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Nicobar pigeon

2026-05-29T16:55:40Z

RealArifHossain: Starting Initial Info Initial Version.

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{speciesbox
| image = Caloenas nicobarica, Ko Miang, Thailand 1.jpg
| image_caption = Adult on [[Similan Islands|Ko Miang]], off the southwest coast of Thailand
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2021 |title=''Caloenas nicobarica'' |volume=2016 |article-number=e.T22690974A178136167 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22690974A178136167.en}}</ref>
| status2 = CITES_A1
| status2_system = CITES
| status2_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Appendices {{!}} CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2022-01-14|website=cites.org}}</ref>
| genus = Caloenas
| species = nicobarica
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])
| synonyms = ''Columba nicobarica'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}}
}}

The '''Nicobar pigeon''' or '''Nicobar dove''' ('''''Caloenas nicobarica''''', [[Car language|Car]]: ''{{lang|caq|ma-kūö-kö}}''<ref>Whitehead, Rev. G.; ''Dictionary of the Car (Nicobarese) language''; published 1925 by American Baptist Mission Press; pp. ''xxvi''-''xxxii''</ref>) is a [[bird]] found on small islands and in coastal regions from the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], [[India]], east through the [[Indonesian Archipelago]], to the [[Solomon Islands|Solomons]] and [[Palau]]. It is the only living member of the genus ''[[Caloenas]]'' alongside the extinct [[spotted green pigeon]] and [[Kanaka pigeon]], and is the closest living relative of the extinct [[dodo]] and [[Rodrigues solitaire]].

==Taxonomy==
In 1738, the English naturalist [[Eleazar Albin]] included a description and two illustrations of the Nicobar pigeon in his ''A Natural History of Birds''. When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] updated his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' for the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]], he placed the Nicobar pigeon with all the other pigeons in the [[genus]] ''[[Columba (genus)|Columba]]''. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the [[binomial name]] ''Columba nicobarica'' and cited Albin's work.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | year=1758 | title= Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | volume= 1 | edition=10th | page=164 | publisher=Holmiae:Laurentii Salvii | language=la | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727071 }}</ref> The species is now placed in the genus ''[[Caloenas]]'' erected by English zoologist [[George Robert Gray]] in 1840 with the Nicobar pigeon as the [[type species]].<ref>{{ cite book | last=Gray | first=George Robert | author-link=George Robert Gray | year=1840 | title=A List of the Genera of Birds: with an Indication of the Typical Species of Each Genus | place=London | publisher=R. and J.E. Taylor | page=59 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/13668976 }}</ref><ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen | year=2020 | title=Pigeons | work=IOC World Bird List Version 10.1 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/pigeons/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=21 March 2020 }}</ref>

Two [[subspecies]] are recognised:<ref name=ioc/>
* ''C. n. nicobarica'' ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758) – [[Andaman Islands|Andaman]] and [[Nicobar Islands]], [[Malay Archipelago]] to New Guinea, Philippines and [[Solomon Islands]]
* ''C. n. pelewensis'' [[Otto Finsch|Finsch]], 1875 – [[Palau|Palau Island]]
The two subspecies are very similar, with ''C. n. pelewensis'' being marginally smaller and with the elongated neck feathers being slightly shorter.<ref name="HBW">{{cite book | last1=Hoyo | first1=Josep del | last2=Elliott | first2=Andrew | last3=Sargatal | first3=Jordi | title=Handbook of the Birds of the World | date=1992 | isbn=84-87334-22-9 | volume=4 | page=179}}</ref>

Based on [[cladistic]] analysis of [[mtDNA]] [[cytochrome b|cytochrome ''b'']] and 12S [[rRNA]] [[DNA sequence|sequences]], the Nicobar pigeon is sometimes called the closest living relative of the [[extinct]] [[didine]]s (Raphinae), which include the famous [[dodo]] (''Raphus cucullatus'').{{Sfn|Shapiro et al.|2002}} However, the study's results showed this as one weak possibility from a limited sample of [[taxa]].  In any case, [[nDNA]] [[β-fibrinogen]] [[intron]] 7 sequence data agrees with the idea of the Raphinae as a [[subfamily]] of pigeons (and not an independent family, as was previously believed due to their bizarre [[apomorph]]ies) that was part of a diverse [[Indopacific]] [[evolutionary radiation|radiation]], to which the Nicobar pigeon also belongs.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1a2=Clayton|1y=2000|2a1=Shapiro et al.|2y=2002}}

The following [[cladogram]], from Shapiro and colleagues (2002), shows the Nicobar pigeon's closest relationships within Columbidae, a [[clade]] consisting of generally ground-dwelling island endemics.{{sfn|Shapiro et al.|2002}}

{{clade | style = font-size: 90%;
|1={{clade
|1=''Didunculus strigirostris'' ([[tooth-billed pigeon]])
|2={{clade
|1=''Goura victoria'' ([[Victoria crowned pigeon]])
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1='''''Caloenas nicobarica''''' ('''Nicobar pigeon''')
|2={{clade
|1={{extinct}}''Pezophaps solitaria'' ([[Rodrigues solitaire]])
|2={{extinct}}''Raphus cucullatus'' ([[dodo]])
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}

A similar cladogram was published in 2007, differing only in the inverted placement of ''Goura'' and ''Didunculus'', as well as in the inclusion of the [[pheasant pigeon]] and the [[thick-billed ground pigeon]] at the base of the clade.{{sfn|Pereira et al.|2007}}

''C. nicobarica'' is a quite singular [[Columbiformes|columbiform]] (though less [[autapomorph]]ic than the [[flightless bird|flightless]] Raphinae), as are for example the [[tooth-billed pigeon]] (''Didunculus strigirostris'') and the [[crowned pigeon]]s (''Goura''), which are typically considered distinct subfamilies. Hence, the Nicobar pigeon may well constitute another now-[[monotypic]] subfamily. And while any of the semi-[[Terrestrial animal|terrestrial]] pigeons of [[Southeast Asia]] and the [[Wallacea]] cannot be excluded as possible closest living relative of the Raphinae, the Nicobar pigeon makes a more plausible candidate than for example the group of [[imperial-pigeon]]s and [[fruit-dove]]s, which seems to be part of the same radiation.{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1a2=Clayton|1y=2000|2a1=Shapiro et al.|2y=2002}}

Whether it is possible to clarify such deep-time [[phylogenies]] without a comprehensive study of all major lineages of living [[Columbidae]] remains to be seen. The primitive [[molecular clock]] used to infer the date the ancestors of the Nicobar pigeon and the didines diverged has since turned out to be both unreliable and [[calibration|miscalibrated]]. But what little evidence is available still suggests that the Nicobar pigeon is distinct from all other living lifeforms since the [[Paleogene]] – most likely some time between 56–34 [[million years ago]] during the [[Eocene]], which makes up the bulk of the Paleogene [[Geologic period|period]].{{sfnm|1a1=Johnson|1a2=Clayton|1y=2000|2a1=Shapiro et al.|2y=2002|3a1=Slack|3a2=Jones|3a3=Ando|3a4=Harrison|3y=2006}}

From [[subfossil]] bones found on [[New Caledonia]] and [[Tonga]], an [[extinct]] species of ''Caloenas'', the [[Kanaka pigeon]] (''C. canacorum'') was described. It was about one-quarter larger<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The mysterious Spotted Green Pigeon and its relation to the Dodo and its kindred|last=Tim H. Heupink, Hein van Grouw, David M. Lambert|date=July 2014|pmc=4099497|pmid=25027719|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-14-136|volume=14|journal=BMC Evol Biol|issue=1 |page=136 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014BMCEE..14..136H }}</ref> than the Nicobar pigeon. Considering that it must have been a good source of food, it was most likely hunted to extinction by the first human settlers of its home islands. It probably was extinct by 500 BC. The [[Spotted green pigeon]] (''C. maculata'') is a more recently extinct species from an unknown [[Pacific]] locality; it probably disappeared in the 19th century and most likely succumbed to introduced [[Europe]]an [[rat]]s. It is placed in ''Caloenas'' as the least awkward possibility; its true affinities are presently indeterminate and it is perhaps more likely to represent a distinct genus of the Indopacific radiation of Columbidae.<ref>Fuller (2000): p. 174–175.</ref>

==Description==

It is a large pigeon, measuring {{convert|32|–|35|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length. The head is grey, like the upper neck plumage, which turns into green and copper hackles. The tail is short and pure white. The rest of its plumage is metallic green, appearing black in dull light. The [[cere]] of the dark bill forms a small blackish knob; the strong legs and feet are dull red. The [[Iris (anatomy)|irises]] are dark.<ref name="HBW"/><ref name="grimmettetal1999">Grimmett et al. (2009).</ref>

Females, weighing 490–600 g, are on average slightly larger than the 460–525 g males, but with much overlap; they have a smaller bill knob, shorter hackles and browner underparts. Immature birds have a black tail and lack almost all [[iridescence]]. There is hardly any variation across the birds' wide range. Even the Palau [[subspecies]] ''C. n. pelewensis'' merely has shorter neck hackles, but is otherwise almost identical.<ref name="HBW"/>

It is a very vocal species, giving a low-pitched repetitive call.<ref name="grimmettetal1999" />

==Distribution and habitat==
On the [[Nicobar Islands]] (which are referred to in its [[common name|common]] and [[scientific name]]s), the most significant colony of Nicobar pigeons in modern times was found on [[Batti Malv]], a remote [[wildlife sanctuary]] between [[Car Nicobar]] and [[Teressa (Nicobar Islands)|Teressa]]. The [[2004 Indian Ocean tsunami]] caused massive damage on the Nicobar Islands, and to what extent Batti Malv was affected is still not clear. But while everything on some islets in the [[Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve]] was destroyed, Batti Malv [[lighthouse]] – a [[skeletal tower]] a dozen metres high, standing a few metres [[Above mean sea level|ASL]] at the highest point of the low-lying island – was little-damaged and put back in operation by the [[survey ship]] [[INS Sandhayak (J18)|INS ''Sandhayak'']] less than one month after the disaster. An April 2007 survey by the [[Indian Coast Guard]] vessel [[ICGS Vikram|ICGS ''Vikram'']] found the lighthouse tower "totally covered" in [[vine]]s, indicating rampant regeneration of vegetation – but perhaps also that damage to the island's forest was severe, as a cover of creeping plants is typical of early [[Ecological succession|succession]] stages, while a photo of the lighthouse taken before the tsunami shows rather mature forest.<ref>Sankaran (1998), IHMDN (2005), ICG (2007), [[#{{sfnRef|Rowlett|2008}}|Rowlett (2008)]].</ref>

===Found in Australia===
A Nicobar pigeon was found by the [[Bardi Jawi]] [[Indigenous rangers]] on the [[Dampier Peninsula]] in the western [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|Kimberley region]] of [[Australia]] in May 2017. As part of [[biosecurity]] measures, it was reported to [[quarantine]] services and was removed by Australian Department of Agriculture officials.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.klc.org.au/bardi-jawi-rangers-discover-nicobar-pigeon|website=Kimberley Land Council|title=Bardi Jawi rangers discover Nicobar pigeon|date= 5 May 2017|access-date=11 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|website=ABC News|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-05-05/dodo-relative-nicobar-pigeon-found-in-north-west-australia/8500442|title=Dodo's relative, Nicobar pigeon, found in north-west Australia's Kimberley region|first1=Ben|last1=Collins|first2=Vanessa|last2= Mills|date= 5 May 2017|access-date=11 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|work=The Guardian|title=Pigeon related to dodo found on Australian mainland for first time|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/may/05/pigeon-related-to-dodo-found-on-australian-mainland-for-first-time|first=Calla|last=Wahlquist|date= 5 May 2017|access-date=11 November 2019}}</ref> In 2023, another individual was found on [[Green Island (Queensland)|Green Island]], off the coast of [[Cairns]]. Green Island Resort's [[environmental manager]] contacted authorities, but there are currently no plans to relocate the pigeon.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-11-10 |title=Dodo relative's mysterious appearance on tropical island baffles bird experts |language=en-AU |work=ABC News |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-10/nicobar-pigeon-found-on-green-island-queensland/103090104 |access-date=2023-11-28}}</ref>

==Behaviour and ecology==
The Nicobar pigeon's breeding range encompasses the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] of [[India]], the [[Mergui Archipelago]] of [[Myanmar]], offshore islands of south-western [[Thailand]], [[Peninsular Malaysia]], southern [[Cambodia]] and [[Vietnam]], and many of the small islands between [[Sumatra]], the [[Philippines]] and the [[Solomon Islands]]. On [[Palau]], the only distinct [[subspecies]] ''C. n. pelewensis'' is found.<ref name="grimmettetal1999" />

The Nicobar pigeon roams in flocks from island to island, usually sleeping on offshore islets where no [[predator]]s occur and spends the day in areas with better food availability, not shying away from areas inhabited by humans. Its diet consists of [[seed]]s, [[fruit]], and buds, and it is attracted to areas where [[cereal|grain]] is available. A [[gizzard stone]] helps to grind up hard food items. Its flight is quick, with regular beats and an occasional sharp flicks of the wings, as is characteristic of pigeons in general. Unlike other pigeons, groups tend to fly in columns or single file, not in a loose flock. The prominent white tail, visible in flight from behind, may serve as a sort of "[[taillight]]", helping keep flocks together when crossing the sea at dawn or dusk. The young birds' lack of a white tail is a signal of their immaturity clearly visible to [[conspecific]]s – to an adult Nicobar pigeon, it is obvious at a glance which flockmembers are neither potential mates, nor potential competitors for mates, nor old enough to safely guide a flock from one island to another.<ref name="grimmettetal1999" /> When flying between islands, it typically flies high, at least 60 metres above the sea surface.<ref name="HBW"/>

This species nests in dense forest on offshore islets, often in large colonies. It builds a loose stick nest in a tree. It lays one elliptical faintly blue-tinged white [[Egg (biology)|egg]].<ref name="grimmettetal1999" />

In 2017, several individual ''Caloenas nicobarica'' were sighted in the [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|Kimberley]] region of [[Western Australia]] with a juvenile captured at [[Ardyaloon, Western Australia|Ardyaloon]] (One Arm Point), near [[Broome, Western Australia|Broome]] – the first time the bird has been sighted on the Australian mainland.<ref name=Australia>{{cite news| last = Laurie
| first = Victoria| date = 5 May 2017| title= The dodo's gorgeous island-hopping relative finds its way to our shores| url = http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/health-science/the-dodos-gorgeous-islandhopping-relative-finds-its-way-to-our-shores/news-story/9a62bda7e3d7e4bc69a62aadebf6d63c| work = The Australian| location= Sydney| access-date = 5 May 2017}}</ref>

==Conservation==
Nicobar pigeons are hunted in considerable numbers for food, and also for their gizzard stones which have sometimes been used in [[jewellery]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bereford |first=Denise |title=The Nicobar Pigeon Gizzard Stone: Going Extinct For Jewelry |url=https://pigeonpedia.com/nicobar-pigeon-gizzard-stone/ |access-date=2023-08-11 |website=Pigeonpedia |language=en-us}}</ref> The species is also trapped for the local [[pet]] market, but as it is on [[CITES Appendix I]], commercial international trade is prohibited. Internationally, [[captive breeding]] is able to supply the birds demanded by [[zoo]]s, where this attractive and unusual bird is often seen. Direct exploitation of the species, even including the illegal trade, might be sustainable on its own; however, its available nesting [[habitat]] is decreasing. The offshore islets which it requires are often [[logging|logged]] for [[plantation]]s, destroyed by construction activity, or polluted by nearby [[Industrial sector|industry]] or [[harbour]]s. Also, increased travel introduces predators to more and more of the breeding sites, and colonies of the Nicobar pigeon may be driven to desert such locations or be destroyed outright. Though the bird is widely distributed and in some locations very common (even on small Palau it is still reasonably plentiful, with an estimated 1,000 adult birds remaining), its long-term future is increasingly in jeopardy. For these reasons, the [[IUCN]] considers ''C. nicobarica'' a [[near threatened]] species.<ref>BLI (2009).</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Caloenas nicobarica, Mu Ko Similan, Thailand 08.jpg|The white tail is the most conspicuous feature of adult Nicobar pigeons, particularly when seen at a distance in twilight.
File:Caloenas nicobarica, Mu Ko Similan, Thailand 01.jpg|An adult on Mu Ko Similan in the [[Similan Islands]], Thailand, showing the iridescent scapulars
File:Caloenas nicobarica, Ko Miang, Thailand 2.jpg|Close up of the head, Ko Miang, Similan Islands, Thailand
File:Caloenas nicobarica, Narcondam Island, Andaman and Nicobar Islands 1.jpg|Nicobar pigeon on [[Narcondam Island]] in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
File:CaloenasNicobaricaBaker.jpg|Painting by [[Henrik Grønvold]]
File:Nicobar pigeon zoo.jpg|Nicobar pigeon in a zoo
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist|25em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last= Fuller |first= Errol|year= 2000 |title= Extinct Birds |edition= 2nd |location= Oxford, New York |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-850837-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1= Grimmett |first1= Richard |last2= Inskipp |first2= Carol |last3= Inskipp |first3= Tim |last4= Byers |first4= Clive |date= 2009 |orig-date= 1999 |title= Birds of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives |location= Princeton, N.J |publisher= Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0-691-04910-6}}
* [[Indian Coast Guard]] (ICG) (2007): [https://web.archive.org/web/20110410014507/http://www.indiancoastguard.nic.in/Indiancoastguard/RegionNews/A%26N%20Region/Sep%2007/Sep%202007.htm Andaman & Nicobar Region News, September 2007]. Retrieved 2009-MAY-22.
* [[Indian Navy|Integrated Headquarters of Ministry of Defence (Navy)]] (IHMDN) (2005): [http://www.indiannavy.nic.in/in-t19.htm Relief Assistance Provided by Indian Navy – Update 19 January 05]. Version of 2005-JAN-19. Retrieved 2009-MAY-22.
* {{cite journal| doi = 10.1006/mpev.1999.0682| last1 = Johnson| first1 = Kevin P.| last2 = Clayton| first2 = Dale H.| year = 2000| title = Nuclear and Mitochondrial Genes Contain Similar Phylogenetic. Signal for Pigeons and Doves (Aves: Columbiformes)| journal = [[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]]| volume = 14| issue = 1| pages = 141–151| url = http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/~kjohnson/kpj_pdfs/MPE.Johnson.Clayton.2000.pdf| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051016131627/http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/~kjohnson/kpj_pdfs/MPE.Johnson.Clayton.2000.pdf| archive-date = 2005-10-16| pmid = 10631048
| bibcode = 2000MolPE..14..141J}} 
* {{cite journal| doi = 10.1080/10635150701549672| last1 = Pereira | first1 = S. L.| last2 = Johnson | first2 = K. P.| last3 = Clayton | first3 = D. H.| last4 = Baker | first4 = A. J.| year = 2007| title = Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences support a Cretaceous origin of Columbiformes and a dispersal-driven radiation in the Paleogene| journal = Systematic Biology| volume = 56| issue = 4| pages = 656–672| pmid = 17661233| ref = {{sfnRef|Pereira et al.|2007}}
| doi-access = free}} {{free access}} 
* {{cite rowlett|amn|date=2008-10-01|access-date=2009-05-22}} 
* {{cite journal | last1 = Sankaran | first1 = R | year = 1998 | title = An annotated list of the endemic avifauna of the Nicobar islands | url = http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/13pdfs/Sankaran-Nicobar.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110610175448/http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/13pdfs/Sankaran-Nicobar.pdf | archive-date = 2011-06-10 | journal = [[Forktail (journal)|Forktail]] | volume = 13 | pages = 17–22 }}
* {{cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.295.5560.1683| last1 = Shapiro | first1 = B.| last2 = Sibthorpe | first2 = D.| last3 = Rambaut | first3 = A.| last4 = Austin | first4 = J.| last5 = Wragg | first5 = G. M.| last6 = Bininda-Emonds | first6 = O. R. P.| last7 = Lee | first7 = P. L. M.| last8 = Cooper | first8 = A.| date = 2002| title = Flight of the Dodo| journal = Science| volume = 295| issue = 5560| page = 1683| pmid = 11872833| url = http://pgl.soe.ucsc.edu/dodo_Shapiro02.pdf| ref = {{sfnRef|Shapiro et al.|2002}}
}} [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/295/5560/1683/DC1 Supplementary information] 
* {{cite journal| doi = 10.1093/molbev/msj124| last1 = Slack| first1 = Kerryn E.| last2 = Jones| first2 = Craig M.| last3 = Ando| first3 = Tatsuro| last4 = Harrison| first4 = G.L. "Abby| last5 = Fordyce| first5 = R. Ewan| last6 = Arnason| first6 = Ulfur| last7 = Penny| first7 = David| year = 2006| title = Early Penguin Fossils, plus Mitochondrial Genomes, Calibrate Avian Evolution| journal = [[Molecular Biology and Evolution]]| volume = 23| issue = 6| pages = 1144–1155| pmid = 16533822| doi-access = free}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20091216110914/http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/msj124/DC1 Supplementary Material] {{open access}} 
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikispecies|Caloenas nicobarica}}
* [https://search.macaulaylibrary.org/catalog?taxonCode=nicpig1 Nicobar Pigeon media] at the Internet Bird Collection
* [https://pigeonpedia.com/nicobar-pigeon/ Nicobar Pigeon Breed Guide] from Pigeonpedia.com

{{Birds|state=collapsed}}
{{portalbar|Birds|Animals|Biology}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q605804}}

[[Category:Caloenas|Nicobar pigeon]]
[[Category:Birds of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
[[Category:Birds of Malesia]]
[[Category:Birds of Palau]]
[[Category: Birds of South Asia]]
[[Category:Birds of Melanesia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1758|Nicobar pigeon]]
[[Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus|Nicobar pigeon]]

Chandrasekhar family

2026-05-08T09:25:22Z

RealArifHossain: started a entry...

{{short description|Indian family, several of whom are notable in physics}}
{{Infobox family|name= Chandrasekhar family |region =[[South India]]|origin=[[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]|members = {{unbulleted list|[[C. V. Raman]]|[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]]|[[Venkatraman Radhakrishnan]]| [[S. Ramaseshan|Sivaramakrishna Ramaseshan]]|[[Sivaramakrishna Chandrasekhar]]|[[S. Pancharatnam|Sivaramakrishna Pancharatnam]]|[[V. Shanta]]|[[Chidambara Chandrasekaran]]|[[Vidya Shankar (musician)|Vidya Shankar]]}}|distinctions = {{hlist|[[physics]]|[[crystallography]]|[[meteorology]]|[[astronomy]]|[[literature]]|[[mathematics]]||[[demography]]|[[biostatistics]]|[[medicine]]|[[musicology]]}}}}

The '''Chandrasekhar family''' is a distinguished [[Indian people|Indian]] intellectual [[family]], several of whose members achieved eminence, notably in the field of [[physics]]. Two members of the family, Sir [[C. V. Raman]] and his nephew, [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]], were [[Nobel laureates]] in physics.

Members of the Chandrasekhar family spell the name in various ways. R. Chandrasekhara Iyer was named Chandrasekharan (with an "n") but later became known as Chandrasekhara Aiyar (without the "n").<ref>Parameswaran, p. 5. "At the time of Raman's birth, Chandrasekharan, or Chandrasekhara Aiyar as he became to be known, [...]"</ref> The family caste name "Aiyar" is sometimes spelled "Iyer" or "Ayyar".

==Family tree==
{{Tree list}}
*R. Chandrasekhara Iyer (1866–1910), m. Parvati Ammal (1869–1916)<ref name=Wali_ix>Wali, p. ix</ref><ref name=Parameswaran>Parameswaran, pp. 241-250</ref>
**Chandrasekhara Subrahmanyan Iyer (1885–1960), m. Sitalakshmi Iyer (1891–1931)<ref name=Wali_ix/><ref name=Parameswaran/>
***Rajalakshmi, m.<ref name=Parameswaran/>
****{{Tree list/final branch}} Uma (born 1938), m. Parameswaran. Noted Indo-Canadian writer of South Asian-Canadian literature; former English professor at the University of Winnipeg.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/166297/Parameswaran,%20Uma.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y| title=U Minn–Voices from the Gaps: Uma Parameswaran | publisher=University of Minnesota | date=2009| access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://library.ryerson.ca/asianheritage/authors/parameswaran/| title=Ryerson University Library & Archives–Uma Parameswaran | publisher=Ryerson University | date=2009| access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref>
***{{Tree list/final branch}}Balaparvathi, m. Viswanathan<ref name="Dr. V. Shanta"/>
****{{Tree list/final branch}} [[V. Shanta]] (1927–2021)<ref name="Dr. V. Shanta">{{cite web | url=http://thelogicalindian.com/story-feed/get-inspired/dr-v-shanta-from-chennai-awarded-padma-vibhushan-for-her-service-in-the-field-of-cancer/ | title=Dr. V. Shanta From Chennai Honoured With Padma Vibhushan For Her Service In The Field Of Cancer | publisher=Logical Indian | date=13 April 2016 | access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref>
***[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] (1910–1995), m. Lalitha Doraiswamy (1910–2013)<ref>{{cite news|title=Nobel laureate's wife Lalitha Chandrasekhar dies at 102|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/nobel-laureates-wife-lalitha-chandrasekhar-dies-at-102/article5101654.ece|access-date=4 November 2016|work=The Hindu|date=7 September 2013}}</ref>
***Vishwanathan (1911–1979)
***Balakrishnan (born 1914), famous as Purasu Balakrishnnan, author of The Big Bang & Brahma's day and Glimpses of Kalidasa<ref>Wali, p. 48</ref>
***Ramanathan
***Sarada
***[[Vidya Shankar (musician)|Vidya Shankar]] (1919–2010), famous Carnatic veena player and musicologist
***Savitri
***Sundari
**[[C. V. Raman|Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman]] (1888–1970), m. {{ill|Lokasundari Ammal|qid=Q108750488|short=1}} (1892–1980)<ref name=Parameswaran/>
***{{Tree list/final branch}} {{ill|Chandrasekhar (Raja) Raman|qid=Q124337417|short=1}}<ref name=Parameswaran/>
***{{Tree list/final branch}} [[Venkatraman Radhakrishnan]] (1929–2011), m. Francoise-Dominique Barnard<ref name=Parameswaran/>
****{{Tree list/final branch}} Vivek Radhakrishnan (born c. 1976), m. Namrata Kini<ref>{{cite news|last=Madhukar|first=Jayanti|title=Relative Value: Namrata Kini Radhakrishnan and Vivek Radhakrishnan|url=http://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/opinion/sunday-read//articleshow/40317989.cms?|access-date=24 November 2017|work=The Bangalore Mirror|date=16 August 2014}}</ref>
**Mangalam (1891–1918), m. Chidambara<ref>{{cite web|title=Book Reviews- The Life and Works of a Demographer: an autobiography|url=http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Downloads/article_id_077_09_1208_1209_0.pdf|website=[[Current Science]]|access-date=24 November 2017}}</ref><ref>Parameswaran, pp. 6, 90</ref>
***{{Tree list/final branch}} [[Chidambara Chandrasekaran]] (1911–2000)<ref>{{cite web|title=Chidambara Chandrasekaran (1911-2000): an obituary|url=http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar102000/PERSONALNEWS.PDF|website=[[Current Science]]|access-date=24 November 2017}}</ref>
**Kumaraswami (Skandan, 1894–1914)<ref name=Parameswaran/>
**Sundaram (1898–1907)<ref name=Parameswaran/>
**Sitalakshmi (1901–1972), m. R.B.S. Sivaramakrishnan<ref name=Parameswaran/>
***[[S. Ramaseshan]] (1923–2003)
***[[Sivaramakrishna Chandrasekhar]] (1930–2004)
***{{Tree list/final branch}} [[S. Pancharatnam]] (1934–1969)<ref name=Parameswaran/>
**Meena (1903–1912)<ref name=Parameswaran/>
**{{Tree list/final branch}} Chandrasekhara Ramaswamy (1907–1991), m. <ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ias.ac.in/public/Resources/Other_Publications/Patrika/patrika_24.pdf | title=''Patrika''–Chandrasekhara Ramaswamy | publisher=Indian Academy of Sciences | date=January 1992 | access-date=26 February 2017}}</ref><ref name=Wali_313>Wali, p. 313</ref>
***{{Tree list/final branch}} 3 sons.
{{Tree list/end}}

==First generation==
*'''[[C. V. Raman|Chandrasekhara Venkata (C. V.) Raman]] [[Indian National Science Academy|FNA]], [[Indian Academy of Sciences|FASc]], [[Royal Society|FRS]]''', was a distinguished physicist whose achievements in the field of [[light scattering]] earned him the 1930 [[Nobel Prize for Physics]]. He discovered that when light traverses a transparent material, the wavelengths of some of the deflected light change. This phenomenon, now known as [[Raman scattering]], results from the [[Raman effect|eponymous effect]].<ref>{{cite web|title= Sir Venkata Raman – Biographical|url= https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1930/raman-bio.html|publisher= Nobel Prize in Physics – Official website|access-date= 4 November 2016}}</ref>
*'''[[Chandrasekhara Ramaswamy]] [[Indian Academy of Sciences|FASc]]''' (brother of C. V. Raman) was a noted [[meteorologist]] who served as Director-General of the [[Indian Meteorological Department]] (1965–1967). He conducted research into the regional and global effects of Indian monsoonal patterns.

==Second generation==
[[File:S. Chandrasekhar with family.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|S. Chandrasekhar with his brothers and sisters in Madras [Chennai], India. From left to right seated are: Bala, Savitri, Chandra, Sarada, Rajam; standing: Vidya, Balakrishnan, Vishwam, Ramanathan, Sundari.]]

*'''[[Venkatraman Radhakrishnan]] [[Indian Academy of Sciences|FASc]]''' (son of C. V. Raman) was a distinguished [[astrophysicist]] credited with expanding the field of [[radio astronomy]] and for research in [[pulsars]], [[interstellar clouds]] and various celestial bodies.
*'''[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] [[Indian National Science Academy|FNA]], [[Indian Academy of Sciences|FASc]], [[Royal Society|FRS]]''' (nephew of C. V. Raman) was an [[Indian American]] [[astrophysicist]] who was awarded the 1983 [[Nobel Prize for Physics]] with [[William A. Fowler]] "for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars". His mathematical treatment of stellar evolution yielded many of the best current theoretical models of the later evolutionary stages of massive stars and [[black hole]]s.<ref name=currentscience>{{cite journal | last=Vishveshwara | first=C.V. | title=Leaves from an unwritten diary: S. Chandrasekhar, Reminiscences and Reflections| journal=Current Science | volume=78 | issue=8 | pages=1025–1033 |date=25 April 2000 | url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/apr252000/generalia.pdf | access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> The [[Chandrasekhar limit]] is named after him.
*'''[[Sivaraj Ramaseshan]] [[Indian National Science Academy|FNA]], [[Indian Academy of Sciences|FASc]]''' (nephew of C. V. Raman) was a distinguished [[Crystallography|crystallographer]], director of the Indian Institute of Science (1981–1984), and president of the Indian Academy of Sciences (1983–1985).
*'''[[Sivaramakrishna Chandrasekhar]] [[Indian National Science Academy|FNA]], [[Indian Academy of Sciences|FASc]], [[Royal Society|FRS]]''' (nephew of C. V. Raman) was a distinguished physicist and pioneer in the field of [[liquid crystal]] technology who served as founder-president of the [[International Liquid Crystal Society]]. His efforts helped to establish the indigenous manufacture of liquid crystal displays in India. In 1977, he and his co-workers discovered the [[columnar phase]] of liquid crystals.
*'''[[Shivaramakrishnan Pancharatnam]] [[Indian Academy of Sciences|FASc]]''' (nephew of C. V. Raman) was a distinguished optical physicist who, in 1956, discovered the properties of what is now known as the [[geometric phase]] (sometimes known as the Pancharatnam phase) for polarized beams passing through crystals.
*'''[[Chidambara Chandrasekaran]] [[Indian Academy of Sciences|FASc]]''' (nephew of C. V. Raman) was an accomplished [[demographer]] and [[biostatistician]]. In 1949, together with [[W. Edwards Deming]], he devised the Chandra-Deming formula to estimate numbers of vital events by comparing results from two different systems. He was director of the Demographic Training and Research Centre, Mumbai (later renamed the International Institute of Population Sciences) from 1959 to 1964, and conducted several landmark demographic studies for the Indian government, the [[World Bank]] and the [[United Nations]]. He was president of the [[International Union for the Scientific Study of Population]] (IUSSP) from 1969 to 1973.
*'''[[Vidya Shankar]]''' (niece of C. V. Raman) was a distinguished musicologist and ''vainika'' (''[[veena]]'' musician) who received the [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] in 2007.<ref name="bio">{{cite news |last=Krishnan |first=Lalithaa |date=1 July 2010 |title=Art and science converged here |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/Art-and-science-converged-here/article16181169.ece |work=The Hindu |access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref>

==Third generation==
*'''[[V. Shanta]]''' (great-niece of C. V. Raman, niece of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar) was a prominent oncologist and researcher. In 2005, she received the [[Ramon Magsaysay Award]] for Public Service.
*'''[[Uma Parameswaran]]''' (great-niece of C. V. Raman, niece of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar) is a noted Indo-Canadian author of South Asian literature and a biographer of her great-uncle C. V. Raman.

==Sources==
*Parameswaran, Uma (2011). ''C. V. Raman: a biography''. Penguin Books. {{ISBN|9780143066897}}
*Wali, Kameshwar C. (1991). ''Chandra: a biography of S. Chandrasekhar''. The University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-87054-5}}.

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.entitree.com/en/family_tree/Q124331821 EntiTree link] for Chandrasekhar family: a visualization of the family tree based on [[Wikidata]] entries

[[Category:Chandrasekhar family| ]]
[[Category: Indian families]]
[[Category:Scientific families]]

Singh Sabha movement

2026-05-07T00:59:55Z

RealArifHossain: stub

{{Short description|Sikh movement in Punjab from the 1870s onwards}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
[[File:Singh Sabha movement figures.jpg|thumb|Prominent figures of the Singh Sabha movement. Their names, starting top-left and going clockwise, are as follows: Bhai Gurmukh Singh (1849–1898), Thakur Singh Sandhawalia (1837–1887), [[Khem Singh Bedi]] (1832–1905), [[Bikrama Singh|Kanwar Bikram Singh]] (1835–1887), [[Jawahir Singh Kapur|Jawaher Singh Kapur]] (1859–1910), and [[Giani Ditt Singh]] (1853–1901).]]
{{Sikhism sidebar}}
The '''Singh Sabhā Movement''', also known as the '''Singh Sabhā Lehar''',<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 August 2023 |title=SGPC to observe 150 yrs of 'Singh Sabha Lehar' |work=The Tribune |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/punjab/sgpc-to-observe-150-yrs-of-singh-sabha-lehar-532465 |access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref> was a [[Sikh]] movement that began in [[Punjab]] in the 1870s in reaction to the [[Proselytism|proselytising]] activities of [[Christians]], Hindu reform movements ([[Brahmo Samaj]], [[Arya Samaj]]) and Muslims ([[Aligarh Movement]] and [[Ahmadiyah]]). The movement was founded in an era when the [[Sikh Empire]] had been dissolved and annexed by the British, the [[Khalsa]] had lost its prestige, and mainstream Sikhs were rapidly converting to other religions.{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=206}} The movement's aims were to "propagate the true Sikh religion and restore Sikhism to its pristine glory; to write and distribute historical and religious books of Sikhs; and to propagate [[Gurmukhi]] [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] through magazines and media."{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=208}} The movement sought to reform Sikhism and bring back into the Sikh fold the apostates who had converted to other religions; as well as to interest the influential British officials in furthering the Sikh community. At the time of its founding, the Singh Sabha policy was to avoid criticism of other religions and political matters.{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=208}}<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Online">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Singh-Sabha |title=Singh Sabha (Sikhism)|author= ((Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica))|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|year= 2010}}</ref>

Singh Sabha was successful in almost doubling the Sikh population by bringing new converts into Sikh fold. Between 1901 and 1941, many Jats, OBC's, and Dalits converted to Sikhism due to outreach and preaching efforts of Singh Sabha movement.<ref>Singh, G., & Shani, G. (2021). The Emergence of Modern Sikh Nationalism, 1880s–1930s. In ''Sikh Nationalism'' (New Approaches to Asian History, pp. 52-81). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781316479940.005</ref><ref>Census of India, 1931, Punjab, Part I, Report, p. 69 and Census of India, 1941.</ref>

==Background==
===Khalsa period===
Increased Mughal persecution of the Sikhs in the eighteenth century{{sfn|Mandair|2013|pp=83-85}}<ref name=hari/> forced the Khalsa, which had raised arms against the state, to yield [[gurdwara]] control to [[Mahant|''mahants'']], or custodians, who often belonged to [[Udasi]], [[Nirmala (sect)|Nirmala]], or other Brahmanical-influenced ascetic heterodox sects,{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=86}} or were non-Sikh altogether{{sfn|Deol|2000|pp=76-78}}<ref name=madan3>{{cite book|author=TN Madan|editor= Martin Marty and R Scott Appleby|title=Fundamentalisms Observed|url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalismso0001unse/page/604/mode/2up |year=1994| publisher= University of Chicago Press|isbn= 978-0-226-50878-8|pages =604–610}} “The government had handled the Sikhs with caution, combining patronage with control. Pro-British groups and important individuals were the recipients of this patronage. In return they were expected to help in keeping hostile elements under control. This was perhaps best exemplified by the fact that the government never allowed the management of the Golden Temple to go completely out of its hands. It thus stood behind the mahants, who were almost invariably unbaptized Sikhs (though claiming affiliation with the Udasi sect founded by one of the sons of the first guru) or plain Hindus. They kept alive idolatry and a great deal of Brahmanical ritual in the temples and were considered venal... The managers of the Golden Temple were particularly disliked, not only for their Hindu origin but also for their loyalty to the British.”</ref> due to their lack of external identification, as opposed to initiated Sikhs. The Khalsa at this time engaged in guerilla campaigns against the [[Mughals]] and the rajas of the [[Sivalik Hills]] allied to them;<ref>{{cite book|author1=Patwant Singh| title=The Sikhs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=27XYeylUzWwC&q=sikh+hill+rajas&pg=PT60| year=2007| publisher=Crown Publishing Group|isbn=9780307429339|page=270}}</ref> having vacated the Punjab plains, they launched attacks from the refuges of the northern hilly areas adjoining Punjab, and the desert areas to the south.<ref name=hari>{{cite book |last1=Gupta |first1=Hari Ram |title=History of the Sikhs |date=October 6, 2001 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd |location=New Delhi, India |isbn=978-8121505406 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheSikhs-HrGupta1939/page/n65 69]-70 |url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheSikhs-HrGupta1939 |access-date=9 December 2019}}</ref> They later fought the [[Durrani Empire|Afghans]] and established themselves as local leaders.{{sfn|Deol|2000|pp=76-78}}

Meanwhile, mahant control of gurdwaras continued into the nineteenth century, particularly a pujari priestly class under the patronage of the Sikh elites and aristocracy.{{sfn|Deol|2000|pp=76-78}} This new Jatt Sikh nobility would begin to imitate [[Rajput]] kings, the customary embodiment of royal prestige of the region, following them in the process of [[Sanskritisation]], and taking on their customs and religious beliefs, including astrology, Brahmin patronage, cow veneration, and ''[[Sati (practice)|sati]]'', alongside their own.{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=2}}<ref name=neki/>

The religious functionaries allied with such groups would write [[exegeses]], while the Khalsa focused on political power at the time,{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=86}} as Sikh ''[[Jatha|jatthas]]'' solidified into the Sikh [[misl|''misls'']] of the [[Dal Khalsa (Sikh army)|Dal Khalsa]]. The Dal Khalsa would establish the [[Sikh Empire]], which, in the midst of reaching new levels of political power in the face of Mughal and Afghan attacks, came at the expense of reestablishing direct control over Sikh institutions and the eroding of Sikh mores, a development that Khalsa would have to contend with when the Sikh Empire was lost to the British.{{sfn|Gandhi|1993|p=12}}<ref name=neki>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Nekī |first1=Jaswant Siṅgh |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Five Symbols |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2011 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=II (E–I) |isbn=8 1-7380-204-1 |page=38 |edition=3rd |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIiE-l/page/37/mode/2up |quote=Of these five symbols, primacy unquestionably belongs to ''kes''. It is the Sikhs' ''kes'' which rescued them from a critical situation. Unwarily, they had succumbed to a process of backsliding. The decline had in fact set in during the days of Sikh power. The stern religious discipline which had sustained the Sikhs through a period of difficulty and privation gave way to a life of luxury and plenty. They lost what, following Ibn Khaldun, may be described as their "desert qualifies." A second — and even more sinister — debilitating factor was the Brahmanical ritual and practice which had gained ascendancy as an adjunct of regal pomp and ceremony. These now took a firmer hold over the Sikh mind. In this way, Sikh faith became garbled beyond recognition. The teachings of the Gurus which had supplied Sikhism its potent principle of re-creation and consolidation were obscured by the rising tide of conservatism. It was fast losing its characteristic vigour and its votaries were relapsing into beliefs and customs which the founding Gurus had clearly rejected. Absorption into ceremonial Hinduism indicated the course inevitably set for the Sikhs. This was the critical challenge they faced in the years following the British occupation of the Punjab.}}</ref>

===British annexation===
[[File:The surrender of Maharajah Duleep Singh to Sir Henry Hardinge, February 1846. Drawn by Hablot K. Browne, engraved by Browne and R. Young, circa 1846 (cropped).jpg|thumb|The surrender of Maharajah Duleep Singh to Sir Henry Hardinge, February 1846. Drawn by Hablot K. Browne, engraved by Browne and R. Young, circa 1846.]]
The British [[East India Company]] annexed the [[Sikh Empire]] in 1849 after the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]], ending the central Sikh government founded by Ranjit Singh in 1799 and replacing the existing ruling class.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=457}} Thereafter, Christian missionaries increased proselytising activities in central [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. In 1853, [[Maharajah Dalip Singh]], the last Sikh ruler, was [[Dalip Singh Sukerchakia#Conversion to Christianity|controversially converted to Christianity]].{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=206}} The British colonial rulers, after annexing the Sikh empire in mid-19th-century, continued to patronise and gift land grants to these mahants, thereby increasing their strength and helped sustain the idolatry in Sikh shrines.<ref name=ks542>{{cite book|author=Kashmir Singh|editor1=Pashaura Singh|editor2=Louis E. Fenech|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CzYeAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT542|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-100412-4|pages=542–543}}</ref>

The annexation of the Punjab to the British Empire in the mid-19th century saw severe deterioration of gurdwara management.<ref name=pashaura542>{{cite book|author1=Pashaura Singh|author2=Louis E. Fenech|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CzYeAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT542|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-100412-4|pages=542–543}}</ref> Recognising the centrality of religion among the Sikhs, the British particularly took care to control central Sikh institutions, notably those at [[Amritsar]] and [[Tarn Taran Sahib|Tarn Taran]], where British officers headed management committees, appointed key officials, and provided grants and facilities.{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=206}} They sought to cosset and control the Sikhs through the management of the Golden Temple and its functionaries, even ignoring its own dictates of statutory law which required the separation of political and religious matters, neutrality in the treatment of religious communities. and the withdrawal from involvement in religious institutions. The need to control the Golden Temple was held to be more paramount, and along with control of Sikh institutions, measures included the legal ban of carrying weapons, meant to disarm the Khalsa who had fought against them in the two Anglo-Sikh Wars.{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|p=28}}

In this way the Khalsa army was disbanded and the Punjab demilitarised, and Sikh armies were required to publicly surrender their arms and return to agriculture or other pursuits. Certain groups, however, like those who held revenue-free lands (jagirdars) were allowed to decline, particularly if they were seen as “rebels”.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=78}} The British were wary of giving the Sikhs unmitigated control of their own gurdwaras, and drew from Sikh factions seen as loyal to the British, like the Sikh aristocracy and Sikhs with noted family lineages, who were given patronage and pensions, and Udasis, who had gained control of historical gurdwaras in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, were allowed to retain proprietary control over lands and buildings.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=78}}

The British administration went to considerable lengths to insert such loyalists into the Golden Temple in order to exert as much control over the Sikh body-politic as possible. One reason for this was the growth of Sikh revivalist groups, like the [[Nirankari|Nirankaris]] and the [[Namdhari|Namdharis]], shortly after annexation; this revivalism was spurred by a growing disaffection within the ranks of ordinary Sikhs about the perceived decline of proper Sikh practices.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=78}}

====Community concerns====
Parallel to the end of Sikh sovereignty in Punjab and the gradual appropriation of Sikhism by the Brahminical social order, within two decades British colonial rule effected several changes in Punjabi society and culture: the decline of Sikh aristocracy, the gradual emergence of an urban middle class, the dissipation of the "national intellectual life" of the Punjab owing to the neglect and decay of indigenous education,<ref name=vir>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Siṅgh |first1=Attar |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Bhāī Vīr Siṅgh |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |pages=428–431 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIvS-z/page/428/mode/2up}}</ref> and a new bureaucratic system with Western-style executive and judicial branches, necessitating emphasis on western education and attainment of skills required for new occupations such as law, administration and education. Western science and Christian ethics also spurred the need for self-examination and evolution,{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=206}} and modernisation aroused among the Sikhs concern for survival and self-definition.<ref name=vir/> Further challenges included the proselytisation of the deistic [[Brahmo Samaj]]i and neo-Hindu<ref>{{cite book |last1=Larson |first1=Gerald James |title=India's Agony Over Religion |date=1995 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9780791424124 |page=243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6jmckIUHMAC&pg=PA243}}</ref> [[Arya Samaj]]i reform movements of Hinduism, the Muslim [[Ahmadiyah]] of [[Qadian]] and [[Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam]] movements in [[Lahore]],{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=206}}<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Online"/> and British-backed{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=206}} Christian movements.

