness]], [[piety]], [[faith]], or other [[virtue]]s or [[orthodoxy|right beliefs]] or simply the [[will of God]]. Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a ''[[world to come]]''.

Another belief is in an [[axis mundi]] or [[world tree]] which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world and the [[underworld]]. In [[Indian religions]], heaven is considered as ''[[Svarga|Svarga loka]]'',<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.spiritualresearchfoundation.org/spiritual-research/afterlife/life-after-death/|title=Life After Death Revealed – What Really Happens in the Afterlife|work=SSRF English|access-date=2018-03-22|language=en-GB|archive-date=2019-01-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130001314/https://www.spiritualresearchfoundation.org/spiritual-research/afterlife/life-after-death/|url-status=live}}</ref> and the soul is again subjected to [[Reincarnation|rebirth]] in different living forms according to its ''[[karma]]''. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves ''[[Moksha]]'' or ''[[Nirvana]]''. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as ''[[otherworld]].''

=== Underworld ===
{{main|Underworld}}
The ''underworld'' is the supernatural world of the dead in various [[religious]] traditions, located below the world of the living.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/underworld |title=Underworld |work=The free dictionary |access-date=1 July 2010 |archive-date=6 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106064933/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/underworld |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Chthonic]] is the technical adjective for things of the underworld.

The concept of an underworld is found in almost every civilization and "may be as old as humanity itself".<ref>Isabelle Loring Wallace, Jennie Hirsh, ''Contemporary Art and Classical Myth'' (2011), p. 295.</ref> Common features of underworld [[myth]]s are accounts of [[Descent to the underworld|living people making journeys to the underworld]], often for some [[hero]]ic purpose. Other myths reinforce traditions that entrance of souls to the underworld requires a proper observation of ceremony, such as the ancient Greek story of the recently dead [[Patroclus]] haunting [[Achilles]] until his body could be properly buried for this purpose.<ref>Radcliffe G. Edmonds, III, ''Myths of the Underworld Journey: Plato, Aristophanes, and the 'Orphic' Gold Tablets'' (2004), p. 9.</ref> Persons having social status were dressed and equipped in order to better navigate the underworld.<ref>Jon Mills, ''Underworlds: Philosophies of the Unconscious from Psychoanalysis to Metaphysics'' (2014), p. 1.</ref>

A number of mythologies incorporate the concept of the soul of the deceased making its own journey to the underworld, with the dead needing to be taken across a defining obstacle such as a lake or a river to reach this destination.<ref>Evans Lansing Smith, ''The Descent to the Underworld in Literature, Painting, and Film, 1895–1950'' (2001), p. 257.</ref> Imagery of such journeys can be found in both ancient and modern art. The descent to the underworld has been described as "the single most important myth for Modernist authors".<ref>Evans Lansing Smith, ''The Descent to the Underworld in Literature, Painting, and Film, 1895–1950'' (2001), p. 7.</ref>

===Spirit===
{{main|Spirit (supernatural entity)|Spirit (animating force)}}
[[File:Theodor von Holst Bertalda Assailed Spirits.png|thumb|[[Theodor von Holst]], ''Bertalda, Assailed by Spirits'', {{circa|1830}}]]
A ''spirit'' is a supernatural being, often but not exclusively a [[non-physical entity]]; such as a [[demon]], [[ghost]], [[fairy]], [[jinn]] or [[angel]].<ref name="polysemy">[[#polysemy|François 2008]], p.187-197.</ref> The concepts of a person's spirit and [[soul]], often also overlap, as both are either [[Mind-body dualism|contrasted with]] or [[Idealism|given ontological priority over]] the [[Human body|body]] and both are believed to survive bodily death in some religions,<ref>OED "spirit 2.a.: The soul of a person, as commended to God, or passing out of the body, in the moment of death."</ref> and "spirit" can also have the sense of "[[ghost]]", i.e. a manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person. In English [[Bible]]s, "the Spirit" (with a capital "S"), specifically denotes the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]].

Spirit is often used [[metaphysically]] to refer to the [[consciousness]] or [[personality]].

Historically, it was also used to refer to a "subtle" as opposed to "gross" material substance, as in the famous last paragraph of [[Sir Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Burtt|first1=Edwin A.|title=Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science|date=2003|publisher=Dover Publications, Inc|location=Mineola, New York|page=275}}</ref>

===Demon===
{{main|Demon}}
[[File:Mephistopheles2.jpg|thumb|[[Mephistopheles]] (a [[Middle Ages|medieval]] demon from [[German folklore]]) flying over [[Wittenberg]], in a [[lithograph]] by [[Eugène Delacroix]].]]
A ''demon'' (from [[Koine Greek]] {{lang|grc|δαιμόνιον}} ''daimónion'') is a supernatural and often malevolent being prevalent in [[religion]], [[occultism]], [[literature]], [[fiction]], [[mythology]] and [[folklore]].

In [[Ancient Near Eastern religions]] as well as in the [[Abrahamic traditions]], including ancient and medieval [[Christian demonology]], a demon is considered a harmful spiritual entity, below the heavenly planes<ref>S. T. Joshi ''Icons of Horror and the Supernatural: An Encyclopedia of Our Worst Nightmares, Band '' Greenwood Publishing Group 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-313-33781-9}} page 34</ref> which may cause [[demonic possession]], calling for an [[exorcism]]. In Western [[occultism]] and [[Renaissance magic]], which grew out of an amalgamation of [[Greco-Roman magic]], Jewish [[Aggadah]] and [[Christian demonology]],<ref>See, for example, the course synopsis and bibliography for [http://medievalstudies.ceu.hu/courses/20102011/magic-science-religion-the-development-of-the-western-esoteric-traditions "Magic, Science, Religion: The Development of the Western Esoteric Traditions"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129021925/http://medievalstudies.ceu.hu/courses/20102011/magic-science-religion-the-development-of-the-western-esoteric-traditions |date=November 29, 2014 }}, at Central European University, Budapest</ref> a demon is believed to be a spiritual entity that may be [[Conjuration (summoning)|conjured]] and controlled.

===Magic===
{{main|Magic (supernatural)}}
''Magic'' or ''sorcery'' is the use of [[ritual]]s, [[symbol]]s, actions, [[gesture]]s, or [[language]] with the aim of utilizing supernatural forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hutton|first1=Ronald|author-link=Ronald Hutton|title=The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy|date=1995|publisher=Blackwell|location=Oxford; Cambridge|isbn=978-0631189466|pages=289–291, 335|edition=Reprint}}</ref><ref name="Tambiah">{{cite book|last1=Tambiah|first1=Stanley Jeyaraja|title=Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality|date=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521376310|edition=Reprint}}</ref>{{rp|6–7}}<ref name="Hanegraaff">{{cite book|last1=Hanegraaff|first1=Wouter J.|title=Dictionary of Gnosis & Western Esotericism|date=2006|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=978-9004152311|edition=Unabridged|page=718}}</ref><ref name="Mauss">{{cite book|last1=Mauss|first1=Marcel|last2=Bain|first2=Robert|last3=Pocock|first3=D. F.|title=A General Theory of Magic|date=2007|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0415253963|edition=Reprint}}</ref>{{rp|24}} Belief in and practice of magic has been present since the earliest human cultures and continues to have an important spiritual, religious and medicinal role in many cultures today. The term ''magic'' has a variety of meanings, and there is no widely agreed upon definition of what it is.

Scholars of religion have defined magic in different ways. One approach, associated with the [[anthropology|anthropologists]] [[Edward Tylor]] and [[James G. Frazer]], suggests that magic and [[science]] are opposites. An alternative approach, associated with the [[sociology|sociologists]] [[Marcel Mauss]] and [[Emile Durkheim]], argues that magic takes place in private, while [[religion]] is a communal and organised activity. Many scholars of religion have rejected the utility of the term ''magic'' and it has become increasingly unpopular within scholarship since the 1990s.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

The term ''magic'' comes from the [[Old Persian]] ''magu'', a word that applied to a form of religious functionary about which little is known. During the late sixth and early fifth centuries BC, this term was adopted into [[Ancient Greek]], where it was used with negative connotations, to apply to religious rites that were regarded as fraudulent, unconventional and dangerous. This meaning of the term was then adopted by [[Latin]] in the first century BC. The concept was then incorporated into [[Christian theology]] during the first century AD, where magic was associated with [[demons]] and thus defined against religion. This concept was pervasive throughout the Middle Ages, although in the early modern period Italian [[Humanism|humanists]] reinterpreted the term in a positive sense to establish the idea of [[natural magic]]. Both negative and positive understandings of the term were retained in Western culture over the following centuries, with the former largely influencing early academic usages of the word.

Throughout history, there have been examples of individuals who practiced magic and referred to themselves as magicians. This trend has proliferated in the modern period, with a growing number of magicians appearing within the [[Western esotericism|esoteric]] milieu.{{Citation needed lead|date=November 2017}} British esotericist [[Aleister Crowley]] described magic as the art of effecting change in accordance with will.

===Divination===
{{main|Divination}}
Divination (from Latin ''divinare'' "to foresee, to be inspired by a god",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Divinatio.html|title=LacusCurtius • Greek and Roman Divination (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)|work=uchicago.edu}}</ref> related to ''divinus'', [[divinity|divine]]) is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an [[occult]]ic, standardized process or ritual.<ref>Peek, P.M. ''African Divination Systems: Ways of Knowing.'' page 2. Indiana University Press. 1991.</ref> Used in various forms throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a querent should proceed by reading signs, events, or [[omen]]s, or through alleged contact with a supernatural agency.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Silva|first=Sónia|year=2016|title=Object and Objectivity in Divination|journal=Material Religion|volume=12|issue=4|pages=507–509|doi=10.1080/17432200.2016.1227638|s2cid=73665747|issn=1743-2200|url=https://hcommons.org/deposits/download/hc:19124/CONTENT/object-and-objectivity-in-divination.pdf/}}</ref>

Divination can be seen as a systematic method with which to organize what appear to be disjointed, random facets of existence such that they provide insight into a problem at hand. If a distinction is to be made between divination and [[fortune-telling]], divination has a more formal or ritualistic element and often contains a more social character, usually in a [[religion|religious]] context, as seen in [[traditional African medicine]]. Fortune-telling, on the other hand, is a more everyday practice for personal purposes. Particular divination methods vary by culture and religion.

Divination is dismissed by the [[scientific community]] and [[Skepticism|skeptics]] as being [[superstition]].<ref>Yau, Julianna. (2002). ''Witchcraft and Magic''. In [[Michael Shermer]]. ''The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience''. ABC-CLIO. pp. 278–282. {{ISBN|1-57607-654-7}}</ref><ref>Regal, Brian. (2009). ''Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia''. Greenwood. p. 55. {{ISBN|978-0-313-35507-3}}</ref> In the 2nd century, [[Lucian]] devoted a witty essay to the career of a [[charlatan]], "[[Alexander of Abonoteichus|Alexander the false prophet]]", trained by "one of those who advertise enchantments, miraculous incantations, charms for your love-affairs, visitations for your enemies, disclosures of buried treasure and successions to estates".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/lucian/lucian_alexander.htm|title=Lucian of Samosata : Alexander the False Prophet|work=tertullian.org|access-date=2019-01-19|archive-date=2017-11-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109160831/http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/lucian/lucian_alexander.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Witchcraft===
{{main|Witchcraft}}
[[File:John_William_Waterhouse_-_Magic_Circle.JPG|thumb|Depiction of witchcraft in [[John William Waterhouse]]'s painting ''The Magic Circle'' (1886)]]
Witchcraft or witchery broadly means the practice of and belief in [[magic (paranormal)|magical]] skills and abilities exercised by [[solitary practitioner]]s and groups. ''Witchcraft'' is a broad term that varies culturally and societally and thus can be difficult to define with precision,<ref name="Russell">[https://books.google.com/books?id=LsjagvvkveEC&dq=witchcraft+definition&pg=PA2 Witchcraft in the Middle Ages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731064328/https://books.google.com/books?id=LsjagvvkveEC&dq=witchcraft+definition&pg=PA2 |date=2023-07-31 }}, Jeffrey Russell, p.4-10.</ref> and [[cross-cultural]] assumptions about the meaning or significance of the term should be applied with caution. Witchcraft often occupies a religious [[divination|divinatory]] or medicinal role<ref name="ReferenceA">Bengt Ankarloo & Stuart Clark, Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Biblical and Pagan Societies", University of Philadelphia Press, 2001</ref> and is often present within societies and groups whose [[cultural framework]] includes a magical [[world view]].<ref name="Russell" />

===Miracle===
{{main|Miracle}}
A ''miracle'' is an event not explicable by natural or scientific laws.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140727005539/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/miracle?q=miracle Miracle]</ref> Such an event may be attributed to a supernatural being (a [[deity]]), a [[Thaumaturgy|miracle worker]], a [[saint]] or a religious leader.

Informally, the word "miracle" is often used to characterise any beneficial event that is statistically unlikely but not contrary to the laws of nature, such as surviving a natural disaster, or simply a "wonderful" occurrence, regardless of likelihood, such as a birth. Other such miracles might be: survival of an illness diagnosed as terminal, escaping a life-threatening situation or 'beating the odds'. Some [[coincidence]]s may be seen as miracles.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Halbersam
| first = Yitta
| title = Small Miracles
| publisher = Adams Media Corp
| year = 1890
| isbn =978-1-55850-646-6 }}</ref>

A true miracle would, by definition, be a non-natural phenomenon, leading many rational and scientific thinkers to dismiss them as physically impossible (that is, requiring violation of established laws of physics within their domain of validity) or impossible to confirm by their nature (because all possible physical mechanisms can never be ruled out). The former position is expressed for instance by [[Thomas Jefferson]] and the latter by [[David Hume]]. [[Theologian]]s typically say that, with [[divine providence]], God regularly works through nature yet, as a creator, is free to work without, above, or against it as well. The possibility and probability of miracles are then equal to the possibility and probability of the [[existence of God]].<ref name="Miracles">[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/miracles/ Miracles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122025733/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/miracles/ |date=2019-11-22 }} on the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

==Skepticism==
{{main|Skepticism}}
Skepticism ([[American English]]) or scepticism ([[British English]]; [[American and British English spelling differences#Hard and soft "c"|see spelling differences]]) is generally any questioning attitude or [[doubt]] towards one or more items of putative knowledge or belief.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=R. H. |last=Popkin |title=The History of Skepticism from Erasmus to Descartes (rev. ed. 1968); C. L. Stough, Greek Skepticism (1969); M. Burnyeat, ed., The Skeptical Tradition (1983); B. Stroud, The Significance of Philosophical Skepticism (1984) |url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Skeptikoi |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com |access-date=2018-01-13 |archive-date=2012-07-13 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120713170158/http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Skeptikoi |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>"Philosophical views are typically classed as skeptical when they involve advancing some degree of doubt regarding claims that are elsewhere taken for granted." [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepcont.htm utm.edu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113210019/http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/skepcont.htm |date=2009-01-13 }}</ref> It is often directed at domains such as the supernatural, morality ([[moral skepticism]]), religion (skepticism about the existence of God), or knowledge (skepticism about the possibility of knowledge, or of certainty).<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Oxford Handbook of Skepticism|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ozv0lftrUeEC|publisher = Oxford University Press, US|year = 2008|isbn = 9780195183214|language = en|first = John|last = Greco|author-link=John Greco (philosopher)}}</ref>

==In fiction and popular culture==
{{Main|Supernatural fiction}}
Supernatural entities and powers are common in various works of [[fantasy]]. Examples include the television shows ''[[Supernatural (American TV series)|Supernatural]]'' and ''[[The X-Files]]'', the magic of the ''[[Harry Potter]]'' series, ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' series, ''[[The Wheel of Time]]'' series and ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' series.

==See also==
{{Wiktionary|supernatural}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [[Divine retribution]]
* [[Journal of Parapsychology]]
* [[Liberal naturalism]]
* [[Magical thinking]]
* [[Paranormal]]
* [[Parapsychology]]
* [[Religious naturalism]]
* [[Romanticism]]
* [[Spirit photography]]
* [[Spirit world (Spiritualism)]]
* [[Transcendence (religion)]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Daniel-Araujo-30/publication/357672555%20Economic%20Production%20and%20the%20Spread%20of%20Supernatural%20Beliefs/links/61d94f49b6b5667157d3d55e/Economic-Production-and-the-Spread-of-Supernatural-Beliefs.pdf Economic Production and the Spread of Supernatural Beliefs ~ Daniel Araújo] (PDF). January 7, 2022.
* {{cite journal | author = Bouvet R, Bonnefon J. F. | year = 2015 | title = Non-Reflective Thinkers Are Predisposed to Attribute Supernatural Causation to Uncanny Experiences | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 41| issue = 7| pages = 955–61| pmid = 25948700 | doi=10.1177/0146167215585728| s2cid = 33570482 }}
* {{cite journal | author = McNamara P, Bulkeley K | year = 2015 | title = Dreams as a Source of Supernatural Agent Concepts | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 6| page = 283| pmc=4365543 | pmid=25852602 | doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00283| doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal | author = Riekki T, Lindeman M, Raij T. T. | year = 2014 | title = Supernatural Believers Attribute More Intentions to Random Movement than Skeptics: An fMRI Study | journal = Social Neuroscience | volume = 9 | issue = 4| pages = 400–411 | doi=10.1080/17470919.2014.906366| pmid = 24720663 | s2cid = 33940568 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Purzycki Benjamin G | year = 2013 | title = The Minds of Gods: A Comparative Study of Supernatural Agency | journal = Cognition | volume = 129 | issue = 1| pages = 163–179 | doi=10.1016/j.cognition.2013.06.010| pmid = 23891826 | s2cid = 23554738 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Thomson P, Jaque S. V. | year = 2014 | title = Unresolved Mourning, Supernatural Beliefs and Dissociation: A Mediation Analysis | journal = Attachment and Human Development | volume = 16 | issue = 5| pages = 499–514 | doi=10.1080/14616734.2014.926945| pmid = 24913392 | s2cid = 10290610 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Vail K. E, Arndt J, Addollahi A. | year = 2012 | title = Exploring the Existential Function of Religion and Supernatural Agent Beliefs Among Christians, Muslims, Atheists, and Agnostics | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 38 | issue = 10| pages = 1288–1300 | doi=10.1177/0146167212449361| pmid = 22700240 | s2cid = 2019266 }}

{{Religion topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Supernatural| ]]
[[Category:Metaphysical properties]]
[[Category:Nature]]
[[Category:Religious philosophical concepts]]

War on terror

2026-03-15T09:33:10Z

Realhimachal: Content updated and refined

{{Short description|Military campaign following the September 11 attacks}}
{{About|the international military campaign}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{War on terror infobox}}

The '''war on terror''', officially the '''Global War on Terrorism''' ('''GWOT'''),<ref>{{Cite web |last=Feickert |first=Andrew |title=U.S. Military Operations in the Global War on Terrorism: Afghanistan, Africa, the Philippines, and Colombia |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/RL/RL32758/5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417081515/https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/RL/RL32758/5 |archive-date=17 April 2022 |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=[[Congressional Research Service]]}}</ref> is a global military campaign initiated by the United States in response to the [[September 11 attacks]] in 2001. A [[global conflict]] spanning [[List of military conflicts spanning multiple wars|multiple wars]], some researchers and political scientists have argued that it replaced the [[Cold War]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4122087|title=Will the 'Global War on Terrorism' Be the New Cold War?|last1=Buzan|first1=Barry|date=November 2006|journal=International Affairs|volume=82|issue=6|pages=1101–18|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2006.00590.x|jstor=4122087|issn=0020-5850|url-access=subscription|archive-date=9 November 2024|access-date=16 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241109173151/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4122087|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prio.org/publications/3211|title=War on Terror and Transformation of World Order|last1=Tunander|first1=Ola|date=May 2004|website=Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO)|access-date=16 June 2024|archive-date=16 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616204235/https://www.prio.org/publications/3211|url-status=live}}</ref>

The main targets of the campaign were [[militant Islamist]] movements such as [[al-Qaeda]], the [[Taliban]], and their allies. Other major targets included the [[Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)|Ba'athist]] regime in [[Ba'athist Iraq|Iraq]], which was deposed in an [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion in 2003]], and various militant factions that fought during the [[Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)|ensuing insurgency]]. Following its territorial expansion in 2014, the [[Islamic State]] also emerged as a key adversary of the United States. Starting in 2025, [[Operation Southern Spear]] emerged as an extension of the war on terror adapted to combat [[narcoterrorism]], with the US government utilizing the same legal frameworks established since 2001 to justify the use of lethal force. Some analysts have identified this new approach as a hybridization of the war on terror and the [[war on drugs]].<ref>{{Cite podcast|url=https://theintercept.com/2025/10/08/collateral-damage-podcast-trump-war-drugs/|title=Collateral Damage: A New Podcast On the War On Drugs|host=Balko|host2=Radley|date=8 October 2025|website=[[The Intercept]]|access-date=23 December 2025|archive-date=8 October 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251008172618/https://theintercept.com/2025/10/08/collateral-damage-podcast-trump-war-drugs/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2025/10/24/trump-venezuela-maduro-cartels-war-terror/|last=Schmidt|first=Samantha|title=Trump administration uses 'war on terror' framework to target Venezuelan cartels|date=24 October 2025|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|archive-date=24 October 2025|access-date=23 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251024103951/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2025/10/24/trump-venezuela-maduro-cartels-war-terror/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fortune.com/2025/12/06/pete-hegseth-us-strikes-alleged-drug-boats-war-on-terror-trump-use-of-force/|last=Klepper|first=David|title=Hegseth defends strikes on alleged cartel boats, says Trump can order use of force 'as he sees fit'|date=6 December 2025|website=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] / [[Associated Press]]|access-date=23 December 2025|archive-date=5 January 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260105192101/https://fortune.com/2025/12/06/pete-hegseth-us-strikes-alleged-drug-boats-war-on-terror-trump-use-of-force/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-maduro-drugs-venezuela-911-hegseth-3db3aafed492556bb9ca7de855c4849e|last=Finley|first=Ben|title=A timeline of the US military's buildup near Venezuela and attacks on alleged drug-smuggling boats|date=5 December 2025|website=[[Associated Press]]|access-date=23 December 2025|archive-date=17 October 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251017042322/https://apnews.com/article/trump-maduro-drugs-venezuela-911-hegseth-3db3aafed492556bb9ca7de855c4849e|url-status=live}}</ref>

The term "war on terror" uses [[war as a metaphor]] to describe a variety of actions which fall outside the traditional definition of war. US president [[George W. Bush]] first [[Slogans and terms derived from the September 11 attacks|used the term]] "war on terrorism" on 16 September 2001,<ref name="evilwar" /><ref name="evilwar2">{{cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010916-2.html|title=President: Today We Mourned, Tomorrow We Work|website=georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=25 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825043155/https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010916-2.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and then "war on terror" a few days later in a formal speech to [[United States Congress|Congress]].<ref name="whitehousejoint">{{cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html|title=President Declares 'Freedom at War with Fear'|website=georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov|access-date=26 November 2019|archive-date=25 February 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225062850/http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="cnntranscript" /> Bush indicated the enemy of the war on terror as "a radical network of terrorists and every government that supports them".<ref name="cnntranscript" /><ref>{{cite news |date=20 September 2001 |title=Text: President Bush Addresses the Nation |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/specials/attacked/transcripts/bushaddress_092001.html |archive-date=13 August 2021 |access-date=3 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813093643/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/specials/attacked/transcripts/bushaddress_092001.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The initial conflict was aimed at al-Qaeda, with the main theater in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]], a region that would later be referred to as "[[AfPak]]".<ref>{{cite web |date=2009-04-06 |title=Stabilising AfPak theatre |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/stabilising-afpak-theatre/443131/ |access-date=2022-08-06 |publisher=Financialexpress.com |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404172351/https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/stabilising-afpak-theatre/443131/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The term "war on terror" was immediately criticized by individuals including [[Richard Myers]], then [[chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]], and eventually more nuanced terms came to be used by the [[Presidency of George W. Bush|Bush administration]] to define the campaign.<ref name="Schmitt/slogan">{{cite news |last1=Schmitt |first1=Eric |last2=Shanker |first2=Thom |date=26 July 2005 |title=U.S. Officials Retool Slogan for Terror War |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/26/politics/26strategy.html |archive-date=15 March 2022 |access-date=20 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315151823/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/26/politics/us-officials-retool-slogan-for-terror-war.html |url-status=live }}</ref> While "war on terror" was never used as a formal designation of US operations,<ref name="Ambinder2013">{{cite news |title=The New Term for the War on Terror |author=Marc Ambinder |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2010/05/the-new-term-for-the-war-on-terror/56969/ |newspaper=The Atlantic |date=20 May 2010 |access-date=24 June 2013 |archive-date=3 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603183958/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2010/05/the-new-term-for-the-war-on-terror/56969/ |url-status=live }}</ref> a [[Global War on Terrorism Service Medal]] was and is issued by the [[United States Armed Forces|US Armed Forces]].

According to the [[Costs of War Project]], the [[post-9/11]] wars of the campaign have displaced 38 million people, the second largest number of [[forced displacements]] of any conflict since 1900,<ref name="costs displaced">{{cite web |title=Millions displaced by U.S. post 9/11 wars |url=https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/files/cow/imce/papers/2021/Costs%20of%20War_Vine%20et%20al_Displacement%20Update%20August%202021.pdf |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=The Costs of War |language=en |archive-date=4 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604193500/https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/files/cow/imce/papers/2021/Costs%20of%20War_Vine%20et%20al_Displacement%20Update%20August%202021.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and caused more than 4.5 million deaths (direct and indirect) in Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Pakistan, Somalia, Syria and Yemen. They also estimate that it has cost the [[United States Department of the Treasury|US Treasury]] over $8 trillion.<ref name="costs2021">{{cite web|title=Human Cost of Post-9/11 Wars: Direct War Deaths in Major War Zones, Afghanistan & Pakistan (Oct. 2001 – Aug. 2021); Iraq (March 2003 – Aug. 2021); Syria (Sept. 2014 – May 2021); Yemen (Oct. 2002 – Aug. 2021) and Other Post-9/11 War Zones|url=https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/figures/2021/WarDeathToll|access-date=10 September 2021|website=The Costs of War|language=en|archive-date=5 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705222816/https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/figures/2021/WarDeathToll|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="figures">{{cite web|title=Latest Figures|url=https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/figures|access-date=1 September 2021|website=The Costs of War|language=en|archive-date=9 December 2021|archive-url=https://archive.today/20211209024309/https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/figures|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Summary">{{Cite web |title=Summary |url=https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617035351/https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/ |archive-date=17 June 2023 |website=Costs of War}}</ref><ref name="washingtonpost20230515">{{Cite news |last=Berger |first=Miriam |date=15 May 2023 |title=Post-9/11 wars have contributed to some 4.5 million deaths, report suggests |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/05/15/war-on-terror-911-deaths-afghanistan-iraq/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529144019/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/05/15/war-on-terror-911-deaths-afghanistan-iraq/ |archive-date=29 May 2023}}</ref>

While support for the "war on terror" was high among the American public during its initial years, it had become deeply unpopular by the late 2000s.<ref name="Ackerman">{{Cite magazine |last=Ackerman |first=Spencer |date=27 March 2012 |title=Afghanistan War Is Now More Unpopular Than Iraq War |url=https://www.wired.com/2012/03/afghanistan-unpopular/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019152709/https://www.wired.com/2012/03/afghanistan-unpopular/ |archive-date=19 October 2015 |magazine=Wired}}</ref><ref name="Doherty, Kiley">{{Cite web |last1=Doherty |last2=Kiley |first1=Carroll |first2=Jocelyn |date=14 March 2023 |title=A Look Back at How Fear and False Beliefs Bolstered U.S. Public Support for War in Iraq |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2023/03/14/a-look-back-at-how-fear-and-false-beliefs-bolstered-u-s-public-support-for-war-in-iraq/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331223000/https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2023/03/14/a-look-back-at-how-fear-and-false-beliefs-bolstered-u-s-public-support-for-war-in-iraq/ |archive-date=31 March 2023 |website=Pew Research Center}}</ref> Controversy over the war has focused on its morality, casualties, and continuity, with critics questioning government measures that infringed civil liberties and human rights.<ref name="wired.com">{{Cite magazine |title=FBI Tried to Cover Patriot Act Abuses With Flawed, Retroactive Subpoenas, Audit Finds |url=https://www.wired.com/2008/03/fbi-tried-to-co/ |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028 |access-date=11 September 2021 |archive-date=30 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530161049/http://www.wired.com/2008/03/fbi-tried-to-co/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Critics have notably described the [[Patriot Act]] as "[[Orwellian]]" due to its substantial expansion of the federal government's surveillance powers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Liptak |first=Adam |date=2011-09-07 |title=Civil Liberties Today |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/07/us/sept-11-reckoning/civil.html |access-date=2024-08-02 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802174636/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/07/us/sept-11-reckoning/civil.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Eddington |first=Patrick G. |date=21 October 2021 |title=The PATRIOT Act Has Threatened Freedom for 20 Years |url=https://www.cato.org/commentary/patriot-act-has-threatened-freedom-20-years |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=Cato Institute |archive-date=2 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802174636/https://www.cato.org/commentary/patriot-act-has-threatened-freedom-20-years |url-status=live }}</ref> Controversial practices of [[International Security Assistance Force|coalition]] [[Multi-National Force – Iraq|forces]] have been condemned, including [[drone warfare]], surveillance, torture, [[extraordinary rendition]], and various war crimes.<ref name="Ball">{{cite web |last=Ball |first=James |date=22 May 2013 |title=US rendition: every suspected flight mapped |url=http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/interactive/2013/may/22/rendition-flights-cia-mapped |access-date=11 September 2021 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref name="theguardian.com">{{cite web |date=28 March 2016 |title=CIA photographed detainees naked before sending them to be tortured |url=http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/mar/28/cia-photographed-naked-detainees |access-date=11 September 2021 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Drone Warfare">{{cite web |title=Drone Warfare |url=https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/projects/drone-war |access-date=11 September 2021 |website=The Bureau of Investigative Journalism (en-GB) |language=en |archive-date=24 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124112233/https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/projects/drone-war |url-status=live }}</ref> The participating governments have been criticized for implementing authoritarian measures, repressing minorities,<ref name="Assimilation">{{cite web |title=9/11 Legacies │ Assimilation or Islamophobia?: Uyghurs and China's Counter–Terrorist Discourse after 2001 |url=http://911legacies.com/Assimilation%20or%20Islamophobia.htm |access-date=11 September 2021 |website=911legacies.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name="911legacies.com">{{cite web |title=9/11 Legacies │ US Pressure for Democratization and Political Opportunity Structures in Egypt since 9/11 |url=http://911legacies.com/us%20pressure%20for%20Democratization%20and%20Political%20Opportunity%20Structures%20in%20Egypt%20since%209-11.htm |access-date=11 September 2021 |website=911legacies.com |language=en |archive-date=10 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910063615/http://911legacies.com/us%20pressure%20for%20Democratization%20and%20Political%20Opportunity%20Structures%20in%20Egypt%20since%209-11.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> fomenting [[Islamophobia]] globally,<ref name="reflection journal">{{Cite journal |last=Abbas |first=Tahir |date=24 September 2021 |title=Reflection: the "war on terror", Islamophobia and radicalisation twenty years on |journal=Critical Studies on Terrorism |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=402–04 |doi=10.1080/17539153.2021.1980182 |s2cid=244221750 |doi-access=free|hdl=1887/3618299 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and causing negative impacts to health and environment.<ref name="merip.org">{{cite web |date=22 September 2020 |title=Birth Defects and the Toxic Legacy of War in Iraq |url=https://merip.org/2020/09/birth-defects-and-the-toxic-legacy-of-war-in-iraq/ |access-date=11 September 2021 |website=MERIP |language=en-US |archive-date=11 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911094139/https://merip.org/2020/09/birth-defects-and-the-toxic-legacy-of-war-in-iraq/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Administration">{{cite web |title=Airborne Hazards and Burn Pit Exposures |url=https://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/burnpits/ |access-date=11 September 2021 |website=US Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health Administration |language=en |archive-date=13 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513202105/https://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/burnpits/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Ameem Lutfi">{{cite web |last1=Lutfi |first1=Ameem |last2=Schwartz |first2=Kevin L. |date=8 September 2021 |title=20 years later, the legacies of 9/11 and the war on terror have just begun |url=https://thehill.com/opinion/international/571215-20-years-later-the-legacies-of-9-11-and-the-war-on-terror-have-just?rl=1 |website=The Hill |access-date=11 September 2021 |archive-date=11 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911094135/https://thehill.com/opinion/international/571215-20-years-later-the-legacies-of-9-11-and-the-war-on-terror-have-just?rl=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Security analysts assert that there is no military solution to the conflict, pointing out that terrorism is not an identifiable enemy, and have emphasized the importance of negotiations and political solutions to resolve the underlying roots of the crises.<ref name="Richissin" />

== {{anchor|Terminology}}Etymology ==
The phrase ''war on terror'' was used to refer specifically to the military campaign led by the United States, the United Kingdom, and allied countries against organizations and regimes identified by them as terrorist, and usually excludes other independent [[counter-terrorism|counter-terrorist operations and campaigns]] such as those by Russia and India. The conflict has also been referred to by other names, such as "[[World War III]]",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200605/s1632213.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110204112337/http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200605/s1632213.htm|archive-date=4 February 2011|title=Bush likens 'war on terror' to WW III|publisher=ABC News (Australia)|date=6 May 2006|access-date=26 March 2011}} {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/13/opinion/foreign-affairs-world-war-iii.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |title=Foreign Affairs; World War III |author=Thomas L. Friedman |date=13 September 2009 |work=The New York Times |access-date=10 November 2009 |archive-date=12 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512225037/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/13/opinion/foreign-affairs-world-war-iii.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |url-status=live }} {{cite news |url=http://articles.nydailynews.com/2004-03-12/news/18257093_1_al-qaeda-mayor-bloomberg-basque |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026154658/http://articles.nydailynews.com/2004-03-12/news/18257093_1_al-qaeda-mayor-bloomberg-basque |archive-date=26 October 2012 |title=World War III Strikes Spain |date=12 March 2004 |work=Daily News |location=New York |access-date=10 November 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> "[[World War IV]]" (assuming the [[Cold War]] was World War III),<ref>{{cite news |author1=Charles Feldman |author2=Stan Wilson |name-list-style=amp |date=3 April 2003 |title=Ex-CIA director: U.S. faces 'World War IV' |url=http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/04/03/sprj.irq.woolsey.world.war/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126053445/http://edition.cnn.com/2003/US/04/03/sprj.irq.woolsey.world.war/ |archive-date=26 January 2021 |publisher=CNN}} {{cite news |last=Coman |first=Julian |date=13 April 2003 |title='We want them to be nervous' (That means you Ali, Bashar and Kim) |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/1427428/We-want-them-to-be-nervous-That-means-you-Ali-Bashar-and-Kim.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/1427428/We-want-them-to-be-nervous-That-means-you-Ali-Bashar-and-Kim.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |access-date=9 November 2009 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London}}{{cbignore}} {{cite web |author=Elio A. Cohen |date=20 November 2001 |title=World War IV |url=http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=95001493 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040406043752/http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=95001493 |archive-date=6 April 2004 |access-date=9 November 2009 |website=The Wall Street Journal}}</ref> "Bush's War on Terror",<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Thompson |first=Mark |url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1868367,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226174210/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1868367,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 December 2008 |title=The $1 Trillion Bill for Bush's War on Terror |magazine=Time |date=26 December 2008 |access-date=26 March 2011 }} {{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/22/AR2009012203929.html |title=Bush's 'War' On Terror Comes to a Sudden End |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=23 January 2009 |access-date=26 March 2011 |first=Dana |last=Priest |archive-date=10 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310025358/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/01/22/AR2009012203929.html |url-status=live }} {{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/bushs-war-on-terror-shifting-targets/ |title=Bush's War On Terror Shifting Targets |publisher=CBS News |date=28 January 2008 |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-date=2 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110202093413/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/01/28/terror/main3757858.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> "The Long War",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/Press/Commentary/ed090803a.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050909202409/http://www.heritage.org/Press/Commentary/ed090803a.cfm |archive-date=9 September 2005 |title=The Long War Against Terrorism |date=9 September 2005 |url-status=unfit |access-date=2 January 2012 }} {{cite journal |last=Brownstein |first=Ronald |date=6 March 2015 |title=The Long War |url=http://www.nationaljournal.com/political-connections/the-long-war-20150306 |journal=National Journal |access-date=10 March 2015 |archive-date=10 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310012616/http://www.nationaljournal.com/political-connections/the-long-war-20150306 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="WaPo">"Abizaid Credited With Popularizing the Term 'Long War,'" 3 February 2006: ''The Washington Post'' traces history of the phrase "Long War" [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/02/AR2006020202242.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829123953/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/02/AR2006020202242.html |date=29 August 2017 }}</ref> "The Forever War",<ref>Elizabeth D. Samet, "Literature of the Forever War", ''[[The New York Times]]'', 14 August 2016, p. BR29.</ref> "The Global War on Terror",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jfcom.mil/about/com_jfic.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050204124824/http://www.jfcom.mil/about/com_jfic.htm |archive-date=4 February 2005 |title=Joint Forces Intelligence Command |date=4 February 2005 |access-date=2 January 2012}} {{cite web |url=https://8tharmy.korea.army.mil/35ada/dco.html |title=Eric L. Bradley, Deputy Commander |publisher=8tharmy.korea.army.mil |access-date=2 January 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327150252/http://8tharmy.korea.army.mil/35ada/dco.html |archive-date=27 March 2012}} {{cite web |url=http://www.bisp.gov.pk/Default3.aspx |title=Compensation Package for Bomb Blast Victims |publisher=Bisp.gov.pk |date=1 January 1970 |access-date=2 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111229063230/http://www.bisp.gov.pk/Default3.aspx |archive-date=29 December 2011}}</ref> "The War Against al-Qaeda",<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.sfgate.com/opinion/openforum/article/War-on-al-Qaeda-2647548.php |work=The San Francisco Chronicle |first=Glenn |last=Sulmasy |title=A new look for the war on al Qaeda |date=20 February 2007 |archive-date=13 July 2025 |access-date=1 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250713091242/https://www.sfgate.com/opinion/openforum/article/war-on-al-qaeda-2647548.php |url-status=live }}</ref> or "The War of Terror".<ref>{{cite journal| title=Experiencing the war 'of' terror: A call to the critical terrorism studies community | year=2020 | journal=Critical Studies on Terrorism |publisher=tandfonline.com | doi=10.1080/17539153.2020.1746564 | last1=Qureshi | first1=Asim | volume=13 | issue=3 | pages=485–99 | s2cid=216220912 }}</ref>

=== Use of phrase and its development ===
The phrase "war against terrorism" existed in North American popular culture and US political parlance before the war on terror.<ref>{{cite book|last=Korman|first=Gordon|title=Beware the Fish!|publisher=Scholastic|year=1980|page=136|isbn=0590326465}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last=Silver |first=Alexandra |url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1973131,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100322192059/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1973131,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 March 2010 |title=How America Became a Surveillance State |magazine=Time |date=18 March 2010 |access-date=26 March 2011}}</ref> But it was not until the 11 September attacks that it emerged as a globally recognizable phrase and part of everyday lexicon. [[Tom Brokaw]], having just witnessed the collapse of one of the towers of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]], declared "Terrorists have declared war on [America]."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archives.nbclearn.com/portal/site/k-12/flatview?cuecard=1419 |title=Breaking News on September 11th |author=Matt Lauer |author2=Katie Couric |author3=Tom Brokaw |date=11 September 2001 |website=NBC Learn K-12 |access-date=11 September 2012 |author2-link=Katie Couric |author-link=Matt Lauer |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120045922/http://archives.nbclearn.com/portal/site/k-12/flatview?cuecard=1419 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 16 September 2001, at [[Camp David]], US president George W. Bush used the phrase ''war on terrorism'' in an ostensibly unscripted comment when answering a journalist's question about the impact of enhanced law enforcement authority given to the [[Mass surveillance in the United States|U.S. surveillance]] agencies on Americans' civil liberties: <blockquote>"This is a new kind of—a new kind of evil. And we understand. And the American people are beginning to understand. This ''crusade'', this ''war on terrorism'' is going to take a while. And the American people must be patient. I'm going to be patient."<ref name="evilwar">{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/2001/09/17/2001-09-17_a_fight_vs__evil__bush_and_c.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505200651/http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/2001/09/17/2001-09-17_a_fight_vs__evil__bush_and_c.html|archive-date=5 May 2010 |author=Kenneth R. Bazinet|title= A Fight vs. Evil, Bush and Cabinet Tell U.S. |work=Daily News |location=New York |date=17 September 2001 |access-date=26 March 2011}}</ref><ref name="evilwar2" /></blockquote>
The reference to [[Crusades]] became subject to heavy criticism due to its controversial connotations in the [[Muslim world]] and historical [[Muslim-Christian relations]].<ref name="CullCulbertWelch2003">{{Cite book |last1=J. Cull |last2=Culbert |last3=Welch |first1=Nicholas |first2=David |first3=David |title=Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present |publisher=ABC-CLIO, Inc. |year=2003 |isbn=1576078205 |location=Santa Barbara, CA |page=396 |chapter=Terrorism, War on (2001– ) |quote=}}</ref> On 20 September 2001, during a televised address to a joint session of Congress, George Bush said, "Our war on terror begins with al Qaeda, but it does not end there. It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped and defeated."<ref name="whitehousejoint" /><ref name="cnntranscript">{{cite news |date=September 20, 2001 |title=Transcript of President Bush's address |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2001/US/09/20/gen.bush.transcript/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010921053706/http://edition.cnn.com/2001/US/09/20/gen.bush.transcript/ |archive-date=September 21, 2001 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> Both the term and the policies it denotes have been a source of ongoing controversy, as various critics and organizations like [[Amnesty International]] have argued that it has been used to justify unilateral [[preventive war]], human rights abuses and other violations of international law.<ref>Borhan Uddin Khan and Muhammad Mahbubur Rahman, "Combating Terrorism under Human Rights and Humanitarian Law Regime", ''Mediterranean Journal of Human Rights'', Vol. 12 (double issue), 2008, pp. 379–97.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Civil Rights and the 'War on Terror'|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/security-and-human-rights?id=1108209|access-date=2 May 2010|publisher=Amnesty International USA|archive-date=24 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424185840/http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/security-and-human-rights?id=1108209|url-status=live}}</ref>

The political theorist Richard Jackson has argued that "the 'war on terrorism' [...] is simultaneously a set of actual practices—wars, covert operations, agencies, and institutions—and an accompanying series of assumptions, beliefs, justifications, and narratives—it is an entire language or discourse".<ref>Jackson, ''Writing the War on Terrorism'' (2005), p. 8.</ref> Jackson cites, among many examples, a statement by [[John Ashcroft]] that "the attacks of September 11 drew a bright line of demarcation between the civil and the [[Savage (pejorative term)|savage]]".<ref>Jackson, ''Writing the War on Terrorism'' (2005), p. 62.</ref>

Administration officials also described "terrorists" as hateful, treacherous, barbarous, mad, twisted, perverted, without faith, [[Parasitism|parasitical]], inhuman, and, most commonly, evil.<ref>Jackson, ''Writing the War on Terrorism'' (2005), pp. 62–75.</ref> Americans, in contrast, were described as brave, loving, generous, strong, resourceful, heroic, and respectful of human rights.<ref>Jackson, ''Writing the War on Terrorism'' (2005), pp. 77–80.</ref> Denouncing the remarks of [[George W. Bush]], Osama Bin Laden stated during an interview on 21 October 2001: <blockquote>"The events proved the extent of [[terrorism]] that America exercises in the world. [[George W. Bush|Bush]] stated that the world has to be divided in two: Bush and his supporters, and any country that doesn't get into the global crusade is with the terrorists. What terrorism is clearer than this? Many governments were forced to support this "new terrorism."<ref>{{cite book |last1=J. Greenberg |first1=Karen |title=Al Qaeda Now |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-85911-0 |location=New York |pages=192–206 |chapter=October 21, 2001 – Interview with Tayseer Alouni}}</ref></blockquote>

=== Decline of the phrase's usage by the US government ===
In April 2007, the British government announced publicly that it was abandoning the phrase "war on terror" because it found it less than helpful.<ref>{{cite news |last=Reynolds |first=Paul |date=17 April 2007 |title=Declining use of 'war on terror' |work=BBC |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/6562709.stm |archive-date=4 August 2025 |access-date=16 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250804222103/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/6562709.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> This was explained later by Lady [[Eliza Manningham-Buller]]. In her 2011 [[Reith lecture]], the former head of [[MI5]] said that the 9/11 attacks were "a crime, not an act of war. So I never felt it helpful to refer to a war on terror."<ref>{{cite news |last=Norton-Taylor |first=Richard |work=The Guardian |date=2 September 2011 |title=MI5 former chief decries 'war on terror' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/sep/02/mi5-war-on-terror-criticism |location=London |archive-date=17 May 2023 |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517224756/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/sep/02/mi5-war-on-terror-criticism |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:OCO GWOT.jpg|thumb|Letter from Barack Obama indicating appropriation of congressional funds for "Overseas Contingency Operations/Global War on Terrorism"]]

US president [[Barack Obama]] rarely used the term, but in his inaugural address on 20 January 2009, he stated: "Our nation is at war, against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/Inauguration/story?id=6689022&page=1 |title=Full Transcript: President Barack Obama's Inaugural Address |publisher=ABC News |date=20 January 2009 |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-date=21 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321045246/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/Inauguration/story?id=6689022&page=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2009 the Defense Department officially changed the name of operations from "Global War on Terror" to "Overseas Contingency Operation" (OCO).<ref name="oco-wapost">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/24/AR2009032402818.html|title='Global War On Terror' Is Given New Name|author1=Scott Wilson|author2=Al Kamen|name-list-style=amp|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=25 March 2009|page=A04|access-date=14 September 2014|archive-date=13 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513092854/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/24/AR2009032402818.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In March 2009, the [[Presidency of Barack Obama|Obama administration]] requested that [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] staff members avoid the use of the term and instead to use "Overseas Contingency Operation".<ref name="oco-wapost" /> Basic objectives of the Bush administration "war on terror", such as targeting al Qaeda and building international counterterrorism alliances, remained in place.<ref>Jai Singh and Ajay Singh, "[http://smallwarsjournal.com/printpdf/13142 The War on Terror – Over] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120045914/http://smallwarsjournal.com/printpdf/13142 |date=20 January 2013}}?", ''Small Wars Journal'', 28 August 2012.</ref><ref>David Kravets, "[https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2012/09/bush-obama-war-on-terror/ Former CIA Chief: Obama's War on Terror Same as Bush's, But With More Killing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140117031024/http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2012/09/bush-obama-war-on-terror/ |date=17 January 2014 }}", ''Wired'', 10 September 2012.</ref>

====Abandonment of phrase====
In May 2010, the Obama administration published a report outlining its [[National Security Strategy (United States)|National Security Strategy]]. The document dropped the Bush-era phrase "global war on terror" and reference to "Islamic extremism," and stated, "This is not a global war against a tactic—terrorism, or a religion—Islam. We are at war with a specific network, al-Qaeda, and its terrorist affiliates who support efforts to attack the United States, our allies, and partners."<ref name=declover>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/barackobama/7772598/Barack-Obama-declares-the-War-on-Terror-is-over.html Barack Obama declares the 'War on Terror' is over: President Barack Obama has rejected George W. Bush's doctrine that placed the "war on terror" at the center of American foreign policy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603221637/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/barackobama/7772598/Barack-Obama-declares-the-War-on-Terror-is-over.html |date=3 June 2023 }} ''The Telegraph'', 27 May 2010.</ref>

Usage of the term "war on terror" was initially discontinued in May 2010<ref name="declover" /> and again in May 2013.<ref name="whitehdefuniv" /> On 23 May 2013, US president [[Barack Obama]] announced that the "war on terrorism" was over,<ref>{{Cite news|title=White House: 'War on terrorism' is over|url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/6/white-house-war-terrorism-over/|access-date=11 September 2021|newspaper=The Washington Times|language=en-US|archive-date=11 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911045905/https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/6/white-house-war-terrorism-over/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="declover" /> saying that the US would not wage war against a tactic but would instead focus on a specific group of terrorist networks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2013/05/23/obama-global-war-on-terror-is-over|title=Obama: 'Global War on Terror' Is Over|work=U.S. News & World Report|date=23 May 2013|access-date=2 August 2017|archive-date=12 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012064644/https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2013/05/23/obama-global-war-on-terror-is-over|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=whitehdefuniv>[https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/05/23/remarks-president-national-defense-university Remarks by the President at the National Defense University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170120172651/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/05/23/remarks-president-national-defense-university |date=20 January 2017 }} The White House, 23 May 2013.</ref> Other American military campaigns during the 2010s have also been considered part of the "war on terror" by individuals and the media.<ref name="theguardian20150603">{{Cite news |last=Milne |first=Seumas |date=2015-06-03 |title=Now the truth emerges: how the US fuelled the rise of Isis in Syria and Iraq |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jun/03/us-isis-syria-iraq |access-date=2023-02-06 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=5 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705222724/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jun/03/us-isis-syria-iraq |url-status=live }}</ref> The rise of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria during 2014–2015 led to the global [[Operation Inherent Resolve]], and an [[International military intervention against the Islamic State|international campaign]] to destroy the terrorist organization. This was considered to be another campaign of the "war on terror".<ref name="theguardian20150603" />

In December 2012, [[Jeh Johnson]], the [[General Counsel of the Department of Defense]], speaking at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]], stated that the war against al-Qaeda would end when the terrorist group had been weakened so that it was no longer capable of "strategic attacks" and had been "effectively destroyed." At that point, the war would no longer be an armed conflict under [[international law]],<ref>{{cite news|author=Julian E. Barnes|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324205404578151181874456280|title=Pentagon Lawyer Looks Post-Terror|date=30 November 2012|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=4 December 2012|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404184038/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324205404578151181874456280|url-status=live}}</ref> and the military fight could be replaced by a [[law enforcement]] operation.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pentagon lawyer: War on terror not endless |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2012/dec/01/eu-britain-us-al-qaida/ |newspaper=[[Las Vegas Sun]] |date=1 December 2012 |access-date=4 December 2012}}{{dead link|date=July 2013}}</ref>

In May 2013, two years after [[Death of Osama bin Laden|the killing]] of [[Osama bin Laden]], Barack Obama delivered a speech that employed the term ''global war on terror'' put in quotation marks (as officially transcribed by the White House): "Now, make no mistake, terrorists still threaten our nation. ... In Afghanistan, we will complete our transition to Afghan responsibility for that country's security. ... Beyond Afghanistan, we must define our effort not as a boundless 'global war on terror,' but rather as a series of persistent, targeted efforts to dismantle specific networks of violent extremists that threaten America. In many cases, this will involve partnerships with other countries." Nevertheless, in the same speech, in a bid to emphasize the legality of military actions undertaken by the US, noting that [[Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists|Congress had authorised]] the use of force, he went on to say, "Under domestic law, and international law, the United States is at war with al Qaeda, the Taliban, and their associated forces. We are at war with an organization that right now would kill as many Americans as they could if we did not stop them first. So this is a just war—a war waged proportionally, in last resort, and in self-defense."<ref name=whitehdefuniv /><ref name=terrorover>{{cite news |title=Obama: 'Global War on Terror' Is Over |author=Paul D. Shinkman |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2013/05/23/obama-global-war-on-terror-is-over?page=2 |newspaper=U.S. News & World Report |date=23 May 2013 |access-date=24 June 2013 |archive-date=16 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516135045/https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2013/05/23/obama-global-war-on-terror-is-over?page=2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Nonetheless, the use of the phrase "war on terror" persists in US politics. In 2017, for example, US vice president [[Mike Pence]] called the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing "the opening salvo in a war that we have waged ever since—the global war on terror."<ref>{{cite web|date=24 October 2017|title=Mike Pence says Hezbollah started the war on terror with a 1983 attack in Beirut|url=http://www.newsweek.com/trump-administration-says-war-terror-began-911-hezbollah-attack-us-troops-691653|work=Newsweek|access-date=13 November 2017|archive-date=24 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324232042/https://www.newsweek.com/trump-administration-says-war-terror-began-911-hezbollah-attack-us-troops-691653|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Background ==
=== Precursor to 11 September attacks ===
{{See also|Islamic terrorism|List of Islamist terrorist attacks}}
In May 1996, the group World Islamic Front for Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders (WIFJAJC), sponsored by [[Osama bin Laden]] (and later re-formed as [[al-Qaeda]]),<ref>{{cite web |date=12 September 2021 |title='Countdown bin Laden': Obama's pursuit of the 9/11 mastermind |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/chris-wallace-countdown-bin-laden-the-pursuit-of-al-qaeda-leader-osama-bin-laden/ |access-date=19 January 2022 |publisher=CBS |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404173552/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/chris-wallace-countdown-bin-laden-the-pursuit-of-al-qaeda-leader-osama-bin-laden/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS |url=https://www.state.gov/about-us-the-global-coalition-to-defeat-isis/ |access-date=18 January 2022 |work=United States Department of State |archive-date=30 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530081626/https://www.state.gov/about-us-the-global-coalition-to-defeat-isis/ |url-status=live }}</ref> started forming a large base of operations in [[Afghanistan]], where the Islamist extremist regime of the [[Taliban]] had seized power earlier in the year.<ref>The group was also responsible for the [[1993 World Trade Center bombing]].{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/la-120601tora-story.html|title=Fighters Hunt Former Ally|date=6 December 2001|author=Megan K. Stack|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=2 May 2010|archive-date=19 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919134203/http://articles.latimes.com/2001/dec/06/news/mn-12224|url-status=live}}</ref> In August 1996, Bin Laden declared jihad against the United States.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mikelionis |first=Lukas |date=27 April 2018 |title=US already fighting Al Qaeda before 9/11, military judge rules in landmark decision |url=https://www.foxnews.com/us/us-already-fighting-al-qaeda-before-9-11-military-judge-rules-in-landmark-decision |publisher=Fox News |access-date=27 April 2018 |archive-date=14 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214072845/https://www.foxnews.com/us/us-already-fighting-al-qaeda-before-9-11-military-judge-rules-in-landmark-decision |url-status=live }} {{cite book|author=N. Shah|title=Self-defense in Islamic and International Law: Assessing Al-Qaeda and the Invasion of Iraq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=db3IAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|year=2008|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0230611658|page=46}} {{cite book|author=Paul Hopper|title=Living with Globalization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVB2gWNbIXAC&pg=PT72|year=2006|publisher=Berg|isbn=978-1847886132|page=72}} {{cite web |url=https://ctc.usma.edu/harmony-program/declaration-of-jihad-against-the-americans-occupying-the-land-of-the-two-holiest-sites-original-language-2/ |title=Declaration of Jihad against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holiest Sites |last=bin Laden |first=Usama |via=Combating Terrorism Center, United States Military Academy |access-date=27 April 2018 |archive-date=2 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602031209/https://www.ctc.usma.edu/harmony-program/declaration-of-jihad-against-the-americans-occupying-the-land-of-the-two-holiest-sites-original-language-2/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> In February 1998, Osama bin Laden signed a [[fatwa]], as head of al-Qaeda, [[Declaration of war|declaring war]] on the West and Israel;<ref>{{cite news|title=Al Qaeda's Fatwa |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1998.html |newspaper=[[PBS Newshour]] |date=23 February 1998 |access-date=10 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906040131/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1998.html |archive-date=6 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/testimony/al-qaeda-international |title=Al-Qaeda International |author=J.T. Caruso |date=8 December 2001 |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |access-date=10 September 2011 |archive-date=22 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322044756/https://www.fbi.gov/news/testimony/al-qaeda-international/ |url-status=live }}</ref> in May al-Qaeda released a video declaring war on the US and the West.<ref>{{cite news |title=Previously unseen tape shows bin Laden's declaration of war |author=Nic Robertson |url=https://www.cnn.com/2002/US/08/19/terror.tape.main/index.html |publisher=CNN|date=19 August 2002 |access-date=10 September 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310025036/http://articles.cnn.com/2002-08-19/us/terror.tape.main_1_bin-international-islamic-front-osama?_s=PM%3AUS |archive-date=10 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Osama bin Laden: missed opportunities |author=Lisa Myers |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/4540958 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424125825/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/4540958/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 April 2013 |publisher=NBC News |date=17 March 2004 |access-date=10 September 2011}}</ref>

On 7 August 1998, al-Qaeda [[1998 United States embassy bombings|struck the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania]], killing 224 people, including 12 Americans.<ref>{{cite news|title=Report of the Accountability Review Boards|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=7 August 1998|url=https://www.state.gov/www/regions/africa/board_introduction.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000530211831/http://www.state.gov/www/regions/africa/board_introduction.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 May 2000}}</ref> In retaliation, US president [[Bill Clinton]] launched [[Operation Infinite Reach]], a bombing campaign in [[Sudan]] and Afghanistan against targets the US asserted were associated with WIFJAJC,<ref>{{cite news|title=U.S. strikes terrorist targets in Afghanistan, Sudan|publisher=CNN|date=20 August 1998|url=http://edition.cnn.com/US/9808/20/clinton.02/index.html?eref=sitesearch|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127034344/http://edition.cnn.com/US/9808/20/clinton.02/index.html?eref=sitesearch|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=U.S. retaliates for Africa bombings|publisher=CNN|date=20 August 1998|url=http://edition.cnn.com/US/9808/20/clinton.01/index.html?eref=sitesearch|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127031637/http://edition.cnn.com/US/9808/20/clinton.01/index.html?eref=sitesearch|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 January 2012}}</ref> although others have questioned whether a pharmaceutical plant in Sudan was used as a chemical warfare facility. The plant produced much of the region's [[antimalarial drug]]s<ref name="newstatesman.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200003200023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227233133/http://www.newstatesman.com/200003200023|archive-date=27 December 2007|title=Bad air and rank hypocrisy|author=Malcolm Clark|date=20 March 2000|website=New Statesman|access-date=2 May 2010}}</ref> and around 50% of Sudan's pharmaceutical needs.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/africa/082798attack-us.html|title=Possible Benign Use Is Seen for Chemical at Factory in Sudan|author1=Stevel Lee Myers|author2=Tim Weiner|name-list-style=amp|date=27 August 1998|work=The New York Times|access-date=2 May 2010|archive-date=12 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012063824/http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/africa/082798attack-us.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The strikes failed to kill any leaders of WIFJAJC or the Taliban.<ref name="newstatesman.com" />

Next came the [[2000 millennium attack plots]], which included an attempted bombing of [[Los Angeles International Airport]]. On 12 October 2000, the [[USS Cole bombing|USS ''Cole'' bombing]] occurred near the port of Yemen, and 17 [[US Navy]] sailors were killed.<ref>{{cite news|title=What proof of bin Laden's involvement|publisher=CNN|date=13 September 2001|url=http://cnn.com/2001/US/09/13/binladen.evidence/index.html?eref=sitesearch |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927150633/http://www.cnn.com/2001/US/09/13/binladen.evidence/index.html?eref=sitesearch |archive-date=27 September 2012}}</ref>

=== 11 September attacks ===
{{Main|September 11 attacks}}
On the morning of 11 September 2001, [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|nineteen men]] [[Aircraft hijacking|hijacked]] four [[jet airliner]]s, all of them bound for California. Once the hijackers assumed control of the jet airliners, they told the passengers that they had a [[Explosive device|bomb]] on board and would spare the lives of passengers and crew once their demands were met—no passenger and crew actually suspected that they would use the jet airliners as [[suicide weapon]]s since it had never happened before in history; many previous hijacking attempts had been resolved with the passengers and crew escaping unharmed after obeying the hijackers.<ref name="Holmes">{{cite book |last=Holmes|first=Stephen|title=Making sense of suicide missions|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199297979|editor=Diego Gambetta|chapter=Al Qaeda, 11 September 2001}}</ref><ref name="Keppel2008">{{cite book|last1=Keppel|first1=Gilles|title=Al Qaeda in its own words|year=2008|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674028043|last2=Milelli|first2=Jean-Pierre|last3=Ghazaleh|first3=Pascale|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674028043}}</ref> The hijackers—members of al-Qaeda's [[Hamburg cell]]<ref>"[http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm Chapter of the 9/11 Commission Report detailing the history of the Hamburg Cell] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221093839/https://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm |date=21 December 2019 }}". [[9/11 Commission]].</ref>—intentionally crashed two jet airliners into the Twin Towers of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] in New York City. Both buildings collapsed within two hours from fire damage related to the crashes, destroying nearby buildings and damaging others. The hijackers crashed a third jet airliner into [[the Pentagon]] in [[Arlington County, Virginia]], just outside Washington, D.C. The fourth jet airliner crashed into a field near [[Shanksville, Pennsylvania|Shanksville]], Pennsylvania, after some of its passengers and flight crew attempted to retake control of the jet airliner, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washington, D.C., to target the [[White House]] or the [[US Capitol]]. None of the flights had any survivors. A total of 2,977 victims and the 19 hijackers perished in the attacks.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Impact of 9/11 on Politics and War: The Day that Changed Everything? |author=Matthew J. Morgan |page=222|year= 2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0230607637}}</ref> Fifteen of the nineteen were citizens of [[Saudi Arabia]], and the others were from the [[United Arab Emirates]] (2), [[Egypt]], and [[Lebanon]].<ref name="cia.gov">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/news-information/speeches-testimony/2002/DCI_18_June_testimony_new.pdf|title=DCI Testimony Before the Joint Inquiry into Terrorist Attacks Against the United States|date=18 June 2002|publisher=CIA|access-date=18 June 2017|archive-date=24 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324195110/https://www.cia.gov/news-information/speeches-testimony/2002/DCI_18_June_testimony_new.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On 13 September, for the first time, [[NATO]] invoked [[NATO Article 5|Article 5]] of the [[North Atlantic Treaty]], which commits each member state to consider an armed attack against one member state to be an armed attack against them all.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/13/us/after-attacks-alliance-for-first-time-nato-invokes-joint-defense-pact-with-us.html|title=After the Attacks: The Alliance; For First Time, NATO Invokes Joint Defense Pact With U.S|first=Suzanne|last=Daley|date=13 September 2001|work=The New York Times|archive-date=4 April 2023|access-date=18 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404173537/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/13/us/after-attacks-alliance-for-first-time-nato-invokes-joint-defense-pact-with-us.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The invocation of Article 5 led to [[Operation Eagle Assist]] and [[Operation Active Endeavour]]. On 18 September 2001, President Bush signed the [[Authorization for Use of Military Force of 2001|Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists]], which Congress had passed a few days earlier; the authorization remains in effect and has been used to justify numerous military actions.

== American objectives ==
[[File:Battlefields in The Global War on Terror.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|
{{legend|#89e885|[[NATO]]}}
{{legend|#85c3e8|[[Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative|Trans-Sahara initiative]]}}
{{legend|#ea7070|Major military operations (as of 2011) ('''[[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Afghanistan]] • [[Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Pakistan]] • [[Iraq War|Iraq]] • [[Somali Civil War|Somalia]] • [[Terrorism in Yemen|Yemen]]''')}}
{{legend|#bee885|Other allies involved in major operations}}
{{flagicon image|Circle Burgundy Solid.svg|13px|border=no}} Major terrorist attacks by al-Qaeda and affiliated groups: (as of 2011)
''1. [[1998 United States embassy bombings]] • 2. [[September 11 attacks]] • 3. [[2002 Bali bombings]] • 4. [[2004 Madrid train bombings|2004 Madrid bombings]] • 5. [[2005 London bombings]] • 6. [[2008 Mumbai attacks]]'']]

The [[Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists]] or "AUMF" was made law on 14 September 2001, to authorize the use of United States Armed Forces against those responsible for the 11 September attacks. It authorized the president to use all necessary and appropriate force against those nations, organizations, or persons he determines planned, authorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on 11 September 2001, or harbored such organizations or persons, to prevent any future acts of international terrorism against the United States by such nations, organizations, or individuals. Congress declares this is intended to constitute specific statutory authorization within the meaning of section 5(b) of the [[War Powers Resolution]] of 1973.

The [[George W. Bush administration]] defined the following objectives in the war on terror:<ref name="NatStratCombatTerror">{{cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/02/20030214-7.html|title=President Bush Releases National Strategy for Combating Terrorism|date=14 February 2003|publisher=The White House|access-date=14 September 2014|archive-date=12 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012063823/https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/02/20030214-7.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

# Defeat terrorists such as [[Osama bin Laden]], [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]] and destroy their organizations
# Identify, locate, and demolish terrorists along with their organizations
# Reject sponsorship, support, and sanctuary to terrorists
## End the [[state sponsorship of terrorism]]
## Establish and maintain an international standard of responsibility concerning combating terrorism
## Strengthen and maintain the international effort to combat terrorism
## Function with willing and able states
## Enable weak states
## Persuade reluctant states
## Compel unwilling states
## Intervene and dismantle material support for terrorists
## Abolish terrorist sanctuaries and havens
# Reduce the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to exploit
## Establish partnerships with the international community to strengthen weak states and prevent (re)emergence of terrorism
## Win the war of ideals
# Protect US citizens and interests at home and abroad
## Integrate the [[National Strategy for Homeland Security]]
## Attain domain awareness
## Enhance measures to ensure the integrity, reliability, and availability of critical, physical, and information-based infrastructures at home and abroad
## Implement measures to protect US citizens abroad
## Ensure an integrated incident management capacity
The 2001 AUMF has authorized the US president to launch military operations worldwide without congressional oversight or transparency. Between 2018 and 2020 alone, US forces initiated what it labelled "counter-terror" activities in 85 countries. Of these, the 2001 AUMF has been used to launch classified military campaigns in at least 22 countries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Savell |first=Stephanie |date=14 December 2021 |title=The 2001 Authorization for Use of Military Force: A Comprehensive Look at Where and How it Has Been Used |url=https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/papers/2021/2001AUMF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603102208/https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/papers/2021/2001AUMF |archive-date=3 June 2023 |website=Costs of War}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Savell |first=Stephanie |date=14 December 2021 |title=The 2001 Authorization for Use of Military Force: A Comprehensive Look at Where and How it Has Been Used |url=https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/files/cow/imce/papers/2021/Costs%20of%20War_2001%20AUMF.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330214438/https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/files/cow/imce/papers/2021/Costs%20of%20War_2001%20AUMF.pdf |archive-date=30 March 2023 |website=Costs of War}}</ref> The 2001 AUMF has been widely perceived as a bill that grants the president powers to unilaterally wage perpetual "world wide wars".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Snow |first=Jen |date=12 June 2023 |title=GOP Senators Introduce 'End Endless Wars Act' |work=Armed Forces Press |url=https://armedforces.press/gop-senators-introduce-end-endless-wars-act/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612153619/https://armedforces.press/gop-senators-introduce-end-endless-wars-act/ |archive-date=12 June 2023}}</ref>

== Timeline ==
{{for timeline|timeline of the War on Terror}}

== Operation Enduring Freedom ==

{{Main|Operation Enduring Freedom}}
[[File:Streamer gwotE.PNG|thumb|Campaign streamer awarded to units who have participated in [[Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal|Operation Enduring Freedom]]]]

Operation Enduring Freedom is the official name used by the Bush administration for the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]], together with three smaller military actions, under the umbrella of the global war on terror. [[List of wars and battles involving al-Qaeda|These global operations]] are intended to seek out and destroy any al-Qaeda fighters or affiliates. Originally, the campaign was named "Eternal Justice" but due to widespread controversy and condemnation in the [[Muslim world]], the phrasing was changed to "Enduring Freedom".<ref name="CullCulbertWelch2003"/>

=== Afghanistan ===
{{Main|War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)}}
{{See also|List of military operations in the war in Afghanistan (2001–2021)}}
On 20 September 2001, in the wake of the [[September 11 attacks]], George W. Bush delivered an ultimatum to the Taliban government of Afghanistan, the [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan]], to turn over Osama bin Laden and [[al-Qaeda]] leaders operating in the country or face attack.<ref name="cnntranscript" /> The Taliban demanded evidence of bin Laden's link to 11 September attacks and, if such evidence warranted a trial, they offered to handle such a trial in an Islamic Court.<ref>{{cite news|title=Taliban rejects president Bush's demands |publisher=PBS |date=21 September 2001 |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/september01/taliban_9-21.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080601224636/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/september01/taliban_9-21.html |archive-date=1 June 2008}}</ref>

[[File:M249 with Mk46 stock.jpg|thumb|U.S. Army soldier of the [[10th Mountain Division]] in Nuristan Province, June 2007]]
[[File:US Army at Khost Province of Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|An American soldier in Afghanistan's [[Khost Province]]]]
Subsequently, in October 2001, US forces (with UK and coalition allies) [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|invaded Afghanistan]] to oust the Taliban regime. On 7 October 2001, the official invasion began with British and US forces conducting [[airstrike]] campaigns over enemy targets. Shortly after, Bush rejected a Taliban offer to hand over bin Laden on the condition the bombing campaign was halted,<ref>{{cite news |title=Bush rejects Taliban offer to hand Bin Laden over |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/14/afghanistan.terrorism5 |access-date=9 February 2024 |agency=The Guardian |date=14 October 2001 |archive-date=25 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825195435/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/14/afghanistan.terrorism5 |url-status=live }}</ref> and by mid-November, Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan, [[fall of Kabul (2001)|fell]]. The remaining al-Qaeda and Taliban remnants fell back to the rugged mountains of eastern Afghanistan, mainly Tora Bora. In December, Coalition forces (the US and its allies) [[Battle of Tora Bora|fought within that region]]. It is believed that Osama bin Laden escaped to Pakistan during the battle.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/29/world/asia/29torabora.html |title=Senate Report Explores 2001 Escape by bin Laden From Afghan Mountains |work=The New York Times |date=28 November 2009 |access-date=19 January 2011 |first=Scott |last=Shane |archive-date=16 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816154436/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/29/world/asia/29torabora.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/29/osama-bin-laden-senate-report |title=Rumsfeld let Bin Laden escape in 2001, says Senate report |date=29 November 2009 |access-date=19 January 2011 |first=Ed |last=Pilkington |work=The Guardian |location=London |archive-date=18 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718092409/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/29/osama-bin-laden-senate-report |url-status=live }}</ref>

In March 2002, the US and other [[NATO]] and non-NATO forces launched [[Operation Anaconda]], intending to destroy any remaining al-Qaeda and Taliban forces in the [[Shah-i-Kot Valley]] and [[Arma Mountains]] of Afghanistan. The Taliban suffered heavy casualties and evacuated the region.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.atimes.com/c-asia/DC12Ag01.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020428033246/http://www.atimes.com/c-asia/DC12Ag01.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=28 April 2002 |work=[[Asia Times]] |date=12 March 2002 |access-date=19 January 2011 |first=Syed Saleem |last=Shahzad |title=Taliban find unlikely allies}}</ref>

The Taliban regrouped in western Pakistan and began to unleash an insurgent-style offensive against Coalition forces in late 2002.<ref>{{cite news |publisher=CNN|date=26 March 2002 |access-date=19 January 2011 |url=https://www.cnn.com/2002/US/03/26/ret.war.facts/index.html |title=Al Qaeda, Taliban may be regrouping |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110916184950/http://articles.cnn.com/2002-03-26/us/ret.war.facts_1_taliban-fighters-al-qaeda-afghanistan?_s=PM%3AUS |archive-date=16 September 2011}}</ref> Throughout southern and eastern Afghanistan, firefights broke out between the surging Taliban and Coalition forces. Coalition forces responded with a series of military offensives and an increase in troops in Afghanistan. In February 2010, Coalition forces launched [[Operation Moshtarak]] in southern Afghanistan along with other military offensives in the hopes that they would destroy the Taliban insurgency once and for all.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2010/02/201021343536129252.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=13 February 2010 |access-date=19 January 2011 |title=Operation Moshtarak: At a glance |archive-date=30 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830073911/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2010/02/201021343536129252.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Peace talks were also underway between Taliban affiliated fighters and Coalition forces.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Karzai: Afghan forces now in driver's seat, and we're restarting peace talks with Taliban |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/karzai-afghan-forces-now-in-drivers-seat-and-were-restarting-peace-talks-with-taliban/ |publisher=CBS News |date=18 June 2013 |access-date=14 September 2014 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404173552/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/karzai-afghan-forces-now-in-drivers-seat-and-were-restarting-peace-talks-with-taliban/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In September 2014, Afghanistan and the United States signed a security agreement that allowed U.S. and NATO forces to remain in Afghanistan until at least 2024.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ackerman |first=Spencer |date=30 September 2014 |title=New Afghanistan pact means America's longest war will last until at least 2024 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/30/us-troops-afghanistan-2024-obama-bilateral-security-agreement |newspaper=The Guardian |location=United Kingdom |access-date=7 February 2015 |archive-date=1 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701113907/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/30/us-troops-afghanistan-2024-obama-bilateral-security-agreement |url-status=live }}</ref> However, on 29 February 2020, the United States and the Taliban signed a conditional [[Afghan peace process|peace deal]] in [[Doha]] which required that [[Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2011–2016)|US troops withdraw from Afghanistan]] within 14 months so long as the Taliban cooperated with the terms of the agreement not to "allow any of its members, other individuals or groups, including Al Qaeda, to use the soil of Afghanistan to threaten the security of the United States and its allies".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/taliban-sign-landmark-agreement-bid-end-america-s-longest-war-n1145166|title=U.S.–Taliban sign landmark agreement in bid to end America's longest war|date=29 February 2020|publisher=NBC News|access-date=15 August 2021|archive-date=12 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412220806/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/taliban-sign-landmark-agreement-bid-end-america-s-longest-war-n1145166|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="proposedwithdrawal">{{cite news |last1=Dadouch |first1=Sarah |last2=George |first2=Susannah |last3=Lamothe |first3=Dan |title=U.S. signs peace deal with Taliban agreeing to full withdrawal of American troops from Afghanistan |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/afghanistan-us-taliban-peace-deal-signing/2020/02/29/b952fb04-5a67-11ea-8efd-0f904bdd8057_story.html |access-date=1 March 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=29 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301051555/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/afghanistan-us-taliban-peace-deal-signing/2020/02/29/b952fb04-5a67-11ea-8efd-0f904bdd8057_story.html |archive-date=1 March 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Afghan government was not a party to the deal and rejected its terms regarding release of prisoners.<ref name=nprreject>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/03/01/810949474/afghan-president-rejects-timeline-for-prisoner-swap-proposed-in-us-taliban-peace|title=Afghan President Rejects Timeline For Prisoner Swap Proposed In US–Taliban Peace Deal|first=Cat|last=Schuknecht|publisher=NPR|date=1 March 2020|access-date=1 March 2020|archive-date=11 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411202634/https://www.npr.org/2020/03/01/810949474/afghan-president-rejects-timeline-for-prisoner-swap-proposed-in-us-taliban-peace|url-status=live}}</ref> After [[Joe Biden]] became president, he moved back the target withdrawal date to 31 August 2021.<ref name=":9">{{cite web|last1=Miller|first1=Zeke|last2=Madhani|first2=Aamer|date=8 July 2021|title='Overdue': Biden sets Aug. 31 for US exit from Afghanistan|url=https://apnews.com/article/joe-biden-afghanistan-government-and-politics-86f939c746c7bc56bb9f11f095a95366|access-date=9 July 2021|website=AP News|language=en|archive-date=8 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210708195329/https://apnews.com/article/joe-biden-afghanistan-government-and-politics-86f939c746c7bc56bb9f11f095a95366|url-status=live}}</ref> On 15 August 2021, the Afghan capital [[Fall of Kabul (2021)|Kabul fell]] to a surprisingly effective [[2021 Taliban offensive|Taliban offensive]], ending the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|war in Afghanistan]]. The US military and NATO troops took control of Kabul's [[Kabul International Airport|Hamid Karzai International Airport]] for use in [[Operation Allies Refuge]] and the [[2021 evacuation from Afghanistan|large-scale evacuation]] of foreign citizens and certain vulnerable [[Afghans]], executed in cooperation with the Taliban.<ref>Ahmad Seir, Rahim Faiez, Tameem Akhgar and Jon Gambrell contributed reporting, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/taliban-seize-jalalabad-cut-off-afghan-capital-from-east/2021/08/14/131e00aa-fd75-11eb-911c-524bc8b68f17_story.html "Taliban sweep into Afghan capital after government collapses"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815183820/https://www.washingtonpost.com/taliban-seize-jalalabad-cut-off-afghan-capital-from-east/2021/08/14/131e00aa-fd75-11eb-911c-524bc8b68f17_story.html |date=15 August 2021 }}, ''The Washington Post'', 16 August 2021</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Zucchino |first1=David |title=Kabul's Sudden Fall to Taliban Ends U.S. Era in Afghanistan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/15/world/asia/afghanistan-taliban-kabul-surrender.html |access-date=15 February 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=17 August 2021 |archive-date=7 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107084143/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/15/world/asia/afghanistan-taliban-kabul-surrender.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan conflict: Kabul falls to Taliban as president flees |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58223231 |access-date=15 February 2023 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=16 August 2021 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210815222758/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58223231 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Neuman |first1=Scott |title=Afghanistan Falls To The Taliban Again As The U.S.-Backed Government Collapses |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/08/15/1027860324/the-taliban-win-control-of-afghanistan-as-the-u-s-backed-government-collapses |access-date=15 February 2023 |work=[[NPR]] |date=15 August 2021 |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215052733/https://www.npr.org/2021/08/15/1027860324/the-taliban-win-control-of-afghanistan-as-the-u-s-backed-government-collapses |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Seligman |first1=Lara |last2=Ward |first2=Alexander |last3=Desiderio |first3=Andrew |title=U.S. officials provided Taliban with names of Americans, Afghan allies to evacuate |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2021/08/26/us-officials-provided-taliban-with-names-of-americans-afghan-allies-to-evacuate-506957 |access-date=15 February 2023 |work=[[Politico]] |date=26 August 2021 |archive-date=19 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230619194755/https://www.politico.com/news/2021/08/26/us-officials-provided-taliban-with-names-of-americans-afghan-allies-to-evacuate-506957 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 30 August 2021, the United States completed its hasty [[2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan|withdrawal of its military from Afghanistan]]. The withdrawal was heavily criticized both domestically and abroad for being chaotic and haphazard,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sprunt|first=Barbara|date=17 August 2021|title=There's A Bipartisan Backlash To How Biden Handled The Withdrawal From Afghanistan|publisher=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/2021/08/16/1028081817/congressional-reaction-to-bidens-afghanistan-withdrawal-has-been-scathing|access-date=6 September 2021|archive-date=3 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103160029/https://www.npr.org/2021/08/16/1028081817/congressional-reaction-to-bidens-afghanistan-withdrawal-has-been-scathing|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Karnitschnig|first=Matthew|date=17 August 2021|title=Disbelief and betrayal: Europe reacts to Biden's Afghanistan 'miscalculation'|work=Politico|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-reacts-bidens-afghanistan-withdrawal/|access-date=6 September 2021|archive-date=30 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830124416/https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-reacts-bidens-afghanistan-withdrawal/|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as for lending more momentum to the [[2021 Taliban offensive|Taliban offensive]].<ref>{{cite web|date=2 August 2021|title=Afghanistan's Ghani blames 'abrupt' US withdrawal for worsening security|url=https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20210802-afghanistan-s-ghani-blames-abrupt-us-withdrawal-for-worsening-security|access-date=7 September 2021|publisher=France 24|language=en|archive-date=18 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818205017/https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20210802-afghanistan-s-ghani-blames-abrupt-us-withdrawal-for-worsening-security|url-status=live}}</ref> However, many European countries followed suit, including Britain, Germany, Italy, and Poland.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hui|first=Sylvia|date=8 July 2021|title=Johnson confirms most British troops have left Afghanistan|work=Associated Press|url=https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-europe-government-and-politics-c0cec98b6a2d2279548cfb9e1bcdc499|access-date=6 September 2021|archive-date=26 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026231345/https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-europe-government-and-politics-c0cec98b6a2d2279548cfb9e1bcdc499|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Moulson|first1=Geir|last2=Gannon|first2=Kathy|date=30 June 2021|title=Most European troops exit Afghanistan quietly after 20 years|work=Associated Press|url=https://apnews.com/article/europe-afghanistan-health-coronavirus-pandemic-9c1c4f5732c032ba85865aab0338a7a3|access-date=6 September 2021|archive-date=5 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905165847/https://apnews.com/article/europe-afghanistan-health-coronavirus-pandemic-9c1c4f5732c032ba85865aab0338a7a3|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite evacuating over 120,000 people, the [[2021 Kabul airlift|large-scale evacuation]] has also been criticized for leaving behind hundreds of American citizens, residents, and family members.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Watson|first1=Julie|last2=Condon|first2=Bernard|date=4 September 2021|title=Rescue groups: US tally misses hundreds left in Afghanistan|work=Associated Press|url=https://apnews.com/article/ap-top-news-us-news-afghanistan-immigration-veterans-a56824dbd3e9953e65589d30924d9435|access-date=9 September 2021|archive-date=11 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411211552/https://apnews.com/article/ap-top-news-us-news-afghanistan-immigration-veterans-a56824dbd3e9953e65589d30924d9435|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== International Security Assistance Force ====
{{Main|International Security Assistance Force}}
[[File:Defense.gov News Photo 020311-D-2987S-018.jpg|thumb|222x222px|[[United States Secretary of Defense|US Secretary of Defense]] [[Donald Rumsfeld]] with [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] General [[Richard Myers|Richard B. Myers]] and joined by military representatives from [[International Security Assistance Force|29 countries of the worldwide coalition]] on the war against terrorism, at [[The Pentagon]], 11 March 2002]]
[[File:ISAF map.svg|thumb|Map of countries contributing troops to ISAF as of 5 March 2010. Major contributors (over 1000 troops) in dark green, other contributors in light green, and former contributors in magenta.]]
The NATO-led [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF) was created in December 2001 to assist the [[Afghan Transitional Administration]] and the first post-Taliban elected government. With a renewed Taliban insurgency, it was announced in 2006 that ISAF would replace the US troops in the province as part of Operation Enduring Freedom.