Sikh institutions deteriorated further under the administration of the mahants, supported by the British,{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|p=29}}{{sfn|Deol|2000|pp=76-78}}<ref name=agnihotri>{{cite book |last1=Agnihotri |first1=Dr. V.K. |title=Indian History with Objective Questions and Historical Maps |date=1988 |publisher=Allied Publishers |location=New Delhi, India |isbn=9788184245684 |page=C-171 |edition=26th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&q=namdhari+idol+worship&pg=SL3-PA171}}</ref><ref name=madan3/>{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=5}} who in addition to being considered as ignoring the needs of the Sikh community of the time,{{sfn|Deol|2000|pp=76-78}} allowed the gurdwaras to turn into spaces for societal undesirables like petty thieves, drunks, pimps, and peddlers of unsavory and licentious music and literature, with which they themselves took part in such activities.<ref name="pashaura542"/>{{sfn|Deol|2000|pp=76-78}} In addition, they also allowed non-Sikh, Brahmanical practices{{sfn|Deol|2000|pp=76-78}}<ref name=madan3/> to take root in the gurdwaras, including [[Idolatry in Sikhism|idol worship]],{{sfn|Deol|2000|pp=76-78}}<ref name=madan3/> [[Varna (Hinduism)|caste]] discrimination, and allowing non-Sikh [[Pandit|pandits]] and [[astrologers]] to frequent them, and began to simply ignore the needs of the general Sikh community,{{sfn|Deol|2000|pp=76-78}} as they used gurdwara offerings and other donations as their personal revenue,{{sfn|Deol|2000|pp=76-78}}<ref name=agnihotri/><ref name=madan3/>{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=19}} and their positions became increasingly corrupt{{sfn|Deol|2000|pp=76-78}}<ref name=agnihotri/>{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|p=31}} and hereditary.<ref name=pashaura542/> Hindu priesthood, which had begun to make way into Sikh places of worship under the mahants during the Empire, had come to guide Sikh rites and ceremonies after annexation.{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=5}} Some local congregations marshalled popular pressure against them and to relinquish control, but the large revenue derived from gurdwara estates empowered them to resist such pressure.{{sfn|Deol|2000|pp=76-78}}

===Antecedents===
In response to these developments arose several Sikh movements: Nirankari, Namdhari, the Singh Sabha ("revivalism and renaissance") and the Panch Khalsa Diwan ("aggressive fundamentalism").<ref name=vir/>

====Nirankārīs====
Growing sentiments against these creeping practices would give rise to the first reformist movement, the [[Nirankari]] movement,{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=5}} started by [[Baba Dyal Singh|Baba Dyal Das]] (1783–1855).<ref name="Dalal2010p268"/><ref name="SinghFenech2014p353"/> The Nirankaris condemned the growing idol worship, obeisance to living gurus, and influence of Brahminical ritual that had crept into the Sikh [[Panth]].{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=78}}<ref name="McLeod1984p122">{{cite book|author=W. H. McLeod|title=Textual Sources for the Study of Sikhism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj28AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA122 |year=1984|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-1063-7|pages=122–126}}</ref><ref name="nirankari" /> Though not an initiated Khalsa, he urged Sikhs to return to their focus to a formless divine ([[Nirankar|''niraṅkār'']]) and described himself as a ''niraṅkārī'',{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=78}} favoring the revival of the traditional simplicity, austerity, and purity of Sikh rites and ceremonies.{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=5}}

He was particularly opposed to all idol worship, including the practice of keeping idols and pictures of the ten Sikh Gurus and praying before them,<ref name="Dalal2010p268"/> which had begun during the time of the Sikh Empire.<ref name="SinghFenech2014p353">{{cite book|author1=Pashaura Singh|author2=Louis E. Fenech|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7YwNAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA353 |year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-100411-7|pages=353–354}}</ref> [[Maharaja Ranjit Singh]] of the [[Sikh Empire]] was said to have appreciated his teachings,<ref name="Dalal2010p268"/> but the death rites of Ranjit Singh, including the ''sati'' of his queens and maidservants, would provide further impetus to Dyal Das to return to Sikh fundamentals.<ref name=nirankari>{{cite book|author1=Louis E. Fenech|author2=W. H. McLeod|title= Historical Dictionary of Sikhism|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158|year= 2014|publisher= Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-3601-1|page=234}}</ref> Gurdwara Peshawarian in [[Rawalpindi]], Dyal Das' headquarters, which had been granted a ''[[jagir|jagīr]]'' by Ranjit Singh, would come to be occupied by the British as they looked upon his movement with suspicion. The movement would survive by relocating out of town to continue propagating its teachings,{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=6}} and would remain potent and active campaigners in the late 19th century and early 20th century for the removal of all idols and images from the Golden Temple and other gurdwaras.<ref name="Dalal2010p268">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC&pg=PA268|year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341517-6|pages=268–269}}</ref>{{sfn|Gandhi|1993|pp=13–14}}

====Nāmdhārīs====
[[File:Namdhari Sikh, detail from portrait photographs of Sikh men from various kinds, appearances, and sects of Sikhism, from the 1930 first edition of Mahan Kosh (cropped).jpg|thumb|Namdhari Sikh, detail from portrait photographs of Sikh men from various kinds, appearances, and sects of Sikhism, from the 1930 first edition of ''[[Mahan Kosh]]'']]
The [[Namdhari]] sect was founded as one of the Sikh revivalist movements during the late rule of Ranjit Singh by [[Balak Singh]], then carried forth by [[Ram Singh Kuka|Ram Singh]] after he left [[Nau Nihal Singh]]'s regiment of the [[Sikh Khalsa Army]] at the end of the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] in 1845.{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=6}} They did not believe in any religious ritual other than the repetition of God's name, including the worship of idols, graves, tombs, gods, or goddesses.<ref name=agnihotra>{{cite book |author=V.K. Agnihotra |title=Indian History with Objective Questions and Historical Maps, Twenty-Sixth Edition 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&pg=SL3-PA171 |year=2010 |publisher=Allied Publishers |isbn=9788184245684 |page=C-171 |quote=They were not to worship gods, goddesses, idols, graves, tombs, etc.}}</ref>{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=6}} The Namdharis had more of a social impact due to the fact that they emphasised Khalsa identity and the authority of the Guru Granth Sahib,{{sfn|Mandair|2013|pp=82-83}} particularly from the middle of nineteenth century onward.{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=6}}

In addition to the religious aspect of his teachings opposing idolatry and Brahminical ritual at Sikh sites, the sect also introduced a political aspect, rejecting anything British, including the boycott of British courts, postal system, foreign cloth, and cooperation, drawing the attention of colonial authorities. It grew significantly in the 17 ''[[subah]]s'' of the colonial state, particularly in the Amritsar, Sialkot, Jalandhar, Ferozepur, Ludhiana, Ambala, Karnal, Malerkotla, Nabha and Patiala ''subahs''.{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=6}} In 1862, upon his assuming leadership, Ram Singh had prophesied the rebirth of Guru Gobind Singh and the establishment of a new Sikh dynasty to displace the British, introducing a political element alongside what had been an exclusive focus on social reform.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=41}} The sect's anti-British stand brought them into conflict with the British army and police. They would destroy idols, tombs, and graves, drawing local ire and resulting in their gatherings being banned in 1863,<ref name=world>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Pashaura |author1-link=Pashaura Singh (Sikh scholar) |title=The Sikh World |date=2023 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9780429848384 |page=478 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dem9EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT478}}</ref> and the arrest and execution of 65 Namdharis in July 1872 along with the exile of its leader to Burma,<ref name=agnihotra/> and the execution of 61 more in 1878 by cannon for going on weapons raids and attacking cow butchers in [[Malerkotla]], an idiosyncrasy of the sect.{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=7}}

The impact of the two revivalist movements, created a feeling among Sikh masses for reform and a return to Sikh fundamentals, would set the stage for the Singh Sabha.{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=7}}{{sfn|Gandhi|1993|pp=13–14}} Unlike these movements, however, the changes sought by the Singh Sabha would not be simply religious in nature or lead to new sectarianisms, but had mass appeal influencing the entire community,{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=205}} striving with considerable success to restore the old purity of religious thought and practice.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Tālib |first1=Gurbachan Siṅgh |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Untouchability |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |page=391 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIvS-z/page/390/mode/2up}}</ref>{{sfn|Gandhi|1993|pp=13–14}}

==Foundation and growth==
The first Singh Sabha was founded in 1873 in [[Amritsar]] as a response to what were identified as three main threats:{{sfn|Mandair|2013|pp=82-83}}
*Christian missionary activity, and the conversion of four Sikh youth in the Amritsar Mission School that year,{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=207}}
*the “reverse-proselytising” of the [[Arya Samaj]] with their ''Shuddhi'' ("purification") campaigns, which were part of the rising tide of Hindu nationalist consciousness fomenting in the country, and
*the possibility of losing British patronage of Sikhs in general due to the rebellious actions of groups like the Namdharis.

The objectives of the Singh Sabha were as follows:{{sfn|Sarhadi|1970|p=8}}
*Restoration of Sikh rites and elimination of other religious practices,
*propagation of Sikhism as directed by the Sikh gurus,
*publishing and distributing Sikh literature to these ends (with the first printing press in the Punjab, with Punjabi in Gurmukhi in Lahore in 1876<ref name=complete/>),
*promotion of the Punjabi language, counteracting a strong trend towards [[Braj Bhasha|Braj]] classicism in literary and scholarly tradition.<ref name=vir/> Earlier advanced by the Sikh intelligentsia of [[Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner|G. W. Leitner]]'s ''Anjuman-i-Panjab''<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Perrill |first1=Jeffrey |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Añjuman-i-Pañjāb |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |pages=176–178 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIA-d/page/176/mode/2up}}</ref> society in the 1860s, which worked to legitimise [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and [[Gurmukhi]] as successors to Persian in educational (successful by 1877){{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=208}} and administrative capacities,{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=207}} and later by the Sikh Educational Conference;{{sfn|Singh|1964|p=144}}
*opening Sikh colleges and schools to educate in Sikh traditions and way of life,
*avoidance of all politics from the movement,
*confining Singh Sabha membership to Sikhs alone, not enrolling ''[[patit]]s'' until expiation and reconverting,
*nothing disparaging to other faiths would be preached,
*authorising the management to permit enrollment of those among the ruling classes who sympathised with the movement's objectives.

Along with the British had come English-educated Bengalis and Kayasthas that served as the lower rung of the British administration in Punjab. The Bengali middle-elite began to introduce values and ideologies from British-ruled Bengal, and introducing the [[Brahmo Samaj]],{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=457}} a Hindu reform movement composed of English-speaking [[Bengalis]] had set up branches in several Punjabi cities in the 1860s. The newly English-educated in Punjab, overwhelmingly Hindu, initially accepted Bengali modernity, before tensions between this English-educated class in Punjab and the Brahmo Samaj in the 1870s and 1880s led to the region's Hindus turning to the more aggressive, less syncretic [[Arya Samaj]] movement,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=458}} founded by Swami [[Dayanand Saraswati]], a [[Brahmin]] from [[Gujarat]],{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=68}} who arrived in Punjab in 1877,<ref name=madan3/> at the invitation of Anglicised Hindu Punjabis, Bengalis, and Sardar Vikram Singh Ahluwalia.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=458}} Promoting the use of [[Hindi]], the "''ārya bhāṣā'',"{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=53}}<ref name=kumar/> as the medium of education{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=69}} and as a mother tongue,<ref name=kumar/> and influenced by colonial rationality and science,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=458}} the movement attracted newly educated sections of the colonial Hindu populace in particular,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=70}} finding it more relevant to the religiously competitive northwest.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=458}}

===Amritsar Singh Sabha===
{{Main|Amritsar Singh Sabha}}
[[File:Photograph of Khem Singh Bedi seated, circa mid-to-late 19th century.jpg|thumb|Photograph of Khem Singh Bedi seated, circa mid-to-late 19th century]]
This first Singh Sabha, the Sri Guru Singh Sabha Amritsar, led by [[Khem Singh Bedi]], convened a founding meeting in Guru Bagh, Amritsar, on 30 July 1873, with its first formal meeting, or ''jor-mel'',{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=96}} taking place in front of the Akal Takht on 1 October 1873. Sardar Thakur Singh Sandhawalia was appointed its chairman, [[Giani Gian Singh]] as secretary, Sardar Amar Singh as assistant secretary, and Bhai Dharam Singh of Bunga Majithia as treasurer.{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=208}} The initial membership numbered 95, with most of its members being elites, making it one of the richest Singh Sabhas.{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=96}}

Though largely concerned with defending Sikhism against Hindu and Christian criticism,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=44}} it saw Sikhism as part of a "broadly defined" Hinduism,{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=209}} and was set up and backed by a faction of Khatri Sikhs, Gianis, and granthis, many of whom where direct descendants of the early Sikh Gurus.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|pp=83-85}}<ref>Dr Harjinder Singh Dilgeer, SIKH HISTORY IN 10 VOLUMES, Sikh University Press, Belgium, published in 2012; vol 4, pp 49-69</ref> They had rejected the [[Khalsa]] initiation practices like the [[Amrit Sanchar|''Khande di Pahul'']] ceremony on the grounds that it threatened their [[Varna (Hinduism)|caste]] and polluted their ritual boundaries which they considered as primary.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|pp=83-85}} They had gained social prominence in the pre-British 18th- and colonial-era 19th-century Punjab by taking over gurdwaras and Sikh institutions, while Khalsa warriors confronted the Mughal state and [[Durrani Empire|Afghan]] forces for the survival of the Sikh community.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|pp=83-85}}{{sfn|Grewal|1997|p=25}}

While the Amritsar faction resented the democratic tendency within the Khalsa groups, they continued to co-exist within the broader Sikh panth, even as they remained aloof from the mainstream Khalsa practices.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|pp=83-85}} They considered [[Guru Nanak]] to be an ''avatar'', or incarnation, of the Hindu deity [[Vishnu]], and saw Sikhism as a tradition aligned with Vaishnavism; and these included the Nirmala, Udasi, and Giani schools of Brahminical thought.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|pp=83-85}} As such, they aligned Sikh tradition with the Brahminical social structure and caste ideology; their predominant concern was to protect the social framework in which they held status.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|pp=83-85}} For these groups the principle of authority of Sikh tradition was invested in living gurus (as Khem Singh Bedi, leader of the Amritsar faction, liked to be regarded){{sfn|Mandair|2013|pp=83-85}} rather than the principle of shabad-guru, or the Guru Granth Sahib as the Guru, which was upheld by the dominant Khalsa tradition.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|pp=83-85}} In addition to himself, Khem Singh claimed special reverence for all members of clans to which the Gurus had belonged.{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=208}}

===Lahore Singh Sabha===
{{main|Tat Khalsa}}
[[File:Photograph of Prof. Gurmukh Singh, founder of the Khalsa Akhbar Lahore and one of the founders of the Singh Sabha movement.jpg|thumb|Photograph of Prof. Gurmukh Singh]]
Professor Gurmukh Singh, a teacher of Punjabi and mathematics at the Punjab University College and graduate of Oriental College, where Harsha Singh, a Darbar Sahib granthi from Tarn Taran, had been the first teacher of Punjabi, would interest prominent Sikh citizens of Lahore, such as Diwan Buta Singh and Sardar Mehar Singh Chawla, along with Harsha Singh, in Singh Sabha goals. Gurmukh Singh believed Sikhism to be a sovereign religion having equality of all believers without distinction of caste or status as its basic social creed. The Sri Guru Singh Sabha Lahore was founded on 2 November 1879, holding weekly meetings with Diwan Buta Singh as president, Gurmukh Singh as secretary and Harsha Singh, Ram Singh and Karam Singh as members formed its working committee.{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=208}}

Shortly thereafter, [[Nihang]] Sikhs began influencing the movement, followed by a sustained campaign by the [[Tat Khalsa]].{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|p=28}}{{sfn|Mandair|2013|pp=85-86}}<ref name="fenech273">{{cite book|author1=Louis E. Fenech|author2=W. H. McLeod|title=Historical Dictionary of Sikhism|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA273| year=2014|publisher= Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-3601-1|page=273}}</ref> The Amritsar faction was opposed by these predominant groups of the Sikhs, particularly those who held Khalsa beliefs, who through access to education and employment, had reached a position to challenge them, forming the [[Tat Khalsa]] faction, or "true Khalsa," in 1879, headed by Gurmukh Singh, Harsha Singh Arora, Diwan Buta Singh, Mehar Singh Chawla, Ram Singh and Karam Singh,{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=208}} later joined by Jawahir Singh and [[Giani Ditt Singh]], and the Lahore Singh Sabha.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=84}}<ref name="Oberoi1994">{{cite book|author=Harjot Oberoi|title=The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity, and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKl84EYFkTsC&pg=PA382|date=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-61593-6|pages=382–383}}</ref> The Tat Khalsa's monotheism, iconoclastic sentiments, egalitarian social values and notion of a standardised Sikh identity did not blend well with the polytheism, idol worship, caste distinctions, and diversity of rites espoused by the Amritsar faction.<ref name="Oberoi1994"/> The Tat Khalsa met with immediately successful organisational and ideological challenging of the Amritsar faction as early as the early 1880s,<ref name="Oberoi1994"/> emerging successful, representing the Tat Khalsa faction.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=84}}{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|pp=28–29, 73–76, 329–330, 351–353}}<ref name="Oberoi1994"/> Ditt Singh, as a Mazhabi Sikh, was critical of Khem Singh Bedi's views on pollution, ritual, and lack of distinct identity.<ref name=kts/>
[[File:Photograph of Sardar Amar Singh Wasu, Bhagat Lakshman Singh, and Bhai Jodh Singh seated together.jpg|thumb|Photograph of Sardar Amar Singh Wasu, Bhagat Lakshman Singh, and Bhai Jodh Singh seated together]]
Between the 1870s and 1890s, the efforts of [[Tat Khalsa]] reformers had focused on reinforcing the distinct Sikh identity separate from Muslim and Hindu practices, the primacy of the Khalsa initiation and codes of conduct, and setting up schools and colleges in town and villages,{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=85}} initiatives that continued through the following CKD period. Through print media newspapers and publications, like the [[Khalsa Akhbar Lahore|Khalsa Akhbar]] (in Gurmukhi Punjabi, the first Punjabi newspaper<ref name="complete" />) and The Khalsa (in English), the Singh Sabha solidified a general consensus of the nature of Sikh identity, and that the source of authentic Sikhi was the early Sikh tradition, specifically the period of the Sikh Gurus and immediately after. The [[Adi Granth]] was held to be the authoritative Sikh literature, along with compositions by [[Guru Gobind Singh]], the works of [[Bhai Gurdas]], the [[janamsakhi]]s, and Gurbilas literature and the Rahitnamas,{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=85}} later codified by the [[SGPC]] as the [[Sikh Rehat Maryada]]. Non-Sikh practices accumulated during the period of institutional neglect by the British and mahant control, including idol worship, the primacy of non-Sikh [[Brahmins]], [[Varna (Hinduism)|caste]] discrimination, superstitious cults of folk heroes and Hindu deities, and Vedic rites officiated by Brahmins during the mahant period, were banished, and Sikh rites and symbols including the [[Amrit Sanchar|Khalsa initiation]], the names “Singh and “Kaur,” the [[5 Ks]], Sikh birth, death, and marriage rites, and the compulsory learning of [[Gurmukhi]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] in Khalsa schools, an institution found in modern gurdwaras worldwide, were formalised.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=85}}

===Other Singh Sabhas===
After the Lahore Singh Sabha, many other Singh Sabhas modeled after it were formed in every town and many villages throughout Punjab, exceeding over 100 in number by the end of the 19th century with many affiliated to the Lahore Sabha, or remaining unaligned.{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=101}} Each chapter, while similar in composition, differed greatly in stability and constitution, with memberships ranging from five to hundreds.{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=97}} As the movement gained momentum, Singh Sabhas not only throughout Punjab, but in several other parts of India and abroad, from London, England to Shanghai, China.{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=208}}

The Karachi Singh Sabha had a fifteen-member executive committee, with six positions reserved for ''sahajdhari'' Sikhs.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Kapur |first=Rajiv A. |title=Sikh Separatism: The Politics of Faith |date=May 1, 2024 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781040029909}}</ref> The Karachi Singh Sabha consisted of both keshdhari and sehajdhari Sikhs.<ref name=":0" /> The Ferozpur and Tarn Taran Sabhas had female members playing an active role alongside the men, with the Tarn Taran Sabha having a special female branch, the Istri Sat Sang Sabha.{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=97}}<ref name=":0" /> Bhai Takht Singh (1860–1937) of the Singh Sabha Ferozepur also advocated for women's education.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Siṅgh |first1=Gursharan |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Bhāī Takht Siṅgh |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |page=302 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIvS-z/page/302/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> A Ferozepur Sikh Kanya Mahavidyala (boarding school for girls) was established by Takht Singh in the 1890s.<ref name=":0" /> The Gurmat Granth Pracharak Sabha in Amritsar, established on 8 April 1885, researched and published books on ideological and historical topics. The Shuddhi Sabha, for conversions and reconversions into Sikhism, was founded in April 1893 by Dr. Jai Singh.{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=209}}{{sfn|Gandhi|1993|p=18}} The Sri Guru Hitkarni Singh Sabha, which would break with the Lahore Sabha in 1886 over its advocacy of the restoration of Duleep Singh to the throne, hence entailing involvement in politics, would reconcile with the Singh Sabha in 1895.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Siṅgh |first1=Jagjīt |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Srī Gurū Hitkārnī Singh Sabhā |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |pages=252–253 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIvS-z/page/252/mode/2up}}</ref> The Sri Guru Upkar Pracharni Sabha, in addition to propagating Sikhism, would counterattack on Sikhism from the Arya Samaj's Arya Kumar Sabha.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Siṅgh |first1=Jagjīt |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Srī Gurū Upkār Prachārnī Sabhā |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |pages=254–255 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIvS-z/page/254/mode/2up}}</ref> The Singh Sabha Tarn Taran and the Khalsa Diwan Majha pushed for reform in Sikh shrines in Tarn Taran and Amritsar.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Siṅgh |first1=Jagjīt |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Tarn Tāran |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |pages=322 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIvS-z/page/322/mode/2up}}</ref>
[[File:Photograph of a congregation of the Panch Khalsa Diwan, established by Teja Singh Bhasaur.jpg|thumb|Photograph of a congregation of the Panch Khalsa Diwan, established by Teja Singh Bhasaur]]
Among the local Singh Sabhas, the Singh Sabha Bhasaur, later the Panch Khalsa Diwan Bhasaur, established in 1893<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Bhāṭīā |first1=S.S. |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Bhasauṛ Siṅgh Sabhā |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |pages=349–350 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIA-d/page/348/mode/2up}}</ref> under Teja Singh (1867–1933) was the most active.{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=209}}<ref name=":0" /> Particularly strict, egalitarian, and unwavering on Khalsa ethos, identity, and practice, it drew heavily from the middle and lower strata of society.{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=97}} Its fundamentalism would draw it away from the Singh Sabha mainstream.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Siṅgh |first1=Jagjīt |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Bābū Tejā Siṅgh |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |pages=335–336 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIvS-z/page/334/mode/2up}}</ref> The Bhasaur Singh Sabha was marked by militancy.<ref name=":0" /> It distributed leaflets condemning prevailing Sikh practices and promoted Sikhs to undergo the ''pahul'' and become baptised Khalsa.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Photograph of a gathering of some of the stalwarts of the Singh Sabha movement at the durbar of Bhupinder Singh of Patiala State, ca.1900–1938.jpg|thumb|Photograph of a gathering of some of the stalwarts of the Singh Sabha movement at the durbar of Bhupinder Singh of Patiala State, ca.1900–1938]]
Sikh princes allied themselves with various political and social factions within the Singh Sabha. The first to be involved prominently was Raja [[Bikrama Singh]] of [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], with the Amritsar Singh Sabha and various Sikh educational projects. Meanwhile, Maharaja [[Hira Singh Nabha]] and Maharaja [[Rajinder Singh of Patiala]] sustained Sikh newspapers of the Lahore Singh Sabha, with the [[Khalsa Tract Society]] created by [[Vir Singh (writer)|Vir Singh]] in 1894.<ref name=states/> [[Kahn Singh Nabha]] would also serve the movement in various capacities under Hira Singh's patronage, as would Pandit Varyam Singh, whose services would also be sought and sponsored by other aristocratic families including the Sodhis of Kartarpur.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Giānī |first1=Gurcharan Siṅgh |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Varyām Siṅgh, Paṇḍit |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |page=422 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIvS-z/page/422/mode/2up}}</ref> All the Sikh princes donated heavily to the establishment of [[Khalsa College, Amritsar]], receiving seats on the college board.<ref name=states>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Ramusack |first1=Barbara |last2=Copland |first2=Ian |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Sikh States |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |page=168 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIvS-z/page/168/mode/2up}}</ref> Its 1892 establishment had been spurred by the 1886 founding of the D.A.V. College Lahore.{{sfn|Singh|1964|p=141}}

===Khalsa Diwans===
The rivalry of the Lahore and the Amritsar factions was often intense, as the Amritsar faction was dominated by elites and aristocrats who wanted more total say, and the Lahore faction who drew from all castes, including traditionally non-elite castes, and was more democratic in nature. Despite this, under the common goal of reform,{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=98}} Sikh public leaders formed a central committee and a Singh Sabha General{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=208}} in 1880. On April 11, 1883, this General Sabha evolved into Khalsa Diwan Amritsar, with about 37 affiliated local Singh Sabha chapters. Other Singh Sabhas, however, opposed it and there were also internal dissensions, as Khem Singh and Raja Bikram Singh opposed measures to democratise, wanting more absolute power and not wanting Lahore leaders to be more than ordinary members.{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=99}} The Singh Sabha chapters could not agree on its constitution or its leadership structure, ultimately leading to a split into two Khalsa Diwans, which would differ greatly in nature and composition.{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=97}}

The Khalsa Diwan Amritsar, remaining with about 7 chapters, re-organised itself as a bicameral body consisting of the Mahan Khand (the aristocracy) and Saman Khand (the priestly class and body of believers), while the breakaway Khalsa Diwan Lahore, with about 30 chapters, set up on 10–11 April 1886, with Sardar Attar Singh Bhadaur as President and Professor Gurmukh Singh as secretary, retained a much more equal footing between members, in line with its principles.{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=208}} The Amritsar faction was largely defunct thereafter, with eventually three chapters remaining at Amritsar, [[Faridkot, India|Faridkot]], and Rawalpindi, as it failed to gain popular support; decisions from the Saman Khand commoner house were subject to the supervision and approval of the Mahan Khand elite house, and the majority of the Singh Sabha would shift allegiance to the egalitarian, decentralised Lahore Sabha.{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=100}}

In its first of several defeats, the Amritsar faction proposed renaming the Singh Sabha to the Sikh Singh Sabha in 1883, as he perceived that the Singh Sabha had already become synonymous with the [[Khalsa]] Sikhs, and wanted to attract unbaptised and other minor Sikh sects to the organisation. The opposition to this initiative was so overwhelming that Khem Singh Bedi was forced to drop it in the next meeting of the Diwan in April 1884.<ref name="Oberoi1994"/>{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=98}} Despite this, both Diwans, even despite disagreements and even litigation, worked for common goals with the same programs, even as the Khalsa Diwan Lahore overtook its rival in popularity.{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=209}}

Though the two terms would begin to become synonymous, Singh Sabhas tended to form in small towns, while Khalsa Diwans formed in larger towns and cities.{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=101}} Khalsa Diwan meetings were held biannually.{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=99}}

==Sikh-Arya Samaj relations==
The Arya Samaj espoused a "purified," rationalistic, codified Hinduism,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=68}} based on the sole infallibility of the [[Vedas]]{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=458}} and dismissing most post-Vedic literature and tradition,<ref name=gold>{{cite book |last1=Gold |first1=Daniel |editor1-last=Marty |editor1-first=Martin E. |editor2-last=Appleby |editor2-first=R. Scott |title=Fundamentalisms Observed |date=1994 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0226508781 |pages=534, 544 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalismso0001unse/page/534/mode/2up |chapter=9: Organized Hinduism: From Vedic Truth to Hindu Nation}}</ref> and a "Vedic Golden Age" upon which to model Hindu society, conceived by selectively and arbitrarily<ref name=chhabra/> reinterpreting cultural traditions while retaining some post-Vedic thought.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=69}} It rejected contemporary Hindu practices like polytheism, idol and ''[[avatar]]'' worship, temple offerings, pilgrimages, the widow remarriage prohibition, child marriage, and [[sati (practice)|sati]] as degenerate accretions, as well as the priestcraft of Brahmins, considered to have misled the masses through introducing such deviations.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=458}}{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=458}} These repudiations were in accord with Sikh tradition,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=68}} which the Arya Samaj first saw as a reforming movement akin to their own,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=459}} and many young Sikh reformists had initially coordinated with them to counteract the growing influence of the Christian missionaries,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=70}} including [[Jawahir Singh Kapur]], [[Giani Ditt Singh]], Maya Singh, and Bhagat Lakshman Singh,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=459}} with the understanding that the purging of error among the Hindus would bring them closer to the purer Sikhism of yesteryear.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=460}} Dayanand initially seldom criticised Sikhs, focusing mainly on Christian missionaries,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=43}} "orthodox" Hindus in particular, and increasingly Muslims;{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=458}} any strong or violent opposition to him came solely from those orthodox Hindu forces,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=43}} most condemned by him,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=458}} who would vilify him and write counterattacks.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=458}}

=== Shuddhi ===
{{Further|Shuddhi (Hinduism)}}
Primarily focused on proselytisation, and noting Christian missionary success in proselytising to lower castes, the militant Samajis developed their own conversion ritual, a novelty in Hindu tradition,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=69}} called ''shuddhi'', to convert Muslims or Christians and to "purify" the untouchable castes into Hinduism,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=69}} who traditionally had been denied access to Hindu texts by the priestly class. Orthodox Brahminism did not permit admission of outcastes or readmission of lapsed adherents, and not until the rise of the Arya Samaj that such reconversion was encouraged,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Siṅgh |first1=Jagjīt |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Shuddhī Sabhā |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |pages=119–120 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIvS-z/page/120/mode/2up}}</ref> which elicited continued "Sanatanist" opposition. ''Shuddhi'' was reinterpreted under the influence of Christian conversion from a caste purification ritual to a conversion ritual,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jaffrelot |first1=Christophe |title=Religion, Caste, and Politics in India |date=1998 |publisher=Primus Books |isbn=9789380607047 |pages=347 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAO3i_gS61wC&pg=PA347}}</ref> to convert non-Hindus and outcastes into ''[[dvija]]'' or pure-caste Hindus, between 1889 and 1891.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=47}} This was followed slowly and reluctantly by other Samajis, and was disapproved by traditionalists.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=463}} Though at first there was no standard procedure for the new practice, and more conservative Samaji leaders were reluctant to sponsor them,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=48}} ''shuddhi'' for caste readmission was originally the full orthodox ''[[prāyaścitta]]'', involving bathing in the Ganges, feeding Brahmins, and the consumption of the ''[[panchagavya]]'', or cow products: milk, butter, curd, urine and dung; it would be simplified by 1893 to [[tonsure]], ''[[Homa (ritual)|hom]]'', ''[[Upanayana|janeu]]'', and the recitation of the [[Gayatri Mantra]],<ref name=adcock>{{cite book |last1=Adcock |first1=C. S. |title=The Limits of Tolerance: Indian Secularism and the Politics of Religious Freedom |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199995431 |pages=115–126 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DvMVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 |chapter=The Contested Politics of ''Shuddhi''}}</ref>{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=48}} showing a new confidence in the practice by then.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=48}}

=== Innovations ===
In addition to Dayanand's new Western-influenced ideas about a "highly specific scriptural canon," along with a long list of traditional Hindu writings to be condemned and repudiated,<ref name=gold/> another religious innovation of the Arya Samaj was the nationalistic idea of a nationwide Hinduism, as opposed to a myriad of different ''dharmas'' previously always qualified by subregion or type,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=70}} which was besieged by, and opposed to, both foreign interference and "unreformed Brahmanical hierarchies".{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=70}} This established the organisation as an important factor in the development of Hindu religious nationalism. In addition to boosting the collective morale of the Hindus in Punjab, by enabling a shift in self-identification from a regional minority with no political heritage to part of a national majority,{{sfn|Gandhi|1993|p=8}}{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=52}} Samaji identity would also provide an answer to criticisms of superstition and casteism from other communities, though at the expense of their Punjabi linguistic identity and traditional modes of Punjabi saint-worship, in favor of a wider Hindu ethnoreligious identity and the traditional Hindu pantheon.<ref name=kohli/> The confrontational character of the Arya Samaj would lead to the decline of the more Western-oriented, syncretic Brahmo Samaj in Punjab after 1877.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=52}} The Arya Samaj would nevertheless build on Brahmo Samaj techniques, as well as those of Christian missionaries and both modern and traditional native ones, thus reinterpreting Hinduism into a ''pracharak-dharma'', or conversion religion,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=53}} able to compete for converts.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=463}}

===Decline and end===
Hindu-Sikh relations first began to decline with the publication of Saraswati's polemical and ideological{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=44}} ''[[Satyarth Prakash]]'',<ref>{{cite book|author=Srikanta Ghosh|title=Indian Democracy Derailed: Politics and Politicians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RGyO0E86X1oC&q=satyarth|date=1997|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7024-866-8|page=94 |quote="The first signs of Hindu-Sikh rift surfaced with the Satyarth Prakash of Arya Samajist, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, in which he wrote against Guru Nanak in a derogatory manner."}}</ref> published in 1875, the year of the sect's first establishment in [[Bombay]],{{sfn|Singh|1961|p=119}} which portrayed the Sikh gurus as "misguided and ill-educated simpletons" who had diverted people from the Vedas.<ref name="Kaur">{{cite book|author=Mallika Kaur|title=Faith, Gender, and Activism in the Punjab Conflict: The Wheat Fields Still Whisper|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DC_KDwAAQBAJ|date=14 January 2020|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-3-030-24674-7|page=36}}</ref>

Two years later in 1877, Dayanand would visit Punjab, establishing the sect in Lahore.{{sfn|Singh|1961|p=120}} It was not until he reached Amritsar did he begin to belittle Sikhism, its founders, and current practices, provoking [[Nihang]] hostility and threats.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=459}} Addressing Sikhism briefly in his book, he wrote that "Nanakji [the founder of Sikhism], had noble aims, but he had no learning. He knew the language of the villages of his country. He had no knowledge of Vedic scriptures or of [[Sanskrit|Sanskrta]]," without which he lacked Vedic knowledge and was thus incapable of permanent accomplishment, teaching little of value. He considered the state of Sikhs to be as ignorant and degenerate as Puranic Hindus, and as worthy to be noted, refuted, and forgotten, stating that while "[t]hey do not worship idols," their treatment of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]] was essentially [[bibliolatry|bibliolatrous]]. According to Khushwant Singh, "It did not take the orthodox Sikhs long to appreciate that Dayanand's belief in the infallibility of the Vedas was as uncompromising as that of the Muslims in the Koran.... Dayanand set the tone; his zealous admirers followed suit." He regarded the Guru Granth Sahib as a book of secondary importance, the Sikh gurus and theologians as unlearned particularly due to their ignorance of Sanskrit (to be thus deemed as ''maha murkh'' or "great fool"), and denounced Guru Nanak. His followers deemed the infallibility of the uneducated Guru Nanak among Sikhs to be a threat to the infallibility of the educated Dayanand, and the points of convergence between the two regarding renewal to instead lead to competition.{{sfn|Jones|1973|pp=459–460}}

In correspondence after having left Punjab, he would write that his opinion of Sikhism had changed after his stay, and the objectionable content would be removed in the next edition. This would not be done before his death in 1883, however, and the second edition would attack Sikhs, Sikhism, and its scriptures even more directly, as would other Samaji publications;{{sfn|Singh|1961|p=120}} beginning in the ''Arya Patrika'' newspaper in 1885, which described a Sikhism that was begun with noble aims as having degenerated.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=460}} Along with the increased hostility of its followers, this would disillusion some Sikh followers and sympathisers of the movement.{{sfn|Singh|1961|p=120}}

====''Mahatma'' party====
Some notable Arya Samaj members expressed disagreement with Samaji conduct and attempted to reconcile with the Sikhs. Lahore judge Lala Amolak Ram Munsif, who in an 1887 public letter deemed Dayanand's word as neither infallible or binding upon its members, and his opinion as "wrong," decried the "jealous effort" of "instigating our respected and glorious Sikh brethren against the Arya dharma." This would help to reconcile earlier Sikh allies to some extent, but would not last as subsequent Samaj leaders would increase attacks on the Sikhs.{{sfn|Singh|1961|p=122}} Three Samajis in particular, socially radical and religiously militant, would determine the course of the Arya Samaj: Pandit Lala Guru Datt, [[Pandit Lekh Ram]], and Lala Mahatma Munshi Ram, later known as "[[Swami Shraddhanand]]".{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=44}}{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=464}}{{refn|group=note|These names are preceded by honorifics; "Lala" is an [[Arora]] honorific, "[[Pandit]]" is for religious scholars and leaders,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=461}} and "[[Swami]]" is for ascetics.}}

Guru Datt, Dayanand's successor, would come to increasingly reinterpret Dayanand as a ''[[rishi]]'', or sage, and the Satyarth Prakash as a sacred text to be followed unquestioningly.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=44}} Guru Datt would accrue a worshipful following (including Munshi Ram), who treated him as a spiritual guide, and he would attack Sikh leaders and ideology.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=44}} Later, Lekh Ram, unlike Dayanand or Guru Datt, was not educated in the Western style and would not focus on orthodox Hinduism or Christianity, but on Islam.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=45}} By 1893 their "''Mahatma''" faction would overpower and eventually split from the more conservative faction led by Lala Sain Das, [[Mahatma Hansraj|Lala Hans Raj]], [[Lala Lajpat Rai]], and Lal Chand, which was less religiously militant and more concerned with [[D.A.V. College Managing Committee|educational institutes]];{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=48}} the more moderate faction was called the "College Party."{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=464}}

With increasingly radicalised dogmatism, along with its ''kernani'' (Christian), ''kurani'' (Muslim), and ''purani'' (orthodox Hindu) opponents,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=46}} propaganda targeting Sikhism continued to be published in the Arya Samaj press through the 1880s,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=70}} further aggravating relations with the Sikhs, and culminated in an article written in 1888 titled ''Sikhism Past and Present'', which ridiculed [[Guru Nanak]] and denigrated{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=70}} the state of contemporary Sikhism as even worse than that of the Hindus: "While the prejudices of the Hindu community are gradually fading away before the progress of western civilisation, those of the Sikh community are acquiring fresh strength by their reluctance to keep pace with the march of times.... The intellectual forces brought into play by the spread of English education are slowly and imperceptibly infusing a spirit of liberalism into the Hindu mind, but it is our individual opinion, and we think we have good grounds to come to such a conclusion, that the Sikh is as much a bigoted and narrow-minded being now as he was thirty years back...," thus backsliding into superstition and ignorance, having been left backwards by their loss of political dominance.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=460}}

The increasingly shrill anti-Sikh tone continued into the next few years,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=460}} and the Arya Samaj would condemn the descendants of the Gurus forming a religious aristocracy in the 1887 ''Arya Patrika'',{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=461}} as the Amritsar Singh Sabha was characterised by.

=====11th anniversary=====
Continued public antagonism continued towards Sikhism by the Arya Samaj leading up to its 11th anniversary celebration at Lahore in November 1888, when the anti-modernist leader Pandit Guru Datt chose to publicly attack Sikhism,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=46}} repeating the anti-Sikh remarks of the Satyarth Prakash in his speech.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=46}} Guru Datt denigrated Guru Gobind Singh as "not even a hundredth part like our Maharishi Swami Dayanand Saraswati," Sikhs as ignorant and hardly having religion, and stated, "if Swami Dayanand Saraswati Maharaj called Guru Nanak a great fraud, what did it matter? He held the sum of the Vedas in his hands, so if he wanted to compare this light with anything, what was that?"{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=461}} Other Samaj leaders like Swami Swatmananda,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=46}} Lala Murlidhar, and Lekh Ram seconded the comments, the latter two rising to do so.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=461}}

This was followed by Lekh Ram's speech, attacking Sikhs further and physically insulting the [[Guru Granth Sahib]] placed before him. While approved by the majority of Samajis present,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=46}} Sikhs also present in the meeting, including Lahore Samaj Vice President Jawahir Singh, Giani Ditt Singh, and Maya Singh would resign their Samaj membership and join the Lahore Singh Sabha movement,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=46}} where they were welcomed by Gurmukh Singh;{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=462}} Jawahir Singh and Giani Ditt Singh would go on to become leading figures in the Sikh resurgence.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=462}}

Jawahir Singh and Ditt Singh had sought Arya Samaj partnership based on common ground, having ignored Dayanand's insults of Guru Nanak to do so. Jawahir Singh has accompanied Dayanand during his tour of Punjab, serving as vice-president of the Arya Samaj's Paropkarini Sabha from 1878 to 1883, as Secretary of the Lahore Arya Samaj since its inception, and Secretary of the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic Fund College Committee.<ref name=jawahir>{{cite book |last1=Chatterjee |first1=Chhanda |title=The Sikh Minority and the Partition of the Punjab 1920-1947 |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780429656156 |pages=38–41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gfl0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT39}}</ref>

Thereafter only a few Sikhs would remain with the Arya Samaj, fully accepting its platform.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=462}}

======Reaction======
The Sikhs held a protest meeting denouncing the Arya Samaj, specifically Guru Datt. Both Sikh and non-Sikh newspapers denounced the Arya Samaj habit of constantly attacking the leaders and doctrines of other faiths, and Jawahir Singh wrote of his disillusionment with the Arya Samaj in his tract ''Amal-i-Arya'' ("Acts of the Aryas") and released a critical biography of Swami Dayanand in 1889.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=462}}

In response, Radha Kishen Mehta, another prominent Samaji, would release ''Nuskha-i-Granthi-Phobia'' ("Prescription for 'Granth-Phobia'"),{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=462}}<ref name=chhabra/> a "low point for even Punjab polemics,"{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=462}} lobbing obscene accusations at the Sikh gurus and Jawahir Singh,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=462}} and criticising Sikhs. The Arya Samaj continued anti-Sikh street preaching personally criticising the Sikh gurus, and Guru Datt and Lekh Ram continuing their attacks via their newspapers.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=47}}

This would in turn invite a response from Ganda Singh of the Gurū Upkār Prachārnī Sabhā, ''Prescription for the Insanity of Dayananda's Followers,'' answering Arya Samaj insults towards Sikhism, portraying Swami Dayanand as an "uncouth braggart" who spent his time dividing Indians with "daggers of bad words," and defending Sikhism's sovereignty and Punjabi as a viable language not only suited for "rustics and uneducated men".<ref name=kts>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Kenneth W. |title=Religious Controversy in British India: Dialogues in South Asian Languages |date=1992 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=9780791408278 |pages=208–213 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EmY9fsUTjwYC&pg=PA209}}</ref>

With the increased need for didactic literature defending and defining the faith, the [[Khalsa Tract Society]] would be founded by [[Vir Singh (writer)|Vir Singh]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Siṅgh |first1=Attar |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Vīr Siṅgh, Bhāī |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |pages=428–431 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIvS-z/page/428/mode/2up}}</ref> in 1894. Members paid dues, formed subcommittees to select manuscripts and handle accounts, and had to follow the following conditions: write concise Punjabi, and avoid speaking against other religions.<ref name=kts/>

====Shuddhi Sabha====
Attacks from neo-Hindus like the earlier Brahmos as well as the Aryas Samajis had existed since before there had been Punjabis literate in English to counter them;<ref name=jawahir/> these sustained attacks would result in the breaking of ties with the Arya Samaj and the definitive end of Sikh support in 1888, replacing an earlier perception of shared goals;{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=70}}{{sfn|Singh|1961|p=122}} Arya Samaj attacks during the 1880s would irrevocably embitter relations with the Sikhs, as well as those other communities,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=46}} and their aggressiveness would be met with protective associations of Sikhs, amongst others.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=46}} It had been the Singh Sabhas of the Lahore faction that had earlier sought cooperation with the Arya Samajis,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=49}} and occasional instances of cooperation on mutual interest{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=462}} like opposing Christian conversions would continue.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=47}}

First cooperating in Rawalpindi in 1885 against a Muslim conversion,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=463}} later the Lahore ''Shuddhi Sabha'' would be jointly run by the Sikhs and Samajis through the 1890s against Christian and Muslim conversion efforts, as ''shuddhi'' had become a major plank of the radical Samajis by 1893.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=49}}{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=465}} While the three entities operated variously in alliance or independently,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=463}} ''Shuddhi Sabha'' and the Singh Sabhas were largely controlled by Sikhs, and the Arya Samaj, particularly the ''Mahatma'' faction{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=465}} would progressively lessen their cooperation with them, to ensure that the "purified" would become Samajis, rather than Sikhs.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=50}} The ''Mahatmas'', being strict vegetarians unlike the Tat Khalsa and the College Party Arya Samajis, also opposed the use of the controversial "pork test" for converts from Islam.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=463}} The decrease in support from the predominant Samajist faction would in turn raise Sikh consciousness of its identity,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=50}} amid continued conflict and mutual denial of being reforming leaders, Sikhs would increasingly accentuate their distinct identity.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=462}} Shuddhi Sabha conversions to Sikhism would accelerate in 1896,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=465}} spurring further conversion efforts towards outcastes.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=466}}

Following the 1897–1898 Arya Samaj split, the College Party Arya Samaj would come to publicly support the Sikhs, denouncing the ''Mahatma'' attacks on Sikhism that had begun in Amritsar,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=466}} calling Dayanand's knowledge of Gurmukhi "imperfect" and rejecting his comments on Guru Nanak as secondhand information not endorsed by the Arya Samaj. This incensed the ''Mahatma'' faction, who would again attack Guru Nanak and Sikhism to defend Dayanand's sanctity, while College Party moderates would remain with their Shuddhi Sabha allies.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=467}}

===20th century===
[[File:Group photograph of Sikh luminaries of the early 20th century taken in Shimla.jpg|thumb|Group photograph of Sikh luminaries of the early 20th century taken in Shimla. From left-to-right: Arjan Singh Bagrian, Jogindra Singh, Umrao Singh Shergill, Gurdial Singh Maan, Kahn Singh Nabha, and Sundar Singh Majithia.]]
Beginning in 1897, letters in the "Lahore Tribune" newspaper raised the question, "Are Sikhs Hindus?", prompting an inconclusive exchange of literature in response.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=50}} The issue of Sikh identity was further sharpened by vociferous Arya Samaj attacks on the Sikh faith, issuing pamphlets claiming Sikhism as a reformist strain to be incorporated within Hinduism,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=74}} even though for a long time the Arya Samaj itself had rebuffed the name ''Hindu'', and led campaigns against it.{{sfn|Singh|1961|p=123}} Nevertheless, a section of Sahajdari Sikh leaders would declare they were Hindus in 1897 before a large public gathering to mark the diamond jubilee of Queen Victoria in Lahore,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=74}} and Jagat Singh, a Sikh who had stayed with the Arya Samaj after the Lahore anniversary, opined that Sikhism was just an earlier Arya Samaj. The issue of Sikh identity took a legal turn with the death of [[Dyal Singh Majithia]] in 1898, when his will was contested in the Punjab High Court as not falling under the Hindu code of inheritance,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=467}} and the verdict of which elicited disagreement from the Tat Khalsa.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=50}}{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=467}}
[[File:Photograph of Giani Gian Singh with Maharaja Ripudaman Singh of Nabha State and the child Pratap Singh of Nabha State, ca.1919–21.jpg|thumb|Photograph of [[Giani Gian Singh]] with Maharaja Ripudaman Singh of Nabha State and the child Pratap Singh of Nabha State, ca.1920–21]]
In response to Thakar Das and Bawa Narain Singh's ''Sikh Hindu Hain'' ("Sikhs Are Hindus"), [[Kahn Singh Nabha]] published his 1899 classic tract ''Ham Hindu Nahin'', which made the case for a distinct Sikh identity.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=74}} The debate would yield several Sikh types, from the pure Khalsa Sikh dedicated to their distinctness, to those more ancestrally steeped in Hindu practices.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=467}}

====Rahtia conversions====
''Shuddhi'' would go on to have a major impact in the relationship between Hindu and Sikh identities,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=463}} as, inspired by the then-defunct Shuddhi Sabha, ''Mahatma'' Samajis spotted an opportunity to convert [[Mazhabi Sikh]]s, who traditionally were seen as polluting to Hindus.{{sfn|Jones|1973|pp=468–469}} A ''shuddhi'' conversion ceremony of outcaste Sikhs in 1900 in Lahore, in which two hundred Rahtia Sikhs, seeking purified caste status,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=469}} had their heads and beards shaved to make them "caste" Hindus{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=50}} and given ''janeu'' threads,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=470}} was decried by the Sikh community, who condemned such efforts to convert Sikhs to Hinduism in protest meetings,{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=69}} the Sikh lack of action, and the refusal of Hinduised Sikh custodians to let them into the [[Golden Temple|Darbar Sahib]],{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=470}} criticised by Khalsa Sikhs.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=471}} Supporting the Rahtia conversions, the College Party Samajis would break their alliance with the Lahore Sabha in 1904.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=471}} Amid growing disillusionment with the Arya Samaj and less and less willingness to opt into "Hindu" identity,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=50}} many now saw Samaji conversion as direct a threat as Christian and Muslim conversion,{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=50}} passing resolutions condemning the Arya Samaj,{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=470}} and decrying the concept of ''shuddhi''.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=472}} Unlike the Arya Samaj ''shuddhi'', the Sikh tradition of conversion and [[Amrit Sanskar#Khande di Pahul|initiation]] was long established.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=463}}

In 1905, Sikh reformers would succeed in having idols, and Brahmins officiating rituals thereof, removed from the Darbar Sahib, as intrusions of another faith that was contrary to Sikh teachings. The same dynamics that led Arya Samajis to criticise orthodox Sikhism were used to criticise orthodox Hinduism;{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=473}} in search of a "respectable and defensible" Hinduism, shorn of much of its traditional structure, they had contributed significantly to the ruin of communal harmony in Punjab.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=475}}

====Language====
Language would also become a point of contention between the Arya Samaj and the Singh Sabha by 1900; while both opposed Urdu as the official language of Punjab under the British, the two movements would disagree over which language and script to replace it with.{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=50}} The Arya Samaj favored Hindi (then called "Shastri"<ref name=complete/>) in [[Devanagari]], while the Tat Khalsa favored Punjabi in [[Gurmukhi]], considering Hindi to be as foreign to Punjab as Persian or Urdu.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=472}}

When Punjabi had been successfully inducted into the Punjab University Lahore curriculum through Singh Sabha efforts, and the oriental College Lahore by 1877, this had been opposed by the Hindu board members of the college. This would solidify the perception of Punjabi as a Sikh language, with its literary output largely confined to Sikh writers.<ref name=complete>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Jagraj |title=A Complete Guide To Sikhism |date=2011 |publisher=Unistar |isbn=978-8171427543 |page=101 |url=https://archive.org/details/ACompleteGuideToSikhism/page/n101/mode/2up}}</ref>

Communal competition was also increasingly driven by economic and job competition.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=473}}

===Identity in the 19th century===
====Hindu====
There was no debate about Hindu-Sikh identity until the late nineteenth century, when a new "Hindu" consciousness emerged.<ref name=tisarpanth>{{cite journal |last1=Grewal |first1=J. S. |title=W.H. McLeod and Sikh Studies |journal=Journal of Punjab Studies |date=2010 |volume=17 |issue=1–2 |pages=133–135 |url=https://punjab.global.ucsb.edu/sites/secure.lsit.ucsb.edu.gisp.d7_sp/files/sitefiles/journals/volume17/JPS_17_nos_1-2_Grewal.pdf |accessdate=19 August 2020 |quote= '''p. 133''': Though McLeod does not mention it, the phrase ''tisar panth'' (third panth) made its appearance in the eighteenth century Sikh literature to underline the distinction of the Khalsa Panth from both Hindus and Muslims. '''p. 135''': Nor can there be objective uniformity or 'homogeneity' among all the members of a community identified as different from others. Neither fluidity nor diversity necessarily invalidates distinctive identity. The objective realities of the Sikh Panth and the self-image of the Sikhs from the days of Guru Nanak to the present day have not remained the same, but the consciousness of distinction from the others around has remained constant. Until we come to the late nineteenth century, there was no debate about Hindu-Sikh identity. Due to the emergence of a new ‘Hindu’ consciousness in the late nineteenth century, an inclusive definition of 'Hindu' led to the assertion that the Sikhs were 'Hindu'. Implicit in this assertion was a political dimension. Bhai Kahn Singh could see this dimension and his own exposition of Sikh identity was meant to show the political implication of its distinctiveness. The Sikh 'Panth' was a political community, a 'qaum' like Hindus, and like Muslims. Bhai Kahn Singh did not have to invent the ''tisar panth''. The term itself as pointed out earlier, had been in existence at least since the eighteenth century.}}</ref> According to [[D. N. Jha]], "No Indians described themselves as Hindus before the fourteenth century," and "Hinduism was a creation of the colonial period and cannot lay claim to any great antiquity," as "[t]he British borrowed the word 'Hindu' from India, gave it a new meaning and significance, [and] reimported it into India as a reified phenomenon called Hinduism."<ref name=jha>{{cite journal |last1=Jha |first1=Dwijendra Narayan |title=Looking for a Hindu Identity |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=2005 |volume=66 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44145821 |publisher=Indian History Congress |pages=8–9, [http://www.sacw.net/India_History/dnj_Jan06.pdf 17–18]|jstor=44145821 }}</ref> The term 'Hindu', ultimately a foreign (Persian) exonym derived for populations adjoining the [[Indus River]], had itself been repurposed around 1830 as 'Hinduism' to refer to the culture and religion of Brahmins, then adopted by other Indians as an anti-colonial national identity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Flood |first1=Gavin D. |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |date=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521438780 |page=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&q=denote |quote=The actual term 'hindu' first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: ''sindhu''). In Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term for the people of modern-day India and 'hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism, though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century.}}</ref> Largely a colonial construct of 19th-century Western hermeneutics, and not historically attached to any doctrine or community, even by the late 19th century this homogenised identity was far from universally claimed or recognised as a religion, with identification rather by sect or caste still common in the 1881 census.<ref name=plassey>{{cite book |last1=Bandopaddhya |first1=Sekhar |title=From Plassey To Partition: A History of Modern India |date=2004 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=9788125025962 |pages=234–247 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/FromPlasseyToPartitionBySekharBandopaddhyaxaam.in/page/n249/mode/2up |chapter=5.2: Hindu Revivalism and Politics}}</ref>{{rp|245}}

=====Sanatanist=====
The phrase ''sanatana dharma'', previously used in Hindu scriptures to describe various conducts and aphorisms, was also repurposed in the late nineteenth century to refer to this new religious identity in native terms;<ref name=jha/> prior to British colonisation, the phrase did not mean "eternal religion," nor did it delineate "Hinduism" from other religions, as it would come to.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rocklin |first1=Alexander |title=The Regulation of Religion and the Making of Hinduism in Colonial Trinidad |date=2019 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=9781469648729 |pages=154–156 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZeOGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA155 |quote=They included new Hindu identities–the "reform" movement or Arya Samaj, and an "orthodox" reaction, often called Sanatana Dharma.... Before European colonization of South Asia, "sanatana dharma" did not mean "eternal religion" and was not used as a way to delineate a distinct "Hinduism" from other presumed religions. In pre-colonial South Asia, sanatana dharma most often meant something like "venerable order" or "established norm" (or "orders" or "norms." It also appeared in the plural.). It was only adapted in the late nineteenth century as a way to set off an Indian tradition against Christianity, used as a translation for the term "Hinduism."}}</ref> However, ''sanatana dharma'' would come to denote initially opposing factions of burgeoning Hindu identity, with the reactionary "Sanatanists" ("orthodox" Brahminic traditionalism) who defended the traditional ''[[Varna (Hinduism)|varnashrama]]'', ritualism, [[Murti|murtis]], and shunning of outcastes, versus the reformist "Samajist" faction that opposed these.{{sfn|Gandhi|1993|p=11}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Gurharpal |last2=Shani |first2=Giorgio |title=Sikh Nationalism |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107136540 |page=73 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H_1MEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA73}}</ref><ref name=kohli>{{cite book |last1=Kohli |first1=Pranav |title=Memories in the Service of the Hindu Nation: The Afterlife of the Partition of India |date=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781009354646 |page=297 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=huneEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA297}}</ref><ref name=adcock/>

The Sanatanist Hindu faction in Punjab had not shown any interest in Sikh identity in its first report in 1889. Its earliest known leader, [[Shardha Ram Phillauri]], in his 1865 book ''Sikhan de Raj di Vithia'' ("History of Sikh Rule"), written to acquaint the British with the Sikh population and practice, had made no reference to any Hindu-Sikh identity. It was not until a Lahore meeting in 1897 that the Sanatanist Hindu faction passed a resolution proclaiming Sikhs as Hindus, a matter that then acquired legal significance with Sardar Dyal Singh Majithia's death in 1898.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pall |first1=Sheena |title=Issues of Sikh Identity: Sanatanist-Sikh Debate |journal=International Journal of Punjab Studies |date=January 2013 |volume=20 |issue=1 |page=193 |url=https://punjab.global.ucsb.edu/sites/default/files/sitefiles/journals/volume20/9-Sheena%20Pall%2020.pdf}}</ref>

=====Samajist=====
Following the founding and spread of its educational movement in Punjab and beyond in 1883, Arya Samaj publications also assailed other faiths, including Christianity, Islam, [[Jainism]], and [[Buddhism]], exacerbating entrenched communal faultlines{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=70}} with its ''[[odium theologicum]]''.{{sfn|Barrier|Siṅgh|2004|p=206}} [[Ganda Singh (historian)|Ganda Singh]] in fact considered the "Hindu-Sikh tension" of subsequent times to have been a recent misnomer as of 1961, and that it had more accurately originated as the Sikh-Arya Samaj tension.{{sfn|Singh|1961|p=123}}

The initial Samajist impact on the Hindu community was divisive, pitting militants against the orthodox;{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=50}} the Sanatanist and Samajist factions would only begin to reconcile on ''shuddhi'' and increase cooperation under the [[Hindu Mahasabha]] in the 1920s,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kapur |first1=Manju |title=Being Hindu, Being Indian: Lala Lajpat Rai's Ideas of Nationhood |date=2024 |publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited |isbn=9789357085830 |page=285 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hfb4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT285}}</ref> first with tacit and increasing approval from pandits of ''shuddhi'', the "''ārya bhāṣā''" Hindi, the "''ved bhāṣā''" Sanskrit, and Samaji reforms. According to [[Ganga Prasad Upadhyaya]] in 1939, "Forty years ago the Arya Samaj was looked upon as a great defiler of the Hindu religion by bringing in an alloy from outside. Today the Arya Samajist is counted as a great defender of the faith."{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=53}} Based on their common view of Vedas, the Arya Samaj would be eventually absorbed into pan-Hindu revivalist framework;<ref name=plassey/>{{rp|240}} the forces of Hindu communalism resulting from this blend, with a modernised identity based on a reinterpreted tradition, would export its techniques to the rest of India;{{sfn|Jones|1968|p=53}} this attempt to create a new, modernised, respectable religious tradition would change relations with other communities in Punjab.{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=457}}

Its criticism of both modern Hinduism and Sikhism as polytheistic corruption<ref name="Jones1976p134"/> (including instances of Arya Samaj members smashing and trampling idols in other Hindu temples,<ref name=incensed>{{cite book|author=Harjot Oberoi|title=The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity, and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1NKC9g2ayJEC |year=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-61592-9|pages=322–326}}; Quote: “The Tat Khalsa was particularly incensed at what was generally seen as Hindu interference, and more particularly Arya Samaj meddling, in Sikh affairs. The motive for Samaj spokesmen who argued for the retention of idols within the same shrine was highly suspect, because on earlier occasions when their own members had ventured to trample or smash idols there had been no public outcry against these profaning activities. Second, there was no place for idol worship in the teachings of the Sikh gurus. Third, it was argued that when anti-Sikh forces raided the shrine in the past, only Sikh blood was shed in great abundance to preserve its sanctity. Also, Sikh resources and wealth went into the making of this magnificent temple".</ref> and Dayanand writing in 1883 that "while it was true that [Sikhs] do not practise idolatry," he saw the Sikh reverence of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]] as tantamount to such<ref name="HirstZavos2013">{{cite book| author1=Jacqueline Suthren Hirst|author2= John Zavos|title=Religious Traditions in Modern South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bBOpAgAAQBAJ&q=part+and+parcel|year=2013| publisher=Routledge| isbn=978-1-136-62668-5|pages=61–62}}</ref>) treatment of Sikhs as a Hindu sect{{sfn|Mandair|2013|pp=82-83}} (despite calling on its membership to identify as "Aryas" and not degraded "Hindus" during the 1891 census,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jaffrelot |first1=Christophe |title=Hindu Nationalism: A Reader |date=2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9781400828036 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mOXWgr53A5kC&pg=PA31 |quote=Arya Samaj members, until the beginning of the twentieth century, preferred to stress their specificity and distinction from Hinduism, which they saw as a degraded form of the Vedic religion. In 1891 the movement's leadership in the Punjab called on its members to declare themselves 'Aryas' and not Hindus, during the census.}}</ref> on account of its Persian etymology<ref name=chhabra>{{cite book |last1=Chhabra |first1=G. S. |title=The Advanced Study of the Punjab, vol.2 |date=1960 |publisher=Prakash Brothers |pages=383–384 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.531133/page/n399/mode/2up}}</ref>), meddling in Sikh affairs (including attempts to keep the mahants' idols within the Darbar Sahib despite its own iconoclasm and denunciation of idolatry),<ref name=incensed/> and attempts to "purify" Sikhs back to what Arya Samaj called as the "monotheistic Vedic Hinduism,"<ref name="Jones1976p134"/> based solely on the infallibility of the [[Vedas]],{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=68}} found little acceptance among Sikhs and had a major impact in Punjab.<ref name="Jones1976p134">{{cite book|author=Kenneth W. Jones|title=Arya Dharm: Hindu Consciousness in 19th-century Punjab|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=RpvXCtNzrz8C |year=1976|publisher= University of California Press|isbn= 978-0-520-02920-0|pages= 134–137}}</ref>

Apart from Sikhs, the compulsion to spread the "Hindu" identity to lower castes as well, in ''shuddhi'' "purifications," had also been motivated by political concerns, when the registering of Dalits as non-Hindu would have rendered caste "Hindus" a minority.<ref name=kumar/> It was seen as a way to boost the demographics of a projected "Hindu" community.<ref name=adcock/>{{sfn|Jones|1973|p=468}}

====Sikh====
In contrast, in Sikh scripture (''tīsar panth''),<ref name=tisarpanth/>{{sfn|Singh|1996|p=38}} 16th-century exegesis (Bhai Gurdas)<ref name=persian/> and pre-colonial 19th-century commentaries (the ''tisra mazhab''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grewal |first1=J. S. |author1-link=J. S. Grewal |title=The Khalsa: Sikh and Non-Sikh Perspectives |date=2004 |publisher=Manohar Publishers and Distributors |isbn=9788173045806 |pages=96, 100 |url=https://archive.org/details/khalsasikhnonsik0000unse/page/96/mode/2up? |quote= For Bhai Santokh Singh, the immediate aim of creating the Khalsa was to assume sovereign political power. "On seeing the third unique religion in the world the enemy apprehended disaster (and realized that it will) snatch the political power." ....(''teesra mazhab jag dekh ke ajab mahan, bairee ke gajab pario chheenai thakurai hai'')}}</ref> of [[Kavi Santokh Singh]], whose Nirmala incorporation of some Vedantic themes would, however, help give rise to ''sanatan'' interpretations later that century<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Pashaura |title=Life and Work of Guru Arjan: History, Memory, and Biography in the Sikh Tradition |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199087808 |pages=93–94 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeworkofguruar0000pash/page/92/mode/2up}}</ref>), older ''[[janamsakhi]]s'' (B-40),<ref>{{cite book |last1=McLeod |first1=W. H. |author1-link=W. H. McLeod |title=The B40 Janam-sakhi |date=1980 |publisher=Guru Nanak Dev University |pages=142–143 |url=https://archive.org/details/TheB40Janam-sakhi/page/n187/mode/2up |quote=[But God reassured him, saying] "Go, Nanak. Your panth will flourish. The salutation [of your followers] shall be: ''pairī̃ pavaṇā satigurū hoiā''. The salutation of the Vaisnava panth is: ''rām kriṣan''. The salutation of the Sanyasi panth is: ''namo narāiṇ''. The yogis’ salutation is: ''ādes ādi purakh kau''. The Muslims' cry is: ''salām-'alaik''. You are Nanak and your panth will flourish. [Your followers] shall be [called) Nanak-panthis and their salutation shall be: ''pairī̃ pauṇā satigurū hoigā''. "I shall bless your panth. Inculcate devotion towards me and strengthen [men’s obedience to their] dharma. [As] the Vaisnavas [have] their temple (''rāmsāl''), the yogis, their seat (''āsaṇ''), and the Muslims their mosque, so your [followers shall have their] dharamsala. Three things you must inculcate in your panth: [repeating] the divine Name, [giving] charity, and [regular] bathing. Keep [yourself] unspotted while [yet remaining] a householder."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Oberoi|1994|p=51}}: ""Go, Nanak [answered God]. Your Panth will flourish. The salutation of your followers shall be: 'In the name of the true Guru I fall at your feet'. The salutation of the Vaisnava Panth is: 'In the name of Rama and Krisna'. The salutation of the Sanyasi Panth is: 'In the name of Narayan I bow before you'. The Yogi's salutation is: 'Hail to the primal One'. The Muslims' cry is: 'In the name of the One God peace be with you'. You are Nanak and your Panth will flourish. Your followers shall be called Nanak-panthis and their salutation will be: 'In the name of the true Guru I fall at your feet'. I shall bless your Panth. Inculcate devotion towards Me and strengthen men's obedience to their dharma. As the Vaisnavas have their temple, the yogis their asan, and the Muslims their mosque, so your followers shall have their dharamsala. Three things you must inculcate in your Panth: repeating the divine Name, giving charity, and regular bathing. Keep yourself unspotted while yet remaining a householder.""</ref>{{sfn|Grewal|1997|pp=6–7}} Qazi Nur Muhammad's 18th-century Afghan ''[[jangnama]]'',<ref name=eos>{{cite book |last = Siṅgh | first = Gurbax | editor1-last = Siṅgh | editor1-first = Harbans | title = Jaṅgnāmā | date = 2011  | publisher = Punjab University, Patiala | location = Patiala, Punjab |isbn=978-8173805301 | page = 343 | edition = 3rd | url = https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIiE-l/page/347/mode/2up | quote = About the Sikh religion, the Qazi says: "The Sikhs are disciples of the pious man who lived in Chakk [Chakk Guru, Amritsar]. After him came his successor, Gobind Singh, from whom they derived the title Singh. The dogs are not from the Hindus; the path of these evil ones is different."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Grewal|Habib|2001|p=209}}: "The ways and practices of these [people] are derived from Nanak who showed to the Sikhs a separate path. His [last] successor was Gobind Singh, from whom they received the title 'Singh'. They are not from amongst the Hindus. These miscreants have a distinct religion of their own."</ref> and 17th-century Persian sources (''[[Dabestan-e Mazaheb]]''),<ref name=persian>{{cite book |last1=Grewal |first1=J. S. |last2=Habib |first2=Irfan |title=Sikh History from Persian Sources: Translations of Major Texts |date=2001 |publisher=Tulika |location=University of Michigan |isbn=9788185229171 |page=8 |url=https://archive.org/details/SikhHistoryFromPersianSources/page/n19/mode/2up? |author1-link=J. S. Grewal |author2-link=Irfan Habib |quote=The author of the Dabistan indicates in several ways that the Sikhs had a religious identity of their own. At places, he is quite explicit. The Sikhs did not believe in idols or idol-worship. Like Muslims, Guru Nanak believed in the Oneness of God, but he subscribed to the idea of transmigration as well. He did not believe in incarnation, and regarded the gods and goddesses of the Hindus as creatures of God; they did not worship the idols of Hindu gods. The Sikhs did not recite Hindu mantras, and they did not care for Sanskrit, regarded by the Hindus as the language of angels. On the whole, thus, the Sikhs are presented as distinct from Hindus and Muslims. Bhai Gurdas also talks of the Sikh Panth (called gurmukh, sachcha, nirol or nirmal panth) as distinct from both Hindus and Muslims. The salient features of the Sikh Panth are: renunciation of renunciation, equality of castes, a new scripture, and transcendence of former panths.}}</ref> there is clear evidence of an established sense of identity among the Sikh community, from both within and without, distinct from the "Hindu" and "Turk" (Islam) ''panths'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dhavan |first1=Purnima |title=When Sparrows Became Hawks: The Making of the Sikh Warrior Tradition, 1699-1799 |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199756551 |page=201 |url=https://archive.org/details/whensparrowsbeca0000dhav/page/200/mode/2up}}</ref>{{sfn|Grewal|2011|p=178}} well before colonial times.

The crystallisation of Sikh identity in relation to nascent "Hinduism" and subsequent Sikh apprehensions in the Indian state are traceable to the Arya Samaj attacks and attempts to subsume Sikhism,<ref name=kumar>{{cite book |last1=Kumar |first1=Ashutosh |title=Rethinking State Politics in India: Regions Within Regions |date=2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781315391458 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iTIlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA290 |page=290}}</ref><ref name=plassey/>{{rp|247}} using a combination of persuasion and ideological attack.<ref name=kts/> Sikh coordination against the antagonism of the Arya Samaj, and the nature and character of the Singh Sabha's modernising zeal, was largely a response to the transformation of the original term Hindu which meant "non-Muslim inhabitant of India" to a term that embodied those who identified with this new "Hinduism." The Chief Khalsa Diwan sought to coordinate a political response and protect the Sikh identity from being viewed as "tiny sect within a broader pan-Hinduism".{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=84}}

==Further developments==
===Chief Khalsa Diwan (CKD)===
In the 1890s, Sikhs groups formed many Khalsa Diwans in towns and cities, while rural groups formed their own Sikh Sabhas. By 1902, there were over 150 Singh Sabhas and Khalsa Diwans in existence. Another attempt brought 29 of these Khalsa Diwans and other Sikh societies under the [[Chief Khalsa Diwan]], or CKD, partly due to the need for greater political coordination in the face a far more powerful common adversary, the Arya Samaj, by now the main representative of political Hinduism in Punjab.{{sfn|Mandair|2013|p=84}} This body would be created in 1902 to unite the Lahore and Amritsar Singh Sabhas with their respective satellite Singh Sabhas, and would act as the main voice of the Sikhs for the next 18 years.<ref name="CKD">{{cite book|author1=Louis E. Fenech|author2=W. H. McLeod|title=Historical Dictionary of Sikhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-3601-1|page=46}}</ref> A lack of coordination between the local Singh Sabhas and larger Khalsa Diwans, compared to municipal committees and district boards, had been noted in the ''Khalsa Samachar'' newspaper, and was to be ameliorated by the CKD.{{sfn|Singh|1989|p=101}}

According to J.S. Grewal, while there were disagreements, the Singh Sabhas and Diwans were all concerned with religious reform and to collectively addressing the growing threat from Christian missionaries who were converting Sikhs into Christians, after the much-publicised celebrity conversions earlier such as of [[Maharaja Dalip Singh]] and Kanwar Harnam Singh Ahluwalia.<ref name=grewal1998p145/> Sikh publications by the various Sikh Sabhas expressed their fear for the Sikh identity in early 20th-century given the success of the Christian missionaries, as well the rising threat of Muslim and Arya Samaj proselytisation efforts.<ref name=grewal1998p145>{{cite book|author=J. S. Grewal|title=The Sikhs of the Punjab|url= https://archive.org/details/sikhsofpunjab0000grew |url-access=registration| year=1998|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-63764-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sikhsofpunjab0000grew/page/145 145]–149}}</ref><ref name="Jones1989p112">{{cite book|author=Kenneth W. Jones|title=Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8HV4nHv8urgC |year=1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-24986-7|pages=111–114}}</ref> The Sikh leaders were concerned about Christian missionary schools targeting the Sikh youth. They welcomed the English language education but opposed the Christian theology that was also being taught in these schools.<ref name=grewal1998p145/>

The Chief Khalsa Diwan was officially registered and recognised by the colonial British government on July 9, 1904. The new body was financially supported by the affiliated Singh Sabhas, and Sikh aristocrats. It also attracted dedicated Sikh preachers or ''Updeshak''. By 1920, the Chief Khalsa Diwan oversaw 105 affiliates. It developed an elaborate structure with the Chief Khalsa Diwan having three types of advisors and various committees, all paid a monthly salary from dues collected from the affiliates and members.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Singh|first1= Mohinder (Editor)|last2= Singh |first2=Gurdarshan (Author)|title= History and Culture of Panjab|date= 1988|publisher= Atlantic Publishers & Distri|location=New Delhi|isbn= 9788171560783|pages= 101–104, 108–112|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=W95iulFxS6gC|access-date=27 October 2017}}</ref> While Sikh newspapers championed the Chief Khalsa Diwan and the British colonial government recognised it as representing the entire Sikh community and all the Sikh Sabhas, in late 1900s and throughout 1910s significant internal disagreements led important Sikh activists to challenge the authority of the Chief Diwan Khalsa.<ref name=jogindr108/> The Amritsar faction, who still exerted administrative dominance amid predominant Tat Khalsa strength,<ref name="akali"/> and growing unease over its own conservative stance,<ref name="CKD"/> were concerned with staying on good terms with the British, who anxiously wanted to uphold the validity of their settlement instated at the beginning of their administration of the Punjab in 1849, in which ownership of gurdwaras was conferred upon whoever could claim it.<ref name="akali">{{cite book|author1=Louis E. Fenech|author2=W. H. McLeod|title=Historical Dictionary of Sikhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-3601-1|pages=24–25}}</ref> In late 1920, Sikh revolutionaries, irritated at the loyal obedience of the CKD to the British, would announce two decisions at the [[Akal Takht]] reached by the newly formed Central Sikh League: the formation of the [[SGPC]] to manage all Sikh shrines, and the formation of the [[Akali Dal]]. The CKD would be overtaken by the more activist [[Akali movement]], led by the Akali Dal, which would train men to confront the government and reclaim gurdwaras.<ref name="akali"/>

===Akali movement===
{{main|Akali movement}}

[[File:Seated photograph of a pujari or priest at the Golden Temple complex in Amritsar, Punjab, ca.1889.jpg|thumb|Seated photograph of a pujari or priest at the Golden Temple complex in Amritsar, Punjab, ca.1889]]
In the early decades of the 20th century, the Tat Khalsa, through the Akali movement, also contributed to two major legal victories, the 1909 Anand Marriage Act, and the [[Sikh Gurdwaras Act, 1925|Sikh gurdwaras Act, 1925]], which re-established direct Khalsa control of the major historical gurdwaras, previously run by British-supported mahants and pujaris,{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|p=30}} or Hindu priests, and their rites. The reestablishment of Sikh control of gurdwaras, after the non-violent [[Akali Movement]], also known as the gurdwara Reform Movement, was touched off in 1920 following General [[Reginald Dyer]]’s invited visit to the Golden Temple failed to pacify the Sikhs. The Akali Movement, lasting from 1920 to 1925, culminated in the transfer of gurdwara control to the Shiromani gurdwara Parbandhak Committee ([[SGPC]]); the Akali Movement is the forerunner of the modern [[Akali Dal]] political party.{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|p=30}} In 1919, the internal disagreements led some Sikh leaders to form the Central Sikh League, while in 1920 the [[Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee|Shiromani gurdwara Prabandhak Committee]], or SGPC, emerged for the same reasons.<ref name=jogindr108>{{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Mohinder (Editor)|last2= Singh|first2= Jogindr (Author)|title=History and Culture of Panjab|date=1988 |publisher= Atlantic Publishers & Distri|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788171560783 |pages=108–110 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=W95iulFxS6gC |access-date=22 August 2018}}</ref>

In 1932, a general meeting of the Sikhs formed the Khalsa Darbar as an attempt to form a united front triggered by the colonial British government's Communal Award of seats to the Punjab Legislative Council. The Central Sikh League formed in 1919 merged into the Khalsa Darbar. However, in 1937, the Sikhs split into Shiromani Akali Dal and Congressite Sikhs.<ref>{{cite book|author=J. S. Grewal|title=The Sikhs of the Punjab|url= https://archive.org/details/sikhsofpunjab0000grew |url-access=registration| year=1998|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-63764-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sikhsofpunjab0000grew/page/169 169]–171}}</ref> The Singh Sabhas of the late 19th-century were overwhelmed by these organisations as Britain attempted to gain Indian soldiers for their World War II efforts and from the dynamics of religion-based political partition of the Indian subcontinent in the final decades of colonial rule.<ref name=grewal1998p145/><ref name="Jones1989p112"/> The SGPC, as a democratic institution, has represents the majority opinion of Sikhs, and is the authoritative voice of the Sikhs.{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|p=30}}

== Women and the Singh Sabha movement ==
The Singh Sabha reformists promoted a framework for Sikh women to aspire to that was not very different from what the Arya Samaj or Brahmos promoted, consisting of progressiveness due to emancipation but also being constrainted by Victorian-era social-norms.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Harleen |title=The Lost Heer: Women in Colonial Punjab |publisher=Viking by Penguin Random House India |year=2025 |isbn=9780670098750 |pages=179–181}}</ref> Women's popular-culture was seen as a threat to the idealised image of a Sikh woman.<ref name=":2"/> To the reformers, the ideal Sikh woman was one who was devoted to her husband and the family, was not superstitous, dressed modestly, wore minimal jewelry, and had knowledge of her religion so she could pass it on to her children.<ref name=":2"/> Women were supposed to not sing ''sitthnias'' (a traditional marriage practice where the bride's side mocks the groom's side, exposes their faults, and their errors<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Gurjeet |title=Unveiling Gender Dynamics In Punjabi Villages: An Exploration Of Male Dominance At The Sath |pages=39 |quote=According to Dr. Nahar Singh, “Sitthani is a direct address from the daughter’s party to the son’s party at the time of marriage. For him, sitthani is a characteristic song full of bitter sarcasm and mockery, in which the moral life values are made immoral by creating an unusual image and is hurt by associating it with the son’s party. The other party is ridiculed on a moral level” (20). Similarly, Dr. Vanjara Bedi has contextualised, “In the sitthnias, the maidens of the girl’s side make fun of the male side, expose the faults and their errors (361)”.}}</ref>), perform ''siapa'', mourn by beating their chest, and avoid some other rituals deemed contrary to the reformers' envisionment of womanhood.<ref name=":2"/> The title ''[[Kaur]]'' was promoted and standardised for Sikh women to uptake as part of their name rather than the commonly used ''Devi'' or ''Bai''.<ref name=":2"/>

In-contrast to the ideal Sikh woman, the "depraved" woman (known as a ''kapatti'' by the reformers) was one who was married into a respectable Sikh family yet still maintained beliefs and practices rooted in [[Punjabi folk religion]] (which was seen as superstition by the reformers), or were quarrelsome, superstitious, lazy, or gluttonous.<ref name=":2"/>[[File:Photograph of Bibi Devki of Jhang, a woman-preacher of the Singh Sabha movement, published in 'None of Self and All of Thee, A Table of Indian Life' (1889).jpg|thumb|Photograph of Bibi Devki of Jhang, a woman-preacher of the Singh Sabha movement, published in 'None of Self and All of Thee, A Table of Indian Life' (1889)<ref name=":2"/>]]One of the first Sikh woman-preacher of the movement was Bibi Devki of Jhang, daughter of Chetan Shah of Jhang.<ref name=":2" /> In November 1886, she published a piece of literature, namely ''Kumatt Kaur te Sumatt Kaur'', modelled after an Urdu tract geared toward Muslim women named ''[[Mirat-ul-Uroos]]'', which showcases the story of a "kapatti" Sikh woman named Kumatt Kaur, who is lazy, kills ants, and fights with her mother-in-law.<ref name=":2" /> In-contrast, Sumatt Kaur, Kumatt Kaur's friend, embodies all the values of a "good" Sikh woman as defined by the reformers.<ref name=":2" /> In the text, a visit to the shrine of Heer proposed by Kumatt Kaur is refuted by Sumatt Kaur as being against Sikh ''dharam''.<ref name=":2" /> Throughout the story, Kumatt Kaur, the "bad" Sikh woman, is juxtaposed by Sumatt Kaur, the "good" one, until eventually Sumatt Kaur's influence gradually turns Kumatt Kaur into an ideal Sikh woman.<ref name=":2" />

==Perspectives==
While [[W. H. McLeod]] considers the dominance of the Khalsa identity to last well into the 19th century, [[Harjot Oberoi]] sees the emergence of a "Sanatan Sikh tradition" that displaced the eighteenth-century "Khalsa episteme."<ref name=rb>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Harpreet |editor1-last=Singh |editor1-first=Fenech |editor2-last=Pashaura |editor2-first=Louis E. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191004124 |pages=208–209 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I0NAwAAQBAJ&pg=208 |chapter=16: 'Western' Writers on the Sikhs: Religious Boundaries}}</ref>

According to Oberoi, the first Singh Sabha formed in 1873 aimed at interreligious tolerance and cooperation between Sikhs and Hindus.<ref name=madan3/> With the arrival of Arya Samaj in 1877 and its criticism of Sikhism, the dynamics changed. According to the Indologist T.N. Madan, Sikhs and Hindus not only lived together before 1870s, they shared a common cultural life with common symbols and orientations. The Arya Samaj activity and the Singh Sabha movement's response to it created several competing definitions of Sikh identity.<ref name=madan3/> After the early struggles within the Singh Sabha movement, new social and cultural elites emerged. These, states Oberoi, displaced preceding Sikh ties, replaced them with a "series of inventions: the demarcation of Sikh sacred space by clearing holy shrines of Hindu icons and idols, the cultivation of Punjabi as the sacred language of the Sikhs, the foundation of cultural bodies exclusively for Sikh youth, the insertion of the anniversaries of the Sikh Gurus into the ritual and sacred calendar and most important of all, the introduction of new life-cycle rituals".<ref name=madan3/>

However, while Harpreet Singh cites "perhaps, the best critique of Oberoi's work" by Cynthia Mahmood, that Oberoi completely omits the role of the period of Sikh persecution and religious conflict in the development of a heightened sense of Sikh religious identity,<ref name=rb/> Oberoi does in fact concede that older Sikh exegeses "are not completely unaware of boundaries."<ref>{{harvnb|Oberoi|1994|p=51}}:"Bhai Gurdas is not completely unaware of boundaries. Frequently in his verse he labours the point that Muslims miss the correct path, that Hindus are caught in the snare of empty rituals and social inequalities. The solution for him is a Sikh way of life, a distinctive third path to human problems, and the ideal man is a gurmukh, a follower of the Sikh gurus and their doctrines. These are not merely metaphysical differences but suggest a new idiom, a separate community of believers, and above all a reworking of the social order."</ref>{{sfn|Grewal|2011|p=120}} according to [[W. H. McLeod]], Oberoi's mentor, there is scriptural support from the writing of both [[Guru Arjan]] and [[Bhai Gurdas]] that a strong sense of identity had already come to exist by the sixteenth century, matching a "reasonable expectation that the intellectual elite within the Panth moved more rapidly towards a sense of distinct identity than did the body of believers,"<ref>{{cite book |last1=McLeod |first1=W. H. |title=Sikhs and Sikhism |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195647457 |page=18 |edition=3rd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXTXAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> and that "[t]he 'boundaries' might be indistinct but not the 'centre'," with a lag of various degrees between the panth's elites and its masses during the preceding century.{{sfn|Grewal|1997|p=4}} Neither the fluidity and diversity of the 18th century preclude a strong identity, nor was uniformity required for it, according to [[J. S. Grewal]].<ref name=tisarpanth/>

Harnik Deol states that Oberoi's analysis may be termed as the "hegemony approach," which seeks to explain how the rising middle class used religious reform to gain cultural hegemony by gaining control over sacred centres and by defining a uniform, undifferentiated religious discourse with discrete boundaries.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=74}} According to Oberoi, this new class of leadership provided the Sikhs with a distinct and separate Sikh identity with a standardised history, rites of passage, sacred space and observances, though he fails to explain what was new about this message{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=75}} or innovative about the Sikh initiation ritual, as "iconoclastic monotheism and egalitarian social values" had been the exact teachings of the Sikh gurus.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=76}} This is only a partial understanding of the impact of the Singh Sabha movement, done by stripping the Sikh initiation of its deeper, symbolic significance, and reducing it "merely to its overt function as an ethnic marker,"{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=76}} and Deol considers Oberoi's analysis to contradict his own earlier observations, as he himself states that the Khalsa had already established their distinct rites of passage, birth, death and initiation by the 18th century.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=75}} In reference to the religious and moral codes a true Khalsa must follow that were established by [[Guru Gobind Singh]], it is the rigor and difficulty in living up to these codes, says Deol, that is the reason why only a small fractional percentage of Sikhs undergo the initiation rite even today.{{sfn|Deol|2000|p=76}}

According to Pashaura Singh, while some Sikhs embraced Hindu practices in the 19th century, "it is questionable whether this was always so," and "to imply that Sikh identity was always predominantly fluid, with free mixing of Sikh and Hindu practices," is questionable.{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|pp=28-29}} Harpreet Singh also contends that while "the existence of the aforementioned rahit and well-defined boundaries does not mean that individual Sikhs never engaged in practices that were proscribed by the normative tradition," "not every practice performed by a Sikh becomes Sikhism."<ref name=rb/> From as early as the period of Guru Arjan, Sikhs "clearly were encouraged to think of themselves as a new community."{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|pp=28-29}} The Singh Sabha movement had many shades of views. The Amritsar Singh Sabha's [[Khem Singh Bedi]] saw Sikh identity as distinct, the need for a living guru, supported the idea of them being divine incarnations, and the idea that "Hindus and Sikhs were indivisible" as a society.{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|pp=28-29}} The Lahore Singh Sabha's Gurmukh Singh held the middle ground stating that Sikhs had their own distinct scripture and practices, the issue of Sikh-Hindu relationship was redundant, and that all those who accepted Sikh scripture were Sikhs whether they undergo Khalsa initiation and live by its religious code or those who do not undergo initiation and do not follow some of the Sikh religious and moral codes.{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|pp=28-29}} The Bhasaur Singh Sabha's [[Teja Singh]] represented the more radical view during this movement with the view that those who have not undergone Khalsa initiation should have "no place in the Sikh ''[[panth]]''", and to speak of Hindu-Sikh relationship is to insult Sikhism.{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|pp=28-29}} Eventually, the middle ground view of Gurmukh Singh prevailed.{{sfn|Singh|Fenech|2014|pp=28-29}}