The British [[16th Air Assault Brigade]] (later reinforced by [[Royal Marines]]) formed the core of the force in southern Afghanistan, along with troops and helicopters from Australia, Canada, and the Netherlands. The initial force consisted of roughly 3,300 British, 2,000 Canadian, 1,400 Dutch, and 240 Australian troops, along with special forces from Denmark and [[Estonia]] and small contingents from other nations. The monthly supply of cargo containers through Pakistani route to ISAF in Afghanistan is over 4,000 costing around {{nowrap|12 billion}} in Pakistani Rupees.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thenewstribe.com/2011/01/29/war-on-terror-cost-of-us-taxpayers-patience/ |title=Afghan war cost rise tests US taxpayers' patience |publisher=Thenewstribe.com |date=29 January 2011 |access-date=2 January 2012 |archive-date=27 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127045020/http://www.thenewstribe.com/2011/01/29/war-on-terror-cost-of-us-taxpayers-patience/ |url-status=usurped }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=UK troops take over Afghan duties|date=1 June 2006|publisher=BBC|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4961368.stm|archive-date=15 September 2025|access-date=16 September 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250915111736/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4961368.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Canada set for longer Afghan stay |date=16 June 2006 |publisher=BBC |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4984880.stm |archive-date=16 September 2025 |access-date=16 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250916105246/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4984880.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Australia outlines Afghan force|date=8 May 2006|publisher=BBC|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4983540.stm|archive-date=12 August 2017|access-date=16 September 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170812175124/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4983540.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=More Dutch troops for Afghanistan |date=3 February 2006 |publisher=BBC |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4673026.stm |archive-date=25 February 2008 |access-date=16 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225062850/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4673026.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Philippines ===
{{Main|Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines}}
[[File:SF Soldier in Philippines.jpg|thumb|[[US Special Forces]] soldier and infantrymen of the [[Philippine Army]]]]
In January 2002, the [[United States Special Operations Command|United States Special Operations Command, Pacific]] deployed to the [[Philippines]] to advise and assist the [[Armed Forces of the Philippines]] in combating Filipino Islamist groups.<ref>{{cite news|date=3 January 2009|title=Guardians of the Pacific|publisher=[[Special Operations Command, Pacific]]|url=http://www.socpac.socom.mil/default.aspx|url-status=dead|access-date=19 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110111053550/http://www.socpac.socom.mil/default.aspx|archive-date=11 January 2011}}</ref> The operations were mainly focused on removing the [[Abu Sayyaf]] group and [[Jemaah Islamiyah]] (JI) from their stronghold on the island of [[Basilan]].<ref>[https://www.policyarchive.org/handle/10207/1338 Abu Sayyaf: Target of Philippine-U.S. Anti-Terrorism Cooperation ابوسیاف: هدف همکاری ضد تروریسم فیلیپین و ایالات متحده] Retrieved 21 July 2025</ref> The second portion of the operation was conducted as a humanitarian program called "Operation Smiles". The goal of the program was to provide medical care and services to the Basilan region as part of a "Hearts and Minds" initiative.<ref>{{cite news|date=November 2004|title=Improving Lives: Military Humanitarian and Assistance Programs|publisher=[[American Institute in Taiwan]]|url=http://www.ait.org.tw/infousa/enus/government/forpolicy/docs/ijpe1104.pdf|url-status=dead|access-date=19 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213204848/http://www.ait.org.tw/infousa/enus/government/forpolicy/docs/ijpe1104.pdf|archive-date=13 December 2011}}</ref>

Joint Special Operations Task Force – Philippines disbanded in June 2014,<ref>{{cite news|author=|date=26 June 2014|title=US ends Philippines anti-terror force|newspaper=The Hindu|agency=Associated Press|location=Chennai, India|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/us-ends-philippines-antiterror-force/article6151634.ece|access-date=3 December 2014|archive-date=30 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630061119/http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/us-ends-philippines-antiterror-force/article6151634.ece|url-status=live}} {{cite news|last=Gomez|first=Jim|date=26 June 2014|title=US disbanding Philippines elite anti-terror force|newspaper=The Philippine Star|agency=Associated Press|url=http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2014/06/26/1339326/us-disbanding-philippines-elite-anti-terror-force|access-date=3 December 2014|archive-date=22 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322221334/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2014/06/26/1339326/us-disbanding-philippines-elite-anti-terror-force|url-status=live}}</ref> ending a successful 12-year mission.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Gordon Arthur|author2=James Hardy|date=6 October 2014|title=US, Philippines start 'PHIBLEX' drills as special forces mission draws down|newspaper=IHS Janes 360|url=http://www.janes.com/article/44106/us-philippines-start-phiblex-drills-as-special-forces-mission-draws-down|url-status=dead|access-date=3 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217100337/http://www.janes.com/article/44106/us-philippines-start-phiblex-drills-as-special-forces-mission-draws-down|archive-date=17 December 2014}}</ref> After JSOTF-P had disbanded, as late as November 2014, American forces continued to operate in the Philippines under the name "PACOM Augmentation Team", until 24 February 2015.<ref>{{cite news|last=Trevithick|first=Joseph|date=5 November 2014|title=Yes, American Commandos Are Still in the Philippines|newspaper=War is Boring|location=Medium.com|url=https://medium.com/war-is-boring/yes-american-commandos-are-still-in-the-philippines-f67dea166460|access-date=2 January 2015|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404191127/https://medium.com/war-is-boring/yes-american-commandos-are-still-in-the-philippines-f67dea166460|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=27 February 2015|title=U.S. Officially Ends Special Operations Task Force in the Philippines, Some Advisors May Remain|url=https://news.usni.org/2015/02/27/u-s-officially-ends-special-operations-task-force-in-the-philippines-some-advisors-may-remain|publisher=US Naval Institute|access-date=12 October 2016|archive-date=27 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427222222/https://news.usni.org/2015/02/27/u-s-officially-ends-special-operations-task-force-in-the-philippines-some-advisors-may-remain|url-status=live}}</ref> On 1 September 2017, US Secretary of Defense [[Jim Mattis]] designated [[Operation Pacific Eagle – Philippines]] (OPE-P) as a contingency operation to support the Philippine government and the military in their efforts to isolate, degrade, and defeat the affiliates of ISIL (collectively referred to as ISIL-Philippines or ISIL-P) and other terrorist organisations in the Philippines.<ref>{{cite web|date=2 February 2018|title=Operation Inherent Resolve Report/Operation Pacific Eagle-Philippines Report to the United States Congress, October 1, 2017 – December 31, 2017|url=https://www.stateoig.gov/system/files/lig_oco_oir1_dec2017_gold.pdf|publisher=State OIG|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-date=12 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212180609/https://www.stateoig.gov/system/files/lig_oco_oir1_dec2017_gold.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> By 2018, American operations within the Philippines against terrorist groups involved as many as 300 advisers.<ref>{{cite news|date=19 January 2018|title=U.S. Military Escalates War Efforts in the Philippines|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-military-escalates-war-efforts-in-the-philippines-1516357801|url-access=subscription|access-date=27 April 2018|archive-date=28 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428011947/https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-military-escalates-war-efforts-in-the-philippines-1516357801|url-status=live}} {{cite report|url=http://www.dodig.mil/In-the-Spotlight/Article/1430714/lead-inspector-general-for-operation-inherent-resolve-and-operation-pacific-eag/|title=Lead Inspector General for Operation Inherent Resolve and Operation Pacific Eagle-Philippines Quarterly Report to the United States Congress Oct. 1, 2017 – Dec. 31, 2017|date=2 February 2018|publisher=Department of Defense Office of Inspector General|access-date=27 April 2018|archive-date=28 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428011721/http://www.dodig.mil/In-the-Spotlight/Article/1430714/lead-inspector-general-for-operation-inherent-resolve-and-operation-pacific-eag/|url-status=dead}} {{cite news|last=Snow|first=Shawn|date=30 December 2017|title=New in 2018: Conflict hot spots to watch|work=Military Times|url=https://www.militarytimes.com/flashpoints/2017/12/30/new-in-2018-conflict-hot-spots-to-watch/|access-date=27 April 2018|archive-date=28 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428093636/https://www.militarytimes.com/flashpoints/2017/12/30/new-in-2018-conflict-hot-spots-to-watch/|url-status=live}} {{cite magazine|last=McCormick-Cavanagh|first=Conor|date=30 December 2017|title=What to Expect in the New American 'War on Terror' in the Philippines|url=http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/what-expect-new-american-war-terror-philippines|magazine=Small Wars Journal|access-date=27 April 2018|archive-date=28 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428093814/http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/what-expect-new-american-war-terror-philippines|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Trans-Sahara (Northern Africa) ===
{{Main|Operation Juniper Shield}}
[[File:Northern Mali conflict.svg|thumb|A map of the conflict in northern Mali]]
Operation Enduring Freedom – Trans Sahara (OEF-TS), now Operation Juniper Shield, is the name of the military operation conducted by the US and partner nations in the Sahara/Sahel region of Africa, consisting of counter-terrorism efforts and policing of arms and drug trafficking across central Africa.

The [[Northern Mali conflict (2012–present)|conflict in northern Mali]] began in January 2012 with radical Islamists (affiliated to al-Qaeda) advancing into northern Mali. The Malian government had difficulty maintaining full control over the country. The fledgling government requested support from the international community in combating the Islamic militants. In January 2013, France intervened at the request of the Malian government and deployed troops to the region. They launched [[Operation Serval]] on 11 January 2013, with the hopes of dislodging the al-Qaeda affiliated groups from northern Mali.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hopkins|first=Nick|date=14 January 2013|title=Mali conflict: militants killed as French air strikes pound rebel camps|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/13/mali-crisis-militants-killed-french-jets|archive-date=4 April 2023|access-date=13 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404174323/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/13/mali-crisis-militants-killed-french-jets|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Horn of Africa and the Red Sea ===
{{Main|Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa}}
{{Further|Somalia War (2006–2009)|Somali Civil War (2009–present)|American military intervention in Somalia (2007–present)|CIA activities in Somalia|label1=Ethiopian occupation of Somalia (2006–2009)}}
Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa is an extension of Operation Enduring Freedom. Unlike other operations within Operation Enduring Freedom, OEF-HOA does not have a specific organization as its target. OEF-HOA instead focuses its efforts to disrupt and detect militant activities in the region and to work with willing governments to prevent the reemergence of militant cells and activities.<ref>{{cite news|title=Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa|publisher=United States Africa Command|url=http://www.hoa.africom.mil/AboutCJTF-HOA.asp|access-date=19 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426223216/http://www.hoa.africom.mil/AboutCJTF-HOA.asp|archive-date=26 April 2009}}</ref>

In October 2002, the [[Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa]] (CJTF-HOA) was established in [[Djibouti]] at [[Camp Lemonnier]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=April 2010|title=DOD Needs to Determine the Future of Its Horn of Africa Task Force|publisher=[[Government Accountability Office]]|url=http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d10504.pdf|access-date=19 January 2011|archive-date=19 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119212724/https://www.gao.gov/new.items/d10504.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> It contains approximately 2,000 personnel including US military and special operations forces (SOF) and coalition force members, [[Combined Task Force 150]] (CTF-150).

Task Force 150 consists of ships from a shifting group of nations, including Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Pakistan, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. The primary goal of the coalition forces is to monitor, inspect, board, and stop suspected shipments from entering the Horn of Africa region and affecting the United States' [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]].

Included in the operation is the training of selected armed forces units from Djibouti, [[Kenya]], and [[Ethiopia]] in counter-terrorism and [[counter-insurgency]] tactics. Humanitarian efforts conducted by CJTF-HOA include rebuilding schools and medical clinics and providing medical services to countries whose forces are being trained.

The program expands as part of the [[Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative]], with CJTF personnel also assisting in training the armed forces of [[Chad]], Niger, [[Mauritania]], and [[Mali]]. However, the war on terror does not include Sudan, where over 400,000 have died in an ongoing civil war.

On 1 July 2006, a Web-posted message purportedly written by Osama bin Laden urged [[Somalis]] to build an [[Islamic state]] in the country; warned Western governments that the al-Qaeda network would fight against them if they intervened there.<ref name="BIN-LADEN-MESSAGE-IRAQ-SOMALIA">{{cite news|date=1 July 2006|title=Bin Laden releases Web message on Iraq, Somalia|work=USA Today|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-07-01-bin-laden-plans-message_x.htm|access-date=2 January 2012|archive-date=5 July 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060705084843/https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-07-01-bin-laden-plans-message_x.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Prime Minister of Somalia claimed that three "terror suspects" from the [[1998 United States embassy bombings]] are being sheltered in Kismayo.<ref>{{cite news|last=Burke|first=Jason|date=13 June 2004|title=Secret world of US jails|work=The Guardian|location=London|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/jun/13/usa.terrorism|access-date=9 April 2010|archive-date=28 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130828030149/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/jun/13/usa.terrorism|url-status=live}}</ref> On 30 December 2006, al-Qaeda deputy leader [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] called upon Muslims worldwide to fight against Ethiopia and the TFG in Somalia.<ref>{{cite news|author=Stephanie Hanson|date=2 March 2009|title=Backgrounder: Al-Shabaab|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/cfr/world/slot2_20090227.html|access-date=4 May 2010|archive-date=15 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815230752/http://www.nytimes.com/cfr/world/slot2_20090227.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 8 January 2007, the US launched the [[2007 Battle of Ras Kamboni|Battle of Ras Kamboni]] by bombing [[Ras Kamboni]] using [[AC-130]] gunships.<ref>{{cite news|date=9 January 2007|title=U.S. Launches Attack on Suspected Al Qaeda Members in Somalia|publisher=Fox News|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,242460,00.html|url-status=dead|access-date=26 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106210324/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,242460,00.html|archive-date=6 November 2011}}</ref>

On 14 September 2009, [[Special Forces (United States Army)|US Special Forces]] killed two men and wounded and captured two others near the Somali village of [[Baraawe raid|Baarawe]]. Witnesses claim that helicopters used for the operation launched from French-flagged warships, but that could not be confirmed. A Somali-based al-Qaida-affiliated group, the [[Al-Shabaab (militant group)|Al-Shabaab]], has verified the death of "sheik commander" [[Saleh Ali Saleh Nabhan]] along with an unspecified number of militants.<ref>{{cite news|last=Youssef|first=Maamoun|date=16 September 2009|title=Somali al-Qaida group confirms death of leader|agency=Associated Press|url=http://www.armytimes.com/news/2009/09/ap_somalia_alqaida_091609w/|access-date=17 September 2009|archive-date=25 May 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120525094423/http://www.armytimes.com/news/2009/09/ap_somalia_alqaida_091609w/|url-status=live}}</ref> Nabhan, a Kenyan, was wanted in connection with the [[2002 Mombasa attacks]].<ref>{{cite news|date=16 September 2009|title=Mother demands to see Nabhan's body|publisher=Al Jazeera|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/focus/2009/09/200991691418738699.html|access-date=17 September 2009|archive-date=15 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815080906/https://www.aljazeera.com/focus/2009/09/200991691418738699.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Military operations by country ==
=== Iraq War ===
{{Main|Iraq War}}
{{Further|Iraq War and the war on terror}}

==== 2002 State of the Union Address ====
{{Main|Axis of evil}}
During his [[2002 State of the Union Address]], [[George W. Bush]] accused [[North Korea]], [[Iran]], and Iraq of propping up [[state-sponsored terrorism]] and pursuing Weapons of Mass Destruction. These countries were portrayed as a global threat and categorised under the terminology referred to as "[[Axis of evil]]".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Frum |first=David |date=29 January 2022 |title=The Enduring Lessons of the 'Axis of Evil' Speech |work=The Atlantic |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/01/axis-of-evil-speech-frum-bush/621397/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305182243/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/01/axis-of-evil-speech-frum-bush/621397/ |archive-date=5 March 2022}}</ref> Regarding [[Iraq]], Bush alleged: <blockquote>"Iraq continues to flaunt its hostility toward America and to support terror. The Iraqi regime has plotted to develop anthrax and nerve gas and nuclear weapons for over a decade. This is a regime that has already used poison gas to murder thousands of its own citizens, leaving the bodies of mothers huddled over their dead children. This is a regime that agreed to international inspections, then kicked out the inspectors. This is a regime that has something to hide from the civilized world."<ref>{{cite web |title=State of the Union Address (January 29, 2002) |url=http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/4540 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011053416/http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/4540 |archive-date=October 11, 2011 |publisher=Miller Center}}</ref></blockquote>

==== Prelude ====
{{Further|Preparations for 2003 invasion of Iraq|Saddam–al-Qaeda conspiracy theory}}
In October 2002, [[United States Congress]] passed the "[[Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002]]", which empowered the US president to order military attack against Iraq.<ref name="ResolutionText">[http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-107publ243/pdf/PLAW-107publ243.pdf Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229051347/https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-107publ243/pdf/PLAW-107publ243.pdf |date=29 December 2017 }} ([[PDF]])</ref><ref>{{cite press release
| url = https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/10/20021002-2.html
| url-status = live
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20021102072524/http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/10/20021002-2.html
| archive-date = 2 November 2002
| title = Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq
| publisher = The Office of the President of the United States
}}</ref> On 5 February 2003, Secretary of State [[Colin Powell]] made a [[United Nations Security Council and the Iraq War#Colin Powell's presentation|presentation before the UN Security Council]] which claimed to implicate Iraq in building a secret WMD program and having ties to [[Al-Qaeda]].<ref>{{cite news |date=17 March 2003 |title=US, Britain and Spain Abandon Resolution |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/iraq/attack/armtwist/2003/0317usbritspain.htm |access-date=6 August 2006 |archive-date=2 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060802194357/http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/iraq/attack/armtwist/2003/0317usbritspain.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 17 March 2003, Bush issued an ultimatum to [[Saddam Hussein]] and his two sons to flee Iraq within a 48-hour deadline or else face "military conflict".<ref name="whitehouse20230317">{{cite press release |url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030317-7.html |title=President Says Saddam Hussein Must Leave Iraq Within 48 Hours |date=17 March 2003 |publisher=[[White House Office of the Press Secretary]] |access-date=28 July 2010 |archive-date=6 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606112419/https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030317-7.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Justifying his policy Bush declared: <blockquote>"Terrorists and terror states do not reveal these threats with fair notice, in formal declarations—and responding to such enemies only after they have struck first is not self-defense, it is suicide. The security of the world requires disarming Saddam Hussein now."<ref name="whitehouse20230317"/></blockquote>

==== Invasion of Iraq ====
{{Main|2003 invasion of Iraq}}
[[File:C-130J Hercules, Iraq, 2003.jpg|thumb|A British [[C-130J Hercules]] aircraft launches [[Flare (countermeasure)|flare countermeasures]] before being the first coalition aircraft to land on the newly reopened military runway at [[Baghdad International Airport]].]]
The Iraq War began in March 2003 with an air campaign, which was immediately followed by a [[2003 invasion of Iraq|US-led ground invasion]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2003 |title=Progress Report on the Global War on Terrorism |url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/homeland/progress/full.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206080007/https://2001-2009.state.gov/documents/organization/24268.pdf |archive-date=6 February 2009 |publisher=[[White House]] |page=2 |quote=Iraq is now the central front for the war on terror. While the United States and its partners have defeated Saddam Hussein's regime of terror, enemies of freedom—both members of the old regime and foreign terrorists who have come to Iraq—are making a desperate stance to reclaim this liberated nation for tyranny. They will be defeated. In the past, terrorists have cited Beirut and Somalia as examples of America fleeing from challenge when harmed. In this, the President has affirmed, they are mistaken. We are resolved to win the global war on terrorism.}}</ref><ref name="Anghie2005">{{Cite journal |last=Anghie |first=Antony |date=2005 |title=The War on Terror and Iraq in Historical Perspective |url=http://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/ohlj/vol43/iss1/3 |journal=Osgoode Hall Law Journal |volume=43 |issue=1/2 |pages=45–66 |doi=10.60082/2817-5069.1344 |s2cid=141571655 |via=Osgoode |doi-access=free |archive-date=28 March 2023 |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328142412/https://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/ohlj/vol43/iss1/3/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Bush administration cited UNSC Resolution 1441, which warned of "serious consequences" for violations such as [[Iraq and weapons of mass destruction|Iraq possessing weapons of mass destruction]]. The Bush administration also [[Iraq War and US Global War on Terror|stated the Iraq War]] was part of the war on terror, a claim later [[Criticism of the war on terror|questioned and contested]]. Iraq had been listed as a [[state sponsor of terrorism]] by the US since 1990,<ref>{{cite news|date=9 March 2000|title=Iraq accuses U.S., Turkey of 'illegally' meeting with Kurds|publisher=CNN|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/meast/03/09/un.iraq/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516120925/http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/meast/03/09/un.iraq/index.html|archive-date=16 May 2008}}</ref> when [[Saddam Hussein]] [[invasion of Kuwait|invaded Kuwait]].

The first ground attack came at the [[Battle of Umm Qasr]] on 21 March 2003, when a combined force of British, US and Polish forces seized control of the port city of [[Umm Qasr]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Parker |first1=Nick |last2=McCarthy |first2=Rory |date=23 March 2003 |title=Fierce battle around port |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/24/iraq.rorymccarthy |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=17 March 2015 |archive-date=9 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109203158/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/24/iraq.rorymccarthy |url-status=live }} {{cite book|author=Mike Ryan|title=Baghdad or Bust|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AhjOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA136|year=2003|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=978-1844150205|pages=136–37}} {{cite book|author=Leigh Neville|title=Special Operations Forces in Iraq|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cqi3yVGkDZ8C&pg=PA10|year=2012|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-1849088268|pages=10–11}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Baghdad]], Iraq's capital city, [[Battle of Baghdad (2003)|fell to US troops]] in April 2003 and Saddam Hussein's government quickly dissolved.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mary Beth Norton|author2=Carol Sheriff|author3=David M. Katzman |author4=David W. Blight |author5=Howard Chudacoff|title=A People and a Nation: A History of the United States, Brief Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BMxIyj05MIQC&pg=PA895|year= 2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0547175584|page=895}} {{cite book|author=John Ehrenberg|title=The Iraq Papers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AyQRB6Iov70C&pg=PT219|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195398588|pages=219–25}}</ref> On 1 May 2003, [[2003 Mission Accomplished speech|Bush announced]] that major combat operations in Iraq had ended.<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=The White House |date=1 May 2003 |title=President Bush Announces Major Combat Operations in Iraq Have Ended |url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/05/print/20030501-15.html |access-date=18 September 2017 |archive-date=25 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525024629/https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/05/print/20030501-15.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Iraqi Insurgency (2003–11) ====
{{Main|Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)|l1 = Iraqi Insurgency}}
However, an insurgency arose against the US-led coalition and the newly developing Iraqi military and post-Saddam government. The rebellion, which included [[Al-Qaeda in Iraq|al-Qaeda-affiliated groups]], led to many coalition casualties. Other elements of the insurgency were led by fugitive members of President Hussein's [[Ba'ath]] regime, which included Iraqi nationalists and [[pan-Arabist]]s. Many insurgency leaders were [[Islamists]] and claimed to be fighting a religious war to reestablish the Islamic [[Caliphate]] of centuries past.<ref>{{cite magazine|author=Michael Ware|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101040705-658290,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305053708/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101040705-658290,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 March 2005 |title=Meet The New Jihad |magazine=Time |date=27 June 2004 |access-date=26 March 2011}}</ref> Saddam Hussein [[Operation Red Dawn|was captured by US forces]] in December 2003 and [[Execution of Saddam Hussein|was executed]] in 2006.

In 2004, the insurgent forces grew stronger. The US launched offensives on insurgent strongholds in cities like [[Battle of Najaf (2004)|Najaf]] and [[Second Battle of Fallujah|Fallujah]].

In January 2007, President Bush presented a new strategy for Operation Iraqi Freedom based upon counterinsurgency theories and tactics developed by General [[David Petraeus]]. The [[Iraq War troop surge of 2007]] was part of this "new way forward", which, along with US backing of [[Sunni]] groups it had previously sought to defeat, has been credited with a widely recognized dramatic decrease in violence by up to 80%.<ref>[https://truthout.org/articles/petraeus-rising-managing-the-war-of-perceptions-in-iraq/ Petraeus Rising: Managing the “War of Perceptions” in Iraq ظهور پترائوس: مدیریت «جنگ ادراکات» در عراق] Retrieved 21 July 2025</ref>

The war entered a new phase on 1 September 2010,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0819/Iraq-war-Last-US-combat-brigade-crosses-into-Kuwait |title=Iraq war: Last US combat brigade crosses into Kuwait |website=The Christian Science Monitor |date=19 August 2010 |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-date=25 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110125161410/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0819/Iraq-war-Last-US-combat-brigade-crosses-into-Kuwait |url-status=live }}</ref> with the official end of U.S. combat operations.

==== War in Iraq (2013–17) ====
{{Main|War in Iraq (2013–2017)}}
President Obama ordered the withdrawal of most troops in 2011, but began redeploying forces in 2014 to fight the [[Islamic State]] group.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Invaders, allies, occupiers, guests: A brief history of U.S. military involvement in Iraq|language=en-US|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2020/01/11/invaders-allies-occupiers-guests-brief-history-us-military-involvement-iraq/|access-date=2 September 2021|issn=0190-8286|archive-date=22 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230622123948/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2020/01/11/invaders-allies-occupiers-guests-brief-history-us-military-involvement-iraq/|url-status=live}}</ref> As of July 2021, there were approximately 2,500 US troops in Iraq, who continue to assist in the mission to combat the remnants of IS.<ref>{{Cite news|date=27 July 2021|title=US combat forces to leave Iraq by end of year|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-57970464|access-date=2 September 2021|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404180836/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-57970464|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Pakistan ===
{{Main|Pakistan in the war on terror|Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Pakistan and state-sponsored terrorism}}
{{See also|Drone strikes in Pakistan||List of drone strikes in Pakistan|Killing of Osama bin Laden|Pakistan–United States relations}}
Following the 11 September attacks, former president of Pakistan [[Pervez Musharraf]] sided with the US against the Taliban government in Afghanistan after an ultimatum by then US president George W. Bush. Musharraf agreed to give the US the use of three airbases for Operation Enduring Freedom. [[United States Secretary of State|United States secretary of state]] [[Colin Powell]] and other US administration officials met with Musharraf. On 19 September 2001, Musharraf addressed the people of Pakistan and stated that, while he opposed military tactics against the Taliban, Pakistan risked being endangered by an alliance of India and the US if it did not cooperate. In 2006, Musharraf testified that this stance was pressured by threats from the US, and revealed in his memoirs that he had "war-gamed" the United States as an adversary and decided that it would end in a loss for Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-09-25-pakistan-memoir_x.htm|title=Musharraf's book says Pakistan faced US 'onslaught' if it didn't back terror war|access-date=14 September 2014|work=USA Today|date=26 September 2006|archive-date=22 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822003710/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-09-25-pakistan-memoir_x.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 12 January 2002, Musharraf gave a speech against Islamic extremism. He unequivocally condemned all acts of terrorism and pledged to combat Islamic extremism and lawlessness within Pakistan itself. He stated that his government was committed to rooting out extremism and made it clear that the banned militant organizations would not be allowed to resurface under any new name. He said, "the recent decision to ban extremist groups promoting militancy was taken in the national interest after thorough consultations. It was not taken under any foreign influence".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.dawn.com/dawnftp/72.249.57.55/dawnftp/fixed/arch/arch_2003.html |title=Musharraf vows to root out extremism: Banned outfits won't be allowed to resurface |work=Dawn|location=Pakistan |date=5 December 2003 |first=Rafaqat |last=Ali |access-date=26 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317081424/http://archives.dawn.com/dawnftp/72.249.57.55/dawnftp/fixed/arch/arch_2003.html |archive-date=17 March 2011}}</ref>

In 2002, the Musharraf-led government took a firm stand against the jihadi organizations and groups promoting extremism, and arrested [[Maulana Masood Azhar]], head of the [[Jaish-e-Mohammed]], and [[Hafiz Muhammad Saeed]], chief of the [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]], and took dozens of activists into custody. An official ban was imposed on the groups on 12 January.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/DH20Df07.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020911135629/http://atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/DH20Df07.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=11 September 2002 |title=Musharraf braced for jihadi backlash |work=Asia Times |date=20 August 2002 |access-date=26 March 2011}}</ref> Later that year, the [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] born [[Abu Zubaydah|Zayn al-Abidn Muhammed Hasayn Abu Zubaydah]] was arrested by Pakistani officials during a series of joint US–Pakistan raids. Zubaydah is said to have been a high-ranking al-Qaeda official with the title of operations chief and in charge of running al-Qaeda training camps.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/south/04/01/pakistan.alqaeda/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061216104729/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/south/04/01/pakistan.alqaeda/|archive-date=16 December 2006 |publisher=CNN|title=Officials: Captured man says he's al Qaeda brass |date=1 April 2002 |access-date=9 April 2010}}</ref> Other prominent al-Qaeda members were arrested in the following two years, namely [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], who is known to have been a financial backer of al-Qaeda operations, and [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], who at the time of his capture was the third highest-ranking official in al-Qaeda and had been directly in charge of the planning for 11 September attacks.

In 2004, the [[Pakistan Army]] launched a campaign in the [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas]] of Pakistan's [[Waziristan]] region, sending in 80,000 troops. The goal of the conflict was to remove the al-Qaeda and Taliban forces in the area.

After the fall of the Taliban regime, many members of the Taliban resistance fled to the Northern border region of Afghanistan and Pakistan, where the Pakistani army had previously had little control. With the logistics and air support of the United States, the Pakistani Army captured or killed numerous al-Qaeda operatives such as Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, wanted for his involvement in the USS ''Cole'' bombing, the [[Bojinka plot]], and the killing of ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' reporter [[Daniel Pearl]].

The United States has carried out a campaign of [[Drone attacks in Pakistan|drone attacks]] on targets all over the Federally Administered Tribal Areas. However, the [[Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan|Pakistani Taliban]] still operates there. To this day, it is estimated that 15 US soldiers have been killed while fighting al-Qaeda and Taliban remnants in Pakistan since the war on terror began.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://icasualties.org/oef/ |title=Operation Enduring Freedom | Afghanistan |publisher=iCasualties |date=28 May 2010 |access-date=26 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406083558/http://icasualties.org/oef/ |archive-date=6 April 2010}}</ref>

Osama bin Laden, his wife, and son, were all killed on 2 May 2011, during a raid conducted by the [[United States special operations forces]] in [[Abbottabad]], Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailynews.co.zw/index.php/international-news/global-news/2348-bin-laden-shot-in-the-head-and-chest.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118192058/http://www.dailynews.co.zw/index.php/international-news/global-news/2348-bin-laden-shot-in-the-head-and-chest.html|archive-date=18 January 2012 |title=Bin Laden 'shot in the head and chest' |publisher=Dailynews.co.zw |date=3 May 2011 |access-date=2 January 2012}}</ref>

The use of drones by the Central Intelligence Agency in Pakistan to carry out operations associated with the global war on terror sparks debate over sovereignty and the laws of war. The US Government uses the CIA rather than the [[US Air Force]] for strikes in Pakistan to avoid breaching sovereignty through military invasion. The United States was criticized by{{according to whom|date=May 2015}} a report on drone warfare and [[Airspace|aerial sovereignty]] for abusing the term 'global war on terror' to carry out military operations through government agencies without formally declaring war.

After the 11 September attacks, US economic and security aid to Pakistan spiked considerably. With the authorization of the Enhanced Partnership for Pakistan Act, Pakistan was granted US$7.5 billion over five years from FY2010–FY2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=Aid to Pakistan by the Numbers|url=https://www.cgdev.org/page/aid-pakistan-numbers|access-date=27 August 2021|website=Center For Global Development|language=en|archive-date=5 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605111051/https://cgdev.org/page/aid-pakistan-numbers|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Yemen ===
{{Main|Al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen|Drone strikes in Yemen|Yemeni civil war (2014-present)}}
{{update section|date=March 2025}}
The United States has conducted a [[Yemeni al-Qaeda crackdown|series of military strikes on al-Qaeda militants]] in Yemen since the war on terror began.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ww4report.com/node/8088 |title=Yemen: new air-strikes target al-Qaeda |date=19 December 2009 |publisher=World War 4 Report |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306011814/http://ww4report.com/node/8088 |url-status=live }}</ref> Yemen has a weak central government and a powerful tribal system that leaves large lawless areas open for militant training and operations. [[Al-Qaeda]] has a strong presence in the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/terrorism-in-the-uk/6898945/Detroit-terror-attack-Yemen-is-the-true-home-of-Al-Qaeda.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/terrorism-in-the-uk/6898945/Detroit-terror-attack-Yemen-is-the-true-home-of-Al-Qaeda.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Detroit terror attack: Yemen is the true home of Al-Qaeda |date=28 December 2009 |access-date=26 December 2010 |first=Richard |last=Spencer |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref> On 31 March 2011, AQAP declared the Al-Qaeda Emirate in Yemen after its captured most of [[Abyan Governorate]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/al-qaeda-declares-southern-yemeni-province-an-islamic-emirate-2011-3|title=Al Qaeda Declares Southern Yemeni Province An 'Islamic Emirate'|work=Business Insider|author=Grace Wyler|date=31 March 2011|access-date=11 April 2016|archive-date=22 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322221739/https://www.businessinsider.com/al-qaeda-declares-southern-yemeni-province-an-islamic-emirate-2011-3|url-status=live}}</ref>

The US, in an effort to support Yemeni counter-terrorism efforts, increased their military aid package to Yemen from less than {{nowrap|$11 million}} in 2006 to more than {{nowrap|$70 million}} in 2009, as well as providing up to {{nowrap|$121 million}} for development over the next three years.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/dec/28/al-qaida-us-yemen-attack |work=The Guardian |location=London |title=Al-Qaida: US support for Yemen crackdown led to attack |first=Hugh |last=MacLeod |date=28 December 2009 |access-date=9 April 2010 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404174918/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/dec/28/al-qaida-us-yemen-attack |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Current phase: Islamic State, Iran, and focus on narcoterrorism (2021–present) ==
{{Main|US intervention in the Syrian civil war#2024–present: Post-Assad drawdown|Operation Hawkeye Strike|2025 United States strikes in Nigeria|War on drugs#War on cartels (2025–present)|Operation Southern Spear}}
During the 2020s, the war on terror has decreased in volume and intensity following the closure of the wars in Iraq ([[Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)|2011]], with residual operations until [[Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2020–2021)|2021]]) and Afghanistan (complete withdrawal in [[2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan|2021]]). This shift represents a transition from large-scale military interventions—with hundreds of thousands of troops, ground invasions, and prolonged occupations—to a more surgical, [[Hybrid warfare|hybrid]], and sustainable approach centered on intelligence, selective strikes, and regional alliances.<ref>{{cite web |author=U.S. Central Command |title=U.S. Forces, Allies conduct joint strikes in Yemen |date=2025 |access-date=2025-10-17 |url=https://www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/igphoto/2003399524/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=U.S. Department of Defense |title=For the Common Defense: National Defense Strategy |date=2025-09-17 |access-date=2025-10-17 |url=https://media.defense.gov/2025/Sep/17/2003801136/-1/-1/0/FOR%2520THE%2520COMMON%2520DEFENSE%25201-1%2520%28AUG%25202025%29.PDF |archive-date=5 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251005154552/https://media.defense.gov/2025/Sep/17/2003801136/-1/-1/0/FOR%20THE%20COMMON%20DEFENSE%201-1%20%28AUG%202025%29.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Recorded Future |title=Threats to the 2025 NATO Summit: Cyber, Influence, and Hybrid Risks |date=2025 |access-date=2025-10-17 |url=https://www.recordedfuture.com/research/threats-2025-nato-summit |archive-date=8 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251008100701/https://www.recordedfuture.com/research/threats-2025-nato-summit |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Central Command Launches First 2025 Strikes Against Houthis |work=U.S. Naval Institute News |date=2025-01-08 |access-date=2025-10-17 |url=https://news.usni.org/2025/01/08/u-s-central-command-launches-first-2025-strikes-against-houthis |archive-date=29 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251229143041/https://news.usni.org/2025/01/08/u-s-central-command-launches-first-2025-strikes-against-houthis |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Kreps |first1=Sarah |last2=Lushenko |first2=Paul |last3=Raman |first3=Shyam |date=19 January 2022 |title=Biden can reduce civilian casualties during US drone strikes. Here's how. |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/biden-can-reduce-civilian-casualties-during-us-drone-strikes-heres-how/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119164027/https://www.brookings.edu/articles/biden-can-reduce-civilian-casualties-during-us-drone-strikes-heres-how/ |archive-date=19 January 2022 |website=[[Brookings Institution]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/pdf/2012/12/Drones_CSR65.pdf |title=Reforming U.S. Drone Strike Policies |last=Zenko |first=Micah |date=January 2013 |publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |issue=Council Special Report No. 65 |location=Washington, D.C. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119023725/https://cdn.cfr.org/sites/default/files/pdf/2012/12/Drones_CSR65.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> For their part, the US and [[NATO]] prioritize cyber defense, online counter-narratives, and cooperation with allies, which reduces media "noise" and their own casualties.<ref>{{cite AV media |title=NATO Secretary General video address to the NATO Annual Cyber Defence Conference |publisher=[[NATO]] |date=2025 |access-date=2025-10-17 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHSnNGo_EyA |archive-date=15 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251015144713/https://www.youtube.com/watch?si=yJjcK3WLHmX6YfTF&v=CHSnNGo_EyA |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence |title=Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Cyber Conflict: The Next Step |date=2025 |access-date=2025-10-17 |url=https://ccdcoe.org/uploads/2025/05/CyCon_2025_The-Proceedings-of-the-17th-International-Conference-on-Cyber-Conflict.pdf |archive-date=4 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251104091048/https://ccdcoe.org/uploads/2025/05/CyCon_2025_The-Proceedings-of-the-17th-International-Conference-on-Cyber-Conflict.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> On July 31, 2022, [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]], [[Osama bin Laden]]'s key successor, was killed in a US drone strike in Kabul, Afghanistan, marking the end of decades of centralized leadership in al-Qaeda.<ref>{{cite web |title=Experts react: Al-Qaeda chief Ayman al-Zawahiri is dead. What's next for US counterterrorism? |work=[[Atlantic Council]] |date=2022-08-01 |access-date=2025-10-17 |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/experts-react-al-qaeda-chief-ayman-al-zawahiri-is-dead-whats-next-for-us-counterterrorism/}}</ref> As of 2025, various global operations in the campaign are ongoing, including a [[American military intervention in Somalia (2007–present)|US military intervention]] in [[Somalia]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=DePetris |first=Daniel |date=9 May 2023 |title=The US war on terror continues. We just don't talk about it |work=Chicago Tribune |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/commentary/ct-column-war-on-terror-biden-syria-somalia-depetris-20230509-rdwqmd47b5eu3e7w4gdfel6xji-story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511154158/https://www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/commentary/ct-column-war-on-terror-biden-syria-somalia-depetris-20230509-rdwqmd47b5eu3e7w4gdfel6xji-story.html |archive-date=11 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Bridgeman |first1=Tess |last2=Rosen |first2=Brianna |date=2022-03-24 |title=Introduction to Symposium: Still at War – Where and Why the United States is Fighting the 'War on Terror' |url=https://www.justsecurity.org/80800/introduction-to-symposium-still-at-war-where-and-why-the-united-states-is-fighting-the-war-on-terror/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=Just Security |language=en-US |archive-date=22 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230622010216/https://www.justsecurity.org/80800/introduction-to-symposium-still-at-war-where-and-why-the-united-states-is-fighting-the-war-on-terror/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Meanwhile, in 2025, [[US airstrikes on Yemen|airstrikes continue in Yemen]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://yemenonline.info/politics/10237|title=U.S. Drone Strike Targets Al-Qaeda Gathering in Yemen's Shabwa Province|work=Yemen Online|access-date=18 September 2025}}</ref>

Meanwhile, [[Islamic State – Khorasan Province|ISIS–K]] remains a structural terrorist cell due to its decentralized and transnational operational capacity, evidenced by a series of high-impact attacks—including the January 2024 suicide bombings in Kerman, Iran (94 deaths),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/europe-isis-k-tajikistan/|title=From Dushanbe to Berlin: The emerging ISIS-K threat|date=October 10, 2024|website=Atlantic Council|access-date=December 10, 2025|archive-date=9 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251209015912/https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/europe-isis-k-tajikistan/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|last1=Clarke|first1=Colin P.|last2=Webber|first2=Lucas|url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/afghanistan/isis-k-goes-global|title=ISIS-K Goes Global: The World Is Not Ready to Confront a New International Terror Threat|date=March 7, 2025|website=Foreign Affairs|access-date=December 10, 2025|archive-date=4 October 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251004062349/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/afghanistan/isis-k-goes-global|url-status=live}}</ref> the March 2024 assault on Crocus City Hall in Moscow (more than 140 fatalities),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2024/03/25/1240780292/us-officials-warn-of-isis-k-threat|title=US officials warn of growing ISIS-K threat after Moscow attack|date=March 25, 2024|website=NPR|access-date=December 10, 2025|archive-date=31 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251231042315/https://www.npr.org/2024/03/25/1240780292/us-officials-warn-of-isis-k-threat|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/isis-k-resurgence|title=The ISIS-K Resurgence|date=2025|website=Wilson Center|access-date=December 10, 2025|archive-date=11 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251211003833/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/isis-k-resurgence|url-status=live}}</ref> the foiled August 2024 plot against Taylor Swift concerts in Vienna,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/isis-greatest-external-terrorist-threat-europe-amid-foiled/story?id=112690609|title=After foiled Taylor Swift concert plot, UN official calls ISIS-K 'greatest' terror threat to Europe|date=August 9, 2024|website=ABC News|access-date=December 10, 2025|archive-date=4 January 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260104112950/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/isis-greatest-external-terrorist-threat-europe-amid-foiled/story?id=112690609|url-status=live}}</ref> and the January 1, 2025 vehicle-and-explosives attack in New Orleans (at least 15 dead)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/investigations/new-orleans-raises-specter-persistent-isis-threat-rcna185941|title=New Orleans attack raises specter of persistent ISIS threat|date=January 2, 2025|website=NBC News|access-date=December 10, 2025|archive-date=2 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251202135713/https://www.nbcnews.com/investigations/new-orleans-raises-specter-persistent-isis-threat-rcna185941|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2025/01/02/middleeast/isis-recruits-global-threat-intl|title=ISIS no longer rules a territory. But its recruits still pose a global threat|date=January 2, 2025|website=CNN|access-date=December 10, 2025|archive-date=30 November 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251130152214/https://www.cnn.com/2025/01/02/middleeast/isis-recruits-global-threat-intl|url-status=live}}</ref>—which demonstrate its ability to project lethal violence far beyond its core bases in Afghanistan and Pakistan by exploiting security vacuums created by the 2021 US withdrawal and the instability in Syria following the December 2024 collapse of the Assad regime.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/us-policy-and-resurgence-isis-iraq-and-syria|title=US Policy and the Resurgence of ISIS in Iraq and Syria|date=2025|website=Middle East Institute|access-date=December 10, 2025|archive-date=21 November 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251121025301/https://www.mei.edu/publications/us-policy-and-resurgence-isis-iraq-and-syria|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.prif.org/2025/04/07/without-a-caliphate-but-far-from-defeated-why-daesh-isis-remains-a-threat-in-syria-in-2025/|title=Without a Caliphate, But Far from Defeated: Why Da'esh/ISIS Remains a Threat in Syria in 2025|date=April 7, 2025|website=PRIF BLOG|access-date=December 10, 2025|archive-date=17 November 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251117181720/https://blog.prif.org/2025/04/07/without-a-caliphate-but-far-from-defeated-why-daesh-isis-remains-a-threat-in-syria-in-2025/|url-status=live}}</ref> This resilience is sustained by highly sophisticated digital propaganda that has revitalized recruitment efforts among Central Asian diasporas (especially Tajiks) in Russia, Türkiye, Europe, and the United States via encrypted platforms;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/isis-k-threat-grows-targets-disaffected-muslims-sophisticated-propagan-rcna175646|title=ISIS-K threat grows as it targets disaffected Muslims with sophisticated propaganda|date=October 20, 2024|website=NBC News|access-date=December 10, 2025|archive-date=9 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251209054045/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/isis-k-threat-grows-targets-disaffected-muslims-sophisticated-propagan-rcna175646|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/real-world-capabilities-isis-threat-continues|title=The Real World Capabilities of ISIS: The Threat Continues|date=August 5, 2025|website=Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS)|access-date=December 10, 2025|archive-date=11 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251211064802/https://www.csis.org/analysis/real-world-capabilities-isis-threat-continues|url-status=live}}</ref> and by robust logistical and financial networks that enable the mobilization of battle-hardened fighters (estimated at 4,000–6,000 in Afghanistan and more than 2,500 active operatives in Syria and Iraq according to 2025 UN and CENTCOM reports).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/middle-east-watch/yes-isis-still-problem|title=Yes, ISIS Is Still A Problem|date=August 11, 2025|website=The National Interest|access-date=December 10, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/ten-years-ago-isis-seized-power-and-territory-whats-happened-since/|title=Ten Years Ago, ISIS Seized Power and Territory. What's Happened Since?|date=March 4, 2025|website=PBS Frontline|access-date=December 10, 2025|archive-date=4 August 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250804021442/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/ten-years-ago-isis-seized-power-and-territory-whats-happened-since/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2024, the [[Iran–Israel proxy conflict|proxy war between Iran and Israel]] escalated to a [[2024 Iran–Israel conflict|series of direct confrontations]] between the two countries, and in June 2025, they fought a [[Twelve-Day War|12-day war]],<ref name="bbc.com">{{Cite web |date=13 June 2025 |title=What we know as Israel-Iran conflict intensifies |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cdj9vj8glg2o |access-date=17 June 2025 |website=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}}</ref> [[United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites|involving the United States]].<ref name="Sanger21June2025">{{Cite news |date=21 June 2025 |title=Update from David E. Sanger |url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2025/06/21/world/iran-israel-trump |access-date=22 June 2025 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="Fordo21June2025">{{Cite web |date=21 June 2025 |title=Trump says US has bombed Fordo nuclear plant in attack on Iran |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/ckg3rzj8emjt?post=asset%3Af6daf816-8c93-4d56-bec5-b35bb8e6bb5e#post |access-date=22 June 2025 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

In 2025, the US' military escalation against alleged [[narcoterrorist]]s linked to [[Venezuela]]—such as the [[Cartel of the Suns]], the [[Tren de Aragua]] and the [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|National Liberation Army]]—reframed Latin American narcoterrorism as a global threat, which in turn opened the door to a possible invasion of Venezuelan territory. The designation of the Cartel of the Suns as a Foreign Terrorist Organization, along with the deployment of the USS Gerald R. Ford near Venezuelan waters and a series of strikes against vessels labeled as narco-trafficker assets, represented a turning point in the region: the shift was no longer about interdiction, but about counterterrorism within the Americas. Likewise, [[Operation Southern Spear]] has raised new questions about whether a second war on terror has begun.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://time.com/7326921/trump-venezuela-caribbean-drug-boats-maduro/|last=Bertrand|first=Natasha|title=Trump's Caribbean Bombing Campaign Brings War on Terror to the Americas|date=2025|magazine=TIME|access-date=11 December 2025|archive-date=22 October 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251022145247/https://time.com/7326921/trump-venezuela-caribbean-drug-boats-maduro/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2025/nov/24/war-on-terror-venezuela-donald-trump|last=Mendiola|first=Daniel|title=The US 'war on terror' has killed millions. Now Trump is bringing it to Venezuela|date=2025|website=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://responsiblestatecraft.org/drug-war-aumf/|last=Heinz|first=Brett|title=Proposed war authorization could allow Trump to target 60+ countries|date=23 September 2025|website=Responsible Statecraft|access-date=11 December 2025|archive-date=25 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251225213231/https://responsiblestatecraft.org/drug-war-aumf/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first1=Ryan|last1=Lucas|title=Trump's approach to cartels mirrors the global war on terror, officials say|work=NPR|date=30 September 2025|url=https://www.npr.org/2025/09/30/nx-s1-5534420/trumps-approach-to-cartels-mirrors-the-global-war-on-terror-officials-say|access-date=11 December 2025|archive-date=3 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251203085456/https://www.npr.org/2025/09/30/nx-s1-5534420/trumps-approach-to-cartels-mirrors-the-global-war-on-terror-officials-say|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first1=Ryan|last1=Lucas|title=With 'drug boat' strikes, Trump leans into war on terror tactic against cartels|work=NPR|date=30 September 2025|url=https://www.npr.org/2025/09/30/g-s1-91091/trump-bombing-drug-boats-terror|access-date=11 December 2025|archive-date=9 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251209224946/https://www.npr.org/2025/09/30/g-s1-91091/trump-bombing-drug-boats-terror|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first1=Andrew C.|last1=McCarthy|author1-link=Andrew C. McCarthy|title=Trump Notifies Congress That the U.S. Is at War with Drug Cartels|work=[[National Review]]|date=2 October 2025|access-date=3 October 2025|url=https://www.nationalreview.com/2025/10/trump-notifies-congress-that-the-u-s-is-at-war-with-drug-cartels/|archive-date=3 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251203085456/https://www.nationalreview.com/2025/10/trump-notifies-congress-that-the-u-s-is-at-war-with-drug-cartels/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.war.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/4339943/hegseth-says-designating-venezuelan-cartel-as-terrorist-org-will-bring-new-opti/|last=Olay|first=Matthew|title=Hegseth Says Designating Venezuelan Cartel as Terrorist Org Will Bring 'New Options' to Administration|date=21 November 2025|website=Forbes|access-date=11 December 2025|archive-date=15 December 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251215234301/https://www.war.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/4339943/hegseth-says-designating-venezuelan-cartel-as-terrorist-org-will-bring-new-opti/|url-status=live}}</ref> By adopting the same legal and rhetorical framework used during the post-9/11 war on terror,<ref>{{cite web |date=17 September 2025 |title=Trump Invokes Post-9/11 Playbook in Attacks on Drug Cartels |url=https://www.wsj.com/politics/national-security/trump-invokes-post-9-11-playbook-in-attacks-on-drug-cartels-137515ea |website=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=17 September 2025 |archive-date=17 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250917222551/https://www.wsj.com/politics/national-security/trump-invokes-post-9-11-playbook-in-attacks-on-drug-cartels-137515ea |url-status=live |id= {{ProQuest|3251468569}} }}</ref> treating traffickers as “unlawful combatants” and justifying lethal force even in international waters, Washington opened the door to broader military operations—including targeted strikes on criminal-controlled areas, direct intervention, and even potential ground actions if the threat were deemed systemic. This strategic realignment could pull other regional actors into a collective security framework, legitimize multilateral military cooperation, and reshape hemispheric security under an anti-terror paradigm, extending far beyond traditional anti-drug efforts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/saradorn/2025/10/24/navy-sends-major-aircraft-carrier-to-caribbean-amid-military-campaign-against-drug-cartels/|last=Dorn|first=Sara|title=Hegseth Sends Major Aircraft Carrier To Caribbean, Escalating Military Campaign Against Drug Traffickers|date=24 October 2025|website=Forbes}}</ref>

On December 15, 2025, the US carried out Operation Hawkeye Strike against the [[Islamic State]] following the [[December 2025 Palmyra attack|Palmyra attack]].

On 25 December 2025, US president [[Donald Trump]] authorized strikes against [[Islamic State]] militants in northwest [[Nigeria]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 25, 2025 |title=US launches strike against Islamic State militants in northwest Nigeria |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/us-launches-strikes-against-islamic-state-militants-northwest-nigeria-trump-says-2025-12-25/ |website=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=MSN |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/us-strikes-isis-in-nigeria-on-christmas-day-california-battles-flooding/ar-AA1T4RCu?ocid=BingNewsSerp |access-date=December 26, 2025 |website=www.msn.com |archive-date=28 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251228101813/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/us-strikes-isis-in-nigeria-on-christmas-day-california-battles-flooding/ar-AA1T4RCu?ocid=BingNewsSerp |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=December 25, 2025 |title=US forces launch Christmas strike on ISIS in Nigeria, Trump says |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2025/12/25/trump-nigeria-christmas-strike-00706646 |access-date=December 26, 2025 |website=POLITICO|first=Gregory|last=Svirnovskiy |language=en}}</ref>

Beginning in late January 2026, the [[United States]] carried out its largest military buildup in the Middle East since the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], deploying air, naval, and missile defense assets amid [[2026 Iran war|escalating tensions]] with [[Iran]], which the United States has attributed to [[Nuclear program of Iran|Iran's nuclear program]], the [[2025–2026 Iranian protests]], and a [[2026 Iran massacres|government crackdown that killed thousands of demonstrators]].<ref name="Cancian">{{Cite journal |last=Cancian |first=Mark F. |last2=Park |first2=Chris H. |date=20 February 2026 |title=U.S. Military in the Middle East: Numbers Behind Trump's Threats Against Iran |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/us-military-middle-east-numbers-behind-trumps-threats-against-iran |url-status=live |journal=Center for Strategic and International Studies |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260224203756/https://www.csis.org/analysis/us-military-middle-east-numbers-behind-trumps-threats-against-iran |archive-date=24 February 2026 |access-date=22 February 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=24 February 2026 |title=Over 150 U.S. aircraft sweep into Europe, Middle East as Trump mulls strikes |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/investigations/2026/02/24/united-states-iran-buildup/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260224170056/https://www.washingtonpost.com/investigations/2026/02/24/united-states-iran-buildup/ |archive-date=24 February 2026 |access-date=27 February 2026 |work=The Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> On 28 February 2026, this culminated in a [[2026 Israeli–United States strikes on Iran|series of joint military strikes]] in Iran by the United States and [[Israel]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 February 2026 |title=US and Israel launch strikes against Iran |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/israel-launches-preemptive-strike-against-iran/ |access-date=28 February 2026 |website=Politico |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 February 2026 |title=US and Israel launch attack on Iran, as Trump says 'major combat operations' under way - follow live |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/cn5ge95q6y7t |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260228065750/https://www.bbc.com/news/live/cn5ge95q6y7t |archive-date=28 February 2026 |access-date=28 February 2026 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Boxerman |first=Aaron |last2=Pager |first2=Tyler |last3=Fassihi |first3=Farnaz |last4=Bergman |first4=Ronen |date=28 February 2026 |title=U.S. and Israel Attack Iran as Trump Calls for Change in Government: Live Updates |url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2026/02/28/world/iran-strikes-trump |access-date=28 February 2026 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

== Other military operations ==

=== Operation Inherent Resolve (Syria and Iraq) ===
{{Main|Operation Inherent Resolve|Military intervention against ISIL|List of wars and battles involving ISIL}}

{{Further|American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–2021)|Spillover of the Syrian Civil War|American-led intervention in Syria}}
[[File:Task Force Warclub conducts CE.jpg|thumb|US soldiers in Syria during [[Operation Inherent Resolve]]]]
{{update|section|date=February 2025}}
The Obama administration began to re-engage in Iraq with a series of airstrikes aimed at ISIL starting on 10 August 2014.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sedghi|first1=Ami|last2=Arnett|first2=George|date=3 September 2014|title=US military Isis air strikes in Iraq: day-by-day breakdown|newspaper=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2014/aug/27/us-military-isis-air-strikes-in-iraq-day-by-day-breakdown|access-date=14 September 2014|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406001139/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2014/aug/27/us-military-isis-air-strikes-in-iraq-day-by-day-breakdown|url-status=live}}</ref> On 9 September 2014, President Obama said that he had the authority he needed to take action to destroy the militant group known as the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]], citing the 2001 Authorization for the Use of Military Force Against Terrorists, and thus did not require additional approval from Congress.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lamarque|first1=Kevin|date=9 September 2014|title=Obama tells lawmakers he has authorization for Islamic State fight|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iraq-security-obama-meeting-idUSKBN0H42FW20140909|url-status=live|access-date=9 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909221941/https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/09/us-iraq-security-obama-meeting-idUSKBN0H42FW20140909|archive-date=9 September 2014}}</ref> The following day on 10 September 2014 President Barack Obama made a televised speech about ISIL, which he stated: "Our objective is clear: We will degrade, and ultimately destroy, ISIL through a comprehensive and sustained counter-terrorism strategy".<ref name="ObamaSpeech10SEP14">{{cite news|last=Shinkman|first=Paul D.|date=10 September 2014|title=Obama Unveils New Islamic State Strategy|newspaper=U.S. News & World Report|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2014/09/10/obama-unveils-new-islamic-state-strategy|access-date=14 September 2014|archive-date=16 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516133657/https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2014/09/10/obama-unveils-new-islamic-state-strategy|url-status=live}}</ref> Obama has authorized the deployment of additional US Forces into Iraq, as well as authorizing direct military operations against ISIL within Syria.<ref name="ObamaSpeech10SEP14" /> On the night of 21/22 September the United States, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, the UAE, Jordan and Qatar started air attacks against ISIL in Syria.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Cooper|first1=Helene|last2=Schmitt|first2=Eric|date=23 September 2014|title=Airstrikes by US and Allies Hit ISIS Targets in Syria|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/23/world/middleeast/us-and-allies-hit-isis-targets-in-syria.html|access-date=18 April 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=25 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230625230141/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/23/world/middleeast/us-and-allies-hit-isis-targets-in-syria.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In October 2014, it was reported that the US Department of Defense considered military operations against ISIL to be under Operation Enduring Freedom for campaign medal awarding.<ref>{{cite news|last=Tilghman|first=Andrew|date=2 October 2014|title=Pentagon: Medals for new Iraq mission to fall under Operation Enduring Freedom|newspaper=Army Times|url=http://www.armytimes.com/article/20141002/NEWS05/310020070/Pentagon-Medals-new-Iraq-mission-fall-under-Operation-Enduring-Freedom|access-date=4 October 2014}}</ref> On 15 October, the military intervention became known as "Operation Inherent Resolve".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Rhodan|first1=Maya|date=15 October 2014|title=U.S. Military Action Against ISIS Deemed 'Operation Inherent Resolve'|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|url=https://time.com/3511264/operation-inherent-resolve-isis-iraq-syria/|access-date=16 October 2014|archive-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015232730/http://time.com/3511264/operation-inherent-resolve-isis-iraq-syria/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Islamic State of Lanao and the Battle of Marawi ===
With the rise of the [[Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant]] (ISIL), jihadist offshoots sprang up in [[ISIL territorial claims|regions around the world]], including the Philippines. The [[Maute group]], composed of former [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front]] guerrillas and foreign fighters led by [[Omar Maute]], the alleged founder of a ''Dawlah Islamiya'', declared loyalty to ISIL and began clashing with Philippine security forces and staging [[2016 Davao City bombing|bombings]]. On 23 May 2017, the group attacked the city of [[Marawi]], resulting in the bloody [[Battle of Marawi]] that lasted 5 months. After the decisive battle, remnants of the group were reportedly still recruiting in 2017 and 2018.<ref>{{cite web|title=Six killed in Lanao del Sur encounter between soldiers, Maute group remnants|url=https://news.mb.com.ph/2018/09/06/six-killed-in-lanao-del-sur-encounter-between-soldiers-maute-group-remnants/|access-date=22 January 2019|work=Manila Bulletin|archive-date=11 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411204053/https://news.mb.com.ph/2018/09/06/six-killed-in-lanao-del-sur-encounter-between-soldiers-maute-group-remnants/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=24 May 2018|title=Abu Dar emerges as new Maute group leader–AFP|url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/993820/abu-dar-emerges-as-new-maute-group-leader-afp|access-date=22 January 2019|work=Inquirer|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405203946/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/993820/abu-dar-emerges-as-new-maute-group-leader-afp|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Libyan War ===
{{Main|Factional violence in Libya (2011–2014)|Libyan Civil War (2014–2020)|American intervention in Libya (2015–2019)}}

[[File:An AV-8B Harrier takes off from the flight deck of USS Wasp (LHD 1) Aug. 8, 2016. (28829655742).jpg|thumb|An [[McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II|AV-8B Harrier]] takes off from the flight deck of {{USS|Wasp|LHD-1|6}} during [[Military intervention against ISIL#Libya|Operation Odyssey Lightning]], 8 August 2016.]]

NBC News reported that in mid-2014, [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in Libya|ISIL had about 1,000 fighters in Libya]]. Taking advantage of a power vacuum in the center of the country, far from the major cities of [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] and [[Benghazi]], ISIL expanded rapidly over the next 18 months. Local militants were joined by jihadists from the rest of North Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and the [[Caucasus]]. The force absorbed or defeated other Islamist groups inside [[Libya]] and the central ISIL leadership in [[Raqqa]], [[Syria]], began urging foreign recruits to head for Libya instead of [[Syria]]. [[Islamic State|ISIL]] seized control of the coastal city of [[Sirte]] in early 2015 and then began to expand to the east and south. By the beginning of 2016, it had effective control of 120 to 150 miles of coastline and portions of the interior and had reached Eastern Libya's major population center, [[Benghazi]]. In spring 2016, [[United States Africa Command|AFRICOM]] estimated that ISIL had about 5,000 fighters in its stronghold of Sirte.<ref name="Did Obama Defeat ISIS in Libya">{{cite web|date=28 January 2017|title=Did Obama Defeat ISIS in Libya?|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/did-obama-defeat-isis-libya-n709001|publisher=NBC news|access-date=7 October 2019|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404174908/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/did-obama-defeat-isis-libya-n709001|url-status=live}}</ref>

However, the indigenous rebel groups who had staked their claims to Libya and turned their weapons on ISIL, with the help of airstrikes by Western forces, including US drones, the Libyan population resented the outsiders who wanted to establish a fundamentalist regime on their soil. Militias loyal to the new [[Libya|Libyan unity government]], plus a separate and rival force loyal to a former officer in the [[Gaddafi regime]], [[Battle of Sirte (2016)|launched an assault on ISIL outposts in Sirte]] and the surrounding areas that lasted for months. According to US military estimates, ISIL's ranks shrank to somewhere between a few hundred and 2,000 fighters. In August 2016, the [[Military intervention against ISIL#Libya|US military began airstrikes]] that, along with continued pressure on the ground from the Libyan militias, pushed the remaining ISIL fighters back into Sirte. In all, US drones and planes hit ISIL nearly 590 times, and the Libyan militias reclaimed the city in mid-December.<ref name="Did Obama Defeat ISIS in Libya" /> On 18 January 2017, ABC News reported that two USAF [[Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit|B-2 bombers]] struck two ISIL camps {{convert|28|mi}} south of Sirte, the airstrikes targeted between 80 and 100 ISIL fighters in multiple camps, a crewless aircraft also participated in the airstrikes. NBC News reported that as many as 90 ISIL fighters were killed in the strike, a [[United States Department of Defense|US defense]] official said that "This was the largest remaining [[Islamic State in Libya|ISIL presence in Libya]]," and that "They have been largely marginalized, but I am hesitant to say they have been eliminated in Libya."<ref name="Did Obama Defeat ISIS in Libya" />

=== American military intervention in Cameroon ===
In October 2015, the US began deploying 300 soldiers<ref>{{cite web|date=14 October 2015|title=Obama to deploy 300 US troops to Cameroon to fight Boko Haram|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/14/obama-deployment-us-troops-cameroon-boko-haram|access-date=25 October 2015|work=The Guardian|archive-date=18 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018133839/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/14/obama-deployment-us-troops-cameroon-boko-haram|url-status=live}}</ref> to [[Cameroon]], with the invitation of the Cameroonian government, to support African forces in a non-combat role in their fight against ISIL insurgency in that country. The troops' primary missions will focus on providing intelligence support to local forces and conducting reconnaissance flights.<ref>{{cite web|date=14 October 2015|title=US troops deployed to Cameroon for Boko Haram fight|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/10/usa-troops-deployed-cameroon-boko-haram-fight-151014212428195.html|access-date=25 October 2015|publisher=Al Jazeera|archive-date=18 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018055734/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/10/usa-troops-deployed-cameroon-boko-haram-fight-151014212428195.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Operation Active Endeavour ===
{{Main|Operation Active Endeavour}}

Operation Active Endeavour was a [[Navy|naval operation]] of NATO started in October 2001 in response to the 11 September attacks. It operated in the Mediterranean and was designed to prevent the movement of militants or [[weapons of mass destruction]] and to enhance the security of shipping in general.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_7932.htm |title=Operation Active Endeavour |publisher=[[NATO]] |date=10 November 2010 |access-date=19 January 2011 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406225555/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_7932.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Fighting in Kashmir ===
{{Main|Kashmir conflict}}

[[File:Kashmir region 2004.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|'''Political map:''' the Kashmir region districts]]
In a 'Letter to American People' written by [[Osama bin Laden]] in 2002, he stated that one of the reasons he was fighting America is because of its support of India on the Kashmir issue.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver|title=Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'|work=The Guardian|access-date=14 September 2014|location=London|date=24 November 2002|archive-date=18 April 2010|archive-url=https://archive.today/20100418164357/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=CFRKashmir>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/9135/|title=Kashmir Militant Extremists|publisher=Council on Foreign Relations|access-date=14 September 2014|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070214103922/http://www.cfr.org/publication/9135/|archive-date=14 February 2007}}</ref> Indian sources claimed that in 2006, al-Qaeda claimed they had established a wing in Kashmir; this worried the Indian government.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/13/world/asia/13iht-india.2194572.html Al-Qaeda claim of Kashmir link worries India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404175634/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/13/world/asia/13iht-india.2194572.html |date=4 April 2023 }}, ''[[The New York Times]]'', 13 July 2006</ref> India also argued that al-Qaeda has strong ties with the Kashmir militant groups [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]] and [[Jaish-e-Mohammed]] in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/article1857890.ece |title=No Al Qaeda presence in Kashmir: Army |work=The Hindu |date=18 June 2007 |access-date=2 February 2010 |location=Chennai, India |archive-date=9 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309014623/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/article1857890.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> While on a visit to Pakistan in January 2010, US Defense Secretary [[Robert Gates]] stated that al-Qaeda was seeking to destabilize the region and planning to provoke a nuclear war between India and Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/world/03-al-qaeda-could-provoke-new-india-pakistan-war-gates-ss-02 |title=Al Qaeda could provoke new India-Pakistan war: Gates |date=20 January 2010 |work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |access-date=23 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100123140217/http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/world/03-al-qaeda-could-provoke-new-india-pakistan-war-gates-ss-02 |archive-date=23 January 2010}}</ref>

In September 2009, a US [[Drone attacks in Pakistan|drone strike]] reportedly killed [[Ilyas Kashmiri (militant)|Ilyas Kashmiri]], who was the chief of [[Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami]], a Kashmiri militant group associated with al-Qaeda.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/world/12-us+drones+killed+two+terrorist+leaders+in+pak--bi-10 |title=US drones killed two terrorist leaders in Pak |access-date=9 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923225021/http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/world/12-us+drones+killed+two+terrorist+leaders+in+pak--bi-10 |archive-date=23 September 2009 }}, ''[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]'', 17 September 2009</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2010/01/25/us/AP-US-Chicago-Terrorism-Charges.html Chicago Man Pleads Not Guilty in Terror Cases], ''[[The New York Times]]'', 25 January 2010</ref> Kashmiri was described by [[Bruce Riedel]] as a 'prominent' al-Qaeda member,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2009/1215_terrorism_riedel.aspx |title=Al Qaeda's American Mole |author=Bruce Riedel |date=15 December 2009 |website=The Brookings Institution |access-date=14 September 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924002003/https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2009/1215_terrorism_riedel.aspx |archive-date=24 September 2011}}</ref> while others described him as the head of military operations for al-Qaeda.<ref>[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2009%5C10%5C15%5Cstory_15-10-2009_pg1_11 Ilyas Kashmiri alive, lays out future terror strategy], [[Daily Times (Pakistan)]], 15 October 2009 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606111931/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2009%5C10%5C15%5Cstory_15-10-2009_pg1_11 |date=6 June 2011}}</ref> [[Waziristan]] had now become the new battlefield for Kashmiri militants, who were now fighting [[NATO]] in support of al-Qaeda.<ref>[http://www.thenews.com.pk/daily_detail.asp?id=199076 Ilyas Kashmiri had planned to attack COAS], ''[[The News International]]'', 18 September 2009{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
On 8 July 2012, Al-Badar Mujahideen, a breakaway faction of the Kashmir-centric terror group Hizbul Mujahideen, on the conclusion of their two-day Shuhada Conference, called for a mobilization of resources for the continuation of jihad in Kashmir.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/militants-recruit-in-rawalpindi-for-antiindia-activities/972349/ |title=Militants recruit in Rawalpindi for anti-India activities |date=10 July 2012 |work=The Indian Express |archive-date=20 January 2013 |access-date=10 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120042636/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/militants-recruit-in-rawalpindi-for-antiindia-activities/972349/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2021, an air force station in Jammu (in India-administered Kashmir) was attacked by a drone. Investigators were uncertain whether a state or non-state actor initiated the attack.<ref>{{cite web|date=30 June 2021|title=Kashmir drone attacks raise fears of new turn in terror tactics|url=https://www.rfi.fr/en/international/20210630-kashmir-drone-attacks-raise-fears-of-new-turn-in-terror-tactics|access-date=11 September 2021|publisher=Radio France Internationale|language=en|archive-date=12 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412022616/https://www.rfi.fr/en/international/20210630-kashmir-drone-attacks-raise-fears-of-new-turn-in-terror-tactics|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=1 July 2021|title='State support' behind drone strike, says top Army officer|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/state-support-behind-drone-strike-says-top-army-officer-101625078424968.html|access-date=11 September 2021|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405151730/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/state-support-behind-drone-strike-says-top-army-officer-101625078424968.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Anti-terror campaigns by other powers ===
As part of the [[Iran–Israel proxy conflict]] and the [[Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict]], both [[Israel]] and [[Saudi Arabia]] has engaged in its own war on terror against [[Iran]]ian-backed insurgent groups, and against [[Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula|Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP)]] and [[Islamic State – Yemen Province|Islamic State]] in Saudi Arabia's case.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/03/world/middleeast/yemen-us-airstrikes-al-qaeda.html|title=United States Ramps Up Airstrikes Against Al Qaeda in Yemen|last1=Schmitt|first1=Eric|website=The New York Times|date=March 3, 2017|access-date=11 April 2025|archive-date=19 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519142700/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/03/world/middleeast/yemen-us-airstrikes-al-qaeda.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Although Israel did not directly participate in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], it reportedly urged the US not to delay an attack on [[Saddam Hussein]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Kayer |first=J |date=16 August 2002 |title=Israel urges U.S. to attack |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> Before the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, Israeli intelligence reportedly provided information to Washington.<ref>{{cite news |last=Alon |first=Gideon |date=13 August 2002 |title=Sharon Panel: Iraq is our biggest danger |url= |newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref> Israel launched a 34-day military conflict against [[Hezbollah]] in [[2006 Lebanon War|Lebanon, northern Israel and the Golan Heights during mid-2006]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/2006-Lebanon-War|title=2006 Lebanon War|last1=Zeidan|first1=Adam|website=Britannica|date=7 July 2024|access-date=9 June 2024|archive-date=27 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250627013154/https://www.britannica.com/event/2006-Lebanon-War|url-status=live}}</ref> In Saudi Arabia's case, its own war on terror has been heightened by [[Saudi-led intervention in the Yemeni civil war|its intervention in the Yemeni civil war]] since March 26, 2015. Both Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) and Islamic State had a presence in [[Yemen]] before the Saudi-led intervention.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-31998682|title=Islamic State in Yemen: Why IS is seeking to expand|last1=Mendelsohn|first1=Barak|website=BBC|date=March 21, 2015|access-date=11 April 2025|archive-date=11 April 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250411011853/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-31998682|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Colombia]] has also engaged on its own war on terror,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/03/opinion/aiding-colombia-s-war-on-terrorism.html|title=Aiding Colombia's War on Terrorism|last1=Moreno|first1=Luis Alberto|date=3 May 2002|website=The New York Times|access-date=13 June 2024|archive-date=13 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613040804/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/03/opinion/aiding-colombia-s-war-on-terrorism.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://harvardpolitics.com/colombias-war-on-terror/|title=Colombia's War on Terror|last1=Long|first1=Robert|date=24 May 2009|website=Harvard Political Review}}</ref> as terrorism by both [[Guerrilla movements in Colombia|guerrillas]] and [[Right-wing paramilitarism in Colombia|paramilitaries]] remains a major concern in the country since [[Colombian conflict#2000–2006|the escalation of armed violence in the 2000s]] in the context of the [[Colombian conflict]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/terror/RS21049.pdf|title=Latin America: Terrorism Issues|publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]]|date=2011-02-23|accessdate=2011-05-18}}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> [[Álvaro Uribe]]'s presidency, in particular, was marked by a significant focus on counter-terrorism and counterinsurgency. The counterterrorism measures of [[Plan Colombia]] acquired further expansion during the presidency of [[George W. Bush]] and an important focus on national security after the events of [[9/11]], as the threat of global terrorism received greater attention.<ref name="state">{{cite web|url=http://usinfo.state.gov/gi/Archive/2004/Nov/23-231491.html|title=Bush, Uribe Applaud Strength of U.S.–Colombia Partnership|date=22 November 2004|publisher=US Department of State|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824153938/http://usinfo.state.gov/gi/Archive/2004/Nov/23-231491.html|archive-date=24 August 2006|url-status=dead|access-date=26 April 2006}}</ref>

In the 2010s, the [[China|People's Republic of China]] has also been engaged in its own war on terror, predominantly a domestic campaign in response to violent actions by [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]] separatist movements in the [[Xinjiang conflict]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/china/chinas-war-terror-september-11-uighur-separatism/p4765|title=China's 'War on Terror': September 11 and Uighur Separatism|publisher=Council on Foreign Relations|access-date=10 September 2015|archive-date=23 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923221732/http://www.cfr.org/china/chinas-war-terror-september-11-uighur-separatism/p4765|url-status=dead}}</ref> This campaign was widely criticized in international media due to the perception that it unfairly targets and persecutes [[Chinese Muslims]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/chinas-war-on-terror-becomes-all-out-attack-on-islam-in-xinjiang/2014/09/19/5c5840a4-1aa7-4bb6-bc63-69f6bfba07e9_story.html|title=China's war on terror becomes all-out attack on Islam in Xinjiang|author=Simon Denyer|date=19 September 2014|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=10 September 2015|archive-date=28 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728152430/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/chinas-war-on-terror-becomes-all-out-attack-on-islam-in-xinjiang/2014/09/19/5c5840a4-1aa7-4bb6-bc63-69f6bfba07e9_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> potentially resulting in a negative backlash from China's predominantly [[Muslim]] [[Uyghur people|Uighur]] population. [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP general secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]]'s [[General secretaryship of Xi Jinping|regime]] has imprisoned up to two million [[Uyghurs]] and other [[Islam in China|Muslim]] ethnic minorities in [[Xinjiang internment camps]], where they are reportedly [[UN Human Rights Office report on Xinjiang|subject to abuse and torture]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi crown prince defended China's imprisonment of a million Muslims in internment camps, giving Xi Jinping a reason to continue his 'precursors to genocide' |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/saudi-crown-prince-defends-china-oppression-of-muslims-in-xinjiang-mohammed-bin-salman-2019-2 |work=Business Insider |date=23 February 2019 |archive-date=14 September 2019 |access-date=11 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190914053501/https://www.businessinsider.com/saudi-crown-prince-defends-china-oppression-of-muslims-in-xinjiang-mohammed-bin-salman-2019-2 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi crown prince defends China's right to fight 'terrorism' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/02/saudi-crown-prince-defends-china-fight-terrorism-190223104647149.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=23 February 2019 |archive-date=19 June 2019 |access-date=11 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619044243/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/02/saudi-crown-prince-defends-china-fight-terrorism-190223104647149.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Russia has also been engaged on its own, also largely internally focused, counter-terrorism campaign often termed a war on terror, during the [[Second Chechen War]], the [[Insurgency in the North Caucasus]], and the [[Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War]].<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2093529,00.html |magazine=Time |title=How the War on Terrorism Did Russia a Favor |date=19 September 2011 |access-date=7 August 2015 |archive-date=2 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502172828/https://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2093529,00.html |url-status=dead |first=Simon |last=Shuster }}</ref> Like China's war on terror, Russia has also been focused on [[separatist]] and [[Islamist]] movements that use [[political violence]] to achieve their ends.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~ieresgwu/assets/docs/demokratizatsiya%20archive/10-4_Cohen.PDF |title=Russia, Islam, and the War on Terrorism |first=Ariel |last=Cohen |access-date=29 November 2015 |archive-date=12 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012064151/https://www2.gwu.edu/~ieresgwu/assets/docs/demokratizatsiya%20archive/10-4_Cohen.PDF |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== International military support ==
{{Main|Participants in Operation Enduring Freedom|Multi-National Force – Iraq}}

{{See also|Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2008|Afghan War order of battle 2012}}
[[File:BritishPatrolHelmand01.jpg|thumb|The United Kingdom was the second-largest contributor of troops in [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Afghanistan]].]]
The invasion of Afghanistan is seen to have been the first action of this war, and initially involved forces from the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Afghan [[Northern Alliance]]. Since the initial invasion period, these forces were augmented by troops and aircraft from Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Norway, among others. In 2006, there were about 33,000 troops in Afghanistan.

On 12 September 2001, less than 24 hours after the 11 September attacks in New York City and Washington, D.C., NATO invoked Article 5 of the [[North Atlantic Treaty]]. It declared the attacks to be an attack against all 19 NATO member countries. Australian Prime Minister [[John Howard]] also stated that Australia would invoke the [[ANZUS]] Treaty along similar lines.<ref>{{cite news |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=14 September 2001 |access-date=19 January 2011 |url=http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2001/s367069.htm |title=PM speaks on Ansett collapse, Anzus treaty |archive-date=21 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121220558/http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2001/s367069.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the following months, NATO took a broad range of measures to respond to the threat of terrorism. On 22 November 2002, the member states of the [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council]] (EAPC) decided on a Partnership Action Plan against Terrorism, which explicitly states, "[The] EAPC States are committed to the protection and promotion of fundamental freedoms and human rights, as well as the rule of law, in combating terrorism."<ref>{{cite news |title=Partnership Action Plan against Terrorism |url=http://pfpdev.ethz.ch/SCORMcontent/72234/scos/93/documents/0.pdf |date=22 November 2002 |access-date=19 January 2011 |publisher=[[NATO]]}}{{dead link|date=December 2011}}</ref> NATO started naval operations in the Mediterranean Sea designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction as well as to enhance the security of shipping in general called Operation Active Endeavour.