According to W. H. McLeod, the Singh Sabha "systematised and clarified" the Khalsa tradition, but Khalsa identity was neither a totally new invention, nor mere purging of "alien excrescence," nor the "restoration of a corrupted original.' The Khalsa identity of the Singh Sabha reformers contained both "old and new" elements, quotes Pashaura Singh.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Pashaura Singh|author2=Michael Hawley|title=Re-imagining South Asian Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4SLhLakpsNsC&pg=PA30 |year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-24236-4|page=30}}</ref> According to Barrier and Singh, "On the theological plane, modern Sikhism is a continuation of the Singh Sabha restoration. While it retains its creedal unity and its adherence to its original metaphysics and symbolism, it has found enough resilience in the framework it has inherited to adapt itself to the modern course of progress without compromising on the fundamentals. Deeply conscious of its eventful history, its outlook is essentially forward-looking."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Tālib |first1=Gurbachan Siṅgh |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Sikhism |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2002 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=I (A–D) |isbn=9788173801006 |page=155 |edition=4th |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIvS-z/page/154/mode/2up}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last1=Deol |first1=Harnik |title=Religion and Nationalism in India: The Case of the Punjab (Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia) |date=2000 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York City, U.S.A. |isbn=978-0415201087 |edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_AMX5RI_YUC |pages=65–78 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gandhi |first1=Surjit Singh |title=Perspectives on Sikh Gurdwaras Legislation |date=1993 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=978-81-7156-371-5 |pages=1–47 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IPr-BX563M8C&pg=PA1 |chapter=Genesic Roots}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sarhadi |first1=Ajit Singh |author1-link=Ajit Singh Sarhadi |title=Punjabi Suba: The Story of the Struggle |date=1970 |publisher=U. C. Kapur and Sons |location=Delhi |pages=1–29 |url=http://www.panjabdigilib.org/webuser/searches/displayPage.jsp?ID=2653&page=1&CategoryID=1 |chapter=The Sikh Resurgence and the Emergence of the Akali Dal}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Barrier |first1=N. Gerald |last2=Siṅgh |first2=Nazer |editor1-last=Siṅgh |editor1-first=Harbans |title=Siṅgh Sabhā Movement |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Sikhism |date=2004 |publisher=Punjab University |location=Patiala |volume=IV (S–Z) |isbn=9788173805301 |pages=205–212 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/TheEncyclopediaOfSikhism-VolumeIvS-z/page/204/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book|last=Oberoi|first=Harjot|title=The Construction of religious boundaries: culture, identity, and diversity in the Sikh tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKl84EYFkTsC&pg=PA73|access-date=14 June 2010|year=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-61593-6}}
* {{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Gurdarshan |editor1-last=Singh |editor1-first=Mohinder |title=History and Culture of Panjab |date=1989 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers and Distributors |location=New Delhi |isbn=9788171560783 |pages=95–104 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W95iulFxS6gC&pg=PA95 |chapter=The Singh Sabha Movement}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mandair |first1=Arvind-Pal Singh |title=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vdhLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA78|year= 2013|publisher= Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-4411-0231-7|pages=78–86}}
* {{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Pashaura|last2=Fenech |first2=Louis E.|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I0NAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28| year=2014|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0-19-969930-8|pages=28–31}}
* {{cite book |last1=Grewal |first1=J. S. |author1-link=J. S. Grewal |title=Historical perspectives on Sikh identity |date=1997 |publisher=Publication Bureau, Punjab University Patiala |isbn=9788173803598 |url=https://archive.org/details/HistoricalPerspectivesOnSikhIdentity/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book |last1=Grewal |first1=J. S. |author1-link=J. S. Grewal |title=History, Literature, and Identity: Four Centuries of Sikh Tradition |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199080427 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyliteratur0000grew/mode/2up}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Ganda |author1-link=Ganda Singh (historian) |title=The Origin of the Hindu-Sikh Tension in Punjab |journal=The Journal of Indian History |date=April 1961 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=119–123 |url=https://archive.org/details/TheOriginOfTheHinduSikhTensionInThePunjabDr.GandaSingh/mode/2up}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Kenneth W. |title=Communalism in the Punjab: The Arya Samaj Contribution |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies | publisher=Duke University Press |date=November 1968 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=39–54 |doi=10.2307/2942838 |jstor=2942838}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Kenneth W. |title=Ham Hindū Nahīn: Arya-Sikh Relations, 1877-1905 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies | publisher=Duke University Press |date=May 1973 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=457–475 |doi=10.2307/2052684 |jstor=2052684 | s2cid=163885354 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Harbans |title=The Heritage Of The Sikhs |date=1964 |publisher=Asia Publishing House |location=New York |isbn=9780836410068 |pages=138–147 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/the-heritage-of-the-sikhs/page/138/mode/2up |chapter=Reorientation}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Mann |editor1-first=Jasbir |editor2-last=Sodhi |editor2-first=Surinder |editor3-last=Gill |editor3-first=Gurbakhsh |title=Invasion of Religious Boundaries: A Critique of Harjot Oberoi's Work |date=1995 |publisher=Canadian Sikh Study & Teaching Society |isbn=9780969409281 |url=https://archive.org/details/InvasionOfReligiousBoundaries-ACritiqueOfHarjotOberoisWork/mode/2up}}

{{Sikh politics}}
{{Sikhism}}

[[Category:Sikh politics]]
[[Category:1873 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Singh Sabha movement|*]]

Katra, Prayagraj

2026-05-04T19:27:48Z

RealArifHossain: put up a entry - done

{{Short description|Market neighbourhood in Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Refimprove|date=November 2014}}
{{Unreferenced|date=May 2026}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
'''Katra''' is a locality/township of [[Prayagraj]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]. It is one of the major markets of Prayagraj city and is located in the Prayagraj to region of the city. The market is divided into 4 lanes from Netram crossing- Old Katra, New Katra & Katra Extension. The nearby area,''New Katra'', is a residential area and houses some of the wealthy of the city.{{cn|date=January 2023}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Uttar Pradesh}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Prayagraj]]

{{Allahabad-geo-stub}}

Abhayapuri Assembly constituency

2026-05-04T13:48:06Z

RealArifHossain: Adding First Entry Added Tags

{{short description|Assembly constituency of Assam}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2025}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Abhayapuri
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 16
| map_image = Abhayapuri Assembly constituency map.svg
| map_caption =
| state = [[Assam]]
| district = [[Bongaigaon district|Bongaigaon]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Barpeta Lok Sabha constituency|Barpeta]]
| established = 2023
| reservation = None
| mla =
| party =
| alliance =
| latest_election_year =
| electors =
}}

'''Abhayapuri Assembly constituency''' is one of the 126 assembly constituencies of [[Assam]] a north east state of India. It was newly formed in 2023.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eci.gov.in/Documents/Delimitation/DELIMITATIONASSAM_UPDATED.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary & Assembly Constituencies of State of Assam|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|access-date = 2025-11-28}}</ref>

==Election Results==

=== 2026 ===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2026 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Abhayapuri}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Bhupen Roy|party=National Democratic Alliance|votes=111154 |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate= Pradip Sarkar|party=Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance |votes=52228 |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate

{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate= Koushik Ranjan Das|party=All India Trinamool Congress|votes=1497|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=NOTA |party=None of the above |votes=1995 |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=58926 |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box turnout |votes= |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box rejected|votes=|percentage= }}{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=|loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Abhayapuri]]
* [[List of constituencies of Assam Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Assam}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Assam]]
[[Category:Bongaigaon district]]
[[Category:Politics of Assam]]
[[Category:2023 establishments in Assam]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2023]]

Shri Thanedar

2026-04-30T16:22:06Z

RealArifHossain: starting.

{{Short description|American businessman and politician (born 1955)}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image = Shri Thanedar, official portrait (119th Congress).jpg
| caption = Official portrait, 2025
| state = [[Michigan]]
| district = {{ushr|MI|13|13th}}
| term_start = January 3, 2023
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Rashida Tlaib]] (redistricted)
| successor =
| state_house1 = Michigan
| district1 = [[Michigan's 3rd House of Representatives district|3rd]]
| term_start1 = January 1, 2021
| term_end1 = January 1, 2023
| predecessor1 = [[Wendell Byrd]]
| successor1 = [[Alabas Farhat]]
| birth_name = Shrinivas Prasad Thanedar
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1955|2|22}}
| birth_place = [[Chikkodi]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| citizenship = India (1955–1988) United States (1988–present)
| party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| other_party = [[Democratic Socialists of America]] (before 2023)
| spouse = {{ubl |{{marriage|Shamal|1984|1996|end=died}} |{{marriage|Shashi|1999}}}}
| children = 2
| education = [[Karnatak University]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]]) [[University of Mumbai]] ([[Master of Science|MS]]) [[University of Akron]] ([[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]])
| signature = Signature of Shri Thanedar.png
| signature_alt = Shri Thanedar's signature
| website = {{url|thanedar.house.gov|House website}} {{url|shriforcongress.com|Campaign website}}
| module = {{Listen |pos=center |embed=yes |filename=Shri Thanedar speaks on small businesses.ogg |title=Thanedar's voice |type=speech |description=Thanedar on [[small business]]es. Recorded March 10, 2023}}
}}
'''Shrinivas Prasad Thanedar'''{{efn|{{langx|mr|श्रीनिवास प्रसाद ठाणेदार}}, {{langx|kn|ಶ್ರೀನಿವಾಸ ಪ್ರಸಾದ ಠಾಣೇದಾರ|Śrīnivāsa Prasāda Ṭhāṇēdāra}}}} (born February 22, 1955) is an American businessman, author, and politician serving as the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. representative]] from [[Michigan's 13th congressional district]] since 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiawest.com/news/global_indian/ey-entrepreneur-of-the-year-shri-thanedar-files-to-run/article_ed4ac65c-2ae1-11e7-8bbf-938ddc4ca76d.html|title='EY Entrepreneur of the Year' Shri Thanedar Files to Run for Governor of Michigan|last=Reporter|first=India-West Staff|website=India West|access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.amazon.com/dp/B00GUTX98K/|title=THE BLUE SUITCASE: Tragedy and Triumph in an Immigrant's Life|last=Thanedar|first=Shri}}</ref><ref name="detroitnews.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2017/06/07/shri-thanedar/102590912/|title=Rags-to-riches entrepreneur to launch run for governor|website=Detroit News|access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref> A member of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], Thanedar served as a member of the [[Michigan House of Representatives]] from 2021 to 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.shriformi.com/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104225843/https://www.shriformi.com/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=November 4, 2019|title=Shri Thanedar For Michigan – 3rd District of Michigan|last=Rosekrans|first=Neil|website=Shri Thanedar For Michigan|access-date=2019-11-04}}</ref> He was also a candidate in the Democratic primary for [[Governor of Michigan]] in the [[2018 Michigan gubernatorial election|2018 election]].

== Early life and education ==
Thanedar grew up in a low-income [[Marathi people|Kannada ]] family in [[Belgaum]], [[Karnataka]], India. He earned a [[bachelor's degree]] in [[chemistry]] from [[Karnataka University]] and then attended a master's program at the [[University of Mumbai]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last1=Mccoy|first1=Michael|year=2006|title=C&EN TALKS WITH|journal=Chemical & Engineering News|volume=84|issue=46|page=29|doi=10.1021/cen-v084n046.p029}}</ref>

He moved to the U.S. in 1979 to pursue a [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] at the [[University of Akron]], which he completed in 1982.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/stlouis/stories/2006/03/06/focus14.html|title=Thanedar tests his way to $16 million|website=www.bizjournals.com|access-date=2018-01-24}}</ref> Thanedar did post-doctoral work at the [[University of Michigan]].<ref name=":2" />

Thanedar became a U.S. citizen in 1988.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Friess |first=Steve |date=2018-06-24 |title=The Bizarro-World Trump Storming Michigan Politics |url=https://politi.co/2tCL67U |access-date=2023-06-25 |website=POLITICO Magazine}}</ref>

== Business career ==
In 1984, Thanedar started working at [[Petrolite]] in [[St. Louis]].<ref name=":3" /> In 1990, Thanedar took a job working nights and weekends for $15/hour at Chemir/Polytech Laboratories. In 1991, he took out a loan to buy Chemir for $75,000. Sales in the first year were $150,000 and the business had three employees. By 2005, Chemir's revenues were $16 million and it employed 160 people, including 40 PhD chemists.<ref name=":0" />

Thanedar borrowed $24 million from [[Bank of America]] to finance seven acquisitions, offering the bank a personal guarantee to back the debt.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=http://www.stltoday.com/business/local/shri-thanedar-succeeds-in-st-louis-fails-then-rises-again/article_794acbbc-66d3-50ff-8d2f-56d71d8b9479.html|title=Shri Thanedar succeeds in St. Louis, fails, then rises again in Michigan|last=Gallagher|first=Jim|work=stltoday.com|access-date=2018-01-23}}</ref> One acquisition, Azopharma, grew rapidly from $1 million in 2003 to $55 million in 2008.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=http://www.stltoday.com/business/columns/jim-gallagher/gallagher-immigrant-millionaire-s-reversal-is-cautionary-tale/article_683bdb91-d0ce-5962-8346-e80fe6a1a4a4.html|title=Gallagher: Immigrant millionaire's reversal is cautionary tale|first=Jim|last=Gallagher |work=stltoday.com|access-date=2018-01-24}}</ref> Thanedar's group of companies employed 500 people in 2008. He built a mansion in [[Ladue, Missouri|Ladue]], Missouri with an in-home theater to accommodate 150 people.<ref name=":3" /> The mansion was later foreclosed following a bankruptcy and in 2010 Thanedar moved to Michigan with his family.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Oosting |first1=Jonathan |title=Thanedar's biz record marked by triumphs, tribulations |url=https://detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2018/04/05/thanedar-business-record-michigan-governor/33560597/ |access-date=22 March 2026 |publisher=[[Detroit News]] |date=5 April 2018}}</ref>

In 2007, Thanedar was offered $132 million to sell Azopharma.<ref name=":3" /> During the [[2007–10 recession in the United States]], Azopharma's revenue fell by 70%, triggering [[bankruptcy]] proceedings by Bank of America.<ref name=":4" /> Azopharma closed and its assets were sold for $2 million.<ref name=":3" /> During the bankruptcy proceedings, AniClin, one of Azopharma's research facilities of which Thanedar was the sole owner, abruptly closed; a 2010 ''[[USA Today]]'' article reported that laboratory animals were abandoned at the facility after the company was placed in receivership.<ref name="Marans">{{Cite web|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/shri-thanedar-animals-rescued-from-lab_n_5ae12c41e4b055fd7fc7be6c|title=Over 100 Dogs And Monkeys Were Rescued From Michigan Democrat's Shuttered Company|last=Marans|first=Daniel|date=2018-04-25|website=HuffPost|access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref> According to later reports, employees climbed the fences to care for the animals until animal welfare organizations gained legal access and facilitated the adoption of all animals in the facility. Thanedar denied that any animals were abandoned.<ref name="beagles">{{cite web | title=Thanedar denies responsibility for beagles abandoned in testing lab in 2010 | website=Detroit Free Press | date=2018-04-26 |url=https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2018/04/26/thanedar-denies-responsibility-beagles-abandoned-testing-lab-aniclin-2010/553523002/ | access-date=2018-08-02}}</ref>

Chemir remained profitable throughout the legal proceedings and was sold on March 31, 2011, for $23 million.<ref name="St. Louis Business Journal">[http://www.bizjournals.com/stlouis/print-edition/2011/04/01/chemir-auctioned-off-for-23-million.html Chemir auctioned off for $23 million]</ref> That sale plus the combined assets in the firm covered Thanedar's debt to Bank of America.<ref name=":4" />

=== Avomeen ===
Thanedar launched Avomeen Analytical Services, an Ann Arbor-based chemical testing laboratory, with his son Neil in 2010.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20130929/NEWS/309299999/retired-from-retirement-avomeen-founder-works-on-his-next-boom|title=Retired from retirement, Avomeen founder works on his next boom|date=2013-09-27|work=Crain's Detroit Business|access-date=2018-01-23}}</ref> Avomeen was named to the INC 5000 list of fastest-growing U.S. companies in 2015 (#673) and 2016 (#1365).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inc.com/profile/avomeen-analytical-services|title=Avomeen Analytical Services: Number 1365 on the 2016 Inc. 5000|website=Inc.com|access-date=2018-01-23}}</ref> In 2016, Thanedar sold a majority stake in the business to private equity firm High Street Capital, netting him $20 million personally.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20161127/NEWS/161129938/private-equity-firm-buys-controlling-interest-in-avomeen|title=Private equity firm buys controlling interest in Avomeen|date=2016-11-23|work=Crain's Detroit Business|access-date=2018-01-23}}</ref> He shared $1.5 million of the proceeds with his 50 employees.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news|url=http://www.mlive.com/business/ann-arbor/index.ssf/2016/12/ann_arbor_ceo_deliver_15_milli.html|title=Ann Arbor CEO surprises employees with $1.5 million in holiday bonuses|work=MLive.com|access-date=2018-01-23}}</ref>

Thanedar was named the Ernst & Young Entrepreneur of the Year for the Central Midwest Region (Missouri, Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska) in 1999, 2007, and 2016.<ref name="E&Y 2007 Award">[http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/Excellence_newsletter_CM_-_2007_Summer/$FILE/Excellence_CM_Summer_2007.pdf 2007 Ernst & Young Entrepreneur of the Year Award], for the Central Midwest Region</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crainsdetroit.com/article/20170607/NEWS/170609875/ann-arbor-businessman-shri-thanedar-to-announce-run-for-governor|title=Ann Arbor businessman Shri Thanedar to announce run for governor|date=7 June 2017}}</ref> He maintains 40% ownership of Avomeen.<ref name=":5" />

==== Lawsuit ====
In November 2017, a buyer of Avomeen Holdings LLC filed a lawsuit in the U.S. District Court in Detroit, claiming Thanedar made "fraudulent and misleading representations" of his company's finances in order to sell the majority stake in November 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mlive.com/news/index.ssf/2017/11/gubernatorial_candidate_shri_t.html|work=MLive|title=Gubernatorial candidate Shri Thanedar sued over fraud claims|date=November 15, 2017|first=Lauren|last=Gibbons}}</ref> Thanedar denies the allegations, saying that revenues "are anticipated to significantly exceed" those of past periods.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2017/12/29/thanedar-response-fraud-suit-false/109004096/|title=Thanedar fights business fraud lawsuit as 'false'|work=Detroit News|access-date=2018-01-24}}</ref> US District Judge [[Gershwin A. Drain]] dismissed the case in August 2019, citing a notice from Thanedar and Avomeen Holdings LLC that they had reached an agreement to resolve the matter out of court.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Oosting|first=Jonathan|title=Thanedar settles business fraud lawsuit four days before trial|url=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2019/08/05/thanedar-settles-business-fraud-lawsuit-four-days-before-trial/1920524001/|access-date=2021-01-25|website=The Detroit News}}</ref>

== Early political career ==
[[File:Shri Thanedar on The Bart Hawley Show.jpg|thumb|Thanedar on The Bart Hawley Show, 2018]]
Thanedar entered politics when he ran in the [[2018 Michigan gubernatorial election]] as a Democrat.<ref name="detroitnews.com"/> His political platform included a $15 minimum wage, public education reform, infrastructure improvements, and increased government transparency.<ref name="Huffman">{{Cite web|url=https://www.michiganradio.org/post/ann-arbor-businessman-shri-thanedar-running-governor|title=Ann Arbor businessman Shri Thanedar is running for governor|last=Huffman|first=Bryce|website=www.michiganradio.org|date=June 8, 2017 |access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref>

=== 2018 gubernatorial campaign ===
{{main|2018 Michigan gubernatorial election}}
On April 5, 2017, Thanedar submitted paperwork to raise funds for a potential gubernatorial campaign in Michigan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/local/michigan/2017/04/21/governor-candidate/100721428/|title=Entrepreneur of year files for Michigan governor run|last=Oosting|first=Jonathan|date=April 20, 2017|work=The Detroit News|access-date=April 21, 2017}}</ref> On June 8, he officially announced his candidacy for [[governor of Michigan]] in the [[2018 Michigan gubernatorial election#Democratic primary|2018 Democratic primary]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=http://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2017/06/07/shri-thanedar/102590912/|title=Rags-to-riches entrepreneur to launch run for governor|work=Detroit News|access-date=2018-01-24}}</ref> He pledged not to accept any corporate [[political action committee]] donations.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/detroit/2017/12/11/thanedar-touts-work-science-1st-ad-governors-race/940346001/|title=Thanedar touts work in science in 1st ad of governor's race|work=Detroit Free Press|access-date=2018-01-24}}</ref> Thanedar contributed $10.6 million of his own money to his campaign.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/local/michigan/2018/08/09/no-regrets-thanedar-millions-democratic-campaign/945432002/|title='No regrets' for Thanedar after putting $10.6M into campaign|website=Detroit News|access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref> Early polling in 2017 showed him in last place at 2% to 3%.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}} After running a statewide [[Super Bowl commercials|Super Bowl ad]] in February 2018, he quickly became the best-known Democratic candidate for governor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metrotimes.com/news-hits/archives/2018/03/08/this-political-outsider-is-now-the-best-known-democrat-in-michigans-race-for-governor|title=This political outsider is now the best-known Democrat in Michigan's race for governor|last=Ikonomova|first=Violet|website=Detroit Metro Times|access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref> Thanedar won statewide Democratic polls in March (21% to 18%) and April (30% to 26%) versus [[Gretchen Whitmer]], the presumptive Democratic front-runner.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}

As Thanedar's campaign gained public traction in early 2018, reporters at [[The Intercept]] and [[HuffPost]] began investigating Thanedar's history.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theintercept.com/2018/04/06/shri-thanedar-michigan-millionaire-bernie-sanders-republican/|title=A Bernie-Branded Millionaire Is Leading the Democratic Race for Governor. He Almost Ran as a Republican, Consultants Say.|last=Jilani|first=Zaid|date=2018-04-06|website=The Intercept|access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref><ref name="Marans"/> Thanedar had not held elective office before running for governor in 2017, so he did not have an official record as a Democrat. Campaign finance records show that he made 18 donations to Democratic campaigns and one to a Republican campaign before running for office.<ref name="Huffman"/> The Republican donation, $2,300 to [[John McCain 2008 presidential campaign|the Republican presidential campaign of John McCain]], led to controversy that Thanedar might not be as progressive as he claimed.<ref name="POLmag18">{{cite news|url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/06/24/shri-thanedar-profile-michigan-governor-2018-218831/|title=The Bizarro-World Trump Storming Michigan Politics|date=24 June 2018|work=[[POLITICO Magazine]]|access-date=11 July 2018}}</ref> Political strategists who met with Thanedar before his 2018 campaign also claimed that he initially questioned whether he wanted to run as a Democrat or Republican in the gubernatorial race.<ref name="Friess">{{Cite web|url=https://politi.co/2tCL67U|title=The Bizarro-World Trump Storming Michigan Politics|last=Friess|first=Steve|website=POLITICO Magazine|date=June 24, 2018 |access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref> Thanedar denied the claims, saying that these strategists were criticizing him because he did not hire their firms.<ref name="Friess"/> He also faced allegations that laboratory animals were abandoned at one of his former research facilities after Bank of America placed that business into receivership in 2010, which he denied.<ref name="beagles"/>

These controversies hurt Thanedar's campaign and he failed to poll over 30% again. In the primary, he won the [[Detroit|City of Detroit]], but finished third statewide; he received 200,645 votes (17.7%), placing him in third behind Whitmer's 588,436 votes (52.0%) and [[Abdul El-Sayed]]'s 342,179 votes (30.2%).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mielections.us/election/results/2018PRI_CENR.html|title=2018 Michigan Official Primary Election Results – 08/07/2018|website=mielections.us|access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=August 7, 2018 Unofficial Primary Election Results |url=https://detroitmi.gov/document/august-7-2018-unofficial-primary-election-results |access-date=2019-05-23 |website=City of Detroit }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=2018 Michigan Official Primary Election Results – 08/07/2018 |url=https://mielections.us/election/results/2018PRI_CENR.html |access-date=2019-05-23 |website=mielections.us}}</ref> Thanedar's support was heavily concentrated in cities like Detroit, Flint, Inkster, and Pontiac with high [[African Americans|African American]] populations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://detroitmi.gov/document/august-7-2018-unofficial-primary-election-results|title=August 7, 2018 Unofficial Primary Election Results|website=City of Detroit|access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gc4me.com/departments/county_clerks1/docs/Elections/201808/Canvass%20Results-8-8-2018%2001-54-09%20AM.pdf|title=Genesee County Michigan Primary Election Results}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://threadreaderapp.com/thread/1033088946316759040/error|title=Read and Share Twitter Threads easily!|website=threadreaderapp.com}}</ref>

Thanedar self-funded his campaign with nearly $10.3 million, which was more than the total amount raised by every other Democratic or Republican in the primary elections, and nearly a third of the amount raised by all candidates combined.<ref name="freep">{{cite web |last1=Egan |first1=Paul |title=No regrets for Thanedar after spending $10.3M on failed bid for governor |url=https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2018/09/07/thanedar-campaign-spending-michigan-governor/1216710002/ |publisher=Detroit Free Press |access-date=15 November 2019 |date=7 September 2018}}</ref>

=== 2020 Michigan House of Representatives campaign ===
In August 2019, Thanedar submitted paperwork to run for state representative in [[Michigan's 3rd House of Representatives district|Michigan's 3rd district]], a portion of the upper east side of Detroit. On August 4, 2020, he won the Democratic primary for the seat.<ref name="prim5">{{cite web |url=https://www.clickondetroit.com/decision-2020/2020/07/28/michigan-primary-election-results-for-state-house-district-3-on-aug-4-2020/ |title=Michigan Primary Election Results for State House District 3 on Aug. 4, 2020 |date=July 28, 2020 |publisher=[[WDIV-TV]] |access-date=August 15, 2020}}</ref> On November 3, 2020, Thanedar was elected to the state house.<ref name="genelection">{{cite web |url=https://elections.ap.org/advmi/results/2020-11-03/state/MI/race/Y/raceid/23823 |title=Michigan Elections Results - State House - District 13 - General |publisher=[[Advance Publications]] |access-date=November 4, 2020}}</ref> He assumed office on January 1, 2021.<ref name="ballot">{{cite web |url=https://ballotpedia.org/Shri_Thanedar|title=Shri Thanedar|publisher=[[Ballotpedia]] |access-date=January 10, 2021}}</ref>

==U.S. House of Representatives==
[[File:Rep. Shri Thanedar - 118th Congress.jpg|thumb|Thanedar during the [[118th Congress]]]]

[[File:Executive Connect (53188970699).jpg|thumb|Thanedar speaks at Executive Connect in 2023.]]

=== Political positions ===
==== Israel ====
Thanedar previously co-sponsored a resolution to halt aid to [[Israel]], describing it as an [[Apartheid]] state, in the [[Michigan House of Representatives]]. The next year, he faced opposition from the [[American Israel Public Affairs Committee]] in his run for the US House. In summer 2023, he traveled to Israel on an AIPAC affiliated trip. On return, he described the relationship between Israel and the United States as mutually beneficial.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rod |first=Marc |date=2023-08-22 |title=In 2022, AIPAC opposed Shri Thanedar. This month he went to Israel with the group. |url=https://jewishinsider.com/2023/08/shri-thanedar-aipac-israel-michigan-congress-aief/ |access-date=2023-12-21 |website=Jewish Insider }}</ref>

On October 11, 2023, the ''Detroit Free Press'' reported that Thanedar had "renounced his membership in the [[Democratic Socialists of America]] (DSA), saying it hasn't adequately denounced [[Hamas]] for its 'brutal [[October 7 attacks|terrorist attacks]]' on Israel last weekend."<ref>[https://www.freep.com/story/news/politics/2023/10/11/shri-thanedar-quits-democratic-socialists/71145916007/ Shri Thanedar quits Democratic Socialists for failing to denounce Hamas attacks], Detroit Free Press, October 11, 2023</ref> This came after the Detroit DSA had already moved to expel Thanedar after he escorted Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]], whose premiership they called "far right, violent, [and] Islamophobic", on a [[state visit]] to the US.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bohannon |first=Molly |title=Congressman Leaves Democratic Socialists Of America For Promoting Pro-Palestinian Rally After Hamas Attack |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/mollybohannon/2023/10/11/congressman-leaves-democratic-socialists-of-america-for-promoting-pro-palestinian-rally-after-hamas-attack/ |access-date=2024-02-16 |website=Forbes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Neavling |first=Steve |title=Thanedar was a harsh critic of Israel before becoming an outspoken defender |url=https://www.metrotimes.com/news/thanedar-was-a-harsh-critic-of-israel-before-becoming-an-outspoken-defender-34367997 |access-date=2024-02-16 |website=Detroit Metro Times }}</ref>

In his 2024 primary election, the pro-Israel [[super political action committee]] called Blue Wave Action, linked to the [[American Israel Public Affairs Committee]], formed and quickly spent nearly $2.3 million on television ads and mail advertisements attacking his election opponent, who was a vocal critic of the ongoing Israel-Hamas war.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schuster|first=Simon D.|title=Pro-Israel AIPAC offshoot spent $2.3M to help Shri Thanedar in Michigan primary
|url=https://www.bridgemi.com/michigan-government/pro-israel-aipac-offshoot-spent-23m-help-shri-thanedar-michigan-primary |access-date=2024-08-21 |website=Bridge Michigan }}</ref>

==== Syria ====
In 2023, Thanedar was among 56 Democrats to vote in favor of H.Con.Res. 21, which directed President [[Joe Biden]] to remove U.S. troops from [[Syria]] within 180 days.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/118-2023/h136 | title=H.Con.Res. 21: Directing the President, pursuant to section 5(c) of ... -- House Vote #136 -- Mar 8, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/politics/articles/2023-03-08/house-votes-down-bill-directing-removal-of-troops-from-syria |title=House Votes Down Bill Directing Removal of Troops From Syria |date=March 8, 2023 |agency=Associated Press}}</ref> The measure, which was introduced by Rep. [[Matt Gaetz]], R-Fla., was defeated by a vote of 321–103.

==== Food and agriculture ====
In March 2024, Thanedar joined a letter to President Biden that was signed by 55 Representatives encouraging the administration to follow through with a proposal to increase plant-based food offerings across [[Federal building|federal facilities]], citing findings from a host of studies outlining the benefits of plant-based diets for human and planetary health.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mridul |first=Anay |date=2024-04-03 |title=Congress Pens Letter to Biden for More Plant-Based Food in Federal Facilities |url=https://www.greenqueen.com.hk/congress-plant-based-joe-biden-climate-change-vegan-letter/ |access-date=2025-07-18 |website=Green Queen |language=en-US}}</ref>

====Immigrations and Customs Enforcement (ICE)====
In January 2026, Thanedar introduced the Abolish ICE Act (H.R. 7123). The legislation proposes dismantling [[United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement|ICE]] and ending its enforcement authority. His office announced the bill on January 9, 2026 and it was officially introduced in the House on January 15, 2026. The bill was proposed shortly after the fatal [[Killing of Renée Good|shooting of Renee Good]] by an ICE agent on January 7, 2026 in Minneapolis. Thanedar described ICE as "beyond reform".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-01-16 |title=Michigan Congressman Shri Thanedar introduces Abolish ICE Act - CBS Detroit |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/detroit/news/michigan-congressman-shri-thanedar-introduces-abolish-ice-act/ |access-date=2026-01-22 |website=www.cbsnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Brams |first=Sophie |date=2026-01-15 |title=House Democrat introducing legislation to abolish ICE: 'Beyond reform' |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/5690679-shri-thanedar-calls-for-ice-dismantling/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260116161917/https://thehill.com/homenews/5690679-shri-thanedar-calls-for-ice-dismantling/ |archive-date=2026-01-16 |access-date=2026-01-22 |work=The Hill |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Articles of impeachment ===
On April 29, 2025, Thanedar filed multiple [[articles of impeachment]] against President [[Donald Trump]]. Charges include usurpation of Congress's appropriation powers, [[obstruction of justice]], [[abuse of power]], [[bribery]], and [[corruption]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Solender |first=Andrew |date=2025-04-28 |title=Democratic Rep. Shri Thanedar unveils seven articles of Impeachment against Trump |url=https://www.axios.com/2025/04/28/articles-of-impeachment-trump-shri-thanedar |access-date=2025-04-28 |website=Axios }}</ref> These articles of impeachment did not receive party-wide support, faced intra party backlash, and notably lacked approval from party leadership. On May 14, 2025, Thanedar cancelled a vote on his bill after pressure from other Democrats.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://nypost.com/2025/05/14/us-news/house-democrat-pulls-trump-impeachment-resolution-after-backlash-from-own-party/ | title=House Democrat pulls Trump impeachment resolution after backlash from own party }}</ref>

The articles of impeachment were strongly criticized by Democrats as a "rogue" attempt to blindside and mislead the party, and was seen as a "selfish" way to strengthen his position in the competitive [[Primary election|primary]] he would be facing in 2026 against Michigan State Rep. [[Donavan McKinney]] who had announced his campaign on the same day. It was also opposed by Democrats who had previously led the first and second impeachment of Donald Trump in his first term.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Solender |first=Andrew |date=2025-05-13 |title="What a dumbs***": Democrats privately rage over "utterly selfish" impeachment vote |url=https://www.axios.com/2025/05/13/donald-trump-impeachment-thanedar-democrats-react |access-date=2025-05-15 |website=Axios }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-14 |title=Thanedar opts against forcing impeachment vote amid backlash |url=https://www.politico.com/live-updates/2025/05/14/congress/thanedar-pulls-impeachment-vote-00350361 |access-date=2025-05-15 |website=Politico}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first=Caitlin |last=Yilek |date=2025-05-14 |title=Democratic Rep. Thanedar backs off rogue attempt to force Trump impeachment vote — for now |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-impeachment-shri-thanedar/ |access-date=2025-05-15 |website=CBS News }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ferris |first=Sarah |date=2025-05-14 |title=Lone Democrat's Trump impeachment push blindsides party |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2025/05/14/politics/trump-impeachment-shri-thanedar-democrats |access-date=2025-05-15 |website=CNN }}</ref> Some saw it as a [[publicity stunt]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wboy.com/news/politics/ap-smart-politics-or-a-publicity-stunt-the-man-behind-the-latest-effort-to-impeach-donald-trump/|agency=Associated Press|first=Isabella |last=Volmert|date=May 14, 2025|access-date=May 20, 2025 |title=Smart politics or a publicity stunt? The man behind the latest effort to impeach Donald Trump}}</ref>

On December 4, 2025 Congressman Thanedar introduced Articles of Impeachment against Secretary of Defense [[Pete Hegseth]] for murder and conspiracy to murder, and for reckless and mishandling of classified information.<ref>{{cite news |title=CONGRESSMAN SHRI THANEDAR INTRODUCES ARTICLES OF IMPEACHMENT AGAINST SECRETARY OF DEFENSE PETE HEGSETH |url=https://thanedar.house.gov/media/press-releases/congressman-shri-thanedar-introduces-articles-of-impeachment-against-secretary-of-defense-pete-hegseth |publisher=US House of Representatives |date=December 4, 2025}}</ref> [[Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives|Democratic House minority leader]] [[Hakeem Jeffries]] said it is almost impossible for these articles to see the House floor.<ref name="hegseth">{{cite news |last1=Scribner |first1=Herb |title=Could Dems really impeach Hegseth? Here's what would have to happen |url=https://www.axios.com/2025/12/04/hegseth-impeachment-process-venezuela-drug-boats |access-date=22 March 2026 |website=[[Axios (website)|Axios]] |date=4 December 2025}}</ref>

=== Elections ===
==== 2022 ====
{{see also|2022 United States House of Representatives elections in Michigan#District 13}}
In 2022, Thanedar gave up his state house seat and moved from [[Ann Arbor, Michigan|Ann Arbor]] to the [[Palmer Woods]] neighborhood to run for [[Michigan's 13th congressional district]].<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Skalka |first=Liz |date=2023-12-19 |title=This Freshman Democrat Loves Making Memes. But He's Quickly Becoming The Butt Of The Joke In Congress. |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/shri-thanedar-detroit-congress-controversy_n_6580a94fe4b08e9b410b881d |access-date=2024-11-01 |website=HuffPost }}</ref> The incumbent, [[Rashida Tlaib]], had her home drawn into the 12th district and was reelected there. Thanedar contributed $5.17 million of his own money to the campaign.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2022/08/02/michigan-district-13-primary-results-detroit-downriver-adam-hollier-portia-roberson-shri-thanedar/10191007002/|title=Rep. Shri Thanedar wins Democratic primary in 13th District race for Congress|website=[[The Detroit News]]|date=August 2, 2022|first=Sarah|access-date=August 3, 2022|last=Rahal}}</ref> Thanedar won the open primary, defeating state senator [[Adam Hollier]] and others with 28.3% of the vote.<ref name="mich-2022-primary-results">{{cite web |title=2022 Michigan Election Results - State Primary |url=https://mielections.us/election/results/2022PRI_CENR.html|publisher=[[Michigan Secretary of State]] |access-date=November 13, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113080839/https://mielections.us/election/results/2022PRI_CENR.html |archive-date=November 13, 2022 |date=August 12, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> He defeated Republican nominee Martell Bivings and two third-party candidates in the November 8 general election with 71.1% of the vote.<ref name="mich-2022-general-results">{{cite web |title=2022 Michigan Election Results - General |url=https://mielections.us/election/results/2022GEN_CENR.html |publisher=[[Michigan Secretary of State]] |access-date=November 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129162327/https://mielections.us/election/results/2022GEN_CENR.html |archive-date=November 29, 2022 |date=November 28, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== 2024 ====
{{see also|2024 United States House of Representatives elections in Michigan#District 13}}
Thanedar faced [[Mary D. Waters]], a member of the [[Detroit City Council]], and Shakira Hawkins, a former employee of the city of Detroit, in the Democratic primary. Both Waters and Hawkins argued that the district needed Black representation, given the area's demographics.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Donnelly |first1=Francis X. |title=Rep. Shri Thanedar defeats Mary Waters in Detroit area Democratic primary race |url=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2024/08/06/shri-thanedar-detroit-area-u-s-house-13th-district-democratic-primary-mary-waters-shakira-hawkins/74598498007/ |access-date=February 28, 2025 |work=[[The Detroit News]] |date=August 6, 2024}}</ref> Thanedar was renominated with 54.9% of the vote.<ref name="mich-2024-primary-results">{{cite web|title=2024 Michigan Election Results - State Primary|url=https://mvic.sos.state.mi.us/votehistory/Index?type=C&electionDate=8-6-2024|publisher=[[Michigan Secretary of State]]|access-date=January 3, 2025|date=August 26, 2024|url-status=live|archive-date=January 3, 2025|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250103191326/https://mvic.sos.state.mi.us/votehistory/Index?type=C&electionDate=8-6-2024}}</ref> In the general election, he won reelection in a rematch against Bivings and three third-party candidates, this time with 68.6% of the vote.<ref name="mich-2024-general-results">{{cite web|title=2024 Michigan Election Results - General|url=https://mvic.sos.state.mi.us/votehistory/Index?type=C&electionDate=11-5-2024|publisher=[[Michigan Secretary of State]]|access-date=November 24, 2024|date=November 22, 2024|url-status=live|archive-date=November 24, 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20241124174348/https://mvic.sos.state.mi.us/votehistory/Index?type=C&electionDate=11-5-2024}}</ref>

=== Committee assignments ===
For the [[119th United States Congress|119th Congress]]:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Committee Assignments |url=https://clerk.house.gov/members/T000488 |access-date=April 30, 2026 |website=House Clerk}}</ref>

* [[United States House Committee on Agriculture|Committee on Agriculture]]
** [[United States House Agriculture Subcommittee on Commodity Markets, Digital Assets, and Rural Development|Subcommittee on Commodity Markets, Digital Assets, and Rural Development]]

* [[United States House Committee on Homeland Security|Committee on Homeland Security]]
** [[United States House Homeland Security Subcommittee on Oversight, Investigations, and Accountability|Subcommittee on Oversight, Investigations, and Accountability]]

===Caucuses===
Thanedar is a member of the following [[caucus|caucuses]]:

* [[Black Maternal Health Caucus]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Caucus Members
|author=|url=https://blackmaternalhealthcaucus-underwood.house.gov/about-caucus/caucus-members|format=|publisher=Black Maternal Health Caucus|date=|access-date=11 July 2025}}</ref>
* [[Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Members|author=|url=https://capac.house.gov/members|format=|publisher=Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus|date=|access-date=22 July 2025}}</ref>
* [[Climate Solutions Caucus]]<ref>{{cite web|title=About Climate Solutions Caucus|author=|url=https://climatesolutionscaucus-garbarino.house.gov/about |format=|publisher=Climate Solutions Caucus|date=January 3, 2023|access-date=8 November 2024}}</ref>
* [[Congressional Progressive Caucus]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.axios.com/2022/11/13/pramila-jayapal-progressive-democrats-caucus-power|title=Jayapal touts power of progressives after big midterm gains|author=Solender, Andrew|publisher=[[Axios (website)|Axios]]|date=November 13, 2022|access-date=December 4, 2022}}</ref>
* [[Congressional Equality Caucus]]<ref>{{cite web|title=About the CEC|url=https://equality.house.gov/about-cec/membership| publisher=CEC|access-date=10 September 2025}}</ref>
* [[New Democrat Coalition]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Endorsed Candidates |url=http://newdemactionfund.com/candidates |access-date=2022-12-03 |website=NewDem Action Fund }}</ref>

Early in his House tenure, Thanedar attempted to join the [[Congressional Black Caucus]].<ref name=":8" />

In September 2023, Thanedar attempted to launch the Dharma Caucus, representing [[Hinduism in the United States|Hindu]], [[Jainism in the United States|Jain]], [[Buddhism in the United States|Buddhist]], and [[Sikhism in the United States|Sikh]] Americans.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-10-18 |title=Indian-American Congressman launches caucus for Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains |work=Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/indian-american-congressman-launches-caucus-for-hindus-buddhists-sikhs-jains/articleshow/104057687.cms}}</ref> Thanedar stated the caucus "is a statement of commitment to stand against religious discrimination, to propel the wheels of inclusion, and to cultivate a nation where diversity is not only tolerated, but celebrated". [[South Asian Americans|South Asian]] advocacy groups, including [[Hindus for Human Rights]], [[Sikh Coalition]], [[Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund]], [[Emgage]], and [[Indian American Muslim Council]], put out a joint statement voicing concern on the lack of "perspectives of the entire South Asian community across faith, caste and ethnic lines."<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-10-18 |title=Lawmaker's 'Dharma Caucus' stirs suspicion from Hindu and Sikh groups |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2023/10/18/lawmakers-dharma-caucus-stirs-suspicion-hindu-sikh-groups/ |access-date=2023-11-03 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=Statement On Announcement Of New Hindu, Buddhist, Sikh, and Jain Congressional Caucus |url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5d45b55d7563de000169a046/t/651c41288ff6290a6ccc7ac3/1696350504296/Caucus+Press+Release+Document++HfHR+Contact+only.pdf}}</ref> The groups collectively argued that due to lack of broader inclusivity, the Dharma caucus could work against the ability to "provide meaningful oversight of the [[India–United States relations|US-India]] relationship, ongoing work to protect the civil rights and safety of Sikhs and other marginalized groups, and efforts to ban [[Caste discrimination in the United States|caste discrimination]] at a federal level."<ref name=":9" />

==Public image==
===Lab animal abandonment===
About 170 dogs and 55 monkeys were rescued in July 2010 from an abandoned pharmaceutical testing lab in New Jersey owned by Thanedar, after it went bankrupt in April 2010. Local animal rights activists learned that 118 [[beagles]] were still stuck inside the facility and the lab's workers were jumping the lab's fences to provide food and water for the dogs.<ref name="Marans"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Peters |first1=Sharon |title=Pet Talk: Rescuing 118 test-lab beagles is a labor of dog love |url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/lifestyle/pets/2010-07-13-pettalk13_N.htm |access-date=30 October 2019 |publisher=[[USA Today]] |date=18 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030184127/https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/lifestyle/pets/2010-07-13-pettalk13_N.htm |archive-date=30 October 2019}}</ref> Thanedar claimed that the bank was in charge of taking care of the animals.<ref name="beagles"/> A volunteer at the shelter who received many of the beagles rescued from the facility said "We believe that they have never been outside, ever. I don't think they've actually had their paws on the grass. When I walked in here it looked like they were walking on eggshells. They were kind of afraid to walk on the grass."<ref name="Marans"/>

A few days later, 55 [[long-tailed macaque|long-tailed macaques]] were rescued by California based organization [[In Defense of Animals]].<ref name="Marans"/> [[Primarily Primates Sanctuary]], who received 25 male Java macaque monkeys stated that they looked pale and thin when they arrived at the sanctuary, and the stress had led many of them to pull out some of their hair.<ref name="beagles"/>
===Herbal supplement with Viagra===
Joel Crookston, a quality assurance manager at Thanedar's [[Ann Arbor]]-based Avomeen Analytical Services quit in 2014 after Thanedar refused to alert federal regulators about a customer suspected of illegally spiking a male "herbal supplement" with prescription [[Viagra]]. Crookston told a state assistant attorney general he went around Thanedar and personally reported his concerns to the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA). An [[analytical chemist]] told the ''[[Detroit News]]'' he recalled Crookston saying multiple times he was going into Thanedar's office to discuss the herbal supplement and seeing him do so.<ref name="swag">{{cite news |last1=Oosting |first1=Jonathan |title=Ex-worker: Thanedar wouldn't report spiked drug to feds |url=https://detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2018/03/29/worker-thanedar-spiked-drug-feds/33406953/ |access-date=22 March 2026 |publisher=[[Detroit News]] |date=29 March 2018}}</ref>

An FDA report was later released confirming the presence of the undeclared ingredient and warning against using the supplement because it "may interact with nitrates found in some prescription drugs such as nitroglycerin and may lower blood pressure to dangerous levels."<ref>{{cite web |title=Public Notification: S.W.A.G Contains Hidden Drug Ingredient |url=https://www.fda.gov/drugs/medication-health-fraud/public-notification-swag-contains-hidden-drug-ingredient |website=Medication Health Fraud |publisher=[[Food and Drug Administration]] |access-date=22 March 2026 |date=16 April 2014}}</ref> Later that year the FDA conducted its own chemical analysis and issued a warning to the supplement's parent company that it contained the undeclared ingredient and therefore must be treated as prescription medication.<ref>{{cite web |title=Warning Letters |url=https://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/2014/ucm529379.htm |website=Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations |publisher=[[Food and Drug Administration]] |access-date=2 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170602111822/https://www.fda.gov/ICECI/EnforcementActions/WarningLetters/2014/ucm529379.htm |archive-date=2 June 2017 |date=7 August 2014}}</ref>

Thanedar "denied any memory of the herbal supplement or customer in question,"<ref name="swag"/> but stated that it was his obligation to test the drugs and inform his clients of the rules, not to inform the federal government about client misconduct.<ref name="Marans"/>

===Business fraud lawsuit and settlement===
After Thanedar sold Avomeen in 2016, a federal lawsuit alleged that he made "fraudulent and misleading" claims to inflate the value of the company in a deal that netted him roughly $20 million. The complaint alleged that Thanedar personally directed employees to smooth over volatile revenue growth in the months leading up to the sale, and instructed bookkeeping staff to back date invoices so revenue could be recognized in prior months to suggest a more stable income stream.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Oosting |first1=Jonathan |title=Governor hopeful accused of fraud in company sale |url=https://detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2017/11/14/governor-hopeful-lawsuit-company-sale/107691348/ |access-date=22 March 2026 |publisher=[[Detroit News]] |date=14 November 2017}}</ref> Thanedar denied the accusations,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gerstein |first1=Michael |title=Thanedar fights business fraud lawsuit as 'false' |url=https://detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2017/12/29/thanedar-response-fraud-suit-false/109004096/ |access-date=22 March 2026 |publisher=[[Detroit News]] |date=29 December 2017}}</ref> but later settled for an undisclosed amount four days before the trial was to start.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Oosting |first1=Jonathan |title=Thanedar settles business fraud lawsuit four days before trial |url=https://eu.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2019/08/05/thanedar-settles-business-fraud-lawsuit-four-days-before-trial/1920524001/ |access-date=22 March 2026 |publisher=[[Detroit News]] |date=5 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Robertson |first1=Derek |title=Shri Thanedar settles business fraud suit |url=https://michiganadvance.com/briefs/shri-thanedar-settles-business-fraud-suit/ |access-date=22 March 2026 |publisher=[[Michigan Advance]] |date=6 August 2019}}</ref>
===Political reputation===
In 2023 ''[[HuffPost]]'' reported that in Thanedar's first year in Congress, he "has gained a reputation for vanity in an institution powered by the stuff, burning through staff at a rapid clip, alienating his fellow members and spending taxpayer funds on what some people with knowledge of his office view as naked self-promotion."<ref name="hp">{{cite news |last1=Shalka |first1=Liz |title=This Freshman Democrat Loves Making Memes. But He's Quickly Becoming The Butt Of The Joke In Congress. |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/shri-thanedar-detroit-congress-controversy_n_6580a94fe4b08e9b410b881d |access-date=22 March 2026 |publisher=[[HuffPost]] |date=19 December 2023}}</ref> Thanedar's ability to self-fund his own campaigns ($9.1 million in 2022<ref>{{cite web |title=Shri Thanedar - 2022 Financial summary |url=https://www.fec.gov/data/candidate/H2MI13204/?cycle=2022 |publisher=[[FEC]] |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref> and $5.3 million in 2024 <ref>{{cite web |title=Shri Thanedar - 2024 Financial summary |url=https://www.fec.gov/data/candidate/H2MI13204/?cycle=2024 |publisher=[[FEC]] |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref>) has helped insulate him from the criticism he has received from political peers in Michigan, including from [[Michigan Secretary of State]] [[Jocelyn Benson]],{{efn|In a message endorsing Thanedar's primary challenger in 2024, [[Jocelyn Benson]] said "I think Shri has a very big heart. But this is about the work."}} U.S. Rep. [[Rashida Tlaib]],{{efn|[[Rashida Tlaib]] was quoted by ''[[HuffPost]]'' saying "[Thanedar] isn't putting in the work of a public servant and is leaving his working-class communities across his district with no real advocate."}}<ref name="bi2"/> former U.S. Rep. [[Brenda Lawrence]],{{efn|Former U.S. Rep. [[Brenda Lawrence]] said "Shri's learning curve seems to be extreme, and public service doesn't mean just showing up in the chamber to vote," added Lawrence, who says she doesn't see Thanedar tackling issues that matter the most to Detroiters, such as education and infrastructure." She also said of his self-promoting behavior in congress "This is not a publicity contest. This is a thing we call government."}}<ref name="hp"/> State Senator [[Darrin Camilleri]],{{efn|State Senator Darrin Camilleri posted on his official [[Twitter]] account in a response about Thanedar's poor constituent services "Can confirm. If I have federal issues in his district from our shared constituents I call @RashidaTlaib or @RepDebDingell 🤷‍♂️}}<ref>{{Cite tweet |user=darrincamilleri |number=1712630596378272154 |title=Can confirm. If I have federal issues in his district from our shared constituents I call @RashidaTlaib or @RepDebDingell🤷‍♂️}}</ref> former State Senator [[Adam Hollier]],{{efn|State Senator [[Adam Hollier]] said "Whether it's because [Thanedar's] vast fortune has made him out of touch with working people, or because he simply isn't up to the job, the lack of results are the same. He hasn't shown up, hasn't spoken up, and hasn't delivered."}}<ref name="hp"/> and Wayne County Executive [[Warren Evans]].{{efn|In a message endorsing Thanedar's primary challenger in 2024, [[Warren Evans]] said "His absence of involvement in the county, his absence of involvement in any form you can think of other than the two times that we saw each other [in 2023] just convinced me that we need to be about the business of electing a [new] congressperson."}}<ref name="hp"/>

===Malleable political beliefs===
Congressional colleagues and former staff were quoted by ''HuffPost'' criticizing Thanedar for his "malleable political beliefs" that have shifted when politically expedient, such as his conversations with consultants before his run for Governor about whether he should campaign as a Democrat or a Republican.<ref name="beagles"/><ref name="freep"/><ref name="hp"/> Analysis of his past campaign contributions also showed donations to both parties, including the 2008 Presidential campaign of Senator [[John McCain]].<ref name="Marans"/>

===Spending public funds for self-promotion===
In the months leading up to the 2024 primary election, ''[[Detroit News]]'' reported that Thanedar had spent public taxpayer funds on $789,000 in TV ads and $40,000 in radio ads, plus an undetermined amount on five billboards and half a dozen mailers. In 2023, Thanedar spent 29% of his office's budget on advertisements, compared to the congressional average of 5%.<ref name="det">{{cite news |last1=Nann Burke |first1=Melissa |title=Detroit congressman Shri Thanedar spending big on TV ads, billboards using taxpayer funds |url=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2024/05/14/shri-thanedar-detroit-congressman-office-spending-tv-ads-billboards-john-james-franking-privilege/73470384007/ |access-date=22 March 2026 |publisher=[[Detroit News]] |date=15 May 2024}}</ref>

===Toxic work environment===
Former staffers said Thanedar's congressional office is a toxic work environment, leading to understaffing and high staff turnover. In his first year in Congress, Thanedar went through three different chiefs of staff, and the office only had six or seven permanent staff instead of the more typical 15-18 staffers for a House lawmaker. Thanedar spent 38% of his House budget in that first year on staff pay, while the average House member spent 78%.<ref name="det"/><ref name="bi">{{cite news |last1=Metzger |first1=Brian |title=The questionable way lawmakers get taxpayers to fund borderline-political ads |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/shri-thanedar-tax-money-billboards-ethics-franking-2024-3 |access-date=22 March 2026 |publisher=[[Business Insider]] |date=21 March 2024}}</ref> U.S. Rep. [[Rashida Tlaib]], who represents the neighboring district, has publicly criticized Thanedar multiple times because his constituents contact her office when they cannot get support from Thanedar, saying "he isn't putting in the work of a public servant and is leaving his working-class communities across his district with no real advocate."<ref name="det"/><ref name="bi2">{{cite news |last1=Metzger |first1=Brian |title=Rep. Rashida Tlaib accuses fellow Detroit-area congressman of being too 'busy posting memes' and being 'absent from doing his job' after he denounced her comments on Israel |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/rashida-tlaib-shri-thanedar-busy-posting-memes-israel-hamas-2023-10 |access-date=22 March 2026 |publisher=[[Business Insider]] |date=13 October 2023}}</ref> Thanedar relies on interns to take on the work of more experienced and higher paid staffers. A former staffer also described being fired in the presence of an intern, an experience they found demoralizing and also emblematic of what it was like working for him.<ref name="hp"/>

===Publicity stunts===
Colleagues have called some of his bills self-serving publicity stunts, such as his Articles of Impeachment against President Trump that he introduced the same day that a 2026 primary challenger announced his campaign. Colleagues were quoted as saying "This is the dumbest fucking thing. Utterly selfish behavior," and "a waste of fucking time" since it was extremely unlikely to go anywhere in the Republican controlled House.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Solender |first1=Andrew |title=Dems privately rage over "utterly selfish" Trump impeachment vote |url=https://www.axios.com/2025/05/13/donald-trump-impeachment-thanedar-democrats-react |access-date=22 March 2026 |publisher=[[Axios (website)|Axios]] |date=13 May 2025}}</ref> [[Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives|Democratic House minority leader]] [[Hakeem Jeffries]] said a similar impeachment effort of [[Pete Hegseth]] was almost impossible for it to see the House floor.<ref name="hegseth"/> "This is not a publicity contest. This is a thing we call government," said former U.S. Rep. [[Brenda Lawrence]].<ref name="hp"/>

==Personal life==
In 1984, Thanedar married his first wife, Shamal. The couple had two sons: Neil (born 1988) and Samir (born 1992) and were married until Shamal's death in 1996. In his 2004 memoir, Thanedar revealed that Shamal had died by suicide.<ref name=":6">[https://shrithanedar.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/BlueSuitcase.pdf The Blue Suitcase]{{Cite web|url=https://shrithanedar.com/book/|title=Book – Shri Thanedar|website=shrithanedar.com|access-date=2018-01-24}}</ref>

Colleagues and former staff has cited his "malleable political beliefs" which he changes to fit the political climate, such as his discussions with consultants before his run for Governor whether to run as a Democrat or a Republican<ref name="freep"/>

In 1999, Thanedar married his current wife, Shashi.<ref name=":7" /> He is an adherent of [[Hinduism]].<ref name="Pew 119th">{{cite web |last=Diamant |first=Jeff |date=January 2, 2025 |title=Faith on the Hill |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/01/02/faith-on-the-hill-2025/ |access-date=January 3, 2025 |website=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref>

In 2024, Thanedar produced, funded, and acted in a short film, ''Dear Pra'', recounting Shamal's secret struggle with depression, in a bid to raise awareness about mental health issues and to tackle the stigma and shame that was "certainly prevalent in South Asian communities".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Burke |first=Melissa Nann |title=Thanedar seeks to bury mental health stigma with film about wife's death |url=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/politics/2024/09/13/shri-thanedar-wife-suicide-shamal-dear-pra-dc-south-asian-film-festival-michigan-congressman/75211399007/ |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=The Detroit News }}</ref>

== Autobiographies ==
Thanedar has written two autobiographies. ही 'श्री' ची इच्छा! (Transliteration: Hī Śrī Cī Icchā; English: ''This is Shri's Wish'') is an [[autobiography]] in [[Marathi language|Marathi]], published in 2004. In 2008, Thanedar self-published his memoirs in English, ''The Blue Suitcase: Tragedy and Triumph in an Immigrant's Life''.<ref name=":6">[https://shrithanedar.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/BlueSuitcase.pdf The Blue Suitcase]{{Cite web|url=https://shrithanedar.com/book/|title=Book – Shri Thanedar|website=shrithanedar.com|access-date=2018-01-24}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==See also==
* [[List of Asian Americans and Pacific Islands Americans in the United States Congress]]
*[[Asian Americans in politics]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons category}}
* [http://thanedar.house.gov/ Congressman Shri Thanedar] official U.S. House website
* [https://shriforcongress.com/ Shri Thanedar for Congress] campaign website
* {{C-SPAN|135483}}
{{CongLinks|congbio=T000488|votesmart=182346|fec=H2MI13204| congress=shri-thanedar/T000488}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|us-hs}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Rashida Tlaib]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[List of United States representatives from Michigan|U.S. House Representatives]] from [[Michigan's 13th congressional district]]|years=2023–present}}
{{s-inc}}
|-
{{s-prec|usa}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Emilia Sykes]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Seniority in the United States House of Representatives|United States representatives by seniority]]|years=351st}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Jill Tokuda]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{MI-FedRep}}
{{Current U.S. representatives}}
{{U.S. Michigan Representatives}}
{{USCongRep-start |congresses=118th–present [[United States Congress]] |state=[[Michigan's congressional delegations|Michigan]]}}
{{USCongRep/MI/118}}
{{USCongRep/MI/119}}
{{USCongRep-end}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thanedar, Shri}}
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:20th-century American businesspeople]]
[[Category:21st-century American businesspeople]]
[[Category:21st-century members of the Michigan Legislature]]
[[Category:21st-century United States representatives]]
[[Category:American autobiographers]]
[[Category:American Hindus]]
[[Category:American people of Marathi descent]]
[[Category:American politicians of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Asian-American state legislators in Michigan]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Candidates in the 2018 United States elections]]
[[Category:Democratic Party United States representatives from Michigan]]
[[Category:Hindu United States representatives]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Marathi-language writers]]
[[Category:Members of the Democratic Socialists of America from Illinois]]
[[Category:Members of the United States Congress of Indian descent]]
[[Category:United States representatives of Asian descent]]
[[Category:Michigan Democrats]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States]]
[[Category:People from Belagavi district]]
[[Category:University of Akron alumni]]
[[Category:University of Michigan people]]
[[Category:University of Mumbai alumni]]
[[Category:Cruelty to animals]]

Odisha Council of Higher Secondary Education

2026-04-26T21:09:48Z

RealArifHossain: new.

{{Short description|Organization}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox organization
| full_name = '''''Council of Higher Secondary Education, Odisha'''''
| native_name = '''ଉଚ୍ଚ ମାଧ୍ୟମିକ ଶିକ୍ଷା ପରିଷଦ, ଓଡ଼ିଶା'''
| native_name_lang = od
| logo = Council of Higher Secondary Education, Odisha logo.png
| mapframe = yes
| image_size = 20000 px
| name = C.H.S.E.(O)
| formation = {{Start date and years ago|1982|10|23|df=y}}
| type = State Governmental Board of Higher Secondary Education
| headquarters = Prajnapitha, Samantapur, [[Bhubaneswar]]-1, [[Odisha]], [[India]]
| parent_organisation = Department of School and Mass Education, Government of Odisha
| languages = [[Odia language|Odia]] and [[English language|English]]
| leader_title = Chairman
| leader_name = Sri Mrunal Kanti Das, IAS
| leader_title2 = Vice-Chairman
| leader_name2 = Smt. Rajashree Pattanaik
| website = {{URL|http://www.chseodisha.nic.in}}
}}

The '''Council of Higher Secondary Education, Odisha''' (abbreviated as '''CHSE(O)''') is a Board of Education imparting Senior Higher Secondary (Class 11 & Class 12 Courses) for public and private schools and colleges under the State Government of [[Odisha]], [[India]].

==History==
The Council of Higher Secondary Education, Odisha was established in 1982, with accordance of Odisha Higher Secondary Act 1982, which was assented by the Governor of Odisha on 23 October 1982.

The ''Council of Higher Secondary Education, Odisha'' was formed to regulate, control and develop Higher Secondary Education in the State of Odisha. Though the administrative function council commenced from 7 September 1982, in a rented building at Goutam Nagar, Bhubaneshwar. After some years the council constructed its own administrative building in Samantarapur, Bhubaneshwar and started functioning in its own infrastructure from 2 January 1996. The new name of the campus is being christened as ''Prajnapitha''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vyoms.com/exams/chse-322/|title=About CHSE|access-date=8 March 2013|archive-date=11 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911032706/http://www.vyoms.com/exams/chse-322/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Affiliations==
''CHSE(O)'' affiliates all state and private schools and colleges in the state of [[Odisha]].

==Courses offered==
The council conducts examinations in the streams of ''Arts, Science, Commerce, and Vocational Education'', which includes subjects of
*Modern Indian Languages
**[[English language|English]] (alternative)
**[[Odia language|Odia]]
**[[Hindi]]
**[[Sanskrit]]
**[[Urdu]]
**[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
**[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
*[[English language|English]] (compulsory)
*[[Environmental education|Environmental Education]]
*[[Yoga]]
*Basic Computer Education
*[[Physics]]
*[[Chemistry]]
*[[Mathematics]]
*[[Biology]] ([[Botany]] & [[Zoology]])
*[[Geology]]
*[[Accounting|Accountancy]]
*Business Studies & Management
*Business Mathematics & Statistics
*Elective Subjects (for commerce stream)
**First year
***Banking & Insurance
***Fundamentals of Entrepreneurship
***[[Sales|Salesmanship]]
***Information Technology
**Second year
***[[Cost accounting|Cost Accounting]]
***Fundamentals of Management Accountancy
***[[Business economics|Business Economics]]
***Computer Application
*[[History]]
*[[Political science|Political Science]]
*[[Economics]]
*Industrial Relations & Personnel Management
*[[Logic]]
*[[Geography]]
*[[Home economics|Home Science]]
*[[Education]]
*[[Psychology]]
*[[Music of India|Indian Music]]
*[[Anthropology]]
*[[Sociology]]
*[[Statistics]]
*[[Computer science|Computer Science]]
*[[Biotechnology|Bio-Technology]]
*[[Electronics]]
*[[Information Technology]]
*[[Dairy|Dairying]]
*[[Horticulture]]
*[[Electrical Domestic Appliance]]
*[[Mobile technology|Mobile Technology]]
*Vocational Trade Subjects
**I.T. & I.T.E.S.
**Multi Skilling
**Tourism & Hospitality
**Agriculture
**Plumber
**Automotive
**Electronics & Hardware
**Retail
**Construction
**Beauty & Wellness
*Basic Foundation Courses (for vocational stream)
**Mathematics
**Physics
**Chemistry
**Biology
**History
**Political Science
**Economics
**Accountancy
**Business Studies & Management
*Trade Subjects (for vocational stream)
**Agriculture area
***Crop Production
***Horticulture
***Dairying
***Poultry Farming
***Inland Fisheries
***Microbiology & Serology
***Sericulture
***Para Medical Health Care & Medical Laboratory Techniques
***Repair & Maintenance Power Driven Farm Machinery
**Engineering area
***Audio Video Technology
***Building Maintenance
***Computer Technique
***Repair & Maintenance of Electrical Domestic Appliances
**Business and Commerce area
***Accounting & Auditing
***Insurance
***Office Management
***Tax Assistance
**Humanities area
***Textile Designing
***Tourism & Travel Management
**Home Science area
***Crech & Pre-School Management
***Catering & Restaurant Management
**Visual Art area
***Painting
***Graphic Art
***Applied Art
***Modelling & Sculpture
***Traditional Art & Craft
**Performing Art area
***Chhow Dance
***Drama
***Flute/Violin/Setar (FLUIS)
***Hindustani Vocal
***Odissi Vocal
***Odissi Dance
***Odissi Pakhwaj (Mardal)
***Tabla
*Integrated Vocational Subjects
**Tourism & Travel Management
**Fashion Technology
**Paramedical & Health Care
**Office Management
**Banking
**Information Technology
**Dairying
**Horticulture
**Electrical Domestic Appliances
*Elective Languages
**[[Odia language|Odia]]
**[[Hindi]]
**[[Sanskrit]]
**[[Urdu]]
**[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
**[[Telugu language|Telugu]]

==Syllabus==
''CHSE(O)'' publishes syllabus stream wise every year. For English(alternative) council prescribes textbooks published by '''''National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)''''' and for other language subjects it prescribes textbooks published by '''''Odisha State Bureau of Textbook Preparation and Production (Bureau)'''''. Many other publishers like '''Modern's abc, Kalyani Publishers, Bureau, Himalaya Publishing House, VK Global Publications,''' etc. also publish books as per the syllabus of council.

==Examinations==
The Council of Higher Secondary Education (C.H.S.E.) conducts final examinations of intermediate courses like arts, commerce, science and vocational every spring called Annual Higher Secondary Examination (A.H.S.E.) and examinations of other courses prescribed by the council for Class 12.

The evaluation of papers of Annual Higher Secondary Examination is done by the council immediate after the ending of examinations in both offline and online in two phases at different evaluation centres in different districts across Odisha as decided by council. Many post-graduate teachers, lecturers and assistant professors of different government and government-aided higher secondary schools and colleges are appointed by council for the evaluation. Few years before the result of different streams were being declared at different dates; but now days the result of all streams is being declared at same day same time with in fifty days after the ending of examinations.

==See also==
*[[Board of Secondary Education, Odisha]]
*[[Department of Higher Education, Odisha]]
*[[National Council of Educational Research and Training]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{State agencies of Odisha}}
{{School education in India}}
{{Department of Higher Education, Odisha}}
[[Category:Department of Higher Education (Odisha)]]
[[Category:Education in Odisha]]
[[Category:Educational organizations established in 1982]]
[[Category:State secondary education boards of India]]
[[Category:State agencies of Odisha]]
[[Category:1982 establishments in Orissa]]

{{India-gov-stub}}
{{coord|20.308932|85.83468|display=title}}

Navde Road railway station

2026-04-26T14:54:53Z

RealArifHossain:

{{Short description|Railway Station in Maharashtra, India}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{lead rewrite|date=February 2019}}
{{more citations needed|date=May 2021}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox station
| name = [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|50px|up|link=Mumbai Suburban Railway]] Navde Road
| type = [[Mumbai Suburban Railway]] station
| style = Mumbai Suburban Railway
| image = Navde Road railway station - Station board.jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption =
| address = Navde Gaon Road Tal.- Panvel, Dist - Raigad
| coordinates = {{Coord|19.053374|N|73.103183|E|display=inline}}
| line = [[Central Line (Mumbai Suburban Railway)|Central Line]]
| other =
| structure = Standard on-ground station
| platform = 3
| depth =
| levels =
| tracks = 4
| parking = No
| bicycle = No
| baggage_check =
| opened = 1966
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| status = Active
| electrified = Yes
| accessible =
| code = NDR
| owned = [[Ministry of Railways (India)|Ministry of Railways]], [[Indian Railways]]
| zone = [[Central Railways]]
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| mpassengers =
| services = {{Adjacent stations|system=Mumbai Suburban Railway|line=Vasai Road-Roha|left=Taloje Panchnand|right=Kalamboli}}
| map_type = Mumbai
| map_dot_label = Navde Road
| route_map = {{MSR Vasai Road–Roha line}}
| map_state = collapsed
}}

'''Navde Road''' is a railway station on the [[Vasai Road–Roha line|Vasai Road–Diva–Panvel–Roha route]] of the Central Line, of the [[Mumbai Suburban Railway]] network. '''Navde''' node is a small node developed by [[CIDCO]] with single point access to the node.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Shaikh|first1=Azar S.|title=Navade Road Railway Station Map/Atlas CR/Central Zone - Railway Enquiry|url=https://indiarailinfo.com/station/map/navade-road-nvrd/4411|website=indiarailinfo.com}}</ref>

The Navde colony is divided in two phases, Phase II in the West of the Navde Road Station and the Phase I in East of the Station. The Phase I is currently under construction. The Navade colony shares it Eastern boundary with Taloja MIDC, Northern boundary with Pandher and Southern boundary with Roadpali.

It is like a small township with 165 plots and approx 80-90 buildings. It's a part of [[Navi Mumbai]] city. Construction in this area is in developing stage and good properties are available. It has got good transportation facility from [[Panvel]] via six seater rickshaw and 73 numbered route of [[NMMT]] bus, [[Kalyan-Dombivli Municipal Transport|KDMT]] bus nos. 20 & 70, and from [[CBD Belapur]], NMMT bus nos. 71 and 72. There is also an auto rickshaw stand in Navde. It has close proximity to [[Kharghar]] node of [[CIDCO]] with Navade village falling in Kharghar sec 45. Also close proximity to [[Kalamboli]].

D Mart is 1 km from Navde node and Reliance Smart 0.5 km. [[Navi Mumbai Metro]] line 1 phase 2 will be passing through Navde road and shall have interconnection with Navade railway station. Panvel–Virar local train which is approved from the government and the work is expected to start soon. There are many prominent buildings like Devdrishti, Dev Aashirwad, Neelkamal, Keshav Garden, Laxmi Kalash CHS etc.

Navde colony is on NH4 highway and connects to [[Sion Panvel highway|Sion Panvel Expressway]] via Taloja link road. Usually there is heavy traffic of trailers and trucks due to JNPT, oil refineries as well as, nearby MIDC area, but once the NH4 road widening and flyover is completed and proposed service roads are constructed, much lighter traffic is expected. There is also smell problem from nearby [[Taloje Panchnand|Taloja]] MIDC for which Navade and Kharghar/Kalamboli residents are fighting. Nearby Kasadi river is passing through Navade node but this river has contaminated water and the aqua life is totally dead due to careless attitude of the factories in Taloja MIDC.

Recently CIDCO had started to construct a holding pond in Navade near Devdrishti apartment but left it half done after some works. The internal roads have been in too poor state waiting for the awarded contractor to start construction work.

CIDCO has developed a beautiful small garden with children play area with slides and other equipments. Although small, this garden is having a jogging track, benches and lush green lawn. But because of mismanagement the garden lost it's beautification.

There is a private indoor playzone and family entertainment zone named "Happy Town." Recently open in Navde where families can spend their time instead of going far for malls. There are plots reserved for Police station, market, temple and post office but is not at all developed from CIDCO. Every Thursday and Saturday there is market which sells vegetables, household items, clothes, bags, shoes etc.This mobile market is causing the loss to the Shop owners because they are not able to match the pricing.

In front of the colony there is illegally occupied area near NH4 and the colony. The Panvel municipal corporation isn't taking action against this illegal encroachment.

Almost all types of shops are opened in Navde node and it is self contained with very less dependency of travelling to other nodes. Also there is one 6 bed full-fledged hospital Anand Hospital in Navde apart from various clinics. Heavy vehicles and trailers are parked illegally at the internal roadside for which government should take action to avoid inconvenience to Navde residences.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{commons category|Navade Road railway station}}
{{Mumbai – Suburban Railway, Central}}

[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 1966]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Raigad district]]
[[Category:Mumbai Suburban Railway stations]]
[[Category:Mumbai CR railway division]]
[[Category:Diva-Panvel rail line]]
[[Category:Transport in Navi Mumbai]]

Model Jail, Chandigarh

2026-04-20T14:16:00Z

RealArifHossain: new a article initial version

{{Short description|Prisons in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
'''Model Jail''' is a prison located in the [[Union Territory of Chandigarh]], India. It is a Central Jail established in 1972.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-26 |title=With a caveat, Model Jail in Burail extends its phone booth facility |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/model-jail-in-burail-extends-its-phone-booth-facility-9856875/ |access-date=2026-03-03 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> In July 2024, the jail authorities have set up 32 virtual court (VC) studios. These VCs would facilitate the remand, trial, and other legal proceedings of undertrial prisoners as required under Section 530 of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita.<ref>{{Cite web |title=32 virtual court studios at Burail Model Jail in Chandigarh |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/chandigarh/32-virtual-court-studios-at-burail-model-jail-in-chandigarh-635857/ |access-date=2026-03-03 |website=The Tribune |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
The Burail Jail was established as a sub jail in 1972 and was upgraded as a District Jain in 1975. It attained the status of a Model Jail, which is equivalent to a Central Jail in 1990. In 2022, it celebrated its golden jubilee. At least two of its inmates, went on to become governors.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agencies |date=2026-03-03 |title=Does PM Modi support head of state's assassination as way to define world order: Rahul |url=https://www.millenniumpost.in/nation/does-pm-modi-support-head-of-states-assassination-as-way-to-define-world-order-rahul-650446 |access-date=2026-03-03 |website=www.millenniumpost.in |language=en}}</ref>

In February 2025, the jail authorities extended STD facilities in the barracks for enabling access to the inmates to talk to their family members and relatives. In January 2023, the prison started a Millets Mithai counter at the jail's shopping outlet Nav Srijan in Sector 22, Chandigarh.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-02 |title=Model Burail jail kickstarts year of millets with mithai counter |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/model-burail-jail-kickstarts-year-millets-mithai-counter-8355727/ |access-date=2026-03-03 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

In August 2022, as part of Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav, the District Legal Services Authority of Chandigarh released 151 prisoners from the Model Jail, Burail.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-13 |title=DLSA releases 151 prisoners from Burail jail as part of Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/dlsa-releases-151-prisoners-from-burail-jail-as-part-of-azadi-ka-amrit-mahotsav-8087280/ |access-date=2026-03-03 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

In December 2020, an inmate of the jail was awarded Tinka Tinka Award for making the highest number of masks during the COVID19 pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-11 |title=Making the most masks in lockdown: Chandigarh convict awarded |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/coronavirus-masks-covid-19-tinka-tinka-awards-model-jail-chandigarh-7100602/ |access-date=2026-03-03 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

In September 2022, Institute of Correctional Administration, Sector 26, Chandigarh organised an awareness workshop on Sexual Harassment (POSH) in the Model Jail.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-09-01 |title=Chandigarh: POSH workshop at Model Jail |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/posh-workshop-at-model-jail/articleshow/93916692.cms |access-date=2026-03-03 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== New initiatives ==
The Model Jail has taken up a new initiative during its golden jubilee to educate illiterate prisoners by the literate prisoners with a goal to make the Model Jail Chandigarh the Most Literate Jail in the country. The other literate prisoners can continue their studies through distance education from institutions like IGNOU Study Center. Adult education programme for aged prisoners was also started.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sood |first=Jai |date=2022-04-19 |title=Model Jail Chandigarh celebrates Golden jubilee Year in 2022 |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/cities/model-jail-chandigarh-celebrates-golden-jubilee-year-2022-1503062090.html |access-date=2026-03-03 |website=The Statesman |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|30.7015|76.7411|type:landmark_region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Chandigarh]]
[[Category:1972 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Government buildings completed in 1972]]

Kailash Prakash

2026-04-19T22:15:42Z

RealArifHossain: put up pg

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Kailash Prakash
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date |1908|12|18|df=y}}
| birth_place = Parikshat Garh,[[Meerut district]], [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]], [[British Raj|British India]] (present-day  [[Uttar Pradesh]], India)
| death_date =
| death_place =
| constituency = [[Meerut (Lok Sabha constituency)|Meerut]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| office = [[Member of Parliament]], [[Lok Sabha]]
| term = 1977-1980
| predecessor = [[Shah Nawaz Khan (general)|Shah Nawaz Khan]]
| successor = [[Mohsina Kidwai]]
| party = [[Janata Party]]
| spouse =
| children =
| website =
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| source = https://loksabha.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/2511.htm
}}

'''Kailash Prakash''' was an Indian politician. He was initially a member of the Congress Party and was a supporter and groomed by the elder leader [[Nirmal Chandra Chaturvedi, MLC]]. He served as a minister in [[CB Gupta’s]] cabinet. He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]], the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]] from the [[Meerut (Lok Sabha constituency)|Meerut]] constituency of [[Uttar Pradesh]] as a member of the [[Janata Party]].<ref name="Maheshwari 2021 p. 135">{{cite book | last=Maheshwari | first=A. | title=Instant History: A Memoir | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | year=2021 | isbn=978-93-90513-21-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kIEiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT135 | language= | access-date=20 Mar 2023 | page=135}}</ref><ref name="Parliament of India, the Eighth Lok Sabha, 1985-89: A Study 1991 p. ">{{cite book | title=Parliament of India, the Eighth Lok Sabha, 1985-89: A Study | publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat | year=1991 | isbn=978-81-85119-95-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8iNAAAAMAAJ | access-date=20 Mar 2023 | page=135}}</ref><ref name="Brass 1965 p. 150">{{cite book | last=Brass | first=P.R. | title=Factional Politics in an Indian State: The Congress Party in Uttar Pradesh | publisher=University of California Press | year=1965 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KulsjpUIxeUC&pg=PA150 | access-date=20 Mar 2023 | page=150}}</ref><ref name="The Times of India Directory and Year Book Including Whos who 1978 p. ">{{cite book | title=The Times of India Directory and Year Book Including Who's who | year=1978 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5sgQAQAAMAAJ | access-date=20 Mar 2023 | page=822}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://loksabha.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/2511.htm Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website]

[[Category:1908 births]]
[[Category:Janata Party politicians]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:India MPs 1977–1979]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]

{{UttarPradesh-politician-stub}}

A. T. M. Mustafa

2026-04-18T19:28:53Z

RealArifHossain: Adding New Stub Initial Version

{{Short description|East-Pakistani politician}}
{{Pakistani name|[[Mustafa]]|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2026}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix =
| name = A. T. M. Mustafa
| image =
| image_size =
| office = Federal Minister of Pakistan
| president = [[Ayub Khan]]
| 1blankname = Ministry
| 1namedata = [[Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training|Education]]
| term_start = 1964
| term_end = 1965
| predecessor = [[A.K.M. Fazlul Quader Chowdhury]]
| succeeded = [[Kazi Anwarul Haque]]
| president1 = Ayub Khan
| 1blankname1 = Ministry
| 1namedata1 = [[Ministry of Information & Broadcasting (Pakistan)|Information and Broadcasting]]
| term_start1 = 1963
| term_end1 = 1964
| predecessor1 = Ayub Khan
| succeeded1 = [[Abdul Waheed Khan (politician)|Abdul Waheed Khan]]
| office2 = Provincial Minister of East Pakistan
| governor2 = {{ubl|[[Ghulam Faruque Khan]]|[[Abdul Monem Khan]]}}
| 1blankname2 = Ministry
| 1namedata2 = Law, Broadcasting and Information
| term_start2 = 1962
| term_end2 = 1963
| predecessor2 =
| succeeded2 = [[Abdul Hye Choudhury]]
| birth_date = 1925
| birth_place = [[Calcutta]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|1966|01|08|1925}}
| death_place = [[Havana]], Cuba
| party = [[Independent politician|Independent]]
| other_party =
| alma_mater = {{ubl|[[Aligarh Muslim University]]|[[Lincoln's Inn]]}}
| education = [[Bachelor of Laws]]
| occupation = Barrister
| nickname = Abu Mustafa
| birth_name = Abu Tayyab Mohammad Mustafa
| resting_place = [[Azimpur graveyard]]
| relations = {{ubl|[[Atiquzzaman Khan]] (brother)|[[Safiullah Dadaji]] (maternal grandfather)}}
| module = {{Infobox cricketer
| embed = yes
| role = [[Batsman]]
| club1 = [[East Pakistan cricket team|East Pakistan]]
| year1 = 1956
| columns = 1
| column1 = [[First-class cricket|First-class]]
| matches1 = 1
| runs1 = 6
| bat avg1 = 3.00
| 100s/50s1 = 0/0
| top score1 = 5
| hidedeliveries = true
| deliveries1 = 0
| wickets1 = 0
| bowl avg1 = n/a
| fivefor1 = 0
| tenfor1 = 0
| best bowling1 = n/a
| catches/stumpings1 = 0/-
| date = 26 June
| year = 2013
| source = https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/42/42948/42948.html CricketArchive
}}
}}
'''Abu Tayyab Mohammad Mustafa''' ({{langx|bn|আবু তৈয়ব মোহাম্মদ মোস্তফা}}, {{langx|ur|ابو طیب محمد مصطفی}}) was a Pakistani lawyer, politician and cricketer.

== Early life ==
Mustafa was born in 1925 in Calcutta, [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British India]] (present-day Kolkata, [[West Bengal]], India), into the family of Islamic scholar Abul Khayer.<ref name=l/> Islamic teacher [[Safiullah Dadaji]] was his maternal grandfather.<ref name=dl/> He was one of six brothers and one sister,<ref name=dl/> including sports commentator [[Atiquzzaman Khan]].{{citation needed|date=February 2026}} Mustafa received his early education at [[Aliah University|Calcutta Madrasah]]. He later completed his higher secondary education at [[Maulana Azad College|Islamia College, Calcutta]], and went on to obtain a Bachelor of Laws and a master's degree with honours in Geography from [[Aligarh Muslim University]].<ref name=l/><ref name=dl>{{cite news|title=Ayub condoles A.T.M.'s death|pages=1, 3, 8|date=10 January 1966|newspaper=[[The Bangladesh Observer|The Pakistan Observer]]|url=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/san/?a=d&d=paob19660110-01&e=-------en-25--1--img-txIN-Mustafa+Badminton---------}}</ref> During his student life, Mustafa served as vice-president of the [[Aligarh Muslim University Students' Union]] from 1946 to 1947. Afterward, while pursuing studies in Grrat Britain,<ref name=dl/> he became president of the Pakistan National Students Association.<ref name=l/>

== Career ==
=== Legal career ===
While in Britain, he was called to the Bar at [[Lincoln's Inn]]. He emigrated to [[East Bengal]] of the [[dominion of Pakistan]] in 1950 and began his legal career as an advocate at the [[Dacca High Court]]. Seven years later, he started practising at the [[Supreme Court of Pakistan]].<ref name=l/> During his career, he served as a part-time professor of law at the [[University of Dacca]],<ref name=dl/> standing counsel to the [[Government of Pakistan|federal government]] in East Pakistan, and legal adviser to the [[State Bank of Pakistan]] in Dacca (present-day Dhaka, Bangladesh) and the [[Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation|East Pakistan Agricultural Development Corporation]]. He also served as vice-president of the East Pakistan High Court Bar Association.<ref name=l/>

=== Sporting career ===
Mustafa first played for the side in the 1952–53 season, when the [[East Pakistan cricket team]] took part in two matches against the [[Pakistan national cricket team]].<ref>[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/42/42948/Miscellaneous_Matches.html Miscellaneous matches played by Abu Mustafa (3)] – CricketArchive. Retrieved 26 June 2013.</ref> He was a right-handed [[batsman]]. His only first-class match was played in January 1956 against the touring [[Marylebone Cricket Club]], led by [[Donald Carr]], at the [[Chittagong Stadium]].<ref>[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/42/42948/First-Class_Matches.html First-class matches played by Abu Mustafa (1)] – CricketArchive. Retrieved 26 June 2013.</ref> In that match, Mustafa captained the East Pakistan team. However, he was unsuccessful as a batsman, failing to reach double figures in either innings. The team also performed poorly and, after being forced to follow on, lost by an innings and 101 runs.<ref>[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/21/21873.html East Pakistan v Marylebone Cricket Club], Marylebone Cricket Club in Pakistan 1955/56 – CricketArchive. Retrieved 26 June 2013.</ref> Mustafa did not play any further first-class matches thereafter.<ref>[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/42/42948/42948.html Abu Mustafa player profile and statistics] – CricketArchive. Retrieved 26 June 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.espncricinfo.com/pakistan/content/player/41937.html Abu Mustafa player profile and statistics] – ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 26 June 2013.</ref>

He served as vice-president of [[Mohammedan Sporting Club (Dhaka)|Mohammedan Sporting Club]] and [[Victoria Sporting Club]], and was a member of the [[RAJUK|Dacca Improvement Trust]] and the organisational committee of the [[East Pakistan Sports Federation]].<ref name=l/> While serving as president of the [[Pakistan Sports Board]], he increased financial allocations to the stadium committee of the East Pakistan Sports Federation. During his tenure, a rule was introduced requiring that, when any Pakistani sports team travelled abroad for plays, half of the officials would be selected from East Pakistan and the other half from [[West Pakistan]]. Additionally, under his directive, the [[Pakistan Olympic Association]] adopted a rule to include half of its representatives from East Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news|title=Mustafa Stadium|first=Sheikh Abdul|last=Mannan|author-link=Sheikh Abdul Mannan|page=3|date=20 January 1966|newspaper=[[The Bangladesh Observer|The Pakistan Observer]]|url=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/san/?a=d&d=paob19660120-01.1.3&srpos=1&e=-------en-25--1--img-txIN-Mustafa+Stadium---------}}</ref>

=== Political career ===
In 1962, he was elected vice-president of the [[Asian–African Legal Consultative Organization|Asian-African Legal Consultative Committee]]. In the same year, he was inducted into the [[Faruque ministry|Faruque cabinet]] and was given charge of the Ministry of Law, Publicity and Information for East Pakistan.<ref name=l>{{cite news|title=A. T. M. Mustafa Sworn In As Law Minister|pages=1, 6|date=7 June 1962|newspaper=The Eastern Examiner|url=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/san/?a=d&d=teer19620607-01&srpos=1&txq=Mustafa&e=-------en-25--1--img-txIN-Mustafa+Badminton---------}}</ref><ref name=dl/> That same year, he was appointed parliamentary leader of the [[East Pakistan Provincial Assembly]]. He held both political responsibilities for one year.<ref name=dl/> In 1963, during the [[presidency of Ayub Khan]], Mustafa served for one year as Pakistan's information and broadcasting minister, and in 1964 he became education minister for a year.<ref>{{cite news|title=Mahmood Is New Industries Minister|page=1|date=5 September 1963|newspaper=Daily Business Post|url=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/san/?a=d&d=dbpt19630905-01&e=-------en-25--1--img}}</ref><ref name=dl/>

== Family, death and legacy ==
In 1959, he married a daughter of Nawabzada Fazle Rabbi of Shaistabad, [[Barisal]]. The couple had no children.