Support for the US cooled when America made clear its determination to invade Iraq in late 2002. Still, many of the "coalition of the willing" countries that unconditionally supported the US-led military action have sent troops to Afghanistan, particularly neighboring Pakistan, which has disowned its earlier support for the Taliban and contributed tens of thousands of soldiers to the conflict. Pakistan was also engaged in the [[Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] (a.k.a. Waziristan War or North-West Pakistan War). Supported by US intelligence, Pakistan attempted to remove the Taliban insurgency and al-Qaeda element from the northern tribal areas.<ref>{{cite news|title=New frontline in the war on terror.}}</ref>

== Post–9/11 events inside the United States ==

{{Main|Patriot Act}}

{{Further|Mass surveillance in the United States|NSPM-7}}
[[File:Liberty.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[US Immigration and Customs Enforcement]] helicopter patrols the airspace over New York City.]]
In addition to military efforts abroad, in the [[aftermath of 9/11]], the Bush Administration increased domestic efforts to prevent future attacks. Various government bureaucracies that handled security and military functions were reorganized. A new cabinet-level agency called the [[United States Department of Homeland Security]] was created in November 2002 to lead and coordinate the largest reorganization of the US federal government since the consolidation of the armed forces into the Department of Defense.<ref>[https://www.govexec.com/defense/2002/06/bush-proposes-massive-overhaul-of-homeland-security-agencies/11786/ “War of Perceptions” in Iraq بوش طرح اصلاحات اساسی در سازمان‌های امنیت داخلی را ارائه کرد] Retrieved 21 July 2025</ref>

The Justice Department launched the [[National Security Entry-Exit Registration System]] for certain male non-citizens in the US, requiring them to register in person at offices of the [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]].

The USA PATRIOT Act of October 2001 dramatically reduces restrictions on law enforcement agencies' ability to search telephone, e-mail communications, medical, financial, and other records; eases restrictions on foreign intelligence gathering within the United States; expands the [[Secretary of the Treasury]]'s authority to regulate financial transactions, particularly those involving foreign individuals and entities; and broadens the discretion of law enforcement and immigration authorities in detaining and deporting immigrants suspected of terrorism-related acts. The act also expanded the definition of terrorism to include domestic terrorism, thus enlarging the number of activities to which the USA PATRIOT Act's expanded law enforcement powers could be applied. A new [[Terrorist Finance Tracking Program]] monitored the movements of terrorists' financial resources (discontinued after being revealed by ''[[The New York Times]]''). Global telecommunication usage, including those with no links to terrorism,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/oct/10/double-danger-nsa-surveillance |title=The double danger of the NSA's 'collect it all' policy on surveillance |author=Rachel Levinson-Waldman |work=The Guardian |date=10 October 2013 |access-date=27 February 2014 |archive-date=20 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520000820/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/oct/10/double-danger-nsa-surveillance |url-status=live }}</ref> is being collected and monitored through the [[NSA electronic surveillance program]]. The Patriot Act is still in effect.

Political interest groups have stated that these laws remove important restrictions on governmental authority and constitute a dangerous encroachment on civil liberties, possibly [[Constitutionality|unconstitutional]] violations of the [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth Amendment]]. On 30 July 2003, the [[American Civil Liberties Union]] (ACLU) filed the first legal challenge against Section 215 of the Patriot Act, claiming that it allows the [[FBI]] to violate a citizen's [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] rights, Fourth Amendment rights, and right to [[due process]], by granting the government the right to search a person's business, bookstore, and library records in a terrorist investigation, without disclosing to the individual that records were being searched.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ala.org/ala/alonline/currentnews/newsarchive/2003/august2003/firstpatriot.cfm |title=American Libraries – First Patriot Act Challenge Filed by ACLU |publisher=ALA |date=4 August 2003 |access-date=26 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122043434/http://www.ala.org/ala/alonline/currentnews/newsarchive/2003/august2003/firstpatriot.cfm |archive-date=22 January 2012}}</ref> Also, governing bodies in many communities have passed symbolic resolutions against the act.
[[File:John Walker Lindh Custody.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Walker Lindh]] was captured as an enemy combatant during the United States' [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|2001 invasion of Afghanistan]].]]

In a speech on 9 June 2005, Bush said that the USA PATRIOT Act had been used to bring charges against more than 400 suspects, more than half of whom had been convicted. Meanwhile, the ACLU quoted Justice Department figures showing that 7,000 people have complained of abuse of the Act.<ref>[https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2005/06/text/20050609-2.html President Discusses Patriot Act بوش طرح اصلاحات اساسی در سازمان‌های امنیت داخلی را ارائه کرد] Retrieved 21 July 2025</ref>

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ([[DARPA]]) launched an initiative in early 2002 by creating the [[Total Information Awareness]] program, designed to promote information technologies for counterterrorism. This program, facing criticism, has since been defunded by Congress.<ref>[https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL31786.html Total Information Awareness Programs: Funding, Composition, and Oversight Issuesبرنامه‌های آگاهی کامل از اطلاعات: مسائل مربوط به بودجه، ترکیب و نظارت] Retrieved 21 July 2025</ref>

By 2003, 12 major conventions and protocols were designed to combat terrorism. These were adopted and ratified by many states. These conventions require states to cooperate on principal issues regarding unlawful seizure of aircraft, the physical protection of nuclear materials, and the freezing of assets of militant networks.<ref>{{cite book |first=Cindy C. |last=Combs |year=2003 |title=Terrorism in the Twenty First Century |edition=3rd |location=New Jersey |publisher=[[Pearson Education]] |isbn=978-013097519-5 }}{{page needed|date=September 2024}}</ref>

In 2005, the UN Security Council adopted [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1624|Resolution 1624]] concerning incitement to commit acts of terrorism and the obligations of countries to comply with international human rights laws.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/sc/ctc/ |title=UN Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee |publisher=United Nations |access-date=26 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611145715/http://www.un.org/sc/ctc/ |archive-date=11 June 2010}}</ref> Although both resolutions require mandatory annual reports on counter-terrorism activities by adopting nations, the United States and Israel have both declined to submit reports. In the same year, the [[United States Department of Defense]] and the [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] issued a planning document, by the name "National Military Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism", which stated that it constituted the "comprehensive military plan to prosecute the Global War on Terror for the [[Military of the United States|Armed Forces of the United States]]...including the findings and recommendations of the [[9/11 Commission]] and a rigorous examination with the Department of Defense".

On 9 January 2007, the House of Representatives passed a bill, by a vote of 299–128, enacting many of the recommendations of the 9/11 Commission The bill passed in the US Senate,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=110&session=1&vote=00073|title=U.S. Senate: Roll Call Vote|date=27 January 2015|website=senate.gov|access-date=25 June 2015|archive-date=26 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626110608/http://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=110&session=1&vote=00073|url-status=live}}</ref> by a vote of 60–38, on 13 March 2007. It was signed into law on 3 August 2007 by President Bush. It became Public Law 110–53. In July 2012, the US Senate passed a resolution urging that the [[Haqqani Network]] be designated a [[US State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations|foreign terrorist organization]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/us-cong-votes-for-designating-haqqani-network-as-terror-group/980665/|title=US Cong votes for designating Haqqani network as terror group|date=28 July 2012|work=The Indian Express|archive-date=20 January 2013|access-date=28 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120042628/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/us-cong-votes-for-designating-haqqani-network-as-terror-group/980665|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Office of Strategic Influence]] was secretly created after 9/11 to coordinate propaganda efforts, but was closed soon after it was discovered. The Bush administration implemented the [[Continuity of Operations Plan]] (also known as Continuity of Government) to ensure that the US government could continue operations in catastrophic circumstances.

Since 9/11, extremists have made various attempts to attack the United States, with varying levels of organization and skill. For example, vigilant passengers aboard a transatlantic flight prevented [[Richard Reid (shoe bomber)|Richard Reid]], in 2001, and [[Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab]], in 2009, from detonating an explosive device.

Other terrorist plots have been stopped by federal agencies using new legal powers and investigative tools, sometimes in cooperation with foreign governments.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}

Such thwarted attacks include:
* The [[2001 shoe bomb plot]]
* A plan to crash airplanes into the [[U.S. Bank Tower (Los Angeles)|US Bank Tower]] (aka Library Tower) in Los Angeles
* The 2003 plot by [[Iyman Faris]] to blow up the [[Brooklyn Bridge]] in New York City
* The [[2004 Financial buildings plot]], which targeted the [[International Monetary Fund]] and [[World Bank]] buildings in Washington, D.C., the [[New York Stock Exchange]] and other financial institutions
* The 2004 [[Columbus Shopping Mall Bombing Plot]]
* The [[2006 Sears Tower plot]]
* The [[2007 Fort Dix attack plot]]
* The [[2007 John F. Kennedy International Airport attack plot]]
* The [[Najibullah Zazi|New York Subway Bombing Plot]] and [[2010 Times Square car bombing attempt]]

The Obama administration promised the closing of the [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]] (GITMO), increased the number of troops in [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Afghanistan]], and promised the withdrawal of its forces from [[War in Iraq|Iraq]]. Due to congressional opposition, the Obama Administration was unable to close GITMO but brought down its prison population from 242 detainees to 40 detainees.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Boghani |first1=Priyanka |last2=Robertson |first2=Megan |date=February 21, 2017 |title=How 30 "Forever Prisoners" Got Out of Gitmo |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/interactive/how-30-forever-prisoners-got-out-of-gitmo/ |access-date=March 2, 2025 |website=[[PBS]] |archive-date=13 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250713092044/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/interactive/how-30-forever-prisoners-got-out-of-gitmo/ |url-status=live }}</ref> President Trump, during his [[First presidency of Donald Trump|first administration]], signed an executive order keeping Guantanamo Bay's detention camp opened indefinitely, bringing an end to efforts to close it.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 30, 2018 |title=Trump signs order to keep Guantanamo military prison open |url=https://www.foxnews.com/us/trump-signs-order-to-keep-guantanamo-military-prison-open?msockid=150b9286b7f16432179d866cb69d6548 |access-date=March 2, 2018 |website=[[Fox News]] |agency=Associated Press }}</ref> During his first term, only one detainee was transferred. The Biden Administration, like the former Obama Administration, pledged to close GITMO, but proved unsuccessful too and added million-dollar expansions<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vavra |first=Shannon |date=January 5, 2022 |title=Biden Promised to Close Gitmo. Instead, He's Upgrading It. |url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/biden-promised-close-gitmo-instead-100113430.html |access-date=March 2, 2025 |website=[[Yahoo]] |archive-date=3 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203184340/https://www.yahoo.com/news/biden-promised-close-gitmo-instead-100113430.html |url-status=live }}</ref> A total of 25 detainees were transferred during the Biden presidency. After being inaugurated for his second term, President Trump signed a presidential memorandum to begin the expansion of the [[Guantanamo Migrant Operations Center]] to allow for the detainment of up to 30,000 migrants.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/trump-says-he-will-instruct-homeland-security-pentagon-prepare-migrant-facility-2025-01-29/ | title=Trump to prepare facility at Guantanamo for 30,000 migrants | work=Reuters | date=29 January 2025 | archive-date=24 February 2025 | access-date=2 March 2025 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20250224172911/https://www.reuters.com/world/us/trump-says-he-will-instruct-homeland-security-pentagon-prepare-migrant-facility-2025-01-29/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

== Transnational actions ==
=== "Extraordinary rendition" ===
[[File:CIA illegal flights.svg|thumb|upright=1.7|Alleged "extraordinary rendition" illegal flights of the [[CIA]], as reported by ''[[Rzeczpospolita (newspaper)|Rzeczpospolita]]''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rp.pl/artykul/292283.html |title=Politycy nie pozwolili śledczym tropić lotów CIA |language=pl |work=Rzeczpospolita |date=17 April 2009 |access-date=17 July 2010 |archive-date=11 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711125637/http://www.rp.pl/artykul/292283.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]
[[File:CIA Secret Prisons.svg|thumb|upright=1.7|CIA's Extraordinary Rendition and Detention Program{{snd}}countries involved in the Program, according to the 2013 [[Open Society Foundations]]' report on [[torture]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transcend.org/tms/2013/02/the-latin-american-exception-how-a-washington-global-torture-gulag-was-turned-into-the-only-gulag-free-zone-on-earth/|title=Transcend Media Service|publisher=|access-date=22 January 2019|archive-date=28 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528143425/http://www.transcend.org/tms/2013/02/the-latin-american-exception-how-a-washington-global-torture-gulag-was-turned-into-the-only-gulag-free-zone-on-earth/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/projects/globalizing-torture|title=CIA Secret Detention and Torture|publisher=opensocietyfoundations.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130220112418/http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/projects/globalizing-torture|archive-date=20 February 2013}}</ref>]]
After 11 September attacks, the United States government commenced a program of illegal "[[extraordinary rendition]]", sometimes referred to as "irregular rendition" or "forced rendition", the government-sponsored [[kidnapping|abduction]] and [[extrajudicial]] transfer of a person from one country to transferee countries, with the consent of transferee countries.<ref name="54 countries">{{cite news |author=Max Fisher |title=A staggering map of the 54 countries that reportedly participated in the CIA's rendition program |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/02/05/a-staggering-map-of-the-54-countries-that-reportedly-participated-in-the-cias-rendition-program/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=5 February 2013 |archive-date=13 July 2015 |access-date=24 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713011326/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/02/05/a-staggering-map-of-the-54-countries-that-reportedly-participated-in-the-cias-rendition-program/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/22/us-extraordinary-rendition-programme|title=New light shed on US government's extraordinary rendition programme|first1=Ian|last1=Cobain|first2=James|last2=Ball|date=22 May 2013|work=The Guardian}}</ref><ref name="theguardian.com"/> The aim of extraordinary rendition is often conducting [[torture]] on the detainee that would be difficult to conduct in the US legal environment, a practice known as [[torture by proxy]]. Starting in 2002, the US government rendered hundreds of [[illegal combatant]]s for US detention, and transported detainees to US-controlled sites as part of an extensive interrogation program that included [[enhanced interrogation|torture]].<ref>Bush administration increased renditions
* {{cite magazine |author=Jane Mayer |title=Outsourcing torture |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/02/14/outsourcing-torture |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=14 February 2005 |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-date=14 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514190258/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/02/14/outsourcing-torture |url-status=live }}
* Greenwald, Glenn. [http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2008/12/15/rumsfeld Senate Report Links Bush to Detainee Homicides; Media Yawns] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715141446/http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2008/12/15/rumsfeld/ |date=15 July 2011 }}, Salon.com, 15 December 2008.
* [http://pubrecord.org/torture/292/senate-panels-report-links-detainees-murders-to-bushs-torture-policy/ "Senate Panel's Report Links Detainees' Murders to Bush's Torture Policy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524045042/http://pubrecord.org/torture/292/senate-panels-report-links-detainees-murders-to-bushs-torture-policy/ |date=24 May 2020 }} ''The Public Record'', 30 April 2009.
* Barnes, Greg and Miller, Julian. [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-dec-12-na-interrogate-abuse12-story.html "Senate Report Says Rumsfeld to Blame for Detainee Abuse"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226192402/http://articles.latimes.com/2008/dec/12/nation/na-interrogate-abuse12 |date=26 February 2017 }} ''Los Angeles Times'', 12 September 2008.</ref> Extraordinary rendition continued under the [[Barack Obama|Obama]] administration, with targets being interrogated and subsequently taken to the US for trial.<ref>Obama administration renditions
* {{cite web |url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2015/06/16/senate_votes_to_ban_torture_will_it_stick_this_time.html |title=Senate votes to ban torture: Will It Stick This Time? |newspaper=Slate |date=16 June 2015 |author=Joshua Keeting |access-date=16 June 2015 |archive-date=31 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331074910/http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2015/06/16/senate_votes_to_ban_torture_will_it_stick_this_time.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |author=Craig Whitlock |title=Renditions continue under Obama, despite due-process concerns |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/renditions-continue-under-obama-despite-due-process-concerns/2013/01/01/4e593aa0-5102-11e2-984e-f1de82a7c98a_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=1 January 2013 |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-date=11 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111225205/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/renditions-continue-under-obama-despite-due-process-concerns/2013/01/01/4e593aa0-5102-11e2-984e-f1de82a7c98a_story.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |author=Cora Currier |author2=Suevon Lee |title=The Secret Prison |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/propublica/2012/07/extraordinary_rendition_proxy_detention_and_gitmo_during_the_obama_administration.html |work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |date=26 July 2012 |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-date=12 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712161130/http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/propublica/2012/07/extraordinary_rendition_proxy_detention_and_gitmo_during_the_obama_administration.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The United Nations considers one nation abducting the citizens of another a [[crime against humanity]].<ref name="MyUser_The_Washington_Post_July_26_2015c">{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2014/11/20/torture-kidnapping-and-gulags-north-koreas-alleged-crimes-against-humanity/ |title=Torture, kidnapping and gulags: North Korea's alleged crimes against humanity |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=20 November 2014 |author=Adam Taylor |access-date=26 July 2015 |archive-date=29 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629142245/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2014/11/20/torture-kidnapping-and-gulags-north-koreas-alleged-crimes-against-humanity/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 2014 the [[European Court of Human Rights]] condemned the [[government of Poland]] for participating in CIA extraordinary rendition, ordering Poland to pay restitution to men who had been abducted, taken to a CIA [[black site]] in Poland, and tortured.<ref name="European Court of Human Rights">{{cite news |agency= Agence France-Presse |title=European court condemns Poland over secret CIA torture prisons|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/10989149/European-court-condemns-Poland-over-secret-CIA-torture-prisons.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/10989149/European-court-condemns-Poland-over-secret-CIA-torture-prisons.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=24 July 2014 |access-date=26 October 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Dan Bilesfsky |title=Court Censures Poland Over C.I.A. Renditions |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/25/world/europe/europe-poland-cia-black-site-extraordinary-rendition.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=24 July 2014 |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726173406/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/25/world/europe/europe-poland-cia-black-site-extraordinary-rendition.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="MyUser_Reuters.com_February_24_2015c">{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-cia-torture-poland-idUSKBN0LL1TP20150217 |title=European court rejects Polish appeal in CIA jail case |work=Reuters |date=17 February 2015 |author=Christian Lowe |access-date=24 February 2015 |archive-date=5 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105012824/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-cia-torture-poland-idUSKBN0LL1TP20150217 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Rendition to "Black Sites" ===
{{See also|CIA black sites|Ghost detainee}}
In 2005, ''The Washington Post'' and [[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW) published revelations concerning the kidnapping of detainees by the [[US Central Intelligence Agency]] and their transport to "[[black site]]s", covert prisons operated by the CIA whose existence is denied by the US government. The [[European Parliament]] published a report connecting the use of such secret detention Black Sites for detainees kidnapped as part of extraordinary rendition (''See the [[Extraordinary rendition#European Parliament's investigation and report|European Parliament's investigation and report]]''). Although some Black Sites have been known to exist inside European Union states, these detention centers violate the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] (ECHR) and the [[United Nations Convention Against Torture|UN Convention Against Torture]], treaties that all EU member states are bound to follow.<ref>{{cite news |title=Europeans Probe Secret CIA Flights |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/16/AR2005111602198.html |access-date=18 December 2005 |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Craig |last=Whitlock |date=17 November 2005 |archive-date=30 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090930233937/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/16/AR2005111602198.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=EU to look into 'secret US jails' |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4403166.stm |access-date=18 December 2005 |work=BBC News |date=3 November 2005 |archive-date=3 December 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051203030527/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4403166.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Faces Scrutiny Over Secret Prisons |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/03/AR2005110300422.html |access-date=18 December 2005 |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Craig |last=Whitlock |date=4 November 2005 |archive-date=7 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107110646/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/03/AR2005110300422.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The US had ratified the United Nations Convention Against Torture in 1994.<ref>United Nations Treaty Collection, [https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-9&chapter=4&clang=_en Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703004008/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-9&chapter=4&clang=_en |date=3 July 2023 }}</ref>

According to [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]], two such facilities, in countries mentioned by Human Rights Watch, have been closed following the recent publicity with the CIA relocating the detainees. Almost all of these detainees were tortured as part of the "[[enhanced interrogation techniques]]" of the CIA.<ref name="AbcNews051205">{{cite news |title=Exclusive: Sources Tell ABC News Top Al Qaeda Figures Held in Secret CIA Prisons |url=https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/Investigation/story?id=1375123 |access-date=18 December 2005 |publisher=ABC News |date=5 December 2005 |archive-date=19 December 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051219091720/https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/Investigation/story?id=1375123 |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite the closure of these sites, their legacies in certain countries continue to live on and haunt domestic politics.<ref>{{cite web|date=22 April 2018|title=The CIA closed its original 'black site' years ago. But its legacy of torture lives on in Thailand|url=https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-thailand-cia-haspel-2018-htmlstory.html|access-date=11 September 2021|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US|first1=Shashank|last1=Bengali|first2=Chris|last2=Megerian|archive-date=16 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516010722/https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-thailand-cia-haspel-2018-htmlstory.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Criticism of the US media's withholding of coverage ====
Major American newspapers, such as ''[[The Washington Post]]'', have been criticized for deliberately withholding publication of articles reporting locations of Black Sites. The Post defended its decision to suppress this news on the ground that such revelations "could open the [[US government]] to legal challenges, particularly in foreign courts, and increase the risk of political condemnation at home and abroad." However, according to [[Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting]] "the possibility that illegal, unpopular government actions might be disrupted is not a consequence to be feared, however—it's the whole point of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|US First Amendment]]. ... Without the basic fact of where these prisons are, it's difficult if not impossible for 'legal challenges' or 'political condemnation' to force them to close." FAIR argued that the damage done to the global reputation of the United States by the continued existence of black-site prisons was more dangerous than any threat caused by the exposure of their locations.<ref name="FAIR 2005">{{cite web |title=The Consequences of Covering Up |url=https://fair.org/take-action/action-alerts/the-consequences-of-covering-up/ |date=4 November 2005 |access-date=18 December 2005}}</ref>

<blockquote>The complex at Stare Kiejkuty, a Soviet-era compound once used by German intelligence in World War II, is best known as having been the only Russian intelligence training school to operate outside the Soviet Union. Its prominence in the Soviet era suggests that it may have been the facility first identified—but never named—when the ''Washington Post''<nowiki/>'s Dana Priest revealed the existence of the CIA's secret prison network in November 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rawstory.com/news/2007/Sovietera_compound_in_Poland_was_site_0307.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309122602/http://www.rawstory.com/news/2007/Sovietera_compound_in_Poland_was_site_0307.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 March 2007|title=Soviet-era compound in northern Poland was site of secret CIA interrogation, detentions|website=The Raw Story |date=7 March 2007 |first1=Larisa |last1=Alexandrovna |first2=David |last2=Dastych }}</ref></blockquote>

The journalists who exposed this provided their sources, and this information and documents were provided to ''The Washington Post'' in 2005. In addition, they also identified that Black Sites are concealed:

{{Blockquote|Former European and US intelligence officials indicate that the secret prisons across the European Union, first identified by the Washington Post, are likely not permanent locations, making them difficult to identify and locate.

What some believe was a network of secret prisons was most probably a series of facilities used temporarily by the United States when needed, officials say. Interim "black sites"—secret facilities used for covert activities—can be as small as a room in a government building, which only becomes a black site when a prisoner is brought in for short-term detainment and interrogation.}}

The journalists went on to explain that "Such a site, sources say, would have to be near an airport." The airport in question is the [[Szczytno-Szymany International Airport]].

In response to these allegations, former Polish intelligence chief, [[Zbigniew Siemiatkowski]], embarked on a media blitz and claimed that the allegations were "... part of the domestic political battle in the US over who is to succeed current Republican president George W Bush," according to the German news agency Deutsche Presse Agentur.<ref>{{cite web |title=Former Polish intelligence chief who says report on CIA detention site part of US domestic battle admitted CIA had access to facility |work=The Raw Story |url=http://rawstory.com/news/2007/Former_Polish_intelligence_chief_who_says_0308.html |date=8 March 2007 |first1=John |last1=Byrne |access-date=24 November 2018 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806084008/https://www.rawstory.com/news/2007/Former_Polish_intelligence_chief_who_says_0308.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==== Prison ships ====
The United States has also been accused of operating "[[Prison ship|floating prisons]]" to house and transport those arrested in its war on terror, according to human rights lawyers. They have claimed that the US has tried to conceal the numbers and whereabouts of detainees. Although no credible information to support these assertions has ever come to light, the alleged justification for prison ships is primarily to remove the ability for jihadists to target a fixed location to facilitate the escape of high value targets, commanders, operations chiefs etc.<ref>{{cite news |author1=Duncan Campbell |author2=Richard Norton-Taylor |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jun/02/usa.humanrights |title=US accused of holding terror suspects on prison ships |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=2 June 2008 |access-date=17 July 2010 |archive-date=18 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518023807/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jun/02/usa.humanrights |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Guantanamo Bay detention camp ===
[[File:Camp x-ray detainees.jpg|thumb|Detainees upon arrival at [[Camp X-Ray (Guantanamo)|Camp X-Ray]], January 2002]]

The US government set up the [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]] in 2002, a United States [[military prison]] located in [[Guantanamo Bay Naval Base]].<ref name="Independent060429">[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/guantanamo-bay-prisoners-plant-seeds-of-hope-in-secret-garden-476011.html Guantanamo Bay prisoners plant seeds of hope in secret garden] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925171350/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/guantanamo-bay-prisoners-plant-seeds-of-hope-in-secret-garden-476011.html |date=25 September 2015}}, ''[[The Independent]]'', 29 April 2006</ref> President [[George W. Bush|Bush]] declared that the [[Geneva Convention]], which protects [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]], would not apply to Taliban and al-Qaeda detainees captured in Afghanistan.<ref>James P. Pfiffner, "Power Play: The Bush Presidency and the Constitution", (Washington, DC: [[Brookings Institution]] Press, 2008), pp. 146–49</ref> Since inmates were [[indefinite detention without trial|detained indefinitely without trial]] and several detainees have allegedly been [[torture]]d, this camp is considered to be a major breach of human rights by [[Amnesty International]].<ref name="withouttrial">[http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/security-and-human-rights/guantanamo Guantanamo and Illegal Detention] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161015152944/http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/security-and-human-rights/guantanamo |date=15 October 2016}}, Amnesty International. Retrieved 3 November 2016</ref> The detention camp was set up by the US government on Guantanamo Bay since the military base is not legally domestic US territory and thus was a "legal black hole."<ref>[[The Independent]], 9 May 2010, "[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/exclusive-caught-in-americas-legal-black-hole-2047307.html Exclusive: Caught in America's Legal Black Hole] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125073938/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/exclusive-caught-in-americas-legal-black-hole-2047307.html |date=25 November 2018 }}"</ref><ref>Steyn, Johan, "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3663134?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Guantanamo Bay: The Legal Black Hole]" ''The International and Comparative Law Quarterly'', vol. 53, no. 1, 2004, pp. 1–15. JSTOR</ref> Most prisoners of Guantanamo were eventually freed without ever being charged with any crime, and were transferred to other countries.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/ausland/machtwechsel-in-amerika-zehn-guantanamo-gefangene-nach-oman-ueberstellt-14667163.html|title=Machtwechsel in Amerika: Zehn Guantánamo-Gefangene nach Oman überstellt|newspaper=Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung|date=16 January 2017|archive-date=4 April 2023|access-date=3 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404175904/https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/ausland/machtwechsel-in-amerika-zehn-guantanamo-gefangene-nach-oman-ueberstellt-14667163.html|url-status=live}}</ref> By July 2021, 40 men remain in the prison and almost three-quarters of them have never been criminally charged. They're known as "forever prisoners" and are being detained indefinitely.<ref>{{Cite news|title=What Might Happen To Guantánamo Now That U.S. Troops Are Leaving Afghanistan|url=https://www.npr.org/2021/07/10/1014772283/what-happens-to-guantanamo-now-that-u-s-troops-are-leaving-afghanistan|access-date=19 August 2021|publisher=NPR|language=en|archive-date=18 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418114826/https://www.npr.org/2021/07/10/1014772283/what-happens-to-guantanamo-now-that-u-s-troops-are-leaving-afghanistan|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2025, 15 detainees remain, with three awaiting transfer, nine who have been charged or convicted of [[war crime]]s, and three who are held in indefinite [[Law of war|law-of-war]] detention without facing tribunal charges nor being recommended for release.

== Major terrorist attacks and plots since 9/11 ==
Following the launch of the "war on terror" by the United States, several Islamist militant groups, as well as militant individuals, have launched attacks against the assets of the US-led coalition, including in Western countries where active warfare is not taking place.

=== Attacks by Al-Qaeda ===
{{Main|al-Qaeda|Timeline of al-Qaeda attacks}}

* The [[2002 Bali bombings]] in Indonesia were committed by various members of [[Jemaah Islamiyah]], an organization linked to Al-Qaeda.
* [[Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb]] claimed responsibility for the [[11 April 2007 Algiers bombings]], which targeted the office of Algerian Prime Minister and a police station.
* Morocco blamed Al-Qaeda for the [[2011 Marrakech bombing]] which targeted French nationals. However, al-Qaeda denies involvement in the attack.
* To date, no one has claimed responsibility for the 2012 [[2012 Benghazi attack|US Consulate attack in Benghazi]] in Libya, and [[Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb]], pro-al-Qaeda militias, and individuals "sympathetic to al-Qaeda" are considered to be the orchestrators of the attack. The attacks were launched 18 hours after al-Qaeda Emir [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] released a video urging Muslims to attack American targets in Libya to avenge the killing of al-Qaeda leader [[Abu Yahya al-Libi]]. The release of the video, as well as the launching of the attacks, coincided with the 11th anniversary of the 9/11 attacks.
* The gunmen in the [[Charlie Hebdo shooting|''Charlie Hebdo'' shooting]] in Paris identified themselves as belonging to al-Qaeda's [[Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula]].
* [[Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula]] claimed responsibility for the [[Naval Air Station Pensacola shooting]] in the United States.

=== Islamic State ===
{{Main|Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|List of terrorist incidents linked to ISIL}}

{{See also|List of wars and battles involving ISIL}}
* 2013 [[2013 Reyhanlı car bombings|Reyhanlı bombings]] in Turkey that led to 52 deaths and the injury of 140 people.
* 2014 [[2014 shootings at Parliament Hill, Ottawa|Canadian parliament shootings]], an ISIL-inspired attack on Canada's Parliament, resulting in the death of a Canadian soldier and that of the perpetrator.
* 2015 [[Porte de Vincennes siege]] perpetrated by [[Amedy Coulibaly]] in Paris, which led to four deaths and the injury of nine others.
* [[2015 Corinthia Hotel attack]] on 27 January in Libya that resulted in 10 deaths.
* [[March 2015 Sanaa mosque bombings|2015 Sana'a mosque bombings]] on 20 March that led to the death of 142 and injury of 351 people.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-yemen-attack-bomb/suicide-bombers-kill-137-in-yemen-mosque-attacks-idUSKBN0MG11J20150320 |title=Suicide bombers kill 137 in Yemen mosque attacks |first1=Mohammed |last1=Ghobari |first2=Mohammed |last2=Mukhashaf |date=20 March 2015 |access-date=7 June 2019 |work=[[Reuters]] |editor-first=Sami |editor-last=Aboudi |editor2-first=Omar |editor2-last=Fahmy |editor3-first=Rania |editor3-last=El Gamal |editor4-first=Peter |editor4-last=Graff |editor5-first=John |editor5-last=Stonestreet |archive-date=7 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607144416/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-yemen-attack-bomb/suicide-bombers-kill-137-in-yemen-mosque-attacks-idUSKBN0MG11J20150320 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2015 [[Curtis Culwell Center attack]] on 3 May 2015 that resulted in the injury of one [[security officer]].
* [[November 2015 Paris attacks]] on the 13th, which left at least 137 dead and injured at least 352 civilians, caused France to be put under a state of emergency, close its borders, and deploy three French contingency plans.<ref>{{cite web|title=Paris attacks: Suspect on the run as terror raids end in failure |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11997820/Paris-France-terror-attacks-isil-suspects-Syria-Raqqa-boming-arrests-live.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116093021/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11997820/Paris-France-terror-attacks-isil-suspects-Syria-Raqqa-boming-arrests-live.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 November 2015|website=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=16 November 2015}}</ref> Islamic State claimed responsibility for the attacks,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.france24.com/fr/urgent/20151114-lorganisation-etat-islamique-revendique-attentats-paris |title=L'organisation État islamique revendique les attentats de Paris |date=14 November 2015 |publisher=France 24 |language=fr |access-date=14 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114163337/http://www.france24.com/fr/urgent/20151114-lorganisation-etat-islamique-revendique-attentats-paris |archive-date=14 November 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> with French president [[François Hollande]] later stated the attacks were carried out "by the Islamic state with internal help".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34820016|title=Paris attacks: Hollande blames Islamic State for 'act of war'|work=BBC News|date=14 November 2015|access-date=14 November 2015|archive-date=14 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114111726/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34820016|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[2015 San Bernardino attack]] on 2 December 2015, two gunmen attacked a county building in San Bernardino, California, killing 16 people and injuring 24 others.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/06/world/middleeast/islamic-state-san-bernardino-massacre.html|title=Islamic State Says 'Soldiers of Caliphate' Attacked in San Bernardino|first=Rukmini|last=Callimachi|date=5 December 2015|work=The New York Times|archive-date=6 December 2015|access-date=20 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151206033630/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/06/world/middleeast/islamic-state-san-bernardino-massacre.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[2016 Brussels bombings]] on 22 March 2016 two bombing attacks, first at [[Brussels Airport]] and the second at the [[Maalbeek/Maelbeek metro station]], killed 35 people and injured more than 300.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/22/brussels-airport-explosions-heard |title=Islamic State claims attacks at Brussels airport and metro station |first1=Jennifer |last1=Rankin |first2=Jon |last2=Henley |date=22 March 2016 |access-date=7 June 2019 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |archive-date=7 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407163721/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/22/brussels-airport-explosions-heard |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2016 [[Orlando nightclub shooting]] on 12 June 2016, a gunman opened fire at the Pulse nightclub in Orlando, Florida, killing 50 people and wounding 53 others. It was the second-worst mass shooting in U.S. history.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/mass-shooting-at-orlando-nightclub-pulse-isis-takes-responsibility/|title=ISIS claims responsibility for Orlando mass shooting|publisher=CBS News|date=12 June 2016|access-date=16 April 2020|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624202844/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/mass-shooting-at-orlando-nightclub-pulse-isis-takes-responsibility/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 2024 [[Crocus City Hall attack]], [[Islamic State – Khorasan Province|ISIS–K]] gunmen launched an [[Crocus City Hall attack|attack on a concert hall]] in [[Krasnogorsk, Moscow Oblast|Krasnogorsk]], Russia, killing 145 people and wounding 551 others. It was the deadliest terrorist attack on Russian soil since the [[Beslan school siege]] in 2004.

=== Attacks by other Islamist militant groups and individuals ===
* The [[2003 Casablanca bombings]] were carried out by [[Salafia Jihadia]] militant group.
* After the [[2003 Istanbul bombings]], which attacked British and Jewish targets, Turkey charged 74 people with involvement, including Syrian al-Qaeda member [[Loai al-Saqa]]. Islamist group [[Great Eastern Islamic Raiders' Front]] claimed responsibility for the attacks
* The [[2004 Madrid train bombings]] in Spain were carried out by Moroccan-born [[Jamal Zougam]] and five other individuals in opposition to Spanish participation in the [[2003 American invasion of Iraq|2003 US-led invasion of Iraq]].
* The [[7 July 2005 London bombings]] in the United Kingdom, which targeting [[Transport in London|London's public transport system]], were perpetrated by four Islamist militants.
* The [[2009 Fort Hood shooting]] in the United States was committed by [[Nidal Hasan]], who had been in communication with [[Anwar al-Awlaki]]. The [[US Department of Defense]] classified the shooting as an incident of [[workplace violence]].
* The [[2007 Glasgow International Airport attack]] in the United Kingdom was carried out by [[Bilal Abdullah]] and [[Kafeel Ahmed]].
* The 2012 [[Toulouse and Montauban shootings]], which targeted French soldiers and a Jewish school, were committed by [[Mohammed Merah]]. Although Merah claimed ties to al-Qaeda, French authorities have denied any connection.
* The 2023 [[2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel|7th October Attack]], which targeted Israeli soldiers and civilians, was committed by [[Hamas]] and its [[Palestinian Joint Operations Room|allies]]. With a [[List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2023|barrage]] of at least 3,000 rockets launched against Israel and vehicle-transported and [[Powered paragliding|powered paraglider]] and infantry incursions into Israel, it was the deadliest terrorist attack in [[History of Israel|Israel's history]] and the third-deadliest terrorist attack in the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 December 2023 |title=Hamas's October 7 Attack: Visualizing the Data |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/hamass-october-7-attack-visualizing-data |website=Center for Strategic and International Studies |archive-date=22 December 2023 |access-date=9 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222215914/https://www.csis.org/analysis/hamass-october-7-attack-visualizing-data |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Alleged plots and unsuccessful attacks ===
There have also been reports of alleged plots and other planned attacks that were not successful.
* [[San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge#2001 terrorism threat|2001 threat against West Coast suspension bridges]] (United States), though this was not corroborated
* [[2004 financial buildings plot]] (The United States and the United Kingdom)
* [[21 July 2005 London bombings]] (United Kingdom)
* [[2006 Toronto terrorism plot]] (Canada)
* [[2006 transatlantic aircraft plot]] involving liquid explosives carried onto commercial airplanes
* 2006 [[Hudson River bomb plot]] (United States)
* [[2007 Fort Dix attack plot]] (United States)
* [[2007 London car bombs]] (United Kingdom)
* [[2007 John F. Kennedy International Airport attack plot]] (United States)
* [[2009 Bronx terrorism plot]] (United States)
* [[2009 New York City Subway and United Kingdom plot]] (The United States and the United Kingdom)
* 2009 [[Northwest Airlines Flight 253]] bombing plot (United States)
* [[2010 Stockholm bombings]] (Sweden)
* [[2010 Times Square car bombing attempt]] (United States)
* [[2010 cargo plane bomb plot]] (United States)
* [[2010 Portland car bomb plot]] (United States)
* [[2011 Manhattan terrorism plot]] (United States)
* [[2013 Via Rail Canada terrorism plot]] (Canada)
* [[2014 Australian counter-terrorism raids|2014 mass-beheading plot]] (Australia)

== Casualties ==
There is no widely agreed-upon figure for the number of people who have been killed so far in the war on terror, as the Bush Administration has defined it to include the war in Afghanistan, the war in Iraq, and operations elsewhere. According to [[Joshua S. Goldstein|Joshua Goldstein]], an [[international relations]] professor at the [[American University]], the global war on terror has seen fewer war deaths than any other decade in the past century.<ref>Goldstein, Joshua S. [https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/08/15/think_again_war "Think Again: War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122103058/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/08/15/think_again_war |date=22 November 2014 }}. ''Foreign Policy Magazine'', 15 August 2011.</ref>

A 2015 report by the [[International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War]] and the Physicians for Social Responsibility and Physicians for Global Survival estimated between {{nowrap|1.3 million}} to {{nowrap|2 million}} casualties from the war on terror.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/news/world/study-1-3-million-killed-in-usa-war-on-terror/article/429180|title=Doctors' group says 1.3 million killed in U.S. 'War on Terror'|date=25 March 2015|work=Digital Journal|access-date=31 January 2017|archive-date=10 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210012306/http://www.digitaljournal.com/news/world/study-1-3-million-killed-in-usa-war-on-terror/article/429180|url-status=live}}</ref> A report from September 2021 by Brown University's [[Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs]] "Costs of War" project puts the total number of casualties of the war on terror in Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan at between 518,000 and 549,000. This number increases to between 897,000 and 929,000 when the wars in Syria, Yemen, and other countries are included. The report estimated that many more may have died from indirect effects of war, such as water loss and disease.<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=9 November 2018 |title=US 'war on terror' has killed over half a million people: study |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/11/wars-terror-killed-million-people-study-181109080620011.html |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |access-date=12 November 2018 |archive-date=19 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919195346/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/11/wars-terror-killed-million-people-study-181109080620011.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="costs2021" /> They also estimated that over 38 million people have been displaced by the post-9/11 wars participated in by the United States in [[Afghanistan]], Pakistan, Iraq, Libya, Syria, [[Yemen]], Somalia, and the [[Philippines]]; 26.7 million people have returned home following displacement.<ref name="costs displaced" /><ref name="figures" /> The conflict has caused the largest number of [[forced displacements]] by any single war since 1900, except [[World War II]].<ref name="costs displaced" />

In a 2023 report, the "Costs of War" project estimated that, as a result of the destruction of infrastructure, economies, public services, and the environment, there have been between 3.6 and 3.7 million indirect deaths in the post-9/11 war zones, with the total death toll being 4.5 to 4.6 million and rising.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/papers/2023/IndirectDeaths |title=How Death Outlives War: The Reverberating Impact of the Post-9/11 Wars on Human Health |last=Savell |first=Stephanie |date=15 May 2023 |website=The Costs of War |publisher=[[Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs]] |access-date=22 May 2023 |quote= |archive-date=22 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522082834/https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/papers/2023/IndirectDeaths |url-status=live }}</ref> The report defined post-9/11 war zones as conflicts that included significant United States counter-terrorism operations since 9/11, which in addition to the wars in [[Iraqi conflict|Iraq]], [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|Afghanistan]] and [[Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Pakistan]], also includes the civil wars in [[Syrian civil war|Syria]], [[Yemeni Civil War (2014–present)|Yemen]], [[Libyan Crisis (2011–present)|Libya]] and [[Somali Civil War|Somalia]]. The report derived its estimate of indirect deaths using a calculation from the [[Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Development|Geneva Declaration of Secretariat]], which estimates that for every person directly killed by war, four more die from the indirect consequences of war. The report's author Stephanie Savell stated that in an ideal scenario, the preferable way of quantifying the total death toll would have been by studying excess mortality, or by using on-the-ground researchers in the affected countries.<ref name="washingtonpost20230515" />

An estimated 7,052 US military combatants, over 8,100 US military contractors, and more than 14,800 US-allied coalition troops are estimated to have been killed in the wars as of 2023.<ref name="costs2021" />

The total number of insurgent deaths since the commencement of the war on terror in 2001 is generally estimated as being well into the hundreds of thousands, with hundreds of thousands of others captured or arrested. Some estimates for regional conflicts include the following:

=== Iraq ===
{{Main|Casualties of the Iraq War}}

[[File:CollateralMurder.ogv|thumb|Footage of leaked [[12 July 2007 Baghdad airstrike|Apache gunship strike]] in Baghdad, July 2007]]

In Iraq, some 26,544 insurgents were killed by the American-led coalition and the Iraqi Security Forces from 2003 to 2011.<ref>597 killed in 2003,[https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2007-09-26-insurgents_N.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428200503/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2007-09-26-insurgents_N.htm |date=28 April 2011 }}, 23,984 killed from 2004 through 2009 (with the exceptions of May 2004 and March 2009),[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/22/true-civilian-body-count-iraq] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730184028/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/22/true-civilian-body-count-iraq |date=30 July 2013 }} 652 killed in May 2004,[http://www.iraqbodycount.org/analysis/numbers/warlogs/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202190922/http://www.iraqbodycount.org/analysis/numbers/warlogs/ |date=2 December 2010 }} 45 killed in March 2009,[http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/CJAL-7QPQB7?OpenDocument] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090903190008/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/CJAL-7QPQB7?OpenDocument |date=3 September 2009 }} 676 killed in 2010,[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-12-30/iraq-civilian-deaths-drop-for-third-year-as-toll-eases-after-u-s-drawdown.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140804181246/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-12-30/iraq-civilian-deaths-drop-for-third-year-as-toll-eases-after-u-s-drawdown.html |date=4 August 2014 }} and 590 killed in 2011,[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/ccc?key=0Aia6y6NymliRdEZESktBSWVqNWM1dkZOSGNIVmtFZEE#gid=4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903020133/https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/ccc?key=0Aia6y6NymliRdEZESktBSWVqNWM1dkZOSGNIVmtFZEE#gid=4 |date=3 September 2014 }} thus giving a total of 26,544 dead</ref> 119,752 suspected insurgents were arrested in Iraq from 2003 to 2007 alone, at which point 18,832 suspected insurgents had been reported killed;<ref>[https://www.stripes.com/news/insurgent-body-count-records-released-1.69423 "Insurgent body count documents released."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727084052/https://www.stripes.com/news/insurgent-body-count-records-released-1.69423 |date=27 July 2020 }} Stars and Stripes. 1 October 2007. Number of convictions not specified.</ref> applying this same arrested-to-captured ratio to the total number of insurgents killed would equate to approximately 26,500 insurgents killed and 168,000 arrested from 2003 to 2011. At least 4,000 foreign fighters ([[Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)#Foreign participants|generally estimated at 10–20% of the insurgency]] at that point) had been killed by September 2006, according to an official statement from [[al-Qaeda in Iraq]].<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/sep/28/iraq "4,000 fighters killed, 'al-Qaida in Iraq' tape says."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404170041/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/sep/28/iraq |date=4 April 2023 }} ''The Guardian''. 28 September 2006.</ref> Insurgent casualties in the [[Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)|2011–2013 phase]] of the Iraqi conflict numbered 916 killed, with 3,504 more arrested.

From 2014 to the end of 2017, the United States government stated that over 80,000 Islamic State insurgents had been killed by American and allied airstrikes from 2014 to the end of 2017, in both Iraq and Syria. The majority of these strikes occurred within Iraq.<ref>[https://www.straitstimes.com/world/middle-east/once-promised-paradise-isis-fighters-end-up-in-mass-graves "Once promised paradise, ISIS fighters end up in mass graves".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529224515/https://www.straitstimes.com/world/middle-east/once-promised-paradise-isis-fighters-end-up-in-mass-graves |date=29 May 2023 }} ''The Straits Times''. 15 October 2017. Retrieved 11 December 2017.</ref> ISIL deaths caused by the Iraqi Security Forces during this time are uncertain, but were probably significant. Over 26,000 ISF members were killed fighting ISIL from 2013 to the end of 2017,<ref>[https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/26000-iraqi-soldiers-killed-4-year-war-isis/ "Over 26,000 Iraqi soldiers killed in 4-year war with ISIS."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108130112/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/26000-iraqi-soldiers-killed-4-year-war-isis/ |date=8 January 2018 }} 13 December 2017.</ref> with ISIL losses likely being of a similar scale.

Total casualties in Iraq range from 62,570 to 1,124,000:

:*[[Iraq Body Count project]] documented 187,499 to 211,046 civilian dead from 2003 to 2020 (the status of 24,000 people as civilians or combatants was not clear), with over 300,000 violent deaths including combatants in total.
:* 110,600 deaths in total according to the [[Associated Press]] from March 2003 to April 2009.<ref>Associated Press, 14 October 2009</ref>
:* 151,000 deaths in total according to the [[Iraq Family Health Survey]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Iraq Family Health Survey|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=358|issue=5 |pages=484–93|doi=10.1056/NEJMsa0707782|pmid=18184950|year=2008|author1=Iraq Family Health Survey Study Group|last2=Alkhuzai|first2=A.H.|last3=Ahmad|first3=I.J.|last4=Hweel|first4=M.J.|last5=Ismail|first5=T.W.|last6=Hasan|first6=H.H|last7=Younis|first7=A.R.|last8=Shawani|first8=O|last9=Al-Jaf|first9=V.M.|last10=Al-Alak|first10=M.M.|last11=Rasheed|first11=L.H.|last12=Hamid|first12=S.M.|last13=Al-Gasseer|first13=N.|last14=Majeed|first14=F.A.|last15=Al Awqati|first15=N.A.|last16=Ali|first16=M.M.|last17=Boerma|first17=J.T.|last18=Mathers |first18=C.|doi-access=free }}</ref>
:* [[ORB survey of Iraq War casualties|Opinion Research Business (ORB) poll]] conducted 12–19 August 2007 estimated 1,033,000 violent deaths due to the Iraq War. The range given was 946,000 to 1,120,000 deaths. A nationally representative sample of approximately 2,000 Iraqi adults answered whether any members of their household (living under their roof) were killed due to the Iraq War. 22% of the respondents had lost one or more household members. ORB reported that "48% died from a gunshot wound, 20% from the impact of a car bomb, 9% from aerial bombardment, 6% as a result of an accident, and 6% from another blast/ordnance."<ref name=ORB>{{cite web |url=http://www.opinion.co.uk/Newsroom_details.aspx?NewsId=78 |title=More than 1,000,000 Iraqis murdered |access-date=2 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071002205022/http://www.opinion.co.uk/Newsroom_details.aspx?NewsId=78 |archive-date=2 October 2007}}. September 2007. Opinion Research Business. PDF report: [http://www.opinion.co.uk/Documents/TABLES.pdf Opinion.co.uk] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925235801/http://www.opinion.co.uk/Documents/TABLES.pdf |date=25 September 2007}}</ref><ref name=ORB2>{{cite web|url=http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/09/14/3839/|title=Poll: Civilian Death Toll in Iraq May Top 1 Million|website=Common Dreams|access-date=14 September 2014|archive-date=31 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531082118/http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/09/14/3839|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=ORB3>{{cite web|url=http://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/09/16/3879/|title=Greenspan Admits Iraq was About Oil, As Deaths Put at 1.2 Million|website=Common Dreams|access-date=14 September 2014|archive-date=13 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213082025/https://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/09/16/3879|url-status=dead}}</ref>
:* Between 392,979 and 942,636 estimated Iraqi (655,000 with a confidence interval of 95%), civilian and combatant, according to the second [[Lancet surveys of mortality before and after the 2003 invasion of Iraq|Lancet survey of mortality]].
:* A minimum of 62,570 civilian deaths reported in the mass media up to 28 April 2007 according to [[Iraq Body Count project]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iraqbodycount.org |title=IraqBodyCount |publisher=IraqBodyCount |access-date=26 March 2011}}</ref>
:* 4,431 [[United States Department of Defense|US Department of Defense]] dead (941 non-hostile deaths), and 31,994 wounded in action during Operation Iraqi Freedom. 74 US Military Dead (36 non-hostile deaths), and 298 wounded in action during Operation New Dawn as of 4 May 2020<ref>{{cite web|title=DCAS Reports – Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) Deaths |url=https://dcas.dmdc.osd.mil/dcas/pages/report_oif_all.xhtml|website=dcas.dmdc.osd.mil|access-date=6 May 2020|archive-date=21 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421180307/https://dcas.dmdc.osd.mil/dcas/pages/report_oif_all.xhtml|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Afghanistan ===
{{Main|Coalition casualties in Afghanistan|Civilian casualties in the war in Afghanistan (2001–2021)}}

Insurgent and terrorist deaths in Afghanistan are hard to estimate. [[Afghan Taliban]] losses are most likely of a similar scale to Afghan National Army and Police losses; that is, around 62,000 from 2001 to the end of 2018.<ref>Rod Nordland; Mujib Mashal (26 January 2019). [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/26/world/asia/afghanistan-taliban-peace-deal.html "U.S. and Taliban Edge Toward Deal to End America's Longest War".] ''The New York Times''. Retrieved 28 January 2019.</ref> In addition, al-Qaeda's main branch and ISIL's Afghanistan branch are each thought to have lost several thousand killed there since 2001.<ref>"In Afghanistan, al-Qaeda is working more closely with the Taliban, Pentagon says". the Washington post. 6 May 2016.</ref><ref>Seldin, Jeff (18 November 2017). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190820031538/https://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/afghan-officials-islamic-state-fighters-finding-sanctuary-afghanistan "Afghan Officials: Islamic State Fighters Finding Sanctuary in Afghanistan".] VOA News. {{ISSN|0261-3077}}. Retrieved 18 November 2017.</ref>

Total casualties in Afghanistan range from 10,960 to 249,000:<ref name="Casualties" />

:* 16,725–19,013 civilians killed according to [[American Friends Service Committee#Cost of War project|Cost of War project]] from 2001 to 2013<ref>{{cite web |url=http://costsofwar.org/article/afghan-civilians |title=Afghan Civilians |publisher=Costs of War |date=27 February 2001 |access-date=17 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616010655/http://costsofwar.org/article/afghan-civilians |archive-date=16 June 2013}}</ref>
:* According to Marc W. Herold's extensive database,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mwherold/dossier |title=Dossier on Civilian Victims of United States' Aerial Bombing |publisher=Pubpages.unh.edu |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-date=12 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012064146/http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mwherold/dossier |url-status=dead }}</ref> between 3,100 and 3,600 civilians were directly killed by US [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] bombing and Special Forces attacks between 7 October 2001 and 3 June 2003. This estimate counts only "impact deaths"—deaths that occurred in the immediate aftermath of an explosion or shooting—and does not count deaths that occurred later as a result of injuries sustained, or deaths that occurred as an indirect consequence of the US airstrikes and invasion.
:* In an opinion article published in August 2002 in the magazine ''[[The Weekly Standard]]'', [[Joshua Muravchik]] of the [[American Enterprise Institute]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2006/10/10/the_fp_memo_operation_comeback |title=The FP Memo: Operation Comeback |author=Joshua Muravchik |work=Foreign Policy |date=10 October 2006 |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-date=28 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028035043/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2006/10/10/the_fp_memo_operation_comeback |url-status=dead }}</ref> questioned Professor Herold's study entirely by one single incident that involved 25–93 deaths. He did not provide any estimate his own.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/001/565otmps.asp?pg=1 |title=The Prof Who Can't Count Straight |work=The Weekly Standard |date=26 August 2002 |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-date=20 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071220222307/http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/001/565otmps.asp?pg=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
:* In a pair of January 2002 studies, Carl Conetta of the Project on Defense Alternatives estimates that "at least" 4,200–4,500 civilians were killed by mid-January 2002 as a result of the war and Coalition airstrikes, both directly as casualties of the aerial bombing campaign, and indirectly in the resulting humanitarian crisis.
:* His first study, "Operation Enduring Freedom: Why a Higher Rate of Civilian Bombing Casualties?",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.comw.org/pda/0201oef.html |title=Operation Enduring Freedom: Why a Higher Rate of Civilian Bombing Casualties? |publisher=Comw.org |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-date=26 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526144725/http://www.comw.org/pda/0201oef.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> released 18 January 2002, estimates that, at the low end, "at least" 1,000–1,300 civilians were directly killed in the aerial bombing campaign in just the three months between 7 October 2001 and 1 January 2002. The author found it impossible to provide an upper-end estimate of direct civilian casualties from the [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] bombing campaign, which he noted had an increased use of [[cluster bombs]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.comw.org/pda/0201oef.html#1 |title=Operation Enduring Freedom: Why a Higher Rate of Civilian Bombing Casualties – Bombers and cluster bombs |publisher=Comw.org |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-date=26 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526144725/http://www.comw.org/pda/0201oef.html#1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In this lower-end estimate, only Western press sources were used for hard numbers, while heavy "reduction factors" were applied to Afghan government reports so that their estimates were reduced by as much as 75%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.comw.org/pda/0201oef.html#appendix1 |title=Operation Enduring Freedom: Why a Higher Rate of Civilian Bombing Casualties – Appendix 1. Estimation of Civilian Bombing Casualties: Method and Sources |publisher=Comw.org |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-date=26 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526144725/http://www.comw.org/pda/0201oef.html#appendix1 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
:* In his companion study, "Strange Victory: A critical appraisal of Operation Enduring Freedom and the Afghanistan war",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comw.org/pda/0201strangevic.html |title=Strange Victory: A critical appraisal of Operation Enduring Freedom and the Afghanistan war |publisher=Comw.org |access-date=26 March 2011}}</ref> released 30 January 2002, Conetta estimates that "at least" 3,200 more Afghans died by mid-January 2002, of "starvation, exposure, associated illnesses, or injury sustained while in flight from war zones", as a result of the war and Coalition airstrikes.
:* In similar numbers, a [[Los Angeles Times]] review of US, British, and Pakistani newspapers and international wire services found that those news organizations reported between 1,067 and 1,201 direct civilian deaths during the five months from 7 October 2001 to 28 February 2002. This review excluded all civilian deaths in Afghanistan that did not get reported by US, British, or Pakistani news, excluded 497 deaths that did get reported in US, British, and Pakistani news but that were not specifically identified as civilian or military, and excluded 754 civilian deaths that the Taliban reported but were not independently confirmed.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/templates/misc/printstory.jsp?slug=la-060202bombs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020604082553/http://www.latimes.com/templates/misc/printstory.jsp?slug=la-060202bombs |archive-date=4 June 2002 |title=The Americans ... They Just Drop Their Bombs and Leave |work=Los Angeles Times |url-status=dead |access-date=26 March 2011}}</ref>
:* According to [[Jonathan Steele (journalist)|Jonathan Steele]] of ''[[The Guardian]]'', between 20,000 and 49,600 people may have died of the consequences of the invasion by the spring of 2002.<ref>"[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/may/20/afghanistan.comment Forgotten Victims]" ''The Guardian''</ref>
:* 2,046 US military dead (339 non-hostile deaths), and 18,201 wounded in action.<ref name="Casualty Data USDOD">{{cite web|title=Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) U.S. Casualty Status|url=https://www.war.gov/casualty.pdf|date=18 January 2013|website=American Forces Press Service|publisher=United States Department of Defense|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116062321/http://www.defense.gov/news/casualty.pdf|archive-date=16 January 2013|access-date=19 January 2013}}</ref>
:* A report titled ''Body Count'' put together by [[Physicians for Social Responsibility]], [[Physicians for Global Survival]], and [[International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War]] (IPPNW) concluded that between 185,000 and 249,000 people had been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan.<ref name="Casualties">"[http://www.ippnw.de/commonFiles/pdfs/Frieden/Body_Count_first_international_edition_2015_final.pdf Body Count – Casualty Figures after 10 Years of the "War on Terror" – Iraq Afghanistan Pakistan]" (PDF), by [[International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War|IPPNW]], [[Physicians for Global Survival|PGS]] and [[Physicians for Social Responsibility|PSR]], p. 78, First international edition (March 2015) {{cite news |author=Gabriela Motroc |url=http://www.australiannationalreview.com/war-terror-reportedly-killed-13-million-people-decade/ |title=U.S. War on Terror has reportedly killed 1.3 million people in a decade |work=Australian National Review |date=7 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505004045/http://www.australiannationalreview.com/war-terror-reportedly-killed-13-million-people-decade/ |archive-date=5 May 2015}} {{cite news |url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/national/30-Mar-2015/220-000-killed-in-us-war-in-afghanistan-80-000-in-pakistan-report |title=220,000 killed in US war in Afghanistan 80,000 in Pakistan: report |work=[[Daily Times (Pakistan)|Daily Times]] |date=30 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505055409/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/national/30-Mar-2015/220-000-killed-in-us-war-in-afghanistan-80-000-in-pakistan-report |archive-date=5 May 2015}}</ref>

'''Deaths in Iraq and Afghanistan'''

This table shows a comparison of total casualties between the two main theaters of the war on terror—Iraq (since [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003]]) and Afghanistan (since [[US invasion of Afghanistan|2001]])—up until August 2021, as conducted by [[Brown University]].<ref name="costs2021" />
{| class="wikitable" id="conflicts10000"
|-
!
!Iraq
!Afghanistan
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| US military deaths
|4,598
|2,325
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| US contractor deaths
|3,650
|3,917
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| National military and police deaths
|45,519–48,719
|69,095
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Allied troop deaths
|323
|1,144
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Civilian deaths
|185,831–208,964
|46,319
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Opposition fighters deaths
|34,806–39,881
|52,893
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Journalist and media worker deaths
|282
|74
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Humanitarian and NGO worker deaths
|63
|446
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| '''Total deaths (Rounded to nearest 1,000)'''
|275,000–306,000
|176,000
|}

=== Pakistan ===
{{Main|Drone strikes in Pakistan|Terrorism in Pakistan}}

1,467 and 2,334 people were killed in US drone attacks as of 6 May 2011. Terrorist attacks have killed tens of thousands, and millions have been displaced.

The [[War in Northwest Pakistan]] resulted in the deaths of 28,900+ militants from 2004 to 2018, with an unknown number captured, per the Pakistani government.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://satp.org/datasheet-terrorist-attack/fatalities/pakistan-khyberpakhtunkhwa|title=Database – KPK from 2005 to present|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://satp.org/datasheet-terrorist-attack/fatalities/pakistan-fata|title=Database – FATA from 2005 to present|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref> The majority of these were killed in engagements with the [[Pakistan Armed Forces]]. However, thousands were also killed in American [[Drone strikes in Pakistan|drone strikes]].

=== Somalia ===
There have been 7,000+ casualties in Somalia.

The December 2006 to January 2009 [[Somalia War (2006–2009)|Ethiopian-led intervention]] in Somalia resulted in the deaths of 6,000 to 8,000 Islamist insurgents, according to the Ethiopian government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sudantribune.com/spip.php?article19495 |title=Ethiopian army accomplished 75% of mission in Somalia – Zenawi |date=3 December 2006 |publisher=SudanTribune article |access-date=9 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070102124635/http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article19495 |archive-date=2 January 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first =David | last =Ignatius | title =Ethiopia's Iraq | newspaper =The Washington Post | date =13 May 2007 | url =https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/11/AR2007051102114.html | access-date =16 May 2007 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20171014001910/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/11/AR2007051102114.html | archive-date =14 October 2017 | url-status=live}}</ref> The Kenyan Defence Forces claimed another 700+ insurgents killed in their own intervention of October 2011 to May 2012.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://mobile.nation.co.ke/News/KDF+We+have+killed+700+militants+/-/1290/1301746/-/format/xhtml/-/dvc8mh/-/index.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130111204256/http://mobile.nation.co.ke/News/KDF+We+have+killed+700+militants+/-/1290/1301746/-/format/xhtml/-/dvc8mh/-/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 January 2013|work=[[Daily Nation]]|title=KDF: We have killed 700 militants|date=7 January 2012|access-date=7 January 2012}}</ref> American drone strikes, air strikes, and special forces ground raids in Somalia killed between 1,220 and 1,366 militants up to July 2019, according to the New American Foundation.<ref>[https://www.newamerica.org/in-depth/americas-counterterrorism-wars/somalia/ U.S. Air Strikes, Drone Strikes, and Ground Raids in Somalia.] New America Foundation. Retrieved 19 August 2019.</ref>

:* In December 2007, the Elman Peace and Human Rights Organization said it had verified 6,500 civilian deaths, 8,516 people wounded, and {{nowrap|1.5 million}} displaced from homes in Mogadishu alone during the year 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nationalpost.com/story.html?id=208509 |title=Mogadishu violence kills 6,500 in past year: rights group |date=21 March 2008 |access-date=2 January 2012}}{{dead link|date=October 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

=== Yemen ===
American forces (mostly via drone strikes) killed between 846 and 1,609 terrorists in Yemen (mostly [[Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula|AQAP]] members) up to June 2019, according to a variety of media organizations, including the Bureau of Investigative Journalism and the New America Foundation.<ref>See [[List of drone strikes in Yemen]].</ref> An [[United Arab Emirates|Emirati]] spokesman for the [[Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen|Saudi-led coalition intervening in Yemen]] claimed that they had killed 1,000 al-Qaeda linked militants and captured 1,500 up to August 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1426857|title=UAE aims to wipe out Yemen Al Qaeda branch|work=Dawn|date=14 August 2018|access-date=14 August 2018}}</ref>

=== Philippines and North Caucasus ===

Over 1,600 Islamic State fighters ([[Abu Sayyaf]] having sworn allegiance to ISIL in 2014) were killed by government forces in the Philippines from 2014 to 2017 alone.<ref>See [[Civil conflict in the Philippines#Casualties by year|civil conflict in the Philippines.]]</ref>

From April 2009 to March 2019, Russian military and police (primarily in the [[North Caucasus]]) killed 2,329 and captured 2,744 insurgents of the [[Caucasus Emirate]] and related groups.<ref>270 killed and 453 captured (2009),[http://chechnya.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/159998] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920151411/http://chechnya.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/159998|date=20 September 2011}} 349 killed and 254 captured (2010),[http://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/198756] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419012428/http://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/198756/|date=19 April 2012}} 384 killed and 370 captured (2011),[http://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/198756/] 391 killed and 461 captured (2012),{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} 260 killed (2013),{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} and 88 captured {{citation needed|date=November 2020}} 259 killed and 445 captured (2014),[https://web.archive.org/web/20150203055846/http://www.jamestown.org/programs/edm/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=43475&cHash=37f7f6ab5a72bfb5b02b545a639f5fc4] 172 killed (2015),[http://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/277116/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617101542/http://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/277116|date=17 June 2017}} 162 killed and 377 captured (2016),[http://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/297004/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204172900/http://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/297004|date=4 February 2017}} 82 killed and 296 captured (2017),[https://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/315790/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327191044/https://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/315790/|date=27 March 2019}}[https://www.rferl.org/a/caucasus-report-jump-in-militant-arrests/28831632.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327192355/https://www.rferl.org/a/caucasus-report-jump-in-militant-arrests/28831632.html|date=27 March 2019}} total reported 2,329 killed and 2,744 captured</ref>

=== United States ===
:* 1 June 2009, Pvt. William Andrew Long was shot and killed by [[2009 Little Rock recruiting office shooting|Abdulhakim Muhammad]], while outside a recruiting facility in Little Rock, Arkansas.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2009314190_apusrecruitersshotfuneral.html |work=[[The Seattle Times]] |title=Funeral held for soldier killed in Ark. attack |date=8 June 2009 |first=Jon |last=Gambrell |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811184555/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2009314190_apusrecruitersshotfuneral.html |archive-date=11 August 2011}}</ref><ref name="Associated Press">{{cite news |title=Recruitment Shooting Suspect Doesn't Think Killing Was Murder |url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/recruitment-shooting-suspect-doesnt-think-killing-was-murder |publisher=Fox News |agency=Associated Press |date=9 June 2009 |access-date=20 September 2009}}</ref>
:* On 5 November 2009, [[Nidal Hasan]] shot and killed 13 people and wounded more than 30 others at [[2009 Fort Hood shooting|Fort Hood, Texas]].<ref name="cbn.com">{{cite news |title=Bill would give Purple Heart to Fort Hood shooting victims |url=http://www.statesman.com/news/news/local/bill-would-give-purple-heart-to-fort-hood-shooting/nRnc3/ |newspaper=Austin Statesman |date=9 May 2012 |access-date=29 March 2013 |quote=Thirteen people were killed and more than 30 wounded in the rampage.}}</ref>

(this includes fighting throughout the [[Earth|world]]):<ref>{{cite web |url=http://icasualties.org/Iraq/index.aspx |title=Operation Iraqi Freedom | Iraq |publisher=iCasualties |date=28 May 2010 |access-date=26 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110321080348/http://icasualties.org/Iraq/index.aspx |archive-date=21 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2003/iraq/forces/pow.mia/index.html |publisher=CNN| title=Forces: U.S. & Coalition/POW/MIA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/CASUALTY/castop.htm |title=Military Casualty Information |publisher=Siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil |access-date=26 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303054755/http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/CASUALTY/castop.htm |archive-date=3 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://icasualties.org/OEF/ByYear.aspx |title=OEF | Fatalities By Year |publisher=iCasualties |date=28 May 2010 |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-date=27 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027172424/http://icasualties.org/OEF/ByYear.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icasualties.org/OEF/Nationality.aspx?hndQry=US |title=Operation Iraqi Freedom | Fatalities By Nationality |publisher=iCasualties |date=28 May 2010 |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-date=23 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323025012/http://icasualties.org/oef/Nationality.aspx?hndQry=US |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{| class=wikitable
! Military and civilian !! Casualties
|-
| US military killed||7,008<ref name="Casualty Data USDOD" />
|-
| US military [[wounded in action|wounded]]|| 50,422<ref name="Casualty Data USDOD" />
|-
| US DoD civilians killed||16<ref name="Casualty Data USDOD" />
|-
| US civilians killed (includes [[9/11]] and after)|| 3,000 +
|-
| US civilians wounded/injured||6,000 +
|-
| Total Americans killed (military and civilian)|| '''10,008 +'''
|-
| Total Americans wounded/injured||'''56,422 +'''
|}

During [[Operation Inherent Resolve]], 95 troops were killed and 227 wounded in action as of 6 May 2020<ref>{{cite web|title=DCAS Reports – Operation Inherent Resolve (OIR) Casualty Summary by Casualty Category|url=https://dcas.dmdc.osd.mil/dcas/pages/report_oir_type.xhtml|website=dcas.dmdc.osd.mil|access-date=6 May 2020|archive-date=1 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200501132700/https://dcas.dmdc.osd.mil/dcas/pages/report_oir_type.xhtml|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs]] has diagnosed more than 200,000 American veterans with [[PTSD]] since 2001.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aikins |first1=Matthieu |last2=Koehler |first2=Chris |year=2013 |title=Mental Combat |journal=[[Popular Science]] |volume=282 |issue=3 |pages=40–45 |url=http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2013-02/us-armys-ambitious-fight-against-ptsd |access-date=15 February 2013}}</ref>

=== Total civilian estimates ===
[[File:Three children wounded by a US bomb in Nangrahar province of Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|Children wounded by American airstrikes in Afghanistan's [[Surkh-Rōd District]] in 2001]]
Between 363,939 and 387,072 civilians were killed in post–9/11 wars in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Syria, Yemen, and other war zones, according to a 2021 report by the [[Costs of War Project]] at Brown University's [[Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs|Watson Institute]]. Many more may have died due to related effects, including water loss and disease.<ref name="costs2021" />

== Costs ==
The war on terror, spanning decades, is a multitrillion-dollar war that has cost much more than originally estimated.

According to the [[Costs of War Project]] at Brown University's Watson Institute, the war on terror will have cost $8 trillion for operations between 2001 and 2022 plus $2.2 trillion in future costs of veterans' care over the next 30 years.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Budgetary Costs of Post-9/11 Wars Through FY2022: $8 Trillion {{!}} Figures {{!}} Costs of War|url=https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/figures/2021/BudgetaryCosts|access-date=1 September 2021|website=[[Costs of War Project|The Costs of War]]|language=en}}</ref> Out of this number, $2.313 trillion is for Afghanistan, $2.058 trillion for Iraq and Syria, and $355 billion was spent on other warzones. The remainder was for DHS ($1.1 trillion).