On 8 January 1966, he travelled to [[Havana]], Cuba, as deputy leader of the state delegation to attend the [[Tricontinental Conference (1966)|Tricontinental Conference]], led by [[Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani]]. He died of [[cardiac arrest]] while delivering a speech at the conference.<ref>{{cite news|title=A. T. M. Mustafa passes away: NATION WIDE GLOOM|pages=1, 6|date=10 January 1966|newspaper=The Eastern Examiner|url=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/san/?a=d&d=teer19660110-01.1.1&srpos=2&e=-------en-25--1--img-txIN-Minister+Mustafa---------}}</ref>

On 14 January 1966, his body was repatriated from Havana to Dhaka via [[Karachi]]. After lying briefly at his residence in [[Dhanmondi Thana|Dhanmondi]], funeral prayers were held at the [[Outer Stadium Ground]]. He was subsequently buried beside his father's grave at [[Azimpur graveyard]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Mustafa laid to rest|page=8|date=15 January 1966|newspaper=[[The Bangladesh Observer|The Pakistan Observer]]|url=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/san/?a=d&d=paob19660115-01.1.8&e=-------en-25--1--img-txIN-Mustafa+Badminton---------}}</ref>

In the same year, several sporting events were established in his memory, including the Mustafa Memorial Cricket Cup, the A. T. M. Mustafa Football Trophy, and the A. T. M. Mustafa Memorial Badminton Shield Tournament.<ref>{{cite news|title=Rainbow Club win Mustafa memorial club|page=3|date=20 January 1966|newspaper=[[The Bangladesh Observer|The Pakistan Observer]]|url=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/san/?a=d&d=paob19660120-01.1.3&srpos=1&e=-------en-25--1--img-txIN-Mustafa+Stadium---------}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Memorial tournaments: WHY DISGRACE THE DEAD HEROES?|page=8|date=19 October 1966|newspaper=[[The Bangladesh Observer|The Pakistan Observer]]|url=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/san/?a=d&d=paob19661019-01.1.8&srpos=8&e=-------en-25--1--img-txIN-Mustafa+Memorial---------}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Eastern Federal win A. T. M. Mustafa trophy|page=10|date=12 October 1969|newspaper=[[The Bangladesh Observer|The Pakistan Observer]]|url=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/san/?a=d&d=paob19691012-01.1.10&srpos=5&e=-------en-25--1--img-txIN-Mustafa+Cricket---------}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=A. T. M. Mustafa Memorial Badminton|page=8|date=20 January 1969|newspaper=[[The Bangladesh Observer|The Pakistan Observer]]|url=https://gpa.eastview.com/crl/san/?a=d&d=paob19690120-01.1.8&srpos=4&e=-------en-25--1--img-txIN-Mustafa+Badminton---------}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mustafa, Abu Tayyab Mohammad}}
[[Category:1925 births]]
[[Category:1966 deaths]]
[[Category:Education ministers of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Information ministers of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Leaders in the Provincial Assembly of East Pakistan]]
[[Category:Provincial ministers of East Pakistan]]
[[Category:Pakistani barristers]]
[[Category:East Pakistan cricketers]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Dhaka]]
[[Category:Politicians from Dhaka]]
[[Category:People from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Independent politicians in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Pakistani MNAs 1962–1965]]
[[Category:East Pakistan MLAs 1962–1965]]
[[Category:Members of Lincoln's Inn]]
[[Category:Aliah University alumni]]
[[Category:Maulana Azad College alumni]]
[[Category:Faculty of Law, Aligarh Muslim University alumni]]
[[Category:Burials at Azimpur Graveyard]]

Cyclone Fani

2026-04-17T04:59:20Z

RealArifHossain:

{{Short description|North Indian Ocean cyclone in 2019}}
{{good article}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox weather event
| name = Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm Fani
| image = Fani_2019-05-02_1657Z.jpg
| caption = Cyclone Fani at peak intensity on 2 May, while approaching [[Odisha]]
| formed = 26 April 2019
| low = 4 May 2019
| dissipated = 5 May 2019
}}{{Infobox weather event/IMD
| winds = 115
| pressure = 932
}}{{Infobox weather event/JTWC
| winds = 150
| pressure = 900
}}{{Infobox weather event/Effects
| year= 2019
| damage-suffix = (Fourth costliest cyclone recorded in the Indian Ocean)
| damage = 8100000000
| fatalities = 81 total
| areas = {{hlist|[[Odisha]]|[[West Bengal]]|[[Andhra Pradesh]]|East India|[[Bangladesh]]|[[Bhutan]]|[[Sri Lanka]]}}
}}{{Infobox weather event/Footer
| season = [[2019 North Indian Ocean cyclone season]]
}}

'''Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm Fani'''{{efn|The name ''Fani'' ([[Bengali language|Bengali]]: ফণী; [[Help:IPA/Bengali|[fɔniˑ]]]) was contributed by [[Bangladesh]] and means "serpent, hooded snake" in [[Bengali language|Bengali]].<ref name="dt_01">{{cite news|url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/around-the-web/2019/05/02/how-cyclone-fani-got-its-name|title=How Cyclone Fani got its name|date=2 May 2019|work=[[Dhaka Tribune]]|access-date=2 May 2019}}</ref><ref name=bbc_bn_01>{{cite news|script-title=bn:ঘূর্ণিঝড়ের ফণী নামটি কোথা থেকে এলো?|url=https://www.bbc.com/bengali/news-48101485|language=bn|date=30 April 2019|publisher=[[BBC Bangla]]|access-date= 2 May 2019|newspaper=BBC News বাংলা }}</ref>}} was the strongest pre-monsoon [[tropical cyclone]] to form in the [[Bay of Bengal]] since 1991. The second named storm and the first severe cyclonic storm of the [[2019 North Indian Ocean cyclone season]], Fani originated from a tropical depression that formed west of [[Sumatra]] in the Indian Ocean on 26 April. Vertical [[wind shear]] initially hindered the storm's development, but conditions became more favorable for Fani on 30 April. Fani rapidly intensified as a result, peaking at an Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm with winds of 215 km/h (130 mph). The [[Joint Typhoon Warning Center]] (JTWC) assessed its peak as a Category 5-equivalent intensity with winds of 280 km/h (175 mph), making it the strongest north Indian Ocean tropical cyclone on record in terms of 1-minute sustained winds. Fani weakened slightly before making [[landfall]] in Odisha a few days later. Its convective structure rapidly degraded thereafter, degenerating into a remnant low on 4 May, and dissipating on the next day.

Prior to Fani's landfall, authorities in India and Bangladesh moved at least a million people each from areas within Fani's projected path onto higher ground and into cyclone shelters, which is thought to have reduced the death toll. Fani killed at least 81 people in eastern India and Bangladesh and caused about US$8.1 billion worth of damage in both India and Bangladesh, mostly in Odisha, in India.

==Meteorological history==
{{storm path|Fani 2019 path.png|colors=new}}
On 26 April, the [[India Meteorological Department]] (IMD) began tracking a depression located to the west of Sumatra, designating it as BOB 02, meaning the second [[Low-pressure area|depression]] of 2019 formed in the [[Bay of Bengal]], the first being [[Tropical Storm Pabuk (2019)|Tropical Storm Pabuk]] earlier that year.<ref name="IMD">{{cite report |url=https://rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/uploads/report/34/34_493032_nfani.pdf |title=Bulletin No. 01 (BOB/02/2019) |author=India Meteorological Department |date=2019-04-26 |publisher=Earth System Science Organisation, Ministry of Earth Sciences |access-date=2026-02-06}}</ref> Later that day, the [[Joint Typhoon Warning Center]] (JTWC) issued a [[Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert]] on the system.<ref>{{cite report |title=Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert |url=https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/PGTW/Alphanumeric/Warning/Tropical_cyclone/20190426/090000/A_WTIO21PGTW260900_C_RJTD_20190426090017_100.txt |website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center |publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command |access-date=30 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430193414/https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/PGTW/Alphanumeric/Warning/Tropical_cyclone/20190426/090000/A_WTIO21PGTW260900_C_RJTD_20190426090017_100.txt |archive-date=30 April 2019 |date=26 April 2019}}</ref> Afterward, the storm slowly coalesced while moving northward, and was upgraded to a deep depression at 03:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] on 27 April.<ref name="IMD" /> At the same time, the JTWC began warning on the system, designating it ''01B''.<ref>{{cite report |title=Tropical Cyclone 01B Warning 001 |url=https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/PGTW/Alphanumeric/Warning/Tropical_cyclone/20190427/030000/A_WTIO31PGTW270300COR_C_RJTD_20190427032817_32.txt |website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center |publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command |access-date=30 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430194604/https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/PGTW/Alphanumeric/Warning/Tropical_cyclone/20190427/030000/A_WTIO31PGTW270300COR_C_RJTD_20190427032817_32.txt |archive-date=30 April 2019 |date=27 April 2019}}</ref> Six hours later, the IMD upgraded the system to a cyclonic storm and gave it the name ''Fani''.<ref name="IMD"/>

The system continued to intensify until 18:00 UTC on 27 April, after which it stagnated for over a day while continuing to move northwest.<ref name="IMD"/> On 29 April, Fani resumed strengthening around 12:00 UTC, with the IMD upgrading it to a severe cyclonic storm.<ref name="IMD"/> At that time, Fani began a period of [[rapid intensification]] as it was located within a very favorable environment with [[sea surface temperatures]] of {{convert|30–31|C|F|abbr=on}} and low [[Wind shear#Vertical component|vertical wind shear]]. As a result, the JTWC upgraded Fani to a [[Saffir–Simpson scale#Category 1|Category 1]]-equivalent cyclone late on 29 April.<ref>{{cite report |title=Tropical Cyclone 01B (Fani) Warning 012 |url=https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/PGTW/Alphanumeric/Warning/Tropical_cyclone/20190429/210000/A_WTIO31PGTW292100_C_RJTD_20190429211330_1.txt |website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center |publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command |access-date=30 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430200950/https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/PGTW/Alphanumeric/Warning/Tropical_cyclone/20190429/210000/A_WTIO31PGTW292100_C_RJTD_20190429211330_1.txt |archive-date=30 April 2019 |date=29 April 2019}}</ref> Around 00:00 UTC on 30 April, Fani was upgraded to a very severe cyclonic storm by the IMD.<ref name="IMD"/> The organization of the system continued to improve, with tight spiral [[rainband|banding]] wrapping into a formative [[eye (cyclone)|eye]] feature,<ref>{{cite report |title=Tropical Cyclone 01B (Fani) Warning 015 |url=https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/PGTW/Alphanumeric/Warning/Tropical_cyclone/20190430/150000/A_WTIO31PGTW301500_C_RJTD_20190430144732_2.txt |website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center |publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command |access-date=30 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430202814/https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/PGTW/Alphanumeric/Warning/Tropical_cyclone/20190430/150000/A_WTIO31PGTW301500_C_RJTD_20190430144732_2.txt |archive-date=30 April 2019 |date=30 April 2019}}</ref> resulting in Fani being upgraded to an extremely severe cyclonic storm by the IMD around 12:00 UTC,<ref name="IMD"/> while the JTWC upgraded the storm to a Category 3-equivalent cyclone hours later.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0119web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone 01B (Fani) Warning 016|date=30 April 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430213502/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0119web.txt|archive-date=30 April 2019|access-date=30 April 2019}}</ref> On 2 May, the [[central dense overcast]] became more symmetrical and the eye more distinct, and Fani was upgraded to a Category 4-equivalent cyclone by the JTWC at 06:00 UTC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0119web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone 01B (Fani) Warning 022|date=2 May 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502122321/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0119web.txt|archive-date=2 May 2019|access-date=2 May 2019}}</ref> Shortly after, Fani started another period of rapid intensification, attaining 1-minute sustained winds of {{convert|280|km/h|mph|abbr=on|round=5}}, equivalent to a Category 5 tropical cyclone, according to the JTWC.<ref name="JTWC BT">{{cite report |title=Joint Typhoon Warning Center: 2019 North Indian Ocean Best Track |url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/best-tracks/2019/2019s-bio/IO_besttracks_2019-2019.kmz |publisher=Joint Typhoon Warning Center |access-date=7 January 2021}}</ref> It became the strongest pre-monsoon cyclone in the Bay of Bengal since 1991.<ref name="regional warming">{{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Lin |last2=Simon Wang |first2=S-Y |last3=Becker |first3=Emily |last4=Yoon |first4=Jin-Ho |last5=Mukherjee |first5=Avik |title=Cyclone Fani: the tug-of-war between regional warming and anthropogenic aerosol effects |journal=Environmental Research Letters |date=1 September 2020 |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=094020 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/ab91e7}}</ref> Operationally, the JTWC classified the system as a high-end Category 4-equivalent tropical cyclone with 1-minute sustained winds of {{convert|250|km/h|mph|abbr=on|round=5}}, but raised their estimate in post-season re-analysis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0119web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone 01B (Fani) Warning 023|date=2 May 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502135853/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0119web.txt|archive-date=2 May 2019|access-date=2 May 2019}}</ref>

Fani quickly weakened after peak intensity. In the morning of 3 May, Fani made landfall near [[Puri]], [[Odisha]] as an extremely severe cyclonic storm with 3-minute sustained winds of {{convert|185|km/h|mph|abbr=on|round=5}} and 1-minute sustained winds of {{convert|230|km/h|mph|round=5|abbr=on}} according to IBTrACS, a dataset of best tracks.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dw.com/en/cyclone-fani-makes-landfall-in-india/a-48580125|title=Cyclone Fani makes landfall in India|publisher=Deutsche Welle|date=3 May 2019|access-date=3 May 2019}}</ref> This made Fani the most intense storm to make landfall in India's Odisha state since the [[1999 Odisha cyclone]].<ref name="strongest landfall since 1999">{{cite web|url=https://weather.com/storms/hurricane/news/2019-04-28-tropical-cyclone-fani-india-bangladesh|title=Tropical Cyclone Fani Slams India's Odisha State, Its Strongest Landfall Since 1999|website=weather.com|publisher=The Weather Company|date=3 May 2019|access-date=27 May 2019}}</ref> Land interaction quickly degraded Fani's convective structure and it weakened to a Category 1-equivalent tropical cyclone soon after landfall.<ref>{{cite report |title=Tropical Cyclone 01B (Fani) Warning 027 |url=https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/PGTW/Alphanumeric/Warning/Tropical_cyclone/20190503/150000/A_WTIO31PGTW031500_C_RJTD_20190503135919_76.txt |website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center |publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command |access-date=4 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504225321/https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/PGTW/Alphanumeric/Warning/Tropical_cyclone/20190503/150000/A_WTIO31PGTW031500_C_RJTD_20190503135919_76.txt |archive-date=4 May 2019 |date=3 May 2019}}</ref> Fani continued to weaken after landfall, weakening to a cyclonic storm later that day,<ref name="IMD"/> before passing just north of [[Kolkata]]. On 4 May, Fani weakened to a deep depression and moved into [[Bangladesh]],<ref name="IMD"/> before degenerating into a well-marked low later on the same day.<ref>{{cite report |title=Bulletin 65 |url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian_1557025378.pdf |website=India Meteorological Department |access-date=4 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504222445/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian_1557025378.pdf |archive-date=4 May 2019 |date=4 May 2019}}</ref> Fani's remnant low dissipated over [[Myanmar]] the next day.<ref name="report">{{cite web|title=Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm "FANI" over eastcentral equatorial Indian Ocean and adjoining southeast Bay of Bengal (26 April – 04 May, 2019): Summary|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/preliminary-report/fani.pdf |publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]]|access-date=12 January 2026|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102071629/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/preliminary-report/hud.pdf |archive-date=January 2, 2015}}</ref>

===Relation to climate change===
{{See also|Tropical cyclones and climate change}}
Fani underwent rapid intensification as it tracked northward over the Bay of Bengal, where local sea surface temperatures were {{cvt|2.5|C-change|F-change}} above normal. A convection‑permitting attribution study with [[Weather Research and Forecasting Model|WRF‑Chem]] found that removing post‑1990 warming trends in both the atmosphere and ocean reduced Fani's five‑day precipitation totals by around 51%, with tropospheric warming contributing roughly two‑thirds of this reduction and sea surface warming roughly one‑third.<ref name="regional warming"/>

Fani has been part of a recent trend of cyclones forming at unusual times of year. Between 1891 and 2019, Fani is one of only 15 severe cyclones to form in April, with only one other storm also crossing the Indian mainland.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sangomla |first1=Akshit |title=Fani to be second severe April cyclone to make landfall in India in 118 years |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/natural-disasters/fani-to-be-second-severe-april-cyclone-to-make-landfall-in-india-in-118-years-64278 |website=Down To Earth |access-date=17 March 2026 |language=en |date=30 April 2019}}</ref>

==Preparations==
[[File:Evacuees at a cyclone shelter at Basudevpur Bhadrak.jpg|thumb|left|Evacuees at a cyclone shelter at [[Basudevpur]], [[Bhadrak district]]]]
The state government of [[Odisha]] and its agency [[Odisha State Disaster Management Authority|OSDMA]] evacuated over 1.2 million residents from vulnerable coastal areas and moved them to higher ground and into cyclone shelters built a few kilometres inland. The authorities deployed around a thousand emergency workers and 43,000 volunteers in these efforts. It sent out 2.6 million text messages to warn of the storm in addition to using television, sirens and public-address systems to communicate the message. About 7,000 kitchens were operated to feed evacuees in 9,000 storm shelters.<ref name="HT04052019">{{cite news |last1=Mohanty |first1=Debabrata |last2=Bhattacharya |first2=Snigdhendu |title=Fani leaves trail of devastation; India, Bangladesh count losses |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/fani-leaves-trail-of-devastation-india-bangladesh-count-losses/story-lKot42RlhZCDzG3D5VKk1H.html |access-date=5 May 2019 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=4 May 2019}}</ref><ref name="NYT03052019">{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=Hari |last2=Gettleman |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Yasir |first3=Sameer |title=How Do You Save a Million People From a Cyclone? Ask a Poor State in India |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/03/world/asia/cyclone-fani-india-evacuations.html |access-date=5 May 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=3 May 2019}}</ref> These measures may have reduced the possible death toll, as thousands died in the similar [[1999 Odisha cyclone]] compared to the 20 fatalities from Fani.<ref name="NYT05042019">{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=Hari |last2=Gettleman |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Yasir |first3=Sameer |title='The Worst Is Over': A Sigh of Relief in India, Mostly Spared by Cyclone |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/04/world/asia/india-cyclone.html |access-date=5 May 2019 |work=The New York Times |date=4 May 2019}}</ref>

The [[Indian Navy]] readied naval ships and aircraft at [[INS Rajali|Arakkonam]] and [[INS Dega|Visakhapatnam]] air-bases to prepare for the storm's aftermath and aid in reconnaissance, rescue and relief operations.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/cyclone-fani-naval-ships-aircraft-on-standby/article26989579.ece|title=Cyclone Fani: Naval ships, aircraft on standby|date=30 April 2019|work=The Hindu|access-date=30 April 2019}}</ref> The Odisha government staged 300 motorboats, two helicopters, and several chainsaws to clear fallen trees.<ref name="NYT03052019"/>

Authorities in [[Bangladesh]] were ordered to open shelter areas in 19 coastal districts.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/nation/2019/05/01/cyclonic-storm-fani-further-intensifies |title=Bangladesh prepares for Fani as cyclonic storm draws near |date=1 May 2019 |work=[[Dhaka Tribune]] |access-date=1 May 2019}}</ref> The [[Bangladesh Navy]] deployed 32 naval ships to provide emergency relief and medical assistance to the coastal areas in case of any emergencies.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangladesh Navy prepared to face Fani with 32 ships |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/nation/2019/05/03/bangladesh-navy-prepared-to-face-fani-with-32-ships |work=Dhaka Tribune |access-date=4 May 2019 |date=4 May 2019}}</ref> More than 1.2 million people were evacuated in Bangladesh to cyclone shelters in coastal areas.<ref>{{cite news |title=12 lakh moved to shelters |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/cyclone-fani-in-bangladesh-12-lakh-moved-shelters-1738438 |access-date=4 May 2019 |work=The Daily Star |date=4 May 2019}}</ref>

== Impacts & aftermath ==
{{Multiple image
| image1 = Bhubaneswar before cyclone Fani.jpg
| image2 = Bhubaneswar after Cyclone Fani.jpg
| footer = Building lights in [[Bhubaneswar]], Odisha, before and after Cyclone Fani
| total_width = 300
| alt1 = Lights of households in Bhubaneswar on 30th April 2019, before Cyclone Fani strikes on 3rd May 2019
| alt2 = Lights of households in Bhubaneswar on 5th May 2019, after Cyclone Fani strikes on 3rd May 2019
| align = right
}}

An estimated 10 million people were affected by Fani.<ref name="ACAPS">{{cite web |title=Cyclone Fani Category: 4 |url=https://www.acaps.org/fileadmin/Data_Product/Main_media/20190507_acaps_start_briefing_note_tropical_cyclone_fani.pdf |website=ACAPS |access-date=12 January 2026}}</ref> In [[Bhubaneswar]], around half of the city's roughly 450,000 electricity customers were still without power several days after landfall.<ref>{{cite web |date=13 May 2019 |title=Cyclone Fani aftermath: Eight days on, Odisha grapples with power outage, protests break out in several areas |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/cyclone-fani-after-eight-days-of-devastation-power-lines-still-down-protests-break-out-in-odisha-5722771/ |access-date=12 January 2026 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> In addition to electrical shortages, multiple districts, such as Puri and Bhubaneswar, sustained significant damage to water infrastructure, leaving many residents without access to water for days.<ref name="ACAPS" />

===India===
====Odisha====
[[File:Trees under heavy wind in Odisha during cyclone Fani.jpg|thumb|Trees in Odisha experiencing heavy winds during Cyclone Fani]]

A total of 64 people were killed in [[Odisha]], and over 350,000 homes were damaged.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cyclone Fani |url=https://www.preventionweb.net/media/74593/download?startDownload=20260112 |website=PreventionWeb |access-date=12 January 2026}}</ref> The cyclone adversely affected electricity supply and telecommunication in several coastal areas of Odisha [[Puri district|Puri]] and [[Khordha district]] in Odisha were the worst hit, with Puri's telecommunications network being completely destroyed.<ref name="HT04052019"/><ref name="Aftermath Outlook">{{cite web |title=Five Days After Cyclone Fani Hit Odisha, Lakhs Still Without Electricity, Towns Plunged Into Darkness |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/india-news-five-days-after-cyclone-fani-hit-odisha-lakhs-still-without-electricity-towns-plunged-into-darkness-news-330010 |website=Outlook India |access-date=12 January 2026 |language=en |date=8 May 2019}}</ref> The [[Jagannath Temple]] in Puri suffered minor damage to its electrical and civil infrastructure, with the repair cost estimated at [[Indian rupee|₹]]51 million (US$738,000).<ref>{{cite news |last=Jena |first=Suryakant |title=Srimandir Loss During Cyclone Fani Pegged At 5.1 Crore |url=https://odishatv.in/odisha/srimandir-loss-during-cyclone-fani-pegged-at-5-1-crore-369004 |publisher=Odisha TV |access-date=8 May 2019 |date=8 May 2019}}</ref> The [[KIIT University]] also suffered damage of about ₹300 million (US$4.3 million).<ref>{{cite news |title=Cyclone Fani: SOA university faces damage of Rs 30 crore |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2019/may/11/soa-university-faces-damage-of-30-crore-1975471.html |work=The New Indian Express |access-date=11 May 2019 |date=11 May 2019}}</ref> The total damage in Odisha was estimated at ₹120 billion (US$1.74 billion).<ref name="Odisha damage">{{cite news |title=Odisha estimates loss at ₹12,000 Cr due to cyclone Fani |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/odisha-estimates-loss-at-12000-cr-due-to-cyclone-fani/article27136957.ece |work=The Hindu Business Line |access-date=15 May 2019 |date=15 May 2019}}</ref> After the cyclone, Odisha requested ₹170 billion (US$2.46 billion) for rebuilding infrastructure.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/cyclone-fani-centre-announces-rs-1000-crore-more-for-odisha-after-pm-narendra-modi-s-review-visit-1557135374310.html |title=Cyclone Fani-ravaged Odisha seeks ₹17,000 crore central assistance |last=Nanda |first=Prashant K. |date=7 May 2019 |access-date=8 May 2019 |publisher=Livemint}}</ref> Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] announced that the government had released over ₹10 billion (US$145 million) for the states affected by Fani.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-cyclone-fani-over-rs-1000-crore-released-in-advance-says-pm-modi-2745617 |title=Cyclone Fani: Over Rs 1,000 crore released in advance, says PM Modi |date=3 May 2019 |access-date=5 May 2019 |work=DNA India}}</ref> The only water source for much of Odisha was bottled water, which rose several times in price due to demand, going from {{Indian rupee|200}} to {{Indian rupee|1000-1500}} in [[Bhubaneswar]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=archive |first=From our online |date=2019-05-05 |title=Heat, water scarcity: Traders feed on misery of Bhubaneswarites as Cyclone Fani strikes |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bhubaneswar/2019/May/05/heat-water-scarcity-traders-feed-on-misery-of-bhubaneswarites-as-cyclone-fani-strikes-1972859.html |access-date=2026-02-12 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ACAPS" />

====Elsewhere====
In [[Andhra Pradesh]], around 2,000 electricity poles were uprooted and over a dozen livestock were killed.<ref>{{cite web |title=-'Cyclone Fani-': Rains lash Andhra Pradesh-'s coastal,no loss of life reported {{!}} \'Cyclone Fani\': Rains lash Andhra Pradesh\'s coastal,no loss of life reported |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/030519/cyclone-fani-rains-lash-aps-coastal-districtno-loss-of-life-repor.html |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |access-date=13 January 2026 |language=en |date=3 May 2019}}</ref> Although no fatalities occurred in the state, [[Srikakulam]] and [[Vizianagaram]] districts reported an economic loss of ₹586.2 million (US$8.5 million), with the Panchayat Raj (₹20 crore) and Roads and Buildings (₹21 crore) departments suffering the most damage. {{Convert|216|ha|acre}} of paddy crop and {{Convert|229|ha|acre}} of banana crop were also damaged, and 17,460 people were relocated to relief camps.<ref name="Andhra damage">{{cite news |title=Andhra Pradesh pegs loss due to Cyclone Fani at ₹58.62 crore |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/chief-secretary-puts-loss-due-to-cyclone-fani-at-5862-crore/article27036818.ece |work=The Hindu |access-date=5 May 2019 |date=5 May 2019}}</ref> The [[South Central Railway]] also suffered lost revenue of around ₹29.8 million (US$432,000) after cancelling 120 trains and refunding over 40,000 passengers.<ref>{{cite news |title=SCR incurs Rs. 2.98 crore loss due to cyclone Fani |url=https://telanganatoday.com/cyclone-fani-causes-rs-2-98-crore-loss-to-scr |work=Telangana Today |access-date=11 May 2019 |date=11 May 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511030803/https://telanganatoday.com/scr-incurs-rs-2-98-crore-loss-due-to-cyclone-fani|archive-date=May 11, 2019}}</ref> Damage in [[West Bengal]] was minimal according to its chief of state, [[Mamata Banerjee]].<ref name="HT04052019" />

===Bangladesh===
In Bangladesh, Fani killed 17 people across 10 districts.<ref>{{cite news |title=Cyclone Fani leaves trail of destruction in Bangladesh; 17 dead, several hurt |url=https://nenow.in/neighbour/cyclone-fani-leaves-trail-of-destruction-in-bangladesh-17-dead-several-hurt.html |work=Northeast Now |access-date=5 May 2019 |date=5 May 2019}}</ref> In [[Bagerhat District]], a woman died after being hit by a falling tree, while 8 others were killed by lightning strikes in three separate districts.<ref>{{cite news |title=Cyclone Fani: 14 killed in 8 districts |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/nation/2019/05/04/1-killed-30-injured-as-cyclone-fani-destroys-homes-in-noakhali |work=Dhaka Tribune |access-date=4 May 2019 |date=4 May 2019}}</ref> The cyclone also caused damage to over 13,000 homes, with 2,200 of those being completely destroyed.<ref name="Bangladesh property damage">{{cite news |title=Fani damages 53,000 acres of cropland, 13,000 houses |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/country/cyclonic-storm-fani-damages-53000-acres-crop-13000-houses-1738579 |work=The Daily Star |date=4 May 2019 |access-date=5 May 2019}}</ref> In addition, {{convert|53000|ha|acre|abbr=on}} of farmland in 35 districts of the country were either partly or fully destroyed.<ref name="Bangladesh property damage"/> Fani caused approximately [[Bangladeshi taka|৳]]536 crore (US$63.6 million) in damage in Bangladesh, including an agricultural loss of ৳38.5 crore (US$4.6 million).<ref name="Bangladesh damage">{{cite news |title=Fani storm loss estimated at Tk 536 crore |url=https://www.banglanews24.com/english/national/article/76382/Fani-storm-loss-estimated-at-Tk-536-crore |website=Banglanews24.com |access-date=9 May 2019 |date=9 May 2019 |archive-date=11 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611080902/https://www.banglanews24.com/english/national/article/76382/Fani-storm-loss-estimated-at-Tk-536-crore |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Fani damaged crops worth Tk 38.5 cr: Agriculture Minister |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/country/news/fani-damaged-crops-worth-tk-385-cr-agriculture-minister-1740052 |work=The Daily Star |access-date=7 May 2019 |date=7 May 2019}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Tropical cyclones|India|Bangladesh}}
* [[1999 Odisha cyclone]] – The strongest cyclone on record to strike [[Odisha]]; also the most intense storm recorded in the North Indian Ocean, which killed an estimated 10,000 people.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1999-12-02 |title=Orissa Super Cyclone Situation Report 9 - India {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/india/orissa-super-cyclone-situation-report-9 |access-date=2026-02-13 |website=reliefweb.int |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Cyclone Viyaru]] – Took a similar path and affected [[Bangladesh]] and [[Myanmar]] in 2013
* [[Cyclone Phailin]] – A powerful tropical cyclone that struck Odisha in 2013, which displaced over 1 million people
* [[Tropical Storm Matmo and Cyclone Bulbul]] (2019)
* [[Cyclone Amphan]] – A powerful Super Cyclonic Storm that affected similar areas in 2020
* [[List of tropical cyclones near the Equator]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/index.php?lang=en India Meteorological Department]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20240102132052/https://www.nrlmry.navy.mil/tc-bin/tc_home2.cgi?YEAR=2019&MO=01&BASIN=IO&STORM_NAME=01B.FANI&PROD=track_vis&PHOT=yes&ARCHIVE=all&NAV=tc&AGE=Prev&SIZE=FULL&STYLE=frames&AID_DIR=%2FSATPRODUCTS%2FTC%2Ftc19%2FIO%2Fnull%2Fmicrovap%2Fdmsp&TYPE=ssmi&STATUS=inactive Archived version of 01B.FANI] from the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory
* {{ReliefWeb-link|tc-2019-000041-ind}}

{{2019 North Indian Ocean cyclone season buttons}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fani}}
[[Category:2019 disasters in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:2019 disasters in India]]
[[Category:2019 North Indian Ocean cyclone season]]
[[Category:April 2019 in Asia]]
[[Category:April 2019 in India]]
[[Category:Extremely severe cyclonic storms]]
[[Category:Tropical cyclones in 2019]]

Martur Assembly constituency

2026-04-17T00:47:22Z

RealArifHossain: new a post initial version

{{short description|Defunct Legislative Assembly constituency in Andhra Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
|name = Martur
|state = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|district = [[Prakasam district|Prakasam]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Bapatla (Lok Sabha constituency)|Bapatla]]
|established = 1978
|abolished = 2008
|reservation = None
|electors = {{formatnum:142411}} (2004)<ref name=election2004/>
|type= SLA
}}
'''Martur''' was one of the 294 [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Andhra Pradesh]] in [[India]]. It was in [[Prakasam district]], and was dissolved before the 2009 elections. Most of its area is now in [[Parchur Assembly constituency]] and [[Addanki Assembly constituency]].

==History of the constituency==
Martur Assembly Constituency was first created for the 1955 Andhra State Assembly elections and existed until 1967, abolished in the Delimitation Act 1961.<ref>{{Cite web | title= 1961 Delimitation Act 1972 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3950-dpaco-1961/| access-date=9 Dec 2020 | website= Election Commission of India | language=en}}</ref> It was again reformed in the 1978 Assembly elections and existed until the 2008 delimitation. After passing of the ''Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 1976'', its extent was the Martur and Kommalapadu firkas in Addanki taluk, Marella firka, Tammalur, Sankarapuram, Avisanavaripalem, Polavaram, Pedaravipad, Vempadu, Mundlamur, Malkapuram villages
in Tallur firka of Darsi taluk.<ref name=delimitation1976>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3939-dpaco-1976/ |title=The Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 1976 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |date=1 December 1976 |access-date=13 October 2021}}</ref> It was abolished due to the ''Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008'' and hence was defunct as of the [[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]].<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://upload.indiacode.nic.in/showfile?actid=AC_CEN_3_20_00030_200233_1517807324510&type=order&filename=Delimitation%20Order,2008.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |date=26 November 2008 |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref>

==Members of the Legislative assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! MLA
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
| [[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
| [[Gottipati Ravi Kumar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1999 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1999]]
| Gottipati Narasaiah
|{{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|-
| [[1994 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1994]]
| Gottipati Hanumantha Rao
|{{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| rowspan=2 | [[Karanam Balarama Krishna Murthy]]
|{{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party| rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1985 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|-
| [[1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1983]]
| Gottipati Hanumantha Rao
|-
| [[1978 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
| Jagarlamudi Chandramouli
|{{Full party name with color| Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1962 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
| Nooti Venkateswarlu
|{{Full party name with color| Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1955 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1955]]
| Bandlamudi Venkata Sivayya
|{{Full party name with color| Krishikar Lok Party}}
|}

== Election results==
=== 2004 ===
{{Election box begin|title=[[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Martur<ref name=election2004>{{Cite web | title= 2004 AP Assembly Election Results |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4053-andhra-pradesh-2004/| access-date=30 Nov 2022 | website= Election Commission of India | language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||candidate=[[Gottipati Ravi Kumar]]|party= Indian National Congress |votes=64,983|percentage=55.31% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate= [[Gottipati Narsaiah]] |party= Telugu Desam Party |votes=51,177 |percentage=43.56% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=13,806 |percentage=11.75% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=117,492|percentage=82.48% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 142,477|change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link|winner= Indian National Congress |loser= Telugu Desam Party|swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1999===
{{Election box begin|title=[[1999 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Martur<ref>{{Cite web | title= 1999 AP Assembly Election Results |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4052-andhra-pradesh-1999/| access-date=30 Nov 2022 | website= Election Commission of India | language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||candidate=[[Gottipati Narsaiah]]|party= Telugu Desam Party |votes=73,422|percentage=67.35% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate= [[Narra Seshagiri Rao]] |party= Indian National Congress |votes=33,763 |percentage=30.97% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=39,659 |percentage=36.38% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=111,021 |percentage=69.54% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 161,988|change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner= Telugu Desam Party |loser= Independent (politician) |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===1994===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1994 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Martur<ref>{{Cite web | title= 1994 AP Assembly Election Results |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4051-andhra-pradesh-1994/| access-date=30 Nov 2022 | website= Election Commission of India | language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||candidate=[[Gottipati Hanumnatha Rao]]|party= Independent (politician) |votes=55,482 |percentage=51.36% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Karanam Balarama Krishna Murthy]] |party= Indian National Congress |votes=46,349|percentage=42.91% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=9,133 |percentage=8.45% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=109,473 |percentage=79.97% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 136,889|change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner= Independent (politician) |loser= Telugu Desam Party |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===1989===
{{Election box begin|title=[[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Martur<ref>{{Cite web | title= 1989 AP Assembly Election Results |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4050-andhra-pradesh-1989/| access-date=30 Nov 2022 | website= Election Commission of India | language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||candidate=[[Karanam Balarama Krishna Murthy]]|party= Telugu Desam Party |votes=60,226 |percentage=54.13% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[Gottipati Hanumantha Rao]] |party= Indian National Congress |votes=50,101 |percentage=45.03% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=10,125 |percentage=9.10% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=114,778|percentage=75.87% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 151,283|change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner= Telugu Desam Party |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===1985===
{{Election box begin|title=[[1985 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Martur<ref>{{Cite web | title= 1985 AP Assembly Election Results |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4049-andhra-pradesh-1985/| access-date=30 Nov 2022 | website= Election Commission of India | language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||candidate=[[Karanam Balarama Krishna Murthy]] |party= Telugu Desam Party |votes=51,138 |percentage=56.83% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Kandimalla Subba Rao]] |party= Indian National Congress |votes=37,840|percentage=42.06% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=13,298|percentage=14.78% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=91,261 |percentage=71.63% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 127,404 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner= Telugu Desam Party |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===1983===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Martur<ref>{{Cite web | title= 1983 AP Assembly Election Results |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4048-andhra-pradesh-1983/| access-date=30 Nov 2022 | website= Election Commission of India | language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||candidate = [[Gottipati Hanumantha Rao]]|party= Telugu Desam Party |votes=41,846 |percentage=54.91% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Kandimalla Butchaiah]] |party= Indian National Congress |votes=33,352|percentage=43.76% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,494 |percentage=11.14% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=77,476 |percentage=73.40% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 105,558|change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner= Telugu Desam Party |loser= Janata Party|swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===1978===
{{Election box begin|title=[[1978 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Martur<ref>{{Cite web | title= 1978 AP Assembly Election Results |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4047-andhra-pradesh-1978/| access-date=30 Nov 2022 | website= Election Commission of India | language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||candidate=[[Jagarlamudi Chandramouli]]|party= Janata Party |votes=39,067 |percentage=51.36% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Kandimalla Butchaiah]] |party=Indian National Congress (I)|votes=27,963 |percentage=36.76% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Kavuri Venkateswarlu]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes=8,203 |percentage=10.78% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=11,104 |percentage=14.60% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=77,644 |percentage=77.40% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 100,314 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner= Janata Party|loser= Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===1962===
{{Election box begin|title=[[1962 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Martur<ref>{{Cite web | title= 1962 AP Assembly Election Results |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4044-andhra-pradesh-1962/| access-date=30 Nov 2022 | website= Election Commission of India | language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||candidate=[[Nooti Venkateswarlu]]|party= Indian National Congress |votes=17,974 |percentage=40.04% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate= [[Kandimalla Butchaiah]] |party= |votes=16,141 |percentage=35.95% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,833 |percentage=4.08% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=46,787 |percentage=63.72% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 73,428 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner= Indian National Congress ||loser= Krishikar Lok Party |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

===1955===
{{Election box begin|title=[[1955 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Martur<ref>{{Cite web | title= 1955 AP Assembly Election Results |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4042-andhra-pradesh-1955/| access-date=30 Nov 2022 | website= Election Commission of India | language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||candidate= [[Bandlamudi Venkatasivayya]]|party= Krishikar Lok Party|votes=24,419 |percentage=60.53% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate= [[Pedavalli Sriramulu]] |party= Communist Party of India |votes=15,926 |percentage=39.47% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,493 |percentage=21.05% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=40,345 |percentage=62.58% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 64,469 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner= Krishikar Lok Party ||loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end }}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Coord|15.99|80.10|display=title}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Prakasam district]]
[[Category:Politics of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1978]]
[[Category:1978 establishments in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2008]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in India]]

Ankola Assembly constituency

2026-04-16T04:32:47Z

RealArifHossain: Adding Basic Entry More To Come

{{Short description|Former Assembly constituency in Karnataka, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
|name = Ankola
|state = [[Karnataka]]
|type= SLA
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
|district = [[Uttara Kannada district|Uttara Kannada]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Uttara Kannada Lok Sabha constituency|Uttara Kannada]]
|established = 1955 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/146-archive-delimitation-orders |title= Archive Delimitation Orders - Final Order DC (1953-1955) |access-date=31 January 2026 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>

|abolished = 2008
|electors = 
|reservation = None
}}
'''Ankola Assembly constituency''' was a constituency of the [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]],<ref name=delimitation1976>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3939-dpaco-1976/ |title=The Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 1976 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |date=1 December 1976 |access-date=13 October 2021}}</ref> which ceased to exist after 2008. It came under [[Uttara Kannada Lok Sabha constituency]], [[Karnataka state]], [[India]].