According to the Soufan Group in July 2015, the US government was spending {{nowrap|$9.4 million}} per day in operations against ISIL in Syria and Iraq.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://soufangroup.com/tsg-intelbrief-terrorism-in-the-horn-of-africa/|title=TSG IntelBrief: Terrorism in the Horn of Africa|date=28 July 2015|access-date=28 July 2015|publisher=The Soufan Group|location=New York|archive-date=21 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121083625/http://soufangroup.com/tsg-intelbrief-terrorism-in-the-horn-of-africa/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

A March 2011 Congressional report<ref name="Daniel Trotta">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-war-idUSTRE75S25320110629|title=Cost of war at least $3.7 trillion and counting|author=Daniel Trotta|work=[[Reuters]]|date=29 June 2011|access-date=25 June 2012}}</ref> estimated war spending through the fiscal year 2011 at $1.2 trillion, and future spending through 2021 (assuming a reduction to 45,000 troops) at $1.8 trillion. A June 2011 academic report<ref name="Daniel Trotta" /> covering additional areas of war spending estimated it through 2011 at $2.7 trillion, and long-term spending at $5.4 trillion including interest.<ref group="note">Among costs not covered by these figures are off-[[United States Department of Defense|DoD]] spending beyond 2012, economic opportunity costs, state and local expenses not reimbursed by the federal government, nor reimbursements made to foreign coalition allies for their expenses.</ref>

In direct spending, the [[United States Department of Defense]] reports spending $1.547 trillion from 2001 to February 2020 in war costs in Iraq, Syria, and Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://comptroller.war.gov/Portals/45/documents/Section1090Reports/Section_1090_FY17_NDAA_Cost_of_Wars_to_Per_Taxpayer-February_2020.pdf|title=Estimated Cost to Each U.S. Taxpayer of Each of the Wars in Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria|access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref>

Adversary groups have taken an interest in [[agricultural bioterrorism]], and this is a continuing concern {{as of|2022|lc=yes}}.<ref name="addressing"/> The US government takes steps to prepare for threats from agricultural pathogens.<ref name="addressing"/> The [[National Plant Disease Diagnostic Network]] (NPDN) coordinates efforts to combat agrowarfare against the US.<ref name="addressing">{{cite journal|language=English|year=2022|doi-access=free|publisher=[[Springer Nature B.V.]]|issue=6|volume=14|pages=1475–97|first7=Anders|first6=Jim|first5=Anne|first4=Ivar|first3=Anna|first2=Beth|first1=Djurle|last7=Kvarnheden|last6=Nygren|last5=Blomstrom|last4=Vågsholm|last3=Berlin|last2=Young|last1=Annika|title=Addressing biohazards to food security in primary production|issn=1876-4517|eissn=1876-4525|journal=[[Food Security]]|s2cid=250250761|doi=10.1007/s12571-022-01296-7|id=AD {{ORCID|0000-0003-1830-6406}}, AB {{ORCID|0000-0002-9518-5719}}, IV {{ORCID|0000-0002-1661-0677}}, ALB {{ORCID|0000-0003-4455-311X}}, AK {{ORCID|0000-0001-9394-7700}}}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!Expense !! [[Congressional Research Service|CRS]]/[[Congressional Budget Office|CBO]] (billions US$):<ref>{{cite web|url=https://opencrs.com/document/RL33110/2010-07-16/ |title=The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Global War on Terror Operations Since 2011 |author=Amy Belasco |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |date=16 July 2010 |access-date=25 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110127150911/http://opencrs.com/document/RL33110/2010-07-16/ |archive-date=27 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://opencrs.com/document/RL33498/ |title=Pakistan–U.S. Relations |author=K. Alan Kronstadt |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |date=6 February 2009 |access-date=25 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222151047/http://opencrs.com/document/RL33498/ |archive-date=22 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://cbo.gov/publication/21982|title=Long-Term Implications of the 2011 Future Years Defense Program|author=Congressional Research Service|date=11 February 2011|access-date=25 June 2012|author-link=Congressional Research Service}}</ref> !! '''[[Watson Institute for International Studies|Watson]] (billions [[Constant dollars|constant]] US$):'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://costsofwar.org/article/economic-cost-summary |title=Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan, and Anti-Terrorism Operations |author=Eisenhower Study Group |publisher=[[Watson Institute for International Studies]], [[Brown University]] |year=2011 |access-date=24 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628171525/http://costsofwar.org/article/economic-cost-summary |archive-date=28 June 2012}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | '''FY2001–FY2011'''
|-
|War appropriations to [[United States Department of Defense|DoD]]||1208.1|| 1311.5
|-
|War appropriations to [[United States Department of State|DoS]]/[[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]]|| 66.7 || 74.2
|-
|[[United States Department of Veterans Affairs|VA]] Medical|| 8.4 || 13.7
|-
|VA disability|| || 18.9
|-
|Interest paid on DoD war appropriations|| || 185.4
|-
|Additions to DoD base spending || || 362.2–652.4
|-
|Additions to Homeland Security base spending || || 401.2
|-
|Social costs to veterans and military families to date || || 295–400
|-
|'''Subtotal:''' || '''1,283.2''' || '''2,662.1–3,057.3'''
|-
|colspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | '''FY2012–future'''
|-
|FY2012 DoD request || colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 118.4
|-
|FY2012 DoS/USAID request || colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 12.1
|-
|Projected 2013–2015 war spending || colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 168.6
|-
|Projected 2016–2020 war spending || colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 155
|-
|Projected obligations for veterans' care to 2051 || || 589–934
|-
|Additional interest payments to 2020 || || 1,000
|-
|'''Subtotal:''' || '''454.1''' || '''2043.1–2388.1'''
|-
|'''Total:''' || '''1737.3''' || '''4705.2–5445.4'''
|}

== Criticism ==
{{Main|Criticism of the war on terror}}

{{See also|United States war crimes#War on Terror}}
[[File:World Can't Wait J4 Demo.jpg|thumb|Participants in a rally, dressed as hooded detainees]]
Criticism of the war on terror addresses issues of morality, efficiency, economics, and other related questions. Criticism has been directed at the phrase itself, calling it a [[misnomer]]. The notion of a "war" against "terrorism" has proven highly contentious, with critics charging that it has been exploited by participating governments to pursue long-standing policy/military objectives, including structural Islamophobia,<ref name="Monbiot2003">[[George Monbiot]], [http://www.monbiot.com/archives/2003/03/11/a-wilful-blindness "A Wilful Blindness"] ("Those who support the coming war with Iraq refuse to see that it has anything to do with US global domination"), ''monbiot.com'' (author's website archives), reposted from ''[[The Guardian]]'', 11 March 2003. Retrieved 28 May 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Exporting Islamophobia in the Global 'War On Terror'|url=https://www.nyulawreview.org/online-features/exporting-islamophobia-in-the-global-war-on-terror/|access-date=1 September 2021|website=NYU Law Review|language=en-US}}</ref> reduce [[civil liberties]],<ref name="Wired-FBI">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2008/03/fbi-tried-to-co/|title=FBI Tried to Cover Patriot Act Abuses With Flawed, Retroactive Subpoenas, Audit Finds|last=Singel|first=Ryan|date=13 March 2008|magazine=Wired |access-date=13 February 2012}}</ref> and infringe upon human rights. It is argued that the term war is not appropriate in this context (as in the "[[war on drugs]]") since there is no identifiable enemy, and that it is unlikely international terrorism can be brought to an end by military means.<ref name="Richissin">{{cite news|url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002023596_russanal02.html |title='War on terror' difficult to define |last=Richissin |first=Todd |date=2 September 2004 |work=The Baltimore Sun |access-date=28 January 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114085106/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002023596_russanal02.html |archive-date=14 January 2009}}</ref>

Other critics, such as [[Francis Fukuyama]], state that "[[Definition of terrorism|terrorism]]" is not an enemy but a tactic, and calling it a "war on terror" obscures differences between conflicts such as anti-occupation [[Insurgency|insurgents]] and international [[mujahideen]]. With a military presence in [[Iraq]] and [[Afghanistan]] and its associated collateral damage, [[Shirley Williams]] posits that this increases resentment and terrorist threats against the West.<ref>Williams, Shirley. "[https://www.theguardian.com/comment/story/0,3604,1072390,00.html The seeds of Iraq's future terror]". ''[[The Guardian]]'', 28 October 2003.</ref> There is also perceived US hypocrisy,<ref name="odom_terrorismtactic">{{cite web|url=http://www.middlebury.edu/media/view/214721/original/OdomPaper.pdf |title=American Hegemony: How to Use It, How to Lose It by Gen. William Odom |access-date=27 February 2014}}</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/03/opinion/03iht-edalbright.html?_r=1 Obama's Muslim Speech], ''[[The New York Times]]'', by [[Madeleine Albright]]. Retrieved 25 April 2016. "According to Muslim speakers at such events, one fact stands out: When the Cold War ended, America needed an enemy to replace Communism and chose Islam...Mr. Obama's dilemma is that no speech, however eloquent, can disentangle US–Muslim relations from the treacherous terrain of current events in places such as Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran and the Middle East...Muslims desire respect and respect demands frankness. We cannot pretend that American soldiers and aircraft are not attacking Muslims." Archived from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160719111308/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/03/opinion/03iht-edalbright.html?_r=1 original]</ref> media-induced hysteria,<ref>{{cite book|last=Lustick|first=Ian S.|title=Trapped in the War on Terror|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0812239836|year=2006|url=https://archive.org/details/trappedinwaronte00lust}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chalabi |first=Mona |date=20 July 2018 |title=Terror attacks by Muslims receive 357% more press attention, study finds |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/jul/20/muslim-terror-attacks-press-coverage-study |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216092039/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/jul/20/muslim-terror-attacks-press-coverage-study |archive-date=16 December 2018}}</ref> and that differences in foreign and security policy have [[Criticism of United States foreign policy|damaged America's reputation internationally]].<ref name="PEW-2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2007/03/14/americas-image-in-the-world-findings-from-the-pew-global-attitudes-project/|title=America's Image in the World: Findings from the Pew Global Attitudes Project |date=14 March 2007 |publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=13 February 2012}}</ref> The campaign has also been rebuked for being a perpetual war with no end-goal and for normalising permanent violence as the status quo.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hilal |first=Maha |date=4 August 2022 |title=Ayman al-Zawahiri killing proves the 'war on terror' was never over |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/ayman-zawahiri-killing-war-on-terror-never-over |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804120803/https://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/ayman-zawahiri-killing-war-on-terror-never-over |archive-date=4 August 2022 |website=Middle East Eye}}</ref>

In addition, Professor Richard Jackson notes how countries like Russia, India, Israel, and China adopted the language of the war on terror to describe their own fight against domestic insurgents and dissidents. He argues that "Linking rebels and dissidents at home to the global 'war on terrorism' gives these governments both the freedom to crack down on them without fear of international condemnation, and in some cases, direct military assistance from America".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Richard |title=Writing the War on Terrorism |date=2005 |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester, UK |isbn=9780719071218 |page=13}}</ref>

Professor of Law [[Antony Anghie]] has asserted that "war on terror" is essentially an [[Imperialism|imperialist]] project that constitutes a breach of [[International law]] and the United Nations Charter.<ref name="Anghie2005"/> There has also been systematic cover-ups of [[war crime]]s by military officers participating in campaign operations across the world. A public enquiry in the UK published in July 2023 reported that 3 British [[Special Air Service|SAS]] units were involved in the [[summary execution]]s of at least 80 civilians during 2010–2013, accompanied by a decades-long cover-up at the highest echelons of [[British special forces]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 July 2023 |title=Inquiry considers allegations of 80 unlawful civilian killings and cover-up by UK's SAS in Afghanistan |work=OCHA |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/inquiry-considers-allegations-80-unlawful-civilian-killings-and-cover-uks-sas-afghanistan#:~:text=A%20public%20inquiry%20has%20been,crimes%20coverup%20by%20SAS%20chiefs. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230706223110/https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/inquiry-considers-allegations-80-unlawful-civilian-killings-and-cover-uks-sas-afghanistan |archive-date=6 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sabbagh |first=Dan |date=2 July 2023 |title=Eighty Afghan civilians may have been summarily killed by SAS, inquiry told |work=Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/jul/02/eighty-afghan-civilians-may-have-been-summarily-killed-by-sas-inquiry-told |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230706223523/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/jul/02/eighty-afghan-civilians-may-have-been-summarily-killed-by-sas-inquiry-told |archive-date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

US occupations in Afghanistan and Iraq became heavily unpopular among the American public by the late 2000s.<ref name="Ackerman"/><ref name="Doherty, Kiley"/> Numerous [[United States Armed Forces|US military]] veterans have handed back their service medals—including the [[Global War on Terrorism Service Medal]]—in fierce protest rallies denouncing the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, with many condemning the military campaigns as "illegal occupation" of other countries.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Leitsinger |first=Miranda |date=16 May 2012 |title=US veterans to return war medals in protest |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/us-veterans-return-war-medals-protest-flna774996 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001135356/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/us-veterans-return-war-medals-protest-flna774996 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |access-date=2025-05-03 |work=NBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Wisniewski |first=Mary |date=21 May 2012 |title=Veterans symbolically discard service medals at anti-NATO rally |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nato-summit-veterans-idUSBRE84J0D520120520 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817013749/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nato-summit-veterans-idUSBRE84J0D520120520 |archive-date=17 August 2022 |access-date=19 June 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Criticism of the war on terror]] has focused on its morality, efficiency, and cost. The notion of a "war on terror" remain contentious, with critics charging that it has been used to reduce [[civil liberties]] and infringe upon human rights,<ref name="wired.com"/> such as controversial actions by the US including surveillance, torture, and [[extraordinary rendition]], and drone strikes that resulted in the deaths of alleged terrorists but also civilians.<ref name="Ball"/><ref name="theguardian.com"/><ref name="Drone Warfare"/> Many of the US actions were supported by other countries, including the 54 countries that were involved with [[CIA black sites]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Fisher |first=Max |date=9 December 2014 |title=Map: The 54 countries that helped the CIA with its torture-linked rendition program |url=https://www.vox.com/2014/12/9/7361291/map-cia |access-date=11 September 2021 |website=Vox |language=en}}</ref> or those that assisted with drone strikes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Opinion: US drone complex bureaucratizes murder |url=http://america.aljazeera.com/opinions/2015/5/us-drone-complex-bureaucratizes-murder.html |access-date=11 September 2021 |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref>

=== Forced displacement ===
According to a 2021 study by the [[Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs|Costs of War Project]], the several post-9/11 wars participated in by the United States in its war against terror have caused the displacement, conservatively calculated, of 38 million people in Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Yemen, Somalia, Philippines and Pakistan; 11.3 million remain displaced. This makes it the war that has caused the largest number of [[forced displacements]] since 1900, except for [[World War II]].<ref name="costs displaced" /> Another report by the [[Costs of War Project]] in 2023 estimates that the wars in these countries have caused a total number of 4.5–4.6 million deaths, including 3.6 million indirect deaths and 906,000–937,000 direct killings. Rather than basing this estimate on detailed data of the concerned countries, the Cost of War report multiplied the tallied violent death toll of 906,000–937,000 by four, "by applying the Geneva Declaration Secretariat's average ratio of four indirect for every one direct death."<ref>Savell, Stephen. [https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/files/cow/imce/papers/2023/Indirect%20Deaths.pdf "How Death Outlives War: The Reverberating Impact of the Post-9/11 Wars on Human Health."] 15 May 2023. Brown University Watson Institute. Page 11.</ref><ref>[https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Crime-statistics/Global-Burden-of-Armed-Violence-full-report.pdf Geneva Declaration Secretariat.] September 2008. Global Burden of Armed Violence. Geneva.</ref> Of the approximately 925,000 violent deaths estimated by the Cost of War project, 542,000 were combatants, and 387,000 were civilians.<ref>Neta C. Crawford and Catherine Lutz. [https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/files/cow/imce/papers/2021/Costs%20of%20War_Direct%20War%20Deaths_9.1.21.pdf "Human Cost of Post-9/11 Wars: Direct War Deaths in Major War Zones."] Brown University. 1 September 2022.</ref> The war costs have risen over $8 trillion for the [[United States Department of the Treasury|US Treasury]].{{Efn|Sources on the casualties:
* <ref name="costs2021"/>
* <ref name="figures" />
* <ref name="Summary"/>
* <ref name="washingtonpost20230515"/>}} Critics accuse participating governments of using the "war on terror" to repress minorities or sideline domestic opponents,<ref name="Assimilation"/><ref name="911legacies.com"/> of fomenting [[Islamophobia]] globally,<ref name="reflection journal" /> and have criticized negative impacts to health and the environment resulting from it.<ref name="merip.org"/><ref name="Administration"/><ref name="Ameem Lutfi"/> Critics assert that the term "war" is not appropriate in this context (much like the term "[[war on drugs]]") since terror is not an identifiable enemy; it is unlikely that international terrorism can be brought to an end by military means.<ref name="Richissin" />

== See also ==
{{Portal|Islam|United States|Modern history|Politics}}
{{div col|colwidth=14em}}
* [[Attacks on US consulate in Karachi]]
* [[Authority for Use of Military Force to Combat Terrorist Activities Within the United States]]
* [[Axis of evil]]
* [[Bush Doctrine]]
* [[Cold War]]
* [[Culture of fear]]
* [[History of homeland security in the United States]]
* [[Iran and state-sponsored terrorism]]
* [[Islamic terrorism in Europe]]
* [[List of military operations in the war in Afghanistan (2001–2021)]]
* [[Nuclear terrorism]]
* [[Pakistan–United States relations]]
* [[Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States (disambiguation)|Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States]]
* [[Rally 'round the flag effect]]
* [[Specially Designated Global Terrorist]]
* [[Targeted killing]]
* [[Timeline of United States military operations]]
* [[United States and state terrorism]]
* [[War on drugs]]
* [[War on terror and the media]]

{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book
|last = Coughlin
|first = Stephen
|year = 2015
|title = Catastrophic Failure: Blindfolding America in the Face of Jihad
|publisher = CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform
|isbn = 978-1511617505
}}
* Davis, John, ed. ''Terrorism in Africa: the evolving front in the war on terror'' (Rowman & Littlefield - Lexington Books, 2012). {{ISBN|978-0-7391-3577-8}}
* De Goede, Marieke. "The politics of preemption and the war on terror in Europe." ''European journal of international relations'' 14.1 (2008): 161–85. [https://dare.uva.nl/document/2/61146 online]
* Dimaggio, Anthony. ''Mass Media, Mass Propaganda: Understanding the News in the 'War on Terror'.'' (Rowman & Littlefield - Lexington Books, 2008).{{ISBN|978-0-7391-1902-0}}
* Hill, Joshua, Willard M. Oliver, and Nancy E. Marion. " 'Shaping history' or 'Riding the wave'?: President Bush's influence on the public opinion of terrorism, homeland security, & crime." ''Journal of Criminal Justice'' 38.5 (2010): 896–902.
* Jackson, Richard. ''Writing the War on Terrorism: Language, Politics and Counter-Terrorism''. (Manchester University Press, 2005). {{ISBN|0719071216}}.
* Jones, David Martin, and M.L.R. Smith. "The age of ambiguity: Art and the war on terror twenty years after 9/11." ''Studies in Conflict & Terrorism'' (2021): 1–20. [http://davidmartinjones.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/The-Age-of-Ambiguity-Art-and-the-War-on-Terror-Twenty-Years-after-9-11.pdf online]
* Lansford, Tom. ''9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. A Chronology and Reference Guide'' (ABC-CLIO, 2012). [https://www.amazon.com/Wars-Afghanistan-Iraq-Chronology-Reference/dp/1598844199/ excerpt]
* Lansford, Tom, Robert P. Watson, and Jack Covarrubias, eds. ''America's war on terror'' (2nd ed. Ashgate, 2009). [https://www.amazon.com/Americas-War-Terror-Robert-Watson/dp/0754677877/ excerpt]
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Mueller|first=John|author-link=John Mueller|editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter=War on Terror|chapter-url=https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n323.xml|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n323 |year=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publishing|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |isbn= 978-1412965804 |oclc=750831024| pages=531–33|url-access=subscription}}
* Ryan, Maria. "'War in countries we are not at war with': The 'war on terror' on the periphery from Bush to Obama." ''International Politics'' 48.2 (2011): 364–89.
* Webel, Charles, and Mark Tomass, eds. ''Assessing the War on Terror: Western and Middle Eastern Perspectives'' (Taylor & Francis, 2017).{{ISBN|978-113820456-0}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/infocus/nationalsecurity/faq-what.html White House information about the War on Terrorism]
* [https://www.cia.gov/news-information/cia-the-war-on-terrorism/index.html CIA and the War on Terrorism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408055826/https://www.cia.gov/news-information/cia-the-war-on-terrorism/index.html |date=8 April 2016 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110806164227/http://www.defense.gov/qdr/docs/2005-01-25-Strategic-Plan.pdf U.S. National Military Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism], 2006
* [http://911legacies.com/ The 9/11 Legacies Project], ''[[Oriental Institute, ASCR|The Oriental Institute]], Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague''
* [https://responsiblestatecraft.org/tag/911at20/ 9/11 At 20: A Week of Reflection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416054847/https://responsiblestatecraft.org/tag/911at20/ |date=16 April 2022 }}, ''Responsible Statecraft, The Quincy Institute''

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Rajampet Lok Sabha constituency

2026-03-12T05:43:31Z

Realhimachal: Creating data

{{Short description|Lok Sabha Constituency in Andhra Pradesh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = LS
| name = Rajampet {{Small|AP-24}}
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Lok Sabha constituencies/2019/Andhra Pradesh/Rajampet.map}}
| map_caption = Interactive Map Outlining Rajampet Lok Sabha constituency
| state = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| UnionTerritory =
| established = 1957
| electors = 16,65,702 (2024)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://elections24.eci.gov.in/docs/WYKXFehhEH.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526095942/https://elections24.eci.gov.in/docs/WYKXFehhEH.pdf|url-status=dead |title=The Historic Ethnographic Recordings (1898 – 1951) at the British Library (United Kingdom) |archivedate=26 May 2024|website=elections24.eci.gov.in}}</ref>
| assembly_cons = [[Rajampet Assembly constituency|Rajampet]] [[Kodur Assembly constituency|Kodur]] [[Rayachoti Assembly constituency|Rayachoti]] [[Thamballapalle Assembly constituency|Thamballapalle]] [[Pileru Assembly constituency|Pileru]] [[Madanapalle Assembly constituency|Madanapalle]] [[Punganur Assembly constituency|Punganur]]
| Electorate =
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
| reservation = None
| mp = [[P. V. Midhun Reddy]]
| party = {{Party index link|YSR Congress Party}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|Independent politician|shortname=None}}
}}

'''Rajampet Lok Sabha constituency''' is one of the twenty-five [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha#Andhra Pradesh (25)|lok sabha constituencies]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]] in [[India]]. It comprises 4 assembly segments From [[Annamayya district]] and Rajampet,Vontimitta & Siddavatam mandals of Kadapa district,1 assembly from [[Tirupati district]] and 1 assembly from [[Chittoor district]] .<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-10-03|title=Election results|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003220916/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|archive-date=3 October 2018|access-date=2021-07-04}}</ref>

{{Pie chart|value1=64.7|value2=17.6|value3=11.7|value4=6
|label1=[[Indian National Congress|INC (11 Times)]]
|label2=[[YSR Congress Party|YSRCP (3 Times)]]
|label3=[[Telugu Desam Party|TDP (2 Times)]]
|label4=[[Swatantra Party|Swatantra Party (1 time)]]
| color1={{party color|Indian National Congress}}
|color2={{party color|YSR Congress Party}}
|color3={{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|color4={{party color|Swatantra Party}}
|caption=Most Successful parties from Rajampet Lok Sabha}}

==Assembly segments==
Rajampet Lok Sabha constituency presently comprises the following [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] segments:<ref name="ceo">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|publisher=The Election Commission of India|page=31}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable sortable" width="500px"
!width="50px" style="font-size:75%"|#
!width="200px"|Name
!District
!Members
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|125
|[[Rajampet Assembly constituency|Rajampeta]]
|[[Kadapa district|YSR Kadapa]]
|[[Akepati Amarnath Reddy]]
|{{Party color cell|YSR Congress Party}}
|[[YSR Congress Party|YSRCP]]
|-
|127
|[[Kodur Assembly constituency|Koduru]](SC)
|[[Tirupati district|Tirupati]]
|[[Arava Sreedhar]]
|{{Party color cell|Janasena Party}}
|[[Janasena Party|JSP]]
|-
|128
|[[Rayachoti Assembly constituency|Rayachoti]]
| rowspan="4" |[[Annamayya district|Annamayya]]
|[[Mandipalli Ramprasad Reddy]]
|{{Party color cell|Telugu Desam Party}}
|[[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
|-
|162
|[[Thamballapalle Assembly constituency|Thamballapalle]]
|[[Peddireddy Dwarakanatha Reddy]]
|{{Party color cell|YSR Congress Party}}
|[[YSR Congress Party|YSRCP]]
|-
|163
|[[Pileru Assembly constituency|Pileru]]
|[[N. Kishore Kumar Reddy|Nallari Kishore Kumar Reddy]]
|{{Party color cell|Telugu Desam Party}}
|[[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
|-
|164
|[[Madanapalle Assembly constituency|Madanapalle]]
|[[Shahjahan Basha]]
|{{Party color cell|Telugu Desam Party}}
|[[Telugu Desam Party|TDP]]
|-
|165
|[[Punganur Assembly constituency|Punganur]]
|
[[Annamayya district|Annamayya]] (partial)
[[Chittoor district|Chittoor]] (partial)
|[[Peddireddy Ramachandra Reddy]]
|{{Party color cell|YSR Congress Party}}
|[[YSR Congress Party|YSRCP]]
|}

<mapframe text="125-Rajampet Assembly Constituency" width=300 height=300 align=center >{ "type": "ExternalData", "service": "geoshape", "ids": "Q60192878,Q60192841,Q60192858,Q58670361,Q60192874,Q60192855"}</mapframe>

<mapframe text="127-Koduru Assembly Constituency" width=300 height=300 align=center >{ "type": "ExternalData", "service": "geoshape", "ids": "Q60192862,Q60192852,Q60192859,Q60192842,Q13008464"}</mapframe>

<mapframe text="128-Rayachoti Assembly Constituency" width=300 height=300 align=center >{ "type": "ExternalData", "service": "geoshape", "ids": "Q58666439,Q60192853,Q60192877,Q60192847,Q60192871,Q60192870"}</mapframe>

<mapframe text="162-Thamballapalle Assembly Constituency" width=300 height=300 align=center >{ "type": "ExternalData", "service": "geoshape", "ids": "Q60366760,Q60366785,Q60366776,Q6445504,Q60366781,Q60366774"}</mapframe>

<mapframe text="163-Pileru Assembly Constituency" width=300 height=300 align=center >{ "type": "ExternalData", "service": "geoshape", "ids": "Q58375338,Q60366748,Q60366796,Q60366755,Q6350231,Q6356321"}</mapframe>

<mapframe text="164-Madanapalle Assembly Constituency" width=300 height=300 align=center >{ "type": "ExternalData", "service": "geoshape", "ids": "Q60366792,Q16342958,Q60366768"}</mapframe>

<mapframe text="165-Punganur Assembly Constituency" width=300 height=300 align=center >{ "type": "ExternalData", "service": "geoshape", "ids": "Q60366806,Q60366771,Q60366793,Q5105538,Q60366807,Q58378088"}</mapframe>

==Members of Parliament==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1957 Indian general election|1957]]
|[[T. N. Viswanatha Reddy]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
|C. L. Narasimha Reddy
|{{Full party name with color|Swatantra Party}}
|-
|[[1967 Indian general election|1967]]
|rowspan = 4 |[[Pothuraju Parthasarthy]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[1971 Indian general election|1971]]
|-
|[[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
|-
|[[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
|[[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
|[[Palakondrayudu Sugavasi]]
|{{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|-
|[[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
|rowspan = 4 |[[Sai Prathap Annayyagari]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
|[[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
|-
|[[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
|-
|[[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
|-
|[[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
|Gunipati Ramaiah
|{{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|-
|[[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
|rowspan = 2 |[[Sai Prathap Annayyagari]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
|-
|[[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
|rowspan = 3 |[[P. V. Midhun Reddy]]
|{{Full party name with color|YSR Congress Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|-
|[[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
|}

==Election results==
===General election 1989===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1989 Indian general election|General Election, 1989]]: Rajampet}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[Sai Prathap Annayyagari]]
| votes = 340,796
| percentage = 51.93
| change = +15.29
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = C Ramachandraiah
| votes = 302,373
| percentage = 46.07
| change = -14.30
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 38,423
| percentage = 5.86
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 656,285
| percentage = 69.40
| change = +5.84
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Indian National Congress
| loser = Telugu Desam Party
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election 1991===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1991 Indian general election|General Election, 1991]]: Rajampet}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[Sai Prathap Annayyagari]]
| votes = 325,107
| percentage = 57.94
| change = +6.01
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = [[Palakondrayudu Sugavasi]]
| votes = 162,813
| percentage = 29.02
| change = -17.05
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 162,294
| percentage = 28.92
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 561,068
| percentage = 59.23
| change = -10.17
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Indian National Congress
| loser =
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election 1996===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1996 Indian general election|General Election, 1996]]: Rajampet}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[Sai Prathap Annayyagari]]
| votes = 280,557
| percentage = 48.42
| change = -9.52
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = Pothuraju Prathap
| votes = 230,165
| percentage = 39.72
| change = +10.70
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 50,392
| percentage = 8.70
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 579,437
| percentage = 58.86
| change = -0.37
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Indian National Congress
| loser =
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election 1998===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1998 Indian general election|General Election, 1998]]: Rajampet}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[Sai Prathap Annayyagari]]
| votes = 274,889
| percentage = 45.35
| change = -3.07
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = Gunipati Ramaiah
| votes = 226,993
| percentage = 37.45
| change = -2.27
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Harinath Reddy
| votes = 94,311
| percentage = 15.56
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 47,896
| percentage = 7.90
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 606,110
| percentage = 63.36
| change = +4.50
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Indian National Congress
| loser =
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election 1999===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1999 Indian general election|General Election, 1999]]: Rajampet}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = Gunipati Ramaiah
| votes = 322,107
| percentage = 48.76
| change = +11.31
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[Sai Prathap Annayyagari]]
| votes = 294,937
| percentage = 44.65
| change = -0.70
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 27,170
| percentage = 4.11
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 660,558
| percentage = 69.80
| change = +6.44
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Telugu Desam Party
| loser = Indian National Congress
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election 2004===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Indian general elections|General Election, 2004]]: Rajampet}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[Sai Prathap Annayyagari]]
| votes = 369,797
| percentage = 53.49
| change = +8.84
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = Gunipati Ramaiah
| votes = 291,712
| percentage = 42.20
| change = -6.56
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Md Azam Shaik Haji
| votes = 11,919
| percentage = 1.72
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| candidate = Ashoka Rao Peechara
| votes = 11,247
| percentage = 1.63
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Janata Party
| candidate = Mukka Narasimha Reddy
| votes = 6,654
| percentage = 0.96
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 78,085
| percentage = 11.29
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 691,329
| percentage = 69.50
| change = -0.30
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Indian National Congress
| loser = Telugu Desam Party
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election 2009===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Indian general elections|General Election, 2009]]: Rajampet}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[Sai Prathap Annayyagari]]
| votes = 423,910
| percentage = 42.58
| change = -10.91
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = Ramesh Kumar Reddy Reddappagari
| votes = 313,533
| percentage = 31.49
| change = -10.71
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Praja Rajyam Party
| candidate = D. A. Srinivas
| votes = 180,537
| percentage = 18.13
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 110,377
| percentage = 11.09
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 995,648
| percentage = 75.92
| change = +6.42
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Indian National Congress
| loser =
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election 2014===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general elections|General Election, 2014: Rajampet]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = YSR Congress Party
|candidate = [[P. V. Midhun Reddy]]
|votes = 601,752
|percentage = 51.95
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Daggubati Purandeswari]]
|votes = 426,990
|percentage = 36.86
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
| party = Jai Samaikyandhra Party
| candidate = G. Mujeeb Hussain
| votes = 59,000
| percentage = 8.16
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Sai Prathap Annayyagari]]
|votes = 29,332
|percentage = 2.53
|change = -42.05
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|votes = 7,116
|percentage = 0.61
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 174,762
| percentage = 15.09
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 1,158,317
| percentage = 77.87
| change = +1.95
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = YSR Congress Party
| loser = Indian National Congress
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election 2019===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Indian general elections|General Election, 2019]]: Rajampet}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = YSR Congress Party
| candidate = [[P. V. Midhun Reddy]]
| votes = 702,211
| percentage = 57.27
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = D A Satya Prabha
| votes = 433,927
| percentage = 35.39
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Jana Sena Party
| candidate = Syed Mukarram
| votes = 33,986
| percentage = 2.77
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = NOTA
| candidate = [[None of the above]]
| votes = 21,339
| percentage = 1.74
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 268,284
| percentage =
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 12,24,354
| percentage = 79.15
| change =
}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 15,46,938
|ref= }}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = YSR Congress Party
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== General election 2024===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Indian general elections]]: [[Rajampet]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = YSR Congress Party
| candidate = [[P. V. Midhun Reddy]]
| votes = 644,844
| percentage = 48.93
| change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = [[Nallari Kiran Kumar Reddy]]
| votes = 568,773
| percentage = 42.67
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = S. K. Basheed
| votes = 53,300
| percentage = 4.19
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = NOTA
| candidate = None of the above
| votes = 11,400
| percentage = 0.86
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 76,071
| percentage = 5.77
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 13,37,920
| percentage = 80.24
| change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = YSRCP
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}
{{notelist}}

==See also==
* [[Chittoor district]]
* [[Bobbili Lok sabha Constituency]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.indiaelections2014.info/parliament/2019/states/andhra_pradesh/rajampet/lok_sabha_parliamentary_election_2019_dates.html Rajampet lok sabha constituency election 2019 date and schedule]

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Andhra Pradesh}}
{{Annamayya district}}
{{Tirupati district}}
{{coord|17.1|81.7|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rajampet Lok Sabha constituency}}
[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Kadapa district]]

Muktesh Pant

2026-03-10T05:04:03Z

Realhimachal: made new article.

{{Short description|Indian businessman (born 1954)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Muktesh "Micky" Pant
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1954}}
| birth_place = [[Almora]], India
| alma_mater = [[Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur]]
| occupation = Former CEO, [[Yum China]]
| spouse =
| children =
| website =
}}

'''Muktesh "Micky" Pant''' (born 1954) is an Indian-American [[Chief marketing officer|marketing executive]] with a distinguished career in global consumer goods and food industries. He is best known for serving as the former [[CEO]] of [[Yum China]] and [[Reebok International#India|Reebok India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ir.yumchina.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=254434&p=irol-govmanage|title=[title]|author=|date=|website=ir.yumchina.com|accessdate=11 September 2018}}</ref>

== Education ==
Pant graduated with a B.Tech. in chemical engineering from the [[Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur|Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India]], where he later received the Distinguished Alumnus Award <ref>{{Cite web |title=Mr Muktesh Pant |url=https://www.iitk.ac.in/dora/profile/Mr-Muktesh-Pant |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613200844/https://www.iitk.ac.in/dora/profile/Mr-Muktesh-Pant |archive-date=2024-06-13 |access-date=2025-08-30 |website=www.iitk.ac.in |language=en}}</ref>(2010) and the Institute Fellow 2022 Award <ref>{{Cite web |title=Mr Muktesh Pant |url=https://www.iitk.ac.in/dora/profile/Mr-Muktesh-Pant |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613200844/https://www.iitk.ac.in/dora/profile/Mr-Muktesh-Pant |archive-date=2024-06-13 |access-date=2025-08-30 |website=www.iitk.ac.in |language=en}}</ref> (2023).

== Career ==
Pant started his career in the marketing department of [[Hindustan Lever]] in 1976, spending 15 years in marketing roles. He then worked for [[PepsiCo]] India from 1992 to 19994, followed by a significant tenure at [[Reebok]], where he helped found [[Reebok International#India|Reebok India]] – Pant was employee number 1.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://reso-anunaad.blogspot.com/2010/04/muktesh-pant.html|title=Muktesh Pant|access-date=10 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826015421/http://reso-anunaad.blogspot.com/2010/04/muktesh-pant.html|archive-date=26 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.india-today.com/itoday/19991108/muktesh.html|title=Muktesh Pant at indiatoday.com|access-date=10 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924034412/http://www.india-today.com/itoday/19991108/muktesh.html|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> After a stint as global Chief Marketing Officer at Reebok, Pant became chief marketing officer at Yum! Brands in 2005. In this capacity, Pant was responsible for overseeing marketing practices at the world's largest fast food restaurant company. He served as CEO of Yum Restaurants International, Global CEO of KFC, and President of Taco Bell International. He played a pivotal role in Yum China’s spin-off from Yum! Brands.

After retiring from Yum China in 2018, Pant served as Vice Chairman and Senior Advisor until 2020. He also consulted for Beyond Meat in 2020 and has served on the boards of several companies, including Beyond Meat, Pinnacle Foods, Primavera Capital Acquisition, and Las Vegas Sands Corp.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muktesh "Micky" Pant |url=https://www.halcyonhouse.org/muktesh-micky-pant/ |access-date=2025-08-30 |website=Halcyon}}</ref>

Through the Micky and Vinita Pant Charitable Fund, he supports medical research, rural development, and hospital construction in India, as well as cancer research in the U.S. Pant has lived in India, the UK, the U.S., and China, and currently resides in Washington, D.C.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IIT Kanpur alum donated $2.5 million for setting up a medical school |url=https://www.globalindian.com/givingback/iit-kanpur-alum-donated-2-5-million-for-setting-up-a-medical-school/ |access-date=2025-08-30 |website=The Global Indian |language=en-US}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Yum!}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pant, Muktesh}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:IIT Kanpur alumni]]
[[Category:People from Nainital]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:American chief executives of Fortune 500 companies]]
[[Category:1954 births]]

Fanny Jane Butler

2026-03-08T20:26:09Z

Realhimachal: Data

{{Short description|British missionary}}
{{Infobox medical person
|name = Fanny Jane Butler
|box_width =
|image = Fanny Jane Butler.png
|image_width =
|alt =
|caption =
|birth_date = 5 October 1850
|birth_place = [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]], England
|death_date = {{death date and age|1889|10|26|1850|10|5|df=y}}
|death_place = [[Srinagar]], India
|citizenship =
|profession = physician, medical missionary
|known_for =
|years_active =
|education = [[London School of Medicine for Women]]
|prizes =
|relations =
|signature =
}}
'''Fanny Jane Butler''' (5 October 1850 – 26 October 1889) was a medical missionary from [[England]] who was among the first female doctors to travel to [[India]] and the first fully trained doctor from [[England]] to do so.<ref name="Oxford Dictionary of National Biography">{{cite web|last1=Forbes|first1=Geraldine|title=Butler, Fanny Jane|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/61/101061066/ |website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|publisher=Oxford University Press|accessdate=17 December 2014}}</ref> Prior to her work in [[Kashmir]] and other parts of India, Butler was a part of the first class of the [[London School of Medicine for Women]], becoming a member of the forefront of female doctors. Butler spent seven years in India until her death in 1889 and opened medical dispensaries in [[Srinagar]] and [[Bhagalpur]], where no medical facilities had previously existed.<ref name=Gracey>{{cite book|last1=Gracey|first1=John Talbot|title=Eminent Missionary Women|date=1898|publisher=Eaton and Mains|location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/eminentmissiona00gracgoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/eminentmissiona00gracgoog/page/n151 132]|quote=fanny jane butler.}}</ref> Butler also initiated the building of the first hospital in Srinagar in 1888 called the [[John Bishop Memorial Hospital]] and provided necessary medical care for Indian women, for whom little care had been available.<ref name="Mercy and Truth">{{cite journal|title=Mercy and Truth|journal=Church Missionary Society London|volume=4|issue=37|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dBkCAAAAYAAJ&q=john+bishop+memorial+hospital%2C+srinagar&pg=PA52|accessdate=16 December 2014|year=1900}}</ref>

==Early life==
Butler was born on October 5, 1850, in [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]], London to Thomas Butler and Jane Isabella North. Butler was the eighth of ten children in her family. Only her brothers received a formal education, and they informally taught her before she attended the West London College in 1865 at the age of 15. After one year of school, Butler returned home to help with housework and regularly went to Saint Simon Zelotes Church in Chelsea. Butler was interested in religion and had become a Sunday school teacher earlier when she was 14 years old. In 1872, Butler went to live in [[Birmingham]] to nurse her elder sister.<ref name="Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" /> In Birmingham, Butler encountered an article by prominent Scottish medical missionary William Elmslie, which solicited female missionaries to aid the women in India. This article sparked Butler's interest in medical missionary work, and two years later in 1874 she was accepted to the India Female Normal School and Instruction Society, a non-denominational missionary group that eventually became the [[Church of England Zenana Missionary Society]] in 1880.<ref name="Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Missionary Periodicals Database|url=http://divdl.library.yale.edu/missionperiodicals/Results.aspx?search=true&issue=Indian+Female+Normal+School+and+Instruction+Society|publisher=Yale University Divinity School Library|accessdate=16 December 2014}}</ref> Later that year, Butler was admitted to the first class of the [[London School of Medicine for Women]], which was the first medical school for women in England. Butler obtained a formal medical education there and graduated with high marks, receiving the prize of pathology in 1879 and the prize of anatomy in 1880.<ref>{{cite web|title=Former London School of Medicine for Women|url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/discover/people-and-places/womens-history/women-and-healthcare/former-london-school-of-medicine-for-women/|website=English Heritage|accessdate=21 December 2014}}></ref><ref name="Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" /><ref name=Gracey />

==Call to India==
At the time, the opportunities available in England for female physicians were limited. However, Butler's medical training could be used elsewhere. In parts of India, female doctors were needed because the [[purdah]] women who lived there were not comfortable receiving care from male doctors. In response to this need, Butler was sent to India by the Church of [[Zenana missions|Zenana Missionary]] Society, an Anglican group specifically devoted to Christianizing the women of India through various methods including medical missionary work.<ref name=Nisnet>{{cite book|title=India's Women: The Magazine of the Church of Zenana Missionary Society|date=1883|publisher=James Nisbet & Co.|location=London|url=https://archive.org/stream/indiaswomenmaga03socigoog#page/n3/mode/2up}}</ref>

==Missionary work==
Butler arrived in India in 1880, first staying in [[Jabalpur]] then traveling to [[Bhagalpur]], where she remained for four and a half years. In Bhagalpur, Butler ran two medical dispensaries and saw several thousand patients, dressing wounds, performing surgery, and administering medication. After going back to England for an eleven-month furlough, Butler returned to India in August 1888 and was appointed to work in Kashmir. She moved to [[Srinagar]], a city in Kashmir, but resided four miles outside of the city because foreigners were not allowed to live there, traveling into the city daily by pony or boat.<ref name="Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" /><ref name=Gracey /> Butler continued to see patients in Srinagar, using a translator to communicate, and also delivered religious speeches to those she treated and with whom she worked. In the first 7 months, Butler and her staff saw 8832 outpatients and did 500 operations.<ref name="Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" /> She eventually was able to obtain enough land from the government to build a dispensary, missionary house, and hospital for women.<ref name="Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" /> At that time, Butler met an English woman named [[Isabella Bird]] who was visiting Kashmir. Bird was interested in medical missionary work and gave Butler the money to build the medical facilities. Thus Butler established the John Bishop Memorial Hospital, which was built in memory of Isabella Bird's late husband (the hospital was later rebuilt in Anantnag in 1902 after a flood destroyed the Srinagar location).<ref name="Mercy and Truth" /><ref name=JBMH>{{cite web|title=Health Care Institutes|url=http://www.amritsardiocesecni.org/john-bishop-hospital.html|website=Diocese of Amritsar|access-date=21 December 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226192346/http://www.amritsardiocesecni.org/john-bishop-hospital.html|archive-date=26 December 2014}}</ref>

==Death and legacy==
While working in Kashmir, Butler fell ill and died of dysentery on October 26, 1889. She was buried in a cemetery in [[Srinagar]].<ref name="Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" /><ref name=Gracey /> Butler left a lasting legacy in India for both local and international women. She was a pioneer in the medical field for female doctors, inspiring others to join the movement. Butler provided Indian women medical care that was not previously available, and although she did not live to see its completion, Butler initiated the creation of the John Bishop Memorial Hospital, the first hospital in Srinagar, which still functions today in its new location in Anantnag.<ref name="Mercy and Truth" /> Butler was remembered for her method of a "double cure," treating Indian women both medically and spiritually. After she died, the London School of Medicine for Women established a scholarship in her honor.<ref name="Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" />

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{ course assignment | course = Education Program:University of Pennsylvania/HSOC 59 Medical Missionaries and Community Partners (Fall 2014) | term = 2014 Q3 }}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Butler, Fanny Jane}}
[[Category:1850 births]]
[[Category:1889 deaths]]
[[Category:Alumni of the London School of Medicine for Women]]
[[Category:Christian medical missionaries]]
[[Category:Female Christian missionaries]]
[[Category:English Protestant missionaries]]
[[Category:Protestant missionaries in India]]
[[Category:British missionaries in India]]
[[Category:British medical missionaries]]

Sati (practice)

2026-03-04T15:46:34Z

Realhimachal: Article enhanced with better details

{{Short description|Historical Hindu practice of widow immolation}}
{{about|ritual suicide/murder|other uses|Sati (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
[[File:Preparation for Suttee.jpg|right|thumb|Aquatint from the early 19th century purporting to show ritual preparation for the immolation of a Hindu widow&mdash;shown in a white [[sari]] near the water&mdash;on the funeral pyre of her deceased husband.]]
[[File:Procession of a Suttee Woman.jpg|right|thumb|An etching from the early 19th century purporting to show a Hindu widow being led&mdash;past the body of her deceased husband&mdash;to the funeral pyre.]]

'''Sati''' or '''suttee{{Efn|The spelling ''suttee'' is a phonetic spelling using 19th-century English orthography. The ''satī'' transliteration uses the more modern [[ISO 15919|ISO]]/[[IAST]] (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration), the academic standard for writing the Sanskrit language with the Latin alphabet system.}}''' is a chiefly historical [[Hindus|Hindu]] practice in which a widow [[Death by burning|burns alive]] on her deceased [[husband]]'s funeral [[pyre]],<ref name="thomaswb182-185-lead-sentence2">{{cite book |last=Weinberger-Thomas |first=Catherine |url=https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein |title=Ashes of Immortality: Widow-Burning in India |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0226885681 |location=Chicago |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein/page/182 182]–185 |url-access=registration}} Quote: Between 1943 and 1987, some thirty women in Rajasthan (twenty-eight, according to official statistics) immolated themselves on their husband's funeral pyre. This figure probably falls short of the actual number. (p. 182)</ref><ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Gilmartin |first1=Sophie |year=1997 |title=The Sati, the Bride, and the Widow: Sacrificial Woman in the Nineteenth Century |journal=Victorian Literature and Culture |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=141–158 |doi=10.1017/S1060150300004678 |jstor=25058378 |s2cid=162954709 |quote=Suttee, or sati, is the obsolete Hindu practice in which a widow burns herself upon her husband's funeral pyre...}}</ref> either voluntarily,<ref name="voluntary-brick-kitts-lead2">{{cite book |last=Brick |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nVVYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA166 |title=Martyrdom, Self-Sacrifice, and Self-Immolation: Religious Perspectives on Suicide |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-19-065648-5 |editor-last=Kitts |editor-first=Margo |location=Oxford, UK and New York |pages=162&ndash;181; 165&mdash;166 |quote=To give just one concrete example of sati from the ''Mahabharata'' this is fairly representative of its treatment throughout the epic, we can examine the story of the death of Pandu, the father of the epic's five chief protagonists, the Pandava brothers ... this narrative reveals two crucial features of sati as it is presented in Hindu religious texts of the ancient and medieval periods. The first of these is that it is a strictly voluntary undertaking; it is not presented as a mandatory practice, nor does physical coercion constitute a motivating factor in its lawful execution. The second feature of sati is its special goal, which is the unbroken continuation in the next life of a wife's faithful and devoted service to her husband—the very reason for her existence according to many classical Hindu texts.}}</ref> by coercion,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=DHE3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT44 Feminist Spaces: Gender and Geography in a Global Context], Routledge, Ann M. Oberhauser, Jennifer L. Fluri, Risa Whitson, Sharlene Mollett. Quote: ''Sati'' is a practice in which widows commit suicide by burning themselves (or being burned) on their husband's funeral pyres. While this practice [...] is now obsolete, it was nonetheless at the center of discussions around Indian culture and tradition during the last century-and-a-half.</ref><ref name="watson-oxford-cultural-psychiatry-2024-lead2">{{cite book |last1=Watson |first1=Cameron |title=Suicide Across Cultures: Understanding the variation and complexity of the suicidal process across ethnicities and cultures |last2=Bhugra |first2=Dinesh |last3=Ventriglio |first3=Antonio |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2024 |isbn=978-0-19-884340-5 |editor1-last=Schouler-Ocak |editor1-first=Meryam |series=Oxford Cultural Psychiatry Series |location=Oxford, UK and New York |pages=15&ndash;26; 20 |chapter=Cultural factors in suicide |quote=India: The practice of a Hindu widow jumping onto the funeral pyre of her husband and killing herself is described as sati. The word represents many meanings and the most common use refers to the act of dying by suicide, which was fairly common in north India in particular, until the British rulers made it an illegal act. As the term also is reflected as devotion, the actual act may have been due to devotion or coercion partly because looking after widows may have been seen as a burden for the family. |editor2-last=Khan |editor2-first=Murad Moosa |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0y8bEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA20}}</ref> or by a perception of the lack of satisfactory options for continuing to live.<ref name="si-strong-lead2">{{cite book |last=Strong |first=S. I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pxs3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158 |title=A New Theory of Religious Rights for National and International Legal Systems |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-107-17933-2 |pages=158&ndash;159 |quote=The practice of sati, for example, though widespread in India at one time, may not have been followed for religious reasons so much as for social and economic reasons involving the shame brought on a wife and her family if she did not choose to become sati, the absence of any economic provisions to support widows and the existence of financial incentives to other family members resulting from the widow's committing sati. The social reality was such that death was the only perceived option of many ''sati'', regardless of any religious elements.}}</ref> Although it is debated whether it received scriptural mention in early Hinduism,{{sfn|Stein|2010|p=90|ps= "The positions taken and the practices discussed by Manu and other commentators and writers of dharmashastras are not quaint relics of the distant past, but alive and recurrent in India today &ndash; as the attempts to revive the custom of ''sati'' (widow immolation) in recent decades has shown. Child marriages, forced marriage, dowry and the expectation of abject wifely subservience, too, have enjoyed lengthy duration and continuity and are proving very difficult to stamp out"}} it has been linked to related Hindu practices in the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan-speaking]] regions of [[India]], which have diminished the [[rights of women]], especially those to the [[inheritance]] of property.<ref name="brule-inheritance2">{{cite book |last=Brule |first=Rachel E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdX7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 |title=Women, Power, and Property: The Paradox of Gender Equality Laws in India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-108-83582-4 |location=Cambridge and New York |page=68}} Quote: "[I]n 1829, the British outlawed ''sati''. However, the practice continued, and occurs even the present time. Although recorded cases of ''sati'' have diminished dramatically [...] Sati is a particularly relevant social practice because it is often used as a means to prevent inheritance of property by widows. In parallel, widows are also sometimes branded as witches – and subjected to violent expulsion from their homes – as a means to prevent their inheritance.</ref>{{Efn|"Thus the Laws of Manu severely reduced the property rights of women, recommended a significant difference in ages between husband and wife and the relatively early marriage of women, and banned widow remarriage. Manu's preoccupation with chastity reflected possibly a growing concern for the maintenance of inheritance rights in the male line, a fear of women undermining the increasingly rigid caste divisions, and a growing emphasis on male asceticism as a higher spiritual calling."<ref name="RamusackSievers1999">{{citation|last=Ramusack|first=Barbara N.|editor=Barbara N. Ramusack, Sharon L. Sievers|title=Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNi9Jc22OHsC&pg=PA27|year=1999|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-21267-7|pages=27–29|chapter=Women in South Asia}}</ref>}}{{Efn|"Therefore, by the time of the Mauryan Empire the position of women in mainstream Indo-Aryan society seems to have deteriorated. Customs such as child marriage and dowry were becoming entrenched; and a young women's purpose in life was to provide sons for the male lineage into which she married. ... It is important to note that, in all likelihood, these developments did not affect people living in large parts of the subcontinent—such as those in the south, and tribal communities inhabiting the forested hill and plateau areas of Southern Asia where Hinduism was practised. That said, these deleterious features have continued to blight Indo-Aryan-speaking areas of the subcontinent until the present day.<ref name="Dyson2018-20">{{citation|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|pages=20}}</ref>}} A cold form of sati, or the neglect and casting out of Hindu [[Widow|widows]], has been prevalent from ancient times.<ref name="brule-inheritance2" />

Greek sources from around {{Circa|300 BCE}} make isolated mention of sati, and Hindu inscriptions from 464 CE onward, common by the 11th century, record the practice of a real fire sacrifice.<ref name=axelmichaels/><ref name="Kulkarni">{{cite book|last1=Kulkarni|first1=K.R. |editor-last=Feldhaus |editor-first=Anne |chapter=Sati in Maratha Country |pages=176–178 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1YSU9Qp9w0MC&pg=PA176|title=Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion|year=1996|publisher=SUNY Press|location=Albany, NY|isbn=978-0-7914-2838-2}}</ref> The first references to sati in [[Brahmin]] [[Dharmaśāstra|law-books]] appeared in the 7th century. It was widely recognised, but not universally accepted, by the 12th century.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=236|ps=: "Sati appears to have first become a recognized custom within orthodox Brahmanical communities around the seventh century CE [...] By the twelfth century, these works and the practice of sati were widely known to orthodox Brahmins throughout India. Importantly, however, not all Smṛti passages that mention sati endorse the practice, for beginning with [[Vijñāneśvara]] (c. 1075–1125), authors working within the Dharmaśastra tradition cite a number of authoritative scriptures that explicitly prohibit Brahmin widows from performing sati."}} Records of sati exist throughout many time periods and regions. There were significant differences in different regions and among communities; however, figures are scarce and incomplete for the number of widows who died by sati before the advent of the British period.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=23}}

In the early medieval era, sati was prevalent mainly among certain groups of feudal elites, but it became more widespread across Hindu social groups during the late medieval era.<ref name=axelmichaels/>{{sfn|Yang|2008|pp=21–23}}<ref name="Kulkarni"/> During the early-modern [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] period, it was notably associated with elite Hindu [[Rajput]] clans in western [[India]], marking one of the points of divergence between Hindu Rajputs and the Muslim Mughals, as Islam allows for widow remarriage.<ref name="AsherTalbot2022-1">{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=Catherine B.|last2=Talbot|first2=Cynthia|title=India before Europe|edition = second |year= 2022|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781108428163|pages= 269|quote=In some respects Rajput and Mughal culture remained separate . Attitudes toward widowhood are one case in point. Islam allows for remarriage of widows; .... High-caste Hindus on the other hand opposed widow remarriage with some believing a widow should immolate herself on her husband's funeral pyre, a practice known as ''sati''.... it was particularly associated with elite Rajput families.}}</ref> Several European travelogues of the period attest to Mughal opposition to sati, as well as efforts to restrict and regulate the practice among their Hindu subjects.<ref name=daniel-carey-2014> {{citation|last=Carey|first=Daniel|title=The Problem of Sati: John Locke's Moral Anthropology and the Foundations of Natural Law|journal=Journal of Early Modern History|volume=18|year = 2014|issue=1–2 |pages=69&ndash;100|publisher=BRILL|doi=10.1163/15700658-12342385 |quote=(page 85) Mandelslo tells of the fact that the "voluntary execution" of a beautiful Rajput widow, not more than twenty years old, occurred in Cambay in Gujarat. He indicates that Mughal opposition to the practice of sati had been registered by the governor,... The disparagement of sati was clearly not exclusive to European commentators as it was subject to condemnation by Muslim authorities in the country. (page 89) Bernier ... noted that the measures of Muslim authorities in areas under Mughal control had diminished the number of satis (permission to proceed with the ceremony was required, as Mandelslo had reported). Bernier had attended numerous ceremonies where satis took place.}}</ref><ref name="Wink"/><ref name="Ahmad2009"/> Sati was also widespread in the [[Marathas|Maratha]] country in 17th to early 19th centuries.<ref name="Kulkarni"/> It was historically less common in [[South India]].<ref name="Sinopoli"/> Still, several instances were recorded in the region as well.<ref name="Kulkarni"/> In [[Bengal]], sati was practised by the 12th century,{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=22}} and later increased among other castes such [[Bengali Brahmin]]s between 1680 and 1830, after widows gained inheritance rights.{{sfn|Leslie|1993|p=43}}

In the early 19th century, the [[British Empire|British]] [[East India Company]], in the process of extending its [[Company rule in India|rule]] to most of India, initially tried to stop the practice; [[William Carey (missionary)|William Carey]], a British [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Evangelism|evangelist]], noted 438 incidents within a 30-mile (48-km) radius of the capital, [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], in 1803, despite its ban within Calcutta. Between 1815 and 1818, the number of documented sati incidents in the [[Bengal Presidency]] doubled, from 378 to 839. Opposition to the practice of sati by evangelists like Carey, and by Hindu reformers such as [[Ram Mohan Roy|Raja Ram Mohan Roy]] ultimately led the British [[Governor-General of India]] [[Lord William Bentinck]] to enact the [[Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829]], declaring the practice of burning or burying alive of Hindu widows to be punishable by the criminal courts. Rejecting a petition by 800 orthodox Hindus against the ban, the [[Privy Council (United Kingdom)|Privy Council]] upheld the ban on Sati practice in 1832.<ref name="h468">{{cite book | last=Feldhaus | first=Anne | title=Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion | publisher=SUNY Press | date=1996-03-21 | isbn=978-0-7914-2838-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1YSU9Qp9w0MC&pg=PA192 | access-date=2025-09-18 | page=192}}</ref> Isolated incidents of sati were recorded in India in the late 20th century, leading the [[Government of India]] to promulgate the [[Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987]], criminalising the aiding or glorifying of sati.

== Etymology and usage ==
[[File:OrchhaSatiTemple.jpg|thumb|Orchha Sati Shrine]]The practice is named after the Hindu goddess [[Sati (goddess)|Sati]], who is believed to have self-immolated because she was unable to bear her father [[Daksha]]'s humiliation of her and her husband [[Shiva]].<ref name="thomaswb182-185">{{cite book |last=Weinberger-Thomas |first=Catherine |url=https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein |title=Ashes of Immortality: Widow-Burning in India |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-226-88568-1 |location=Chicago |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein/page/182 182]–185 |url-access=registration}} Quote: Between 1943 and 1987, some thirty women in Rajasthan (twenty-eight, according to official statistics) immolated themselves on their husband's funeral pyre. This figure probably falls short of the actual number. (p. 182)</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=DHE3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT83 Feminist Spaces: Gender and Geography in a Global Context], Routledge, Ann M. Oberhauser, Jennifer L. Fluri, Risa Whitson, Sharlene Mollett. Quote: ''Sati'' is a practice in which widows commit suicide by burning themselves (or being burned) on their husband's funeral pyres. While this practice was never widespread, and is now obsolete, it was nonetheless at the center of discussions around Indian & Nepalese culture and tradition during the last century-and-a-half."</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gilmartin |first1=Sophie |year=1997 |title=The Sati, the Bride, and the Widow: Sacrificial Woman in the Nineteenth Century |journal=Victorian Literature and Culture |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=141–158 |doi=10.1017/S1060150300004678 |jstor=25058378 |s2cid=162954709 |quote=Suttee, or sati, is the obsolete Hindu practice in which a widow burns herself upon her husband's funeral pyre...}}</ref>{{sfn|Sharma|2001|pp=19–21}}{{sfn|Leslie|1993}} The word {{Transliteration|sa|sati}} was originally interpreted as '[[Chastity|chaste]] woman' and it appears in [[Hindi language|Hindi]] and [[Sanskrit]] texts where it is synonymous with 'good wife',{{Sfn|Cain|Harrison|2001|p=209}} therefore, initially referring to the woman, rather than the rite. The word ''suttee'' was commonly used by [[Anglo-Indian]] English writers.{{Sfn|Doniger|2009|p=611}} Variants are:

* ''Sativrata'', an uncommon and seldom used term,<ref name=":3">{{cite book|last=Harlan|first=Lindsey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC&pg=PA119|title=Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives|year=1992|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07339-5|page=119 footnote 12}}</ref> denotes the woman who makes a vow (''[[vrata]]''), to protect her husband while he is alive and then die with her husband.
* ''Satimata'' denotes a venerated widow who committed ''sati''.<ref name=":4">{{cite book|last=Harlan|first=Lindsey|page=119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC&pg=PA119|title=Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives|year=1992|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07339-5|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford}}</ref>

The rite itself had technical names:
* ''Sahagamana'' ('going with') or ''sahamarana'' ('dying with').
* ''Anvarohana'' ('ascension' to the pyre) is occasionally met, as well as ''satidaha'' as terms to designate the process.<ref name=":5">{{cite book|last=Weinberger-Thomas|first=Catherine|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein/page/21 21]|url=https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein|url-access=registration|title=Ashes of Immortality: Widow-Burning in India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1999|isbn=978-0-226-88568-1}}</ref>
* ''Satipratha'' is also, on occasion, used as a term signifying the custom of burning widows alive.<ref name=":6">{{cite book|last=Bharti|first=Dalbir|page=49|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7U36KQVBVIgC&pg=PA49|title=Women and the Law|publisher=APH Publishing|year=2008|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-313-0442-6}}</ref>

The Indian Commission of [[Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987]] Part I, Section 2(c) defines ''sati'' as the act or rite itself, of "burning or burying alive".<ref name="NRCW">{{cite web|url=http://nrcw.nic.in/shared/sublinkimages/13.htm|title=Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 Official text of the Act|publisher=[[Government of India]]'s National Resource Centre for Women (NCRW)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025224737/http://nrcw.nic.in/shared/sublinkimages/13.htm|archive-date=25 October 2009}}</ref>

The spelling ''suttee'' is a phonetic spelling using 19th-century [[English language|English]] orthography. The ''satī'' transliteration uses the more modern [[ISO 15919|ISO]]/[[IAST]] (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration), the academic standard for writing the Sanskrit language with the Latin alphabet system.<ref name="Hardgrave1998" />

==Origin and spread==
The origins and spread of the practice of sati are complex and much debated questions, without a general consensus.{{sfn|Yang|2008|pp=21–23}}{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p=162–167}} It has been speculated that rituals, such as widow sacrifice or widow burning, have prehistoric roots.{{Efn|Early 20th-century pioneering anthropologist [[James G. Frazer]] thought that the legendary Greek story of [[Capaneus]], whose wife Evadne threw herself on his funeral pyre, might be a relic of an earlier custom of live widow-burning.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pausanias|last2=Frazer|first2=James G.|page=200|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CetszVxoxAoC&pg=PA200|title=Pausanias's Description of Greece|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012| location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1-108-04725-8|volume=3}}</ref> In Book 10 of Quintus Smyrnaeus' Posthomerica (lines 467ff.), Oenone is said to have thrown herself on he burning pyre of her erstwhile husband Paris, or Alexander. The strangling of widows after their husbands' deaths are attested to from cultures as disparate as the [[Natchez people]] in present-day [[Louisiana]], to a number of [[Pacific Islander]] cultures.<ref>''On Natchez, and on Anatom in present day [[Vanuatu]]'', {{cite book|last=Mackenzie|first=Donald A.|pages=158–159|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6chKHROa1icC&pg=PA158|title=Myths of Pre-Columbian America|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|year=1923|isbn=978-0-486-29379-0}} ''Tahiti, Hawaii, Samoa'' {{cite book|last=Brantlinger|first=Patrick|pages=[https://archive.org/details/tamingcannibalsr00bran/page/34 34]–35|url=https://archive.org/details/tamingcannibalsr00bran|url-access=registration|title=Taming Cannibals: Race and the Victorians|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-8014-6264-1}}, ''Fiji'' {{cite book|last1=Thornley|first1=Andrew|last2=Vualono|first2=Tauga|page=166|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JTuavWoQW9oC&pg=PA166|title=A Shaking of the Land: William Cross and the Origins of Christianity in Fiji |date=2005 |isbn=978-982-02-0374-7 |publisher=University of the South Pacific |location=Suva, Fiji}}</ref> [[Ahmad ibn Fadlan]] describes a 10th-century CE [[ship burial]] of the [[Rus' (people)|Rus']]. When a female slave had said she would be willing to die, her body was subsequently burned with her master on the pyre.<ref>However, in this ritual described by Ibn Fadlan, the slave girl is described as being stabbed to death prior to being burned. See p. 19, at {{cite web|website=library.cornell.edu|title=Ibn Fadlan and the Rusiyyah|author=James E. Montgomery|url=https://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/montgo1.pdf}}</ref>}} The archaeologist [[Elena Efimovna Kuzmina]] has listed several parallels between the burial practices of the ancient Asiatic steppe [[Andronovo culture]]s ({{Floruit|1800–1400 BCE}}) and the [[Vedic Age]].{{Sfn|Kuzmina|2007|p=341}} She considers sati to be a largely symbolic double burial or a double cremation, a feature she argues is to be found in both cultures,{{Sfn|Kuzmina|2007|p=340}} with neither culture observing it strictly.{{Sfn|Kuzmina|2007|p=194}}

===Vedic symbolic practice===
According to [[Romila Thapar]], in the [[Vedic period]], when "mores of the clan gave way to the norms of caste", wives were obliged to join in quite a few rituals but without much authority. A ritual with support in a [[Vedic text]] was a "symbolic self-immolation" which it is believed a widow of status needed to perform at the death of her husband, the widow subsequently marrying her husband's brother.{{sfn|Thapar|2002|p=118}} In later centuries, the text was cited as the origin of Sati, with a variant reading allowing the authorities to insist that the widow sacrifice herself in reality by joining her deceased husband on the funeral pyre.{{sfn|Thapar|2002|p=118}}

[[Anand Yang|Anand A. Yang]] notes that the ''[[Rig Veda]]'' refers to a "mimetic ceremony" where a "widow lay on her husband's funeral pyre before it was lit but was raised from it by a male relative of her dead husband."{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=20}} According to Yang, the word ''agre'', "to go forth", was (probably in the 16th century) mistranslated into ''agneh'', "into the fire", to give Vedic sanction for sati.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=20}}

===Early medieval origins===
[[File:Eran_pillar_of_Goparaja_(detail).jpg|thumb|The Eran inscription of [[Goparaja]] is considered as the earliest known Sati stone in India (circa 510 CE).<ref name=Vakataka>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OswUZtL1_CUC&q=sati+stone+510+ad&pg=PA190 |title=Vakataka – Gupta Age Circa 200–550 A.D.|page=190|isbn=978-81-208-0026-7|last1=Majumdar|first1=Ramesh Chandra|last2=Altekar|first2=Anant Sadashiv|year=1986|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. }}</ref> [[Bhanugupta|The inscription]] explains: he "went to heaven, becoming equal to [[Indra]], the best of the gods; and [his] devoted, attached, beloved, and beauteous wife, clinging [to him], entered into the mass of fire (funeral pyre)".<ref name=":10">{{cite book |last1=Fleet |first1=John Faithful |title=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol.3 (inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings) |date=1981 |page=354 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.108395/page/n457/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name="Vakataka"/>]]

Sati as the burning of a widow with her deceased husband seems to have been introduced in the pre-[[Gupta Empire|Gupta era]], since 500 CE.{{sfn|Thapar|2002|p=304}} [[Vidya Dehejia]] states that sati was forced into Indian society through Hindu cultural practice, and became active practice after 500 CE.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=50}} According to [[Ashis Nandy]], the practice became prevalent from vedas and declined to its elimination in the 17th century to gain resurgence in Bengal in the 18th century from British ethical involvement.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Nandy|first=Ashis|title=Sati: A Nineteenth Century Tale of Women, Violence and Protest in the book "At the Edge of Psychology"|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1980|page=1}}</ref> Historian [[Roshen Dalal]] postulates that its mention in some of the [[Puranas]] indicates that it slowly grew in prevalence from 5th–7th century and later became an accepted custom around 1000 CE among those of higher classes, especially the [[Rajputs]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=sati+shiva+greeks+widow&pg=PA363|last=Dalal |first=Roshen |year=2010 |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |publisher=Penguin Books India |page=363 |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 }}</ref>{{sfn|Yang|2008|pp=21–23}}{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|pp=50–53}} One of the stanzas in the [[Mahabharata]] describes [[Madri]]'s suicide by sati, but is likely an [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolation]] given that it has contradictions with the succeeding verses.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|first=M. A.|last=Mehendale|url=http://archive.org/details/InterpolationsInTheMahabharata|title=Interpolations In The Mahabharata|pages=200–201|date=2001-01-01}}</ref>

According to Dehejia, sati originated within the [[Kshatriya]] (warrior) aristocracy and remained mostly limited to the warrior class among Hindus.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|pp=51–53}} According to Thapar, the introduction and growth of the practice of sati as a forced fire sacrifice is related to new Kshatriyas, who forged their own culture and took some rules "rather literally",{{sfn|Thapar|2002|p=304}} with a variant reading of the Veda turning the symbolic practice into the practice of pushing a widow and burning her with her husband.{{sfn|Thapar|2002|p=118}} Thapar further points to the "subordination of women in patriarchal society", "changing 'systems of kinship{{'"}}, and "control over female sexuality" as factors in the rise of sati.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21}}

===Medieval spread===
The practice of sati was emulated by those seeking to achieve high status of the royalty and the warriors as part of the process of [[Sanskritisation]],{{sfn|Yang|2008|pp=21–23}} but its spread was also related to the centuries of Islamic invasion and its expansion in South Asia,{{sfn|Yang|2008|pp=21–23}}{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=205–206}}{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p=162–167}}<ref name=ssshashi>{{cite book|last=Sashi|first=S.S.|page=115|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh|volume=100|year=1996|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=978-81-7041-859-7}}</ref> and to the hardship and marginalisation that widows endured.{{sfn|Leslie|1993|p=43}}{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=22}}

Sati acquired an additional meaning as a means to preserve the honour of women whose men had been slain,{{sfn|Yang|2008|pp=21–23}} akin to the practice of ''[[jauhar]]'',{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|pp=165–166}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Social Problems And Welfare In India|year=1992|publisher=Ashish Publishing House|author=Jogan Shankar}}</ref> with the ideologies of ''jauhar'' and sati reinforcing each other.{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|pp=165–166}} ''Jauhar'' was originally a self-chosen death for queens and noblewomen facing defeat in war, and practised especially among the warrior Rajputs.{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|pp=165–166}} Oldenburg posits that the enslavement of women by Greek conquerors may have started this practice,{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p=162–167}} On attested Rajput practice of jauhar during wars, and notes that the ''kshatriyas'' or Rajput castes, not the [[Brahmin]]s, were the most respected community in Rajasthan in north-west India, as they defended the land against invaders centuries before the coming of the Muslims.{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p=165}} She proposes that Brahmins of the north-west copied Rajput practices, and transformed sati ideologically from the 'brave woman' into the 'good woman'.{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p=165}} From those Brahmins, the practice spread to other non-warrior castes.{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|pp=165–166}}

According to David Brick of [[Yale University]], sati, which was initially rejected by the Brahmins of [[Kashmir]], spread among them in the later half of the first millennium. Brick's evidence for claiming this spread is the mention of sati-like practices in the ''[[Vishnu Smriti]]'' (700–1000 CE), which is believed to have been written in Kashmir. Brick argues that the author of the ''Vishnu Smriti'' may have been mentioning practices existing in his own community. Brick notes that the dates of other Dharmasastra texts mentioning ''sahagamana'' are not known with certainty, but posits that the priestly class throughout India was aware of the texts and the practice itself by the 12th century.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=205–206}} According to Anand Yang, it was practised in Bengal as early as the 12th century, where it was originally practised by the Kshatriya caste and later spread to other upper and lower castes including Brahmins.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=22}} Julia Leslie writes that the practice increased among [[Bengali Brahmin]]s between 1680 and 1830, after widows gained inheritance rights.{{sfn|Leslie|1993|p=43}}

===Colonial era revival===
Sati practice resumed during the [[Colonial India|colonial era]], particularly in significant numbers in colonial [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]].<ref name=umanarayan/> Three factors may have contributed this revival: sati was believed to be supported by Hindu scriptures by the 19th century; sati was encouraged by unscrupulous neighbours as it was a means of property annexation from a widow who had the right to inherit her dead husband's property under Hindu law, and sati helped eliminate the inheritor; [[Poverty in India#Poverty prevalence and estimates|poverty]] was so extreme during the 19th century that sati was a means of escape for a woman with no means or hope of survival.<ref name=umanarayan>Uma Narayan (1997), Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions, and Third World Feminism, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415914192}}, pp. 59–65</ref>

Daniel Grey states that the understanding of origins and spread of sati were distorted in the colonial era because of a concerted effort to push "problem Hindu" theories in the 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Grey | first1 = Daniel | year = 2013 | title = Creating the 'Problem Hindu': Sati, Thuggee and Female Infanticide in India: 1800–60 | journal = Gender & History | volume = 25 | issue = 3| pages = 498–510 | doi = 10.1111/1468-0424.12035 | s2cid = 142811053 }}</ref> Lata Mani wrote that all of the parties during the British colonial era that debated the issue subscribed to the belief in a "[[Golden Age of India|golden age]]" of Indian women followed by a decline in concurrence to the [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Muslim conquests]]. This discourse also resulted in promotion of a view of British missionaries rescuing "Hindu India from Islamic tyranny".<ref>Mani, L. (1998). Contentious traditions : the debate on Sati in colonial India. Berkeley: University of California Press.pg 193</ref> Several British missionaries who had studied classical Indian literature attempted to employ Hindu scriptural interpretations in their missionary work to convince their followers that Sati was not mandated by Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/islamiceuropeane00adas|url-access=registration|quote=sati muslim conquests british saved india.|author=Michael Adas|publisher=Temple University Press|title= Islamic & European Expansion: The Forging of a Global Order|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamiceuropeane00adas/page/358 358]|isbn=978-1-56639-068-2|year=1993}}</ref>

==History==

===Earliest records===

====Early Greek sources====
Among those that do reference the practice, the lost works of the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] historian [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia]], who travelled to India with the expedition of [[Alexander the Great]] in {{circa|327 BCE}}, are preserved in the fragments of [[Strabo]].<ref name="Pigoń2008" /><ref name="Bosworth2005" /><ref name=":1" /> There are different views by authors on what Aristobulus hears as widows of one or more tribes in India performing self-sacrifice on the husband's pyre, one author also mentions that widows who declined to die were held in disgrace.<ref name="Pigoń2008">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j5vzBgAAQBAJ&q=aristobulus+strabo+fragments+sati&pg=PA135|title = The Children of Herodotus: Greek and Roman Historiography and Related Genres|page= 135 |editor = Jakub Pigoń|isbn = 978-1-4438-0251-2|publisher = Cambridge Scholars Publishing|date = 18 December 2008}}</ref><ref name="Bosworth2005">{{cite book|title = The Legacy of Alexander: Politics, Warfare, and Propaganda under the Successors|page= 177 |author = A. B. Bosworth|isbn = 978-0-19-928515-0|publisher = Oxford University Press|year= 2005 }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Guillemard|first=F. H. H.|title=A History of Ancient Geography|publisher=Cambridge University Press Warehouse|page=152}}</ref> In contrast, [[Megasthenes]] who visited India during 300 BCE does not mention any specific reference to the practice,<ref>{{Cite book|last=McCrindle|first=John Watson|title=Ancient India as Described by Megasthenês and Arrian|publisher=Thacker & Co}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> which Dehejia takes as an indication that the practice was non-existent then.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=51-52}}

[[Diodorus]] writes about the wives of Ceteus, the Indian captain of [[Eumenes]], competing for burning themselves after his death in the [[Battle of Paraitakene]] (317 BCE). The younger one is permitted to mount the pyre. Modern historians believe Diodorus's source for this episode was the eyewitness account of the now lost historian [[Hieronymus of Cardia]]. Hieronymus' explanation of the origin of sati appears to be his own composite, created from a variety of Indian traditions and practices to form a moral lesson upholding traditional Greek values.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2005|pp=174–187}} Modern scholarship has generally treated this instance as an isolated incident, not representative of general culture.

Two other independent sources that mention widows who voluntarily joined their husbands' pyres as a mark of their love are [[Cicero]] and [[Nicolaus of Damascus]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j5vzBgAAQBAJ&q=nicolaus+of+damascus+sati&pg=PA137|title = The Children of Herodotus: Greek and Roman Historiography and Related Genres|page= 136 |editor = Jakub Pigoń|isbn = 978-1-4438-0251-2|publisher = Cambridge Scholars Publishing|date = 18 December 2008}}</ref>

====Early Sanskrit sources====
Some of the early Sanskrit authors like [[Daṇḍin]] in ''[[Dashakumaracharita|Daśakumāracarita]]'' and [[Banabhatta]] in ''[[Harshacharita]]'' mention that women who burnt themselves wore extravagant dresses. Bana tells about [[Yasomati]] who, after choosing to mount the pyre, bids farewell to her relatives and servants. She then decks herself in jewelry which she later distributes to others.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j5vzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA126|title = The Children of Herodotus: Greek and Roman Historiography and Related Genres|page= 126 |editor = Jakub Pigoń|isbn = 978-1-4438-0251-2|publisher = Cambridge Scholars Publishing|date = 18 December 2008}}</ref> Although [[Prabhakaravardhana]]'s death is expected, Arvind Sharma suggests it is another form of sati.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJmWgz2mv5oC&q=yasomati+sati&pg=PA41|title = Sati: Historical and Phenomenological Essays|page= 41 |author=Arvind Sharma |author2=Ajit Ray |author3=Alaka Hejib |isbn = 978-81-208-0464-7|publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|year = 1988}}</ref> The same work mentions [[Harsha]]'s sister Rajyasri trying to commit sati after her husband died.<ref>Social and Religious Reform Movements in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Institute of Historical Studies, Siba Pada Sen, '''181'''</ref><ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sqFQAwAAQBAJ&q=rajyasri+sati&pg=PT498|title = The First Spring Part 1: Life in the Golden Age of India| author= Abraham Eraly |isbn = 978-93-5118-645-8 | publisher= Penguin UK|date = May 2014}}</ref> In ''[[Kadambari]]'', Bana greatly opposes sati and gives examples of women who did not choose ''sahgamana''.<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UJmWgz2mv5oC&q=kadambri+bana+sati&pg=PA15|title = Sati: Historical and Phenomenological Essays|page= 15 |author=Arvind Sharma |author2=Ajit Ray |author3=Alaka Hejib |isbn = 978-81-208-0464-7|publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|year = 1988}}</ref>

====Sangam literature====
Padma Sree asserts that other evidence for some form of sati comes from [[Sangam literature]] in [[Tamilakam]]: for instance the {{Transliteration|ta|[[Silappatikaram]]}} written in the 2nd century CE. In this tale, [[Kannagi]], the chaste wife of her wayward husband [[Kovalan]], burns [[Madurai]] to the ground when her husband is executed unjustly, then climbs a cliff to join Kovalan in heaven. She became an object of worship as a chaste wife, called ''[[Pattini]]'' in [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]] and {{Transliteration|ta|Kannagiamman}} in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], and is still worshipped today. An inscription in an urn burial from the 1st century CE tells of a widow who told the potter to make the urn big enough for both her and her husband. The {{Transliteration|ta|[[Manimekalai]]}} similarly provides evidence that such practices existed in Tamil lands, and the {{Transliteration|ta|[[Purananuru]]}} claims widows prefer to die with their husband due to the dangerous negative power associated with them. However she notes that this glorification of sacrifice was not unique to women: just as the texts glorified "good" wives who sacrificed themselves for their husbands and families, "good" warriors similarly sacrificed themselves for their kings and lands. It is even possible that the sacrifice of the "good" wives originated from the warrior sacrifice tradition. Today, such women are still worshipped as ''[[Village deities of South India|Gramadevis]]'' throughout South India.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Padma|first=Sree|title=Vicissitudes of the Goddess|date=2013-10-11|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199325023.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-932502-3}}</ref>

====Inscriptional evidence====
According to [[Axel Michaels]], the first inscriptional evidence of the practice is from [[History of Nepal|Nepal]] in 464 CE, and in India from 510 CE.<ref name=axelmichaels>{{cite book|last=Michaels|first=Axel|pages=149–153|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PD-flQMc1ocC&pg=PA149|title=Hinduism: Past and Present|year=2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-08953-9}}</ref> The early evidence suggests that widow-burning practice was seldom carried out in the general population.<ref name=axelmichaels/> Centuries later, instances of sati began to be marked by inscribed memorial stones called Sati stones. According to J.C. Harle, the medieval memorial stones appear in two forms – ''viragal'' (hero stone) and ''satigal'' (sati stone), each to memorialise something different. Both of these are found in many regions of India, but "rarely if ever earlier in date than the 8th or 9th century".<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=25203206|title=An Early Indian Hero-Stone and a Possible Western Source|last1=Harle|first1=J. C.|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|year=1970|volume=102|issue=2|pages=159–164|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00128333|s2cid=163747976 }}</ref> Numerous memorial sati stones appear 11th-century onwards, states Michaels, and the largest collections are found in [[Rajasthan]].<ref name=axelmichaels/> There have been few instances of sati in the [[Chola Empire]] of [[South India]]. Vanavan Mahadevi, the mother of [[Rajaraja Chola I]] (10th century) and Viramahadevi the queen of [[Rajendra Chola I]] (11th century) both committed Sati upon their husband's death by ascending the pyre.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women in India: A Social and Cultural History [2 volumes]: A Social and Cultural History|author=Sita Anantha Raman|publisher=ABC-CLIO, 8 June 2009 – Social Science – 468 pages|page=167}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Woman, Her History and Her Struggle for Emancipation|author=B. S. Chandrababu, L. Thilagavathi|publisher=Bharathi Puthakalayam, 2009 – Feminism – 624 pages|page=136}}</ref> The 510 CE inscription at [[Eran]] mentioning the wife of [[Goparaja]], a vassal of [[Bhanugupta]], burning herself on her husband's pyre is considered to be a Sati stone.<ref name=Vakataka />

===Practice in Hindu-influenced cultures outside India===
{{See also|Greater India}}

The early 14th-century CE traveler of [[Pordenone]] mentions wife burning in Zampa ([[Champa]]), in nowadays south/central [[History of Vietnam|Vietnam]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Phillips|first=Kim M.|page=119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5GkYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119|title=Before Orientalism: Asian Peoples and Cultures in European Travel Writing, 1245–1510|year=2013|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-8122-0894-8}}</ref>{{Efn|Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived in Vietnam by early centuries of 1st millennium, likely from trade and the Cambodian Khmer influence. In the 10th century CE, Mahayana Buddhism became the officially sponsored religion. From the 11th century and thereafter, Buddhism in Vietnam incorporated many Chinese Confucian influences.<ref>{{citation|title=History of Buddhism in Vietnam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tUN8tC0ftJcC |author=Nguyễn Tài Thư |publisher=CRVP| year=2008|isbn=978-1-56518-098-7|pages=75–89}}</ref>}} Anant Altekar states that sati spread with Hindu migrants to Southeast Asian islands, such as to [[Java]], [[Sumatra]] and [[Bali]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|page=130|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA130|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-0324-4}}</ref> According to Dutch colonial records, this was however a rare practice in Indonesia, one found in royal households.<ref>{{cite book|author=M.C. Ricklefs|title=A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1200|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0AAdBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA166|year=2008|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-05201-8|pages=165–166}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

[[File:Balinese rite of Suttee in Houtman 1597 Verhael vande Reyse ... Naer Oost Indien.jpg|thumb|Description of the [[Balinese people|Balinese]] rite of self-sacrifice or ''Suttee'', in [[Frederik de Houtman]]'s 1597 ''Verhael vande Reyse ... Naer Oost Indien'']]
In [[History of Cambodia|Cambodia]], both the lords and the wives of a dead king voluntarily burnt themselves in the 15th and 16th centuries.<ref>The archeologist [[Georges Coedès]] made that inference on basis of some inscriptions in Cambodia,{{cite book|last=Sharan|first=Manesh K.|page=192|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8B886QamMBMC&pg=PA192|title=Studies In Sanskrit Inscriptions Of Ancient Cambodia|year=2003|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-006-8}}, also, see Yule & Burnell (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=F51h6q-bB6sC&pg=PA494 pp. 495 Hobson-Jobson: The Definitive Glossary of British India]</ref>{{Efn|Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived in Cambodia by the mid 1st millennium, likely over both land trading routes and maritime Asian trade. Mahayana Buddhism likely arrived in the 5th or 6th century CE.<ref name="Harris2008"/> Mahayana competed with Hinduism from the 8th century onwards, as Khmer kings switched their royal support as they warred with Siam kings, with [[Mahayana]] becoming the officially sponsored religion in the 12th century and [[Theravada]] starting to arrive.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ian Harris|title=Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVnMxVz_Bg8C |year=2008|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-3298-8 |pages=10–28 }}</ref> From the 15th century and thereafter, Theravada Buddhism replaced Mahayana, and became the predominant religion.<ref name="Harris2008">{{cite book|author=Ian Harris|title=Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVnMxVz_Bg8C |year=2008|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-3298-8 |pages=4–8 }}</ref>}} According to European traveller accounts, in 15th century [[Mergui]], in present-day extreme south [[Myanmar]], widow burning was practised.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lach|first=Donald F.|page=525|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0x1Io6VOuAIC&pg=PA525|title=Asia in the Making of Europe: The Century of Discovery|volume=1|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-226-46732-0}}</ref> A Chinese pilgrim from the 15th century seems to attest the practice on islands called Ma-i-tung and Ma-i (possibly [[Belitung]] (outside Sumatra) and [[Northern Philippines]], respectively).<ref>{{cite book|last=Creese|first=Helen|page=317, footnote 12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCUrhg_EibgC&pg=PA317|title=Women of the Kakawin World: Marriage and Sexuality in the Indic Courts of Java and Bali|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|location=Armonk, NY|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7656-0160-5}}</ref>

According to the historian [[K. M. de Silva|K.M. de Silva]], Christian missionaries in [[History of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] with a substantial Hindu minority population, reported "there were no glaring social evils associated with the indigenous religions-no ''sati'', (...). There was thus less scope for the social reformer."<ref>{{cite book|last=de Silva|first=K.M.|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_dByI_qil26YC/page/n290 266]|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_dByI_qil26YC|title=A History of Sri Lanka|year=1981|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|isbn=978-0-520-04320-6}}</ref> However, although sati was non-existent in the colonial era, earlier Muslim travelers such as [[Sulaiman al-Tajir]] reported that sati was optionally practised, which a widow could choose to undertake.<ref>On ''al-Tajir'', ''Ibn Batuta'' and ''Marco Polo'' {{cite book |last1=Hermes |first1=Nizar F. |editor-last=Netton |editor-first=Ian R. |chapter=The Orient's Medieval Orient(alism) |page=211 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lpsfb48_-xoC&pg=PA211 |title=Orientalism Revisited: Art, Land and Voyage |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-53854-1}}, On ''al-Qazwini'' {{cite book|last=Tennent|first=James E.|page=574|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DRg-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA574|title=Ceylon: An Account of the Island|volume=1|publisher=Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts|location=London|year=1859}}</ref>

===Mughal Empire (1526–1857)===
[[File:A Hindu princess committing suttee against the wishes of the Wellcome L0022809.jpg|thumb|A painting by Mohammad Rizā showing a Hindu princess committing Sati against the wishes but with the reluctant approval of Emperor [[Akbar]]. In the right foreground, attending the Sati on horseback, is the third son of Akbar, Prince [[Daniyal Mirza|Dāniyāl]].]]

Prior to the Mughal era, [[Delhi Sultanate]] rulers such as [[Alauddin Khilji]] and [[Muhammad bin Tughlaq]] (13th-14th century) sought to require permission prior to any sati, but this "became a mere formality and in any event did not apply to Hindu women from royal families".<ref name="Ahmad2009"/> The second Mughal emperor [[Humayun]] was reported to have issued a ban on sati but subsequently withdrew it.<ref name="Ahmad2009"/> Under [[Akbar]] ({{Reign|1556|1605}}), sati became a regulated practice requiring permission from Mughal governors ([[kotwal]]s), "who were instructed to delay the woman's decision for as long as possible", "demanded a steep fee for such permission", and offered "pensions, gifts and other help" to dissuade widows from sati.<ref name="Ahmad2009"/><ref name="Wink">{{cite book | last=Wink | first=André | title=Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Volume IV: Age of the Great Mughals, 16th-17th Centuries. Part One: Afghans and Mughals in the Struggle | publisher=BRILL | date=2024-04-22 | isbn=978-90-04-69680-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o1sDEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA286 | page=286}}</ref> Later Mughal obstacles to the practice were difficult to enforce outside of imperial centres such as Agra.<ref name="Ahmad2009"/> Mughal governors under [[Jahangir]], and contemporary rulers of the [[Deccan Sultanates]] "attempted to dissuade requests" but did not prohibit the practice, and permitted it for a fee.<ref name="Wink"/> After [[Aurangzeb]] issued an order against sati in 1663, the practice declined in Mughal realms, but did not disappear, and the order could be evaded through bribing of officials.<ref name=Columbia/>

'''Ambivalence of Mughal rulers'''

According to [[Annemarie Schimmel]], the [[Mughal emperor|Mughal Emperor]] [[Akbar I]] ({{Reign|1556|1605}}) was averse to the practice of Sati; however, he expressed his admiration for "widows who wished to be cremated with their deceased husbands".<ref name=annemarie113>{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel|editor=Burzine K. Waghmar|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=Reaktion|isbn=978-1-86189-185-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/113 113]–114}}</ref> He was averse to abuse, and in 1582, Akbar issued a decree to prevent any use of compulsion in sati.<ref name=annemarie113/><ref name=Columbia>{{cite book |author1=S. M. Ikram |author-link= S. M. Ikram |author2=Ainslie T. Embree |title=Muslim Civilization in India |chapter=17 |url=https://franpritchett.com/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_17.html |publisher=Columbia University Press |access-date=25 November 2023 |language=En |format=Ebook |date=1964 |quote=Aurangzeb was most forthright in his efforts to stop sati. According to Manucci, on his return from Kashmir in December, 1663, he "issued an order that in all lands under Mughal control, never again should the officials allow a woman to be burnt." Manucci adds that "This order endures to this day."/26/ This order, though not mentioned in the formal histories, is recorded in the official guidebooks of the reign./27/ Although the possibility of an evasion of government orders through payment of bribes existed, later European travelers record that sati was not much practiced by the end of Aurangzeb's reign. As Ovington says in his Voyage to Surat: "Since the Mahometans became Masters of the Indies, this execrable custom is much abated, and almost laid aside, by the orders which nabobs receive for suppressing and extinguishing it in all their provinces. And now it is [[237]] very rare, except it be some Rajah's wives, that the Indian women burn at all;/27/ Jadunath Sarkar, History of Aurangzib (Calcutta, 1916), III, 92./28/ John Ovington, A Voyage to Surat (London, 1929), p. 201.}}</ref> According to M. Reza Pirbhai, a professor of South Asian and World history, it is unclear if a prohibition on sati was issued by Akbar, and other than a claim of ban by Monserrate upon his insistence, no other primary sources mention an actual ban.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Reza Pirbhai|title=Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szKwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA107 |year=2009|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-474-3102-2|pages=107–108}}</ref> Instances of sati continued during and after the era of Akbar.<ref>{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel|editor=Burzine K. Waghmar|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne |url-access=registration|year=2004| publisher=Reaktion |isbn=978-1-86189-185-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/166 166]}}</ref><ref name="pirbhai108" />{{Efn|For example, according to a poem, ''Sūz u gudāz'' ("Burning and melting") by Muhammad Riza Nau'i of Khasbushan ({{Died in|1610}}), Akbar attempted to prevent a sati by calling a widow before him and offering her wealth and protection. The poet reports hearing the story from Prince Dāniyāl, Akbar's third son. According to Arvind Sharma, a professor of Comparative Religion specializing on Hinduism, the widow "rejected all this persuasion as well as the counsel of the Brahmins, and would neither speak nor hear of anything but the Fire".{{Sfn|Sharma|2001|p=25}} According to Sharma, "in most accounts of sati of the pre-17th century period, in which the role of the [[Brahmin|Brahamanas]] can be identified, they appear in the role of persons dissuading the widow from committing sati."{{Sfn|Sharma|2001|p=25}}}}

[[Jahangir]] ({{Reign|1605|1627}}), who succeeded Akbar in the early 17th century, found sati prevalent among the Hindus of Rajaur, [[Kashmir Sarkar|Kashmir]].{{Sfn|Sharma|2001|p=23}}<ref name=pirbhai108/> The reaction to sati was not uniform across different cultural groups. While Hindus were generally more accepting of it, some Muslims also expressed occasional admiration, though the dominant attitude was disapproval. Sushil Chaudhury highlights that Muslim sources often avoided detailed discussions about it, apart from occasional references. Overall, both admiration and criticism of sati cut across cultural lines, with examples of support from Greeks, Muslims, and British individuals, and opposition from Hindus, dating back as far as the seventh century. According to Chaudhury, the evidence suggests that sati was admired by Hindus, but both "Hindus and Muslims went in large numbers to witness a sati and sati was almost universally admired by people in mediaeval India."{{Sfn|Sharma|2001|p=23}} According to Reza Pirbhai, the memoirs of Jahangir suggest sati continued in his regime, was practised by Hindus and Muslims, he was fascinated by the custom, and that those [[Kashmiri Muslim]] widows who practised sati either immolated themselves or buried themselves alive with their dead husbands. Jahangir prohibited such sati and other customary practices in [[Mughal Kashmir|Kashmir]].<ref name=pirbhai108>{{cite book|author=M. Reza Pirbhai|title=Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szKwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA107 | year=2009| publisher=Brill Academic| isbn=978-90-474-3102-2|page=108}}</ref>

[[Aurangzeb]] ({{Reign|1658|1707}}) issued another order in 1663, states [[S. M. Ikram|Sheikh Muhammad Ikram]], after returning from Kashmir, "in all lands under Mughal control, never again should the officials allow a woman to be burnt".<ref>{{citation |last1=Asher |first1=Catherine B. |title=India before Europe |pages=268– |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1GEWAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT268 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-91561-8 |last2=Talbot |first2=Cynthia}}</ref><ref name=Columbia/> The Aurangzeb order, states [[S. M. Ikram|Ikram]], though mentioned in the formal histories, is recorded in the official records of Aurangzeb's time.<ref name=Columbia/> Although Aurangzeb's orders could be evaded with payment of bribes to officials, adds [[S. M. Ikram|Ikram]], later European travelers record that sati was not much practised in the [[Mughal empire|Mughal Empire]], and that Sati was "very rare, except it be some [[Raja]]h's wives, that the Indian women burn at all" by the end of Aurangzeb's reign.<ref name=Columbia/>

'''Descriptions by Westerners'''

The memoirs of European merchants and travelers, as well the colonial era Christian missionaries of [[British India]] described Sati practices under Mughal rulers.<ref name="rajkumar173" /> [[Ralph Fitch]] noted in 1591:<ref name="Ralf">{{cite book |last1=Horton |first1=Ryley, J. |title=Ralph Fitch |date=1899 |publisher=T. Fisher and Urwin |page=60 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.38807/2015.38807.Ralph-Fitch#page/n88/search/her+head+is+shauen |access-date=12 September 2018}}</ref>
{{blockquote |text=When the husband died his wife is burned with him, if she be alive, if she will not, her head is shaven, and then is never any account made of her after.}}

[[François Bernier]] (1620–1688) gave the following description:

{{blockquote|At [[Lahore|Lahor]] I saw a most beautiful young widow sacrificed, who could not, I think, have been more than twelve years of age. The poor little creature appeared more dead than alive when she approached the dreadful pit: the agony of her mind cannot be described; she trembled and wept bitterly; but three or four of the [[Brahmin|Brahmens]], assisted by an old woman who held her under the arm, forced the unwilling victim toward the fatal spot, seated her on the wood, tied her hands and feet, lest she should run away, and in that situation the innocent creature was burnt alive.<ref>[[François Bernier]]'s Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656–1668.</ref>}}

The Spanish missionary Domingo Navarrete wrote in 1670 of different styles of Sati during Aurangzeb's time.<ref name="Banerjee2016p82">{{cite book|author=P. Banerjee|title=Burning Women: Widows, Witches, and Early Modern European Travelers in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n7EYDAAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-05204-9|pages=82–83}}</ref>

===British and other European colonial powers===
[[File:A Hindoo Widow Burning Herself with the Corpse of her Husband.jpg|thumb|A [[Hindu]] widow burning herself with the corpse of her husband, 1820s, by the London-based illustrator [[Frederic Shoberl]] from traveler accounts]]

====Non-British colonial powers in India====
[[Afonso de Albuquerque]] banned sati immediately after the [[Portuguese conquest of Goa]] in 1510.<ref>{{cite book
|first=Roger
|last=Crowley
|year=2015
|title=Conquerors: How Portugal Forged the First Global Empire
|publisher=Faber & Faber
|location=London}}</ref> Local Brahmins convinced the newly arrived [[Francisco Barreto]] to rescind the ban in 1555 in spite of protests from the local Christians and the Church authorities, but the ban was reinstated in 1560 by [[Constantino de Bragança]] with additional serious criminal penalties (including loss of property and liberty) against those encouraging the practice.<ref>{{cite book|title=Kaleidoscope of Women in Goa, 1510–1961|url=https://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/91|page=91|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|first=Fatima|last=da Silva Gracias|isbn = 978-81-7022-591-1|date=1996}}</ref><ref>[http://www.goacom.com/culture/religion/gch/ To Cherish and to Share: The Goan Christian Heritage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722224224/http://www.goacom.com/culture/religion/gch/ |date=22 July 2012 }} Paper presented at the 1991 Conference on Goa at the [[University of Toronto]] by: John Correia Afonso S.J. from: "South Asian Studies Papers", no 9; Goa: Goa Continuity and Change; Edited by Narendra K. Wagle and George Coelho; University of Toronto Centre for South Asian Studies 1995</ref>

The [[Dutch India|Dutch]] and the [[French India|French]] banned it in [[Chinsurah]] and [[Pondicherry district|Pondichéry]], their respective colonies.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shashi|first=S.S.|page=118|year=1996|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh|volume=100|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=978-81-7041-859-7}}</ref> The [[Danish India|Danes]], who held the small territories of [[Tranquebar]] and [[Serampore]], permitted it until the 19th century.<ref>In a minute from [[Lord William Bentinck|William Bentinck]] from 8 November 1829, he states that the Danish government at Serampore has not forbidden the rite, in conformity to the example of the British government,{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=S.K.|page=132|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-yzSIlcP-7kC&pg=PA132|title=Raja Rammohun Roy: An Apostle Of Indian Awakening |year=2005|location=New Delhi|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-8324-018-5}} According to a couple of Danish historians, the general Danish ban on sati was issued conjointly with the British in 1829, {{cite book|last1=Rostgaard|first1=Marianne|last2=Schou|first2=Lotte|page=125|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9blZI5of1JkC&pg=PA125|title=Kulturmøder i dansk kolonihistorie|publisher=Gyldendal Uddannelse|year=2010|location=Copenhagen|isbn= 978-87-02-06141-3}}</ref> The Danish strictly forbade, apparently early the custom of sati at ''Tranquebar'', a colony they held from 1620 to 1845 (whereas Serampore (Frederiksnagore) was a Danish colony merely from 1755 to 1845).<ref>{{cite book|last=Kent|first=Neil|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sj5CaMNhLjQC&pg=PA105|title=The Soul of the North: A Social, Architectural and Cultural History of the Nordic Countries, 1700–1940|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2001|location=London|isbn=978-1-86189-067-2}}</ref>

====Early British policy====
[[File:Suttee by James Atkinson.jpg|thumb|right|Suttee, by [[James Atkinson (Persian scholar)|James Atkinson]] 1831]]
[[File:Widow Buring in India (August 1852, p.84, IX) - Copy.jpg|thumb|Widow Burning in India (August 1852), by the Wesleyan Missionary Society<ref name="Juvenile1852">{{cite journal|title=Widow Burning in India|journal=The Wesleyan Juvenile Offering: A Miscellany of Missionary Information for Young Persons|date=August 1852|volume=IX|page=84|url=https://archive.org/download/wesleyanjuvenil08socigoog/wesleyanjuvenil08socigoog.pdf|access-date=24 February 2016|publisher=Wesleyan Missionary Society}}</ref>]]
The first official British response to sati was in 1680 when the Agent of Madras [[Streynsham Master]] intervened and prohibited the burning of a Hindu widow<ref name="Stern2012">{{cite book|author=Philip J. Stern|title=The Company-State: Corporate Sovereignty and the Early Modern Foundations of the British Empire in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MpAVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA95|access-date=29 April 2020|date=29 November 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-993036-4|pages=95–}}</ref><ref name="Muthiah2008">{{cite book|author=S. Muthiah|title=Madras, Chennai: A 400-year Record of the First City of Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbR_LLkqdI8C&pg=PA444|access-date=29 April 2020|year=2008|publisher=Palaniappa Brothers|isbn=978-81-8379-468-8|pages=444–}}</ref> in [[Madras Presidency]]. Attempts to limit or ban the practice had been made by individual British officers, but without the backing of the [[East India Company]]. This is because it followed a policy of non-interference in Hindu religious affairs and there was no legislation or ban against Sati.<ref name="Alka2018">{{cite book|author=Grover B.L. & Mehta Alka|title=A New Look at Modern Indian History (From 1707 to The Modern Times), 32e|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bkRxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA126|access-date=29 April 2020|year=2018|publisher=S. Chand Publishing|isbn=978-93-5253-434-0|page=127}}</ref> The first formal British ban was imposed in 1798, in the city of [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] only.<ref name="Hardgrave1998" /> The practice continued in surrounding regions. In the beginning of the 19th century, the evangelical church in Britain, and its members in India, started campaigns against sati. This activism came about during a period when British missionaries in India began focusing on promoting and establishing Christian educational systems as a distinctive contribution of theirs to the missionary enterprise as a whole.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kathryn Kish Sklar|first=James Brewer Stewart|title=Women's Rights and Transatlantic Antislavery in the Era of Emancipation|page=128}}</ref> Leaders of these campaigns included [[William Carey (missionary)|William Carey]] and [[William Wilberforce]]. These movements put pressure on the company to ban the act. William Carey, and the other missionaries at [[Serampore]] conducted in 1803–04 a census on cases of sati for a region within a 30-mile radius of Calcutta, finding more than 300 such cases there.<ref name=rajkumar173>{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Raj|page=173|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ubRkhPM0ETMC&pg=PA173|title=Essays on Indian Renaissance|publisher=Discovery Publishing House|year=2003|isbn=978-81-7141-689-9}} Carey's actual figures for the year 1803 was 275; for the months April–October 1804, the missionaries arrived at the figure 115. For 1803 and 1804 statistics {{cite book|last=Buchanan|first=Claudius|pages=112–113|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PbEPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA112|title=Two Discourses Preached Before the University of Cambridge ... July 1, 1810: And a Sermon Preached Before the Society for Missions to Africa and the East|year=1811|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge}} More detailed on figures in {{cite book|last1=Buchanan|first1=Claudius |year=1805|pages=102–104|url=https://archive.org/stream/memoirofexpedien00buch#page/n129/mode/2up|title=Memoir of the expediency of an ecclesiastical establishment for British India|publisher=T.Cadell and W.Davies|location=London}}</ref> The missionaries also approached Hindu theologians, who opined that the practice was encouraged, rather than enjoined by the [[Puranas|Hindu scriptures]].<ref name=hinduethics19>{{cite book|last1=Coward|first1=Harold| last2=Lipner | first2=Julius |author-link2=Julius J. Lipner|last3=Young | first3=Katherine | page=19|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=--WD-HSt-fYC |title=Hindu Ethics: Purity, Abortion, and Euthanasia |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1989|isbn=0-88706-763-8}}</ref>{{sfn|Sharma|2001|pp=32–33}}

Serampore was a Danish colony, rather than British, and the reason why Carey started his mission in Danish India, rather than in British territories, was because the East India Company did not accept Christian missionary activity within their domains. In 1813, when the Company's Charter came up for renewal William Wilberforce, drawing on the statistics on sati collected by Carey and the other Serampore missionaries and mobilising public opinion against suttee, successfully ensured the passage of a Bill in [[British Parliament|Parliament]] legalising missionary activities in India, with a view to ending the practice through the religious transformation of Indian society. He stated in his address to the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]]:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mangalwadi|first1=Vishal|title=Creating the Better Hour: Lessons from William Wilberforce|publisher=Stroud & Hall|year=2007|isbn=978-0-9796462-1-8|editor-last=Stetson|editor-first=Chuck|location=Macon, GA|pages=140–142|chapter=India:Peril&Promise|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T2IyKWOm1YgC&pg=PA141}}</ref> <blockquote>Let us endeavour to strike our roots into the soil by the gradual introduction and establishment of our own principles and opinions; of our laws, institutions and manners; above all, as the source of every other improvement, of our religion and consequently of our morals</blockquote>[[Elijah Hoole]] in his book ''Personal Narrative of a Mission to the South of India, from 1820 to 1828'' reports an instance of Sati at [[Bangalore]], which he did not personally witness. Another missionary, Mr. England, reports witnessing Sati in the [[Bangalore Cantonment|Bangalore Civil and Military Station]] on 9 June 1826. However, these practices were very rare after the Government of [[Madras Presidency|Madras]] cracked down on the practice from the early 1800s (p.&nbsp;82).<ref name=Hoole>{{cite book|last1=Hoole|first1=Elijah|title=Personal Narrative of a Mission to the South of India, from 1820 to 1828|date=1829|publisher=Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/personalnarrati00hoolgoog/page/n263 332]|url=https://archive.org/details/personalnarrati00hoolgoog|quote=Elijah Hoole bangalore.|access-date=5 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="SI Nack">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.si.com/vault/1996/09/30/208924/muhammad-ali-joe-frazier-war-of-words |title='The Fight's Over, Joe' |magazine=Sports Illustrated |date=30 September 1996|access-date=25 October 2016}}</ref>

The British authorities within the Bengal Presidency started systematically to collect data on the practice in 1815.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meenakshi Jain |url=https://archive.org/details/sati-evangelicals-baptist-missionaries-and-the-changing-colonial-discourse |title=Sati Evangelicals, Baptist Missionaries, And The Changing Colonial Discourse |pages=186}}</ref>

====Principal reformers and 1829 ban====
[[File:Plaque of Bipro Charan Chuokurbutty at Scottish Church College.jpg|thumb|Plaque of Last Legal Sati of Bengal, [[Scottish Church College]], [[Kolkata]]]]
The principal campaigners against Sati were [[Christians|Christian]] and [[Hindu]] reformers such as [[William Carey (missionary)|William Carey]] and [[Ram Mohan Roy]]. In 1799 Carey, a [[Baptist]] [[Missionary#Christian missions|missionary]] from England, first witnessed the burning of a widow on her husband's funeral pyre. Horrified by the practice, Carey and his coworkers [[Joshua Marshman]] and [[William Ward (missionary)|William Ward]] opposed sati from that point onward, lobbying for its abolishment. Known as the [[Serampore Trio]], they published essays forcefully condemning the practice{{sfn|Sharma|2001|pp=6–7}} and presented an address against Sati to then [[Governor General of India]], [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Lord Wellesley]].<ref name="marshman">{{cite book|last=Marshman|first=John Clark|title=History of India from the earliest period to the close of the East India Company's government |publisher= Edinburgh: W. Blackwood |year=1876|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmT_Tv-VGUC|isbn=978-1-108-02104-3}}</ref>

In 1812, Ram Mohan Roy began to champion the cause of banning sati practice. He was motivated by the experience of seeing his own sister-in-law being forced to die by sati.<ref name=hm>{{cite book|last=Chaurasia|first=Radhey Shyam|title=History of Modern India, 1707 A.D. to 2000 A.D.|year=2002|page=118|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MS_jrForJOoC&q=RAM+MOHAN+ROY+SATI+PRACTICE&pg=PA118|isbn=978-81-269-0085-5}}</ref> He visited Kolkata's cremation grounds to persuade widows against immolation, formed watch groups to do the same, sought the support of other elite Bengali classes, and wrote and disseminated articles to show that it was not required by Hindu scripture.<ref name=hm/> He was at loggerheads with Hindu groups which did not want the Government to interfere in religious practices.<ref name="dodwell">{{cite book|title=The Cambridge History of the British Empire, Volume 5. The Indian empire 1858–1918|editor= H. H. Dodwell|year=1932| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G-48AAAAIAAJ}}</ref>

From 1815 to 1818 sati deaths doubled. Ram Mohan Roy launched an attack on sati that "aroused such anger that for awhile his life was in danger".<ref>Sharma 2001, pp. 6, 7.</ref> In 1821 he published a tract opposing Sati, and in 1823 the Serampore missionaries led by Carey published a book containing their earlier essays, of which the first three chapters opposed Sati. Another Christian missionary published a tract against Sati in 1927.{{citation needed|date=October 2025}}

[[Swaminarayan|Sahajanand Swami]], the founder of the [[Swaminarayan Hinduism|Swaminarayan sect]], preached against the practice of sati in his area of influence, that is [[History of Gujarat|Gujarat]]. He argued that the practice had no [[Vedas|Vedic]] standing and only God could take a life he had given. He also opined that widows could lead lives that would eventually lead to salvation. [[John Malcolm|Sir John Malcolm]], the [[List of Governors of Bombay|Governor of Bombay]] supported Sahajanand Swami in this endeavour.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Hinduism'' (2007) Constance A. Jones. Facts on File Inc.</ref>

In 1828 [[Lord William Bentinck]] came to power as Governor-General of India. When he landed in Calcutta, he said that he felt "the dreadful responsibility hanging over his head in this world and the next, if... he was to consent to the continuance of this practice (sati) one moment longer."{{Sfn|Marshman|1876|p=757}} Bentinck decided to put an immediate end to sati. Ram Mohan Roy warned Bentinck against abruptly ending sati.{{Sfn|Sharma|2001|p=9}} However, after observing that the judges in the courts were unanimously in favour of reform, Bentinck proceeded to lay the draft before his council.{{Sfn|Dodwell|1932|p=141}} [[Charles Metcalfe, 1st Baron Metcalfe|Charles Metcalfe]], the Governor's most prominent counselor expressed apprehension that the banning of sati might be "used by the disaffected and designing" as "an engine to produce insurrection". However these concerns did not deter him from upholding the Governor's decision "in the suppression of the horrible custom by which so many lives are cruelly sacrificed".{{Sfn|Dodwell|1932|p=142}} Thus on Sunday morning of 4 December 1829 Lord Bentinck issued Regulation XVII declaring sati to be illegal and punishable in criminal courts.{{sfn|Sharma|2001|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Marshman|1876|page=374}}{{Sfn|Dodwell|1932|p=140}} It was presented to William Carey for translation. His response is recorded as follows: "Springing to his feet and throwing off his black coat he cried, 'No church for me to-day... If I delay an hour to translate and publish this, many a widow's life may be sacrificed,' he said. By evening the task was finished."<ref>Sharma pp. 7–8.</ref>
====Opposition to the ban====
On 2 February 1830 this law was extended to [[Madras Presidency|Madras]] and [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]].<ref name="hist">{{cite book|last=Rai|first=Raghunath|title=History|page=137|publisher=FK Publications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4-8Z0gqBkoC&q=RAM+MOHAN+ROY+SATI+PRACTICE&pg=PA137|isbn=978-81-87139-69-0}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The ban was challenged by a petition signed by "several thousand... Hindoo inhabitants of Bihar, Bengal, Orissa etc"{{Sfn|Dodwell|1932|p=141}} but was rejected by Lord William Bentinck.
The first petition presented to Lord William Bentinck stated:{{sfn|Stein|2010|p=218-19}}
{{Blockquote|Under the sanction of immemorial usage as well as precept, Hindoo widows perform, of their own accord and pleasure, and for the benefit of their Husbands' souls and for their own, the sacrifice of self - immolation called Suttee which is not merely a sacred duty but a high privilege to her who sincerely believes in the doctrines of her religion and we humbly submit that any interference with a persuasion of so high and self - annihilating nature is not only an unjust and intolerant dictation into matters of conscience, but is likely wholly to fail in procuring the end proposed.}}

The matter went to the [[Privy Council]] in [[London]], where the supporters argued that abolition harmed the constitutional guarantees of Indians and made a comparison between loyalties of Muslim subjects to that of Hindus. {{Sfn|Stein|2010|p=219}} Ram Mohan Roy, along with British supporters, presented counter-petitions to [[British Parliament|Parliament]] in support of ending sati. The Privy Council rejected the petition in 1832, and the ban on sati was upheld.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kulkarni|first1=A.R.|last2=Feldhaus|first2=Anne|page=192|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1YSU9Qp9w0MC&pg=PA192|title=Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion|chapter=Sati in the Maratha Country|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1996|location=Albany, NY|isbn=978-0-7914-2838-2}}</ref>

After the ban, [[Baloch people|Balochi]] priests in the [[History of Sindh|Sindh]] region complained to the British Governor, [[Charles James Napier|Charles Napier]] about what they claimed was a meddlement in a sacred custom of their nation. Napier replied:<blockquote>Be it so. This burning of widows is your custom; prepare the funeral pile. But my nation has also a custom. When men burn women alive we hang them, and confiscate all their property. My carpenters shall therefore erect gibbets on which to hang all concerned when the widow is consumed. Let us all act according to national customs!</blockquote>Thereafter, the account goes, no suttee took place.<ref name="quote">Napier, William. (1851) ''History Of General Sir Charles Napier's Administration Of Scinde''. (p. 35). London: Chapman and Hall [https://archive.org/details/historygenerals00napigoog/page/n51 ] at books.google.com. Retrieved 10 July 2011</ref>

Burton Stein states "as Roy pointed out, the conditions of the generality of women during their lives remained wretched, regardless of whether sati was legal or not."{{sfn|Stein|2010|p=219}} The families in Bengal continued abandoning widows after the ban, who were then forced to take up sex work for survival.<ref>{{cite web | last=Lakshmi | first=Rama | title=Between the brothel and Brindavan—Bengal art shows twin faces of Hindu widows after sati ban | website=ThePrint | date=29 May 2023 | url=https://theprint.in/feature/around-town/between-the-brothel-and-brindavan-bengal-art-shows-twin-faces-of-hindu-widows-after-sati-ban/1599982/ | access-date=19 September 2025}}</ref>

====Princely states/Independent kingdoms====
[[File:Sati Stone, memorials to Indian widows found all over India, 18th century CE, currently housed in the British Museum.jpg|thumb|Sati Stone from the 18th century CE, now in the [[British Museum]]]]
Sati remained legal in some [[princely states]] for a time after it had been banned in lands under British control. [[Baroda State|Baroda]] and other princely states of [[Kathiawar Agency]] banned the practice in 1840,<ref>Proceedings – Indian History Congress – Volume 48 by Indian History Congress 1988 – p. 481, see also {{cite book|last=Thornton|first=Edward|year=1858|page=73, column 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=55BbvGEV5uAC&pg=PA73|title=A Gazetteer of the Territories Under the Government of the East India Company and of the Native States on the Continent of India|location=London|publisher=W.H. Allen}}</ref> whereas [[Kolhapur State|Kolhapur]] followed them in 1841,<ref>For 1841 proclamation, {{cite book |editor-last=Thomas |editor-first=R. Hughes |page=258 |publisher=Government |location=Bombay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b5lRAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA258 |title=Treaties, Agreements, and Engagements, Between the Honorable East India Company and the Native Princes, Chiefs, and States, in Western India, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, &c: Also Between Her Britannic Majesty's Government, and Persia, Portugal, and Turkey |year=1851}}</ref> the princely state of [[Indore State|Indore]] some time before 1843.<ref>See footnote {{cite journal|editor=William Gifford|year=1851|pages=257–276|last=Wilson|first=Horca H.|title=Widow Burning-Major Ludlow |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TzwMAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA270|journal=The Quarterly Review|volume=89}}</ref> According to a speaker at the [[East India House]] in 1842, the princely states of [[Satara State|Satara]], [[Kingdom of Nagpur|Nagpur]] and [[Princely State of Mysore|Mysore]] had by then banned sati.<ref>{{cite journal|page=286|title=Debate at the East India House, March 23rd 1842|date=April 1842|volume=37|journal=The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Miscellany|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6VAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA286|publisher=W.H. Allen|location=London}} The ''Raja of Satara'' banned the practice already in 1839, {{cite book|author=House of Commons, Great Britain|page=45, No. 1531|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dY8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA45|chapter=Papers relative to the Raja of Sattara|volume=39|date=February–August 1849|title=Parliamentary Papers, House of Commons and Command|publisher=H.M. Stationery Office|location=London}}</ref> [[Jaipur State|Jaipur]] banned the practice in 1846, while [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]], [[Gwalior State|Gwalior]] and [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] did the same in 1847.<ref>On ''Hyderabad'' and ''Gwalior'' {{cite book|last=Trotter|first=James|page=97|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIMfAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA97|title=The History of the British Empire in India|volume=1|year=1866|publisher=Wm. H. Allen & Company|location=London}}, ''Jammu and Kashmir'' {{cite journal|title=Bengal and Agra, Miscellaneous|journal=The Indian News and Chronicle of Eastern Affaires|page=76|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3dNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA76|date=22 February 1848|volume=132|publisher=Alexander E. Murray|location=London}}</ref> [[Awadh State|Awadh]] and [[Bhopal State|Bhopal]] (both Muslim-ruled states) were actively suppressing sati by 1849.<ref>[[William Sleeman]] travelling in Awadh in 1849 says sati is prohibited there. {{cite book|last=Sleeman|first=William H.|page=250|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_HkOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA250|title=A Journey Through the Kingdom of Oude in 1849–1850: With Private Correspondence Relative to the Annexation of Oude to British India|volume=2|year=1858|publisher=Richard Bentley|location=London}} Bhopal is reported in 1849 to engage actively in suppression of the rite, {{cite journal|page=712|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xtoEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA712|title=Notes and suggestions on Indian Affairs, chapter VI|journal=The Dublin University Magazine|volume=34,204|date=December 1849|location=Dublin|publisher=James McGlashan}}</ref> [[Cutch (princely state)|Cutch]] outlawed it in 1852<ref>{{cite book|last=Townsend|first=Meredith|year=1858|location=Serampore|publisher=Serampore Press|page=155|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AAcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA155|title=The Indian Official Thesaurus: Being Introductory to Annals of Indian Administration}}</ref> with [[Jodhpur State|Jodhpur]] having banned sati about the same time.<ref>Finishing writing in April 1853, [[John William Kaye]] says Jodhpur is the most recent important state to have banned the rite. {{cite book|last=Kaye|first=John W.|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177534/page/n553 543]|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177534|title=The Administration of the East India Company: A History of Indian Progress|location=London|year=1853|publisher=R. Bentley}}</ref>

The 1846 abolition in Jaipur was regarded by many British as a catalyst for the abolition cause within [[Rajputana Agency]]; within 4 months after Jaipur's 1846 ban, 11 of the 18 independently governed states in Rajputana had followed Jaipur's example.<ref>A much quoted table given at page 270 in {{cite journal|editor=William Gifford|year=1851|pages=257–276|last=Wilson|first=Horca H.|title=Widow Burning-Major Ludlow |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TzwMAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA270|journal=The Quarterly Review|volume=89}}</ref> One paper says that in the year 1846–1847 alone, 23 states in the whole of India (not just within Rajputana) had banned sati.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Bengal and Agra, Miscellaneous|journal=The Indian News and Chronicle of Eastern Affaires|page=76|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3dNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA76|date=22 February 1848|volume=132|publisher=Alexander E. Murray|location=London}}</ref><ref>Index of official correspondences to some 20 princely states relative to the suppression of sati can be found in {{cite book|author=Foreign and Political Department|pages=313–314|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQIMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA313|title=A collection of treaties, engagements, and sunnuds, relating to India and neighbouring countries: Index|volume=8|year=1866|publisher=Cutter|location=Calcutta}}</ref> It was not until 1861 that sati was legally banned in all the princely states of India, [[Udaipur State|Mewar]] resisting for a long time before that time. The last legal case of sati within a princely state dates from 1861 in [[Udaipur]] the capital of Mewar, but as Anant S. Altekar shows, local opinion had then shifted strongly against the practice. The widows of Maharanna Sarup Singh declined to become sati upon his death, and the only one to follow him in death was a concubine.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|pages=141–142|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA141|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-0324-4}}</ref> Later the same year, the general ban on sati was issued by a proclamation from [[Queen Victoria|Empress Victoria]].<ref>Sati: A Historical Anthology by Andrea Major – 2007– p. xvii ''On Mewar and Queen Victoria's 1861 proclamation'', {{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Lindsay|last2=Thomas|first2=Amelia|page=42|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zz0_zXPb68kC&pg=PA43|title=Rajasthan, Delhi & Agra|publisher=Lonely Planet|year=2008|isbn=978-1-74104-690-8}}</ref>

In some princely states such as [[Travancore State|Travancore]], the custom of sati never prevailed, although it was held in reverence by the common people. For example, the regent [[Gowri Parvati Bayi]] was asked by the [[Residencies of British India|British Resident]] if he should permit a sati to take place in 1818, but the regent urged him not to do so, since the custom of sati had never been acceptable in her domains.<ref>{{cite journal|date=14 December 1839|volume=7, 198|page=383|publisher=James Burns|location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e9HNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA383|title=Tinnevelly|journal=Church of England Magazine}}</ref> In another state, [[Sawantwadi State|Sawantwadi]], the King Khem Sawant III (r. 1755–1803) is credited for having issued a positive ''prohibition'' of sati over a period of ten or twelve years.<ref>p. 182 in {{cite journal|journal=The Oriental Herald|date=June 1824|volume=2,6|title=Burning of Hindoo Widows|pages=173–185|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yo8eAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA182|publisher=J. M. Richardson|location=London|editor=James S. Buckingham}}</ref> That prohibition from the 18th century may never have been actively enforced, or may have been ignored, since in 1843, the government in Sawantwadi issued a new prohibition of sati.<ref>{{cite book|last=Townsend|first=Meredith|year=1858|location=Serampore|publisher=Serampore Press|page=307|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AAcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA307|title=The Indian Official Thesaurus: Being Introductory to Annals of Indian Administration}}</ref>

===Post independence times===

====Legislative status of sati in present-day India====
[[File:Burning of a Widow.jpg|thumb|''Ceremony of Burning a Hindu Widow with the Body of her Late Husband'', from ''Pictorial History of China and India'', 1851]]

Following the outcry after the sati of [[Roop Kanwar]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Rajalakshmi | first = T.K. | title = "Sati" and the verdict | journal = Frontline Magazine, the Hindu | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | date= 28 February – 12 March 2004 | url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2105/stories/20040312002504600.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071010045417/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2105/stories/20040312002504600.htm | url-status = usurped | archive-date = 10 October 2007 }}</ref> the [[Government of India]] enacted the Rajasthan Sati Prevention Ordinance, 1987 on 1 October 1987.<ref name="Trial by fire">[http://www.sabrang.com/cc/archive/2004/mar04/sreport3.html Trial by fire], ''Communalism Combat'', Special Report, February–March 2004, Volume 10, No. 96, [[Sabrang Communications]]</ref> and later passed the Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987.<ref name="NRCW"/>

The Commission of [[Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987]] Part I, Section 2(c) defines sati as:
<blockquote>
The burning or burying alive of&nbsp;–
:(i) any widow along with the body of her deceased husband or any other relative or with any article, object or thing associated with the husband or such relative; or
:(ii) any woman along with the body of any of her relatives, irrespective of whether such burning or burying is claimed to be voluntary on the part of the widow or the women or otherwise<ref name="NRCW"/>
</blockquote>
[[File:Jodhpur Sati.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A shrine to queens of the [[Maharaja]]s of [[Kingdom of Marwar|Jodhpur]] who have died by sati. The palmprints are typical.]]

The ''Prevention of Sati Act'' makes it illegal to support, glorify or attempt to die by sati. Support of sati, including coercing or forcing someone to die by sati, can be punished by [[Capital punishment in India|death penalty]] or [[life imprisonment]], while glorifying sati is punishable with one to seven years in prison.

Enforcement of these measures is not always consistent.<ref>{{cite news | title = No violation of Sati Act, say police | url = http://www.hindu.com/2005/06/01/stories/2005060110150500.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071206101700/http://www.hindu.com/2005/06/01/stories/2005060110150500.htm | archive-date = 6 December 2007 | work = [[The Hindu]] | date = 6 June 2005 | access-date = 20 November 2007}}</ref> The [[National Council of Women in India]] (NCWI) has suggested amendments to the law to remove some of these flaws.<ref>[http://ncw.nic.in/page2.htm No. 2: Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619070016/http://ncw.nic.in/page2.htm |date=19 June 2009 }} National Council for Women, Proposed amendments to the 1987 Sati Prevention Act</ref> Prohibitions of certain practices, such as worship at ancient shrines, is a matter of controversy.

====Enforcement of India's 1987 sati law====

The passing of The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 was seen as an unprecedented move to many in India, and was hailed as a new era in the women's rights movement.

The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 appears to be facing its greatest challenge on the aspect of the law which penalises the glorification of Sati in Section 2 of this Act:

"(i) The observance of any ceremony or the taking out of a procession in connection with the commission of Sati; or

(ii) The supporting, justifying or propagating of the practice of Sati in any manner; or

(iii) The arranging of any function to eulogise the person who has committed Sati; or

(iv) The creation of a trust, or the collection of funds, or the construction of a temple or other structure or the carrying on of any form of worship or the performance of any ceremony thereat, with a view to perpetuate the honour of, or to preserve the memory of, a person who has committed Sati."<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Gilmartin |first1=Sophie |year=1997 |title=The Sati, the Bride, and the Widow: Sacrificial Woman in the Nineteenth Century |journal=Victorian Literature and Culture |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=141–158 |doi=10.1017/S1060150300004678 |jstor=25058378 |s2cid=162954709 |quote=Suttee, or sati, is the obsolete Hindu practice in which a widow burns herself upon her husband's funeral pyre...}}</ref>

The punishment for glorifying sati is a minimum one-year sentence that can be increased to seven years in prison and a minimum fine of 5,000 rupees that can be increased to 30,000 rupees.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pachauri |first1=S.K. |last2=Hamilton |first2=R.N.C. |date=2002 |title=Sati Problem — Past and Present |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=63 |pages=898–908 |jstor=44158159 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref> This Section of the Act has become heavily criticised by both sides of the Sati debate. Proponents of Sati argue against it, claiming the practice to be a part of Indian culture.<ref name=":3" /> Simultaneously, those against the practice of Sati also question the practicality of such a law, since it may be interpreted in a manner so as to punish the victim.<ref name=":5" />

India continues to witness a cultural divide in regards to their opinions of Sati, with a great deal of the glorification of this practice occurring within it. The Calcutta Marwari have been noted to follow the practice of Sati worship, yet the community alleges it to be a part of their culture and insist they be permitted to follow their practices.<ref name=":4" /> Additionally, the practice is still fervently revered in parts of rural India, with entire temples still dedicated to previous victims of Sati.{{Sfn|Kuzmina|2007|p=340}}

India is steeped in a heavily patriarchal system and their norms, making it difficult for even the most vigilant of authorities to enforce the 1987 Act.{{speculation inline|date=June 2023}} An instance of this can be seen in 2002 where two police officers were attacked by a mob of approximately 1,000 people when attempting to stop an instance of Sati.{{Sfn|Kuzmina|2007|p=194}} In India, the powers of the police remain structurally limited by the political elite.<ref name=":6" /> Their limited powers are compounded by "patriarchal values, religious freedoms, and ideologies"<ref name=":10" /> within India.

====Current situation====
Some instances of Sati practice continue to occur in India in the present times.<ref name="Ahmad2009">{{cite journal | last=Ahmad | first=Nehaluddin | title=Dying for the Dead: A Socio-Legal Examination of Sati in India | journal=Asia-Pacific Journal on Human Rights and the Law | volume=9 | issue=2 | date=2009 | issn=1388-1906 | doi=10.1163/157181509789025255 | pages=1–10 | url=https://brill.com/view/journals/aphu/9/2/article-p1_1.xml | access-date=15 October 2025|quote=The practice usually occurs now in parts of northern and central India, though there may be more, unreported incidents.| url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="k973">{{cite book | last1=Minturn | first1=Leigh | last2=Kapoor | first2=Swaran | title=Sita's Daughters: Coming Out of Purdah : the Rajput Women of Khalapur Revisited | publisher=Oxford University Press | date=1993 | isbn=978-0-19-508035-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qkchsdDYXbcC&pg=PA319 | access-date=2025-10-15 | page=320}}</ref><ref name="v276">{{cite book | last1=Hassankhan | first1=Maurits S. | last2=Roopnarine | first2=Lomarsh | last3=Mahase | first3=Radica | title=Social and Cultural Dimensions of Indian Indentured Labour and Its Diaspora: Past and Present | publisher=Taylor & Francis | date=2016-11-10 | isbn=978-1-351-98590-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TDwlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 | access-date=2025-10-15 | page=124}}</ref><ref name="k546">{{cite book | title=Social Workers' Desk Reference | publisher=Oxford University Press | date=2015-04-20 | isbn=978-0-19-932965-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ej7KCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT1707 | access-date=2025-10-15 | page=1707}}</ref> There were 30 reported cases of sati or attempted sati over a 44-year period (1943–1987) in India, the official number being 28.<ref name=thomaswb182>{{cite book|last=Weinberger-Thomas|first=Catherine|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein/page/182 182]–185|url=https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein|url-access=registration|title=Ashes of Immortality: Widow-Burning in India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1999|isbn=978-0-226-88568-1}}</ref><ref>[http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/lessons/lesson5/lesson5.php?s=3 Letter, Panduranga Joshi Kulkarni], [http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/index.html Women in World History] A project of the Center for History and New Media, [[George Mason University]].</ref> A well-documented case from 1987 was that of 18-year-old [[Roop Kanwar]].<ref name=thomaswb182/><ref name="rediff2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/aug/07mp.htm |title=Magisterial inquiry ordered into 'sati' incident |work=rediff.com |date=7 August 2002 |access-date=26 July 2010}}</ref><ref name="Trial by fire" /> In response to this incident, additional legislation against sati practice was passed, first within the state of [[Rajasthan]], then federally by the Central Government of India.<ref name="NRCW"/><ref name="Trial by fire"/>

In November 1999, a 55-year-old Dalit woman named Charan Shah committed sati in Satpura village, [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name="i939">{{cite book | last=Misra | first=Preeti | title=Domestic Violence Against Women: Legal Control and Judicial Response | publisher=Deep & Deep Publications | date=2006 | isbn=978-81-7629-896-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dp6-_NMfsIsC&pg=PA177 | access-date=2025-10-15 | page=177}}</ref><ref name="w156">{{cite book | last1=Mehta | first1=Basant | last2=Jain | first2=Pragya | title=Role of Bank's in Women Development | publisher=Discovery Publishing House | date=2003 | isbn=978-81-7141-641-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2sQjQrb6BH4C&pg=PA57 | access-date=2025-10-15 | page=57}}</ref>
In 2002, a 65-year-old woman by the name of Kuttu died after sitting on her husband's funeral pyre in [[Panna district]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref name="rediff2002"/> On 18 May 2006, Vidyawati, a 35-year-old woman allegedly committed sati by jumping into the blazing funeral pyre of her husband in Rari-Bujurg Village, [[Fatehpur district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>''The Times of India'', [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1538375.cms "Woman commits 'sati' in UP village"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101002080411/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1538375.cms |date=2 October 2010 }}, 19 May 2006.</ref>

On April 24, 2006, Sita Devi, a 78 year old widow burned to death on the funeral pyre of her husband in Bihar.<ref>{{cite web | title=Woman jumps on to husband's funeral pyre | website=NBC News | date=24 April 2006 | url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna12455789 | access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> On 21 August 2006, Janakrani, a 40-year-old woman, burned to death on the funeral pyre of her husband Prem Narayan in [[Sagar district]]; Janakrani had not been forced or prompted by anybody to commit the act.<ref>BBC News, [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5273336.stm "India wife dies on husband's pyre"], 22 August 2006.</ref>

On 11 October 2008 a 75-year-old woman, Lalmati Verma, committed sati by jumping into her 80-year-old husband's funeral pyre at Checher in the Kasdol block of [[Chhattisgarh]]'s [[Raipur district]]; Verma killed herself after mourners had left the cremation site.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-10-13/india/27900245_1_pyre-woman-jumps-cremation-ground |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105031805/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-10-13/india/27900245_1_pyre-woman-jumps-cremation-ground |archive-date=5 November 2012 |title=Woman jumps into husband's funeral pyre |date=13 October 2008 |work=[[The Times of India]] |location=Raipur}}</ref>

In December 2014, a 70-year-old woman reportedly committed Sati by jumping into the funeral pyre of her deceased husband in [[Saharsa district]], [[Bihar]].<ref name="i975">{{cite web | title=70-yr-old Woman Commits \'Sati\' in Bihar | website=The New Indian Express | date=2014-12-14 | url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2014/Dec/14/70-yr-old-woman-commits-sati-in-bihar-694132.html | access-date=2025-10-15}}</ref> In May 2023, a 28-year-old woman in [[Ahmedabad]] committed suicide allegedly after her in-laws forced her to commit Sati following her husband's death.<ref name="i760">{{cite web | title=Engineer, 28, kills self over pressure to become a sati | website=The Times of India | date=2023-05-20 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/engineer-28-kills-self-over-pressure-to-become-a-sati/articleshow/100367315.cms | access-date=2025-10-15}}</ref>

Scholars debate whether these rare reports of sati by widows are related to culture or are examples of mental illness and suicide.<ref name=coluccilester225/> In the case of Roop Kanwar, Dinesh Bhugra states that there is a possibility that the suicides could be triggered by "a state of depersonalization as a result of severe bereavement", then adds that it is unlikely that Kanwar had mental illness and culture likely played a role.<ref>D Bhugra and K Bhui (2007), Textbook of cultural psychiatry, Cambridge University Press, pages xvii–xviii</ref> However, Colucci and Lester state that none of the women reported by media to have committed sati had been given a psychiatric evaluation before their sati suicide and thus there is no objective data to ascertain if culture or mental illness was the primary driver behind their suicide.<ref name=coluccilester225>Erminia Colucci and David Lester (2012), Suicide and Culture: Understanding the Context, Hogrefe, {{ISBN|978-0889374362}}, pp. 225–226</ref> Inamdar, Oberfield and Darrell state that the women who commit sati are often "childless or old and face miserable impoverished lives" which combined with great stress from the loss of the only personal support may be the cause of a widow's suicide.<ref>S. C. Inamdar ''et al.'' (1983), A suicide by self-immolation: psychological perspectives, International Journal of Social Psychiatry, Vol 29, pp. 130–133</ref>

[[Bride burning]] is a related social and criminal issue seen from the early 20th century onwards, involving the deaths of women in India by intentionally set fires, the numbers of which far overshadow similar incidents involving men.<ref name=arnold-burning-the-dead-2021-lead>{{cite book|last=Arnold |first =David|author-link=David Arnold (historian)|title=Burning the Dead: Hindu Nationshood and the Global Construction of Indian Tradition|page=88|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ezEaEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA88|location = Oakland, CA|publisher=University of California Press|year = 2021|isbn=9780520379343|quote=Sati, as Ania Loomba put it, was "one of the most spectacular forms of patriarchal violence", and all three of those terms—spectacle (though perhaps not quite as Loomba meant it), patriarchy, and violence—are highly relevant to this discussion. And yet, as Tanika Sarkar reminds us, until the mid-1820s "suttee" was described by the British as "self-immolation", as a self-willed act, and only subsequently as "widow burning". And, as she further notes, in Bengal satis were commonly referred to as women who consumed or ate fire, and not, passively, as "women who were devoured by fire". In these late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century deaths sati was resurrected in a new form, the kerosene-fueled flame a surrogate for, or adjunct to, the conventional funeral pyre. In highlighting the role of fire in the destruction of women's lives, these deaths further illustrate a pattern, appallingly still found, in which women in India have been far more likely to die from burns than men}}</ref>

As of 2020, at least 250 sati temples existed in India in which prayer ceremonies, or ''[[puja (Hinduism)|puja]]s'', were performed to glorify the goddess Sati; prayers were also performed to the practice of a wife immolating herself alive on a deceased husband's funeral pyre.{{Efn|Although recorded cases of sati have diminished dramatically, sati temples, where prayers, known as ''pujas'' are carried out and festivals organized to glorify both the patron goddess, Sati, the benevolent avatar of the mother goddess who immolated herself in response to her father's insults to her husband, as does the practice of a wife's self-immolation following her husband's death. Today, India has at least 250 sati temples and legal prohibitions are too vague to effectively prohibit pujas there.<ref name="brule-inheritance2"/>}}

==Practice==
Accounts describe numerous variants in the sati ritual. The majority of accounts describe the woman seated or lying down on the funeral pyre beside her dead husband. Many other accounts describe women walking or jumping into the flames after the fire had been lit,<ref>See Kamat for two examples</ref> and some describe women seating themselves on the funeral pyre and then lighting it themselves.<ref>[http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/lessons/lesson5/lesson5.php?s=1 Primary Sources: Letter, Francois Bernier] [http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/index.html ''Women in World History''], a project of the Center for History and New Media, George Mason University.</ref>

===Variations in procedure===
Although sati is typically thought of as consisting of the procedure in which the widow is placed, or enters, or jumps, upon the funeral pyre of her husband, slight variations in funeral practice have been reported here as well, by region. For example, the mid-17th-century traveller [[Jean-Baptiste Tavernier]] claims that in some regions, the sati occurred by construction of a small hut, within which the widow and her husband were burnt, while in other regions, a pit was dug, in which the husband's corpse was placed along with flammable materials, into which the widow jumped after the fire had started.<ref>On hut, p. 170, on pit, p. 171 {{cite book|last1=Tavernier|first1=Jean Baptiste|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/sixvoyagesJohnB00Tave#page/170/mode/2up/|pages=170–171|year=1678|last2=P.|first2=J. (tr.)|chapter= 2.2.10|title=The six voyages of John Baptista Tavernier|publisher=R.L. and M.P.|location=London}}</ref> In mid-nineteenth-century [[Lombok]], an island in today's [[Indonesia]], the local [[Balinese people|Balinese]] aristocracy practised widow suicide on occasion; but only widows of royal descent could burn themselves alive (others were stabbed to death with a [[kris knife|kris dagger]] first). At Lombok, a high bamboo platform was erected in front of the fire and, when the flames were at their strongest, the widow climbed up the platform and dived into the fire.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Zollinger|first=M.|editor=James R. Logan|pages=165–170|title=On the religion of the Sassak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OXMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA165|journal=The Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia|year=1848|volume=2|publisher=Mission Press|location=Singapore}}</ref>

===Live burials===
Most Hindu communities, especially in North India, only bury the bodies of those under the age of two. Those older than two are customarily cremated.<ref>{{cite book|author=PV Ayyar|title=Indian Customs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5hBvZY7SxeEC&pg=PA155 |year=1992|publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0153-6 |pages=155–156}}</ref> A few European accounts provide rare descriptions of Indian sati that included the burial of the widow with her dead husband.<ref name="Hardgrave1998">{{cite journal |journal=[[Bengal, Past & Present]] |volume=117 |pages=57–80 |date=1998 |url=https://www.laits.utexas.edu/solvyns-project/Satiart.rft.html |title=The Representation of Sati: Four Eighteenth Century Etchings by Baltazard Solvyns |first1=Robert L Jr |last1=Hardgrave}}</ref> One of the drawings in the Portuguese [[Códice Casanatense]] shows the live burial of a Hindu widow in the 16th century.<ref>{{cite book
| last = De Matos
| first=Luis
| title = Imagens do Oriente no século XVI: Reprodução do Códice português da Biblioteca Casanatense
| location = Lisbon
| publisher = Imprensa Nacional Casa da Moeda
| year = 1985}}</ref> [[Jean-Baptiste Tavernier]], a 17th-century world traveller and trader of gems, wrote that women were buried with their dead husbands along the [[Coromandel Coast|Coast of Coromandel]] while people danced during the cremation rites.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tavernier|first1=Jean Baptiste|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/sixvoyagesJohnB00Tave#page/171/mode/2up|page=171|year=1678|last2=P.|first2=J. (tr.)|chapter= 2.2.10|title=The six voyages of John Baptista Tavernier|publisher=R.L. and M.P.|location=London}}</ref>
[[File:Codice Casanatense Hindu Burial.jpg|thumb|Hindu widow of [[Dhangar]] caste being buried alive with her dead husband's body. Source: [[Códice Casanatense]] (c. 1540).]]

The 18th-century [[Flemings|Flemish]] painter [[Frans Balthazar Solvyns]] provided the only known eyewitness account of an Indian sati involving a burial.<ref name="Hardgrave1998"/> Solvyns states that the custom included the woman shaving her head, music and the event was guarded by [[East India Company]] [[Presidency armies|soldiers]]. He expressed admiration for the Hindu woman, but also calls the custom barbaric.<ref name="Hardgrave1998"/>

The Commission of [[Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987]] Part I, Section 2(c) includes within its definition of sati not just the act of burning a widow alive, but also that of burying her alive.<ref name="NRCW"/>

===Compulsion===
Sati is often described as voluntary, although in some cases it may have been forced. In one narrative account in 1785, the widow appears to have been drugged either with [[bhang]] or [[opium]] and was tied to the pyre which would have prevented her from escaping the fire, if she changed her mind.<ref name="Hardgrave1998"/>
[[File:Hindu Suttee.jpg|thumb|right|"A Hindu Suttee", 1885 book]]
The Anglo-Indian press of the period proffered several accounts of alleged forcing of the woman. As an example, ''[[The Calcutta Review]]'' published accounts as the following one:
{{blockquote|In 1822, the Salt Agent at Barripore, 16 miles south of Calcutta, went out of his way to report a case which he had witnessed, in which the woman was forcibly held down by a great bamboo by two men, so as to preclude all chance of escape. In [[Cuttack]], a woman dropt herself into a burning pit, and rose up again as if to escape, when a washerman gave her a push with a bamboo, which sent her back into the hottest part of the fire.<ref>{{cite news| year= 1867| page=256 |title= Suttee| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qp4IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA256|work=The Calcutta Review|volume=XLVI|publisher=R.C.LePage and Co.|location=Calcutta}}</ref> This is said to be based on the set of official documents.<ref>Papers relative to East India Affairs, viz., Hindoo Widows and Voluntary Immolations. Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed. 1821–25, pp. 221–261, ''ibidem''</ref> Yet another such case appearing in official papers, transmitted into British journals, is case 41, page 411 here, where the woman was, apparently, thrown twice back in the fire by her relatives, in a case from 1821.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Oriental Herald|date=December 1827| volume= 15,48| title=Official Papers laid before Parliament Respecting the burning of Hondoo Widows| pages=399–424|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BPIaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA411| location= London| publisher=James S. Buckingham|editor-first=J.S. |editor-last=Buckingham}}</ref>}}

Apart from accounts of direct compulsion, some evidence exists that precautions, at times, were taken so that the widow could not escape the flames once they were lit. Anant S. Altekar, for example, points out that it is much more difficult to escape a fiery pit that one has jumped in, than descending from a pyre one has entered on. He mentions the custom of the fiery pit as particularly prevalent in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and western India. From Gujarat and [[History of Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh]], where the widow typically was placed in a hut along with her husband, her leg was tied to one of the hut's pillars. Finally, from Bengal, where the tradition of the pyre held sway, the widow's feet could be tied to posts fixed to the ground, she was asked three times if she wished to ascend to heaven, before the flames were lit.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.| page= 134| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA131|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day| year= 1956| publisher= Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-0324-4|postscript= (techniques for preventing escape)}}</ref>

Ram Mohan Roy observed that when women allow themselves to be consigned to the funeral pyre of a deceased husband it results not just "from religious prejudices only", but, "also from witnessing the distress in which widows of the same rank in life are involved, and the insults and slights to which they are daily subject".<ref name="sartori-lead">{{cite book |last=Sartori |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0gCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |title=Bengal in Global Concept History: Culturalism in the Age of Capital |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-226-73493-4 |location=Chicago and London |page=83}}</ref>

The historian [[Anant Sadashiv Altekar]] states that some historical records suggest without doubt that instances of sati were forced, but overall the evidence suggests most instances were a voluntary act on the woman's part.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|pages=135–137|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA137|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-0324-4}}</ref>

===Symbolic sati===

There have been accounts of symbolic sati in some [[Hindu]] communities. A widow lies down next to her dead husband, and certain parts of both the marriage ceremony and the funeral ceremonies are enacted, but without her death. An example in [[Sri Lanka]] is attested from modern times.<ref>[http://www.zinbun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~shakti/EnglishHP/suttee.html Defying blessings of the goddess and the community: Disputes over sati (widow burning) in contemporary India] by Masakazu Tanaka, section 6 in Tanaka's essay.</ref> Although this form of symbolic sati has contemporary evidence, it should by no means be regarded as a modern invention. For example, the ancient and sacred [[Atharvaveda]], one of the four [[Veda]]s, believed to have been composed around 1000 BCE, describes a funerary ritual where the widow lies down by her deceased husband, but is then asked to ascend, to enjoy the blessings from the children and wealth left to her.<ref name="Altekar 1956 118">{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|page=118|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA118|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-0324-4}}</ref> Dehejia states that Vedic literature has no mention of any practice resembling sati.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA118 | title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, from Prehistoric Times to the Present Day | isbn=978-81-208-0324-4 | last1=Altekar | first1=Anant Sadashiv | date=8 January 2024 | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. }}</ref> There is only one mention in the Vedas, of a widow lying down beside her dead husband who is asked to leave the grieving and return to the living, then prayer is offered for a happy life for her with children and wealth. Dehejia writes that this passage does not imply a pre-existing sati custom, nor of widow remarriage, nor that it is authentic verse; its solitary mention may also be explained as an insertion into the text at a latter date.<ref name="books.google.com"/> Dehejia writes that no ancient or early medieval era Buddhist texts mention sati (since killing/self killing) would have been condemned by them.{{Circular reference|date=August 2024}}

In 20th-century India, a tradition developed of venerating ''jivit'' (living satis). A ''jivit'' is a woman who once desired to commit sati, but lives after having sacrificed her desire to die.<ref>{{cite book|page=538|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC&pg=PA538|chapter=Sati|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka|last1=Harlan|first1=Lindsey |editor-last=Claus |editor-first=Peter J. |editor-last2=Diamond |editor-first2=Sarah |editor-last3=Mills |editor-first3=Margaret A. |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=New York, London |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-415-93919-5}}</ref> Two famous ''jivit'' were Bala Satimata, and Umca Satimata, both lived until the early 1990s.<ref>On these two women, and a general in-depth treatment of ''jivit'' tradition, see {{cite book|last=Harlan|first=Lindsey|pages=171–181|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC&pg=PA171|title=Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives|year=1992|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07339-5|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford}}</ref>

==Prevalence==
[[File:Muhammad Qasim Bride.jpg|thumb|The bride throws herself on her husband's funeral pyre. This miniature painting made in Iran originates from the period of the [[Safavid dynasty]], first half 17th century. (Attributed to the painter Muhammad Qasim.)]]

===Numbers===
====Pre-colonial period====
Records of sati exist throughout many times periods and regions of the subcontinent. However, there seems to have been major differences in different regions, and among communities. No reliable figures exist for the numbers who have died by sati in general. According to Yang, the "pre-1815" data is "scanty" and "fraught with problems".{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=23}}

====Colonial period====
An 1829 report by a Christian missionary organisation includes among other things, statistics on sati. It begins with a declaration that "the object of all missions to the [[Pagan|heathen]] is to substitute for these systems the Gospel of Christ", thereafter lists sati for each year over the period 1815–1824, which totals 5,369, followed by a statement that a total of 5,997 instances of women were burned or buried alive in the Bengal Presidency over a 10-year period, i.e., average 600 per year. In the same report, it states that the Madras and Bombay presidencies totaled 635 instances of sati over the same ten-year period.<ref name=missionaryherald130>{{cite journal|pages=130–131|date=April 1829|volume=25,4|journal=The Missionary Herald|title=Burning of Widows in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GsMPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA130|publisher=American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions |location=Boston}}</ref> The 1829 missionary report does not provide its sources and acknowledges that "no correct idea can be formed of the number of murders occasioned by suttees", then states that some of the statistics are based on "conjectures".<ref name=missionaryherald130/> According to Yang, these "numbers are fraught with problems".{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=23}}

[[Lord William Bentinck|William Bentinck]], in an 1829 report, without specifying the year or period, stated that "of the 463 satis occurring in the whole of the [[Bengal Presidency|Presidency of Fort William]],{{Efn|at its greatest extent in 19th-century, this Presidency included modern era states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, parts of Assam, Tripura in India and modern era Bangladesh}} 420 took place in Bengal, Behar, and Orissa, or what is termed the Lower Provinces, and of these latter 287 in the Calcutta Division alone". For the Upper Provinces, Bentinck added, "in these Provinces the satis amount to forty three only upon a population of nearly twenty millions", i.e., average one sati per 465,000.<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1829bentinck.html Modern History Sourcebook: On Ritual Murder in India], 1829 by [[Lord William Bentinck|William Bentinck]] Within previously cited statistics from 1815–1824, the year ''1816'' had 442 reported incidents of sati, the only figure in that statistics on the 400-level</ref>

===Social composition and age distribution===
Anand Yang, speaking of the early nineteenth century, says that contrary to conventional wisdom, sati was not, in general, an upper class phenomenon, but spread through the classes/castes. In the 575 reported cases from 1823, for example, 41 percent were Brahmins, 6 percent were Kshatriyas, 2 percent were [[Vaishiya]]s, and 51 percent were [[Shudra]]s. In [[Banaras]], in the 1815–1828 British records, the upper castes were only represented for 2 years—less than 70% of the total; whereas in 1821, all sati were from the upper castes there.

Yang notes that many studies seem to emphasise the young age of the widows who committed sati. By studying the British figures from 1815 to 1828, Yang states that the overwhelming majority were ageing women; statistics from 1825 to 1826 show that about two thirds were above the age of 40 when committing sati.{{sfn|Yang|2008|pp=29–31}}

===Regional variations of incidence===
Anand Yang summarizes the regional variation in incidence of sati as follows:

{{blockquote|... the practice was never generalized{{nbsp}}... but was confined to certain areas: in the north{{nbsp}}... the Gangetic Valley, [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[History of Rajasthan|Rajasthan]]; in the west, to the southern [[Konkan]] region; and in the south, to [[Madurai]] and [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]].{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=22}}}}

====Konkan/Maharashtra====
Narayan H. Kulkarnee believes that sati came to be practised in 17th Century [[History of Maharashtra|Maharashtra]], initially by the [[Maratha empire|Maratha]] nobility claiming [[Rajput]] descent. According to Kulkarnee, the practice may have increased across caste distinctions as an honour-saving custom in the face of Muslim advances into the territory. But the practice never gained the prevalence seen in Rajasthan or Bengal, and social customs of actively dissuading a widow from committing sati are well established. Apparently not a single instance of forced sati is attested for the 17th and 18th centuries CE.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kulkarnee|first1=Narayan H. |editor-last=Kusuman |editor-first=K.K |chapter=A Note on Sati in Maharashtra|pages=215–220|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4JqgSUSXDsC&pg=PA215|title=A Panorama of Indian Culture: Professor A. Sreedhara Menon Felicitation Volume|year=1990|publisher=Mittal Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-7099-214-1}}</ref> Forced or not forced, there were several instances of women from the [[Bhonsle dynasty]] committing sati. One was [[Shivaji]]'s eldest childless widow, [[Putalabai]], who committed sati after her husband's death. One controversial case was that of Chhatrapati [[Shahu I]]'s widow who was forced to commit sati due to political intrigues regarding succession at the Satara court following Shahu's death in 1749. The most "celebrated" case of sati was that of [[Ramabai Peshwa|Ramabai]], the widow of Brahmin Peshwa [[Madhavrao I]], who committed sati in 1772 on her husband's funeral pyre. This was considered unusual because unlike "kshatriya" widows, Brahmin widows very rarely followed the practice.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1YSU9Qp9w0MC|title=Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion|last=Feldhaus|first=Anne|date=1996-03-21|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-2838-2|language=en|pages=181–188|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324034030/https://books.google.com/books?id=1YSU9Qp9w0MC|archive-date=2018-03-24}}</ref>

====South India====
Several sati stones have been found in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]]. These stones were erected as a mark of a heroic deed of sacrifice of the wife for her husband and towards the land.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=HG|first=Rekha|title=Sati Memorial Stones of Vijayanagara Period – A Study|journal=History Research Journal|volume=5| issue = 6|page=1}}</ref> The sati stone evidence from the time of the empire is regarded as relatively rare; only about 50 are clearly identified as such. Thus, Carla M. Sinopoli, citing Verghese, says that despite the attention European travellers paid the phenomenon, it should be regarded as having been fairly uncommon during the time of the Vijayanagara Empire.<ref name="Sinopoli">{{cite book|last=Sinopoli|first=Carla M.|pages=230–231|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3nHg-eKWuIC&pg=PA230|title=The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, C. 1350–1650|location=Cambridge|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-44074-5}}</ref>

There were hardly any records of sati in South India prior to 900 CE, but [[Madurai Nayak dynasty]] (1529–1736 CE) seems to have adopted the custom in larger measure, one Jesuit priest in 1609 in Madurai observed the burning of 400 women at the death of Nayak Muttu Krishnappa.<ref>''On early rarity and Nayak adoption'', {{cite book|last1=Kulkarni|first1=K.R. |editor-last=Feldhaus |editor-first=Anne |chapter=Sati in Maratha Country |page=176 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1YSU9Qp9w0MC&pg=PA176|title=Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion|year=1996|publisher=SUNY Press|location=Albany, NY|isbn=978-0-7914-2838-2}}, ''on Jesuit witness'', {{cite book|last=Weinberger-Thomas|first=Catherine|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein/page/119 119]|url=https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein|url-access=registration|title=Ashes of Immortality: Widow-Burning in India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1999|isbn=978-0-226-88568-1}}</ref>

The [[Kongu Nadu]] region of Tamil Nadu has the highest number of Veera Maha Sati (வீரமாசதி) or Veeramathy temples (வீரமாத்தி) from all the native Kongu castes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.karikkuruvi.com/2014/12/blog-post.html?m=1&grqid=Qf0uqMzz&hl=en-IN|title=கொங்கதேசத்தில் வீரமாத்தி|website=www.karikkuruvi.com}}</ref>

A few records exist from the [[Princely State of Mysore]], established in 1799, that say permission to commit sati could be granted. [[Dewan]] (prime minister) [[Purnaiah]] is said to have allowed it for a Brahmin widow in 1805,<ref>{{cite book|last=Pinto|first=Janet|page=115|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5MuPfDa468C&pg=PA115|title=The Indian Widow: From Victim To Victor|year=2002|publisher=St Pauls BYB|location=Mumbai|isbn=978-81-7108-533-0}}</ref> whereas an 1827 eye witness to the burning of a widow in [[Bangalore]] in 1827 says it was rather uncommon there.<ref>{{cite journal|editor=Buckingham, James Silk|author=Eye-witness|title=Suttee at Bangalore|pages=281–285|volume=LVI|date=August 1828|journal=The Oriental Herald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ohxUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA281}}</ref>

====Gangetic plain====
In the Upper Gangetic plain, while sati occurred, there is no indication that it was especially widespread. The earliest known attempt by a government – the [[Muslim]] [[Sultan of Delhi|Sultan]] [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] – to stop this Hindu practice took place in the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in the 14th century.<ref>L. C. Nand, ''Women in Delhi Sultanate'', Vohra Publishers and Distributors Allahabad 1989.</ref>

In the Lower Gangetic plain, sati practice may have reached a high level fairly late in history. According to available evidence and existing reports of occurrences, the greatest incidence of sati in any region and period occurred in Bengal and Bihar in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/Organizations/healthnet/SAsia/forums/sati/prevention.html|title=The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 (No. 3 of 1988)|publisher=[[Harvard School of Public Health]]|access-date=12 October 2005|archive-date=14 March 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314115903/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/Organizations/healthnet/SAsia/forums/sati/prevention.html}}</ref>

====Nepal and Bali====
The earliest stone inscription in the Indian subcontinent relating to sati has been found in [[Nepal]], dating from the 5th century, where the king successfully persuades his mother not to commit sati after his father dies,<ref>John Whelpton (2005), A History of Nepal, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521804707}}, p. 19</ref> suggesting that it was practised but was not compulsory.<ref>DR Regmi (1983), Inscriptions of Ancient Nepal, {{ISBN|978-0391025592}}, p. 11</ref> The [[Kingdom of Nepal]] formally banned sati in 1920.<ref>Human Rights Watch, Human Rights Violations in Nepal (1989), {{ISBN|978-0929692319}}, p. 14</ref>

On the [[Indonesia]]n island of [[Bali]], sati (known as ''masatya'') was practised by the aristocracy as late as 1903, until the [[Dutch east indies|Dutch colonial authorities]] pushed for its termination, forcing the local Balinese princes to sign treaties containing the prohibition of sati as one of the clauses.<ref name=merlecalvin>''A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1300'', by Merle Calvin Ricklefs, ''on forced treaties'', see {{cite book|last=Wiener|first=Margaret J.|pages=267–268|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GE1uc1UNXNYC&pg=PA267|title=Visible and Invisible Realms: Power, Magic, and Colonial Conquest in Bali|year=1995|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-88582-7}}</ref> Early Dutch observers of the Balinese custom in the 17th century said that only widows of royal blood were allowed to be burned alive. Concubines or others of inferior blood lines who consented or wanted to die with their princely husband had to be stabbed to death before being burned.<ref>{{cite book|last=Creese|first=Helen|pages=240–241|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCUrhg_EibgC&pg=PA240|title=Women of the Kakawin World: Marriage and Sexuality in the Indic Courts of Java and Bali|year=2005|publisher=M.E. Sharpe, Inc.|isbn=978-0-7656-0160-5|location=Armonk, NY}}</ref>

==Terminology==
{{Hinduism}}
Lindsey Harlan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.conncoll.edu/directories/faculty-profiles/lindsey-harlan/|title=Lindsey Harlan|website=Connecticut College|access-date=10 February 2014|archive-date=22 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222175234/http://www.conncoll.edu/directories/faculty-profiles/lindsey-harlan/|url-status=dead}}</ref> having conducted extensive field work among [[Rajput]] women, has constructed a model of how and why women who committed sati are still venerated today, and how the worshippers think about the process involved.<ref>This section is based on chapter 4, {{cite book|last=Harlan|first=Lindsey|pages=112–153|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC&pg=PA112|chapter=Satimata tradition: The Transformative process|title=Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives|year=1992|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07339-5|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford}}</ref> Essentially, a woman becomes a sati in three stages:
# having been a ''pativrata'', or dutiful wife, during her husband's life,
# making, at her husband's death, a solemn vow to burn by his side, thus gaining status as a ''sativrata'', and
# having endured being burnt alive, achieving the status of ''satimata''.

===Pativrata===
The ''pativrata'' is devoted and subservient to her husband, and also protective of him. If he dies before her, some culpability is attached to her for his death, as not having been sufficiently protective of him. Making the vow to burn alive beside him removes her culpability, as well as enabling her to protect him from new dangers in the afterlife.

===Sativrata===
In Harlan's model, having made the holy vow to burn herself, the woman becomes a ''sativrata'', existing in a transitional stage between the living and the dead called the ''Antarabhava'' before ascending the funeral pyre. Once a woman had committed herself to becoming a sati, popular belief thought her to be endowed with many supernatural powers. Lourens P. Van Den Bosch enumerates some of them: prophecy and clairvoyance, and the ability to bless with sons women who had not borne sons before. Gifts from a sati were venerated as valuable relics, and in her journey to the pyre, people would seek to touch her garments to benefit from her powers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Van Den Bosch |first=Lourens P. |page=184 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q7uHAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 |title=Between Poverty and the Pyre: Moments in the History of Widowhood |editor-last=Bremmer |editor-first=Jan |editor-last2=Van Den Bosch |editor-first2=Lourens P. |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-1-134-88883-2 |chapter=The Ultimate Journey}}</ref>

Lindsey Harlan probes deeper into the ''sativrata'' state. As a transitional figure on her path to becoming a powerful family protector as ''satimata'', the ''sativrata'' dictates the terms and obligations that the family, in showing reverence to her, must observe in order for her to be able to protect them once she has become satimata. These conditions are generally called ''ok''. A typical example of an ''ok'' is a restriction on the colours or types of clothing the family members may wear.

''Shrap'', or curses, are also within the ''sativrata'''s power, associated with remonstrations on members of the family for how they have failed. One woman cursed her in-laws when they brought neither a horse nor a drummer to her pyre, saying that whenever they might need either in the future, (many religious rituals require the presence of such things), it would not be available to them. {{citation needed|date=September 2018}}

===Satimata===
After her death on the pyre, the woman is finally transformed into the shape of the ''satimata'', a spiritual embodiment of goodness, her principal concern being a family protector. Typically, the ''satimata'' manifests in the dreams of family members, for example, to teach the women how to be good ''pativratas'', having proved herself through her sacrifice that she was the perfect ''pativrata''. However, although the ''satimata'''s intentions are always for the good of the family, she is not averse to letting children become sick, or the cows' udders to wither, if she thinks this is an appropriate lesson to the living wife who has neglected her duties as ''pativrata''.

==In scriptures==
Although it is debated whether it received scriptural mention in early Hinduism, it has been linked to related Hindu practices in regions of [[Indian subcontinent|India]]. In the Hindu scriptures, states David Brick, Sati is a wholly voluntary endeavor; it is not portrayed as an obligatory practice, nor does the application of physical coercion serve as a motivating factor in its lawful execution.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Kitts |first=Margo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVVYDwAAQBAJ&q=sati+%22lawful+execution%22 |title=Martyrdom, Self-Sacrifice, and Self-Immolation: Religious Perspectives on Suicide |date=2018-05-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-065650-8 |pages=166 |language=en}}</ref>

In the following, a historical chronology is given of the debate within Hinduism on the topic of sati.

===The oldest Vedic texts===
:

The Vedic Verse 7 itself, unlike verse 8, does not mention widowhood, but the meaning of the syllables ''[[yoni]]'' (literally "seat, abode") have been rendered as "go up into the ''dwelling''" (by [[Horace Hayman Wilson|Wilson]]), as "step into the ''pyre''" (by [[Pandurang Vaman Kane|Kane]]), as "mount the ''womb''" (by [[Stephanie W. Jamison|Jamison]]/Brereton)<ref>Compare alternative translation by Jamison/Brereton:
:''These women here, non-widows with good husbands – let them, with fresh butter as ointment, approach together.''
:''Without tears, without afflictions, well-jeweled, let the wives first mount the womb.''
[[Stephanie W. Jamison]], Joel P. Brereton: The Rigveda: 3-Volume Set. Oxford University Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-0199720781}}. p. 1401. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ digital format]</ref> and as "go up to ''where he lieth''" (by [[Ralph T. H. Griffith|Griffith]]).<ref>Compare also alternative translation by Griffith:
:''Let these unwidowed dames with noble husbands adorn themselves with fragrant balm and unguent.''
:''Decked with fair jewels, tearless, free from sorrow, first let the dames go up to where he lieth.''
[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10018.htm Hymn XVIII. Various Deities.], ''Rig Veda'', tr. by [[Ralph T. H. Griffith]] (1896)</ref> A reason given for the discrepancy in translation and interpretation of verse 10.18.7, is that one consonant in a word that meant house, ''yonim agree'' ("foremost to the ''yoni''"), was deliberately changed to a word that meant fire, ''yomiagne,''<ref>O. P. Gupta, "The Rigveda: Widows don't have to burn", ''[[The Asian Age]]'', 23 October 2002, available at [http://www.hindu-religion.net/showflat/cat/hinduism/67586/0/collapsed/5/o/1 Hindu-religion.net] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222092234/http://www.hindu-religion.net/showflat/cat/hinduism/67586/0/collapsed/5/o/1 |date=22 February 2006 }}.</ref> by those who wished to claim scriptural justification.

:

Dehejia states that Vedic literature has no mention of any practice resembling sati.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=50-51}} There is only one mention in the Vedas, of a widow lying down beside her dead husband who is asked to leave the grieving and return to the living, then prayer is offered for a happy life for her with children and wealth. Dehejia writes that this passage does not imply a pre-existing sati custom, nor of widow remarriage, nor that it is authentic verse; its solitary mention may also be explained as an insertion into the text at a latter date.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=50-51}}{{Efn|On this idea of discontuation, see {{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|page=118|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA118|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-0324-4}}}} Dehejia writes that no ancient or early medieval era Buddhist texts mention sati (since killing/self killing) would have been condemned by them.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=50-51}}

Professor David Brick of the University of Michigan, in the paper 'The Dharmasastric Debate on Widow Burning', writes:
<blockquote>There is no mention of sahagamana (sati) whatsoever in either Vedic literature or any of the early Dharmasutras or Dharmasastras. By "early [[Dharmasutra]]s or [[Dharmasastra]]s", I refer specifically to both the early Dharmasutras of Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Gautama, Baudhayana and Vasistha, and the later Dharmasastras of Manu, Narada, and Yajnavalkya.<ref>Brick, David. "The Dharmaśāstric Debate on Widow-Burning." Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 130, no. 2, 2010, pp. 203–23. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23044515. Accessed 30 Apr. 2024.</ref></blockquote>

===Ancient texts===

====Absence in religious texts====
The [[Brahmana]] literature, one of the layers within the ancient Vedic texts, dated about 1000–500 BCE is entirely silent about sati, according to the historian Altekar. Similarly, the [[Kalpa (Vedanga)#Grhyasutras|Grhyasutras]], a body of texts devoted to ritual, composed at about the same time as the most recent Brahmana literature, sati is not mentioned either. What is mentioned concerning funeral rites, is that the widow is to be brought back from her husband's funeral pyre, either by his brother, or by a trusted servant. In the [[Taittiriya Aranyaka]] from about the same time, it is said that when leaving, the widow takes from her husband's side such objects as his bow, gold and jewels, and hope is expressed that the widow and her relatives lead a happy and prosperous life afterwards. According to Altekar, it is "clear" that the custom of actual widow burning had died out a long time previously.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|pages=118–119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA118|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-0324-4}}</ref>

Nor is the practice of sati mentioned anywhere in the [[Dharmaśāstra#The Dharmasutras|Dharmasutras]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|page=119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA119|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-0324-4}}</ref> texts tentatively dated by [[Pandurang Vaman Kane]] to 600–100 BCE, while [[Patrick Olivelle]] thinks the parameters should be roughly 250–100 BCE.<ref>For extended dating debate, including Kane reference, see {{cite book|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|pages=xxv–xxxiv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d0YTQ9Ty8r4C&pg=PR25|title=The Dharmasutras: The Law Codes of Ancient India|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-160604-5}}</ref>

Not only is sati not mentioned in Brahmana and early Dharmasastra literature, [[Satapatha Brahmana]] explains that suicide/self-murder by anyone is immoral ([[adharma]]ic). This [[Śruti]] prohibition became one of the several bases for arguments presented against sati by 11th- to 14th-century Hindu scholars such as Medhatithi of Kashmir,{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

:''Therefore, one should not depart before one's natural lifespan.'' – Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, 10.2.6.7{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

Thus, in none of the principal religious texts believed to be composed before the Common Era is there any evidence for the sanctioning of the practice of sati; it is wholly unmentioned. However, the archaic Atharvaveda does contain hints of a funeral practice of ''symbolic'' sati. Also, in the twelfth-century CE commentary of Apararka, claiming to quote the Dharmasutra text [[Apastamba]], it says that if a widow has made a vow of burning herself (anvahorana, "ascend the pyre"), but then ''retracts'' her vow, she must expiate her sin by the penance ritual called ''Prajapatya-vrata''<ref>''On 12th-century Apararka date'', see for example, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Urakx-uhGFkC&pg=PA75 p. 75], ''On penance'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=Urakx-uhGFkC&pg=PA207 p. 207], in {{cite book|last=Banerji|first=Sures C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Urakx-uhGFkC|year=1999|title=A Brief History of Dharmaśāstra|publisher=Abhinav Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-7017-370-0}}</ref>

====Valmiki Ramayana====
The oldest portion of the epic [[Ramayana]], the Valmiki Ramayana, is tentatively dated for its composition by Robert P. Goldman to 750–500 BCE.<ref>See in particular his discussion on the preceding pages of conclusion given at {{cite book|last=Goldman|first=Robert P|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWX43jnbOngC&pg=PA23|page=23|title=Balakanda: An Epic of Ancient India|year=1990|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01485-2|location=Princeton, New Jersey}} An important strand in Goldman's argument for the dating concerns which cities are considered capitals, and which are not</ref> Anant S. Altekar says that no instances of sati occur in this earliest part of the Ramayana.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|page=121|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA121|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-0324-4}}</ref>

According to Ramashraya Sharma, there is no conclusive evidence of the sati practice in the [[Ramayana]]. For instance, [[Tara (Ramayana)|Tara]], [[Mandodari]] and the widows of [[Ravana]], all live after their respective husband's deaths, though all of them announce their wish to die, while lamenting for their husbands. The first two remarry their brother-in-law. He also mentions that though [[Dashratha]], father of [[Rama]], died soon after his departure from the city, his mothers survived and received him after the completion of his exile. The only instance of sati appears in the ''[[Uttara Kanda]]'' – believed to be a later addition to the original text – in which [[Kushadhwaja]]'s wife performs sati.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Ramashraya |title=A socio-political study of the Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa|edition=1|year=1971|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|pages=96–98}}
</ref> The Telugu adaptation of the Ramayana, the 14th-century [[Ranganatha Ramayanamu|Ranganatha Ramayana]], tells that [[Sulochana (Ramayana)|Sulochana]], wife of [[Indrajit]], became sati on his funeral pyre.<ref>{{cite book |title=Indian epic values: Rāmāyana and its impact |last=Pollet|first=Gilbert |year=1995|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=90-6831-701-6|page= 62|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVnK3q48dL0C&q=Sulochana&pg=PA62 }}</ref>

====Mahabharata====

Instances of sati are found in the [[Mahabharata]], though these instances are also considered as later interpolations by some scholars.<ref>{{Cite book |last=M. A. Mehendale |url=https://archive.org/details/InterpolationsInTheMahabharata/page/n7/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Interpolations In The Mahabharata |date=2001-01-01 |pages=200–201}}</ref>

[[Madri]], the second wife of [[Pandu]], immolates herself. She believes she is responsible for his death, as he had been cursed with death if he ever had intercourse. He died while performing the forbidden act with Madri; she blamed herself for not rejecting him, as she knew of the curse. Also, in the case of Madri the entire assembly of [[rishi]]s (sages) sought to dissuade her from the act, and no religious merit is attached to the fate she chooses against all advice. However, this account is contradicted by the very next stanza found in all versions of the Mahabharata, which states that her dead body and that of her husband were handed over by sages to the Kaurava elders in [[Hastinapur]]a for the funeral rites.<ref name=":8" /> Pandu's first wife [[Kunti]] lived with her sons for many years and [[Kunti#Later_life_and_death|withdrew to the forest]] with Dhritarashtra and Gandhari after the war. In the [[Mausala Parva|Mausala-parvan]] of the Mahabharata, the four wives of [[Vasudeva]] are said to commit sati. Furthermore, as news of Krishna's death reaches [[Hastinapur]], five of his wives ascended the funeral pyre, while others embrace ascetism.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=[[Indian History Congress]]|first1=Om|last1=Prakash Mishra|first2=S.|last2=Pradhan|title=Sati memorials and cenotaphs of Madhya Pradesh - A survey|volume=62|year=2001|page=1014| jstor=44155841 }}</ref>

Against these stray examples within the Mahabharata of sati, there are scores of instances in the same epic of widows who do not commit sati, and none are blamed for not doing so.<ref>For this discussion, see for example, {{cite book|last=Sagar|first=Krishna C.|page=291 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA291|title=Foreign Influence on Ancient India|year=1992|publisher= Northern Book Centre|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-7211-028-4}}</ref>

=== Hindu Puranas ===
In [[Brahma Purana]], it is said to be the "highest duty of the woman to immolate herself after her husband".<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Pelea |first=Cringuta Irina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hs7bEAAAQBAJ&q=Cultural+Syndromes+in+India:+Understanding+Widow+Burning+in+Sati+and+Jauhar+through+Indian+Literature+Prachi+Priyanka |title=Culture-Bound Syndromes in Popular Culture |date=2023-11-30 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-98278-7 |pages=89 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Hindu Smritis ===
There is no allusion to the custom in [[Kautilya]]'s [[Arthashastra]] and the Smritis.<ref name=":11" />

The [[Manusmriti]], in fact, emphasized women as "pujarha grhadiptayah",(worthy of respect), as they are the light that illuminates the household. Manu stated that a virtuous wife, who remains chaste even after her husband's death, reaches heaven, just like chaste men.<ref name=":11" />{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

Daksa Smriti narrates the story of a woman experiencing eternal bliss in heaven by dying alongside her husband on his funeral pyre. The [[Agni Purana]] discusses the ability of widows to self-restrain and immolate themselves, allowing them to enter heaven.<ref name=":11" />

[[Yajnavalkya]] asserts that sati is the sole path for a chaste widow. A widow who devoted her life to her husband's death spends as much time in [[svarga]] (heaven) as the hairs on a human body. [[Vishnu Smriti]] presents a dilemma: either live a life of chastity or sacrifice one's husband's pyre.<ref name=":11" />[[File:Satigal (sati stone) in Kedareshvara temple at Balligavi.JPG|thumb|Satigal (sati stone) near [[Kedareshvara Temple, Balligavi]], [[Karnataka]]]]

A passage of the Parasara Smriti says:
:''If a woman adheres to a vow of ascetic celibacy ([[brahmacarya]]) after her husband has died, then when she dies, she obtains heaven, just like those who were celibate. Further, three and a half krores or however many hairs are on a human body – for that long a time (in years) a woman who follows her husband (in death) shall dwell in heaven.'' — Parasara Smriti, 4.29–31{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

Neither of these suggest that sati as mandatory, but the Parasara Smriti elaborates the benefits of sati in greater detail.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

Within the dharmashastric tradition espousing sati as a justified or even recommended option to ascetic widowhood, there remains a curious conception worth noting - the after-death status of a woman committing sati. Burning herself on the pyre would give her and her husband, automatic, but not eternal, reception into heaven ([[svarga]]), whereas only the wholly chaste widow living out her natural lifespan could hope for final liberation ([[moksha]]) and the breaking the cycle of [[Saṃsāra|saṃsāric]] rebirth.