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#FFB2B2" | [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || Kadam Balso Purso || {{Full party name with color|Samajwadi Party}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1957 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1957]] || Kamat Ramchandra Gopal || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1962 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1962]] || Shakar Pundlik Shet Phayde
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1967 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1967]] || N. D. Sarveshwar || {{Full party name with color|Praja Socialist Party}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1972 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || R. K. Mahabaleshwar || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1978 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1978]] || Anasuya Gajanan Sharma || {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1983 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1983]] || Hegde Shripad Ramakrishna || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1985 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1985]] || Ajjibal. G. S. Hegde || {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1989 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1989]] || Umesh Bhat || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1994 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1994]] || rowspan="3" | [[Vishweshwar Hegde Kageri]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1999 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1999]]
|-
| [[2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 2004 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Ankola <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2004 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_KT_2004.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006204912/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_KT_2004.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Vishweshwar Hegde Kageri]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 46,787 |percentage = 48.52% |change = {{decrease}}2.09 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shantaram Hegde Shigehalli |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 30,709 |percentage = 31.85% |change = {{decrease}}8.71 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Venkatesh Hegde Hosbale |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 12,428 |percentage = 12.89% |change = {{increase}}4.64 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Vasant Govind Nayak |party = Kannada Nadu Party |votes = 2,760 |percentage = 2.86% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Hegde Ganesh Ganapati |party = Janata Party |votes = 2,539 |percentage = 2.63% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Mere Rebello Urban |party = Urs Samyuktha Paksha |votes = 1,208 |percentage = 1.25% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 16,078 |percentage = 16.67% |change = {{increase}}6.62 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 96,611 |percentage = 72.72% |change = {{increase}}1.91 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 96,431}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 132,845 |ref = |change = {{increase}}9.99 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{decrease}}2.09 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1999 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1999 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Ankola <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-KT99.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006053217/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-KT99.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Vishweshwar Hegde Kageri]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 41,500 |percentage = 50.61% |change = {{increase}}16.48 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Umesh Shankar Bhat |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 33,259 |percentage = 40.56% |change = {{increase}}25.05 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Naik Ravindra Narayan |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 6,767 |percentage = 8.25% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 8,241 |percentage = 10.05% |change = {{increase}}4.50 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 85,524 |percentage = 70.81% |change = {{decrease}}2.56 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 81,997}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 3,525 |percentage = 4.12% |change = {{increase}}2.19 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 120,780 |ref = |change = {{increase}}4.83 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}16.48 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1994 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1994 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Ankola <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1994 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StatisticalReport-KT94.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006211324/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StatisticalReport-KT94.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Vishweshwar Hegde Kageri]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 28,285 |percentage = 34.13% |change = {{increase}}18.38 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Pramod Hegde |party = Janata Dal |votes = 23,683 |percentage = 28.58% |change = {{decrease}}2.62 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Naik Narayan. M |party = Karnataka Pradesh Congress Committee |votes = 17,643 |percentage = 21.29% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Umesh Bhat |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 12,856 |percentage = 15.51% |change = {{decrease}}21.31 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,602 |percentage = 5.55% |change = {{decrease}}0.07 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 84,538 |percentage = 73.37% |change = {{increase}}4.38 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 82,873}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 1,635 |percentage = 1.93% |change = {{decrease}}6.37 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 115,216 |ref = |change = {{increase}}6.83 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}2.69 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1989 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1989 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Ankola <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1989 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20karnataka%201989.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007070737/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20karnataka%201989.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Umesh Bhat |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 25,122 |percentage = 36.82% |change = {{decrease}}1.48 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kamat Ramchandra Gopal |party = Janata Dal |votes = 21,287 |percentage = 31.20% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kadekodi Hegde Shankar |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 10,750 |percentage = 15.75% |change = {{increase}}9.76 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Laxman Chudya Naik |party = Independent politician |votes = 7,459 |percentage = 10.93% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kenikar Garu Banu |party = Janata Party |votes = 3,523 |percentage = 5.16% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 3,835 |percentage = 5.62% |change = {{decrease}}10.24 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 74,409 |percentage = 68.99% |change = {{increase}}0.98 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 68,236}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 6,173 |percentage = 8.30% |change = {{increase}}6.67 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 107,847 |ref = |change = {{increase}}24.59 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Janata Party |swing = {{decrease}}17.34 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1985 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1985 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Ankola <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201985.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006143216/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201985.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Ajjibal. G. S. Hegde |party = Janata Party |votes = 31,365 |percentage = 54.16% |change = {{increase}}26.08 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Hegde Ramakrishna Narayan |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 22,179 |percentage = 38.30% |change = {{increase}}4.18 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kadekodi Hegde Ganapati Shankar |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 3,470 |percentage = 5.99% |change = {{decrease}}7.83 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Naik Balkrishna Venkanna |party = Independent politician |votes = 371 |percentage = 0.64% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Keremanelaxmidhar Honnappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 363 |percentage = 0.63% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 9,186 |percentage = 15.86% |change = {{increase}}9.82 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 58,872 |percentage = 68.01% |change = {{increase}}3.83 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 57,910}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 962 |percentage = 1.63% |change = {{decrease}}0.97 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 86,562 |ref = |change = {{increase}}12.73 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Janata Party |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}20.04 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1983 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1983 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Ankola <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1983 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/Statistical%20Report%201983%20karnatkaa.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007124742/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/Statistical%20Report%201983%20karnatkaa.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Hegde Shripad Ramakrishna |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 16,379 |percentage = 34.12% |change = {{increase}}25.80 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Anasuya Gajanan Sharma Kallal |party = Janata Party |votes = 13,479 |percentage = 28.08% |change = {{decrease}}27.52 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Gouda Buddu Keera |party = Independent politician |votes = 11,514 |percentage = 23.98% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Suresh Naik Honnappa |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 6,636 |percentage = 13.82% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,900 |percentage = 6.04% |change = {{decrease}}13.49 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 49,287 |percentage = 64.18% |change = {{decrease}}7.61 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 48,008}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 1,279 |percentage = 2.60% |change = {{increase}}0.26 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 76,790 |ref = |change = {{increase}}7.31 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Janata Party |swing = {{decrease}}21.48 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1978 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1978 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Ankola <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1978 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201978.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007164123/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201978.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Anasuya Gajanan Sharma |party = Janata Party |votes = 27,897 |percentage = 55.60% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Naik Ramachandra Vasudev |party = Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 18,100 |percentage = 36.08% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shripad. R. Hegde Kadve |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 4,173 |percentage = 8.32% |change = {{decrease}}33.48 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 9,797 |percentage = 19.53% |change = {{increase}}3.17 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 51,371 |percentage = 71.79% |change = {{increase}}14.67 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 50,170}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 1,201 |percentage = 2.34% |change = {{increase}}2.34 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 71,559 |ref = |change = {{increase}}16.43 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Janata Party |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}13.80 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1972 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Ankola <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1972 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisRep_Mysore_72.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006074555/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisRep_Mysore_72.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = R. K. Mahabaleshwar |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 14,241 |percentage = 41.80% |change = {{increase}}14.59 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = V. K. Ramakant Narvekar |party = Indian National Congress (Organisation) |votes = 8,667 |percentage = 25.44% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. V. Jathar |party = Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 5,843 |percentage = 17.15% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shankar Keni |party = Samyukta Socialist Party |votes = 3,226 |percentage = 9.47% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = R. G. Naik |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,090 |percentage = 6.13% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,574 |percentage = 16.36% |change = {{decrease}}2.82 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 35,105 |percentage = 57.12% |change = {{decrease}}3.75 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 34,067}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 61,460 |ref = |change = {{increase}}11.13 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Praja Socialist Party |swing = {{decrease}}4.59 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1967 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Ankola <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Mysore%201967.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006083645/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Mysore%201967.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = N. D. Sarveshwar |party = Praja Socialist Party |votes = 14,352 |percentage = 46.39% |change = {{increase}}19.13 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = A. G. Venkatesh |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 8,418 |percentage = 27.21% |change = {{decrease}}34.47 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = N. R. Gopala |party = Independent politician |votes = 6,323 |percentage = 20.44% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = P. S. Venkatrao |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,843 |percentage = 5.96% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,934 |percentage = 19.18% |change = {{decrease}}15.24 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 33,666 |percentage = 60.87% |change = {{increase}}8.94 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 30,936}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 55,307 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}16.02 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Praja Socialist Party |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}15.29 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1962 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1962 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Ankola <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Mysore_1962.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006093153/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Mysore_1962.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Shakar Pundlik Shet Phayde |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 19,235 |percentage = 61.68% |change = {{increase}}7.60 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Narashimha Tammayya Hebbar |party = Praja Socialist Party |votes = 8,502 |percentage = 27.26% |change = {{decrease}}3.99 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Gopinath Vithoba Pawar |party = Communist Party of India |votes = 2,997 |percentage = 9.61% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Pokka Devu Gouda |party = Independent politician |votes = 450 |percentage = 1.44% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 10,733 |percentage = 34.42% |change = {{increase}}11.58 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 34,200 |percentage = 51.93% |change = {{decrease}}1.52 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 31,184}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 65,856 |ref = |change = {{increase}}13.88 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}7.60 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1957 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1957 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Ankola <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Mysore_1957.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111195053/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Mysore_1957.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Kamat Ramchandra Gopal |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 16,715 |percentage = 54.08% |change = {{increase}}27.43 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Gunaga Shiva Bommu |party = Praja Socialist Party |votes = 9,657 |percentage = 31.25% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Balgi Vasudev Venkatraman |party = Independent politician |votes = 4,534 |percentage = 14.67% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 7,058 |percentage = 22.84% |change = {{increase}}15.28 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 30,906 |percentage = 53.45% |change = {{decrease}}1.84 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 30,906}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 57,827 |ref = |change = {{increase}}15.70 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Samajwadi Party |swing = {{increase}}19.87 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Ankola Karwar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114083220/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Kadam Balso Purso |party = Samajwadi Party |votes = 9,454 |percentage = 34.21% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Gaonkar Sannappa Parmeshwar |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 7,364 |percentage = 26.65% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Padti Chudo Fakir |party = Communist Party of India |votes = 2,577 |percentage = 9.33% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Nadkarni Yeshwant Trimbak |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,794 |percentage = 6.49% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kamat. M. R |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,769 |percentage = 6.40% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Revankar Laxman Krishna |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,734 |percentage = 6.28% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Aigal Venkatesh Devappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,612 |percentage = 5.83% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Mazumdar Shankarrao Mahableshwarrao |party = Marxist Forward Bloc |votes = 725 |percentage = 2.62% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Swar Ramchandra Dattatraya |party = Independent politician |votes = 604 |percentage = 2.19% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,090 |percentage = 7.56% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 27,633 |percentage = 55.29% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 27,633}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 49,979 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Samajwadi Party |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

== References ==
<references />

{{Assembly constituencies of Karnataka}}
{{coord|14.67|74.30|display=title}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Uttara Kannada district]]
[[Category:Politics of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1972]]
[[Category:1972 establishments in Mysore State]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2008]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in India]]

Mandi Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:48:43Z

RealArifHossain: new first post basic info

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Himachal Pradesh State, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Mandi
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 33
| map_image = 33-Mandi constituency.svg
| mla = [[Anil Sharma (Himachal Pradesh politician)|Anil Sharma]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| latest_election_year = [[2022 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| state = [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| district = [[Mandi district|Mandi]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Mandi Lok Sabha constituency|Mandi]]
| established = 1967
| reservation = None
| electors = {{formatnum:78113}}<ref name=election2022>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14751-himachal-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2022/ |title=Himachal Pradesh General Legislative Election 2012 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=22 April 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|1}}
}}
'''Mandi Assembly constituency''' is one of the 68 constituencies of the [[Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh|Himachal Pradesh Vidhan Sabha]]. This constituency is not reserved for the candidates belonging to [[Dalit|Scheduled castes]] or [[Dalit|Scheduled Tribes]].<ref name="ceo">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008, Schedule XI|publisher=The Election Commission of India|pages=158–64}}</ref>

==Overview==
Mandi (constituency number 33) is one of the ten [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituencies located in [[Mandi district]]. It covers the entire Sadar Mandi [[tehsil]]. It is part of [[Mandi Lok Sabha constituency]] along with 18 other Assembly segments, namely, Bharmour, Lahaul & Spiti, Manali, Kullu, Banjar, Anni, Karsog, Sundernagar, Nachan, Seraj, Darang, Jogindernagar, Dharampur, Mandi, Balh, Sarkaghat, Rohru and Kinnaur.<ref name="ceo"/>

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!Picture
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
|[[1967 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|rowspan=4| [[Sukh Ram]] ||rowspan=4|
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=5}}
|-
|[[1972 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|-
|[[1977 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|-
|[[1982 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1982]]
|-
|[[1985 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|Durga Dutt ||
|-
|[[1990 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
| Kanhaiya Lal ||
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1993 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|[[Anil Sharma (Himachal Pradesh politician)|Anil Sharma]] ||
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1998 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1998]]
|rowspan="2"|[[Sukh Ram]] ||rowspan="2"|
|{{Full party name with color|Himachal Vikas Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2003 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2003]]
|-
|[[2007 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
|rowspan="4"|[[Anil Sharma (Himachal Pradesh politician)|Anil Sharma]]<ref>[http://myneta.info/HimachalPradesh2017/candidate.php?candidate_id=3289 My Neta]</ref><ref>[https://hpvidhansabha.nic.in/Member/Details/24 Member's Profile]</ref><ref>[https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/anil-sharma-quits-bjp-cabinet-in-himachal-pradesh/story-C5YNvjFcvUwAjLTsdN8x6J.html Anil Sharma quits BJP cabinet in Himachal Pradesh]</ref><ref>[https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/lok-sabha-2019/story/bjp-anil-sharma-campaign-against-son-himachal-pradesh-mandi-1490864-2019-03-31 BJP's Anil Sharma told to campaign against son in Himachal Pradesh's Mandi]</ref><ref>[https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/hp-minister-anil-sharma-resigns-from-cabinet/article26824962.ece H.P. Minister Anil Sharma resigns from Cabinet]</ref> ||rowspan="4"|
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2012 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|-
|[[2017 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2022 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|-
|}

==Election results==
===Assembly Election 2022 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2022 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Anil Sharma (Himachal Pradesh politician)|Anil Sharma]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=31,303 |percentage=53.37% |change={{decrease}}3.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Champa Thakur |party=Indian National Congress |votes=21,297 |percentage=36.31% |change={{decrease}}1.74 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Praveen Sharma |party=Independent politician |votes=4,106 |percentage=7.00% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shyam Lal |party=Aam Aadmi Party |votes=559 |percentage=0.95% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nota |party=None of the above |votes=448 |percentage=0.76% |change={{decrease}}0.29 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=10,006 |percentage=17.06% |change= {{decrease}}1.50 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=58,650 |percentage=75.08% |change= {{decrease}}4.21 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 78,113 |ref = |change= {{increase}}12.11 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}3.24 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 2017 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2017 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3815-himachal-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2017/ |title=Himachal Pradesh General Legislative Election 2017 |author=Election Commission of India |access-date=8 July 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Anil Sharma (Himachal Pradesh politician)|Anil Sharma]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=31,282 |percentage=56.62% |change={{increase}}21.78 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Champa Thakur |party=Indian National Congress |votes=21,025 |percentage=38.05% |change={{decrease}}4.87 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=580 |percentage=1.05% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Narender Kumar |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=438 |percentage=0.79% |change={{decrease}}0.58 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=10,257 |percentage=18.56% |change= {{increase}}10.48 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=55,253 |percentage=79.30% |change= {{increase}}4.36 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 69,678 |ref = |change= {{increase}}7.39 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}13.70 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2012 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2012 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Anil Kumar |party=Indian National Congress |votes=20,866 |percentage=42.92% |change={{decrease}}2.93 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Durga Dutt |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=16,936 |percentage=34.83% |change={{decrease}}5.50 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shyam Lal |party=Independent politician |votes=3,370 |percentage=6.93% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Harish Kumar |party=Himachal Lokhit Party |votes=2,098 |percentage=4.32% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Krishan Singh |party=Lok Jan Shakti Party |votes=2,081 |percentage=4.28% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Desh Raj |party=Communist Party of India |votes=1,468 |percentage=3.02% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chander Mani |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=667 |percentage=1.37% |change={{decrease}}7.85 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Hem Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=443 |percentage=0.91% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chet Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=274 |percentage=0.56% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,930 |percentage=8.08% |change= {{increase}}2.57 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=48,618 |percentage=74.93% |change= {{increase}}4.75 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 64,881 |ref = |change= {{decrease}}8.47 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}2.93 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2007 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2007 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Anil Kumar |party=Indian National Congress |votes=22,808 |percentage=45.85% |change={{increase}}20.96 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Durga Dutt |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=20,064 |percentage=40.33% |change={{increase}}23.59 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rajinder Mohan |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=4,590 |percentage=9.23% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Harish Chander |party=Independent politician |votes=1,631 |percentage=3.28% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kanhiya Lal |party=Independent politician |votes=316 |percentage=0.64% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,744 |percentage=5.52% |change= {{decrease}}21.48 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=49,746 |percentage=70.18% |change= {{decrease}}1.20 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 70,884 |ref = |change= {{increase}}10.24 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Himachal Vikas Congress |swing= {{decrease}}6.04 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2003 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2003 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1998 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-HP98.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111191922/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-HP98.pdf|archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Sukh Ram]] |party=Himachal Vikas Congress |votes=23,816 |percentage=51.89% |change={{decrease}}12.74 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Durga Dutt |party=Indian National Congress |votes=11,426 |percentage=24.89% |change={{increase}}9.06 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kiran Kumari |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=7,687 |percentage=16.75% |change={{decrease}}0.05 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Narender Kumar |party=Loktantrik Morcha Himachal Pradesh |votes=2,520 |percentage=5.49% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Amar Nirgotra |party=Independent politician |votes=450 |percentage=0.98% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=12,390 |percentage=26.99% |change= {{decrease}}20.84 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=45,899 |percentage=71.38% |change= {{increase}}2.38 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 64,299 |ref = |change= {{increase}}11.77 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Himachal Vikas Congress |loser=Himachal Vikas Congress |swing= {{decrease}}12.74 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1998 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1998 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1998 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-HP98.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111191922/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-HP98.pdf|archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Sukh Ram]] |party=Himachal Vikas Congress |votes=25,656 |percentage=64.63% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kanhiya Lal |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=6,667 |percentage=16.79% |change={{decrease}}13.51 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Durga Dutt |party=Indian National Congress |votes=6,285 |percentage=15.83% |change={{decrease}}49.62 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Roshan Lal |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=1,089 |percentage=2.74% |change={{increase}}0.46 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=18,989 |percentage=47.83% |change= {{increase}}12.69 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=39,697 |percentage=69.37% |change= {{decrease}}0.24 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 57,526 |ref = |change= {{increase}}12.71 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Himachal Vikas Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}0.83 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1993 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1993 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1993 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/Statistical%20Report%201993%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111133700/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/Statistical%20Report%201993%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Anil Sharma (Himachal Pradesh politician)|Anil Sharma]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=23,134 |percentage=65.46% |change={{increase}}31.19 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kanhiya Lal |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=10,712 |percentage=30.31% |change={{decrease}}32.05 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sant Ram Badhan |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=806 |percentage=2.28% |change={{increase}}0.88 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ganga Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=528 |percentage=1.49% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=12,422 |percentage=35.15% |change= {{increase}}7.05 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=35,343 |percentage=69.68% |change= {{increase}}2.94 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 51,038 |ref = |change= {{increase}}6.95 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}3.10 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1990 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1990 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1990 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/Statisticall%20Report%20Himachal%20Pradesh%201990.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114181905/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/Statisticall%20Report%20Himachal%20Pradesh%201990.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Kanhiya Lal |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=19,732 |percentage=62.36% |change={{increase}}16.81 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Durga Dutt |party=Indian National Congress |votes=10,842 |percentage=34.26% |change={{decrease}}16.66 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sant Ram |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=443 |percentage=1.40% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jagroop Singh |party=Doordarshi Party |votes=308 |percentage=0.97% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gopi Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=263 |percentage=0.83% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,890 |percentage=28.09% |change= {{increase}}22.73 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=31,643 |percentage=66.92% |change= {{decrease}}3.35 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 47,722 |ref = |change= {{increase}}39.12 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}11.44 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1985 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1985 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/StatisticalReport%201985%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114090530/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/StatisticalReport%201985%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Durga Dutt |party=Indian National Congress |votes=12,166 |percentage=50.92% |change={{decrease}}3.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kanhiya Lal |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=10,884 |percentage=45.55% |change={{increase}}2.96 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Amar Chand |party=Communist Party of India |votes=395 |percentage=1.65% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhagat Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=216 |percentage=0.90% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chander Mani |party=Independent politician |votes=213 |percentage=0.89% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,282 |percentage=5.37% |change= {{decrease}}6.20 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=23,893 |percentage=70.32% |change= {{decrease}}1.03 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 34,303 |ref = |change= {{increase}}4.91 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}3.24 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1982 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1982 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1982 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1982/Statistical%20Report%201982%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117041754/eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1982/Statistical%20Report%201982%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Sukh Ram]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=12,517 |percentage=54.16% |change={{decrease}}1.42 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kanhiya Lal |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=9,845 |percentage=42.60% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sant Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=415 |percentage=1.80% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Khem Singh |party=Janata Party |votes=289 |percentage=1.25% |change={{decrease}}30.39 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,672 |percentage=11.56% |change= {{decrease}}12.38 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=23,112 |percentage=71.35% |change= {{increase}}7.98 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 32,696 |ref = |change= {{decrease}}6.22 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}1.42 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1977 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1977 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi<ref>{{cite web|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1977 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%201977%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319174923/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%201977%20Himachal%20Pradesh.pdf|archive-date=19 March 2016|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Sukh Ram]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=12,150 |percentage=55.58% |change={{increase}}0.02 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Lila Devi |party=Janata Party |votes=6,917 |percentage=31.64% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Amar Chand |party=Independent politician |votes=2,331 |percentage=10.66% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Vishwa Nath |party=Independent politician |votes=463 |percentage=2.12% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=5,233 |percentage=23.94% |change= {{increase}}8.21 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=21,861 |percentage=63.43% |change= {{increase}}5.48 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 34,863 |ref = |change= {{increase}}2.89 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}0.02 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1972 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi<ref>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3802-himachal-pradesh-1972/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1972 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=10 February 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Sukh Ram]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=10,772 |percentage=55.56% |change={{decrease}}0.28 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bhagat Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=7,722 |percentage=39.83% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anant Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=895 |percentage=4.62% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,050 |percentage=15.73% |change= {{decrease}}19.78 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=19,389 |percentage=58.76% |change= {{increase}}5.19 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 33,883 |ref = |change= {{increase}}11.78 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}0.28 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1967 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Himachal%20Pradesh%201967.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117081612/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Himachal%20Pradesh%201967.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=S. Ram |party=Indian National Congress |votes=8,808 |percentage=55.84% |change={{increase}}21.44 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=T. Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=3,207 |percentage=20.33% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=M. Lal |party=Independent politician |votes=2,834 |percentage=17.97% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=J. Ram |party=Independent politician |votes=637 |percentage=4.04% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=B. Lal |party=Independent politician |votes=287 |percentage=1.82% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=5,601 |percentage=35.51% |change= {{increase}}32.91 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=15,773 |percentage=54.98% |change= {{increase}}4.33 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 30,312 |ref = |change= {{increase}}128.22 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Independent politician |swing= {{increase}}18.83 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1952 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Mandi<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_HP.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114191147/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_HP.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Krishna Nand Swami |party=Independent politician |votes=2,345 |percentage=37.01% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Purna Nand |party=Indian National Congress |votes=2,180 |percentage=34.41% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gulab Singh |party=Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha |votes=937 |percentage=14.79% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Lal Singh |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes=585 |percentage=9.23% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ravi Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=155 |percentage=2.45% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sher Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=134 |percentage=2.11% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=165 |percentage=2.60% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=6,336 |percentage=47.70% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 13,282 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Independent politician |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Himachal Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/74-himachal-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Himachal Pradesh|state=expanded}}
{{Himachal Pradesh elections|state=collapsed}}
{{Mandi district}}

{{coord|31.71|76.94|display=title}}

[[Category:Mandi district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Himachal Pradesh]]

Dilzan Wadia

2026-04-06T06:51:48Z

RealArifHossain: redirect created

#REDIRECT [[Four Pillars of Basement#Cast]]

{{Rcat shell|
{{R to related topic}}
{{R to section}}
}}

Abdul Rahim Rather (born 1944)

2026-04-01T02:43:23Z

RealArifHossain: Adding First Data Needs Work

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{About|Jammu and Kashmir National Conference member|former JKPDP and current Apni Party member|Abdul Rahim Rather (born 1957)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Abdul Rahim Rather
| image = அப்துல் ரஹீம் ராதர்.jpeg
| office = [[List of speakers of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly|Speaker of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Charari Sharief Assembly constituency|Charari Sharif]]
| term_start = 4 November 2024
| predecessor = [[Nirmal Kumar Singh]]
| 1blankname = Leader of the House
| 1namedata = [[Omar Abdullah]]
| deputy = vacant
| office1 = [[Member of Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the]] [[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start1 = 8 October 2024
| term_end1 =
| constituency1 = [[Charari Sharief Assembly constituency|Charari Sharif]]
| predecessor1 = [[Ghulam Nabi Lone]]
| term_start2 = 1977
| constituency2 = [[Charari Sharief Assembly constituency|Charari Sharif]]
| term_end2 = 2014
| successor2 = [[Ghulam Nabi Lone]]
| citizenship = [[India]]n
| occupation = Politician
| party = [[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference]]
| birth_date = {{bya|1944}}
| birth_place = [[Budgam district|Badipora]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[British India]]
| education = {{plainlist|
* [[University of Kashmir]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|B. A]] 1968)
* [[Aligarh Muslim University]] ([[Bachelor of Laws|LL.B]] 1971)}}
}}
'''Abdul Rahim Rather''' (born 1944) is an Indian politician from [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. He is currently serving as the speaker of [[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]]. He is a seven time MLA representing the [[Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party|Jammu and Kashmir National Conference Party]] from [[Charari Sharief Assembly constituency|Charar-i-Sharief Assembly constituency]] in [[Budgam district]]. He has served as a speaker and held several important ministries including finance in the previous National Conference governments.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2014-12-23 |title=J&K election results: Abdul Rahim Rather's defeat ends record 36-year stint |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/jk-election-results-abdul-rahim-rathers-defeat-ends-record-36-year-stint/22390/ |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=Financialexpress |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-12-18 |title=No room for commercial taxes evasion: J-K Finance Minister |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/regional/no-room-for-commercial-taxes-evasion-jk-finance-minister/ |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Rather was born in Badipora village of [[Chadoora]], Budgam district, Jammu and Kashmir. His father Ghulam Qadir Rather was a farmer. He completed his post graduation in political science in 1968 at University of Kashmir and later did L.L.B. in 1971 at Aligarh Muslim University. His son runs a software company.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Advocate Abdul Rahim Rather(Jammu & Kashmir National Conference):Constituency- CHARAR-I-SHARIEF(BUDGAM) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://myneta.info/JammuKashmir2024/candidate.php?candidate_id=341 |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Rather first won the [[1977 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] from Charar-i-Sharief Assembly constituency as a candidate of [[Jammu and Kashmir National Conference]]. He was later elected for another five terms consecutively winning the [[1983 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1983]], [[1987 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1987]], [[1996 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1996]], [[2002 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2002]] and [[2008 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2008]] elections. In [[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]], he lost to [[Ghulam Nabi Lone]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party|JKPDP]] to end his over 30 years hold on the constituency.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-12-23 |title=Abdul Rahim Rather's defeat ends record 36-year stint in J&K Assembly |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/abdul-rahim-rathers-defeat-ends-record-36-year-stint-in-jk-assembly/articleshow/45615820.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-09-16 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

In [[2024 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2024 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly elections]], he was elected for his 7th term in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]'s legislature.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NCs Ab Rahim Rather, Ali Mohd Sagar make it to Assembly for record 7th term |url=https://m.greaterkashmir.com/article/ncs-ab-rahim-rather-ali-mohd-sagar-make-it-to-assembly-for-record-7th-term/338022/amp |access-date=2024-10-15 |website=[[Greater Kashmir]] |language=en}}</ref>
== Electoral performance ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Election !! Constituency !! colspan="2"|Party !! Result !! Votes % !! Opposition Candidate !! colspan="2"|Opposition Party !! Opposition vote %|| Ref
|-
|[[2024 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2024]]||[[Charari Sharief Assembly constituency|Charari Sharief]]||{{party name with color|Jammu and Kashmir National Conference}}||{{Won}}||48.48%||[[Ghulam Nabi Lone]]||{{party name with color|Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party}}||32.98%||<ref>{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |date=8 October 2024 |title=J&K Assembly Election Results 2024 - Charari Sharief |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenOct2024/candidateswise-U0830.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250709163002/https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenOct2024/candidateswise-U0830.htm |archive-date=9 July 2025}}</ref>
|-
|[[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2014]]||[[Charari Sharief Assembly constituency|Charari Sharief]]||{{party name with color|Jammu & Kashmir National Conference}}||{{Lost}}||42.85%||[[Ghulam Nabi Lone]]||{{party name with color|Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party}}||50.85%||<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Jammu & Kashmir 2014 - Jammu & Kashmir - Election Commission of India |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3797-jammu-kashmir-2014/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613150235/https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3797-jammu-kashmir-2014/ |archive-date=2019-06-13 |access-date= |website=eci.gov.in}}</ref>
|-
|[[2008 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2008]]||[[Charari Sharief Assembly constituency|Charari Sharief]]||{{party name with color|Jammu & Kashmir National Conference}}||{{Won}}||48.30%||[[Ghulam Nabi Lone]]||{{party name with color|Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party}}||35.78%||<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2008 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=https://ceojk.nic.in/pdf/10-Detailed%20Results.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241225073739/https://ceojk.nic.in/pdf/10-Detailed%20Results.pdf|archive-date=25 December 2024|access-date=25 December 2024}}</ref>
|-
|[[2002 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2002]]||[[Charari Sharief Assembly constituency|Charari Sharief]]||{{party name with color|Jammu & Kashmir National Conference}}||{{Won}}||51.29%||Ghulam Nabi Lone||{{party name with color|Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party}}||41.79%||<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2002 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=http://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/StatRep_JK_02.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127192246/http://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/StatRep_JK_02.pdf|archive-date=27 January 2013|access-date=15 February 2024}}</ref>
|-
|[[1996 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1996]]||[[Charari Sharief Assembly constituency|Charari Sharief]]||{{party name with color|Jammu & Kashmir National Conference}}||{{Won}}||60.31%||Ghulam Hassan Wani||{{party name with color|Janata Dal}}||19.69%||<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1996 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-JK96.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117084805/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-JK96.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|access-date=15 February 2024}}</ref>
|-
|[[1987 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1987]]||[[Charari Sharief Assembly constituency|Charari Sharief]]||{{party name with color|Jammu & Kashmir National Conference}}||{{Won}}||82.94%||Abdul Rashid||{{party name with color|Independent politician}}||9.98%||<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1987 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1987/StatisticalReport_jk_87.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114084427/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1987/StatisticalReport_jk_87.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012|access-date=15 February 2024}}</ref>
|-
|[[1983 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1983]]||[[Charari Sharief Assembly constituency|Charari Sharief]]||{{party name with color|Jammu & Kashmir National Conference}}||{{Won}}||69.79%||Abdul Qayoom||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||25.93%||<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1983 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/StatisticalReport_JK_1983.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117082124/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/StatisticalReport_JK_1983.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|access-date=15 February 2024}}</ref>
|-
|[[1977 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1977]]||[[Charari Sharief Assembly constituency|Charari Sharief]]||{{party name with color|Jammu & Kashmir National Conference}}||{{Won}}||71.96%||Abdul Qayoom||{{party name with color|Indian National Congress}}||23.22%||<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1977 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReport_JK_77.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117081946/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReport_JK_77.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|access-date=15 February 2024}}</ref>
|-
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rather, Abdul Rahim}}
[[Category:1944 births]]
[[Category:Jammu & Kashmir National Conference politicians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 1977–1983]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 1983–1986]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 1987–1996]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 1996–2002]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 2002–2008]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 2008–2014]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:People from Budgam district]]
[[Category:Speakers of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:Independent politicians from Jammu and Kashmir]]

K. K. Muhammed

2026-03-27T16:14:21Z

RealArifHossain: added references

{{Short description|Indian archaeologist (born 1952)}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Padmasree Muhammed K K
| image = Saarc_Award_-_KK_Muhammedpic.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Muhammed in 2010
| office = Regional Director (North), [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| term_start = 2012
| term_end = 2019

| predecessor = Position established
| successor = Dr. D. N. Dimri
| office2 = Superintending Archaeologist, [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| 2blankname2 = Offices Held
| 2namedata2 = [[Delhi]] (2008-2012), [[Bhopal]] (2004-2008), [[Chhattisgarh]] (2003-2004), [[Agra]] (2001-2003), [[Patna]] (1997-2001)
| office3 = Dy. Superintending Archaeologist, [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| 3blankname3 = Offices Held
| 3namedata3 = [[Goa]] (1991-1997), [[Madras]] (1988-1990)
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1952|07|01}}
| birth_place = [[Kozhikode]], [[Kerala]]
| nationality = Indian
| residence = [[Kozhikode]], [[Kerala]]
| alma_mater = [[Aligarh Muslim University]]
| spouse = Rabiya Muhammad
| children = Jamshedh Muhammed, Shaheen Muhammed
| awards = [[Padma Shri]] (2019)

}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}

'''Karingamannu Kuzhiyil Muhammed''' (born 1 July 1952) is an Indian [[archaeologist]] who served as the Regional Director (North) of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] (ASI). Muhammed is credited for the discovery of [[Ibadat Khana]], as well as various prominent Buddhist Stupas and Monuments. During his career, he undertook the restoration of the [[Bateshwar Hindu temples, Madhya Pradesh|Bateshwar Complex]], successfully convincing [[Naxalite–Maoist insurgency|naxal]] insurgents and dacoits to cooperate, as well as facelift and restoration of the Dantewada and [[Bhojeshwar Temple|Bhojeshwar temples]].<ref name="Coverage - The Hindu" /><ref name="Coverage 2 - The Hindu" />

Muhammed also successfully conceived and executed the idea of building Replica Museum, [[Delhi]], which showcases replicas of Indian statues and stone-carved sculptures.<ref name="Museum" /><ref name="Replica Museum at Siri Fort" /><ref name="Replica Museum" />

For his contributions to archeology, he was awarded the [[Padma Shri]] in 2019, India's fourth highest civilian honour.<ref name="2019 Awardees List">{{Cite news |url=https://padmaawards.gov.in/SelectionGuidelines.aspx |title=2019 Awardees List }}</ref>

==Biography==

=== Early life and education ===
KK Muhammed was born in [[Koduvally]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Kerala]] in a middle-class family to Beeran Kutty Haji and Mariyam. Muhammed is second amongst five siblings. After completing his schooling from Government Higher Secondary School, Koduvally, he obtained his master's degree in history (1973–75) from [[Aligarh Muslim University]] and his postgraduate diploma in archaeology (1976–77) from the School of Archaeology, [[Archaeological Survey of India]], [[New Delhi]], India.

===Career===
Muhammed served as a technical assistant and then as an assistant archaeologist in the Department of History at [[Aligarh Muslim University]], before being selected as deputy superintendent archaeologist for the [[Archaeological Survey of India]].

Muhammed was initially posted at [[Madras]] in 1988 and then at [[Goa]] in 1991. He was promoted to superintendent archaeologist in 1997 and subsequently served in many states in India, including [[Bihar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Delhi]]. During this period, he also served as a tour guide for prominent foreign guests such as [[Barack Obama]] and [[Pervez Musharraf]].<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/mission-conservation/article880076.ece Mission Conservation]</ref> In 2012, Muhammed was made regional director (North) of the Archaeological Survey of India, and he retired in the same year.

== Major projects ==

=== Ibadat Khana ===
{{Main|Ibadat Khana}}
Ibadat Khana was a complex established by [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] Emperor [[Akbar]] in 1575 for hosting religious debates and discussions among theologians and professors of different religions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ibadat Khana|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Ibadat_Khana/|access-date=2020-08-31|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]}}</ref><ref name="Kapoor">{{Cite web|last=Kapoor|first=Cheena|date=2017-03-25|title=Tracing Akbar's Ibadat Khana|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/report-tracing-akbar-s-ibadat-khana-2367172|access-date=2020-08-31|website=DNA India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Salam|first=Ziya Us|title=Relevance of Akbar|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/books/article31150199.ece|access-date=2020-08-31|website=Frontline|date=25 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref> It was also the structure where [[Akbar]] first proclaimed the formation of the composite religion known as [[Din-e Ilahi]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}
<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-04-26|title=11th-century bodies near Meerut give new archaeological twist to history|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/11th-century-bodies-near-meerut-give-new-archaeological-twist-to-history/story-ptfjSJZtWJROAf5bWVYyUJ.html|access-date=2020-08-31|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>

In the 80s, Muhammed, was a member of a team from the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] and [[Aligarh Muslim University]] visiting Fatehpur Sikri. With the help of a painting from [[Akbarnama]], he convinced the others to excavate the mound, and they found more proof, including paintings of Christian missionaries from [[Spain]] and [[Italy]] (Fathers Monserrate and [[Rodolfo Acquaviva|Rudolf Acquaviva]]).<ref name="Kapoor"/>

For centuries, the location of the complex had been controversial among archaeologists and historians, although it is generally accepted to be the place Muhammad discovered.<ref name="Kapoor"/>

=== Excavations of at Ayodhya's Disputed site ===
{{Main|Archaeology of Ayodhya}}
KK Muhammed was a part of the 1976 excavation of the Babri Masjid, led by [[B. B. Lal (archaeologist)|B. B. Lal]]. He stated in a rediff interview that they had found remains of a temple on the western side of the mosque. This temple was built between 10th and 11th century during the [[Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-26|title= Monuments constructed in somewhere 10th-century found by archaeological dept.|url=https://eurasiantimes.com/the-proof-of-ram-temple-at-ayodhya-that-you-may-have-missed/}}</ref> However, his findings were suppressed by historian [[Irfan Habib]], who he says were very powerful and influential towards the [[Indian Council of Historical Research]] and many leading newspapers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=The Muslim archaeologist who first spotted Ram temple|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/interview/the-muslim-archaeologist-who-first-spotted-ram-temple/20191109.htm|access-date=2020-08-31|website=Rediff|language=en}}</ref><ref name="freepressjournal.in">{{Cite web|title=Ayodhya Bhoomi Pujan: The Muslim architect who first found proof of Hindu structure under Babri Masjid|url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/india/ayodhya-bhoomi-pujan-the-muslim-architect-who-first-found-proof-of-hindu-structure-under-babri-masjid|access-date=2020-08-31|website=Free Press Journal|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|author=Kumar Shakti Shekhar|date=Oct 1, 2019|title=Ram Mandir existed before Babri mosque in Ayodhya: Archaeologist KK Muhammed {{!}} India News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/ram-temple-existed-before-babri-mosque-in-ayodhya-archaeologist-kk-muhammed/articleshow/71391712.cms|access-date=2020-08-31|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

Muhammed also said they found 12 pillars in the excavations which were constructed with Hindu symbolism, including [[Ashtamangala]] signs.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Did you know seven evidences unearthed by ASI proved a temple existed at Ayodhya? Details here|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/did-you-know-seven-evidences-unearthed-by-asi-proved-a-temple-existed-at-ayodhya-details-here/631910|access-date=2020-08-31|website=www.timesnownews.com|date=4 August 2020 |language=en}}</ref> They had also found terracotta figurines of humans and animals, which Muhammad uses to hypothesize that a temple existed before the mosque.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name="dailyo.in">{{Cite web |title=Muslims must return Ayodhya, Mathura and Kashi to Hindus |url=https://www.dailyo.in/politics/ayodhya-ram-janmabhoomi-babri-masjid-leftists-historians-mathura-kashi-taj-mahal-vhp/story/1/8832.html |access-date=2022-03-12 |website=www.dailyo.in}}</ref>

KK Muhammed further tells that he being the only Muslim involved in the excavations, had to come up by publishing his opinion in [[The Indian Express]] newspaper on 15 December 1990 to defend [[B. B. Lal (archaeologist)|Prof. B. B. Lal]] who was constantly being attacked by the left for not confirming to their views.<ref name="dailyo.in" /><ref name="youtube.com">{{Citation |title=What Do The Ram Janmabhoomi Excavations Tell Us? {{!}} K K Muhammed {{!}} Ayodhya {{!}} ASI {{!}} #SangamTalks |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pinIMhUGOYI |language=en |access-date=2022-03-12}}</ref>

=== Dantewada temples ===
KK Muhammed restored the Barsoor and Samlur Temples in [[Dantewada District]] near [[Jagdalpur]], [[Chhattisgarh]]. This area is known to be the seat of Naxal activities in the region. In 2003, KK Muhammed was able to convince [[Naxal]] activists and with their co-operation, conserved the Temples to its present-day state.<ref>{{Cite news|last=S|first=Priyadershini|date=2020-04-17|title=World Heritage Day: Shut monuments decay faster says senior archaeologist KK Muhammed|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/on-world-heritage-day-renowned-archaeologist-kk-muhammed-speaks-on-living-and-non-living-monuments-and-recalls-some-of-his-notable-works/article31364644.ece|access-date=2020-08-31|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>{{Verify source|date=May 2022}}

=== Bateshwar Complex restoration ===
{{Main|Bateshwar, Morena}}
Bateshwar, Morena, a complex of 200 ancient Shiva & Vishnu temples situated 40 km away from [[Gwalior]]. These temples were built between the 9th and 11th centuries during the [[Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty]], 200 years before [[Khajuraho]]. The area was under the control of [[Nirbhay Singh Gujjar]] KK Muhammed was successful in convincing the dacoits to let him do the restoration. He was able to restore 60 temples during his tenure. After the dacoits were eliminated by the police, the area has been under encroachment from illegal mining, as the tremors from the usage of explosives can damage the structure.<ref name="Coverage - The Hindu">{{cite news|title=Man of Monuments|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/man-of-monuments/article3481294.ece|work=The Hindu|date=June 2012 }}</ref><ref name="Coverage 2 - The Hindu">{{cite news|title=The Temple Guardian|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/the-temple-guardian/article4397093.ece|work=The Hindu|date=10 February 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Coverage 3 - Nalanda University Blog">{{cite web|title=Guest Lecture Series at Nalanda|url=https://nalandauniversityblog.wordpress.com/2015/05/01/guest-lecture-series-at-nalanda-spring-2015-k-k-muhammed/|publisher=Nalanda University Blog}}</ref>

In his autobiography, Muhammed alleged that a powerful mining lobby did not allow temple restoration work to go on and he himself made several attempts to get the mining work stopped.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-05-21|title=ASI to resume restoration of Bateshwar temple complex in Chambal|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/asi-to-resume-restoration-of-bateshwar-temple-complex-in-chambal/story-kBaxGfcRWVsrNbw3Vw8dLN.html|access-date=2020-08-31|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>

=== Facelifting of Delhi's monuments ===
KK Muhammed was appointed as the Superintending Archaeologist of Delhi Circle, [[Archaeological Survey of India]] in 2008. His primary task was to carry out a major facelift and preservation activity at 46 monuments for the [[2010 Commonwealth Games|Commonwealth Games of 2010]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2009-12-22|title=ASI restoration work makes conservationists complain|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/asi-restoration-work-makes-conservationists-complain/|access-date=2020-09-06|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=46 Delhi monuments to get facelift ahead of 2010 Games|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/46-delhi-monuments-to-get-facelift-ahead-of-2010-games/articleshow/3614763.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2020-09-06}}</ref>

=== Other prominent tasks ===

* Discovered the first Christian Chapel of North India built by Akbar at [[Fatehpur Sikri]].
* Excavated the Buddhist Stupa of [[Kesaria]] built by Emperor [[Ashoka]].<ref name="Coverage - Blogspot.com">{{cite web|title=A Discourse By Ace Archaeologist Mr KK Muhammed|date=5 February 2013 |url=http://travelerrohan.blogspot.com/2013/02/a-discourse-by-ace-archaeologist-mr-k-k.html|publisher=Blogspot.com}}</ref>
* Discovered and excavated Buddhist Stupa in [[Rajgir]].
* Excavated the Buddhist archaeological site in [[Kolhua]], [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]].
* Located and excavated a number of rock cut caves, Umbrella Stones, Cists and [[Dolmens]] in [[Calicut]] and [[Malapuram]] districts of [[Kerala]].
* Muhammed conceived and executed the idea of building a Museum that showcases replicas of Indian statues and stone-carved sculptures. The museum, called the Replica Museum, is situated outside the [[Siri Fort Sports Complex]], behind [[Siri Fort Auditorium]] in [[Delhi]].<ref name="Museum">{{cite web|title=Museum of Mirrors|date=3 July 2011 |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/museum-of-mirrors/|publisher=The Indian Express}}</ref><ref name="Replica Museum at Siri Fort">{{cite web|title=Replica Museum at Siri Fort|url=http://www.indiavideo.org/delhi/travel/replica-museum-delhi-6371.php/|publisher=India Video}}</ref><ref name="Replica Museum">{{cite news|title=Replica Museum in Delhi crafted by Patna artists|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Replica-Museum-in-Delhi-crafted-by-Patna-artists/articleshow/47217599.cms|work=The Times of India|date=10 May 2015 }}</ref>

==Autobiography==

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In 2016, KK Muhammad's [[Malayalam]]-language autobiography ''Njan Enna Bharatiyan'' ("I, the Indian") was released. The book attracted controversy due to his claim that the [[Marxist historiography|Marxist historians]] like [[Irfan Habib]] sided with the extremist Muslim groups and derailed attempts to find an amicable solution to the [[Ayodhya dispute]]. According to him, [[archaeology of Ayodhya|archaeological excavations at Ayodhya]] clearly indicated the presence of a temple below the mosque, but the historians like Irfan Habib, dismissed these, and even successfully proved Irfan Habib wrong in the [[Allahabad High Court]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/left-historians-connived-with-extremists-mislead-muslims-on-babri-issue-says-archaeologist-in-new-book-2592188.html |title=Left historians connived with extremists, mislead Muslims on Babri issue, says archaeologist in new book |author=KA Antony |publisher=Firstpost |date=21 January 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.asianage.com/metros/mumbai/110517/muslims-misled-over-ayodhya-says-k-k-mohammed.html|title=Muslims misled over Ayodhya, says KK Mohammed|last=Singh|first=Varun|date=2017-05-11|website=The Asian Age|access-date=2019-11-21}}</ref><ref name="freepressjournal.in"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=KK Muhammed, Archaeologist Firm on 'Masjid Was Mandir' Claim, Awarded Padma Shri|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/kk-muhammed-archaeologist-firm-on-masjid-was-mandir-claim-awarded-padma-shri-2014709.html|access-date=2020-09-06|website=News18|date=26 January 2019 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150924025735/http://www.heraldofindia.com/article.php?month=12&year=2012 Digger of truth: K. K. Muhammad] by A.J. Philio
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114520/http://www.youngindians.net/img/publications/Chandihgarh%20final%20Annual%20report.pdf Young Indians]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muhammed, KK}}
[[Category:1952 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian archaeologists]]
[[Category:Aligarh Muslim University alumni]]
[[Category:Scientists from Kozhikode]]
[[Category:Scientists from Kerala]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in other fields]]

Apsara

2026-03-24T19:29:38Z

RealArifHossain: fixed issues

{{short description|Type of female spirit of the clouds and waters in Hindu and Buddhist culture}}
{{other uses|Apsara (disambiguation)}}
{{see also|Apsara Dance}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2016}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2021}}
{{Hinduism}}
{{Buddhism}}

[[File:MET DP-1062-001.jpg|thumb|A 12th-century sandstone statue of an apsara from [[Madhya Pradesh]], India]]

'''Apsaras'''<ref>Suryakant Tripathi Nirala. (2024). ''अप्सरा [Apsara (In English)]''. New Delhi, India: Vani Prakashan. 172 pp. {{ISBN|978-935-7-75687-7}}</ref><ref>Yashpal. (2009). ''अप्सरा का शाप [Apsara ka shrap (Curse of Nymph) (in English)]''. (Reprint of 1931). New Delhi, India: Rajkamal Prakashan. 171 pp. {{ISBN|978-818-0-31382-0}}.</ref> ({{langx|sa|अप्सरस्}}, {{IAST3|Apsaras}}, {{langx|km|អប្សរា}},<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Jasmeet |date=2016-07-22 |title=Everything You Must Know About the Apsara Traditional Dance – Green Cultural Travel |url=https://www.greenculturaltravel.com/everything-you-must-know-about-apsara-traditional-dance/ |access-date=2024-04-15 |language=en-US}}</ref> {{langx|pi|अच्छरा|Accharā}},<ref>American Oriental Society. (1849). "Memoir on The History of Buddhism, read before the Society May 24, 1844, by [[Edward E. Salisbury]], Professor in Yale College", in ''JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY VOL. I''. Boston, MA: The American Oriental Society. p. 116.</ref><ref>Stevenson, A. et al. (2010). "apsara", in ''Oxford Dictionary of English''. (3rd Ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. 2,069 pp. {{ISBN|978-019-9-57112-3}} cited in Bowker, J. (2000). ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions''. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 78.</ref> {{langx|th|อัปสร}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fine Arts Department of Thailand|title="อัปสร" นางผู้เคลื่อนไหวในน้ำ |url=https://www.finearts.go.th/promotion/view/35406--อัปสร--นางผู้เคลื่อนไหวในน้ำ/|access-date=2025-06-07 |language=th}}</ref>) are a class of celestial beings in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Culture of Buddhism|Buddhist culture]].<ref>Higham, C.. (2014). ''Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations''. N.Y., United States: Facts On File, Inc. p. 24. {{ISBN|978-143-8-10996-1}}</ref><ref>Thakur P., Kalidasa, and Arthur W. Ryder. (2012). "GLOSSARAY: Apsara", in ''ABHIJNANSAKUNTALAM (The Recognition of Sakuntala--A Well-known Sanskrit Play by KALIDASA, The Greatest Poet and Dramatist in the Sanskrit Language.) (Improvised Edition): Originally Translated by Arthur W. Ryder''. N.C., United States: Lulu Press, Inc. 202 pp. {{ISBN|978-110-5-42805-0}}</ref><ref>Madhumita Dutta and Soumya Narayan Datta. (2021). "The Mythology of the Apsara Urvasie and its modern interpretation by Arundhuti Bhadra", in ''URVASIE From Mythological To Postmodern Reflections''. West Bengal, India: Cognition Publications. p. 52. {{ISBN|978-939-2-205019}}</ref><ref>Kumar, Ajit et al. (2020). ''Apsara Sadhana (Evocation Magic of Ancient Hindu Celestial Beauties): Ramba, Urvasi, Tilotama, Sasi Devi, Kanchanamala, Kulaharini, Ratnamala, Bhusani and Many More Information Regarding Attraction''. N.p.: Amazon Digital Services LLC - KDP. 44 pp. {{ISBN|979-865-8-82171-9}}</ref><ref>K. Narayanaswami Aiyar. (1915). ''THE PERMANENT HISTORY OF BHARATA VARSHA (India) Vol. I''. Tamil Nadu, India: Bhaskara Press. p. 420.</ref><ref>Stewart, P. and Rienjang, W. (2020). ''The Global Connections of Gandharan Art Proceedings of the Third International Workshop of the Gandhara Connections Project, University of Oxford, 18-19th March, 2019''. Oxford, United Kingdom: Archaeopress Publishing Limited. p. 240. {{ISBN|978-178-9-69696-7}}</ref> They were originally a type of female spirit associated with clouds and water, but, later came to play the role of a "[[nymph]]" or "[[fairy]]". They figure prominently in the sculpture, dance, literature and paintings of many [[South Asia]]n and [[Southeast Asia]]n cultures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/apsara|title=Apsara {{!}} Indian religion and mythology|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-04-15}}</ref>

The apsaras are described as being beautiful, youthful and elegant, and are said to be able to change their shape at will; making anyone fall for their beauty. There are two types of apsaras—''laukika'' (worldly) and ''daivika'' (divine). They are said to excel at dancing, and are often considered the wives of the [[gandharva]]s, the court musicians of [[Indra]]. The apsaras reside in the palaces of the gods and entertain them by dancing to the music of the Gandharvas. The 26 apsaras of Indra's court are each said to symbolise a different facet of the performing arts, drawing comparisons to the [[Muses]] of [[ancient Greece]]. They are also renowned for seducing [[rishi]]s in order to prevent them from attaining divine powers. Famous apsaras include [[Urvashi]], [[Menaka]], [[Rambha (apsara)|Rambha]], [[Tilottama]] and [[Ghritachi]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= [https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/68 68]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref><ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Apsaras|volume=2|page=231}}</ref>

In Japan, ''Apsara'' are known as "[[Tennin]]" (天人); "Tennyo" (天女) for "female Tennin" and "Tennan" (天男) for "male Tennin".