While some smriti passages allow sati as optional, others forbid the practice entirely. [[Vijñāneśvara]] (c. 1076–1127), an early Dharmaśāstric scholar, claims that many smriti call for the prohibition of sati among Brahmin widows, but not among other social castes. Vijñāneśvara, quoting scriptures from Paithinasi and [[Angiras]] to support his argument, states:

:Due to Vedic injunction, a [[Brahmin]] woman should not follow her husband in death, but for the other social classes, tradition holds this to be the supreme Law of Women... when a woman of Brahmin caste follows her husband in death, by killing herself she leaders neither herself nor her husband to heaven.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

However, as proof of the contradictory opinion of the smriti on sati, in his [[Mitākṣarā]], Vijñāneśvara argues Brahmin women are technically only forbidden from performing sati on pyres other than those of their deceased husbands.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}} Quoting the Yājñavalkya Smṛti, Vijñāneśvara states, "a Brahmin woman ought not to depart by ascending a separate pyre." David Brick states that the Brahmin sati commentary suggests that the practice may have originated in the warrior and ruling class of medieval Indian society.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}} In addition to providing arguments in support of sati, Vijñāneśvara offers arguments against the ritual.

However, those who supported the ritual did put restrictions on sati. It was considered wrong for women who had young children to care for and those who were pregnant or menstruating. A woman who had doubts or did not wish to commit sati at the last moment could be removed from the pyre by a man, usually a brother of the deceased or someone from her husband's side of the family.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

David Brick,{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}} summarizing the historical evolution of scholarly debate on sati in [[Medieval India]], states:
{{blockquote|To summarize, one can loosely arrange Dharmasastic writings on sahagamana into three historical periods. In the first of these, which roughly corresponds to the second half of the 1st millennium CE, smrti texts that prescribe sahagamana begin to appear. However, during approximately this same period, other Brahmanical authors also compose a number of smrtis that proscribe this practice specifically in the case of Brahmin widows. Moreover, Medhatithi – our earliest commentator to address the issue – strongly opposes the practice for all women. Taken together, this textual evidence suggests that sahagamana was still quite controversial at this time. In the following period, opposition to this custom starts to weaken, as none of the later commentators fully endorses Medhatithi's position on sahagamana. Indeed, after Vijnanesvara in the early twelfth century, the strongest position taken against sahagamana appears to be that it is an inferior option to brahmacarya (ascetic celibacy), since its result is only heaven rather than [[moksa]] (liberation). Finally, in the third period, several commentators refute even this attenuated objection to sahagamana, for they cite a previously unquoted smrti passage that specifically lists liberation as a result of the rite's performance. They thereby claim that sahagamana is at least as beneficial an option for widows as brahmacarya and perhaps even more so, given the special praise it sometimes receives. These authors, however, consistently stop short of making it an obligatory act. Hence, the commentarial literature of the dharma tradition attests to a gradual shift from strict prohibition to complete endorsement in its attitude toward sahagamana.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}}}

=== Sanskrit literatures ===
The earliest scholarly discussion of sati is found in Sanskrit literature dated to 10th- to 12th-century.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=206–211}} The earliest known commentary on sati by [[Medhatithi]] of Kashmir argues that it is a form of suicide, which is prohibited by the Vedic tradition.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}} [[Vijnanesvara]], of the 12th-century [[Chalukya]] court, and the 13th-century [[Vidyaranya|Madhavacharya]], argue that sati should not to be considered suicide, which was otherwise variously banned or discouraged in the scriptures.{{sfn|Sharma|2001|p=102, footnote 206}} They offer a combination of reasons, both in for and against sati.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=212–213}}

===Justifications for involuntary sati===
Julia Leslie points to ''[[Strī-dharma-paddhati]]'', an 18th-century CE text on the duties of the wife by [[Tryambakayajvan]] that contains statements she regards as evidence for a sub-tradition that justifies strongly encouraged, pressured, or even forced sati; however the standard view of sati within the justifying tradition is that of the woman who out of moral heroism chooses sati, rather than choosing to enter ascetic widowhood.{{sfn|Leslie|1993}}{{Efn|And thus, critically, sati regarded as an essentially voluntary act, the woman afterwards worthy of worship.{{sfn|Leslie|1993}}}} Tryambaka is quite clear upon the automatic good effect of sati for the woman who was a 'bad' wife:
{{blockquote|Women who, due to their wicked minds, have always despised their husbands [...] whether they do this (i.e., sati), of their own free will, or out of anger, or even out of fear – all of them are purified from sin.}}{{Efn|For direct quotation, see p.56, for rest of discussion, consult essay {{harvtxt|Leslie|1993|p=45}}}}

Thus, as Leslie puts it, becoming (or being pressured into the role of) a sati was, within ''Tryambaka''{{'s}} thinking, the only truly effective method of atonement for the bad wife.

===Exegesis scholarship against sati===
Opposition to sati was expressed by several exegesis scholars: the 9th or 10th-century Kashmiri scholar [[Medhātithi]] – who offers the earliest known explicit discussion of sati,{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}} the 12th to 17th-century scholars Vijnanesvara, Apararka and Devanadhatta, as well as the mystical Tantric tradition, with its valorisation of the feminine principle.

Explicit criticisms were published by [[Medhatithi]], a commentator on various theological works.{{sfn|Brick|2010|p=208}} He offered two arguments for his opposition. He considered sati a form of suicide, which was [[Religious views of suicide#Hinduism|forbidden by the Vedas]]: "One shall not die before the span of one's life is run out."{{sfn|Brick|2010|p=208}} Medhatithi offered a second reason against sati, calling it against [[dharma]] (''adharma''). He argued that there is a general prohibition against violence of any form against living beings, especially killing, in the Vedic dharma tradition. Sati causes death, which is self-violence; thus sati is against Vedic teachings.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=207–208}}

Vijnanesvara presents both sides of the argument for and against sati. First, he argues that Vedas do not prohibit sacrifice aimed to stop an enemy, or in pursuit of heaven; thus sati for these reasons is not prohibited. Then he presents two arguments against sati, calling it "objectionable". The first is based on hymn 10.2.6.7 of [[Satapatha Brahmana]] will forbids suicide. His second reason against sati is an appeal to the relative merit between two choices. Death may grant a woman's wish to enter heaven with her dead husband, but living offers her the possibility of reaching [[moksha]] through knowledge of the self through learning, reflecting and meditating. In Vedic tradition, moksha is of higher merit than heaven, because moksha leads to eternal, unsurpassed bliss while heaven is impermanent, thus a smaller happiness. Living gives a widow the option to discover a deeper and totally fulfilling happiness than dying through sati does.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=212–213}}

Apararka acknowledges that Vedic scripture prohibits violence against living beings and "one should not kill", however, he argues that this rule prohibits violence against another person, but does not prohibit killing oneself. Thus sati is a woman's choice and it is not prohibited by Vedic tradition.{{sfn|Brick|2010|p=214}}

==In culture==


European artists in the eighteenth century produced many images for their own native markets, showing widows as heroic women and moral exemplars.<ref name="Hardgrave1998"/>

In [[Jules Verne]]'s novel ''[[Around the World in Eighty Days]]'', [[Phileas Fogg]] rescues [[Princess Aouda]] from forced sati.<ref name="Verne">{{cite book |last1=Verne |first1=Jules |title=Around the World in 80 Days |date=1873 |publisher=James R. Osgood and Company |location=Boston |pages=83–98 |url=https://archive.org/details/Aroundworldineig00vern_201303/page/n157/mode/2up |access-date=29 May 2022}}</ref>

In [[M. M. Kaye]]'s epic novel of [[British India|British-Indian]] ''[[The Far Pavilions]]'' the hero Ash rescues his love interest princess Anjuli from sati after the death of her husband, the ''[[rana (title)|Rana]]'' of Bhithor.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

In her article "[[Subaltern (postcolonialism)#The voice of the subaltern|Can the Subaltern Speak?]]", Indian philosopher [[Gayatri Spivak]] discussed the history of sati during the colonial era<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=naJtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 Gayatri Spivak: Deconstruction and the Ethics of Postcolonial Literary Interpretation] p. 50, Ola Abdalkafor, Cambridge Scholars Publishing</ref> and how the practise took the form of trapping women in India in a [[double bind]] of either self-expression attributed to [[mental illness]] and [[social rejection]], or of self-incrimination according to colonial legislation.<ref name="sharp6">{{cite book | last = Sharp | first = J. | title = Geographies of Postcolonialism
| chapter = Chapter 6, Can the Subaltern Speak? | publisher = Sage Publications | year = 2008}}</ref> The woman who commits sati takes the form of the [[Subaltern (postcolonialism)|subaltern]] in Spivak's work, a form that much of [[Postcolonialism|postcolonial]] studies take very seriously.

The 2005 novel ''[[The Ashram (novel)|The Ashram]]'' by Indian writer [[Sattar Memon]], deals with the plight of an oppressed young woman in India, under pressure to commit sati and the endeavours of a western spiritual aspirant to save her.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

In [[Krishna Dharabasi]]'s Nepali novel ''Jhola'', a young widow narrowly escapes self immolation. The novel was later adapted into a [[Jhola|movie]] titled after the book.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.nepalitimes.com/article/review/Jhola-Nepali-film,947 | title=Jhola {{pipe}} Review {{pipe}} Nepali Times }}</ref>

[[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem ''The Last Suttee'' (1889) recounts how the widowed queen of a Rajput king disguised herself as a [[nautch]] girl in order to pass through a line of guards and die upon his pyre.<ref>page 238, Rudyard Kipling's Verse. Definitive Version, Hodder and Stroughton Ltd London, January 1960</ref>

Amitav Ghosh's [[Sea of Poppies]] represents the practice of sati in [[Ghazipur]] city in the state of Uttar Pradesh with one of the main characters, 'Deeti', escaping the sati that her family and relatives were trying to force her to do after the death of her husband.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

==See also==
* [[Deorala]]
* [[Jauhar]]
* [[Ritual suicide]]
* [[Self-immolation]]
* [[Thalaikoothal]]
* [[Witch-hunt]]
*[[Dola pratha]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}

* {{cite journal|last1=Brick|first1=David|title=The Dharmasastric Debate on Widow Burning|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|year=2010|volume=130|issue=2|pages=203–223|jstor=23044515}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=A.B. |title=The Legacy of Alexander: Politics, Warfare, and Propaganda under the Successors |date=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1k9obBOLErkC|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198153061}}

* {{cite book |author=Cain |first1=Peter J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkY3W7PZ-FkC |title=Imperialism: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies |last2=Harrison |first2=Mark |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-20630-3}}

* {{Citation | last =Dehejia | first =Vidya | year =1994 | chapter =Comment: A Broader Landscape | editor-last =Hawley | editor-first =John Stratton | title =Sati, the Blessing and the Curse | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =978-0-19-507774-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Dodwell|first=H. H|title=The Cambridge History of the British Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vCshAAAAMAAJ|year=1932|publisher=CUP Archive}}

* {{cite book |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781594202056 |title=The Hindus: An Alternative History |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-14-311669-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781594202056/page/611 611] |url-access=registration}}

* {{cite book |author=Kuzmina |first=Elena Efimovna |author-link=Elena Efimovna Kuzmina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x5J9rn8p2-IC&pg=PA341 |title=The Origin of the Indo-Iranians |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-04-16054-5 |editor=J.P. Mallory |location=Leyden}}

* {{cite book |last1=Leslie |first1=Julia |year=1993|chapter=Suttee or Sati: Victim or Victor? |page=46 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPdYkFguJ8IC&pg=PA46 |title=Institutions and Ideologies: A SOAS South Asia Reader |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=David |editor-last2=Robb |editor-first2=Peter |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-7007-0284-8 |volume=10}}

* Mani, L. (1987). Contentious traditions: the debate on sati in colonial India. Cultural Critique, (7), 119–156.
* Mani, L. (1998). Contentious traditions: The debate on sati in colonial India. University of California Press.
* [[Meenakshi Jain]] (2016). Sati: Evangelicals, Baptist Missionaries, and the Changing Colonial Discourse, Aryan Books International. {{ISBN|978-8173055522}}

* {{Citation | last =Oldenburg | first =Veena Talwar | year =1994 | chapter =Comment: The Continuing Invention of the Sati Tradition | editor-last =Hawley | editor-first =John Stratton | title =Sati, the Blessing and the Curse| publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =978-0-19-507774-2}}

* Sangari, K., & Vaid, S. (1981). Sati in Modern India: a report. Economic and Political Weekly, 1284–1288.
* {{cite book|last= Sharma|first=Arvind|title=Sati: Historical and Phenomenological Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJmWgz2mv5oC|year=2001|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0464-7}}
*{{cite book | last=Stein | first=Burton | title=A History of India | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | date=4 February 2010 | isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC | access-date=2 November 2025}}

* {{Citation | last =Thapar | first =Romila | year =2002 | title =The Penguin History of Early India. From the Origins to AD 1300 | publisher = Penguin}}

* {{cite book |last1=Yang |first1=Anand A. | year =2008 | chapter =Whose Sati? Widow-Burning in early Nineteenth Century India |editor-last =Sarkar | editor-first =Sumit | editor-last2 =Sarkar | editor-first2 =Tanika |title=Women and Social Reform in Modern India: A Reader |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, Indiana |isbn=978-0-253-35269-9|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GEPYbuzOwcQC&pg=PA21 }}

* Zechenter, E. M. (1997). In the name of culture: Cultural relativism and the abuse of the individual. Journal of Anthropological Research, 319–347.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Sati}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091025224737/http://nrcw.nic.in/shared/sublinkimages/13.htm Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987]. Official text of the Act on [[Government of India]]'s National Resource Centre for Women (NCRW)
* Maja Daruwala, [http://www.pucl.org/from-archives/Gender/sati.htm A History of Sati Legislation in India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622063508/http://www.pucl.org/from-archives/Gender/sati.htm |date=22 June 2013 }}, People's Union for Civil Liberties.
* {{Cite NSRW|wstitle=Suttee|short=x}}
{{Social issues in India}}
{{Violence against women/end}}
{{Masculinism}}
{{Superstitions}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sati (Practice)}}
[[Category:Violence against women in Asia]]
[[Category:Death customs]]
[[Category:Fire in religion]]
[[Category:Suicide by self-immolation]]
[[Category:Superstitions of India]]
[[Category:Women's rights in religious movements]]
[[Category:Widowhood in India]]
[[Category:Hindu rituals related to death]]
[[Category:Suicide in India]]
[[Category:Gender and Hinduism]]
[[Category:Femicide]]
[[Category:Violence against women in India]]
[[Category:Women and death]]
[[Category:Human sacrifice]]
[[Category:Traditions involving fire]]
[[Category:Criticism of Hinduism]]
[[Category:Suicide in Nepal]]
[[Category:Violence against women in Nepal]]
[[Category:History of suicide]]

Railway Children (film)

2026-03-04T04:38:00Z

Realhimachal: creating the info w/ infobox - done

{{other uses|The Railway Children (disambiguation)}}
{{No plot|date=February 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Railway Children
| image = Railway_Children_(film).jpg
| caption =
| native_name =
| director = [[Prithvi Konanur]]
| producer =
| writer =
| screenplay = Prithvi Konanur
| starring = {{plainlist|Manohara K.
* Syed Pervez
* Yash Shetty
* Divya M. R.
* Karthik
* Parimala
}}
| music =
| cinematography = [[Eswaran Thangavel]]
| editing = Shivkumar Swamy
| studio = Tin Drum Beats
| released = {{film date|df=yes|2016|10|23|[[Mumbai Film Festival]]}}
| runtime = 115 minutes<ref name="mff"/>
| country = India
| language = Kannada
}}

'''''Railway Children'''''<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lewis|first1=Peter|title=Railway Children Kannada… The Producer's Comments….|url=http://railtube.info/2017/01/railway-children-kannada-the-producers-comments/|website=railtube.info|accessdate=18 April 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418184250/http://railtube.info/2017/01/railway-children-kannada-the-producers-comments/|archivedate=18 April 2017|date=15 January 2017}}</ref> is a 2016 Indian [[Kannada]] [[feature film]] written and directed by [[Prithvi Konanur]]. It is inspired from ''Rescuing Railway Children'' written by Lalitha Iyer and Malcolm Harper that describes the lives of children that [[Runaway (dependent)|run away]] from their homes, live in railway stations and trains, and grow up as criminals, despite their intentions being harmless and seeking only to earn a living.<ref>{{cite web|title=India's Railway Children|url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/sunday-edition/agenda/backbone/indias-railway-children.html|website=[[The Pioneer (India)|The Pioneer]]|accessdate=18 April 2017|date=1 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="th1">{{cite web|title='Railway Children' for Mumbai International Film Festival|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Mangalore/‘Railway-Children’-for-Mumbai-International-Film-Festival/article16073427.ece|website=[[The Hindu]]|accessdate=18 April 2017|date=17 October 2016}}</ref>

Produced by TinDrum Beats, the film featured mostly non-actors. The plot revolves around a 12-year-old runaway who falls into the hands of a gang involved in illegal businesses.<ref name="th1"/> Manohara K., Syed Pervez, Yash Shetty, Divya M. R., Karthik and Parimala appear in lead roles. The film premiered at the [[Mumbai International Film Festival]] in October 2016. Manohara won the [[National Film Award for Best Child Artist]] and [[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Child Actor (Male)]] for his performance. The film was also named the [[Karnataka State Film Award for Second Best Film|Second Best Film]] at the [[2016 Karnataka State Film Awards]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Khajane|first1=Muralidhara|title=Amaravathi scores a hat trick at State film awards|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/amaravathi-scores-a-hat-trick-at-state-film-awards/article17933743.ece|work=[[The Hindu]]|accessdate=18 April 2017|date=11 April 2017}}</ref>

== Cast ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* Mahonara K. as Jollu
* Yash Shetty as Solution
* Syed Pervez as Pappu
* Karthik as Karthik
* Srikanth as Railway child
* Vj Shetty as a Police inspector
* Hanumant Raju as Railway child
* Divya M. R. as Divya
* Satish Acharya
* Naresh as phone booth owner
* Parimala as Raju
* Manjunath as Police Constable
* Narasappa as Jollu's father
* Akash as Railway child
* Ramesh Babua as ticket collector
* Basavaraju as beggar
* Chinnu as new recruit
* Mangala as Jollu's mother
* Jyothi as NGO worker
* Ramachandra Hosur as tea stall owner
{{div col end}}

==Production==
''Railway Children'' was produced through [[crowdfunding]] by Tindrum Beats, a film production company based in [[Udupi]].<ref name="th1"/> The film was also supported by [[Don Thompson (producer, playwright)]] through NextPix/FirstPix grant.

== Soundtrack ==
[[Chandan Shetty]] scored the film's music and for its soundtrack. The soundtrack was released on YouTube.

{{Track listing
|extra_column = Artist(s)
|total_length = 6
| title1= Railway Children – Rap
| extra1 = Manohara K, [[Chandan Shetty]]
| lyrics1 = Chandan Shetty, Manohara K
| length1 = 2:30
| title2 = Male Moda
| extra2 = Chandan Shetty
| lyrics2 = Vishnumoorthy Prabhu
| length2 = 3:30
}}

== Release and reception ==
The film premiered at the Jio Mami Mumbai film Festival on 23 October 2016 where it competed for the Golden Gateway award.<ref name="mff">{{cite web|title=Railway Children|url=http://www.mumbaifilmfestival.com/programmeDetail/38|website=Mumbai Film Festival|publisher=mumbaifilmfestival.com|accessdate=18 April 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418183226/http://www.mumbaifilmfestival.com/programmeDetail/38|archivedate=18 April 2017}}</ref> It was reported that it would also be screened at the European Film festival before releasing theatrically in India.

The film was released in select multiplexes and single screen cinema halls in major cities in Karnataka on 22 December 2017.<ref>{{cite web|title=4 National Awards for Kannada films|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2017/apr/08/4-national-awards-for-kannada-films-1591255.html|website=The New Indian Express|access-date=18 April 2017|date=8 April 2017}}</ref>

The film was met with critical acclaim. Wishberry.in included it among the 9 brilliant Indian films of 2016 <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wishberry.in/blog/9-not-so-popular-but-brilliant-indian-indie-films-of-2016/#/article|title = Wishberry, India's No.1 Crowdfunding platform for creative artists}}</ref>

''DUBeat'' included it in the 5 must-watch movies of Mumbai Film Festival <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dubeat.com/2016/11/5-must-watch-films-from-the-mumbai-film-festival-2016/|title = 5 Must-Watch Films from the Mumbai Film Festival 2016|date = 5 November 2016}}</ref>

''Bangalore Mirror'' gave 4 out of 5 wrote "for US-returned techie-turned-director Prithvi has lent it the mature tone while retaining the suspense till the end whose parallel can best be seen in some of the Iranian flicks."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/reviews/entertainment/reviews/railway-children-movie-review-a-gripping-narrative-of-survival/articleshow/62214353.cms|title = Railway children movie review: A gripping narrative of survival}}</ref>

''Kannadaprabha'', a Kannada daily gave 4 out of 4 calling it a must-watch, and wrote in Kannada "The film has the ability to engage you and disturb you at the same time."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://kpepaper.asianetnews.com/archive/home.php?edition=Common%20Supplement&date=2017-12-23&pageno=1&pid=KANNADA_COM#Article/KANNADA_COM_20171223_1_7/369px|title=Kannadaprabha ePaper: Kannada Newspaper {{!}} Online Kannada ePaper {{!}} Daily Newspaper Common Supplement Edition|website=kpepaper.asianetnews.com|access-date=2018-01-07|archive-date=6 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180106173448/http://kpepaper.asianetnews.com/archive/home.php?edition=Common%20Supplement&date=2017-12-23&pageno=1&pid=KANNADA_COM#Article/KANNADA_COM_20171223_1_7/369px|url-status=dead}}</ref>

''Times of India'' gave 3.5 out of 5 and wrote " this film unwinds in its own leisurely pace, offering a strikingly real and scary peek into the lives of children who run away from homes and live near railway stations."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/railway-children/movie-review/62209672.cms|title=Railway Children Movie Review, Trailer, & Show timings|website=The Times of India|access-date=2018-01-07}}</ref>

== Accolades ==
[[File:The Director of the film MAZA BHIRBHIRA (Marathi) Vivek Wagh and the Director of the film RAILWAY CHILDREN (Kannada) Prithvi Konanur, at a press conference, during the 48th International Film Festival of India (IFFI-2017).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Director Prithvi Konanur (center), at [[International Film Festival of India|IFFI]] ([[48th International Film Festival of India|2017]]) ]]

;[[64th National Film Awards]]
* Winner [[National Film Award for Best Child Artist]] — Manohara K.

;[[2016 Karnataka State Film Awards]]
* Winner [[Karnataka State Film Award for Second Best Film|Second Best Film]] — Prithvi Konanur
* Winner [[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Child Actor (Male)|Best Child Actor (Male)]] — Manohara K.

;Mumbai Film Festival 2016
* Nominated for Golden Gateway award
* Nominated for OXFAM Best film on Gender Equality

;[[Zlín Film Festival]]
* Winner Ecumenical Jury Special Mention
* Nominated for Golden Slipper Award For Best Youth Film

;[[Asia Pacific Screen Awards]]
* In Competition Best Film on Youth

;[[Asian Film Festival]] Barcelona
* Winner Jury Special Mention

;[[International Film Festival of India]] 2017
* Selection Indian Panorama Section
* Nomination ICFT UNESCO Gandhi Medal

;[[All Lights India International Film Festival]] 2017
* Winner Best Indian Film

=== Festival screenings ===
*Chicago South Asia Film Festival
*Melbourne Indian Film Festival
*Bangalore Queer Film Festival
*Pune International Film Festival

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|5439424}}

[[Category:2016 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:2016 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian children's films]]
[[Category:Child characters in film]]
[[Category:Films set in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Rail transport films]]
[[Category:Drama films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Films based on Indian novels]]
[[Category:Indian docudrama films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Chandan Shetty]]
[[Category:Films featuring a Best Child Artist National Award–winning performance]]

Abohomaan

2026-03-04T00:23:52Z

Realhimachal: adjust content after review

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Short description|2010 Indian film by Rituparno Ghosh}}
{{Infobox film
|name = Abohomaan
|image = Abohomaan (2010).jpg
|caption = Theatrical release poster
|director = [[Rituparno Ghosh]]
|writer = Rituparno Ghosh
|starring = [[Dipankar De]] [[Jisshu Sengupta]] [[Mamata Shankar]] [[Riya Sen]] [[Ananya Chatterjee]]
|producer = Mahesh Ramanathan, Big Pictures, Jay Dev Banerjee
|distributor = [[Reliance Entertainment|Reliance BIG Pictures]]
|music = 21 Grams
|cinematography = [[Avik Mukhopadhyay]]
|editing =[[Arghyakamal Mitra]]
|released = {{Film date|2010|1|22|df=y}}
|runtime = 122 minutes
|language = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|country = [[India]]
}}
'''''Abohomaan''''' ({{langx|en|The Eternal}}) is a 2010 Bengali-language [[romantic drama]] film by [[Rituparno Ghosh]], which explores the nuances of relationships through a married film director who falls in love with an actress who is the same age as his son.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/celebrities/story/rituparno-ghoshs-abohomaan-to-release-jan-22-64370-2010-01-05|title=Rituparno Ghosh's Abohomaan to release Jan 22|work=[[India Today]]|agency=PTI|date=5 January 2010|accessdate=28 July 2018}}</ref> The film stars [[Deepankar De]], [[Mamata Shankar]], [[Ananya Chatterjee]], [[Jisshu Sengupta]], [[Riya Sen]] and is produced by Mahesh Ramanathan, [[Reliance Big Pictures]]. Rituparno Ghosh, Arghyakamal Mitra, Mahesh Ramanathan and Ananya Chatterjee won [[National Film Awards]] in 2010 for [[National Film Award for Best Direction|Best Director]], [[National Film Award for Best Editing|Best Editor]], [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Bengali|Best Bengali Film]] and [[National Film Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywood.com/rituparno-happy-not-celebrating-abohoman-success|title=Rituparno happy, but not celebrating 'Abohoman' success|website=Bollywood.com|accessdate=28 July 2018}}</ref> The film was screened in the [[Marché du Film]] section of the [[2009 Cannes Film Festival]].<ref>{{cite news|author=Premankur Biswas|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/cannes-bound/453327/|title=Cannes Bound|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=1 May 2009|accessdate=28 July 2018}}</ref>

Earlier, Rituparno Ghosh had planned to make the film in Hindi as ''Kya Haseen Sitam'', with [[Naseeruddin Shah]], [[Shabana Azmi]] and [[Vidya Balan]], later decided to make it in Bengali, as ''Abahoman''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report_rituparno-ghosh-does-his-own-take-on-kaagaz-ke-phool_1161777|title=Rituparno Ghosh does his own take on 'Kaagaz Ke Phool'|date=28 April 2008|work=[[Daily News and Analysis|DNA]]|publisher=[[Essel Group]]|accessdate=28 July 2018}}</ref>

==Plot==
Aniket ([[Deepankar De]]) is one of the finest filmmakers of Bengal, Deepti ([[Mamata Shankar]]) is an actress, with whom he had fallen in love while casting in one of his films, who had sacrificed her career for love and marriage. Apratim ([[Jisshu Sengupta]]) is their only son. They had been a perfect family.

The plot thickens when Aniket auditions a young actress, Shikha ([[Ananya Chatterjee]]), who bears an uncanny resemblance to his wife when she was younger. Deepti enthusiastically begins to coach Shikha for her husband's film — so much so that Shikha becomes even more like the young woman Deepti once was and, as a result, the aging Aniket falls in love with Shikha, a woman as young as his son, despite the sadness and trouble it brings to his family. However, although portrayed as an apparent love between Aniket and Shikha, Shikha was a [[Muse]] for Aniket. Her acting skills and her spontaneity mesmerized him. To him, she was Sreemoti, the name which he had first given to Deepti. Deepti later gave this name to Shikha. Even when Sikha became popular in the acting world by the name Sreemoti, Aniket always referred to her as Sikha. For him, Deepti - his wife was the real Sreemoti. This is revealed towards the end of the movie, when a dying Aniket desires to see Sreemoti, because he has to take a shot, and Deepti comes in front of him. This leaves a lot to be explained but the storyline suggests that Aniket was in love with Sreemoti, more than Deepti or Shikha.

The storyline connects the relationship between Aniket and Shikha to that between the noted theater director ([[Girish Chandra Ghosh]]) and the noted actress ([[Binodini Dasi]]). Later on when Apratim lies to his wife the same way as his father lied to his wife while spending time with Shikha, it is suggested that this relationship is "Abohomaan" meaning carried over.

==Cast==
*[[Deepankar De]] as Aniket
*[[Mamata Shankar]] as Deepti
*[[Jisshu Sengupta]] as Apratim
*[[Ananya Chatterjee]] as Shikha Sarkar/ Shrimati Sarkar
*[[Riya Sen]] as Chandrika/ Tiya
*[[Saswati Guhathakurta]] as Hashi
*[[Sumanta Mukherjee]] as Girish Chandra Ghosh
*[[Laboni Sarkar]] as Shikha's sister
*[[Shobha Sen]] as Aniket's mother
*Debjani Chattopadhyay as Sangeeta
*[[Rishi Kaushik]]

==Awards==
The film has won the following awards since its release:

'''[[National Film Awards]] ([[India]])'''
*'''Won''' - Golden Lotus Award - [[National Film Award for Best Direction|Best Director]] - [[Rituparno Ghosh]]
*'''Won''' - Silver Lotus Award - [[National Film Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] - [[Ananya Chatterjee]]
*'''Won''' - Silver Lotus Award - [[National Film Award for Best Editing|Best Editing]] - [[Arghyakamal Mitra]]
*'''Won''' - Silver Lotus Award - [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Bengali]] - Mahesh Ramanathan

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|1461674}}

{{National Film Award Best Feature Film Bengali}}
{{Rituparno Ghosh}}

[[Category:2010 films]]
[[Category:2010 Bengali-language films]]
[[Category:Bengali-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Films featuring a Best Actress National Award–winning performance]]
[[Category:Films set in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Films whose director won the Best Director National Film Award]]
[[Category:Films whose editor won the Best Film Editing National Award]]
[[Category:Films directed by Rituparno Ghosh]]
[[Category:Best Bengali Feature Film National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Reliance Entertainment films]]

Manimuzhakkam

2026-03-03T21:10:39Z

Realhimachal: Refined content and updated sections

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Manimuzhakkam
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[P. A. Backer]]
| producer = Cartoonist Thomas
| writer = P. A. Backer (screenplay) [[Sarah Thomas (writer)|Sarah Thomas]] (story & dialogues)
| starring = [[Harikeshan Thampi]] [[Sreenivasan]] 
Cyril P Jacob
| music = [[Devarajan]]
| cinematography = [[Vipindas]]
| editing = Ravi Kiran
| studio =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1976|4|30|df=y}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Manimuzhakkam''''' ({{lit|The Tolling of Bells}}) is a 1976 [[Malayalam]]-language film directed by [[P. A. Backer]] and starring [[Harikeshan Thampi]], [[Veeran]], Johnson, [[Sankaradi]], Saritha, Urmila, Vani, cyril P Jacob, Charulatha, [[Santhakumari (Malayalam actress)|Santhakumari]], Sreenivasan and Meena Ganesh. This is the debut film of [[Sreenivasan]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Directory of Indian film-makers and films |last=Narwekar |first=Sanjit |publisher=Flicks Books |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-313-29284-2 |page=21 |author-link=Sanjit Narwekar}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ashish Rajadhyaksha, Paul Willemen|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian cinema|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofi0000raja|url-access=registration|publisher=British Film Institute|year=1999|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofi0000raja/page/50 50]|isbn=978-0-85170-455-5}}</ref> The film was scripted by Backer based on the novel ''Murippaadukal'' by [[Sarah Thomas (writer)|Sarah Thomas]].<ref>J.Ajith Kumar (14 September 2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20050104110900/http://www.hindu.com/lf/2004/09/14/stories/2004091401130200.htm "Writing for all of humanity "]. ''[[The Hindu]]''. Retrieved 20 January 2013.</ref> It won the [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Malayalam]]. The film also won the Kerala state awards for best film, best screenplay ([[P. A. Backer|P.A. Backer]]), and best black & white cinematography ([[Vipindas|Vipin Das]]).<ref>{{Cite news|title=Kerala State Film Awards, 1969-1980|url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawares.htm| date=15 September 2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303232254/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawares.htm|archive-date=2016-03-03}}</ref>

The film was shot in [[black-and-white]] even though colour films were common during those times (colour cinema became popular in Malayalam cinema only from 1978 to 1980 and good-quality colour films started being shot frequently only from 1983 to 1985).

== Cast ==
* [[Harikeshan Thampi]] as Jose Paul
* [[Veeran]]
* Cyril P Jacob
* Johnson
* [[Sankaradi]]
* Saritha
* Urmila
* Vani
* Charulatha
* [[Sreenivasan]] as vayaran Michael
* [[Santhakumari (Malayalam actress)|Santhakumari]]
* Meena Ganesh
* Immatty
* Beatrice
* Ponjikkara Kalyani Amma

== Trivia ==
Initially, director [[P. A. Backer|Backer]] had [[Mammootty]] in mind for the role of Michael, but it eventually went to [[Sreenivasan]].<ref>{{cite news|title=മമ്മുട്ടിയില്‍ നിന്ന് ശ്രീനിവാസനിലെത്തിയ 'മണിമുഴക്കം|url=https://www.mediaoneonline.com/mediaone-shelf/column/manimuzhakkam-from-mammootty-to-srinivasan-252785|publisher=[[MediaOne]]}} 3 May 2024</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0154835}}
* http://www.malayalachalachithram.com/movie.php?i=687

{{KeralaStateFilmAwardBestFilm}}
{{National Film Award Best Feature Film Malayalam}}

[[Category:1976 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:1976 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films directed by P. A. Backer]]
[[Category:Films based on Indian novels]]
[[Category:Best Malayalam Feature Film National Film Award winners]]

{{1970s-Malayalam-film-stub}}

Paavada

2026-03-03T20:37:12Z

Realhimachal: updated

{{Short description|2016 film by G. Marthandan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Paavada
| image = Pavada film poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[G. Marthandan]]
| producer = [[Maniyanpilla Raju]]
| screenplay = [[Bipin Chandran]]
| story = Bipin Chandran [[Shibin Francis]]
| starring = [[Prithviraj Sukumaran]] [[Miya (actress)|Miya]] [[Anoop Menon]] [[Asha Sarath]] [[Nedumudi Venu]] Maniyanpilla Raju
| narrator = Anil Nedumangad
| music = {{ubl|'''Score:'''|[[Gopi Sunder]]|'''Songs:'''|[[Aby Tom Cyriac]]}}
| cinematography = Pradeep Nair
| editing = [[Johnkutty]]
| studio = [[Maniyanpilla Raju Productions]]
| distributor = Anto Joseph Release & Tricolor Entertainment
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2016|01|15|India}}
| runtime = 145 minutes<ref name=Runtime>{{cite web|title=Pavada(2016 film) – Duration| website=[[Facebook]] |url=https://www.facebook.com/PrithvirajSukumaran/photos/a.130999383621801.31254.130302907024782/945958475459217/?type=3&theater|accessdate=13 February 2016|date=13 February 2016}}</ref>
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget = 
| gross = {{Estimation}} {{INR|34 crore|link=yes}}<ref name="gross1"/>
}}

'''''Paavada''''' ({{translation|[[Skirt]]}}) is a 2016 Indian [[comedy drama]] film directed by G. Marthandan and written by [[Bipin Chandran]], based on the story he co-wrote with [[Shibin Francis]]. The film is about the life of two alcoholics. It stars [[Prithviraj Sukumaran]] and [[Anoop Menon]] in lead roles along with [[Miya (actress)|Miya]], [[Asha Sarath]], [[Nedumudi Venu]] and [[Maniyanpilla Raju]] in supporting roles. The film was produced by Maniyanpilla Raju. The music was composed by [[Aby Tom Cyriac]] and released under the label [[Muzik 247]].

''Paavada'' released on 15 January 2016. The film was a commercial success, grossing {{INR Convert|35|c}} at the box office.<ref name="gross1"/>

==Synopsis==
The film opens with a poem by the Pakistani poet [[Faiz Ahmad Faiz]].<ref>{{cite web |author1=G. Ragesh |title=Beautiful "Paavada" woven out of quagmire |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/paavada-movie-review-prithviraj-anoop-menon-mia-marthandan.html |website=[[Onmanorama]] |date=January 15, 2016}}</ref> An alcoholic duo meet at a de-addiction center helps each other to arrange their lives back together with their persistent illness. Pambu Joy's married life is in a muddle due to his [[alcoholism]]. Pavada Babu's life is in pieces due to a film he produced in which Sicily, Joy's mother, was the heroine, and was directed by his close friend Chandramohan, who died soon after shooting the film. For financial gain, the film was [[adulterated]] by his friend Eldho. Eldho intends to re-release the film's [[3D film|3D]] extended version. Both Joy and Babu fight through their alcoholism to stop the re-release of the film due to the added pain that it will cause for Babu and to Joy's mother Sicily forms the crux of the story.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
*[[Prithviraj Sukumaran]] as Joy Varghese (Pambu Joy)
**Athul as [[Toddler]] Joy
*[[Anoop Menon]] as Ex dismissed Professor Babu Joseph (Paavada Babu)
*[[Miya (actress)|Miya George]] as Sinimol, Joy's Wife
*[[Asha Sarath]] as Sicily Varghese, Joy's mother
*[[Maniyanpilla Raju]] as Advocate Gunasekharan Nair, Babu's Friend
*[[Nedumudi Venu]] as Ayyappan Pillai
*[[Kalabhavan Shajohn]] as Eldho Kunnanthanam
*[[Sharaf U Dheen]] as Vilakkoothi Rajan, Joy's Friend
*[[Sudheer Karamana]] as Fr. Stephen
*[[Chemban Vinod Jose]] as Fr. Kattipparamban
*[[Jayakrishnan]] as Kallu Varkki, Joy's Father
*[[Manikuttan]] as SI Suresh
*[[Kunchan (actor)|Kunchan]] as Cleetus, Bar Manager
*[[Murali Gopy]] as Chandramohan
*[[Sai Kumar (Malayalam actor)|Saikumar]] as Joseph, Babu's Father
*[[Siddique (actor)|Siddique]] as Advocate Anantharama Iyer
*[[Renji Panicker]] as Paul Zacharia
*[[Anil Nedumangad]] as Chacko, Toddy Shop Drunker
*Lakshmi Sanal as Sajini/Saleenamma
*[[Maala Parvathi]] as Mother Superior
*[[Chali Pala]] as Advocate Kailash
*[[Sunil Sukhada]] as Thevally Manoharan
*Binu Adimaly as Police constable Sugathan
*[[Kalabhavan Haneef]] as Kapyar Varghese
*[[Dinesh Prabhakar]] as Thattukada Kunjumon
*[[Shaju Sreedhar]] as MLA's Brother-in-Law
*Purushu as Ayyappan
*[[Surjith Gopinath]] as Drunkard
*[[Manju Warrier]] as Babu's Fiancée ([[cameo appearance]])<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/anoop-suggested-manju-warrier-for-pavada/articleshow/51513584.cms|work=Times of India|title=Anoop suggested Manju Warrier for Pavada|access-date=26 May 2021|last1=Sidhardhan |first1=Sanjith }}</ref>
}}

==Production==
Earlier, [[Shobana]] was approached for the role of Sicily, but the actress turned down the role as she was not willing to do mother role of [[Prithviraj Sukumaran|Prithviraj]], she was replaced by [[Asha Sarath]].<ref>{{cite news|author=Anu James|title=Maniyanpilla Raju reveals why Shobana turned down role as Prithviraj's mother in 'Paavada'|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/maniyanpilla-raju-reveals-why-shobana-turned-down-role-prithvirajs-mother-paavada-664827|accessdate=28 January 2016|agency=[[International Business Times]]|date=28 January 2016|language=en}}</ref> Actor [[Jayasurya]] has sung a song for the film, titled "Kuruthakkedinte Koodanu," composed by [[Aby Tom Cyriac]], which describes the character of Joy (Prithviraj).<ref>{{cite news|author=Anjana George|title=Jayasurya's song for Prithviraj is out|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/music/Jayasuryassong-for-Prithviraj-is-out/articleshow/50295232.cms|accessdate=5 October 2015|agency=[[The Times of India]]|date=December 23, 2015}}</ref> According to [[Maniyanpilla Raju]], the film will have "a lot of twists".<ref>{{cite news|author=Sanjith Sidhardhan|title=Prithviraj's outstanding in Pavada: Maniyanpillai|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/Prithvirajs-outstanding-in-Pavada-Maniyanpillai/articleshow/50075468.cms|accessdate=4 January 2016|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=December 7, 2015}}</ref>

==Music==
{{Infobox album
| name = Paavada
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Aby Tom Cyriac]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2016
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack]]
| length = {{Duration|m=10|s=02}}
| label = [[Muzik 247]]
| producer = [[Maniyan Pilla Raju]]
| prev_title = Second Innings
| prev_year = 2013
| next_title = Shikamani
| next_year = 2016
}}

The film's songs are composed by [[Aby Tom Cyriac]] with lyrics written by B. K. Hari Narayanan. There are three songs and one is a promo song sung by [[Nedumudi Venu]].<ref>{{cite news|author=Anjana George|title=Hari Narayanan to pen songs for 'Pavada'|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/music/Hari-Narayanan-to-pen-songs-for-Pavada/articleshow/49687010.cms|accessdate=4 January 2016|work=The Times of India|date=November 9, 2015}}</ref> [[Jayasurya]], K. G. Ranjith and Nedumudi Venu are the singers. The music was released through the label [[Muzik 247]]. The audio music launch was held in a low profile event at [[Kochi]] in December 2015, the money generated from which went to [[2015 South Indian floods#Tamil Nadu|Chennai flood]] victims' relief funds.<ref>{{cite news|agency=Times News Network|title=Spotted Prithviraj during Pavada audio launch in Kochi|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/kochi/Spotted-Prithviraj-during-Pavada-audio-launch-in-Kochi/articleshow/50219123.cms|accessdate=4 January 2016|work=The Times of India|date=December 17, 2015}}</ref> Aby Tom Cyriac has sampled music from Indian ethnic genre of the early 80s and late 90s.<ref>{{cite news|author=Anjana George|title=Pavada to have ethnic background score|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/music/Pavada-to-have-ethnic-background-score/articleshow/49816948.cms|accessdate=4 January 2016|work=The Times of India|date=November 17, 2015}}</ref>

{{Track listing
|headline = Track listing
|extra_column = Singer(s)
|total_length = 10:02
|title1 = Kuruthakkedinte Koodane
|extra1 = [[Jayasurya]]
|length1 = 4:11
|title2 = Paavam Paavada
|extra2 = [[Ranjith (singer)|Ranjith]]
|length2 = 3:12
|title3 = Eha Loka Jeevitham
|extra3 = [[Nedumudi Venu]]
|length3 = 2:38
}}

==Release==
===Theatrical===
''Paavada'' released on 15 January 2016.<ref>{{cite news|author=Sanjith Sidhardhan|title=Prithviraj and Fahadh to lock horns in Jan|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/Prithviraj-and-Fahadh-to-lock-horns-in-Jan/articleshow/50424928.cms|accessdate=4 January 2016|work=The Times of India|date=January 3, 2016}}</ref>

==Reception==
===Box office===
''Paavada'' grossed approximately {{INR Convert|23|c}} in the opening weekend from India [[box office]].<ref>{{cite news|title='Pavada' rules box office; "Two Countries", "Charlie" running successfully|url=http://english.manoramaonline.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/kerala-box-office-collection-pavada-leads-two-countries-charlie-running.html|agency=[[Malayala Manorama]]|author=Onmanaorama Staff|date=18 January 2016|accessdate=28 January 2016}}</ref> The film's final gross collection is estimated as {{INR Convert|34|c}} with a share of {{INR Convert|17|c}}. It completed 100 days theatrical run in the state.<ref name="gross1">{{cite news|author=Anu James|title=Kerala box office: Here is the collection report of "King Liar," 'Kali,' "Vettah," 'Paavada,' 'Puthiya Niyamam'|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/kerala-box-office-here-collection-report-king-liar-kali-vettah-paavada-puthiya-673652|accessdate=20 April 2016|work=[[International Business Times]]|date=6 April 2016|language=en}}</ref>

===Critical response===
''[[The Times of India]]'' rated 3.5 out of 5 stars and stated that the movie does try to explain alcoholism as a way of dealing with helplessness and how it can ruin one's credibility.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/Pavada/movie-review/50604804.cms|title=Pavada Movie Review {3.5/5}: Critic Review of Pavada by Times of India|newspaper=The Times of India }}</ref> [[Rediff.com]] gave 3.5 out of 5: [[Bipin Chandran]]'s screenplay discusses the ethical, moral and legal issues pertaining to such situations. There are elaborate court scenes that test our patience for two and a half hours. This is one of the fertile periods in [[Prithviraj Sukumaran|Prithviraj]]'s career and he makes it even better with this film. He has to be a breezily comic fellow in the first half that he does unpretentiously making this film yet another winner as far as his performance goes. He gets able support from [[Anoop Menon]], [[Nedumudi Venu]] and Maniyanpilla Raju. ''Paavada'' can be called a decent effort only if we ignore the flaws.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/review-paavada-is-a-decent-effort/20160116.htm|title = Review: Paavada is a decent effort}}</ref> Indiaglitz rated 4 out of 5 and said The story, screenplay and dialogues by Bipin Chandran deserves credit. Director Marthandan could capture the essence of the story and deliver a good narration. Background score was conventional. Editing and cinematography were good with the editing being sharp and camera angles very effective, especially the dramatic part involving Prithviraj and the fight sequences. Performances from Prithviraj, Anoop Menon and Nedumudi were outstanding. Prithviraj has proved his range with this cinema as he lives as Joy onscreen. Anoop Menon holds his own in a demanding character. Miya was adorable as Joy's wife. "''Paavada''" is sure to stay around for a long time for its one-liners and humour.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/pavada-malayalam-movie-review-20376.html|title=Pavada review. Pavada Malayalam movie review, story, rating}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|5068280}}
* {{facebook|Pavada-771794169574615}}

[[Category:2016 films]]
[[Category:2016 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Films about alcoholism]]
[[Category:Films about films]]
[[Category:2016 comedy-drama films]]

Sanga Natham

2026-03-03T05:15:59Z

Realhimachal: added structure for consistency

{{More citations needed|date=October 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Sanga Natham.jpg
| caption = Title card
| director = [[G. Ramineedu]]
| screenplay = [[D. Pandian|Tha. Pandian]]
| story = [[Madala Ranga Rao]]
| starring = [[Rajesh (Tamil actor)|Rajesh]] [[Rajyalakshmi]]
| cinematography = G. P. Vidyasagar
| editing = [[Anil Malnad|G. R. Anil Malnad]]
| music = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| studio = Janasakthi Creations Pvt. Ltd.
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1984|4|14|ref1=}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Sanga Natham''''' ({{translation|Sound of the [[shankha]]}}) is a 1984 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film directed by Ramineedu and produced by Janasakthi Creations. The film stars [[Rajesh (Tamil actor)|Rajesh]] and [[Rajyalakshmi]]. It was released on 14 April 1984.<ref>{{Cite web |title=சங்க நத்தம் / Sanga Natham (1984) |url=https://screen4screen.com/movies/sanga-natham |access-date=25 October 2023 |website=Screen 4 Screen |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808095532/https://screen4screen.com/movies/sanga-natham |url-status=live }}</ref> The film was a remake of the Telugu film ''[[Yuvatharam Kadilindi]]''.<ref name=anna />

== Plot ==
{{No plot|date=October 2023}}

== Cast ==
*[[Rajesh (Tamil actor)|Rajesh]]
*[[Rajyalakshmi]]
*[[Nagesh]]
*[[C. R. Vijayakumari]]
*[[Vennira Aadai Moorthy]]
*[[Senthil]]
*[[Nizhalgal Ravi]]
*[[Y. Vijaya]]
== Production ==
The film was launched on 24 October 1983 at Vijaya Gardens with minister [[K. Kalimuthu]] switching on the camera while [[Bharathiraja]] clapped the first shot. The film marked the debut of Telugu director G. Ramineedu in Tamil cinema.<ref>{{cite news |date=6 November 1983 |title=அமைச்சர் காளிமுத்து துவக்கிய படம் |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_8_21/3.jp2/full/1000,1405/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250621012414/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_8_21/3.jp2/full/1000,1405/0/default.jpg |archive-date=21 June 2025 |access-date=21 June 2025 |newspaper=Anna |pages=3 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref> The screenplay and dialogues were written by politician and writer [[D. Pandian|Tha. Pandian]]. The filming was held at Erode and Tiruppur.<ref name="anna">{{cite news |date=18 December 1983 |title=நடிகர் ராஜேஷ் பத்திரிகை ஆசிரியாகிறார்! |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_8_63/3.jp2/full/1000,1405/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250622050027/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_8_63/3.jp2/full/1000,1405/0/default.jpg |archive-date=22 June 2025 |access-date=22 June 2025 |newspaper=Anna |pages=3 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sanga Naatham Tamil Film EP Vinyl Record by Ilayaraaja |url=https://macsendisk.com/product/sanga-naatham-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-ilayaraaja/ |access-date=25 October 2023 |website=Macsendisk |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202135658/https://macsendisk.com/product/sanga-naatham-tamil-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-ilayaraaja/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics
|-
| Enga Natham || [[Malaysia Vasudevan]] || K. C. S. Arunachalam
|-
| Ethetho Sonnanga || [[P. Jayachandran]], [[Vani Jairam]], Malaysia Vasudevan || rowspan="3" |[[Vairamuthu]]
|-
| Indha Kalyanam || Malaysia Vasudevan, [[S. Janaki]]
|-
| Maanavargale || Malaysia Vasudevan, Krishnamurthi
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

[[Category:1984 Indian films]]
[[Category:1984 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1984 films]]
[[Category:Films about communism]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja]]
[[Category:Tamil remakes of Telugu films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Ponmaalai Pozhudhu

2026-03-03T03:28:49Z

Realhimachal: slightly expanded information for consistency additionally and corrected details

{{Short description|2013 Indian film by A. C. Durai}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Ponmaalai Pozhudhu.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = A. C. Durai
| producer = Amirtha Gowri
| writer =
| starring = {{ubl|[[Aadhav Kannadasan]]|[[Gayathrie]]}}
| music = [[C. Sathya]]
| cinematography = Rajavel Olhiveeran
| editing = Ramsudharsan
| studio = AG Creations
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2013|08|30}}
| runtime = 128 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Ponmaalai Pozhudhu''''' ({{Translation|Golden Evening Hours}}) is a 2013 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film directed by A. C. Durai and produced by Amritha Gowri. Inspired from a real-life incident, the film stars [[Aadhav Kannadasan]] and [[Gayathrie]], with [[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]], [[Aruldoss]] and [[Anupama Kumar]] in supporting roles. The music was composed by [[C. Sathya]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lakshmi |first=V |date=11 February 2012 |title=A C Durai talks about 'Ponmaalai Pozhudhu' |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-11/news-interviews/28545543_1_film-real-life-incident-debutant |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111022059/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-11/news-interviews/28545543_1_film-real-life-incident-debutant |archive-date=11 January 2014 |access-date=3 June 2012 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> with cinematography by Rajavel Olhiveeran<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lakshmi |first=V |date=11 February 2011 |title=A C Durai talks about 'Ponmaalai Pozhudhu' |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-11/news-interviews/28545543_1_film-real-life-incident-debutant |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111022059/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-11/news-interviews/28545543_1_film-real-life-incident-debutant |archive-date=11 January 2014 |access-date=24 August 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> and editing by Ramsudharan. The film was released on 30 August 2013.

== Plot ==
{{No plot|date=January 2025}}

== Cast ==
* [[Aadhav Kannadasan]] as Arjun
* [[Gayathrie]] as Divya
* [[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]] as Arjun's father
* [[Aruldoss]] as Divya's father
* [[Anupama Kumar]] as Arjun's mother<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raghavan |first=Nikhil |date=3 September 2012 |title=Excelling as a mother |url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article2420908.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102203851/http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article2420908.ece |archive-date=2 November 2012 |access-date=3 June 2012 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
* Safeena Abid
* Ananth Ram
* Rahul

== Production ==
The film's title is derived from a song from ''[[Nizhalgal]]'' (1980).<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 June 2025 |title=Lyricist Vairamuthu criticises Tamil filmmakers for using his verses as film titles without permission |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/lyricist-vairamuthu-criticises-tamil-filmmakers-for-using-his-verses-as-film-titles-without-permission/article69673753.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250609093054/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/lyricist-vairamuthu-criticises-tamil-filmmakers-for-using-his-verses-as-film-titles-without-permission/article69673753.ece |archive-date=9 June 2025 |access-date=9 June 2025 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Das |first=Santanu |date=9 June 2025 |title=Lyricist Vairamuthu criticises Tamil filmmakers for using his verses as film titles without permission |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/tamil-cinema/lyricist-vairamuthu-criticises-tamil-filmmakers-for-using-his-verses-as-film-titles-without-permission-101749474168008.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250610124600/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/tamil-cinema/lyricist-vairamuthu-criticises-tamil-filmmakers-for-using-his-verses-as-film-titles-without-permission-101749474168008.html |archive-date=10 June 2025 |access-date=10 June 2025 |website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref> Speaking to ''[[The New Indian Express]]'', [[Aadhav Kannadasan]] described his role as a "school boy". He was 86 kg, and had to shed 12 kilos for the role. Director Durai made him hang out with the four school children in the film to imbibe their body language.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gupta |first=Rinku |date=28 August 2013 |title=Aadhav gets romance right |url=http://newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/Aadhav-gets-romance-right/2013/08/28/article1755090.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922051646/http://newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/Aadhav-gets-romance-right/2013/08/28/article1755090.ece |archive-date=22 September 2013 |access-date=15 September 2013 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref> During the filming of a scene where Aruldoss' character slaps [[Gayathrie]], the actor accidentally slapped the actress for real, and subsequently apologised to her in a press meet.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 June 2013 |title=Actor apologizes for slapping heroine |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Actor-apologizes-for-slapping-heroine/articleshow/20738015.cms |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904014531/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Actor-apologizes-for-slapping-heroine/articleshow/20738015.cms |archive-date=4 September 2015 |access-date=10 March 2025 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The soundtrack was composed by [[C. Sathya]]. It was released in early June 2012.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 June 2012 |title=Audio launch of Pon Maalai Pozhudu in Chennai |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/chennai/audio-launch-of-pon-maalai-pozhudu-in-chennai/articleshow/13848770.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250113020454/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/chennai/audio-launch-of-pon-maalai-pozhudu-in-chennai/articleshow/13848770.cms |archive-date=13 January 2025 |access-date=13 January 2025 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

{{track listing|
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| headline = Track listing
| total_length = 18:17
| title1 = Adikadi Mudi
| extra1 = [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]], Sathyan, [[Priya Himesh]]
| lyrics1 = [[Karthik Netha]]
| length1 = 4:23
| title2 = Masala Chicks
| extra2 = [[Ramya NSK]]
| lyrics2 = [[Madhan Karky]]
| length2 = 3:57
| title3 = Nee Indri
| extra3 = Sathya
| lyrics3 = Madhan Karky
| length3 = 2:11
| title4 = Vaarkothumai Kallodu
| extra4 = [[Blaaze]], [[Krishna Iyer]], [[Sayanora Philip]], Archith, Santhosh
| lyrics4 = Madhan Karky
| length4 = 4:22
| title5 = Iravugalil
| extra5 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], Steeve Vatz
| lyrics5 = [[Thamarai]]
| length5 = 3:24
}}

== Release ==
After being delayed for over a year, the film was scheduled to release on 26 July 2013;<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 July 2013 |title=Ponmaalai Pozhudhu ready for July release |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-07-06/news-interviews/40406271_1_aadhav-kannadhasan-ponmaalai-pozhudhu-a-c-durai |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130708163224/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-07-06/news-interviews/40406271_1_aadhav-kannadhasan-ponmaalai-pozhudhu-a-c-durai |archive-date=8 July 2013 |access-date=24 August 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> however it was delayed due to shortage of screens,<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 July 2013 |title=Thanga Meengal and Ponmaalai Pozhudhu back off |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/thanga-meengal-and-ponmaalai-pozhudhu-back-off/articleshow/21117099.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250113021406/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/thanga-meengal-and-ponmaalai-pozhudhu-back-off/articleshow/21117099.cms |archive-date=13 January 2025 |access-date=13 January 2025 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=17 July 2013 |title=Thanga Meengal & Ponmaalai Pozhudhu opt out of July 26 race! |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/thanga-meengal-ponmaalai-pozhudhu-opt-out-of-july-26-race-news-tamil-nhrjPujabaa.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130721055754/http://www.sify.com/movies/thanga-meengal-ponmaalai-pozhudhu-opt-out-of-july-26-race-news-tamil-nhrjPujabaa.html |archive-date=21 July 2013 |access-date=13 April 2025 |work=[[Sify]] }}</ref> and ultimately released on 30 August.<ref name="indiatimes1">{{Cite news |date=16 August 2013 |title=Ram's Thanga Meengal from Aug 30 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Rams-Thanga-Meengal-from-Aug-30/articleshow/21857063.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925070218/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-08-16/news-interviews/41417047_1_thanga-meengal-photon-kathaas-gautham-menon |archive-date=25 September 2013 |access-date=24 August 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Critical reception ==
[[Baradwaj Rangan]] wrote for ''[[The Hindu]]'', "''Ponmaalai Pozhudhu'' could have been a ''[[Maro Charitra]]''/''[[Ek Duuje Ke Liye]]'' for the Facebook generation – but the film, too often, reaches for tired old tropes" and added "Kishore and Anupama Kumar, as the parents of Arjun (Aadhav Kannadasan), the protagonist, recede into their roles with quiet professionalism".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rangan |first=Baradwaj |author-link=Baradwaj Rangan |date=31 August 2013 |title=Ponmaalai Pozhudhu: His story repeats itself |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-reviews/ponmaalai-pozhudhu-his-story-repeats-itself/article5079199.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902021134/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-reviews/ponmaalai-pozhudhu-his-story-repeats-itself/article5079199.ece |archive-date=2 September 2013 |access-date=15 September 2013 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> [[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]] rated the film 2 out of 5, calling it "Good story, bad execution" and said, "Aadhav and Gayathrie hit it off as an aimless young pair, but miss the energy to create ripples with their performances. Kishore and Anupama Kumar as Aadhav's parents are the best characters in the entire film".<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 August 2013 |title='Ponmaalai Pozhudhu' review: Good story, bad execution |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/ponmaalai-pozhudhu-review-good-story-bad-execution/418346-71-178.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902213650/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/ponmaalai-pozhudhu-review-good-story-bad-execution/418346-71-178.html |archive-date=2 September 2013 |access-date=15 September 2013 |website=[[IBNLive]] |agency=[[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]]}}</ref> Malini Mannath of ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' mentioned, "The film is a promising effort by a debutant director."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=31 August 2013 |title=Ponmaalai Pozhudhu: A good effort by a debutant |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2013/Aug/31/ponmaalai-pozhudhu-a-good-effort-by-a-debutant-511891.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125112207/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/kannada/2013/Aug/31/ponmaalai-pozhudhu-a-good-effort-by-a-debutant-511891.html |archive-date=25 January 2025 |access-date=13 January 2025 |website=[[The New Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref> ''[[Sify]]'' wrote, "On the whole, the love story has nothing new to offer and is predictable at every turn, with its message ending".<ref>{{Cite news |title=Ponmalai Pozhudhu |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/ponmalai-pozhudhu-review-tamil-15037471.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903155855/http://www.sify.com/movies/ponmalai-pozhudhu-review-tamil-15037471.html |archive-date=3 September 2013 |access-date=10 March 2025 |work=[[Sify]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

[[Category:2013 Indian films]]
[[Category:2013 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2013 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:2013 films]]
[[Category:Films scored by C. Sathya]]
[[Category:Indian films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
{{Improve categories|date=January 2025}}

Second language

2026-03-01T16:32:23Z

Realhimachal:

{{Short description|Language spoken in addition to one's first language}}
{{about||the album by XXX|Second Language (album){{!}}''Second Language'' (album)}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2025}}
[[File:Spanish orthography.jpg|thumb|[[Blackboard]] used in class at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] shows students' efforts at placing the [[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]] and [[acute accent]] [[diacritic]]s used in [[Spanish orthography]].]]
A '''second language''' ('''L2''') is a language spoken in addition to one's [[first language]] (L1). A second language may be a neighbouring language, another language of the speaker's home country, or a foreign language.

A speaker's dominant language, which is the language a speaker uses most or is most comfortable with, is not necessarily the speaker's first language. For example, the Canadian census defines first language for its purposes as "What is the language that this person first learned at home in childhood and still understands?",<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2020-07-06 |title=2021 Census: 2A |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/statistical-programs/instrument/3901_Q1_V7 |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=www.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> recognizing that for some, the earliest language may be lost, a process known as [[language attrition]]. This can happen when young children start school or move to a new language environment.

==Second-language acquisition==
{{main|Second-language acquisition}}
{{Further|Theories of second-language acquisition}}The distinction between acquiring and learning was made by [[Stephen Krashen]]{{sfn|Krashen|1982}} as part of his [[monitor theory]]. According to Krashen, the ''acquisition'' of a language is a natural process; whereas ''learning'' a language is a conscious one. In the former, the student needs to partake in natural communicative situations. In the latter, error correction is present, as is the study of grammatical rules isolated from natural language. Not all educators in second language education agree to this distinction; however, the study of how a second language is ''learned/acquired'' is referred to as ''second-language acquisition'' (SLA).

Research in SLA "...focuses on the developing knowledge and use of a language by children and adults who already know at least one other language... [and] a knowledge of second-language acquisition may help educational policy makers set more realistic goals for programmes for both foreign language courses and the learning of the majority language by minority language children and adults."{{sfn|Spada|Lightbown|2010|p=108}}

SLA has been influenced by both linguistic and [[psychology|psychological]] theories. One of the dominant [[linguistic]] theories hypothesizes that a ''device'' or ''module'' of sorts in the brain contains innate knowledge. Many psychological theories, on the other hand, hypothesize that [[Cognition#Cognition as social process|cognitive mechanisms]], responsible for much of human learning, process language.

Other dominant theories and points of research include 2nd language acquisition studies (which examine if L1 findings can be transferred to L2 learning), verbal behaviour (the view that constructed linguistic stimuli can create a desired speech response), morpheme studies, behaviourism, error analysis, stages and order of acquisition, structuralism (approach that looks at how the basic units of language relate to each other according to their common characteristics), 1st language acquisition studies, contrastive analysis (approach where languages are examined in terms of differences and similarities) and inter-language (which describes the L2 learner's language as a rule-governed, dynamic system).{{sfn|Mitchell|Myles|2004}}

These theories have all influenced second-language teaching and pedagogy. There are many different methods of second-language teaching, many of which stem directly from a particular theory. Common methods are the [[grammar-translation method]], the [[Direct method (education)|direct method]], the [[audio-lingual method]] (clearly influenced by audio-lingual research and the behaviourist approach), the [[Silent Way]], [[suggestopedia]], [[community language learning]], the [[total physical response method]], and the [[communicative approach]] (highly influenced by Krashen's theories).{{sfn|Doggett|1994}} Some of these approaches are more popular than others, and are viewed to be more effective. Most language teachers do not use one singular style, but will use a mix in their teaching. This provides a more balanced approach to teaching and helps students of a variety of learning styles succeed.

===Effect of age===
The defining difference between a first language (L1) and a second language (L2) is the age the person learned the language. For example, linguist [[Eric Lenneberg]] used ''second language'' to mean [[language acquisition|a language consciously acquired]] or used by its speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never achieve the same level of fluency and comprehension in their second languages as in their first language. These views are closely associated with the [[critical period hypothesis]].{{sfn|Pratt|1991}}{{sfn|Beerten|Billiet|Maddens|2003}}{{sfn|Jacob|1995}}{{sfn|Krashen|Long|Scarcella|1979}}

In acquiring an L2, Hyltenstam found that around the age of six or seven seemed to be a cut-off point for [[Multilingualism|bilinguals]] to achieve native-like proficiency. After that age, L2 learners could get ''near-native-like-ness'' but their language would, while consisting of few actual errors, have enough errors to set them apart from the L1 group. The inability of some subjects to achieve native-like proficiency must be seen in relation to the ''age of onset'' (AO).{{sfn|Hyltenstam|1992}} Later, Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson modified their age cut-offs to argue that after childhood, in general, it becomes more and more difficult to acquire native-like-ness, but that there is no cut-off point in particular.{{sfn|Hyltenstam|Abrahamsson|2003}}

As more knowledge is gained about the brain, there is a hypothesis that when a child is going through puberty, that is the time that accents ''start''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-24 |title=Critical Period In Brain Development and Childhood Learning |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/critical-period.html |access-date=2025-03-22 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Liu |first=Dingfei |date=2023 |title=The Critical-Period Hypothesis and its Implications from Western Scholars |url=https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/abs/2023/06/shsconf_essc2023_03017/shsconf_essc2023_03017.html |journal=SHS Web of Conferences |language=en |volume=157 |pages=03017 |doi=10.1051/shsconf/202315703017 |issn=2261-2424|doi-access=free }}</ref> Before a child goes through puberty, the chemical processes in the brain are more geared towards language and social communication. Whereas after puberty, the ability for learning a language without an accent has been rerouted to function in another area of the brain—most likely in the frontal lobe area promoting cognitive functions, or in the neural system of hormone allocated for reproduction and sexual organ growth.

As far as the relationship between age and eventual attainment in SLA is concerned, Krashen, Long, and Scarcella, say that people who encounter foreign language in early age, begin natural exposure to second languages and obtain better proficiency than those who learn the second language as an adult. However, when it comes to the relationship between age and rate [[Second-language acquisition|SLA]], "Adults proceed through early stages of syntactic and morphological development faster than children (where time and exposure are held constant)".{{sfn|Krashen|Long|Scarcella|1979|p=573}} Also, "older children acquire faster than younger children do (again, in early stages of morphological and syntactic development where time and exposure are held constant)".{{sfn|Krashen|Long|Scarcella|1979|p=573}} In other words, adults and older children are fast learners when it comes to the initial stage of foreign language education.

Gauthier and Genesee have done research which mainly focuses on the second language acquisition of internationally adopted children and results show that early experiences of one language of children can affect their ability to acquire a second language, and usually children learn their second language slower and weaker even during the critical period.{{sfn|Gauthier|Genesee|2011}}

As for the fluency, it is better to do foreign language education at an early age, but being exposed to a foreign language since an early age causes a "weak identification".{{sfn|Beerten|Billiet|Maddens|2003|p=241}} Such issue leads to a "double sense of national belonging," that makes one not sure of where they belong to because, according to Brian A. Jacob, multicultural education affects students' "relations, attitudes, and behaviors".{{sfn|Jacob|1995|p=364}} And as children learn more and more foreign languages, children start to adapt, and get absorbed into the foreign culture that they "undertake to describe themselves in ways that engage with representations others have made".{{sfn|Pratt|1991|p=35}} Due to such factors, learning foreign languages at an early age may incur one's perspective of his or her native country.{{sfn|Pratt|1991}}

===Similarities and differences between learned and native proficiency===
====Speed====
Acquiring a second language can be a lifelong learning process for many. Despite persistent efforts, most learners of a second language will never become fully ''native-like'' in it, although with practice considerable fluency can be achieved.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lang1234.info/2/category/accent/1.html|title=Good Accents|publisher=globe1234.com|access-date=2013-08-23|archive-date=2013-10-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005222938/http://www.lang1234.info/2/category/accent/1.html|url-status=dead |date=January 17, 2012 }}</ref> However, children by around the age of 5 have more or less mastered their first language with the exception of [[vocabulary]] and a few [[Grammar|grammatical]] structures, and the process is relatively very fast because language is a very complex skill. Moreover, if children start to learn a second language when they are seven years old or younger, they will also be fully fluent with their second language in a faster speed comparing to the speed of learning by adults who start to learn a second language later in their life.{{sfn|Johnson|Newport|1989}}

====Correction====
In the first language, children do not respond to systematic correction. Furthermore, children who have limited input still acquire the first language, which is a significant difference between input and output. Children are exposed to a language environment of errors and lack of correction but they end up having the capacity to figure out the grammatical rules. Error correction does not seem to have a direct influence on learning a second language. Instruction may affect the rate of learning, but the stages remain the same. Adolescents and adults who know the rule are faster than those who do not.

In the learning of a second language the correction of errors remains a controversial topic with many differing schools of thought. Throughout the last century much advancement has been made in research on the correction of students' errors. In the 1950s and 1960s, the viewpoint of the day was that all errors must be corrected at all costs. Little thought went to students' feelings or self-esteem in regards to this constant correction.{{sfn|Russell|2009}}

In the 1970s, Dulay and Burt's studies showed that learners acquire grammar forms and structures in a pre-determined, inalterable order, and that teaching or correcting styles would not change that.{{sfn|Russell|2009}}

In 1977, Terrell"s studies showing that there were more factors to be considered in the classroom than the cognitive processing of the students.{{sfn|Russell|2009}} He contested that the affective side of students and their self-esteem were equally important to the teaching process.{{sfn|Russell|2009}}

In the 1980s, the strict grammar and corrective approach of the 1950s became obsolete. Researchers asserted that correction was often unnecessary and that instead of furthering students' learning it was hindering them. The main concern at this time was relieving student stress and creating a warm environment for them. Stephen Krashen was a big proponent in this hands-off approach to error correction.{{sfn|Russell|2009}}

The 1990s brought back the familiar idea that explicit grammar instruction and error correction was indeed useful for the SLA process. At this time, more research started to be undertaken to determine exactly which kinds of corrections are the most useful for students. In 1998, Lyster concluded that "recasts", the teacher repeating a student's incorrect utterance with the correct version, are not always the most useful because students do not notice the correction. His studies in 2002 showed that students learn better when teachers help students recognize and correct their own errors.{{sfn|Russell|2009}} Mackey, Gas and McDonough had similar findings in 2000 and attributed the success of this method to the student's active participation in the corrective processes.{{sfn|Russell|2009}}

====Depth of knowledge====
According to [[Noam Chomsky]], children will bridge the gap between input and output by their innate grammar because the input (utterances they hear) is so poor but all children end up having complete knowledge of grammar. Chomsky calls it the [[Poverty of the stimulus|Poverty of Stimulus]]. And second language learners can do this by applying the rules they learn to the sentence-construction, for example. So learners in both their native and second language have knowledge that goes beyond what they have received, so that people can make correct utterances (phrases, sentences, questions, etc) that they have never learned or heard before.

====Emotionality====
[[Bilingualism]] has been an advantage to today's world and being bilingual gives the opportunity to understand and communicate with people with different cultural backgrounds. However, a study done by Optiz and Degner in 2012 shows that sequential bilinguals (i.e. learn their L2 after L1) often relate themselves to the emotions more when they perceive these emotions by their first language/native language/L1, but feel less emotional when by their second language even though they know the meaning of words clearly.{{sfn|Opitz|Degner|2012}} The emotional distinction between L1 and L2 indicates that the "effective valence" of words is processed less immediate in L2 because of the delayed vocabulary/lexical access to these two languages.

====Success====
Success in language learning can be measured in two ways: likelihood and quality. First language learners ''will'' be successful in both measurements. It is inevitable that all people will learn a first language and with few exceptions, they will be fully successful. For second language learners, success is not guaranteed. For one, learners may become fossilized or ''stuck'' as it were with ungrammatical items. ([[Fossilization (linguistics)|Fossilization]] occurs when language errors become a permanent feature.)<ref>See {{harv|Canale|Swain|1980}}, {{harv|Johnson|1992}}, {{harv|Selinker|1972}}, and {{harv|Selinker|Lamendella|1978}}.</ref> The difference between learners may be significant. As noted elsewhere, L2 learners rarely achieve complete ''native-like'' control of the second language.

For L2 pronunciation, there are two principles that have been put forth by Levis. The first is nativeness which means the speaker's ability to approximately reach the speaking pattern of the second language of speakers; and the second, understanding, refers to the speaker's ability to make themselves understood.{{sfn|Levis|2005}}

Being successful in learning a second language is often found to be challenging for some individuals. Research has been done to look into why some students are more successful than others. Stern,{{sfn|Stern|1975}} Rubin{{sfn|Rubin|1975}} and Reiss{{sfn|Reiss|1985}} are just a few of the researchers who have dedicated time to this subject. They have worked to determine what qualities make a "good language learner".{{sfn|Mollica|Neussel|1997}} Some of their common findings are that a good language learner uses positive learning strategies, is an active learner who is constantly searching for meaning. Also a good language learner demonstrates a willingness to practice and use the language in real communication. He also monitors himself and his learning, has a strong drive to communicate, and has a good ear and good listening skills.{{sfn|Mollica|Neussel|1997}}

Özgür and Griffiths have designed an experiment in 2013 about the relationship between different [[Motivation in second-language learning|motivations]] and second language acquisition.{{sfn|Özgür|Griffiths|2013}} They looked at four types of motivations—intrinsic (inner feelings of learner), extrinsic (reward from outside), integrative (attitude towards learning), and instrumental (practical needs). According to the test results, the intrinsic part has been the main motivation for these students who learn English as their second language. However, students report themselves being strongly instrumentally motivated. In conclusion, learning a second language and being successful depend on every individual.

==Foreign language==
[[File:Ldl-wortschatz.jpg|thumb|A German student learning French. [[English language|English]] (1.5 billion learners), [[French language|French]] (82 million learners) and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (30 million learners) are the three most commonly studied foreign languages.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Rick|last1=Noack|first2=Lazaro|last2=Gamio|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2015/04/23/the-worlds-languages-in-7-maps-and-charts|title=The world's languages, in 7 maps and charts|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712122302/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2015/04/23/the-worlds-languages-in-7-maps-and-charts/ |archive-date=12 July 2015|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=23 April 2015|access-date=9 June 2015}}</ref>]]
[[File:Spanish class.jpg|thumb|Spanish taught as a second language to a class of native [[English language|English]] speakers at an American [[Independent school|private school]] in [[Massachusetts]]]]

In [[pedagogy]] and [[sociolinguistics]], a distinction is made between second language and foreign language, the latter is being learned for use in an area where that language is originally from another country and not spoken in the native country of the speakers. And in other words, foreign language is used from the perspective of countries; the second language is used from the perspective of individuals.<ref>{{cite web |title=Difference Between Second Language and Foreign Language |url=https://www.languageeducatorsassemble.com/difference-between-second-language-and-foreign-language/ |website=Language Educators Assemble |access-date=14 April 2025}}</ref>

For example, [[English language|English]] in countries such as [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Bangladesh]], the [[Philippines]], the [[Nordic countries]] and the [[Netherlands]] is considered a second language by many of its speakers, because they learn it young and use it regularly; indeed in parts of [[South Asia]] it is the [[official language]] of the courts, government and business. The same can be said for [[French language|French]] in [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]] and [[Tunisia]], although French is not an official language in any of them. In practice, French is widely used in a variety of contexts in these countries, and signs are normally printed in both [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and French. A similar phenomenon exists in [[post-Soviet states]] such as [[Ukraine]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]] and [[Kazakhstan]], where [[Russian language|Russian]] can be considered a second language, and there are [[Russophone|large Russophone communities]].

However, unlike in [[Hong Kong]], English is considered a foreign language in [[China]] owing to the lack of opportunities for use, such as historical links, media, conversation between people, and common vocabulary. Likewise, French would be considered a foreign language in [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]], even though both French and Romanian are [[Romance languages]], Romania's historical links to France, and all being members of [[la Francophonie]].

In general, it is believed that children have an advantage in learning foreign languages compared to adults. However, studies have shown that pre-existing knowledge of language and grammar rules, as well as a superior ability to memorize vocabulary, may benefit adults when learning foreign languages.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Merritt |first1=Anne |date=2013-09-18 |title=Merritt, Anne. "Are Children Really Better at Foreign Language Learning?" |work=[[Telegraph.co.uk]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationopinion/10315238/Are-children-really-better-at-foreign-language-learning.html |url-status=live |access-date=2016-05-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511000800/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationopinion/10315238/Are-children-really-better-at-foreign-language-learning.html |archive-date=2016-05-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Service |first1=Elisabet |last2=Yli-Kaitala |first2=Hely |last3=Maury |first3=Sini |last4=Kim |first4=Jeong-Young |date=2014-04-26 |title=Adults' and 8-Year-Olds' Learning in a Foreign Word Repetition Task: Similar and Different: Adults' and Children's Foreign Word Repetition |url=https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/23532/1/Service%20et%20al%2c%202014%2c%20Language%20Learning.pdf |journal=Language Learning |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=215–246 |doi=10.1111/lang.12051 |hdl=11375/23532 |access-date=2022-07-11 |via=MacSphere - McMaster University Libraries Institutional Repository}}</ref>

== Data ==
{{Self-contradictory|section|about= the number of speakers|date=December 2021}}

=== Weber's report ===
George H. J. Weber, a Swiss businessman and independent scholar, founder of the Andaman Association and creator of the encyclopedic andaman.org Web site, made a report in December 1997 about the number of secondary speakers of the world's leading languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.ignatius.edu/turner/languages.htm|title=The World's Most Widely Spoken Languages|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231174417/http://faculty.ignatius.edu/turner/languages.htm|archive-date=2013-12-31}} (reference for entire table)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/reprints/weber/rep-weber.htm|title=The World's 10 most influential Languages|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507110651/http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/reprints/weber/rep-weber.htm|archive-date=2013-05-07}} (reference for entire table)</ref> Weber used the [[Fischer Weltalmanach]] of 1986 as his primary and only source<ref>Fig 6. "number of secondary speakers" is based on a table given in Fischer Weltalamanach {{sic}}. {{cite web|year=1986|page=910|url=http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/reprints/weber/rep-weber.htm|title=Fischer Weltalamanach|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507110651/http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/reprints/weber/rep-weber.htm |archive-date=2013-05-07 }}</ref> for the L2-speakers data, in preparing the data in the following table. These numbers are here compared with those referred to by Ethnologue, a popular source in the linguistics field. See below Table 1.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Language || data-sort-type="number" | L2 speakers (Weltalmanach 1986) || data-sort-type="number" | L2 speakers (Ethnologue.com 2023)
|-
|1. [[English language|English]] || 190 million || 1.077 billion
|-
|2. [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] || 20 million || 199 million
|-
|3. [[Hindi-Urdu language|Hindi-Urdu]] || 150 million || 266 million
|-
|4. [[Spanish language|Spanish]] || 20 million || 74 million
|-
|5. [[French language|French]] || 270 million || 229 million
|-
|6. [[Russian language|Russian]] || 125 million || 108 million
|-
|7. [[Arabic language|Arabic]] || 21 million || 274 million
|-
|8. [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] || 28 million || 27 million
|-
|9. [[German language|German]] || 80 million || 58 million
|-
|10. [[Japanese language|Japanese]] || 8 million || 100 thousand
|-
|}

=== Later data ===
{{see also|Lists of languages by number of speakers}}
Collecting the number of second language speakers of every language is extremely difficult and even the best estimates contain guess work. The data below are from [http://www.ethnologue.com ethnologue.com] as of June 2013.<ref>{{cite web |title=The most spoken languages |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/ |website=Ethnologue |access-date=2013-06-30 |archive-date=2019-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324091747/https://www.ethnologue.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{nonspecific|date=January 2019}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ The world's most spoken language by native speakers
|-
! Language !! Speakers (million)
|-
| Mandarin || 918
|-
| Spanish || 476
|-
| English || 335
|-
| Hindi-Urdu || 330
|-
| Bengali || 230
|-
| Arabic || 223
|-
| Portuguese || 202
|-
| Russian || 162
|-
| Japanese || 122
|-
| Javanese || 84.3
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ The world's most spoken language by total speakers
|-
! Language !! speakers (million)
|-
| English || 1132
|-
| Mandarin || 1116
|-
| Hindi-Urdu || 600
|-
| Spanish || 550
|-
| Russian || 320
|-
| French || 300
|-
| Arabic || 250
|-
| Bengali/Sylhetti || 250
|-
| Malay/Indonesian || 200
|-
| Portuguese || 200
|-
| Japanese || 130
|}

==See also==
*[[Foreign language writing aid]]
*[[Foreign language reading aid]]
*[[Computer-assisted language learning]]
*[[Diglossia]]
*[[Language education]]

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
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*{{Cite web|url=https://academic.oup.com/applij/article/I/1/1/181953|title=Canale M|last=Canale|first=M|access-date=2019-05-16|archive-date=2022-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120203626/https://academic.oup.com/applij/article/I/1/1/181953|url-status=live}}
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*{{cite journal | last1 = Krashen | first1 = Stephen D. | last2 = Long | first2 = Michael A. | last3 = Scarcella | first3 = Robin C. | year = 1979 | title = Age, Rate and Eventual Attainment in Second Language Acquisition | journal = TESOL Quarterly | volume = 13 | issue = 4| pages = 573–582 | jstor = 3586451 | doi = 10.2307/3586451 }}
*{{cite book|last=Krashen|first=S.D.|year=1982|title=Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition|url=http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/principles_and_practice.pdf |place=Oxford|publisher=Pergamon}}
*{{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Rosamond|last2=Myles|first2=Florence|year=2004|title=Second Language Learning Theories|edition=2|publisher=Hodder Education|chapter=The recent history of second language learning research|isbn=978-0340807668}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Levis |first1=John |title=Changing Contexts and Shifting Paradigms in Pronunciation Teaching |journal=TESOL Quarterly |date=Autumn 2005 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=369–377 |doi=10.2307/3588485 |jstor=3588485 |citeseerx=10.1.1.466.9352 }}
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*{{cite journal |last1=Opitz |first1=Bertram |last2=Degner |first2=Juliane |title=Emotionality in a second language: It's a matter of time |journal=Neuropsychologia |date=July 2012 |volume=50 |issue=8 |pages=1961–1967 |doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.021 |pmid=22569217 |s2cid=1625668 |s2cid-access=free |url=http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/737177/1/Opitz.2012.NP.Emotions%20in%20L2.final%20Revision.pdf |access-date=2019-09-24 |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806234327/http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/737177/1/Opitz.2012.NP.Emotions%20in%20L2.final%20Revision.pdf |url-status=live }}
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*{{cite journal|last=Pratt|first=Mary|title=Arts of the Contact Zone|journal=Profession|year=1991|publisher=Modern Language Association|pages=33–40|jstor=25595469 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25595469|access-date=11 August 2018}}
* {{cite journal | title = What the "Good Language Learner" Can Teach Us | last = Rubin | first = Joan | journal = TESOL Quarterly | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | year = 1975 | pages = 41–51 | doi=10.2307/3586011| jstor = 3586011 }}
*{{cite journal|last1=Russell|first1=Victoria|title=Corrective feedback, over a decade of research since Lyster and Ranta (1997): Where do we stand today?|journal=Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching|date=2009|volume=6|issue=1|pages=21–31|url=https://varussellblog.files.wordpress.com/2013/05/russell_eflt_2009.pdf|access-date=23 May 2017|archive-date=20 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420050001/https://varussellblog.files.wordpress.com/2013/05/russell_eflt_2009.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal
|doi = 10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209
|last1 = Selinker
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|journal = International Review of Applied Linguistics
|volume = 10
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* {{cite journal |last1=Selinker |first1=Larry |first2=John T. |last2=Lamendella |title=Two perspectives on fossilization in interlanguage learning |journal=Interlanguage Studies Bulletin |date=1978 |volume=3 |issue=2 |jstor=43136004 |pages=143–191}}
* {{cite book |last1=Spada |first1=Nina |last2=Lightbown |first2=Patsy M. |chapter=Second Language Acquisition |editor=Norbert Schmitt |title=An Introduction to Applied Linguistics |date=2010 |orig-date=2002 |publisher=Hodder Education |isbn=9780340984475 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Stern | first = H. H. | title = What Can We Learn from the Good Language Learner? | journal = Canadian Modern Language Review | volume = 31 | issue = 4 | pages = 304–318 | date = March 1975 | doi = 10.3138/cmlr.31.4.304 }}

{{Portal bar|Language}}

[[Category:Language]]
[[Category:Language acquisition]]

Amalapuram Assembly constituency

2026-03-01T13:03:02Z

Realhimachal: edit

{{Short description|Constituency of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Amalapuram
| map_image = Legislative Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh (44-Amalapuram highlighted).png
| map_caption = Location of Amalapuram Assembly constituency within Andhra Pradesh
| state = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| district = [[Konaseema district|Konaseema]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Amalapuram Lok Sabha constituency|Amalapuram]]
| reservation = SC
| established = 1951
| constituency_no = 44
| type = SLA
| mla = [[Aithabathula Ananda Rao]]
| party = {{Party index link|Telugu Desam Party}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
}}
'''Amalapuram''' is a [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Caste]] reserved constituency in [[Konaseema district]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]] that elects representatives to the [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ceoandhra.nic.in/ceoap_new/ceo/documents/Electors_Summary%20_25.03.2019.pdf|title=Electors Summary|date=25 May 2019|website=Chief Electoral Officer, Andhra Pradesh|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref> It is one of the seven assembly segments of [[Amalapuram Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref name="constituencies">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|date=17 December 2018|website=The Election Commission of India|pages=19, 30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003220916/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|archive-date=3 October 2018|url-status=dead|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref>

[[Aithabathula Ananda Rao]] is the current [[Member of Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] of the constituency, having won the [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] from [[Telugu Desam Party]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Assembly Election 2019 |url=http://results.eci.gov.in/ac/en/constituencywise/ConstituencywiseS011.htm |website=Election Commission of India |access-date=24 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524074223/http://results.eci.gov.in/ac/en/constituencywise/ConstituencywiseS011.htm |archive-date=24 May 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As of 2019, there are a total of 229,431 electors in the constituency.<ref name="electors">{{cite web|url=http://ceoandhra.nic.in/ceoap_new/ceo/documents/Electors_Summary%20_25.03.2019.pdf|title=Electors Summary|date=25 May 2019|website=Chief Electoral Officer, Andhra Pradesh|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref>{{update after|2024|7}} The constituency was established in 1951, as per the ''Delimitation Orders (1951)''.

== Mandals ==

The three mandals that form the assembly constituency are:<ref name="constituencies" />
{{srn}}
{|class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-hash"
!Mandal
|-
| [[Uppalaguptam]]
|-
| [[Allavaram]]
|-
| [[Amalapuram]]
|}

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
As part of [[Madras Presidency]] (until 1953)
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2" | Political party
|-
| [[1937 Madras Presidency Legislative Assembly election|1937]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Kala Venkata Rao]]<ref>p. 289, The Who's who in Madras, Issue 9, Pearl Press, 1937.</ref>
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress |rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1946 Madras Presidency Legislative Assembly election|1946]]
|-
|[[1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| Nadimpalli Ramabhadra Raju
| {{Full party name with color|Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party}}
|}

As part of [[Andhra State]] (1953-1956)
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2" | Political party
|-
|[[1955 Andhra State Legislative Assembly election|1955]]{{refn|group=note|The members of the first assembly of Andhra Pradesh who were elected from the 1955 election in the Andhra state were allowed a seven-year term. That is to say in 1957, elections were conducted in the newly added region of Telangana alone and then in 1962 general elections were held for the state as a whole.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tDN0MinxMigC | title=Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies|page=281 | publisher=Routledge |first1=Christophe |last1=Jaffrelot |first2=Sanjay|last2=Kumar| date=2012 | isbn=9781136516610| accessdate=13 August 2022}}</ref>}}
| Golakoti Narasimha Murthy
| {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|}
As part of [[United Andhra Pradesh]]
(1956-2014)
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2" | Political party
|-
| [[1962 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
| Kudupudi Satyanarayana
| {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| 1965
| Nadimpalli Ramabhadra Raju<ref>{{cite web |title=Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteers: East Godavari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yshhAAAAIAAJ |website=books.google.com |publisher=Director of Print. and Stationery at the Government Secretariat Press|year=1979|pages=423 |access-date=13 August 2022}}</ref>
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1967 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| rowspan=2 |Kudupudi Prabhakara Rao
| {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[1972 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1978 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
| Palacholla Venkata Sri Rama Rao
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1983]]
| Metla Satyanarayana Rao
| {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}{{refn|group=note|Contested on behalf of [[Telugu Desam Party]]}}
|-
| [[1985 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| rowspan=2 |Kudupudi Prabhakara Rao
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress |rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
|-
| [[1994 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1994]]
| rowspan=2 |Metla Satyanarayana Rao
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1999 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1999]]
|-
| [[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
| Chittabbai Kudupudi
| {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
| [[Pinipe Viswarup]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|}
As part of [[Andhra Pradesh]]
(since 2014-)
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2" | Political party
|-
| [[2014 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
| [[Aithabathula Ananda Rao]]
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|-
| [[2019 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
| Pinipe Viswarup
| {{Full party name with color|YSR Congress Party}}
|-
| [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| Aithabathula Ananda Rao
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|}

==Election results==
===1952 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram<ref>{{cite web | url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf | title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 : To the Legislative Assembly of Madras | publisher=Election Commission of India | access-date=2014-10-14 |archive-date=27 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127201450/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Nadimpalli Ramabhadra Raju |party=Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party |votes=80,180 |percentage=36.52% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bojja Appalaswami |party=Scheduled Castes Federation |votes=66,742 |percentage=30.40% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Kala Venkata Rao]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=27,218 |percentage=12.40% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Pandu Lakshmanaswami |party=Indian National Congress |votes=23,847 |percentage=10.86% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Aramate Paideswara Rao |party=Socialist Party (India) |votes=21,592 |percentage=9.83% }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=13,438 |percentage=6.12%
}}
{{Election box turnout |votes=2,19,579 |percentage=133.71% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,64,215 }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1955 ===
(Two seats: One reserved for general and other one for [[Scheduled Castes|SC]].)
{{Election box begin | title=[[1955 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram<ref>{{cite web | url=https://ceotelangana.nic.in/Archives/StasticalReports/StatRep_AP_1955.pdf| title=STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 1955 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF ANDHRA PRADESH | publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] | access-date=13 August 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Golakoti Narasimha Murthy
|votes = 30,858
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate =Guttula Narayandas
|votes = 26,165
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Praja Party
|candidate =Kudupudi Satyanarayana
|votes = 25,856
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Bojja Appala Swamy
|votes = 22,657
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate =Sarella Rama Rao
|votes = 19,575
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Chikile Gangisetti
|votes = 17,266
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Independent (politician)
|loser = Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1962 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1962 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Kudupudi Suryanarayana
|votes = 23,581
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Nadimpalli Venkatapathi
|votes = 20,820
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Independent (politician)
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1965 by-election ===
{{Election box begin | title=1965 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly by-election: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = N.R.Raju
|votes = 25,166
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = K.Venkataratnam
|votes = 20,235
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Independent (politician)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1967 ===
{{Election box begin | title=1967 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = K. P. Rao
|votes = 25,383
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = N. R. Raju
|votes = 22,091
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Independent (politician)
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1972 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1972 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Kudupudi Prabhakara Rao
|votes = 35,048
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate =Ravanam Ramachendra Rao
|votes = 25,398
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Independent (politician)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

'''1978''' :
'''Venkata sri Rama rao Palacholla'''

=== 1983 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Satyanarayana Rao
|votes = 41,283
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate =Prabhakarrao Kudupudi
|votes = 32,354
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Independent (politician)
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1985 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1985 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Kudupudi Prabhakara Rao
|votes = 41,296
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = Ravanam Ramachandra Rao
|votes = 33,826
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Telugu Desam Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1989 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Kudupudi Prabhakara Rao
|votes = 45,863
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = Metla Satyanarayana Rao
|votes = 41,590
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Telugu Desam Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1994 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1994 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = Dr. Metla Satyanarayana Rao
|votes = 52,926
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate =Kudupudi Prabhakararao
|votes = 36,112
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1999 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1999 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = Metla Satyanarayana Rao
|votes = 53,246
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate =Kudupudi Prabhakara Rao
|votes = 34,466
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner =Telugu Desam Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2004 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Chittabbai Kudupudi
|votes = 31,858
|percentage = 33.35
|change = +11.00
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=Metla Satyanarayana Rao|votes=27,818|percentage=29.12|change=-28.98}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Tadi Tatarao|votes=24,777|percentage=25.93|change=-11.68}}
{{Election box majority||votes=4,040|percentage=4.23|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=95,535|percentage=77.54|change=+3.62}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Independent (politician)
|loser = Telugu Desam Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2009 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Pinipe Viswarup]]
|votes = 57,922
|percentage = 41.96
|change = +16.03
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Praja Rajyam Party|candidate=Chinta Krishnamurthy|votes=51,649|percentage=37.41|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=[[Aithabathula Anandarao]]|votes=23,185|percentage=16.79|change=-12.33}}
{{Election box majority||votes=6,273|percentage=4.55|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=138,056|percentage=79.71|change=+2.17}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Independent (politician)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2014 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Aithabathula Ananda Rao]]
|votes = 76,444
|percentage = 50.99
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=YSR Congress Party|candidate=Babu Rao Golla|votes=64,031|percentage=42.71|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=12,413|percentage=8.28|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=149,928|percentage=78.32|change=-1.39}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2019 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = YSR Congress Party
|candidate = [[Pinipe Viswarup]]
|votes = 72,003
|percentage = 42.51%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=[[Aithabathula Ananda Rao]]|votes=46,349|percentage=27.36%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Janasena Party|candidate=Shetty Battula Rajababu|votes=45,200|percentage=26.69%|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=25,654|percentage=15.15%|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=169,382|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = YSR Congress Party
|loser = Telugu Desam Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2024 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Amalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Aithabathula Ananda Rao]]
|votes = 1,04,022
|percentage = 58.56
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = YSR Congress Party
|candidate = [[Pinipe Viswarup]]
|votes = 65,394
|percentage = 36.81
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Aithabathula Subhashini
|votes = 1357
|percentage = 0.76
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Dantuluri Rohit Varma (Yesuchristu , seeluvarakshakudu)
|votes = 11
|percentage = 0.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 38628
|percentage = 21.74
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 177636
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser = YSR Congress Party
|swing =

}}
{{Election box end}}

== See also ==
* [[List of constituencies of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

{{Coord|16.58|82.00|display=title}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Konaseema district]]
[[Category:Constituencies established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Madras State]]

Singh

2026-02-25T21:17:20Z

Realhimachal: updated page

{{Short description|Surname originating from Asia}}
{{For|a list of people with the surname|List of people with surname Singh}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{pp-pc}}
{{Multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| image1 = Depiction of king Rana Sanga.jpg|caption1=Rajput ruler [[Rana Sanga|Rana Sangram Singh]] (1482-1528).
| image2 = Guru Gobind Singh creates the Khalsa.jpg|caption2=Creation of the [[Khalsa]] by Sikh Guru [[Gobind Singh]], 1699 CE.
| image3 = Portrait of mathabar singh thapa.jpg|caption3= [[Prime Minister of Nepal]] and [[Commander-in-Chief of the Nepalese Army]], [[Mukhtiyar]] [[Mathabar Singh Thapa]], (1843-1845) of the [[Chhetri]] [[Thapa dynasty]].
| image4 = Maharaja Lakshmeshwar Singh, 1888.jpg|caption4=Maharaja [[Lakshmeshwar Singh]] of [[Raj Darbhanga]] in [[Bihar]], published in Graphic Magazine, December 1888.
}}

'''Singh''' ([[Help:IPA|IPA]]: {{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɪ|ŋ}} {{respell|SING}}) is a [[title]], [[middle name]], or [[surname]] that means "[[lion]]" in various [[South Asia]]n and [[Southeast Asia]]n communities. Traditionally used by the [[Hindu]] [[Kshatriya]] community,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanks |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vG7MZ9J6dAgC&pg=RA2-PA354 |title=Dictionary of American Family Names |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780199771691 |pages=354}}</ref> it was later mandated in the late 17th century by [[Guru Gobind Singh]] (born Gobind Das) for all male [[Sikhs]] as well, in part as a rejection of [[Caste system in India|caste]]-based prejudice<ref>{{cite book |author=James Minahan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abNDLZQ6quYC&pg=PA289 |title=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific An Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2012 |isbn=9781598846591 |pages=289 |quote=The use of the two names by baptized Sikhs was originally intended to end the prejudice created by names pertaining to the various Hindu castes}}</ref> and to emulate [[Rajput]] naming conventions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Atwal |first1=Priya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LvcTEAAAQBAJ&dq=kaur&pg=PA34 |title=Royals and Rebels: The Rise and Fall of the Sikh Empire |date=15 January 2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-756693-0 |page=34 |quote=Singh was a common name utilised by Rajputs, the Hindu ruling or warrior caste.}}</ref><ref name="Oxford Handbook">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Pashaura |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I0NAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies |date=2014-03-01 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-969930-8 |editor-last=Singh |editor-first=Pashaura |pages=23 |language=en |chapter=An Overview of Sikh History |quote=The male members were given the surname Singh (lion) and female members were given the surname Kaur (princess), with the intention of creating a parallel system of aristocratic titles in relation to the Rajput hill chiefs of the surrounding areas of Anandpur. |editor-last2=Fenech |editor-first2=Louis E.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jakobsh |first=Doris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xY_XAAAAMAAJ |title=Sikhism and History |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-566708-0 |editor-last=Singh |editor-first=Pashaura |pages=176 |language=en |chapter=What's in a Name: Circumscribing Sikh Female Nomenclature |quote=As the term 'Singh' meaning 'lion' was adopted from the Rajputs, so too was the name 'Kaur' |editor-last2=Barrier |editor-first2=Norman Gerald}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Shackle |first=Christopher |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HAg3AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA722 |title=The World's Religions |date=2004-01-14 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-85185-8 |editor-last=Hardy |editor-first=Friedhelm |pages=722 |language=en |chapter=Sikhism |quote=The code of conduct (rahit) expected of all initiates of the Khalsa, as laid down by Guru Gobind Singh and subsequently eloborated, emphasises both the equality of its members and the martial spirit expected of them by awarding the Rajput titles of Singh ('lion') to men and Kaur ('princess') to women, irrespective of caste origin. |editor-last2=Houlden |editor-first2=Leslie}}</ref> As a surname or a middle name, it is now found throughout the world across communities and religious groups, becoming more of a generic, caste-neutral, decorative name—similar to names such as [[Kumar]] and [[Lal]].<ref name="Adhikari">{{Cite book |last1=Adhikari |first1=Krishna P. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dOF1DwAAQBAJ&dq=singh+casteless&pg=PT128 |title=Global Nepalis: Religion, Culture, and Community in a New and Old Diaspora |last2=Sapkota |first2=Bhimsen |date=2018-06-09 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-909337-3 |editor-last=Gellner |editor-first=David N. |language=en |chapter=Fiji Nepals: Reviving Connections Lost for Over a Century |quote=In the process of forming a casteless society, many first generation Nepalis (and Indians) changed their surnames to Singh, which is a neutral and now common surname. |editor-last2=Hausner. |editor-first2=Sondra L.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Deshpande |first=Ashwini |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4vQtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT39 |title=The Grammar of Caste: Economic Discrimination in Contemporary India |date=2011-08-03 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-908846-1 |language=en |chapter=Theories of Discrimination and Caste |quote=Some individuals often drop their surnames and use generic names such as Kumar, Lal, Singh, or Chowdhary that are not jati specific.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bfAMAQAAMAAJ | title=Communities, segments, synonyms, surnames and titles | publisher=[[Anthropological Survey of India]] | author=Kumar Suresh Singh | author-link=Kumar Suresh Singh | year=1996 | isbn=9780195633573 |page=32 |quote=Going by the usage, Singh is more a title than a surname, cutting across communities and religious groups. }}</ref>

== Etymology and variations ==
The word ''Singh'' is derived from the [[Sanskrit]] word {{lang|sa|सिंह}} ([[IAST]]: {{lang|sa-Latn|siṃha}}) meaning 'lion', and is used to convey 'hero' or 'eminent person'.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Patrick Hanks |title=Dictionary of American Family Names |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vG7MZ9J6dAgC&pg=RA2-PA354 |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-508137-4 |page=354 }}</ref>

Several variants of the word are found in other languages:

* In [[Meitei language|Meitei]] (officially called [[Manipuri language|Manipuri]]), it is written and pronounced as "Singh" ({{langx|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯁꯤꯡꯍ}}|}}). It is used as a name suffix (after the [[given name]] or [[middle name]]) by the [[List of Meitei kings|Meitei kings of medieval and early modern Manipur]], as well as by the vast majority of the menfolk populace of the [[Meitei Hindu]] community, in [[Manipur]], [[Assam Meiteis|Assam]], [[Tripura Meiteis|Tripura]] and [[Bangladesh Meiteis|Bangladesh]].<ref>Constantine, R.. Manipur, Maid of the Mountains. India: Lancers, 1981. p. 37</ref><ref>Chaki-Sircar, Manjusri. Feminism in a Traditional Society: Women of the Manipur Valley. India: Shakti Books, 1984. p. 58</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Singh Title in the Meitei name of Manipur By Okram Kumar |url=http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=manipur.Ethnic_Races_Manipur.Singh_Title_in_the_Meitei_name_of_Manipur_By_Okram_Kumar|access-date=2022-08-17 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref>
* In [[Tibetan language (standard)|Tibetan]], it is written as {{lang|bo|སིང་}} with the same pronunciation.
* In Tamil, the word for lion is {{lang|ta-Latn|Singham}} or {{lang|ta-Latn|Singhe}} written as {{lang|ta|சிங்க}}, also derived from Sanskrit.
* In Burmese, it is spelled {{lang|my|သီဟ}} ({{lang|my-Latn|thiha}}), derived from the Pali variant {{lang|pi-Latn|siha}}.
* In [[Urdu]], it is written as {{lang|ur|سِنگھ}} with the same pronunciation as Hindi. Variations include {{lang|ur-Latn|Simha}} and {{lang|ur-Latn|Sinha}} in [[Bihar]].
* In [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], it is written as {{lang|id|Singa}} and it means 'lion'.

== History ==
[[File:Western Satrap Coin of Rudrasimha I .jpg|thumb|300px|Coin of the Western Kshatrapa ruler [[Rudrasimha I]] (178 to 197 CE) who used "Simha" as suffix.]]
Originally, the Sanskrit word for lion, variously transliterated as Simha or Singh, was used as a title by [[Kshatriya]] warriors in northern parts of India. The earliest recorded examples of names ending with "Simha" are the names of the two sons of [[Rudradaman I|Rudraraman]], who ruled the Western Satraps in the second century CE. [[Jayasimha (Vatapi Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha]], the first ruler of the [[Chalukya dynasty]] to bear the title Simha, ruled around 500 CE. The [[Chalukyas of Vengi|Vengi branch]] of the Chalukyas continued using Simha as a last name until the eleventh century. The Rajputs started using Singh in preference to the classical epithet of "[[Varma (name)|Varman]]". Among the [[Rajput]]s, the use of the word Singh came into vogue among the [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]]s of [[Malwa]] in 10th century CE, among the [[Guhilot]]s and the [[Kachwaha]]s of [[Narwar]] in the 12th century CE, and the [[Rathore dynasty|Rathore]]s of [[Marwar]] after the 17th century.<ref name="Qanungo">{{cite book|last=Qanungo|first=Kalika Ranjan|title=Studies in Rajput History|publisher=[[S. Chand]]|location=[[Delhi]]|year=1960|oclc=1326190|pages=138–140}}</ref>

By the sixteenth century, "Singh" had become a popular surname among Rajputs.<ref name="Chander2003">{{cite book|author=Prakash Chander|title=India: Past & Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4_Rl5c_v1-kC&pg=PA120|access-date=11 January 2013|date=1 January 2003|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-455-8|pages=120 |quote=In those days, "Singh" as a surname was very popular among a famous warrior caste of north India, the Rajputs. Some of the first Sikhs were also Rajputs.}}</ref> It was adopted by the Sikhs in 1699, as per the instructions of [[Guru Gobind Singh]]. Singh is used by all baptized male Sikhs, regardless of their geographical or cultural binding; the women use [[Kaur]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=-QR8tAEACAAJ A History of the Sikh People (1469-1988)] by Dr. Gopal Singh {{ISBN|81-7023-139-6}}{{page needed|date=December 2018}}</ref><ref name="Catherine B. Asher, Cynthia Talbot">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&q=jat+surname+singh&pg=PA269 | title=India Before Europe | publisher=Cambridge University Press |author1=Catherine B. Asher |author2=Cynthia Talbot | year=2006 | pages=269 | isbn=9780521809047}}</ref> Guru Gobind Singh introduced the surname "Singh" for Sikh men to foster equality and unity within the community. This move aimed to eliminate caste distinctions and promote a fearless and righteous identity. By adopting "Singh," Sikh men were encouraged to live as saint-soldiers, embodying courage, justice, and a commitment to serving humanity,<ref name=Singh/>{{rp|121–126}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Khushwant|title=A History of the Sikhs: 1469–1838|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MD9uAAAAMAAJ|access-date=6 January 2025|edition=2nd|date=11 October 2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-567308-1|page=83}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=History Of The Sikhs Vol I The Sikh Gurus, 1469-1708|publisher=Munshilal Manohorlal, Pvt Ltd|first= Hari Ram |last=Gupta|author-link= Hari Ram Gupta|page=271|isbn=978-81-215-0276-4}}</ref> According to [[Pashaura Singh (Sikh scholar)|Pashaura Singh]], the Guru gave male Sikhs the name "Singh", which was associated with aristocracy, to imitate the traditions of the Rajput hill chiefs near Anandpur Sahib.<ref name="Oxford Handbook"/>

In the 18th century, several groups started using the title "Singh". These included the Brahmins, the Kayasthas and the Baniyas of what are now [[Uttar Pradesh]] and Bihar. In the 19th century, even the Bengal court [[peon]]s of the lower castes adopted the title "Singh".<ref name="Qanungo"/> [[Bhumihar]]s, who originally used Brahmin surnames, also started affixing Singh to their names.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tOXZAAAAMAAJ |title=Community And Caste In Tradition |year=1992 |author=Virendra Prakash Singh |publisher=Commonwealth |page=113 |isbn=9788171692422 }}</ref> In [[Bihar]] and [[Jharkhand]], the surname came to be associated with power and authority, and was adopted by people of multiple castes, including [[Brahmin]] [[zamindar]]s.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Using-surnames-to-conceal-identity/articleshow/4162892.cms | author = Pranava K Chaudhary | title = Using surnames to conceal identity | work = [[The Times of India]] | date = 2009-02-21 | access-date = 2013-01-18 }}</ref><ref name="biha">{{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Santosh|title=Ruled or Misruled: Story and Destiny of Bihar|date=2015|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=9789385436420|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SVu8CgAAQBAJ&q=singh+surname&pg=PT228|access-date=28 July 2016|language=en}}</ref> Citing [[Kshatriya]] status, numerous communities use 'Singh' as part of their names.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te4DAAAAMAAJ |title=Bhavan's Journal, Volume 12, Issues 1-16 |year=1965 |page=123 }}</ref> Some Jains have also adopted the surname in addition to various Hindu castes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frankel |first=Francine R. |title=Dominance and State Power in Modern India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1990 |volume=2 |pages=17 |quote=The surname, Singh, for example, was appropriated over a period of several centuries of acculturation by different Hindu castes, including lower castes as well as followers of Jainism.}}</ref>

Many Muslim [[Shina people|Shins]] historically used the surname "Sing", the earlier form of the name, "Simha", was frequently appended to names found in the Gilgit Manuscripts, a corpus of Buddhist texts and the oldest surviving manuscripts in India, discovered in the [[Gilgit]] region of Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schmidt |first=Ruth Laila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mZzD86umtbAC&dq=muslim+shins&pg=PA11 |title=A Grammar of the Shina Language of Indus Kohistan |publisher=Harrassowitz |year=2008 |isbn=9783447056762 |pages=11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gilgit Manuscript |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/memory-world/gilgit-manuscript |website=UNESCO}}</ref>

People belonging to several other castes and communities also started using Singh as a title, middle name or a surname; these include non-Sikh Punjabis, [[Charans]], [[Yadav]]s, [[Gurjar]]s, [[Brahmins]], [[Maratha (caste)|Marathas]], [[Jat people|Jat]]s, [[Kushwaha]]s, [[Rajpurohit]]s, [[Kumawat]]s etc. Dalit and [[Other Backward Class|other backward]] groups have also adopted the name, including the [[Bhil people|Bhils]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Sanjukta Das |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VDGIpkJ9BgwC&pg=PA134 |title=Narratives from the Margins: Aspects of Adivasi History in India |date=2012 |publisher=Primus Books |isbn=978938060710-8 |pages=134}}</ref> [[Koeri]]s,<ref name="HOA">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SNw5zVN1V0oC&pg=PA436 |title=History of Anthropological Thought |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1993 |isbn=9788170224921 |editor1=V.S. Upadhyay |place=India |page=436 |quote=Similarly, Koyeris, a backward caste, claim themselves as Kushwaha Kshatriya and Dusadh, another scheduled caste, claim themselves as Gahlout Kshatriya. Some of their members use titles like ' Singh ' and ' Thakur. |editor2=G. Pandey}}</ref> and [[Dusadh]]s.<ref name="HOA" /> The name is also found among the [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian diaspora]].

== Usage ==

"Singh" is generally used as a surname or as a middle name/title. When used as a middle name, it is generally followed by the caste, clan or family name. To reduce caste discrimination, some Sikhs append "[[Khalsa]]" or their native village names to Singh.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bfmnmsBfQ4C&pg=PA1846 | title=People of India: Maharashtra, Part 3 | publisher=Popular Prakashan | author=B. V. Bhanu | others=Contributors Kumar Suresh Singh, B. V. Mehta, Anthropological Survey of India | year=2004 | pages=1846 | isbn=9788179911020}}</ref>

Originally, a common practice among the [[Rajput]] men was to have "Singh" as their last name, while [[Rajput]] women had the last name 'Kanwar'. However, now, many Rajput women have Singh in their name as well.<ref>Kolff, Dirk H.A., ''The Rajput of Ancient and Medieval North India: A Warrior-Ascetic''; Folk, Faith and Feudalism, edited by NK Singh and Rajendra Joshi, Institute of Rajasthan Studies, Jaipur, India. Rawat Publications, Jaipur and New Delhi. {{ISBN|81-7033-273-7}}</ref>

=== Nepal ===
Singh is a common name in Nepal; the appellation has acquired caste-neutral status due to its wide scale adoption by many members of Nepali society.<ref name= "Adhikari"/> Some notable examples of Nepalis with the middle name/surname Singh are:
[[Amar Singh Thapa]], [[Ranodip Singh Kunwar|Ranodip Singh]], and [[Pratap Singh Shah]].

=== Outside South Asia ===
Singh is a common Hindu name in Guyana.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Danns |first=George K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=km9QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT134 |title=Domination and Power in Guyana: Study of the Police in a Third World Context |date=2017-09-29 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-52186-4 |pages=120 |language=en}}</ref> Some Indian immigrants to British Guiana are believed to have adopted surnames traditionally associated with high caste status, including Sharma and Tiwari (Brahmin), as well as Singh (Kshatriya).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Raymond T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ITRpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 |title=The Matrifocal Family: Power, Pluralism and Politics |date=2014-04-23 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-65959-1 |pages=118 |language=en}}</ref>

A section of around a million adherents of Sikhism that live abroad in [[Western countries]] only keep Singh or Kaur as their last name. This has caused legal problems in immigration procedures, especially in [[Canada]]. For a decade, the [[Diplomatic missions of Canada|Canadian High Commission]] in [[New Delhi]] stated in letters to its Sikh clients that "the names Kaur and Singh do not qualify for the purpose of immigration to Canada", requiring people with these surnames to adopt new ones. The ban was denounced by the Sikh community, after which the Citizenship and Immigration Canada announced it was dropping the policy, calling the whole issue a misunderstanding based on a "poorly worded" letter.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/article/240030|title='Singh' ban denounced |work= Toronto Star |author=San Grewal |date=2007-07-26}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of people with surname Singh]]
* ''[[Singh v Canada]]'', a Supreme Court of Canada case on the applicability of Charter rights to refugee claimants
* [[Kaur]]
{{lion-surname}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Surnames of Indian origin]]
[[Category:Pakistani names]]
[[Category:Titles in India]]
[[Category:Sikh names]]
[[Category:Punjabi-language surnames]]
[[Category:Meitei culture]]

Mohammed Surti

2026-02-09T05:37:28Z

Realhimachal: add section additionally and cleaned formatting for consistency

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|name =
|office = Member of the [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly]]
|constituency = [[Surat West (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Surat West]]
|term_start = 1980
|predecessor = Vyas Popatlal Mulshankar
|term_end = 1985
|successor = Babubhai Sopariwala
|party = [[Indian National Congress]]
}}

'''Mohammed Surti''' was a leader of the [[Indian National Congress]] from [[Surat]] in [[Gujarat]]. He was a government minister of Gujarat. He was falsely convicted for his involvement in the [[1993 Surat bomb blasts]] and was imprisoned, and he was proven innocent and acquitted after spending 12 years in prison.<ref name="deshgujarat">{{cite web|url=http://deshgujarat.com/2013/05/16/former-gujarat-congress-minister-imprisoned-in-bomb-blasts-case-gets-three-months-midterm-bail/|title=Former Gujarat minister and Congress leader imprisoned in bomb-blasts case gets three months midterm bail | DeshGujarat|date=16 May 2013 |publisher=deshgujarat.com|accessdate=2014-06-22}}</ref>

Mohammad Surti was a highly respected Islamic scholar who devoted his life to Islamic learning and teaching. He was closely associated with Darul Uloom Deoband and made a lasting contribution to Islamic education. He died at the age of 88 on the 6th of Sha‘bān 2026 (26 January 2026). His funeral was among the largest in the community, reflecting the deep respect and influence he held.

In October 2008, a TADA court in Surat sentenced Mohammad Surti to 20 years in prison. Later on 18 July 2014, The Supreme Court acquitted all the 11 accused convicted for the 1993 Surat bomb blast including Surti.<ref name="TH">{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/sc-acquits-all-accused-in-1993-surat-bomb-blast-case/article6224656.ece | title=
SC acquits all accused in 1993 Surat bomb blast case | work=The Hindu |date=19 June 2014 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Communalism (South Asia)]]

{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Surti, Mohammed}}
[[Category:People from Surat]]
[[Category:Indian politicians convicted of crimes]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Gujarat MLAs 1980–1985]]
[[Category:Indian prisoners and detainees]]
[[Category:Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Gujarat]]

{{Gujarat-INC-politician-stub}}

National Islamic Front

2026-02-07T21:29:24Z

Realhimachal: fix content for consistency also and improved wording as per guidelines

{{Short description|1976–1998 Sudanese political Party}}
{{for|the Afghan Pashtun political party led by Pir Sayyed Ahmad Gillani|National Islamic Front of Afghanistan}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{refimprove|date=January 2011}}
{{update|date=July 2019|the 2018 death of al-Turabi and leadership as of 2019}}
}}
{{Infobox political party
| name = National Islamic Front
| native_name = الجبهة الإسلامية القومية
| abbreviation = NIF
| colorcode = #000000
| secretary_general =
| leader = [[Hassan al-Turabi]]
| founded = {{start date and age|1976}}
| merger =
| dissolved = {{end date and age|1998}}
| predecessor = Islamic Charter Front
| successor = [[National Congress Party (Sudan)|National Congress Party]]
| headquarters = [[Khartoum]]
| newspaper =
| flag =
| ideology = [[Sunni Islamism]] [[Anti-communism]]
| wing1_title = [[Paramilitary|Armed wing]]
| wing1 = [[Popular Defence Forces (Sudan)|Popular Defence Forces]]
| colors =
| position = [[Right-wing politics|Right-wing]]
| slogan =
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
| international = [[Muslim Brotherhood]]
| website =
| country = Sudan
}}
The '''National Islamic Front''' ('''NIF'''; {{langx|ar|الجبهة الإسلامية القومية}}; [[Arabic transliteration|transliterated]]: ''al-Jabhah al-Islamiyah al-Qawmiyah'') was an [[Islamist]] political organization founded in 1976<ref name=eprism/> and led by Dr. [[Hassan al-Turabi]] that influenced the [[Sudanese government]] starting in 1979, and dominated it from 1989 to the late 1990s. It was one of only two [[Islamism|Islamic revival]] movements to secure political power in the 20th century (the other being the followers of Ayatollah [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] in the [[History of the Islamic Republic of Iran|Islamic Republic of Iran]]).<ref name=GSNIF-3>{{cite web|title=National Islamic Front|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/sudan/political-parties-nif.htm|website=globalsecurity.org|access-date=28 April 2015}}</ref>

The NIF emerged from [[Muslims|Muslim]] student groups that first began organizing in the universities during the 1940s, and its main support base has remained the college educated.<ref name=GSNIF-3/> It supported the maintenance of an [[Islamic state]] run on [[Sharia]] and rejected the concept of a [[secularism|secular]] state. It took a "top down" or "Islamisation from above" approach of "infiltrating Sudan's state apparatus, army, and financial system".<ref name=GKJTPI2002:177>[[#GKJTPI2002|Kepel, ''Jihad'', 2002]]: p.177</ref> It demonstrated itself to be both politically adept and ruthless in its use of violence, in particular in the internal conflicts of the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] and the [[War in Darfur]], as well in the provisioning of proxy forces such as the [[Lord's Resistance Army]], the [[West Nile Bank Front]] and the [[Uganda National Rescue Front II]] against [[Uganda]].

In the late 1990s, the National Islamic Front changed its name to [[National Congress Party (Sudan)|National Congress Party]],<ref name=GSNIF>{{cite web|title=National Islamic Front|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/sudan/political-parties-nif.htm|website=globalsecurity.org|access-date=28 April 2015|quote=According to the Political Handbook of the World 2011, the NIF was renamed as the National Congress (NC) in 1996 (2011, 1356). Other sources report that in November 1998, the NIF renamed itself the National Congress (NC).}}</ref><ref name=enough>{{cite web|last1=Reeves|first1=Eric|title=Enough Forum: Watching the Bubble Burst|url=http://www.enoughproject.org/reports/enough-forum-watching-bubble-burst|website=enough project|access-date=28 April 2015|date=17 September 2014|quote=Since the Government of Sudan—essentially the National Congress Party (formerly the National Islamic Front) ...}}</ref> and the "gross human rights violations" of the regime's early years gave way to "more subtle methods of social control such as restrictions on the right to [[Freedom of speech|freedom of expression]], opinion, [[Freedom of religion|religion]], association, and [[Freedom of movement|movement]]."<ref name=GSNIF-3/> In 1999, Hassan al-Turabi, leader of the NIF and his supporters were expelled from the ruling [[National Congress Party (Sudan)|National Congress Party]] by [[List of heads of state of Sudan|President of Sudan]] [[Omar al-Bashir|Omar Hassan al-Bashir]]<ref name=GSNIF-expel>{{cite web|title=National Islamic Front|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/sudan/political-parties-nif.htm|website=globalsecurity.org|access-date=28 April 2015|quote=In late 1999/early 2000 the NIF went through a power struggle after Turabi attempted to take away Bashir's power (i.e. ability to name regional governors). In December 1999, Bashir took `the Ramadan decisions`, stripping Turabi of his posts, dissolving the parliament, suspending the constitution and declaring a state of national emergency. Eventually, in May 2000, Turabi was deposed from his position as "Speaker". As a result, Turabi then created the Popular National Congress Party later that summer.}}</ref> and subsequently founded the rival [[Popular Congress Party]] which has remained in opposition.<ref name=PCP>{{cite web|title=Popular Congress Party (PCP)|url=http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?mot320|website=Sudan Tribune|access-date=28 April 2015}}</ref>

==History==

===Formation and early history===
Created in the 1960s as an [[Islamism|Islamist]] student group, it was known as the '''Islamic Charter Front''' ('''ICF'''). From 1964 to 1969, it was headed by [[Hassan al-Turabi]] after the overthrow of the government of President [[Ibrahim Abboud]]. During this period, the ICF supported [[Women's rights|women's right]] to vote and ran women candidates. In 1969, the government was overthrown by General [[Gaafar Nimeiry]] in [[1969 Sudanese coup d'état|a ''coup d'état'']], after which the members of the Islamic Charter Front were placed under house arrest or fled the country. Although strongly opposed to [[Communism]], the NIF copied their organization.<ref name=GKJTPI2002:178>[[#GKJTPI2002|Kepel, ''Jihad'', 2002]]: p.178</ref> The National Islamic Front itself was founded following the failure of the [[1976 Sudanese coup attempt|anti-Numayri coup]], led by the [[Ansar (Sudan)|Ansar]] in July 1976.<ref name=eprism>{{cite web|last1=Warburg|first1=Gabriel R.|title=THE MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD IN SUDAN: FROM REFORMS TO RADICALISM*|url=http://www.e-prism.org/images/Muslim_BROTHERS.PRISM.pdf|website=e-prism.org|publisher=THE PROJECT FOR THE RESEARCH OF ISLAMIST MOVEMENTS (PRISM)|access-date=28 April 2015|date=August 2006}}</ref>

===Sources of strength===
Turabi's group served as "intermediaries" between [[Sudan]] and [[Saudi Arabia]], whose port [[Jeddah]] was almost directly across the [[Red Sea]] only about 200 miles from [[Port Sudan]] and capable of hosting Saudi immigrant workers. Following the [[1973 oil crisis|Arab Oil Embargo]], Saudi Arabia had serious financial resources which it could invest in Sudan to discourage [[Communism|communist]] influence.<ref name=GKJTPI2002:180/> Throughout the [[Cold War]], the organization benefited from the pro-[[Islam]]ist support of [[Saudi Arabia]]. Saudi financial help for the NIF and its dominance of [[Islamic banking]] (which later meant all banking), gave them the means to transcend their original bases in intellectual and university circles.<ref name=GKJTPI2002:180-1>[[#GKJTPI2002|Kepel, ''Jihad'', 2002]]: p.180-1</ref>

In the fall of 1977, the [[Faisal Islamic Bank of Sudan|Faisal Islamic Bank]] opened a branch in Sudan—60% of its start up capital was Saudi.<ref>Moussa Yaqoub, ''Muhammad Faysal Al Saoud: malamih min tajriba al iqtissadiyya al islamiyya'' (Aspects of Experience in the Islamic Economy) (Jeddah: Saudi Publishing and Distributing House, 1998), esp. pp.54-55, 60, quoted in Kepel, Gilles, ''Jihad'', 2002, p.180</ref> By the mid-1980s the bank was second biggest in Sudan in terms of money held on deposit.<ref name=GKJTPI2002:180>[[#GKJTPI2002|Kepel, ''Jihad'', 2002]]: p.180</ref> Also founded in the late 1970s was the Al Baraka Bank. Both provided rewards for whose affiliated with Hassan al-Turabi's Islamist National Islamic Front—employment and wealth for young militant college graduates and easy credit for devout Muslim investors and businessmen.<ref name=GKJTPI2002:180/>

In 1979, when Nimeiry sought an accommodation with the NIF, al-Turabi was invited to become Attorney-General, NIF members would help other member be placed in "every available position of power" in the Sudanese government.<ref name=GKJTPI2002:179>[[#GKJTPI2002|Kepel, ''Jihad'', 2002]]: p.179</ref> It also benefited from Nimeiry's falling out with his former communist allies. The [[Sudanese Communist Party]] (SCP) was the largest [[communist party]] in the Arab world<ref name=GKJTPI2002:177/> and was the Islamists' rival amongst university students. The SCP and NIF appealed to university students by being less based on family connections than the mainstream Sudanese parties.<ref>source: Francis M. Deng</ref> Although Nimeiry called his regime [[Socialism|socialist]] to the end he turned on the SCP as a threat to his power and likely as an impediment in gaining aid from the [[United States]].

===With al-Nimeiry regime===
In 1983, al-Tarabi used his position as Attorney General to push for the strict application of Sharia. "Within eighteen months, more than fifty suspected thieves had their hands chopped off. A Coptic Christian was hanged for possessing foreign currency; poor women were flogged for selling local beer."<ref name=Packer-NYer>{{cite magazine|last1=Packer|first1=George|title=The Moderate Martyr|magazine=The New Yorker|date=11 September 2006|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/09/11/the-moderate-martyr|access-date=29 April 2015}}</ref> [[Mahmoud Mohammed Taha]], an Islamic intellectual who had reinterpreted Islamic law in a more liberal direction and opposed the new Sharia laws was hanged in January 1985.<ref name=GKJTPI2002:180-1/> In March 1985, the leadership of the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] was charged with [[sedition]]. This came, in part, because Nimeiry had grown suspicious of their banking power. This official condemnation of the group proved temporary though as President Nimeiry had lost support of the Sudanese people and the military and was [[1985 Sudanese coup d'état|consequently overthrown]]. An attempt at democracy followed his overthrow and the organization attempted to use this to their advantage. In the [[1986 Sudanese parliamentary election|1986 elections]] their financial strength and backing among university graduates still gave them only ten percent of the vote and therefore a third-place position. They made up for this by increasingly gaining support of the military during a time of civil war. The well educated status of their leadership, al-Turabi was one of the best educated men in Sudan, also gained them prestige.

===1989 coup===
In 1989, the southern rebels, [[Sudan People's Liberation Movement]] (SPLM) signed an agreement with the democratic government that included provisions for a cease-fire, the freezing of the Sharia (which the non-Muslim south opposed), the lifting of the state of emergency, and the abolition of all foreign political and military pacts and proposed a constitutional conference to decide Sudan's political future. On March 11 1989, Prime Minister [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]] formed a new governing coalition that included the [[National Umma Party|Umma Party]], the [[Democratic Unionist Party (Sudan)|Democratic Unionist Party]] (DUP), and representatives of southern parties and the trade unions. The NIF refused to join the coalition because it was not committed to enforcing the Sharia.

On June 30 1989 this government [[1989 Sudanese coup d'état|was overthrown]] by Colonel (later General) [[Omar al-Bashir]] who was committed to imposing Sharia law and to seeking a military victory over the [[South Sudan People's Defence Forces|Sudan People's Liberation Army]] (SPLA). While some NIF leaders, including al-Turabi, were placed under house arrest following the coup as part of the internal power struggle that brought al-Bashir to power, they were soon released.

===Alliance with military===
The NIF alliance with the Omar al-Bashir putch has been described (by Olivier Roy) as similar to the [[Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan|Jamaat-e-Islami]] alliance with Pakistan General [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]].<ref name=roy-125>{{cite book|last1=Roy|first1=Olivier|last2=Volk|first2=Carol, translator|title=The Failure of Political Islam|date=1994|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/failureofpolitic00royo/page/125 125]|isbn=9780674291409 |url=https://archive.org/details/failureofpolitic00royo|url-access=registration|quote=alliance between a putschist military roy.|access-date=2 May 2015}}</ref> [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] also favored top-down Islamism and Zia also staged a coup against an elected government. Explanations for why the military allied itself with the NIF include its infiltration by the NIF,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ben Hammou |first1=Salah|title=The Varieties of Civilian Praetorianism: Evidence From Sudan's Coup Politics|journal=Armed Forces & Society|language=en|pages=1096–1117|doi=10.1177/0095327X231155667|year=2023|volume=50 |issue=4 |s2cid=257268269 }}</ref> and the "ideological justification" the NIF gave the war as a [[jihad]] against the [[Animism|animists]] and [[Christians]] of the south,<ref name=Kepel-182>{{cite book|last1=Kepel|first1=Gilles|title=Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam|date=2006|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=182|url=https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=nif+gave+ideological+justification|access-date=2 May 2015}}</ref> while the Pakistan military had just lost a [[Bangladesh Liberation War|war]] and Omar al-Bashir was continuing a [[Second Sudanese Civil War|war]], both wars ended in the loss by secession of a large area of their country ([[Bangladesh]] and [[South Sudan]]), and in international criticism for millions of civilians killed and human rights abused.

===Governance===
Like the [[Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan|Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan]], and unlike the [[Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt]], or [[Islamic Salvation Front]] in [[Algeria]], the NIF was interested in spreading Islam from above rather than preaching to the masses. It strove to eliminate the power of the traditional [[Sufi]] brotherhood based parties (the [[Democratic Unionist Party (Sudan)|Democratic Unionist Party]] and the [[National Umma Party|Umma Party]]) and replace them with itself.<ref name="GKJTPI2002:184">[[#GKJTPI2002|Kepel, ''Jihad'', 2002]]: p.184</ref> Under the NIF government, education was overhauled to focus on the glory of [[Arabs|Arab]] and [[Islamic culture]], and memorizing the [[Quran]]. [[Islamic religious police|Religious police]] in the capital insured that women were veiled, especially in government offices and universities.<ref name="Packer-NYer"/><ref name="GKJTPI2002:184"/>

Alleged human rights abuses by the NIF regime included [[War crime|war crimes]], [[ethnic cleansing]], a revival of [[slavery]], [[torture]] of opponents, and an unprecedented number of refugees fleeing into Uganda, [[Kenya]], [[Eritrea]], [[Egypt]], [[Europe]] and [[North America]].<ref name=jstor>{{cite journal|last1=Fluehr-Lobban|first1=Carolyn|title=The Sudan Since 1989: National Islamic Front Rule|last2=Lobban|first2=Richard|journal=Arab Studies Quarterly|date=Spring 2001|volume=23|issue=2|pages=1–9|jstor=41858370}}</ref> Repression of the "secular middle class" was "savage" and unprecedented for Sudan where "political customs" were relatively relaxed.<ref name=GKJTPI2002:182>[[#GKJTPI2002|Kepel, ''Jihad'', 2002]]: p.182</ref> "Purges and executions were carried out in the upper ranks" of the army, and civil and military officials were subjected to Islamist "reeducation". Opponents were forced into exile to prevent them from organizing an alternative to the regime.<ref name=GKJTPI2002:184/>

International organizations denounced the routine interrogation and torture by security agencies in anonymous "ghost houses". To compensate for its lack of mass support the NIF employed paramilitary force made up of [[Fula people|Fula]] tribesmen (traditionally agricultural day labourers) to "do its dirty work", the tribesmen being bound to the NIF because "they risked forfeiting everything should the NIF lose its grip on power." In interviews al-Turabi dismissed abuses as minimal and attributed them to the "extreme sensitively" of his opponents.<ref name=GKJTPI2002:183>[[#GKJTPI2002|Kepel, ''Jihad'', 2002]]: p.183</ref>

The NIF intensified the war against the south which was declared a [[jihad]].<ref name="Packer-NYer"/><ref name=GKJTPI2002:184/> School uniforms were replaced with combat fatigues and students engaged in paramilitary drills. Young students learned jihadist chants.<ref name=Packer-NYer/> On state television, actors simulated “weddings” between jihad martyrs and heavenly virgins ([[houri]]s) on [[State media|state television]]. Turabi also gave [[Asylum seeker|asylum]] and assistance to non-Sudanese jihadi, including [[Osama bin Laden]] and other [[Al-Qaeda]] members.<ref name=Packer-NYer/> They also placed Sadiq al-Mahdi in prison (despite the fact he was related to Turabi by marriage, the two had become bitter enemies by the mid-1980s). The regime also committed what are widely deemed to have been massive human rights violations against religious minorities, particularly in the south. Women in Sudan could face execution for [[adultery]] even in cases of [[rape]]. This was used by several soldiers in their war against the south.

The NIF also tried to position itself as the world's leading [[Sunni]] [[Islamist]] organization, leading the only Sunni Islamist state before the [[Taliban]]. Although critical of [[Saddam Hussein]], al-Turabi held an [[Anti-Americanism|anti-American]] Islamist conference during [[Operation Desert Storm]], toward the end of supporting the Iraqi people in their war. During terrorism expert [[Steven Emerson]]'s 1998 testimony before the [[United States Senate]], he implicated the Sudanese National Islamic Front as partly responsible for the February [[1993 World Trade Center bombing]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090730205943/http://geocities.com/CollegePark/6453/emerson.html official prepared statement of Steven Emerson before the Senate Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology, and Government Information, on February 24, 1998], ''Federal Information Systems Corporation, Federal News Service'', as downloaded from the Library of Congress, 1998, Made available 4/5/98</ref> That attack, on February 26, 1993, occurred on the 2nd anniversary of the retreat of Iraqi forces from [[Kuwait]], thus ending the 1991 Gulf War.

Beginning in 1991, they also harbored Osama bin Laden for several years after the Saudis revoked his citizenship. It is suspected they hoped he could aid them through his wealth and construction company. However, eventually the NIF government deemed him too great a liability and banished him.

Bin Laden had been exiled to Sudan because he had publicly spoken out against the Saudi government for basing U.S. troops in [[Saudi Arabia]] in order to oppose [[Iraqi invasion of Kuwait|Iraq's takeover]] of [[Kuwait]]. So although bin Laden and the NIF appeared to be on opposite sides of sympathy for or against the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, they both found differing reasons for their greater and common concern, the presence and involvement of the United States in that region's conflict.

The abuses against southerners (some of whom were Christians) had aroused the activism of Christian groups in Europe and the [[United States|US]].<ref name=GKJTPI2002:183/> Sanctions were imposed by US and parlayed into legitimacy for the narrowly based NIF—a symbol of "resistance to imperialism".<ref name=GKJTPI2002:184/> Sudan came under [[United Nations]] sanctions for sponsoring a 1995 assassination attempt on Egyptian President [[Hosni Mubarak]].<ref name=Packer-NYer/>

===Decreasing influence===

Starting around 1999, Hassan al-Turabi's political clout waned. Between late 1999 and early 2000 the NIF went through a power struggle following an attempt by al-Turabi to take away Bashir's ability to name regional governors. In December 1999, Bashir stripped al-Turabi of his posts, dissolved parliament, suspended the constitution and declared a state of national emergency.<ref name=GSNIF-expel/> Al-Turabi created a splinter [[Popular Congress Party]] in summer of 2000.<ref name=GSNIF-expel/>

After the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the regime made attempts to downplay, at least on the public international stage, any international Islamist aspects of the organization. Further, al-Turabi was imprisoned (temporarily) in 2004 and the regime allowed the Christian [[John Garang]] to be Vice President in a peace deal. By 2006, there had been “a hundred-and-eighty-degree turn” in al-Turabi’s stated views, with declarations of support for [[gender equality]], democracy and human rights.<ref name=Packer-NYer/>

By 2012, [[South Sudan]] had gained independence, but abuses in [[Darfur]] had gained note, and the government was reportedly "still dominated" by high-ranking members of the NIF.<ref name=HDIF>{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Islamic Fundamentalism|date=2012|publisher=Scarecrow Press.|page=252|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tCvhzGiDMYsC&q=still+dominated+by+high-ranking+members+of+the+NIF&pg=PA252|access-date=29 April 2015|isbn=9780810879652}}</ref>

==Electoral history==
===National Assembly elections===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!Election
!Leader
!Votes
!%
!Seats
!+/–
!Position
!Result
|-
|[[1986 Sudanese parliamentary election|1986]]
|[[Hassan al-Turabi]]
|726,021
|18.51%
|{{Composition bar|51|301|hex=#000000}}
|New
|3rd
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|}

==See also==
*[[National Congress Party (Sudan)|National Congress Party]]
*[[Sudan People's Liberation Movement]]
*[[Sudanese Socialist Union]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

*{{cite book|last1=Kepel|first1=Gilles|title=Jihad, on the Trail of Political Islam|date=2002|publisher=Harvard University Press|pages=176–84|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tttzgNKFAI8C&q=Jihad%2C+on+the+Trail+of+Political+Islam+turabi&pg=PA179|ref=GKJTPI2002|isbn=9780674010901}}

==External links==
* [http://www.sudanupdate.org/WHOSWHO/NIF.HTM National Islamic Front at SudanUpdate.org]
* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3190770.stm Profile: Sudan's Islamist leader], [[BBC]], 14 October 2003

{{Sudanese political parties}}
{{IslamismNorthAfrica}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:1976 establishments in Sudan]]
[[Category:Conservative parties in Sudan]]
[[Category:Islamic political parties in Sudan]]
[[Category:Islamist groups]]
[[Category:Political parties affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1976]]

C. Venkataraman Sundaram

2026-02-06T06:12:18Z

Realhimachal: Improved wording and formatting

{{Short description|Indian chemical metallurgist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = C. Venkataraman Sundaram
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1929|11|7}}
| birth_place = [[Ottapalam]], [[Kerala]], India
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2008|8|15|1929|11|7}}
| death_place = India
| residence =
| fields = {{ublist | [[Chemical metallurgy]] }}
| workplaces = {{ublist | [[Department of Atomic Energy]] | [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre]] | [[Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research]] | [[National Institute of Advanced Studies]] | [[Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology]] }}
| alma_mater = {{ublist | [[Indian Institute of Science]] }}
| doctoral_advisor = [[Brahm Prakash]]
| doctoral_students =
| known_for = [[Fast Breeder Test Reactor]]
| awards = {{ublist| 1967 [[Indian Institute of Metals|IIM]] Kamani Gold Medal | 1970 [[National Metallurgists' Day (NMD) Awards|National Metallurgists' Day Award]] | 1979 [[VASVIK Industrial Research Award|VASVIK Award]] | 1985 [[Indian Institute of Metals|IIM]] Platinum Medal | 1985 [[Indian Institute of Science|IISc]] Distinguished Alumnus Award | 1985 Sanjay Gandhi Award | 1985 [[Indian National Science Academy|INSA]] Syed Husain Zaheer Medal | 1986 [[Padma Bhusan]] | 2001 INS Homi Bhabha Lifetime Achievement Award | 2006 [[Ministry of Mines (India)|MoM]] Lifetime Achievement Award }}
}}
'''Chokkanathapuram Venkataraman Sundaram''' (7 November 1929 – 15 August 2008) was an Indian chemical metallurgist, best known for the commissioning of the [[Fast Breeder Test Reactor]] at [[Kalpakkam]]. He was the director of the [[Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research]] (IGCAR). He was a recipient of the Sanjay Gandhi Award for Science and Technology as well as the [[National Metallurgists' Day (NMD) Awards|National Metallurgists Day Award]] and an elected fellow of the [[Indian National Science Academy]], the [[Indian Academy of Sciences]] and the [[Indian National Academy of Engineering]]. The [[Government of India]] awarded him the [[Padma Bhushan]], the third highest civilian award, in 1986.

== Biography ==
[[File:IISc Main Building.jpg|thumb|left|Indian Institute of Science]]
C. V. Sundaram was born on 7 November 1929 at [[Ottappalam]], in [[Palakkad district]] of the south Indian state of [[Kerala]].<ref name="Biography">{{Cite web |url=http://www.igcar.gov.in/press_releases/PROFCVSUNDARAM.pdf |title=Biography |date=2018-06-03 |website=Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research |access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> His doctoral research was at the [[Indian Institute of Science]] under the guidance of [[Brahm Prakash]], a noted metallurgist who was a recipient of such honors as [[Padma Shri]], [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize]] and [[Padma Bhushan]], which earned him a doctoral degree (DIISc) in 1952.<ref name="C.V. Sundaram is dead">{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/C.V.-Sundaram-is-dead/article15282231.ece |title=C.V. Sundaram is dead |date=2008-08-16 |work=The Hindu |access-date=2018-06-03 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>{{Refn|group=note|His PhD reseacrh was in [[chemical metallurgy]]}} In 1956, he joined the [[Department of Atomic Energy]] (DAE) where he was entrusted with the responsibility of the production of refractory metals. His next move was to [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre]] as the head of the department of metallurgy in 1975 where he worked until 1982, when he was appointed as the director of [[Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research]] (IGCAR).<ref name="INSA :: Deceased Fellow Detail">{{Cite web |url=http://insaindia.res.in/detail/N79-0815 |title=INSA :: Deceased Fellow Detail |date=2018-06-02 |website=insaindia.res.in |access-date=2018-06-02 |archive-date=13 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913075245/http://insaindia.res.in/detail/N79-0815 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He served out his regular career at IGCAR and after retirement from official service in 1989, he continued his association with DAE as a consultant to the [[Nuclear Fuel Complex]]. Later, he moved to the [[National Institute of Advanced Studies]], a centre of higher learning,<ref name="Prof CV Sundaram - National Institute of Advanced Studies">{{Cite web |url=http://nias.res.in/content/prof-cv-sundaram |title=Prof CV Sundaram - National Institute of Advanced Studies |date=2018-06-03 |website=nias.res.in |access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> as the Homi Bhabha visiting professor until his full retirement in 2001.<ref name="Biography" /> In between, he did a short stint at the Regional Research Laboratory (present-day) [[Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology]], as the chairman of its research council.<ref name="INSA :: Deceased Fellow Detail" />

Sundaram died on 15 August 2008, at the age of 78.<ref name="Prof CV Sundaram - National Institute of Advanced Studies" />

== Professional profile ==
[[File:Zirconium crystal bar and 1cm3 cube.jpg|thumb|Zirconium crystal bar and cube]]
During his early years at the DAE, Sundaram was in charge of the production of [[zirconium]], [[beryllium]], [[titanium]], [[tantalum]] and other [[refractory metals]] and he contributed to the establishment of a production facility at [[Nuclear Fuel Complex]] which produced zirconium sponge, [[niobium]] and tantalum metal products.<ref name="Biography" /> He oversaw the project from research to production, including the setting up of a [[pilot plant]].<ref name="INSA :: Deceased Fellow Detail" /> Later, when he moved to IGCAR, he took over the [[Fast Breeder Test Reactor]] (FBTR) project{{Refn|group=note|[[Fast Breeder Test Reactor]] is a sodium-cooled, plutonium-fuelled fast breeder test reactor}} and it was during his tenancy as the director, the reactor reached [[Nuclear reactor physics#Criticality|criticality]], in 1985. Subsequently, he guided the [[Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor]] project until his retirement.<ref name="Biography" />

Sundaram was a pioneer of [[extractive metallurgy]] in India.<ref name="India's outstanding metallurgist C V Sundaram passes away">{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/metals-mining/indias-outstanding-metallurgist-c-v-sundaram-passes-away/articleshow/3371393.cms |title=India's outstanding metallurgist C V Sundaram passes away |date=2008-08-16 |work=The Economic Times |access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> His studies have been documented by way of a number of articles.<ref name="Publications">{{Cite web |url=https://nias.res.in/sites/default/files/Publications%20of%20Prof%20CV%20Sundaram.pdf |title=Publications |date=2018-06-03 |website=National Institute of Advanced Studies |access-date=2018-06-03 |archive-date=23 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823034542/http://nias.res.in/sites/default/files/Publications%20of%20Prof%20CV%20Sundaram.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{Refn|group=note|Please see ''Selected bibliography'' section}} Besides, he published two books on science, ''Materials Technology: Challenges and Opportunities'', published in 1995<ref name="Materials Technology: Challenges and Opportunities">{{Cite book |title=Materials Technology: Challenges and Opportunities |date=1995 |publisher=Indian National Academy of Engineering |isbn=8170235677 |location=New Delhi|oclc = 222496054}}</ref> and ''Atomic Energy in India, 50 Years'', published by the Department of Atomic Energy in 1998.<ref name="SundaramKrishnan1998">{{cite book|author1=C. V. Sundaram|author2=L. V. Krishnan|author3=T. S. Iyengar|title=Atomic Energy in India, 50 Years|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGvYZwEACAAJ|year=1998|publisher=Government of India, Department of Atomic Energy}}</ref> He also translated the ''[[Shivananda Lahari]]'' of [[Adi Shankaracharya]] into English.<ref name="National library">{{Cite web |url=http://nationallibrary.gov.in/showdetails.php?id=150575 |title=National library |last=Name |first=Your |website=nationallibrary.gov.in |access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> He was an honorary member of the [[Indian Institute of Metals]]<ref name="Winners of Awards and Medals - IIM">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iim-india.net/uploads/award/1507007802.pdf |title=Winners of Awards and Medals - IIM |date=2018-06-03 |website=Indian Institute of Metals |access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> and a regular member of the Metallurgical Society (USA). He served as the chief editor of the ''Transactions'' journal of the Indian Institute of Metals from 1972 to 1980 as well as the ''Metals Materials and Processes'' journal and sat in the editorial board of the ''Journal of Nuclear Materials''.<ref name="INSA :: Deceased Fellow Detail" /> He also served as the president of the Indian Nuclear Society and the [[Indian Institute of Metals]] (1981–82).<ref name="Indian Institute of Metal- President Gallery">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iim-india.net/president-gallery |title=Indian Institute of Metal- President Gallery |date=2018-06-04 |website=www.iim-india.net |access-date=2018-06-04 |archive-date=27 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427005913/http://www.iim-india.net/president-gallery |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Awards and honors ==
The [[Indian Institute of Metals]] (IIM) awarded Sundaram, the Kamani Gold Medal in 1967; IIM honored him again in 1985 with the Platinum Medal in 1985,<ref name="IIM Honors">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iim-india.net/uploads/publication/62f19675ca394820d4a5228b843d3afd.pdf |title=IIM Honors |date=2018-06-03 |website=Indian Institute of Metals |access-date=2018-06-03 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> the same year as he received the Distinguished Alumnus Award of the [[Indian Institute of Science]].<ref name="IISc Distinguished Alumnus/alumna Award">{{Cite web |url=https://www.iisc.ac.in/about/awards/iisc-distinguished-alumnusalumna-award-given-by-the-iisc-alumni-association/ |title=IISc Distinguished Alumnus/alumna Award |date=2018-06-03 |website=www.iisc.ac.in |language=en |access-date=2018-06-03}}</ref> In between, he received the [[National Metallurgists' Day (NMD) Awards|National Metallurgists' Day Award]] in 1970<ref name="Biography" /> and the [[VASVIK Industrial Research Award]] in 1979.<ref name="VASVIK Industrial Research Award">{{Cite web |url=http://www.vasvik.org/Materials_Sciences_%26_Technology.html |title=VASVIK Industrial Research Award |date=2018-06-03 |publisher=Vasvik |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-date=4 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704002346/http://www.vasvik.org/Materials_Sciences_%26_Technology.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> He received two more awards in 1985, the Sanjay Gandhi Award for Science and Technology of the Government of India<ref name="C.V. Sundaram is dead" /> and the Syed Husain Zaheer Medal of the [[Indian National Science Academy]].<ref name="Syed Husain Zaheer Medal">{{Cite web |url=http://insaindia.res.in/recipients.php#78 |title=Syed Husain Zaheer Medal |date=2018-06-03 |website=insaindia.res.in |access-date=2018-06-03 |archive-date=16 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916233840/http://insaindia.res.in/recipients.php#78 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The next year, he received the third highest civilian honor from the Government of India, the [[Padma Bhusan]].<ref name="Padma Awards">{{Cite web |url=http://www.dashboard-padmaawards.gov.in/ |title=Padma Awards |date=2018-05-17 |website=Padma Awards |publisher=Government of India |access-date=2018-05-17 |archive-date=15 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015000149/http://www.dashboard-padmaawards.gov.in/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Indian Nuclear Society awarded him the INS Homi Bhabha Lifetime Achievement Award in 2001 and the [[Ministry of Mines (India)|Ministry of Mines]] of the Government of India selected him for the Lifetime Achievement Award in 2006.<ref name="MOM Lifetime Achievement Award">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iim-india.net/uploads/publication/f936853255879e8428467bd1d8577771.pdf |title=MOM Lifetime Achievement Award |date=2018-06-03 |website=Indian Institute of Metals |access-date=2018-06-03 |archive-date=28 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328103105/http://www.iim-india.net/uploads/publication/f936853255879e8428467bd1d8577771.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> He was an elected fellow of the [[Indian Academy of Sciences]] (1974),<ref name="Fellowship - Indian Academy of Sciences">{{Cite web |url=https://www.ias.ac.in/describe/fellow/Sundaram,_Mr_Chokkanathapuram_Venkataraman |title=Fellowship - Indian Academy of Sciences |date=2018-06-02 |website=www.ias.ac.in |language=en |access-date=2018-06-02}}</ref> the [[Indian National Science Academy]] (1979)<ref name="INSA :: Deceased Fellow Detail" /> and the [[Indian National Academy of Engineering]].<ref name="Biography" />

== Selected bibliography ==
=== Books ===
* {{Cite book|author1=C. V. Sundaram|author2=Srinivasa Ranganathan |title=Materials Technology: Challenges and Opportunities |date=1995 |publisher=Indian National Academy of Engineering |isbn=8170235677 |location=New Delhi}}
* {{cite book|author1=C. V. Sundaram|author2=L. V. Krishnan|author3=T. S. Iyengar|title=Atomic Energy in India, 50 Years|year=1998|publisher=Government of India, Department of Atomic Energy}}
* {{Cite book |title=Shivananda Lahari |title-link=Adi Shankaracharya |publisher=Gandhi Centre of Science and Human Values of Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1999 |translator-last=Sundaram |translator-first=C. V.}}

=== Articles ===
* {{Cite journal |last=C. V. Sundaram |last2=N. Saratchandra |title=Rare Metals Extraction in India |journal=Bhabha Atomic Research Centre}}
* {{Cite journal |last=C. V. Sundaram |date=1997 |title=Rare Metal Metallurgy in the Indian Atomic Energy Programme |journal=Minerals and Metals Review |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=87–90}}
* {{Cite journal |last=C. V. Sundaram |date=1995 |title=Aspects of Beryllium Metallurgy - the Indian Experience |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society of India |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=7–18}}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Mineral processing]]
* [[Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy]]
{{Div col end}}
{{portal|India|Physics}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note|2}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite book|title=Materials Technology: Challenges and Opportunities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SoZJnOS8aPsC&pg=PA77|year=1995|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-7023-567-5|pages=77–}}

{{PadmaBhushanAwardRecipients 1980–89}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sundaram, C. Venkataraman}}
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in science & engineering]]
[[Category:1929 births]]
[[Category:2008 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Ottapalam]]
[[Category:Scientists from Kerala]]
[[Category:Indian metallurgists]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian National Academy of Engineering]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian translators]]
[[Category:Indian Institute of Science alumni]]
[[Category:Malayali people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian scientists]]

Ghorpade

2026-01-28T01:21:37Z

Realhimachal: Done

'''Ghorpade''' is a surname and family name found among Marathas, Marathi Brahmins, [[Mahar]] and even [[Chambhar]] caste in the [[Indian states]] of [[Maharashtra]] and [[Karnataka]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Essays on Modernization of Underdeveloped Societies, Volume 1|year=1976|quote=This is no longer so when people move away from their native village and especially when family names like Chavan, Bhonsle, Kale, Ghorpade when family names like Chavan, Bhonsle, Kale, Ghorpade, are found among Brahmins, Marathas, artisans and [former]untouchable castes like the Mahar and Chambhar.|author=Akshayakumar Ramanlal Desai |publisher=Humanities Press, New York}}</ref><ref>Maratha Kshatriyancha Itihaasa By K. B. Deshmukh</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Maharashtra State Gazetteers: Kolhapur|page=94|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFZBDp5OEi8C|publisher=Directorate of Government Print., Stationery and Publications, Maharashtra State|year=1960|quote=The Chief of Ichalkaranji, styled Ghorpade, was a Konkanasth Brahman and his family name was Joshi.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Report on the Administration of the Madras Presidency|quote=Raja Srimant Venkatrao Rao Sahib, Hindu Rao Ghorpade Mamlukat- General and madar, Senapati, Raja of Sandur, is a Mahratta Brahmin by caste.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Atmabrittanta: Late Life Recollections|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beRuAAAAMAAJ|page=56|author1=Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala|author2=Viśveśvara Prasāda Koirālā|publisher=Himal Books|year=2001|isbn = 9789993313083|quote=Ghorpade was a Brahmin while the maharaja [Kolhapur State] was not. The latter used to promote mass marriages without a pundit officiating.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Nawabs of Savanur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rKjl5BftcdwC|author=Krishnaji Nageshrao Chitnis|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|year=2000|page=123|isbn = 9788171565214|quote=Among the Brahmins Shivarampant Karkun and Narsingrao Ghorpade were in the service of Nawab Khair Khan.}}</ref>

== Notable people ==
* [[Santaji Ghorpade]] (1645–1696), Maratha warrior, chief general of [[Rajaram I|Rajaram Maharaj]]
* [[Yeshwantrao Ghorpade]] (1908–1996), last raja of [[Sandur State|Sandur]]
* [[M. Y. Ghorpade]] (1931–2011), politician from [[Karnataka]]
* [[Jayasinghrao Ghorpade]], Indian cricketer
* [[Sujay Ghorpade]] (born 1965), Indian table tennis player
* [[K. V. Ghorpade]] (1919–1997), Indian pathologist

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==

===Marathi===
*{{cite book|author1=Balagi Nathugi Gavand|author2=Govind Moroba Karlekar|title=Kshytriya Marathyanchi Vanshavali and Shannavkuli aani Surya, Som, Bhramh and Sheshvant|year=1997|publisher=Tukaram book Depo, Madhavbag, Mumbai 4}}

{{surname}}

[[Category:Maratha clans]]
[[Category:Marathi-language surnames]]
[[Category:Surnames]]

Thrikodithanam Mahavishnu Temple

2026-01-24T03:38:01Z

Realhimachal: put up new place

{{Short description|Vishnu temple in Thrikodithanam}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Thrikodithanam Mahavishnu Temple
| image = Thrickodithanam 7.JPG
| alt =
| caption =
| map_type = India Kerala
| map_caption = Location in [[Kerala]]
| coordinates = {{coord|9.438092|76.561998|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| country = [[India]]
| state = [[Kerala]]
| district = [[Kottayam district|Kottayam]]
| location = [[Kerala]], [[India]]
| elevation_m =
| deity = [[Vishnu|Mahavishnu]]
| Direction_posture =
| Pushakarani =
| Vimanam =
| Prathyaksham =
| festivals=
| architecture = [[Kerala architecture]]
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity=
| inscriptions =
| year_completed =
| creator =
| website = http://www.thrikodithanamtemple.com/
}}
'''Thrikodithanam Mahavishnu Temple''' is a [[Hindu temple]] dedicated to [[Vishnu]] and located in [[Thrikkodithanam]], [[Kottayam District]], [[Kerala]], [[South India]]. Constructed in the [[Architecture of Kerala|Kerala style of architecture]], the temple is glorified in the ''[[Divya Prabandha|Nalayira Divya Prabandham]]'', the early medieval [[Tamil literature|Tamil]] canon of the [[Alvars|Alvar]] saints from the 6th–9th centuries CE. It is one of the 108 ''[[Divyadesam|Divya Desam]]'' dedicated to [[Krishna]], an avatar of [[Vishnu]], who is worshipped as Mahavishnu. The nearest railway station to the temple is located in [[Changanassery]], while the nearest airport is [[Cochin International Airport]].

It is one of the five ancient shrines in the [[Kottayam]]-[[Alappuzha]]-[[Pathanamthitta]] area of Kerala, connected with the legend of [[Mahabharata]], where the five [[Pandavas]] are believed to have built one temple each; [[Thrichittatt Maha Vishnu Temple]] by [[Yudhishthira]], [[Puliyur Mahavishnu Temple]] by [[Bheema]], [[Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple]] by [[Arjuna]], [[Thiruvanvandoor Mahavishnu Temple]] by [[Nakula]] and Thrikodithanam Mahavishnu Temple by [[Sahadeva]]. The temple is open from 4:00 am to 11:00 am and 5:00 pm to 8:00 pm and is administered by [[Travancore Devaswom Board]] of the [[Government of Kerala]].

==Legend==
[[File:Thrickodithanam 1.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Painting on the walls of the outer ''gopuram'' of the temple. These particular paintings do not exist now (as of 2024).]]
It is one of the five ancient shrines around the [[Chengannur]] area of Kerala, connected with the legend of [[Mahabharata]]. Legend has it that the [[Pandava]] princes, after crowning [[Parikshit]] as king of [[Hastinapura]] left on a pilgrimage. On arriving on the banks of river [[Pamba River|Pamba]], each one is believed to have installed a tutelary image of Krishna; [[Thrichittatt Maha Vishnu Temple]] by [[Yudhishthira]], [[Puliyur Mahavishnu Temple]] by [[Bheema]], [[Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple]] by [[Arjuna]], [[Thiruvanvandoor Mahavishnu Temple]] by [[Nakula]] and Thrikodithanam Mahavishnu Temple by [[Sahadeva]].<ref name=culture>[[#Culture|Cultural Heritage of Kerala 2008]], pp. 44-45</ref><ref name=RoaA>[[#Rao|Rao 2012]], pp. 17-20</ref>

The Divya Kshetram was built by [[Sahadeva]] of [[Pandavas]]. King Rukmangatha of Surya Vamsa undertook Ekadasi Vratham and gifted all his punyas to Devas by which he reached Devaloka. There are also shrines for [[Krishna]] and [[Narasimha]]. Another legend is that temple servant being cursed by the deity to turn into a stone as he delayed the opening of the temple doors making the devotees to wait for darshana. The statue of the servant can be seen in front of the temple. A monthly Sravana Deepams (festival of light) is performed.<ref name=R/>

==Architecture==
[[File:Thirukodithanam MahaVishnu Temple.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Temple Entrance]]
The presiding deity in the temple is Athpudha Narayanan, who is also named as "Amirutha Narayanan". The presiding deity is sported in standing posture facing the east direction. His consort is Karpagavalli.<ref name=R>{{cite book|title=An introduction to religion and Philosophy - Tévarám and Tivviyappirapantam|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.jZY9lup2kZl6TuXGlZQdjZY2lZpy.TVA_BOK_0006115|last=R.|first=Dr. Vijayalakshmy|publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies| location=Chennai|year=2001|edition=1st|pages=456–7}}</ref> The temple is built in [[Architecture of Kerala|Kerala style architecture]]. The temple has a two storeyed [[gopuram]] or a gateway tower, with the upper storey having wooden trails covering the ''Kottupura'', the hall of drum beating during festivals. A rectangular wall around the temple, called ''Kshetra-Madilluka'' pierced by the gateways, encloses all the shrines of the temple. The metal plated flagpost or ''[[Dwajasthambam|dvajasthambam]]'' and the ''Deepastamba'', the light post, are located axial to the temple tower leading to the sanctum. ''Chuttuambalam'' is the outer pavilion located within the temple walls. The sanctum and the associated hall is located in a rectangular structure called ''Nallambalam'' that has pillared halls and corridors.<ref name=RoaB>[[#Rao|Rao 2012]], pp. 12-13</ref>

[[File:Thrickodithanam 6.JPG|thumb|250px|The shrines in the temple]]
Between the entrance of ''Nallambalam'' to the sanctum, there is a raised square platform called ''Namaskara Mandapa'' (altar) which has a pyramidal roof. ''Thevrapura'', the kitchen used to cook offering to the deity is located on the left of ''Namaskara Mandapa'' from the entrance. ''Balithara'' is an altar is used for making ritualistic offering to demi-gods and the festive deities. The sanctum called ''Sreekovil'', houses the image of the presiding deity. It is on an elevated platform with a single door reached through a flight of five steps. Either sides of the doors have images of guardian deities called [[Dvarapala]]kas. As per Kerala rituals, only the main priest called [[Thantri]] and the second priest called [[Melshanthi]] alone can enter the ''Sree Kovil''.<ref>[[#Culture|Cultural Heritage of Kerala 2008]], p. 139</ref> The central shrine has a circular plan with the base built of granite, superstructure built of laterite and conical roof made of terracotta tile supported from inside by a wooden structure. The lower half of ''Sree Kovil'' consists of the basement, the pillar or the wall, called {{Transliteration|hi|stambha}} or {{Transliteration|hi|bhithi}} and the entablature called {{Transliteration|hi|prasthara}} in the ratio 1:2:1, in height. Similarly the upper half is divided into the neck called {{Transliteration|hi|griva}}, the roof tower called {{Transliteration|hi|shikhara}} and the finial {{Transliteration|hi|kalasam}} (made of copper) in the same ratio. The roof projects in two levels to protect the inner structure from heavy rains during monsoon. The roof of the temple and some of the pillars have lavish wood and stucco carvings depicting various stories of ancient epics, [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharatha]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Indian Encyclopaedia: Kamli-Kyouk Phyu|editor=Subodh Kapoor|page=3963|publisher=Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd|year=2002|isbn=9788177552577|volume=13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AYN0n0pzlpcC&q=kerala+temple+architecture&pg=PA3963}}</ref> The outer walls around the sanctum have a series of wooden frames housing an array of lamps, which are lit during festive occasions.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Architecture and Organization of Kerala Style Hindu Temples|jstor=40460291|page=17|last=Noble|first=William A.|journal=Anthropos|year=1981|volume=76|issue=1/2|issn=0257-9774}}</ref> The temples has paintings on its walls dating back to early 18 century.<ref name=culture23>[[#Culture|Cultural Heritage of Kerala 2008]], p. 151</ref> The image of the presiding deity is {{convert|6|ft|m|abbr=on}} tall. Krishna is in [[Vishvarupa]] pose, the one he depicted to Arjuna during the Mahabharatha war.<ref name=Info>{{cite book|title=Pilgrimage to Temple Heritage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAt8AgAAQBAJ&q=aranmula+temple&pg=PA115|pages=115–116|publisher=Infokerala Communications Pvt. Ltd.|first=Biju|last=Mathew|isbn=9788192128443|year=2013}}</ref> In the second precinct, there are shrines of Sastha, Yakshi, Nagaraja and Erangavil Bhagavathy Balarama in the lower shrine.<ref name=Info/> The temple tank named Bhoomi Theertham is located opposite to the temple. The Vimanam, the roof the sanctum is called Punniya koti Vimaanam.<ref name=R/>

==Kazhuvetti Kallu==
[[File:Kazhuvetti Kallu.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Kazhuvetti Kallu at the Thrikodithanam Mahavishnu temple complex]]

Between the pond and the eastern entrance, near a public platform for arts and discourses, is a strange granite statue. It is a man flat on his back, held up stiff and straight on a stone pillar about six feet high. Only his waist rests on the pillar, rest of the body is unsupported. He holds a shankhu (conch shell) in his left hand and wears the sacred thread indicative of the Brahmin castes. At one time the statue wore a crown as well. The idol is a stern reminder that bribery, cheating and dishonesty cannot be tolerated. Anybody who goes after these evils will be met with the capital punishment, such as, that met with the man lying on the stone. Common folklore about this stone idol has a story of jealousy, indiscretion and swift retribution.

The ruler of Chembakaserry kingdom was a renowned Nambuthiri Brahmin who took pride in the prosperity of his own kingdom and Sri Krishna temple. Since temples were then considered keystones to a kingdom's spiritual and temporal well-being, the King decided to embarrass the rulers of Nanrulainattu (capital-Thrikodithanam) by making a deliberate, untimely visit to the famous Vishnu Temple.
He arrived in Thrikodithanam after the Seiveli puja (the last ceremony of the day) and after the temple had closed. It is considered very inauspicious to open a temple after the gods are put to rest, but still, the King forced an entry by bribing a caretaker.
When the rulers of Nanrulainattu discovered this indiscretion, they were furious. The caretaker was beheaded and, soon, the Chambakaserry king too fell ill and died. So this stone figure was installed near the temple entrance to deter any future offenders and to remind everybody of the consequences of disturbing the gods. Another version of the story lays the blame on the king of Ambalapuzha for this surreptitious darshana.<ref name=R/>

==Religious importance==
Arputha Narayana temple is revered in ''[[Nalayira Divya Prabhandam]]'', the 7th–9th century Vaishnava canon, by [[Nammazhwar|Nammalvar]]. The temple is classified as a ''[[Divyadesam|Divya Desam]]'', one of the 108 Vishnu temples that are mentioned in the book. The temple is also believed to be the place where ''Kutakkuttu'', a dance form where ladies hold an umbrella while dancing is practiced during worship.<ref name=R/>

The temple is under the administration of the [[Travancore Devaswom Board]].<ref name=dinamalar>{{cite web|title=Sri Arputha Narayanan temple|url=https://temple.dinamalar.com/en/new_en.php?id=106|publisher=Dinamalar|year=2011|access-date=20 August 2017}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|3}}

==References==
{{refbegin|20em}}
* {{cite book|title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&q=kerala+temple+architecture&pg=PA139|publisher=DC Books|location=Kerala, India|isbn=9788126419036|year=2008|ref=Culture}}
* {{cite book|title=Temples of Kerala|publisher=Vasan Publications|last=Rao|first=A.V. Shankaranaryana|ref=Rao|year=2012|isbn=978-81-89888-94-7}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* http://www.thrikodithanamtemple.com/
* Thrikodithanam Maha-Vishnu Kshetram - https://thrikodithanam.wordpress.com/

[[Category:Hindu temples in Kottayam district]]
[[Category:Divya Desams]]
[[Category:Changanassery]]
[[Category:Vishnu temples in Kerala]]

National Highway 84 (India, old numbering)

2025-10-29T16:55:58Z

Realhimachal: redirect

#REDIRECT [[National Highway 922 (India)]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R with history}}
}}

Samiullah Khan

2025-10-19T01:10:14Z

Realhimachal: put up stub - done

{{short description|Governor of the State of Sahaspur}}
{{about|Governor of the State of Sahaspur|other}}

'''Samiullah Khan''' was the governor of the [[Princely state|Princely]] [[State of Sahaspur]] before [[partition of India]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Arghwani Begum |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/arghwani-begum/pQHXRtdA0ezuWg |access-date=2022-03-26 |website=Google Arts & Culture |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Citation |last1=Begum |first1=Arghwani |title=Oral history with Arghwani Begum, 2015 August 31 |date=2015-08-31 |url=https://purl.stanford.edu/sy490th7041 |place=Lahore (Pakistan) |access-date=2022-03-26 |last2=Hassan |first2=Fakhra}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=University |first1=© Stanford |last2=Stanford |last3=California 94305 |title=Oral history with Arghwani Begum, 2015 August 31 |url=https://purl.stanford.edu/sy490th7041 |access-date=2022-03-26 |website=purl.stanford.edu |language=en}}</ref>

{{Infobox royalty
| name = Samiullah Khan
| title =
| image =
| reign =
| successor =
| dynasty =
| spouse = Ghafoorunisa
| issue = Arghwani Begum
| father =
| mother =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| place of burial=
}}

== Rule ==
State of Sahaspur had 22 villages under its command in the current [[Bijnor district]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]] state of [[India]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

== Family ==
=== Daughters ===
* Arghwani Begum (born 2nd January, 1922), she had two daughters (Nabahat and Sabahat) and a son.<ref name=":1" />

==See also==
*[[State of Sahaspur]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Samiullah}}

[[Category:Partition of India]]
[[Category:Administrators in the princely states of India]]

West India Quay DLR station

2025-10-11T09:42:11Z

Realhimachal: Creating data

{{short description|Docklands Light Railway station}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2012}}
{{Infobox London station |symbol = dlr
| name = West India Quay
| image_name = West India Quay, Docklands Light Railway - geograph.org.uk - 1472271.jpg
| manager = [[Docklands Light Railway]]
| fare_zone = 2
| locale = [[Canary Wharf]]
| borough = [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]
| map_type = United Kingdom London Tower Hamlets
| events1 = Opened | years1=31 August 1987
| events2 = Closed temporarily |years2=14 October 1991
| events3 = Reopened |years3=28 June 1993
| platforms = 3
| access = yes
| access_note = <ref>{{Citation step free tube map}}</ref>
| coordinates = {{coord|51.50687|-0.020425|type:railwaystation_region:GB|display=inline,title}}
| original = [[Docklands Light Railway]]
| interchange = [[Canary Wharf railway station|Canary Wharf]] {{rail-interchange|london|crossrail}}

}}
'''West India Quay''' is a [[Docklands Light Railway]] (DLR) station in [[Canary Wharf]]’s [[West India Quay]]. It is located at the point where the line from [[Lewisham station|Lewisham]] splits into branches to [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway]]/[[Bank–Monument station|Bank]] and [[Stratford station|Stratford]]. The next stations on each line are [[Canary Wharf DLR station]] (to Lewisham), [[Westferry DLR station|Westferry]] (to Tower Gateway/Bank) and [[Poplar DLR station]] (to Stratford). The station is in [[London fare zone 2]].

==Location and connections==
West India Quay station is located over the northern half of the [[West India Quay|dock of the same name]] in southeast end of [[Limehouse]] and is very close to both [[Poplar, London|Poplar]] and [[Canary Wharf]], and is in the central portion of the [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]. Situated to the south of Billingsgate Road and Aspen Way (A1261), the station is near the edge of the main Docklands re-development area.
The distance from West India Quay DLR to [[Canary Wharf DLR station|Canary Wharf DLR]] is just {{convert|199|m|mi|disp=flip|sigfig=3}},<ref>{{cite book |last=Yonge |first=John |editor-last=Jacobs |editor-first=Gerald |title=Railway Track Diagrams 5: Southern & TfL |edition=3rd |date=November 2008 |orig-year=1994 |publisher=Trackmaps |location=Bradford on Avon |isbn=978-0-9549866-4-3 |at=map 48 }}</ref> the shortest distance between stations on the entire [[London Underground]] and [[Docklands Light Railway]] system. Indeed, while standing at the station, the platforms for Canary Wharf are clearly visible just down the line, as is the following station [[Heron Quays DLR station|Heron Quays station]], from which Canary Wharf and West India Quay are also visible in the opposite direction.

West India Quay is the closest DLR station to the [[Canary Wharf railway station]] served by the [[Elizabeth line]].

The station is not served by any [[London Buses]] Routes.

As of April 2017 DLR trains from Bank towards Lewisham do not stop at this station, meaning to reach here from the [[City of London]] passengers must travel on to Canary Wharf and get the next train in the opposite direction, or travel to Poplar and either change there to travel to West India Quay, or walk the short distance between the stations.<ref>tfl.gov.uk</ref>

==History==
The station opened in 1987 but was closed from 1991 to 1993 as the surrounding area was rebuilt. The station is near to the [[London Museum Docklands]] and the adjoining hotel and leisure facilities on the north quay of [[West India Docks]], and indeed the platforms of the station extend over part of the dock.<ref name="delta" />

===Late 2000s upgrades===
Between March and October 2007 the station's canopy was replaced in a £1.85m project funded by [[Transport for London]].<ref name=tfl20071029>{{cite press release
| title = West India Quay Station works completed
| publisher = Transport for London
| date = 29 October 2007
| url = http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/media/newscentre/6280.aspx
| access-date = 29 October 2007
| archive-date = 3 March 2008
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080303055814/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/media/newscentre/6280.aspx
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
Throughout the project, TfL highlighted the sustainable nature of the project through its use of recycled materials while justifying the replacement as necessary due to the increasingly windy conditions as a result of taller developments nearby.<ref name=tfl20071029/>

Construction was completed in May 2009 of a new single track dive-under as part of the current capacity upgrades. A ramp takes trains from Bank to Canary Wharf under the current Canary Wharf to Poplar track. The new track goes around West India Quay, before coming back up to rejoin the route to Canary Wharf.<ref name="delta" /> To construct the new track next to West India Quay the easternmost platform (Platform 1) had to be demolished. A consequence of this was, that during construction, trains from Canary Wharf to Poplar and trains from Bank to Canary Wharf had to cross each other at the same level which limited junction capacity.

The work was completed in May 2009, but the bypass track was not commissioned until 24 August 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2009 |title=New DLR timetable hastens service improvements |url=http://pressroom.dlr.co.uk/news/details.asp?id=207 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090829074612/http://pressroom.dlr.co.uk/news/details.asp?id=207 |archive-date=29 August 2009 |access-date=29 August 2009 |website=Docklands Light Railway - Press Room |publisher=[[Transport for London]]}}</ref> It is used by all trains running from Bank to Lewisham, but trains running in the opposite direction still call at West India Quay even during peak hours.

==Station layout==
Until the Delta Junction upgrade in 2009, West India Quay used to contain four platforms with four tracks. From west to east (platform 4 to 1) these platforms served trains to Westferry, to Poplar, from Westferry, and Poplar. After reconstruction, the old platform 1 ceased to exist with trains from Westferry diving under the junction and bypassing the station to the east. Trains from Poplar now arrive on platform 2.<ref name="delta">{{Cite web |date=3 October 2007 |title=Docklands Light Railway (DLR) Delta Junction Grade Separation |url=http://developments.dlr.co.uk/pdf/enhancements/phase2/delta.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071003191051/http://developments.dlr.co.uk/pdf/enhancements/phase2/delta.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2007 |access-date=19 July 2010 |website=Docklands Light Railway - Development Projects |publisher=[[Transport for London]]}}</ref>

==Services==
The typical off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) from West India Quay is:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tfl.gov.uk/dlr/timetable/dlr/|title=DLR train timetables|work=[[Transport for London]]|access-date=21 August 2023|archive-date=13 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813133237/https://tfl.gov.uk/dlr/timetable/dlr/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 12 tph to {{stn|Stratford}}
* 12 tph to [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]]
* 12 tph to [[Canary Wharf DLR station|Canary Wharf]]

Services from Bank towards Lewisham do not stop at West India Quay.

Additional services call at the station during the peak hours, increasing the service to Bank to up to 22 tph, and the service between Stratford and Canary Wharf to up to 16 tph in each direction with up to 8 tph during the peak hours extended beyond Canary Wharf to and from {{stn|Lewisham}}.

{{s-rail-start}}
{{s-rail|title=Docklands Light Railway{{!}}DLR}}
{{rail line two to one|previous1=[[Westferry DLR station|Westferry]] {{smalldiv|(Westbound only) ''towards [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]]''}}|previous2=[[Poplar DLR station|Poplar]] {{smalldiv|(Eastbound only) ''towards {{stn|Stratford}}''}}|next=[[Canary Wharf DLR station|Canary Wharf]] {{smalldiv|''towards {{stn|Lewisham}}''}}|route=[[Docklands Light Railway]]|col={{rcr|DLR}} }}
{{end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|West India Quay DLR station}}
* [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/gettingaround/transportaccessibility/dlr/3237.aspx Docklands Light Railway website - West India Quay station page]
{{Canary Wharf}}{{Docklands Light Railway}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:West India Quay Dlr Station}}
[[Category:Docklands Light Railway stations in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1987]]
[[Category:Canary Wharf]]

Mumbai Mirror

2025-10-03T11:43:37Z

Realhimachal: slightly adjusted page to improve readability

{{short description|Indian English newspaper}}
{{for|the movie|Mumbai Mirror (film)}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox newspaper
| name = Mumbai Mirror
| logo = Mumbai Mirror.svg
| logo_size =
| image = MumbaiMirrorCover.jpg
| image_size = 240px
| launched = {{start date and age|2005|05|25|df=yes}}
| format = [[Tabloid (newspaper format)|Tabloid]]
| publisher = Metropolitan Media Company
| editor = Ravi Joshi
| owners = [[The Times Group]]
| readership = 1,800,000+ (2017)
| website = {{URL|http://www.mumbaimirror.com/}}
| caption = The frontpage of ''Mumbai Mirror'' on 2 August 2016
| type = Daily newspaper (2005–2020)
| founded = 2005
| language = English
| headquarters = [[Bangalore]], [[Karnataka]]
| publishing_city = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]]
}}
The '''''Mumbai Mirror''''' is an Indian [[English-language]] newspaper published in [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Bhatia|first=Sidharth|date=7 December 2020|title=With the Death of Mumbai Mirror, a Connection With the City Is Lost|url=https://thewire.in/media/mumbai-mirror-local-news-india-newspaper-digital-media|access-date=2021-06-30|website=[[The Wire (India)|The Wire]]}}</ref> Launched in 2005 as a [[Compact (newspaper)|compact]] [[daily newspaper]],<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Joseph|first=Anto T.|date=9 December 2020|title=Why is the Times Group shutting down Mirror?|url=https://www.newslaundry.com/2020/12/09/why-is-the-times-group-shutting-down-mirror|access-date=2021-06-30|website=[[Newslaundry]]}}</ref> its coverage focused on city specific local news and civic issues concerning education, healthcare and municipal administration.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Johari|first=Aarefa|date=19 December 2020|title=How the closure of the Mumbai Mirror and the erosion of local news coverage will hurt a city|url=https://scroll.in/article/981577/how-the-closure-of-the-mumbai-mirror-and-the-erosion-of-local-news-coverage-will-hurt-a-city|access-date=2021-06-30|website=[[Scroll.in]]|language=en-US}}</ref> The founding editor of the paper was Meenal Baghel who is credited for developing an aggressive [[public service]] oriented editorial outlook for the paper that it had till its downsizing in 2020.<ref name=":0" /> In 2017, it had a readership of over 1.8 million which made it the [[List of newspapers in India by readership|fifth most widely read English language newspaper]] in the country.<ref name=":8" />

The newspaper is owned by [[The Times Group]], the publisher of ''[[The Times of India]].'' It was launched as part of a [[ringfencing]] tactic against competitors in the city of Mumbai. The paper's growth in circulation and positive editorial reception inspired the creation of other city specific newspapers such as the ''[[Bangalore Mirror]]'', ''[[Pune Mirror]]'' and ''[[Ahmedabad Mirror]]''.<ref name=":1" />

In 2020, it was bundled with the other ''Mirror'' newspapers under a subsidiary called the Metropolitan Media Company, downsized and converted into a [[weekly newspaper]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6" /> The head office of the newspaper was moved into the office of the ''[[Bangalore Mirror]]'' whose editor took over the paper.<ref name=":6" /> The paper had the largest readership among [[tabloid format]] newspapers in the city before its downsizing.<ref name=":2" />

== History ==

=== Background ===
''[[The Times of India]]'' had a [[market dominance]] in Mumbai for over a century, being known as the "Old Lady of Boribunder" in the city. In 2005, two rival newspapers were expected to be launched which threatened its market share. ''[[Dainik Bhaskar]]'' and the [[Zee Group]] had formed a joint venture to launch the Mumbai-based ''[[Daily News & Analysis]]'', while the ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' which had primarily been a north Indian newspaper had announced the launch of its Mumbai edition.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last1=Nandy|first1=Madhurima|last2=K. K.|first2=Sruthjith|date=2008-08-19|title=Bangalore set to be next big battleground for print media|url=https://www.livemint.com/Home-Page/vM3SPspevxY7NcIFoHrs0J/Bangalore-set-to-be-next-big-battleground-for-print-media.html|access-date=2021-06-30|website=[[Livemint]]|language=en}}</ref> [[The Times Group]] was faced with large scale poaching including those of experienced journalists as well as sales and marketing executives.<ref name=":1" /> The economy was experiencing a boom and the two new entrants in the Mumbai market offered lucrative jobs to otherwise underpaid journalists.<ref name=":0" />

The Times Group held routine consultations and deliberations over the threat posed to it. The board eventually approved the decision to launch a new newspaper, the ''Mumbai Mirror'' as a [[ringfencing]] tactic against the competition.<ref name=":1" /> The new newspaper would further reduce the advertisement revenue prospects for the new entrants. It was printed in the tabloid format and was launched quickly.<ref name=":0" /> The executives were aware of the potential of the paper cannibalising the market share of its parent but disregarded it.<ref name=":1" /> The company had adopted a similar tactic in 1989 when it launched ''The Independent'' to compete with the ''Indian Post'', a newspaper founded by [[Vijaypat Singhania]]. ''Indian Post'' collapsed within a few years and ''The Independent'' was shut down with the company stating that it was unprofitable.<ref name=":0" />

The ''Mumbai Mirror'' was launched on 25 May 2005 with a grand ceremony at the [[Gateway of India]], which saw the attendance of the [[Bollywood]] star [[Abhishek Bachchan]] and the chief minister [[Vilasrao Deshmukh]]. The launch occurred before the other newspapers could be launched.<ref name=":1" />

=== Daily newspaper ===
The ''Mumbai Mirror'' started as a free daily supplement alongside ''The Times of India''. 200,000 copies were distributed on its inaugural print which gave it the second largest circulation in Mumbai after ''The Times of India'' itself.<ref name=":1" /> Marketed as a [[compact newspaper]],<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Rangaswami|first=Anant|date=2012-06-11|title=Mumbai Mirror: From compact to a tabloid?|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/mumbai-mirror-from-compact-to-a-tabloid-339003.html|access-date=2021-06-30|website=[[Firstpost]]}}</ref> the paper initially did not have catchy headlines but neither was it considered [[upmarket]] enough. It suffered as a result with the ''[[Mid-Day]]'' leading the tabloid circulation in the city.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ramesh|first=Randeep|date=2005-07-27|title=Newspaper empires at war in India|url=http://www.theguardian.com/media/2005/jul/27/pressandpublishing.business|access-date=2021-06-30|website=[[The Guardian]]|language=en}}</ref> [[Meenal Baghel]] was the founding editor of the newspaper. The paper slowly developed a reputation for aggressive [[public service]] journalism under her.<ref name=":0" /> The circulation figures continued to grow in the following years, in spite of the competition. The success of the paper in terms of editorial and circulation inspired the launch of similar editions in other cities such as the ''[[Bangalore Mirror]]'', ''[[Pune Mirror]]'' and ''[[Ahmedabad Mirror]]''.<ref name=":1" />

The newspaper suffered losses in its first three year.<ref name=":1" /> The competition was intense and all the leading newspapers were in losses but through it, ''The Times of India'' managed to retain its position as the paper with the highest circulation.<ref name=":4" /> Over the years the strategy employed by The Times Group was successful in outmaneuvering its competition, the joint venture for the ''Daily News & Analysis'' was abandoned and the ''Hindustan Times'' continued to remain in losses in the city as of 2020. The net valuation of the ''Mumbai Mirror'' in 2011 was at {{INRConvert|200|c|year=2011}}.<ref name=":1" /> It was circulated alongside ''The Times of India'' at a composite rate.<ref name=":0" /> The newspaper was sold at ₹3 as a standalone and at ₹7 alongside its parent [[broadsheet]], ''The Times of India''.<ref name=":1" />

According to the [[Indian Readership Survey]] (2017), the newspaper had a readership of over 1.8 million placing it as the fifth most read English newspaper in India.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|year=2019|title=Mumbai Mirror|url=https://india.mom-rsf.org/en/media/detail/outlet/mumbai-mirror/|access-date=2021-06-30|website=Media Ownership Monitor|publisher=[[Reporters Without Borders]]|language=en}}</ref> The editorial product was considered to be a success and the newspaper became well regarded as a more critical, independent and city focused newspaper in contrast to the broadsheet.<ref name=":2" /> The media watchdog ''[[Newslaundry]]'' described it to have done "more than it was supposed to".<ref name=":1" /> ''Mumbai Mirror'' had gained the highest tabloid readership in the city,<ref name=":2" /> and it cannibalised the advertisement revenue of The Times Group. Throughout its existence, the rates in the newspaper was much lower than that of the parent broadsheet and there was down trading by advertisers as the high circulation rate made it a viable alternative at lower rates.<ref name=":1" />

In 2019, the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and its resultant lockdowns hit the profit margins of The Times Group. The net revenue from advertisements was decreasing in the last couple of years due to economic slowdown and with the pandemic, the circulation of both the newspapers in Mumbai took a hard drop.<ref name=":1" /> The government had also introduced import duties on [[newsprint]] which further increased expenses.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=Tiwari|first=Ayush|date=12 January 2021|title=40 lose jobs as Mumbai Mirror turns into a weekly, Pune Mirror continues as daily|url=https://www.newslaundry.com/2021/01/12/40-lose-jobs-as-mumbai-mirror-turns-into-a-weekly-pune-mirror-continues-as-daily|access-date=2021-07-01|website=[[Newslaundry]]}}</ref>

=== Downsizing ===
In 2020, the ''Mumbai Mirror'' was transferred to a subsidiary of The Times Group called the Metropolitan Media Company Ltd. (MMCL). The subsidiary bundled together all of the city specific newspapers of the group. The employees were made to sign new agreements with MMCL without any changes to their job profiles. The transfer became effective on 1 April and gave rise to speculations that The Times Group was either planning to sell off the city focused ''Mirror'' newspapers or shutting them down.<ref name=":1" />

On 5 December 2020, The Times Group released a statement that the economic crisis induced by the pandemic had made the newspaper unviable.<ref name=":2" /> The group announced that it would be converted into a [[weekly newspaper]] and continue to publish online. Baghel broke the news in a virtual meeting with the employees of the paper. The management and the human resources department were both largely unaware and could not brief the employees on the development which caused confusion and uncertainty.<ref name=":1" /> The development also invoked negative reactions from readers and commentators, who perceived it to be a closure of the newspaper.<ref name=":2" /> The Times Group had remained profitable which raised questions on why the newspaper was being axed.<ref name=":1" />

The ''Mumbai Mirror'' office was moved to the office of the ''[[Bangalore Mirror]]'' and placed under its editor, Ravi Joshi. In January, 40 journalists consisting 60% of the editorial team were laid off and the rest accommodated into either ''The Times of India'' or the digital media arm of the company, [[Times Internet]]. The retained employees included around 6 columnists who continued to publish their columns online on a vertical called ''TOI Plus''. The laid off staff were not provided any severance packages and asked to serve their notice period with one month's basic pay. The company maintained that the ''Mumbai Mirror'' had not shut down but transformed into a weekly. According to a former employee, they had not resorted to legal recourse because it would close off any future prospects with the company and that the company could employ the defense that severance packages are not enforceable because the newspaper had not shut down.<ref name=":6" />

=== Return ===
The ''Mumbai Mirror'' has restarted daily circulation from 15 June 2025.

== Content ==
The ''Mumbai Mirror'' focuses more on [[Civic engagement|civic issues]] and in depth local news coverage concerning Mumbai over national news compared to other newspapers in the city.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> The coverage focuses on issues such as healthcare, crime, education and local administration concerning the city. It includes critical reportage accompanied with forceful unconventional headlines.<ref name=":0" /> The language of the paper is [[indigenised]] with greater use of informal terms, [[Hindi]] words and [[code-switching]] in quotes. The newspaper also utilises large spaces for images and provides greater coverage to celebrity and entertainment news.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Deuber|first=Dagmar|url=https://brill.com/view/title/34026|title=Contested Communities: Communication, Narration, Imagination|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=2017|isbn=978-90-04-33528-8|editor-last=Mühleisen|editor-first=Susanne|volume=190|pages=133–128|language=EN|chapter=The Indian Tabloid in English: What Type of Community Does It Speak To, and How?}}</ref>

The paper has a large range of columns on law, economy, culture, etc.<ref name=":0" /> It had a popular column called ''Ask the Sexpert'' which received readers questions related to sexual activity and gave humorous informative answers in return.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|last=Barry|first=Ellen|date=2014-08-08|title=90-Year-Old Sex Columnist Shatters Taboos in India|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/09/world/asia/mahinder-watsa-offers-sex-advice-to-indians.html|access-date=2021-06-30|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The column was written by the retired [[obstretrician]] [[Mahinder Watsa]] until his death in 2020,<ref>{{Cite news|others=[[Press Trust of India]]|date=2020-12-29|title=Mumbai's sexpert Dr. Mahinder Watsa dead|language=en-IN|work=[[The Hindu]]|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/mumbais-sexpert-dr-mahinder-watsa-dead/article33441732.ece|access-date=2021-06-30|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> it is credited for breaking [[taboos]] and being a space for imparting [[sex education]] including [[safe sex]] practices which are often neglected in education.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=28 December 2020|title=Mumbai's 'Ask the Sexpert' columnist Mahinder Watsa dies at 96|url=https://scroll.in/latest/982489/mumbais-ask-the-sexpert-columnist-mahinder-watsa-dies-at-96|access-date=2021-06-30|website=[[Scroll.in]]|language=en-US}}</ref>

The photography editor of the ''Mumbai Mirror'', [[Sebastian D'Souza (photojournalist)|Sebastian D'Souza]] captured a number of pictures of [[Ajmal Kasab]] during the [[2008 Mumbai attacks]] including the most recognisable shot of the attacks; a closeup of Kasab with an assault rifle in a railway terminus.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Fuller|first=Thomas|date=2008-12-30|title=Photographers Recorded Mumbai Rampage in Stark Detail|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/30/world/asia/30mumbai.html|access-date=2021-06-30|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The photograph received a special mention in the spot news category of the [[World Press Photo of the Year]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Subramanian|first=Samanth|date=2009-11-23|title=The wrong place at the right time|url=https://www.livemint.com/Home-Page/1dSyiihsAiSI1HhXNg3inN/The-wrong-place-at-the-right-time.html|access-date=2021-06-30|website=[[Livemint]]|language=en}}</ref> D'Souza later received the [[Red Ink Awards|Red Ink Award for Lifetime Achievement]] for his photography in midst of attacks and for his earlier work with [[Agence France-Presse]] (AFP) during the [[2002 Gujarat riots]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-06-24|title=Scribe wins RedInk award for Aadhaar expose|work=[[Business Standard]]|agency=[[Press Trust of India]]|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/scribe-wins-redink-award-for-aadhaar-expose-119062401359_1.html|access-date=2021-06-30}}</ref>

=== Editorial stance ===
The ''Mumbai Mirror'' has a [[hyperlocal]] focus,<ref name=":2" /> and an issue based campaign oriented journalism for initiating action towards solutions to civic issues including through collaboration with activists and college students.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Taguchi|first=Yoko|date=2012|title=Aesthetics of Civil Society: 'Fight the Filth' Campaign in Mumbai|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23214616|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=47|issue=20|pages=13–16|jstor=23214616|issn=0012-9976}}</ref> It is described to have reported news from a citizens point of view, questioning unresponsive civic authorities and featuring local heroes.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /> One criticism of its editorial stand has been that it focuses on the interests of an English speaking [[middle class]] [[civil society]] in its advocacy for cleanliness in the city, disregarding compulsions of the [[working class]] population.<ref name=":5" />

The newspaper has maintained an independent focus on national news compared to its broadsheet parent and reported critical stories on the central and the state governments throughout its history. It has also sustained pressures against being compromised into aligning in favor of the ruling dispensation in the post 2014 period of India.<ref name=":0" />

==See also==
*''[[Mirror Buzz]]''

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/}}

{{Newspapers in India |state=expanded}}

[[Category:Newspapers published in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Publications of The Times Group]]
[[Category:English-language newspapers published in India]]
[[Category:2005 establishments in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Newspapers established in 2005]]

James Tooley

2025-09-14T10:18:22Z

Realhimachal: added info

{{Short description|British educationalist (born 1959)}}
{{for|the weightlifter|James Tooley (weightlifter)}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox person
| name = James Tooley
| image = James Tooley at the Institute of Economic Affairs on 25 February 2015.JPG
| caption = James Tooley at the [[Institute of Economic Affairs]] in London on 25 February 2015, after his talk entitled "50 years after EG West's 'Education and the State'."
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth-date and age|July 1959}}
| birth_place = [[Southampton]], [[England]]
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| education =[[Kingsfield School]] [[University of Sussex]] [[University of London]]
| employer = [[University of Buckingham]]
| occupation = Educator, scholar
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'''James Nicholas Tooley''' (born July 1959, in Southampton, England) is a professor of educational entrepreneurship and of [[education policy]] at the [[University of Buckingham]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.buckingham.ac.uk/directory/professor-james-tooley/|title=Staff Profiles - University of Buckingham|website=www.buckingham.ac.uk}}</ref> In July 2020, Tooley was appointed as the new Vice-Chancellor of the [[University of Buckingham]], succeeding Sir [[Anthony Seldon]] from 1 October 2020.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.buckingham.ac.uk/news/new-vice-chancellor-appointed-at-the-university-of-buckingham/ |title=New Vice-Chancellor appointed at the University of Buckingham |date=15 July 2020 |website=News |publisher=[[University of Buckingham]] |access-date=17 July 2020}}</ref>

==Early life==
Tooley's family moved to Bristol where he was educated at [[Kingsfield School]], Kingswood.<ref name="Fire">{{cite news |last=Tooley |first=James |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/08/27/new-breed-low-cost-private-schools-masses-can-save-uks-failing/ |title=Only a new breed of low-cost private schools for the masses can save the UK's failing education system |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=2017-08-27 |access-date=2017-08-27 }}</ref>

== Career background ==
Tooley holds a PhD from the Institute of Education, [[University of London]],<ref>{{cite journal | last=Tooley | first=James Nicholas | title=E.G. West and State Intervention in Education: A Philosophical Exploration| year=1994 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Jl3GwAACAAJ|access-date=24 September 2012}}</ref> an MSc from the [[Science Policy Research Unit]], University of Sussex, and first class BSc honours in Logic and Mathematics, also from the [[University of Sussex]]. He began his career as a mathematics teacher in [[Zimbabwe]] (1983 to 1986), before moving to the [[National Foundation for Educational Research]] in England in 1988. He held short-term appointments at [[Simon Fraser University]], Canada, and the University of the Western Cape, South Africa, while completing his PhD. His first post-doctoral position was with the [[University of Oxford]]'s Department of Educational Studies, under Professor [[Richard Pring]]. From Oxford he moved to the [[University of Manchester]] in 1995; at the same time he also created the Education and Training Unit at the [[Institute of Economic Affairs]] in London.

Tooly was professor at the [[University of Newcastle upon Tyne]], where he directed the [[E. G. West Centre]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncl.ac.uk/ecls/staff/profile/james.tooley|title=Staff Profiles - Education, Communication and Language Sciences - Newcastle University|website=www.ncl.ac.uk|access-date=24 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160922172139/http://www.ncl.ac.uk/ecls/staff/profile/james.tooley|archive-date=22 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncl.ac.uk/egwest/|title=E. G. West Centre|access-date=8 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825135518/http://www.ncl.ac.uk/egwest/|archive-date=25 August 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.jamestooley.net| title = James Tooley}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fraserinstitute.org/about/experts?id=15334&txID=3236|title=Topic Experts|website=Fraser Institute}}</ref> For his research on private education for the poor in India, China and Africa, Tooley was awarded the gold prize in the first [[International Finance Corporation]]/[[Financial Times]] Private Sector Development Competition in September 2006. From 2007 to 2009, he was founding President of the Education Fund, Orient Global,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.orientglobal.com/Welcome.asp|title=Orient Global|access-date=8 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917072748/http://www.orientglobal.com/welcome.asp|archive-date=17 September 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> and lived in Hyderabad, India. He is currently chairman of education companies in Ghana (Omega Schools Franchise Ltd) and India (Empathy Learning Systems Pvt Ltd) creating low cost chains of low cost private schools. He also holds an appointment as an Adjunct Scholar at the [[Cato Institute]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cato.org/people/james-tooley|title=James Tooley}}</ref> and serves on the Advisory Council of the [[Institute of Economic Affairs]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iea.org.uk/about/fellows-and-advisors|title=Fellows and Academic Advisors|website=Institute of Economic Affairs}}</ref> as well as on the Academic Advisory Council of [[Civitas (think tank)|Civitas: The Institute for the Study of Civil Society]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.civitas.org.uk/books/about.php#academic |title=Civitas: About Us |access-date=24 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115222832/http://civitas.org.uk/books/about.php#academic |archive-date=15 January 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He also serves on the [[Visitor|Board of Visitors]] of [[Ralston College]], a start-up liberal arts college in [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ralston.ac|title=Collegium Ralstonianum apud Savannenses - Home|website=www.ralston.ac}}</ref>

==University of Buckingham==
James Nicholas Tooley is a professor of educational entrepreneurship and of [[education policy]] at the [[University of Buckingham]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.buckingham.ac.uk/directory/professor-james-tooley/|title=Staff Profiles - University of Buckingham|website=www.buckingham.ac.uk}}</ref> In July 2020, Tooley was appointed as the new Vice-Chancellor of the [[University of Buckingham]], succeeding Sir [[Anthony Seldon]] from 1 October 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.buckingham.ac.uk/news/new-vice-chancellor-appointed-at-the-university-of-buckingham/ |title=New Vice-Chancellor appointed at the University of Buckingham |date=15 July 2020 |website=News |publisher=[[University of Buckingham]] |access-date=17 July 2020}}</ref>

In October 2024 it was announced that Tooley had been suspended as Vice-Chancellor of Buckingham University because of serious allegations which had been made against him. He was reinstated in January 2025 after an investigation found that the allegations were not substantiated. The investigation was carried out by Joseph O’Brien KC, who at the same time investigated Tooley’s allegations that his suspension was due to opposition to his political views and his belief in free speech and academic freedom. O’Brien found that Tooley’s allegations were without merit.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lowson |first1=James |title=University of Buckingham vice-chancellor reinstated as investigation into ‘serious allegations’ ends|date=30 January 2025 |url=https://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/world/university-of-buckingham-vice-chancellor-reinstated-as-investigation-into-serious-allegations-ends/ar-AA1y4dGE?ocid=BingNewsSerp |website=msn.com |publisher=Bucks Herald |access-date=2 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Osborne & Burgis |title=Vice-chancellor’s claim he was targeted for his ‘anti-woke’ beliefs rejected|date=6 February 2025 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2025/feb/06/vice-chancellors-claim-he-was-targeted-for-his-anti-woke-beliefs-rejected |website=theguardian.com |publisher=Guardian |access-date=10 February 2025}}</ref>

== Low-cost private education ==
Tooley is best known for his work on low cost private education. He began this work in 2000, having discovered for himself the existence of low cost private schools in the slums of Hyderabad while doing consultancy for the International Finance Corporation. A major research programme was subsequently undertaken between 2003 and 2005, funded by the [[John Templeton Foundation]], exploring the nature and existence of private schools for the poor in India, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya and China, and comparing public and private provision for the poor. This research is reported in a range of books and publications, including ''The Beautiful Tree: a personal journey into how the world's poorest people are educating themselves'' (Penguin, New Delhi, and Cato Institute, 2009). His work has also been profiled in documentaries for the BBC and PBS: for the latter it was featured alongside the work of Nobel Laureate [[Muhammad Yunus]] and [[Hernando de Soto Polar]].

The basic findings of the research show that in urban and peri-urban poor areas (slums and shanty towns) in India and the African countries studied, the majority of schoolchildren are in low cost private schools. After testing 24,000 children, it was found that children in the low cost private schools significantly outperform children in public schools, after controlling for background variables and the school choice process.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/node/141109|title=Laurie Penny on girl trouble: we care about young women as symbols, not as people|website=www.newstatesman.com}}</ref>{{Citation needed|reason=Linked to unrelated resource|date=November 2018}}

In 2017 Tooley announced plans to open a low cost private primary school in [[Durham, England]].<ref name="IGSD-Telegraph">{{cite news |last=Turner |first=Camilla |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/2017/02/21/britains-first-cut-price-private-school-will-charge-parents/ |title=Britain's first cut-price private school will charge parents just £52 a week |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=2017-02-21 |access-date=2017-03-01 }}</ref><ref name="IGSD-Web">{{cite web |url=https://www.igsdurham.com/ |title=The Independent Grammar School: Durham |access-date=2017-03-01 }}</ref> The school opened in 2018.<ref name="Telegraph19">{{cite news |last=Tooley |first=James |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/08/18/teaching-unions-hate-low-cost-private-schools-like-mine-stay/ |title=The teaching unions hate them, but low-cost private schools like mine are here to stay |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=2019-08-18 |access-date=2019-08-18 }}</ref> An [[Ofsted]] report in 2019 rated the school as "Good".<ref name="Ofsted19">{{cite web |url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5873db8aa5790a59c914545a/t/5cc74ba69b747a468d8f195c/1556564903282/IGS+Durham+Ofsted+Inspection+Report+March+2019.pdf |title=School report: The Independent Grammar School, Durham |publisher=[[Ofsted]] |access-date=2019-08-18 }}</ref>

== Educational philosophy and thought ==
Tooley's work has also explored the role of government in education from philosophical and other theoretical perspectives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/node/136739|title=Major's call for an energy windfall tax offers the Tories an escape route|website=www.newstatesman.com}}</ref> This has resulted in academic articles challenging the work of philosophers [[Harry Brighouse]] and [[Adam Swift]], and in the major book ''E. G. West: economic liberalism and the role of government in education'' (Continuum Library of Educational Thought, 2008).

== Prizes and awards ==
The following are the major awards won by Tooley:
* Sir Antony Fisher Memorial Prize, for The Beautiful Tree, April 2010
* Gold Prize Winner, 1st Financial Times/International Finance Corporation, Private Sector Development Research Paper Competition,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/tooley|title=James Tooley}}</ref> September 2006
* Templeton Prize for Free Market Solutions to Poverty, 1st Prize, March 2006
* Alexis de Tocqueville Award for the Advancement of Education Freedom, May 2007
* National Free Enterprise Award, Feb 2007

== Publications ==
The following are the books and monographs published by Tooley:
* Tooley, James (2016) ''Imprisoned in India: Corruption and Extortion in the World's Largest Democracy;'' Biteback Publishing; Great Britain
* Tooley, James (2009) ''The Beautiful Tree: a personal journey into how the world's poorest people are educating themselves''. New Delhi: Penguin; Washington, DC: Cato Institute
* Tooley, James (2008) ''E. G. West: economic liberalism and the role of government in education'' (Continuum Library of Educational Thought). New York and London: Continuum
* Tooley, James & [[Pauline Dixon|Dixon, Pauline]] (2005) ''Private Education is Good for the Poor: a study of private schools serving the poor in low-income countries'', Washington DC: Cato Institute.
* Tooley, James & Dixon, Pauline (2005) ''Private Schools Serving the Poor: a study from Delhi, India''. New Delhi: Centre for Civil Society
* Salisbury, David & Tooley, James (eds) (2005) ''What Americans Can Learn from School Choice in Other Countries''. Washington, DC: Cato Institute
* Tooley, James (2004) 教育的全球化能够使穷人受益吗? (Could the Globalization of Education Benefit the Poor?), Beijing: 九鼎公共事务研究所 (Cathay Institute for Public Affairs) (in Chinese)
* Tooley, James (2004) 全球教育产业——发展中国家私立教育的经验教训 (The Global Education Industry); translated by Professor Qu Hengchang. Shanghai: People's Publishing House (in Chinese)
* Tooley, James (2003) ''Mehr Bildung für die Armen'' (Occasional Paper No. 3). Potsdam: Friedrich-Naumann-Stiftung
* Tooley, James & Stanfield, James (eds) (2003) ''Government Failure: [[E. G. West]] on education'', London: Profile Books
* Tooley, James; Dixon, Pauline & Stanfield, James (2003) ''Delivering Better Education: market solutions to education'' London: Adam Smith Institute
* Tooley, James & Dixon, Pauline (2003) ''Private Schools for the Poor: a case study from India''. Reading: CfBT
* Tooley, James (2002) ''The Miseducation of Women''. London and New York:Continuum
* Tooley, James (2001) ''The Global Education Industry''; 2nd edition, London and Washington DC, Institute of Economic Affairs and International Finance Corporation, in association with Profile Books, London
* Tooley, James (ed.) (2001) ''Buckingham at 25: freeing the universities from state control''. London: Profile Books
* Tooley, James (2001) ''The Enterprise of Education: opportunities and challenges for India''. New Delhi: Liberty Institute
* Tooley, James (2000) ''Reclaiming Education''. London: Cassell
* Tooley, James (1999) ''The Global Education Industry''. London and Washington DC: Institute of Economic Affairs in association with International Finance Corporation
* Tooley, James with Howes, Andy (1999) ''The Seven Virtues of Highly Effective Schools''. London: TC Trust
* Tooley, James with Darby, Doug (1998) ''Educational Research: a critique'' London: Ofsted
* Seville, Adrian & Tooley, James (1997) ''The Debate on Higher Education: challenging the assumptions'' London: Institute of Economic Affairs
* Tooley, James (1996) ''Education without the State'' London: Institute of Economic Affairs
* Tooley, James (1995) ''Disestablishing the School'' Aldershot: Avebury Press
* Tooley, James (1993) ''A Market-Led Alternative for the Curriculum: breaking the code''. London: Tufnell Press
* Mason, Keith & Tooley, James (1992) ''Moving Forward in Mathematics: a diagnostic teaching approach''. Windsor: NFER/Nelson

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Google Scholar id|tp_jCDoAAAAJ}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tooley, James}}
[[Category:1959 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Academics of Newcastle University]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Buckingham]]
[[Category:Alumni of the UCL Institute of Education]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Sussex]]
[[Category:British educational theorists]]
[[Category:Writers from Southampton]]
[[Category:Cato Institute people]]
[[Category:People educated at King's Oak Academy]]

Rath Yatra (Ahmedabad)

2025-08-10T02:20:45Z

Realhimachal: creating some article first draft - done

{{Short description|Hindu festival organised in Ahemdabad, Gujarat}}
{{Cleanup|date=November 2019|reason=Grammar and English}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
[[File:Rathyatra Ahmedabad.jpg|thumb|240x240px|Decorated Elephants in Rath Yatra, Ahmedabad]]
'''Rath Yatra''' ({{Translation|'''Chariot Festival''' or '''Car Festival'''}}) is a Hindu festival celebrated annually in [[Ahmedabad]]. Since 1878, the [[Jagannath Temple, Ahmedabad]] has organised the Rath Yatra procession on Asadh Sud Bij. This festival celebrates the deities [[Jagannath]], [[Balarama|Balrama]] and [[Subhadra|Subhdra]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 July 2018 |title=Passage being smoothened for 141st Rath Yatra |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/passage-being-smoothened-for-141st-rath-yatra/articleshow/64953180.cms |access-date=2019-07-04 |website=The Times of India |language=en |agency=TNN}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=10 July 2013 |title=136th Jagannath rath yatra begins in Ahmedabad amid tight security |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/gujarat/story/136th-jagannath-rath-yatra-begins-in-ahmedabad-amid-tight-security-169788-2013-07-10 |access-date=2019-07-04 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

Held as a Lokotsav (public festival) of Gujarat, the Ahmedabad Rath Yatra is the third largest in India, following the Rath Yatras in [[Puri]] and [[Kolkata]], which are also celebrated on the same day.<ref name=":2" />

During the 2023 Rath Yatra procession in Ahmedabad on June 20, a balcony collapse on the route in Dariyapur locality tragically resulted in one fatality and eight injuries.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-06-20 |title=One killed as balcony falls during Ahmedabad Rath Yatra |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/one-killed-as-balcony-falls-during-ahmedabad-rath-yatra/article66990591.ece |access-date=2024-03-21 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== Legend ==
According to tradition, Narsimhadas, a saintly figure, dreamt of Lord Jagannath, which is believed to have inspired the commencement of the Rath Yatra festival at the Jagannath Temple in Ahmedabad in 1878.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sadhanaweekly.com/Encyc/2016/7/8/rathyatra.html |title=રથયાત્રા |trans-title =Rathyatra |website=www.sadhanaweekly.com |language=gu |access-date=2019-07-04}}</ref>

== Traditions ==
Traditionally, the Rath Yatra procession features chariots (known as raths) constructed from coconut wood by devotees from the Khalas community of Bharuch. Members of this community continue to serve as the chariot drivers in the procession.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.khabarchhe.com/news/ahmedabad-jagannathji-rathyatra-history.html |title=જાણો અમદાવાદ જગન્નાથજીની રથયાત્રાનો ઈતિહાસ |website=khabarchhe.com |access-date=2019-07-04 |language=gu |trans-title=Learn the history of Ahmedabad Jagannathji's Rathyatra }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>[[File:Rathyatra 2011 ahmedabad.JPG|thumb|right|Artist performing his work during Rath Yatra, Ahmedabad (2011).|alt=Artist performing during Rath Yatra at Ahmedabad in 2011]]

===''Jalayatra''===
''Jalayatra'' have been carried out on Jayestha Shukla Purnima when Jagannath, Balrama and Subhdra symbolically go to the maternal uncle's home at Saraspur. [[Darśana|Darshana]] in temple closed that day.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.jagannathjiahd.org/jal-yatra/|title=Jal Yatra – Shree Jagannathji Mandir|date=28 February 2018 |language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-04}}</ref> ''Jalayatra'' of [[Jagannath]] to [[Sabarmati River|Sabarmati]] river come with a procession and perform the ''Ganga Poojan,'' returning with vessels of water for the [[Abhisheka]] to Jagannath. After performing the ''Shodashopchar Poojan Vidhi'' by chanting the ''[[Vedas|vedic]]'' mantras, symbolically the Lord is sent to His maternal uncle’s home.<ref name=":0" />

===''Netrotsav''===
Before two days prior to Rath Yatra, ''Netrotsav'' ritual on idols is conducted. According to belief, the eyes of the three deities are affected with [[conjunctivitis]], owing to eating of ''Jambu'' or ''Jamun'' (Indian blackberry) and ''Baur'' (plum) in excess at ''Mosal''. Hence, idols are symbolically treated for it during ''Netrotsav pujan'' by covering eyes with clothes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deshgujarat.com/2017/06/23/netrotsav-puja-performed-ahead-of-rath-yatra-in-ahmedabad/|title=Netrotsav puja performed ahead of Rath Yatra in Ahmedabad|date=2017-06-23|website=DeshGujarat|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-04}}</ref>

=== Rath Yatra ===
Mangla Aarti is performed on the day at 4 am and usually Rath Yatra is carried out at 7 am. ''Pahind Vidhi'' ritual is performed by [[Chief Minister of Gujarat]] in which symbolic cleaning of the path of Rath Yatra is carried out, after which the chariot procession begins.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/jagannath-rath-yatra-begins-in-gujarat-234124|title=Jagannath Rath Yatra Begins in Gujarat|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> In Rath Yatra, Lord Jagannath's chariot is carried out first, followed by Subhadra and Balram's chariot. [[Akhara]]s, elephants, decorated trucks and troupes also take part in 14 kilometer long Rath Yatra.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/over-25-000-cops-drones-cameras-to-secure-gujarat-rath-yatra-on-july-4-1558773-2019-06-29 |title=Over 25,000 cops, drone cameras to secure Gujarat Rath Yatra on July 4 |date=29 June 2019 |agency=Press Trust of India |website=India Today |language=en |access-date=2019-07-04}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Ratha Yatra]]
[[Category:Culture of Ahmedabad]]
[[Category:Hindu festivals in India]]
[[Category:Festivals in Jagannath]]
[[Category:Organised events in Ahmedabad]]

Sohail Azimabadi

2025-07-12T21:08:57Z

Realhimachal: put up a stub - done

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Short description|Indian writer (1911–1979)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sohail Azimabadi
| other_names = Suhail Azimabadi
| birth_name = Syed Mujibur Rahman
| birth_date = 16 July 1911
| birth_place = Islampur, [[Patna district]], [[British Raj]]
| death_date = 28 November 1979 (aged 68)
| death_place = [[Allahabad]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| resting_place = Shah Ganj Qabristan, Patna
| citizenship = [[British Raj]] (1911-1947) India (1947-1979)
| education = [[Patna University]]
| notable_works = ''Sathi'' Alao
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| movement = [[Congress Socialist Party]]
}}
'''Sohail Azimabadi''' (born as '''Syed Mujibur Rahman'''; 16 July 1911 – 28 November 1979) was an Indian Urdu poet, Novelist, Fictional writer, Journalist and critic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Nagendra Kr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jjNuAAAAMAAJ&q=sohail+azimabadi |title=Encyclopaedia of Muslim Biography: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh |date=2001 |publisher=A.P.H. Publishing Corporation |isbn=978-81-7648-235-6 |pages=275 |language=en}}</ref> He was known as the international critic of [[Urdu|Urdu-language]] along with [[Kalim Aajiz|Kaleem Aajiz]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=HUSSAIN |first=MD ZAHID |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wKabEAAAQBAJ&dq=sohail+azimabadi&pg=PA314 |title=THE CONCEPTS OF INDIAN TEACHING TECHNIQUES |publisher=RED'SHINE Publication. Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-1-387-65839-8 |pages=314 |language=en}}</ref>

He along with Akhtar Orenvi and [[Shakila Akhtar]] had contributed to the Short Story writings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kumar |first=Nagendra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P1cCAAAAMAAJ&q=sohail+azimabadi |title=Image of Patna |date=1972 |publisher=Government of Bihar, Gazetteers Branch; [obtainable from the Superintendent, Government Stationery Stores and Publications] |pages=87 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ẓahīr |first=Sajjād |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RLRjAAAAMAAJ&q=sohail+azimabadi |title=The Light: A History of the Movement for Progressive Literature in the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent : a Translation of Roshnai |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-547155-7 |pages=227 |language=en}}</ref> He was a editor of ''Sathi'', an Urdu daily newspaper published from Patna.<ref>{{Cite book |last=NATARAJAN |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g1c-DwAAQBAJ&dq=sohail+azimabadi+education&pg=PT345 |title=History of Indian Journalism |publisher=Publications Division Ministry of Information & Broadcasting |isbn=978-81-230-2638-1 |language=en}}</ref> He setup a branch of [[Progressive Writers' Movement]] at Patna in 1936.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jalil |first=Rakhshanda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e_2HngEACAAJ |title=Liking Progress, Loving Change: A Literary History of the Progressive Writers' Movement in Urdu |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-809673-3 |pages=245 |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Azimabadi was born in 1911 to a respected middle class [[Sayyid]] family of Meer Habibur Rahman at Shahpur Bhadaul, Islampur, then a suburb in [[Patna district]], Bihar but now in [[Warisaliganj]] block of Nawada district.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc5jAAAAMAAJ&q=sohail+azimabadi |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot |date=1987 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-0-8364-2283-2 |pages=4129 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sohail Azimabadi Journalist Biography - Bihar Urdu Youth Forum, Patna |url=https://urduyouthforum.org/biography/biography-Sohail-Azimabadi.html |access-date=2024-07-16 |website=urduyouthforum.org}}</ref>

He was admitted to Dwarka High School, Muzaffarpur, affiliated under [[Patna University]] in Class 9 and given matriculation exam from the same school in 1930 but failed in the mathematics subject. He went to Kolkata to take admission in the [[Calcutta University]] but again failed in the mathematics and then he left his studies and started working with ''Hamdard''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Ashraf |first=Md Umar |date=2020-04-01 |title=जब सोहैल अज़ीमाबादी के क़लम की ताक़त से बंद हुआ कलकत्ता का 'हमदर्द' अख़बार |trans-title=When Calcutta's 'Hamdard' newspaper was closed due to the power of Sohail Azimabadi's pen |url=https://hindi.heritagetimes.in/sohail-azimabadi-hamdard-newspaper/ |access-date=2024-07-18 |website=hindi.heritagetimes.in |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Career ==
He had worked with ''Hamdard'', a Pro-[[Indian National Congress|Congress]] daily newspaper published from [[Kolkata]], founded in 1932 and edited by Maulana Shafa'atullah Khan of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. In 1936, Azimabadi wrote an article in support of [[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] and his son [[Abdul Wali Khan]], who were in Multan Jail and against the [[British Raj|British Government]]. As a consensus, the British Government asked for the Fine of 5000 which was not paid, and the Newspaper was banned in 1936 due to an article.<ref name=":0" />

Azimabadi came back from Kolkata to Patna and joined [[Congress Socialist Party]] also participated in the Activisms organized by the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref name=":0" />

== Works ==

=== Books ===
* {{Cite book |last=Azimabadi |first=Sohail |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fK1jAAAAMAAJ&q=sohail%20azimabadi |title=Be jaṛ ke paude: ek nāvil |publisher=Naṣrat Pablisharz |year=1972 |language=ur |trans-title=Plants without Roots: A Novel}}
* {{Cite book |last=Azimabadi |first=Sohail |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/alao-sohail-azeemabadi-ebooks |title=Alao |publisher=Maktaba Urdu |year=1942 |location=Lahore |language=ur}}
* {{Cite book |last=Azimabadi |first=Sohail |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/naye-purane-suhail-azeemabadi-ebooks |title=Naye Puraane |publisher=Ishat Manzil Urdu Gali |year=1944 |location=Hyderabad |page= |language=ur |trans-title=Old New}}
* {{Cite book |last=Azimabadi |first=Sohail |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/chaar-chehre-sohail-azeemabadi-ebooks |title=Chaar Chehre |publisher=Nusrat Publishers |year=1977 |location=Lucknow |language=ur |trans-title=Four Faces}}
* {{Cite book |last=Azimabadi |first=Sohail |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/rang-mahal-sohail-azeemabadi-ebooks |title=Rang Mahal |publisher=Zafar Adib |year=1960 |language=ur |trans-title=Colour Palace}}

=== Short stories ===

* ''Dil Ka Rog''
* ''Do Mazdoor''
* ''Andhere Aur Ujaale Mein''
* ''Sharaabi''
* ''Jawani''
* ''Chaar Aane''
* ''Bhook''
* ''Chaukidaar''
* ''Khoya Hua Lal''
* ''Pet Ki Aag''

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{Cite book |last=Hargānvī |first=Manāẓir ʻĀshiq |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ta1jAAAAMAAJ&q=suhail%20azimabadi |title=Suhail Azimabadi: Hindustani Adab Ke Memar |publisher=[[Sahitya Academy]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-81-7201-419-3 |language=ur |trans-title=Suhail Azimabadi: Maker of Indian Literature}}

* {{Cite thesis |last=Ansari |first=Md Maqsood |title=Sohail Azimabadi Aur Sheen Mozaffarpuri Ke Afsano Ka Taqabuly Motaleah |date=2018 |publisher=[[Lalit Narayan Mithila University]] |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10603/496366 |language=ur |pages=217|hdl=10603/496366 }}

* {{Cite book |last=Khatoon |first=Dr. Afsana |url=https://ephbooks.com/index.php?route=product/product&product_id=2251 |title=Sohail Azimabadi Hayat-o-Khidmat |publisher=Educational Publishing House |year=2014 |language=ur |trans-title=Sohail Azimabadi Life and Works}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ashrafi |first=Wahab |author-link=Wahab Ashrafi |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/suhail-azeemabadi-aur-unke-afsane-vahaab-ashrafi-ebooks?lang=hi |title=Suhail Azeemabadi Aur Unke Afsane |publisher=Bihar Urdu Writers |year=1982 |location=Patna |language=ur}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.rekhta.org/poets/sohail-azeemabadi/profile Sohail Azimabadi] on [[Rekhta (website)|Rekhta]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Azimabadi, Sohail}}
[[Category:1911 births]]
[[Category:1979 deaths]]
[[Category:Poets from Bihar]]
[[Category:Writers from Bihar]]
[[Category:People from Patna district]]
[[Category:Patna University alumni]]

{{authority control}}

Padaei

2025-05-27T22:47:52Z

Realhimachal: refine lead and improved wording for clarity

{{Short description|Indian tribe described by Herodotus}}
The '''Padaei''' ({{langx|el|Παδαῖοι}}) or the '''Padaeans''' are an Indian tribe described by the Greek historian [[Herodotus]] in [[Histories (Herodotus)|''The Histories'']]. Herodotus describes them (III.101) as being darker than other Indians and living in a place which is very distant from Persia towards the south and east. An extract from his work (III.99) includes the following:
:"Another tribe of Indians, called the Padaei, who live to the east of these marsh Indians, are nomadic and eat raw meat. They are said to have the following customs. If any of their compatriots -- a man or a woman -- is ill, his closest male friends (assuming that it is a man who is ill) kill him, on the grounds that if he wasted away in illness his flesh would become spoiled. He denies that he is ill, but they take no notice, kill him, and have a feast. Exactly the same procedure is followed by a woman's closest female friends when it is a woman who is ill. They sacrifice and eat anyone who reaches old age, but it is unusual for anyone to do so, because they kill everyone who falls ill before reaching old age."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=VrV5TELCHJ4C&q=herodotus+the+histories&pg=PA211 Herodotus, ''The Histories'' translated by Robin Waterfield. Oxford University Press (1998)] {{ISBN|0-19-282425-2}}</ref>

Scholars in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries suggested a number of possible identifications of the Padaei. Newbold thought that they were likely to be the [[Batak|Batta]], a tribe of [[Sumatra]], who he said continued to practice cannibalism.<ref>{{Harvnb|Newbold|1839|pp=371–4}}</ref> Others have recorded that the Batta of the central Sumatran highlands not only were cannibals,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=W6lNAAAAMAAJ William Marsden, ''The history of Sumatra: containing an account of the government, laws, customs and manners of the native inhabitants, with a description of the natural productions, and a relation of the ancient political state of that island.'' 2nd ed., London: Printed for the author (1784), p. 299.]</ref> but they also formerly ate their elders.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=86A2AAAAMAAJ&q=Battas Sophia Raffles, ''Memoirs of the Life and Public Services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles,'' v. II. London, James Duncan (1835), p. 81.]</ref><ref>"Battas", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 11th ed.</ref> Wheeler cited scholars who connected the name "Padaei" variously with a town in [[Ladakh|Little Tibet]] (Ladakh), a river in [[Kutch district|Kutch]] and the [[Ganges]]. He suggested that the name might be a general name or term for the nomadic inhabitants of north-western India.<ref name="Wheeler1854">{{Harvnb|Wheeler|1854|p=310}}</ref> William Smith, citing Mannert, suggested that they might be [[Tatars]], and not an Indian tribe.<ref>{{Harvnb|Smith|1857|p=50}}</ref> [[Robert Gordon Latham|Latham]] pointed to the similarity of the name "Padaei" with that of the Batta and the [[Vedda]]s, and concluded that all that could be said as to the Padaei's identity was that they were a "rude tribe in contact with an Indian population."<ref>{{Harvnb|Latham|1859|pp=305–6}}</ref> Rawlinson suggested that they may be the "[[Bhils]], [[Gonds]], or other aboriginal races of central India."<ref>{{Harvnb|Rawlinson|1926|p=22}}</ref>

The reliability of Herodotus' description of the Padaei's cannibalistic practices has also been questioned by other scholars. Wheeler took the view that whether they were really cannibals "may be doubted."<ref name="Wheeler1854" /> [[James Rennell]] said that Herodotus' description of the Padaei was an "odd mixture of truth and falsehood" which was probably a result of what he considered Herodotus' "very confined knowledge of India."<ref>{{Harvnb|Rennell|1830|pp=404, 407–8}}</ref> Murphy and Mallory suggest that Herodotus' description may result from a misinterpretation of the ritual of dismemberment known to have been practiced by [[Iron Age]] cultures who are believed to have spoken [[Iranian languages]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|Mallory|2000|pp=392–4}}</ref>

== Footnotes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
*{{Citation | last=Latham | first=R.G. | author-link=Robert Gordon Latham | title=Descriptive Ethnology | volume=II | year=1859 | place=London | publisher=John van Voorst | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dbs0AAAAIAAJ}}
*{{Citation | last1=Murphy | first1=E.M. | last2=Mallory | first2=J.P. | title=Herodotus and the cannibals | journal=Antiquity | volume=74 | issue=2 | year=2000 | pages=388–94 | doi=10.1017/S0003598X00059470 | s2cid=163941620 |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00059470| url-access=subscription }}
*{{Citation | last=Newbold | first=T. J. | authorlink=Thomas John Newbold | title=Political and statistical account of the British settlements in the Straits of Malacca | volume=2 | year=1839 | place=London | publisher=John Murray |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2E0PAAAAMAAJ&q=Political+and+statistical+account+of+the+British+settlements+in+the+Straits+of+Malacca}}
*{{Citation | last=Rawlinson | first=H.G. | title=Intercourse between India and the western world | year=1916 | edition=2nd | place=London | publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/intercoursebetwe020332mbp}}
*{{Citation | last=Rennell | first=James | author-link=James Rennell | title=The Geographical System of Herodotus Examined and Explained by a Comparison with those of the Ancient Authors, and with Modern Geography | edition=2nd | volume=I | publisher=C. J. G. & F. Rivington | place=London | year=1830 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wKsBAAAAYAAJ}}
*{{Citation | last=Smith | first=William | title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman geography | year=1857 | volume=2 | place=London | publisher=Walton and Maberly | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tJIfAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{Citation | last=Wheeler | first=J. Talboys | title=The geography of Herodotus | year=1854 | place=London | publisher=Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GJYUXRosRIMC}}

[[Category:Historiography of India]]
[[Category:Tribes described primarily by Herodotus]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of India]]

Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana

2025-03-31T06:10:51Z

Realhimachal: put up info - done

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2016}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2012}}

'''Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar [[Yojana]]''' (SJSRY) in India is a [[Centrally Sponsored Scheme]] which came into effect on 1 December 1997. The scheme strives to provide gainful employment and livelihood to the urban unemployed and underemployed poor, through encouraging the setting up of self-employment ventures or provision of wage employment.<ref>[http://smb.gov.in/schemes/Swarna_Jayanti_Shahari_Rozgar_Yojana.pdf Shillong Municipal Board, Meghalaya]</ref>

The SJSRY scheme is being implemented on a cost-sharing basis between the Centre and the States in the ratio of 75:25. Given the low allocations for the scheme, only about 2 lakh urban poor under skill development and 50,000 under self-employment are being benefitted under SJSRY annually. The target under skill development of the urban poor is very small considering that the number of urban poor was estimated at 81 million in 2004-05 and that nationally a target of 500 million persons to be skill-trained by 2022 has been fixed by the National Council on Skill Development.<ref>[http://www.kudumbashree.org/?q=sjry Kerala Kudumbasree]</ref>

In 2013, the SJSRY was replaced by the National Urban Livelihood Mission(NULM), which is now Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-28 |title=ExplainSpeaking: Urban Employment Guarantee schemes – why, what and how |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explainspeaking-urban-employment-guarantee-schemes-rajasthan-budget-7794046/ |access-date=2022-02-28 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> Both are simply employment schemes for self-employment and wage-employment of urban poors. As of 2022, no employment guarantee scheme is present for urban areas on the lines of MGNREGA in rural areas.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Poverty-related organizations]]
[[Category:Government schemes in India]]
[[Category:Employment in India]]

Kuruchikuppam Assembly constituency

2025-01-01T18:22:35Z

Realhimachal: Created Info!

{{Short description|Former constituency of the Puducherry Legislative Assembly}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = SLA
| name = Kuruchikuppam
| state = [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]
| established = 1964
| abolished= 1969
| district =
| loksabha_cons =
| electors =
}}
'''Kuruchikuppam'''<ref>https://pdymun.in/ward-Kuruchikuppam-old.php</ref> also known as 'Couroussoucoupom' and 'Kurusukuppam'<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.e.1964.864/page/n3/mode/2up?q=PONDICHERRY+TERRITORY|title=Delimitation Commission Notification |author=The Gazette of India |publisher= Election Commission of India}}</ref> was a [[Puducherry Legislative Assembly|state assembly constituency]] in the [[India]] state of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]. It was in existence from [[1964 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|1964]] to [[1969 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|1969]] state elections.

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Election
! Name
! colspan="2" | Party
|-
! [[1964 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|1964]]
| Padmini Chandrasekaran
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
! [[1969 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
| G. Perumal Raja
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
|}

== Election results ==
{{bar box
|float=right
|title= Vote share of Winning candidates
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=300px
|barwidth=275px
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 1969|1969]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|59.89}}
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 1964|1964]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|53.23}}
}}

=== Assembly Election 1969 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1969 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election]] : Kuruchikuppam<ref>{{cite web |title=Puducherry 1969 |url=https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3423-puducherry-1969/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917140530/https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3423-puducherry-1969/ |website=Election Commission of India|archive-date=17 September 2021 }}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=G. Perumal Raja |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=4,068 |percentage=59.89% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=N. Govindaraj |party=Indian National Congress |votes=1,550 |percentage=22.82% |change=-30.41% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=R. Lakshmanasamy Odayar |party=Independent politician |votes=1,175 |percentage=17.30% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,518 |percentage=37.07% |change=30.62% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=6,793 |percentage=76.26% |change= 3.45% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 9,043 |change =-4.06% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= 6.66% }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1964 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1964 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election]] : Kuruchikuppam<ref>{{cite web |title=Puducherry 1964 |url=https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3421-puducherry-1964/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515062755/https://www.eci.gov.in/files/file/3421-puducherry-1964/ |website=Election Commission of India|archive-date=15 May 2019 }}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Padmini Chandrasekaran |party=Indian National Congress |votes=3,605 |percentage=53.23% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Murugesa Mudaliar. M. |party=Independent politician |votes=3,168 |percentage=46.77% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=437 |percentage=6.45% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=6,773 |percentage=72.81% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 9,426 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Indian National Congress |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Puducherry}}

{{coord missing|Puducherry}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Puducherry]]

{{India-constituency-stub}}
{{Puducherry-geo-stub}}

Dr. Ambedkar Nagar-Patalpani section

2024-01-27T06:46:12Z

Realhimachal: Made redirect

#REDIRECT [[Western Railway zone]]

List of Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India

2023-12-22T15:14:13Z

Realhimachal: cleanup section after review and fixed typos

#REDIRECT [[List of knights grand commander of the Order of the Star of India]]

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India Science

2023-12-06T23:33:09Z

Realhimachal: Created New Info!

{{short description|Indian science channel}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox television channel
| name = India Science
| launch_date = 15 January 2019
| website = {{URL|www.indiascience.in}}
| logo = India Science.png
| logo_caption = Logo
| type = Science channel
| country = India
| tv_stations = Doordarshan
| headquarters = India
| language = [[Hindi]], [[English language|English]]
| parent = [[Department of Science and Technology (India)|Department of Science and Technology]]
| founded = 2019
}}

'''India Science''' is an internet-based science [[Over-the-top media service in India|OTT]] television channel launched in 2019 as part of an initiative of the [[Department of Science and Technology (India)|Department of Science and Technology]] (DST), [[Government of India|Govt of India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Department of Science & Technology and Doordarshan launch DD Science & India Science Channels|url=https://dst.gov.in/pressrelease/department-science-technology-and-doordarshan-launch-dd-science-india-science-channels|publisher=dst.gov.in}}</ref> The channel is managed and operated by [[Department of Science and Technology (India)|Vigyan Prasar]] (VP), an autonomous organization of the DST, and is dedicated to [[STEM fields|science and technology]] related subjects.<ref>{{cite news|title=DD Science, India Science channels launched|language=en|work=[[Business Line]]|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/science/dd-science-india-science-channels-launched/article25999642.ece}}</ref><ref name="vigyanprasar">{{cite web|title=One-hour dedicated slot for Science & Technology on Doordarshan National Channel|url=https://vigyanprasar.gov.in/dd-science/|publisher=Vigyanprasar.gov.in}}</ref><ref name="IT">{{cite news|date=16 January 2019|title=2 science channels coming up in India to make science more popular|language=en|work=[[India Today]]|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/2-science-channels-coming-up-in-india-to-make-science-more-popular-1431935-2019-01-16}}</ref>

== Overview ==
The launch of the channel was announced along with [[DD Science|DD science]], a science television series, in an event held in [[Delhi|Delhi, India]] on 15 January 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-01-16|title=Government launches two national science channels DD Science, India Science|url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/government-launches-two-national-science-channels-dd-science-india-science-1547615124-1|access-date=2020-11-12|website=Jagranjosh.com}}</ref> The announcement was made by The Department of Science and Technology along with [[Doordarshan]] and was supported by the [[National Council for Science and Technology Communication|National Council of Science and Technology Communication]] (NCSTC). India Science is a multi-language science channel including [[Hindi]] and [[English language|English]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=India Science|url=https://www.indiascience.in/about-us|access-date=2020-11-12|website=India Science}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=15 January 2019|title=DD Science, India Science channels launched|work=[[The Economic Times]]|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/media/entertainment/dd-science-india-science-channels-launched/articleshow/67542600.cms?from=mdr}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Dixit|first1=Rekha|date=15 January 2019|title=DD Science, India Science channels to promote scientific temperament|language=en|work=[[The Week (Indian magazine)]]|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2019/01/15/dd-science-india-science-channels-promote-scientific-temperament.html}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{YouTube|id=fkas5vF2oF8|title=India Science}}
* [https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/dd-science-channel-launched/article26001241.ece Indian Science] on [[The Hindu]]

[[Category:Doordarshan]]

Lakshmi Ganesha Saraswati Trinity

2023-11-19T09:07:32Z

Realhimachal: new redirect

#REDIRECT [[Consorts of Ganesha]]

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Pix Transmissions

2023-07-10T06:04:38Z

Realhimachal: creating the post w/ infobox

{{Short description|Indian belt manufacturing company}}
{{Orphan|date=June 2023}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Pix Transmissions Ltd
| logo =
| logo_size =
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| image =
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| trading_name =
| former_name =
| type = [[Public company|Public]]
| traded_as = {{ubl|{{BSE|500333}}|{{NSE|PIXTRANS}}}}
| industry = Belt manufacturer
| predecessor = 
| founded = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India ({{start date and age|df=yes|1981}})
| founder =
| defunct = 
| fate =
| successor = 
| hq_location =
| hq_location_city = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]]
| hq_location_country = India
| num_locations =
| num_locations_year = 
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people =
| products =
| production =
| production_year = 
| brands =
| services =
| revenue = {{Unbulleted list|{{Increase}} [[Indian rupee|INR]] 4 billion (2021)}}<ref name="ABC"/>
| operating_income =
| profit =
| assets =
| equity =
| owner = 
| members =
| members_year = 
| num_employees =
| parent =
| divisions =
| subsid = PIX Europe Limited PIX Germany GmbH PIX Middle East Trading LLC
| module = 
| website = {{URL|pixtrans.com}}
| footnotes =
| logo_padding =
}}

'''Pix Transmissions Ltd''' (PTL) is an Indian manufacturer of belts and related mechanical transmission products.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-31 |title=Top three stock picks by HDFC Securities' over the next two quarters |url=https://www.livemint.com/market/stock-market-news/these-three-stocks-are-hdfc-securities-top-stock-picks-over-the-next-two-quarters-11630403320161.html |access-date=2022-03-25 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Multibagger Stocks: 5 रुपए के इस स्टॉक ने निवेशकों को किया मालामाल, 1 लाख बन गए 1.7 करोड़ |url=https://www.jansatta.com/business/share-market-news-quality-stock-gave-multibagger-return-to-investers-pix-transmission/2055561/ |access-date=2022-03-09 |website=Jansatta |date=23 February 2022 |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Paoli |first=Chiara De |date=2020-12-04 |title=PIX Introduce {{as written|I|t's [sic]}} New PIX-Terminator Belts |url=https://www.heavyquipmag.com/2020/12/04/pix-introduce-its-new-pix-terminator-belts/ |access-date=2022-03-25 |website=The HeavyQuip Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> Headquartered in [[Mumbai|Mumbai, Maharashtra]], the company has manufacturing facilities in [[Hingna]] and Nagalwadi, [[Nagpur]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Pix Transmissions Ltd. |url=https://www.hdfcsec.com/hsl.research.pdf/Pix%20Transmissions%20-%20Initiating%20Coverage%20-%20270821.pdf |website=hdfcsec}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-05 |title=Top 10 Best Indian Rubber Manufacturing Company In 2022 - Inventiva |url=https://www.inventiva.co.in/trends/best-rubber-manufacturing-company-india/ |access-date=2022-03-25 |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2021, PTL reported consolidated revenue of [[Indian rupee|INR]] 4 billion.<ref name="ABC">{{Cite web |title=Pix Transmission reports net profit of Rs 4.20 crore in the March 2010 quarter |url=https://www.ndtv.com/business/pix-transmission-reports-net-profit-of-rs-4-20-crore-in-the-march-2010-quarter-80843 |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref> The company has also listed in the [[Bombay Stock Exchange]] in the year 1989.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=17 July 2012 |title=Pix Transmissions Limited: Pix Transmissions Limited sells hydraulic hose business to UK firm {{!}} Nagpur News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/pix-transmissions-limited-sells-hydraulic-hose-business-to-uk-firm/articleshow/15011172.cms |access-date=2022-03-09 |website=[[The Times of India]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=CRiSil Research |url=https://www.bseindia.com/download/Research_Report/Report/500333/2015-16/BSE-IPF_500333_2015.pdf |website=www.bseindia.com}}</ref>

== History ==
PTL started its operations in 1981 in [[Nagpur|Nagpur, Maharashtra]]. In 1999, the company established a new manufacturing facility and began production of [[Timing]], Raw Edge Cogged, and Poly-V Belts.<ref name=":3" />

The company has manufacturing units in [[Hingna]] and Nagalwadi, [[Nagpur]]. The Nagalwadi facility is an automated polymer mixing facility.<ref name=":4" />

PTL commenced operations in the UK, [[Germany]], and [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] by establishing subsidiaries and joint ventures, such as PIX Europe Limited, PIX Germany GmbH, and PIX Middle East Trading LLC.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Amarpal Sethi, Chairman and Managing Director, Pix Transmission Ltd |url=https://www.indiainfoline.com/article/research-leader-speak/amarpal-sethi-chairman-and-managing-director-pix-transmission-ltd-113111402277_1.html |access-date=2022-03-09 |website=www.indiainfoline.com |language=en}}</ref>

In 2021, the company announced its foray into the automotive segment with the launch of PIX Force.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2021 |title=PIX steps up presence in automotive segment with 'PIX Force' range of belts – Motorindia |url=https://www.motorindiaonline.in/pix-steps-up-presence-in-automotive-segment-with-pix-force-range-of-belts/ |access-date=2022-03-25 |website=Motorindia |language=en-US}}</ref>

== R&D facilities ==
The company has its [[Research and development|R&D]] centers located at Nagalwadi Plant, [[Nagpur]].<ref name=":0" />

* Plant I: Hingna MIDC<ref name=":0" />
* Plant II: TRP plant, Nagalwadi, Nagpur <ref name=":2" />
* Plant III: MEC plant, Nagalwadi, Nagpur <ref name=":0" />
* Plant IV: Pix logistics hub<ref name=":3" />

== Awards and achievements ==

* Export Promotion Council Govt. of India<ref>{{Cite news |title=Pix Transmission Ltd. |work=Business Standard India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/company/pix-transmission-1648/information/company-history |access-date=2022-03-25}}</ref>
* Niryat Shree Award from the president of India<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pix Transmissions receives prestigious Niryat Shree award |url=https://www.ndtv.com/business/pix-transmissions-receives-prestigious-niryat-shree-award-48805 |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{Cite web |title=Pix Transmis Standalone December 2021 Net Sales at Rs 107.95 crore, up 4.42% Y-o-Y |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/earnings/pix-transmis-standalone-december-2021-net-sales-at-rs-107-95-crore-up-4-42-y-o-y-8112871.html |access-date=2022-03-21 |website=Moneycontrol |date=16 February 2022 |language=en}}
* {{cite news |title=Pix Transmission Ltd. |work=Business Standard India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/company/pix-transmission-1648/information/company-history}}

[[Category:Companies based in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies based in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1981]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 1981]]
[[Category:Indian brands]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the National Stock Exchange of India]]

Sri Jnanaghana

2022-10-12T19:05:16Z

Realhimachal: Created a redirect

#REDIRECT [[Sringeri Sharada Peetham]]