==Etymology==
[[File: Celestial fairies Apsaras on Hindu Temple at Banares 1913.jpg|thumb|Apsaras on Hindu Temple at [[Varanasi|Banares]], 1913]]
The origin of 'apsara' is the [[Sanskrit]] अप्सरस्, ''apsaras'' (in the stem form, which is the dictionary form). Note that the stem-form ends in 's' as distinct from, e.g. the nominative singular ''Rāmas / Rāmaḥ'' (the deity Ram in Hindi), whose stem form is ''Rāma''. The nominative singular form is अप्सरास् ''apsarās'', or अप्सरा: ''apsarāḥ'' when standing alone, which becomes अप्सरा ''apsarā'' in Hindi, from which in turn the English "apsara" presumably is derived. The [[Monier Monier-Williams|Monier-Williams]] ''et al''. (1899) gives the etymology as अप् + √सृ, "going in the waters or between the waters of the clouds".<ref>{{cite dictionary |last1=Monier-Williams |first1=Monier, Sir |author1-link=Monier Monier-Williams |last2=Leumann |first2=Ernst |last3=Cappeller |first3=Carl |year=1899 |title=apsara |dictionary=A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and philologically arranged with special reference to cognate Indo-European languages |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House |page=59 |isbn=978-81-208-3105-6 |lang=en |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zUezTfym7CAC&q=apsara }}</ref>

Apsaras are widely known as ''Apsara'' ({{lang|km|អប្សរា}} {{Transliteration|km|Âbsâréa}}) in [[Khmer language|Khmer]], and also called ''Accharā'' in [[Pāli]], or ''Bidadari'' ([[Malay language|Malay]], [[Maranao language|Maranao]]), ''Biraddali'' ([[Tausūg language|Tausug]], [[Sinama language|Sinama]]), ''Hapsari / Apsari'' or ''Widadari / Widyadari'' ([[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]], and [[Balinese language|Balinese]]), ''Helloi'' ([[Meitei language|Meitei]]).

==Literature==
[[File:13. Khajuraho Devi Jgadambi apsara.jpg|thumb|Apsara, [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Devi Jagadambi temple]] at [[Khajuraho]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]], India]]
The most ancient descriptions of apsara portray them as "[[Naiad|water nymph]]"-like beings.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Stefon |first=Matt |date=2009-10-20 |title=apsara |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/apsara |access-date=2023-06-07 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Rigveda]] tells of an apsara who is the wife of [[Gandharva]]; however, the Rigveda also seems to allow for the existence of more than one apsara.<ref name="EB1911" />
The only apsara specifically named is [[Urvashi]]. An entire hymn deals with the [[Colloquy (religious)|colloquy]] between Urvashi and her mortal lover [[Pururavas]].<ref>''Rig Veda'', Book X, Hymn 95.</ref> Later Hindu scriptures allow for the existence of numerous apsaras, who act as the handmaidens of [[Indra]] or as dancers at his celestial court<ref name="EB1911" /> serving as musicians alongside the gandharvas ("celestial musicians").<ref name=":3" />

The [[Kaushitaki Upanishad]] mentions apsaras as a class of divinities associated with ointments, garlands, vestments, and powdered aromatics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Simona |date=2021 |title=The Indian Hair-Wringing Apsaras and her Discriminating Goose: Meanings and Migrations |url=https://journal.equinoxpub.com/ROSA/article/view/20975 |journal=Religions of South Asia |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=156–157 |doi=10.1558/rosa.20975 |issn=1751-2697|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The origin of the apsaras is described in the [[Ramayana]] and [[Puranas]]. Apsaras are further associated with water by relating them to the [[Samudra Manthana|churning of the ocean]], water sports, and groups such as ''nāgas''.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Simona |date=2021 |title=The Indian Hair-Wringing Apsaras and her Discriminating Goose: Meanings and Migrations |url=https://journal.equinoxpub.com/ROSA/article/view/20975 |journal=Religions of South Asia |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=157 |doi=10.1558/rosa.20975 |issn=1751-2697|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In many of the stories related in the [[Mahabharata]], apsaras appear in important supporting roles. The epic contains several lists of the principal Apsaras, which lists are not always identical. Here is one such list, together with a description of how the celestial dancers appeared to the residents and guests at the court of the gods:

<blockquote> Ghritachi, [[Menaka]], [[Rambha (apsara)|Rambha]], [[Tilottama]], Purvachitti, Swayamprabha, [[Urvashi]], Misrakeshi, Dandagauri, Varuthini, Gopali, Sahajanya, Kumbhayoni, Prajagara, Chitrasena, Chitralekha, Saha, and Madhuraswana—these and thousands more, possessed of eyes like lotus leaves, were employed in enticing the hearts of individuals practicing rigid austerities, and they danced there. And possessing slim waists and fair large hips, they began to perform various evolutions, shaking their deep bosoms, and casting their glances around, and exhibiting other attractive attitudes capable of stealing the hearts and resolutions and minds of the spectators.<ref>''Mahabharata'', Book III: ''Vana Parva'', Section 43.</ref></blockquote>

The Mahabharata documents the exploits of individual apsaras, such as [[Tilottama]], who rescued the world from the rampaging [[asura]] brothers [[Sunda (asura)|Sunda]] and [[Upasunda]]; and [[Urvashi]], who attempted to seduce the hero [[Arjuna]].

A recurring theme in the Mahabharata is that of an apsara sent to distract a sage from his ascetic practices. One story embodying this theme is that recounted by the epic heroine [[Shakuntala]] to explain her own parentage.<ref>''Mahabharata'', Book I: ''Adi Parva'', Section 71-72.</ref> Once upon a time, the sage [[Vishvamitra]] generated such intense energy by means of his asceticism that [[Indra]] himself became fearful. Deciding that the sage would have to be distracted from his penances, he sent the apsara [[Menaka]] to work her charms. Menaka trembled at the thought of angering such a powerful ascetic, but she obeyed the god's order. As she approached Vishvamitra, the wind god [[Vayu]] tore away her garments. Seeing her thus disrobed, the sage abandoned himself to lust and they made love, during which Vishvamitra's asceticism was put on hold. As a consequence, Menaka gave birth to a daughter, whom she abandoned on the banks of a river. That daughter was Shakuntala herself, the narrator of the story.

[[Shu Ting]] referenced apsara in her poem "O Motherland, Dear Motherland".<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Meyer |first=Michael |title=The Bedford Introduction to Literature: Reading, Thinking, Writing |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press|St. Martin/Bedford]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-312-47200-9 |edition=8th |location=Boston |pages=1311}}</ref>

==In arts==
Many Indian apsaras were identified with names and were central in myths. However, since they were not attributed specific physical features or attributes, artistic depictions do not individualize them.<ref name=":4" />

===Natya Shastra===
''[[Natya Shastra]]'', the principal work of dramatic theory for Sanskrit drama, lists the following apsaras: Manjukesi, Sukesi, Misrakesi, Sulochana, Saudamini, Devadatta, Devasena, Manorama, Sudati, Sundari, Vigagdha, Vividha, Budha, Sumala, Santati, Sunanda, Sumukhi, Magadhi, Arjuni, Sarala, Kerala, [[Dhrti]], Nanda, Supuskala, Supuspamala and Kalabha.

===Cambodia===
[[File:Princess Bhuppa Devi Dance at CIS Phnom Penh Nov 2021 10.jpg|left|thumb|284x284px|Cambodia Apsara Dancer ]]
[[File:Apsara Relief Sculpture on Angkor Wat Temple Wall Feb 10 2000.jpg|alt=Apsara Relief Sculpture on Angkor Wat, Cambodia, Temple Wall|thumb|Apsara relief sculpture on [[Angkor Wat]] temple wall]]
Apsaras represent an important motif in the stone [[bas-reliefs]] of the [[Angkor]]ian temples in [[Cambodia]] (8th–13th centuries AD). The shapely, celestial nymphs appeared from the foam that emerged out of the Churning of the Sea of Milk, from the Hindu creation myth.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://search.library.wisc.edu/digital/A7ZTHVSCIQBLTJ8E|title=Bayon : apsara bas relief|website=search.library.wisc.edu/|year=1955|author=Margaret P. Hays}}</ref> However, not all female images are considered to be apsaras. In harmony with the Indian association of dance with apsaras, Khmer female figures that are dancing or are poised to dance are considered ''apsaras''; female figures, depicted individually or in groups, who are standing still and facing forward in the manner of temple guardians or custodians are called ''[[devata]]s''.<ref>Maurice Glaize, ''Monuments of the Angkor Group'', p.37.</ref>
[[File:L'apsara colonial stamp 1931.jpg|thumb|Apsara on a 1931 [[Postage stamps and postal history of Indochina|postage stamp of Indochina]]]]
[[Angkor Wat]], the largest Angkor temple (built in 1113–1150 AD), features both ''Apsaras'' and ''Devata'', however, the devata type are the most numerous with more than 1,796 in the present research inventory.<ref>[http://www.devata.org/2010/02/angkor-wat-devata-inventory/ Angkor Wat devata inventory - February 2010] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100423123631/http://www.devata.org/2010/02/angkor-wat-devata-inventory/ |date=23 April 2010 }}</ref> Angkor Wat architects employed small apsara images (30–40 cm as seen below) as decorative motifs on pillars and walls. They incorporated larger devata images (all full-body portraits measuring approximately 95–110  cm) more prominently at every level of the temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the high towers. In 1927, Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable diversity of their hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewelry and decorative flowers, which Marchal concluded were based on actual practices of the Angkor period. Some devatas appear with arms around each other and seem to be greeting the viewer. "The devatas seem to epitomize all the elements of a refined elegance," wrote Marchal.<ref>Sappho Marchal, ''Khmer Costumes and Ornaments of the Devatas of Angkor Wat''.</ref>

[[File:Bayon_Khmer_Apsaras.jpg|left|thumb|284x284px|A pair of dancing apsaras on a Bayon pillar.]]The [[Bayon|Bayon temple]], built by King Jayavarman in the late 12th-early 13th century, featured some 6,250 of the dancing apsaras. Mostly found carved into the temple’s pillars, these celestial women are usually depicted dancing on lotus flowers, representing a mythical world. The apsaras portrayed dancing on the ground may represent real women performing for ritual purposes, especially when surrounded by musicians. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.devata.org/bayon-devata-goddesses-of-king-jayavarman-vii/|title=Bayon Devata Goddesses of King Jayavarman VII|website=devata.org/|year=2011|author=Kent davis}}</ref>

[[Prasat Sikhoraphum]], a Khmer temple in Thailand built under [[Suryavarman II|Khmer King Suryavarman II]], features two smiling female figures, mostly in the style of Angkor Wat. Neither figure is depicted dancing nor does anything indicate they’re dancers or musicians. Instead these are two Khmer devatas - two of only four found outside of Cambodia and the only two devatas found in Thailand.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.devata.org/two-khmer-devata-goddesses-in-sikhoraphum-thailand/|title=Two Khmer Devata Goddesses in Sikhoraphum Thailand|website=devata.org/|year=2011|author=Kent davis}}</ref>

The bas-reliefs of Angkorian temples have become an inspiration of [[Khmer classical dance]]. The indigenous ballet-like performance art of Cambodia is frequently called "[[Robam Tep Apsara|Apsara Dance]]". The dance was created by the Royal Ballet of [[Cambodia]] in the mid-20th century under the patronage of Queen [[Sisowath Kossamak]] of Cambodia. The role of the apsara is played by a woman, wearing a tight-fitting traditional dress with gilded jewelry and headdress modelled after Angkor bas-reliefs,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.roughguides.com/?titleid=107&xid=idbox_head33982200_0171|title=Home|website=Rough Guides|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-15}}</ref> whose graceful, sinuous gestures are codified to narrate classical myths or religious stories.<ref name=dig>Di Giovine, Michael A. ''The Heritage-Scape''. 2008, pages 293–4</ref>

===Java and Bali, Indonesia===
[[File:Apsara from Borobudur, gallery 1, 9th century, photo ca. 1900.jpg|thumb|right|The Apsara of [[Borobudur]], the flying celestial maiden depicted in a bas-relief of the 9th-century Borobudur temple, [[Java]], Indonesia]]
In the Indonesian language throughout medieval times, apsaras are also known as 'bidadari', being conflated with the 'vidyadharis' (from [[Sanskrit]] word ''vidhyadhari'': ''vidhya'', 'knowledge'; ''dharya'', 'having, bearer, or bringer') known as ''Bidadari'' in the modern [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]],<ref name="Bidadari"/> the females of the [[Vidyadhara|vidyādharas]], another class of celestial beings in Indian mythology. 'Vidyādhara' literally means 'possessed of science or spells', and refers to 'a kind of supernatural being ... possessed of magical power' or 'fairy' according to Monier-Williams' dictionary. The bidadaris are heavenly maidens,<ref name="Bidadari">{{cite web | title = Bidadari | website = KBBI | url = http://kbbi.web.id/bidadari}}</ref> living in the [[svarga]]loka or in celestial palace of [[Indra]], described in [[Bali]]nese dedari (bidadari or apsara) dance.

Traditionally apsaras are described as celestial maidens living in [[Indra]]'s heaven (Kaéndran). They are well known for their special task: being sent to earth by Indra to seduce [[ascetics]] who by their severe practices may become more powerful than the gods. This theme occurs frequently in Javanese traditions, including the ''[[Kakawin Arjunawiwaha]]'', written by mpu Kanwa in 1030 during the reign of king [[Airlangga]]. The story tells that [[Arjuna]], in order to defeat the giant Niwatakawaca, engaged in meditation and asceticism, whereupon Indra sent apsaras to seduce him. Arjuna, however, managed to conquer his lust and then to win the ultimate weapons from the gods to defeat the giant.
[[File:Condong dancer DYK crop.JPG|thumb|left|The Balinese [[Legong]] dance depict celestial maidens, [[Bali]], Indonesia.]]
Later in the [[Java]]nese tradition the apsara was also called ''Hapsari'', also known as ''Widodari'' (from [[Sanskrit]] word vidyādhari). The Javanese Hindu-Buddhist tradition also influenced [[Bali]]. In Balinese dance, the theme of celestial maidens often occurs. Dances such as ''Sanghyang Dedari'' and ''[[Legong]]'' depicted divine maidens in their own way. In the court of [[Mataram Sultanate]] the tradition of depicting heavenly maidens in dances is still alive and well. The Javanese court dances of [[Bedhaya]] portray apsaras.

However, after the adoption of [[Islam]], bidadari is equated with [[houri]], the heavenly maiden mentioned in the [[Quran]], in which God stated that the 'forbidden pearls' of heaven are for those men who have resisted temptation and borne life's trials. Islam spread in the Malay archipelago when Arabic traders came to trade spices with the Malays; at that time, Hinduism formed the basis of the Malay culture, but [[syncretism]] with the Islamic religion and culture spawned the idea of a ''Bidadari''. It is usually seen as a prize offered to those who lived a lifestyle in service to and pleasing to God; after death, the Bidadari was the man's wife or wives, depending on what type of person he was. The worthiness of a man who was offered Bidadari depended upon his holiness: how often he prayed, how much he turned away from the 'outside world', and how little he heeded worldly desires.

[[File: Devata and Apsaras Prambanan 09.jpg|thumb|right|A male devata flanked by two apsaras, Vishnu temple, [[Prambanan]], Java]]
Images of apsaras are found in several temples of ancient [[Java]] dating from the era of the [[Sailendra]] dynasty to that of the [[Majapahit]] empire. The apsara celestial maidens might be found as decorative motifs or also as integral parts of a story in [[Relief|bas-relief]]. Images of apsaras can be found on [[Borobudur]], [[Mendut]], [[Prambanan]], [[Candi Plaosan|Plaosan]], and [[Penataran Temple|Penataran]].

At Borobudur apsaras are depicted as divinely beautiful celestial maidens, pictured either in standing or in flying positions, usually holding lotus blossoms, spreading flower petals, or waving celestial clothes as if they were wings enabling them to fly. The temple of [[Mendut]] near Borobudur depicted groups of ''[[devatas]]'', divine beings flying in heaven, which included apsaras. In the [[Prambanan Temple Compounds|Prambanan temple]] compound, especially in Vishnu temple, along with the gallery, some images of male devata are found flanked by two apsaras.

===Manipur, India===
In the ancient [[Manipur]] culture of the [[Meitei people]] of northeastern India, apsaras are considered as celestial nymphs or ''hellois'' as the flying creatures resembling the human female body attracting the male wanderers or any knights who lost their ways in the woods. They were known for their beauty, glamour, magical powers and enchanting supernatural Androphilic Magnetism. They are believed to be seven in number and are the daughters of the sky god or the ''Soraren'' deity.

===Champa===
Apsaras were also an important motif in the [[art of Champa]], medieval [[Angkor]]'s neighbour to the east along the coast of what is now central Vietnam. Especially noteworthy are the depictions of apsaras in the [[Art of Champa#Tra Kieu Style|Tra Kieu Style]] of Cham art, a style which flourished in the 10th and 11th centuries AD.
[[File:Apsarases,_1_of_5,_China,_Northern_or_Eastern_Wei_dynasty,_500-550_AD,_gilt_bronze_-_Arthur_M._Sackler_Museum,_Harvard_University_-_DSC00866.jpg|thumb|213x213px|Apsara (feitian), China, [[Northern Wei|Northern]] or [[Eastern Wei]] dynasty, 500–550 AD]]

===China===
Apsaras are often depicted in East Asian Buddhist art.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Flying Celestial Apsara (Feitian 飛天) 7th century|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/60778|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-13|website=www.metmuseum.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213034654/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/60778 |archive-date=13 December 2021 }}</ref> They are referred to as feitian ({{Lang-zh|t=飛天|s=飞天}}) in Chinese.<ref name=":0" />

They are depicted as flying figures in the mural paintings and sculptures of Buddhist cave sites in China such as in the [[Mogao Caves]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=The global connections of Gandharan art : proceedings of the Third International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 18th-19th March, 2019|date=2020|editor1=Wannaporn Rienjang |editor2=Peter Stewart |isbn=978-1-78969-695-0|publisher=Archaeopress |location=Oxford|pages=239–241|oclc=1197810642}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Collection of ancient Chinese cultural relics. Volume 5, Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties : 581-960|date=2019|editor=Expert Committee of Chinese Society of Cultural Relics |translator=Guozhen Wang |isbn=978-1-925371-44-4|location=Hindmarsh, SA|pages=223|oclc=1176321935}}</ref> [[Yulin Caves]],<ref name=":1" /> [[Tianlongshan Grottoes|Tianlongshan grottoes]],<ref name=":1" /> the [[Yungang Grottoes|Yungang]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Other Divinities|url=https://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/bud/5imglshi.htm|access-date=2021-12-13|website=depts.washington.edu}}</ref> and [[Longmen Grottoes]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Feitian – flying Apsaras in Longmen Grottoes[1]|url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/m/henan/longmen/2015-10/14/content_22186850.htm|access-date=2021-12-13|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn}}</ref> They are also depicted on tiles of [[pagoda]], such as Xiuding-si pagoda.<ref name=":1" />

They may also be depicted as dancers or musicians holding musical instruments such as [[flute]], [[pipa]], or [[Sheng (instrument)|sheng]].<ref name=":1" /> Apsara may be portrayed as multiple spirits who played music for Buddhas.<ref name=":2" /> Generally, they are depicted with a long skirt fluttering in the wind.<ref name=":1" />

Apsara is sometimes portrayed as a single powerful and influential spirit<ref name=":2" /> or [[Deity|god]] who wears an outfit with "flowing sleeves" and lives in ''[[Tian]]''. This version of Apsara is used in [[Chinese folk religion]] as an object of worship and in [[Chinese folklore]].

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160">
File:Fronton Guimet 240907 3.jpg|Apsaras dance taken from the 12th-century [[Bayon]] temple at [[Angkor]] in Cambodia
File:Apsara Gandharva Dancer Pedestal Tra Kieu.jpg|Apsaras are depicted on the base of the Tra Kieu Pedestal, a work of 10th-century Cham art.
File:Apsara yulin cave.jpg|Apsara from [[Yulin Caves]] near Dunhuang, China
File:Apsara playing a Phoenix-headed konghou - Yulin Cave 15.jpg|Apsara playing a Phoenix-headed [[konghou]] – Yulin Cave 15
File:Tara Borobudur 2.jpg|Apsara [[Surasundari]] in [[Borobudur]]
File:Sigiriya ladies 01.jpg|Painting of Apsara at [[Sigiriya]], [[Sri Lanka]]
File:Cambodia-2366 - More Cold Women, still no date.. (3591127397).jpg|Apsara relief sculpture at [[Angkor Wat]]
File:Princess Bhuppa Devi Dance at CIS Phnom Penh Nov 2021 09.jpg|Cambodia Apsara dance
File:Princess Bhuppa Devi Dance at CIS Phnom Penh Nov 2021 01.jpg|Cambodia apsara dancer
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Col div|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Angel]]
* [[Angkor Wat]]
* [[Art of Champa]]
* [[Dakini]]
* [[Devata]]
* [[Dunhuang dance]]
* [[Elf]]
* [[Fairy]]
* [[Gandharva]] - Celestial male companions of the ''apsaras''
* [[Houri]]
* [[Nymph]]
* [[Peri]], winged female creatures of [[Persian mythology]]
* [[Rusalka]]
* [[Swan maiden]]
* [[Tennin]], a Japanese development of Indian ''apsaras''
* [[Valkyrie]] from [[Norse mythology]]
* [[Vidyadhara]]
* [[Yakshini]]
{{colend}}

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Marchal, Sappho. ''Khmer Costumes and Ornaments of the Devatas of Angkor Wat''. First English edition. Orchid Press, 2005. {{ISBN|978-974-524-057-5}}
* The [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/index.htm Rig Veda] in the English translation prepared by [[Ralph T. H. Griffith]] is available online at sacred-texts.com.
* The [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm Mahabharata] in the English translation prepared by Kisari Mohan Ganguli is available online at sacred-texts.com.
* [http://www.theangkorguide.com The Monuments of the Angkor Group] by [[Maurice Glaize]] is available online in English translation.

==External links==
{{commons category|Apsara}}
* [http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/dunhuang-caves-apsara.html Chinese Apsaras depicted in Dunhuang Caves]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305042339/http://angkorguide.net/mythology/devataapsara.html Comparison of Khmer Apsaras and Devata]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100705230020/http://www.devata.org/2009/02/review-costumes-and-ornaments-after-the-devata-of-angkor-wat-by-sappho-marchal/ Costumes and Ornaments after the Devata of Angkor Wat by Sappho Marchal] - Book review
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100510015351/http://www.devata.org/2009/10/rajarani-temple-indian-devata-of-orissa/ Indian Devata at Rajarani Temple in Orissa]
* [http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/karyoubinga.html Japanese traditions of celestial maidens] ''Tennin'' (apsara), ''Hiten'' (flying apsara), ''Tennyo'' (celestial maiden) & ''Karyobinga'' (bird body with angel head)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RWa5oaMW8ic&context=C494995dADvjVQa1PpcFOkK6qSHXUvfDXQGbrG_YYPQJW0OiO2a-A= Apsara Dance at Siem Reap, Cambodia]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kD_5g7F8Qs0 Sanghyang Dedari], Balinese dance depicting bidadari (vidhyadari) celestial maiden

{{HinduMythology}}
{{Portal bar|India|Cambodia|Religion|Hinduism|Buddhism}}
{{Fairies}}
{{Swan Maiden}}
{{Yoginis}}
{{Japanese Buddhist Pantheon}}

[[Category:Apsara| ]]
[[Category:Buddhist goddesses]]
[[Category:Chinese goddesses]]
[[Category:Female beauty]]
[[Category:Female legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Hindu goddesses]]
[[Category:Indian deities]]
[[Category:Nature spirits]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures in Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:Supernatural legends]]
[[Category:Water spirits]]

Battle of Cannanore (1506)

2026-03-24T17:52:13Z

RealArifHossain: Adding The Stub W/ Infobox

{{Short description|Indo-Portuguese battle}}
{{One source|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Cannanore (1506)
|image=Batalha de Cananor – História de Portugal, Popular e Ilustrada.jpg
|caption=
|partof= the [[First Luso-Malabarese War]]
|date=March 1506
|place=[[Kannur|Cannanore]], India
|result=Portuguese victory
|combatant1=[[Portuguese Empire]]
|combatant2=[[Calicut (kingdom)|Kingdom of Calicut]]
|commander1=[[Lourenço de Almeida]] [[Ferdinand Magellan]]{{WIA}}
|commander2=[[Zamorin of Calicut|Samorin]]
|strength1=3 [[Carracks|naus]] 1 [[caravel]] several [[foist]]s<ref name="Diffie"/>
|strength2= Over 200 vessels<ref>''Foundations of the Portuguese empire, 1415–1580'' by Bailey Wallys Diffie p.232 [https://books.google.com/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC&pg=PA232]</ref>
|casualties1=None
|casualties2=A few dozen ships
}}
{{Portuguese colonial campaigns}}

The '''Battle of Cannanore''' took place in 1506 off the harbour of [[Kannur|Cannanore]] in [[India]], between the Indian fleet of the [[Zamorin of Calicut]] and a Portuguese fleet under [[Lourenço de Almeida]], son of the Viceroy Almeida.

The Indian fleet, consisting of about 200 ships equipped with cannons manufactured with the help of two [[Duchy of Milan|Milanese]] Italians, was manned by [[Hindu]], [[Arab]], and [[Turkey|Turkish]] crews.<ref name="Diffie"/> This encounter ended in a Portuguese victory. It was followed by another Portuguese success at the [[Siege of Cannanore (1507)|siege of Cannanore]] in 1507, but then a Portuguese defeat at the [[Battle of Chaul]] in 1508.<ref name="Diffie">''Foundations of the Portuguese empire, 1415–1580'' Bailey Wallys Diffie p.232''ff'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC&pg=PA232]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Portuguese India]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{coord missing|Kerala}}

[[Category:1506 in India]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1506|Cannanore]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving Portugal|Cannanore (1506)]]
[[Category:Portuguese India Armadas]]
[[Category:1506 in Portugal]]
[[Category:Battles involving Portuguese India|Cannanore]]
[[Category:Calicut kingdom]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Kingdom of Calicut]]

Child marriage

2026-03-22T21:33:40Z

RealArifHossain: Improved article clarity and structure

{{Short description|Marriage with someone under the legal age}}
{{Redirect|Child bride|the film|Child Bride{{!}}''Child Bride''}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Youth rights sidebar}}
'''Child marriage''' is a practice involving a [[marriage]] or [[domestic partnership]], formal or informal, that includes an individual under 18 and an adult or other child.<ref name="Definitions">* {{Cite journal |last1=Gastón |first1=Colleen Murray |last2=Misunas |first2=Christina |last3=Cappa |year=2019 |title=Child marriage among boys: a global overview of available data |journal=Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=219–228 |doi=10.1080/17450128.2019.1566584 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite web |date=March 2020 |title=Child marriage |url=https://www.unicef.org/protection/child-marriage |work=[[UNICEF]] |quote=Child marriage refers to any formal marriage or informal union between a child under the age of 18 and an adult or another child.}}
* {{cite web |title=Child Marriage |url=http://www.icrw.org/what-we-do/adolescents/child-marriage |work=icrw.org}}
* {{Cite news |title=Child Marriage – Rationale, Historical Views, And Consequences |url=http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/child-marriage-rationale-historical-views-and-consequences.html |access-date=10 September 2017 |work=WorldAtlas |language=en}}</ref>

Research has found that child marriages have many long-term negative consequences for child brides and grooms.<ref name="Parsons">{{Cite journal |last1=Parsons |first1=Jennifer |last2=Edmeades |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Aslihan |first3=Kes |last4=Petroni |first4=Suzanne |last5=Sexton |first5=Maggie |last6=Wodon |first6=Quentin |year=2015 |title=Economic Impacts of Child Marriage: A Review of the Literature |journal=The Review of Faith & International Affairs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=12–22 |doi=10.1080/15570274.2015.1075757 |s2cid=146194521 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10.1080/15570274.2015.1075757}}</ref><ref name="Gastón">{{Cite journal |last1=Gastón |first1=Colleen Murray |last2=Misunas |first2=Christina |last3=Cappa |year=2019 |title=Child marriage among boys: a global overview of available data |journal=Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=219–228 |doi=10.1080/17450128.2019.1566584 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Girls who marry as children often lack access to education and future career opportunities.<ref name="Parsons" /> It is also common for them to have [[adverse health effects]] resulting from early pregnancy and [[childbirth]]. Effects on child grooms may include the economic pressure of providing for a household and various constraints in educational and career opportunities.<ref name="Gastón" /> Child marriage is part of the practice of child [[betrothal]], often including civil [[cohabitation]] and a court approval of the engagement.<ref name="cohabitation" /><ref name="cohabitteen" /> Some factors that encourage child marriages include poverty, [[bride price]], [[dowry|dowries]], [[Tradition|cultural traditions]], [[religious]] and [[social pressure]], regional customs, fear of the child remaining unmarried into adulthood, [[Literacy|illiteracy]], and the perceived inability of women to work.<ref name="Child Marriage">{{cite web |date=March 2020 |title=Child marriage |url=https://www.unicef.org/protection/child-marriage |work=[[UNICEF]]}}</ref><ref name="icrwchild">{{cite web |url=http://www.icrw.org/what-we-do/adolescents/child-marriage |title=Child Marriage |work=icrw.org}}</ref><ref name="africachild" />

Research indicates that [[comprehensive sex education]] can prevent child marriages.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0026/002607/260770e.pdf |title=International technical guidance on sexuality education: an evidence-informed approach |publisher=UNESCO |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-3-100259-5 |location=Paris |page=13}}</ref> The rate of child marriages can also be reduced by strengthening [[rural communities]]' education systems. [[Rural Development Programme|Rural development programs]] that provide basic [[infrastructure]], including [[Health care|healthcare]], clean water, and [[sanitation]], may aid families financially.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fatima |first=Sana |date=19 January 2023 |title=Rural Development and Education: Critical Strategies for Ending Child Marriages |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=4329240 |journal=Archives of the Social Sciences: A Journal of Collaborative Memory |language=en |location=Pakistan |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–15 |ssrn=4329240}}</ref> Child marriages have historically been common and continue to be widespread, particularly in [[Developing country|developing nations]] in Africa,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201308050251.html |title=Africa: Child Brides Die Young |work=[[AllAfrica]]}}</ref><ref name="unfpa.org">{{cite web |title=Marrying Too Young: End Child Marriage |url=http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/MarryingTooYoung.pdf |publisher=[[United Nations Population Fund|UNFPA]] |page=23}}</ref> [[South Asia]],<ref>[http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/digest7e.pdf Early Marriage, Child Spouses] UNICEF, See section on Asia, page 4 (2001)</ref> [[Southeast Asia]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.plan.org.au/News/2013/08/20/Child-Marriage-in-Southeast-Asia.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003043715/http://www.plan.org.au/News/2013/08/20/Child-Marriage-in-Southeast-Asia.aspx |archive-date=3 October 2013 |title=Southeast Asia's big dilemma: what to do about child marriage? |publisher=Plan International Australia |date=20 August 2013 |access-date=10 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/87873/philippines-early-marriage-puts-girls-at-risk |title=IRIN Asia – PHILIPPINES: Early marriage puts girls at risk – Philippines – Gender Issues – Health & Nutrition – Human Rights |newspaper=Irinnews |agency=The New Humanitarian |date=26 January 2010}}</ref> [[West Asia]],<ref name="pbs2010" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/brinkley/article/Child-marriage-still-an-issue-in-Saudi-Arabia-3270366.php |title=Child marriage still an issue in Saudi Arabia |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=14 March 2010}}</ref> [[Latin America|Latin and North America]],<ref name="pbs2010">{{cite web |date=12 October 2007 |title=Child Brides – Child Marriage: What We Know |url=https://www.pbs.org/now/shows/341/facts.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616015228/http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/341/facts.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 June 2013 |publisher=[[PBS]]}}</ref> and [[Oceania]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/digest7e.pdf |title=Early Marriage, Child Spouses |publisher=UNICEF |page=5}} (See section on Oceania.)</ref> However, developed nations also face a lack of protections for children. In the United States, for instance, [[Child marriage in the United States|child marriage is still legal in 34 states]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Oladipo |first=Gloria |date=12 July 2023 |title=Michigan governor signs 'overdue' laws that aim to end child marriage |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/jul/12/michigan-child-marriage-law-signed |access-date=14 September 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Connecticut becomes the 9th state to outlaw child marriage |url=https://www.wbur.org/news/2023/06/26/connecticut-child-marriage |access-date=11 July 2023 |website=www.wbur.org |date=26 June 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Writer |first=Katherine Fung Senior |date=9 April 2024 |title=Map shows 12 states that allow child marriage after Virginia passes law |url=https://www.newsweek.com/child-marriage-ban-state-map-virginia-law-1888471 |access-date=9 April 2024 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=18 June 2024 |title=NH outlaws child marriage, raising the legal age to 18 |url=https://www.nhpr.org/nh-news/2024-06-18/nh-outlaws-child-marriage-raising-the-legal-age-to-18 |access-date=2 April 2025 |website=New Hampshire Public Radio |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite web|title=Child Marriage in the U.S.|url=https://www.unchainedatlast.org/child-marriage-in-the-u-s/|website=Unchained At Last|access-date=2025-12-02|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title=Missouri Gov. Kehoe signs law banning child marriage, after years of failed efforts|url=https://www.kcur.org/politics-elections-and-government/2025-07-10/missouri-child-marriage-ban-foster-kids-benefits|website=KCUR - Kansas City news and NPR|date=2025-07-10|access-date=2025-12-02|language=en|first=Clara|last=Bates}}</ref> Although the [[age of majority]] (legal [[adulthood]]) and [[marriageable age|marriage age]] are typically 18 years old, these thresholds can differ in different [[jurisdiction]]s.<ref name="Gastón" /> In some regions, the legal age for marriage can be as young as 14, with cultural [[tradition]]s sometimes superseding legal [[stipulation]]s. Additionally, jurisdictions may allow [[loophole]]s for parental/guardian consent or [[teenage pregnancy]].<ref name="Nour child marriage" />

Child marriage is increasingly viewed as a form of [[child sexual abuse]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mikhail |first=Susanne Louis B. |date=1 March 2002 |title=Child marriage and child prostitution: Two forms of sexual exploitation |journal=[[Gender & Development]] |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=43–49 |doi=10.1080/13552070215896 |issn=1355-2074 |s2cid=72419331}}</ref> It is an internationally recognized health and human rights violation disproportionately affecting girls, globally.<ref name="ArchivesofDiseaseinChildhood2010">{{Cite journal |last=Raj |first=Anita |author-link=Anita Raj (academic) |date=1 November 2010 |title=When the mother is a child: the impact of child marriage on the health and human rights of girls |url=https://adc.bmj.com/content/95/11/931 |journal=Archives of Disease in Childhood |language=en |volume=95 |issue=11 |pages=931–935 |doi=10.1136/adc.2009.178707 |issn=0003-9888 |pmid=20930011 |s2cid=41625496}}</ref> It is described by experts as [[torture]]; [[cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment]]; and contrary to [[human rights]].<ref name="Definitions" /> The [[Committee on the Rights of the Child]] "reaffirms that the minimum age limit should be 18 years for marriage."<ref name="HRWSeptember20232">{{cite news |date=7 September 2023 |title=How Do US States Measure Up on Child Rights? |url=https://www.hrw.org/feature/2022/09/13/how-do-states-measure-up-child-rights |access-date=13 October 2024 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref>

Child marriage has been decreasing in prevalence in most of the world. [[UNICEF]] data from 2018 showed that about 21% of young women worldwide (aged 20 to 24) were married as children. This shows a 25% decrease from 10 years prior.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.unicef.org/resources/child-marriage-latest-trends-and-future-prospects/ |title=Child Marriage: Latest trends and future prospects |date=5 July 2018 |website=UNICEF DATA |language=en-US |access-date=19 June 2019}}</ref> The countries with the highest known rates of child marriages were [[Niger]], [[Chad]], [[Mali]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Guinea]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Mozambique]] and [[Nepal]], all of which had rates above 50% between 1998 and 2007.<ref name="unicef12a" /> According to studies conducted between 2003 and 2009, the marriage rate of girls under 15 years old was greater than 20% in Niger, Chad, Bangladesh, Mali, and Ethiopia.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/02/child_brides Child brides – For poorer, most of the time] ''The Economist'' (28 February 2011)</ref><ref>[http://www.fordfoundation.org/2011-annual/youth-sexuality-and-rights/map/#/married-by-15/Niger Child Marriage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924014524/http://www.fordfoundation.org/2011-annual/youth-sexuality-and-rights/map/#/married-by-15/Niger |date=24 September 2015}} Ford Foundation (2011)</ref> In the US from 2000 to 2015, there were more than 200 thousand marriages of minors.<ref name=Belanger2017 /> Each year, an estimated 12 million girls globally are married under the age of 18.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-childmarriage-reform-idUSKCN1MZ024 |title=Child brides call on U.S. states to end 'legal rape' |date=25 October 2018 |work=Reuters |access-date=22 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
{{TOC limit|3}}

==History==
[[File:'Princess Emilia of Saxony', by Hans Krell (about 1530) Liverpool museums.jpg|thumb|In 1533, 17-year-old Princess [[Emilia of Saxony]] was wed to [[George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|George the Pious, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach]], then aged 48 years. Early marriages have been common in historical times, including in Europe.]]
[[File:Presentation of the portrait of Maria Antonia of Austria (Marie Antoinette) to Louis Auguste, Dauphin of France in front of Louis XV and the court at Versailles.jpg|thumb|Presentation of [[Marie Antoinette]] to Dauphin [[Louis XVI|Louis Auguste]] at [[Versailles]], before their marriage – she was at age 15, he was 16 – on 16 May 1770]]
Prior to the [[Industrial Revolution]], women around the world were often married at an early age, usually soon after reaching [[puberty]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dukakis |first=Andrea |title=Child Marriage, Common In The Past, Persists Today |url=https://www.cpr.org/show-segment/child-marriage-common-in-the-past-persists-today/ |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=Colorado Public Radio |date=4 April 2017 |language=en}}</ref> These practices carried over well into the 19th century in societies with largely rural populations.<ref name="Brown3140">{{Cite book |first=Jonathan A.C. |last=Brown |author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown |year=2015 |title=Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy |publisher=Oneworld Publications (Kindle edition) |pages=3140–3150 (Kindle locations)}}</ref> Men tended to marry later in societies where a married couple was expected to establish a household of their own. This encouraged men to remain unmarried until they accumulated sufficient wealth to support a new home and marry adolescent girls.<ref name="Crone2747">{{cite book |author=Patricia Crone |title=Pre-Industrial Societies: Anatomy of the Pre-Modern World |publisher=Oneworld (Kindle Edition) |year=2015 |page=2747 (Kindle loc.)}}</ref>

In many ancient and [[medieval]] societies, it was common for girls to be betrothed at or even before the age of puberty.<ref name="laiou93">[[Angeliki Laiou]] (1993), ''Coercion to sex and marriage in ancient and medieval societies'', Washington, DC, pages 85–190</ref><ref>Ross Kraemer (1993), ''The Jewish Family in Antiquity'', Scholars Press (Atlanta), pages 82–110</ref> According to Mordechai A. Friedman, "arranging and contracting the marriage of a young girl were the undisputed prerogatives of her father in [[Ancient Israel]]." Most girls were married before the age of 15, often at the start of puberty.<ref name="friedman80">{{Cite journal |last=Gil |first=Moshe |date=1985 |editor-last=Friedman |editor-first=M. A. |title=Friedman's "Jewish Marriage in Palestine" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1453880 |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=149–151 |doi=10.2307/1453880 |jstor=1453880 |issn=0021-6682}}</ref> It has been claimed that in the Middle Ages, marriage took place around puberty throughout the [[Jewish]] world.<ref>Steven M. Lowenstein: ''The Jewish Cultural Tapestry: International Jewish Folk Traditions'', p. 108. Oxford, 2002.</ref>

[[Ruth Lamdan]] writes, "The numerous references to child marriage in the 16th-century [[Responsa in Judaism|Responsa]] literature and other sources shows that child marriage was so common, it was virtually the norm. In this context, it is important to remember that in [[halakha]], the term "minor" refers to a girl under twelve years and a day old. A girl aged twelve and a half was considered an adult in all respects."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=מלמד |first1=רינה לוין |last2=Melamed |first2=Renée Levine |date=2001 |title=Review of A Separate People: Jewish Women in Palestine, Syria and Egypt in the Sixteenth Century |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23564381 |journal=Zion / ציון |volume=סו |issue=ד |pages=543–546 |jstor=23564381 |issn=0044-4758}}</ref>

In [[Ancient Greece]], early marriage and teenage motherhood for girls existed.<ref>Nancy Demand (1994), ''Birth, Death, and Motherhood in Classical Greece'', Johns Hopkins University Press, pages 101–104</ref> Boys were also expected to marry in their teens. In the [[Roman Empire]], girls were married at the age of 12 and boys from the age of 14.<ref name=ncbi>{{cite journal |title=Early Teen Marriage and Future Poverty |pmc=3000061 |pmid=20879684 |volume=47 |issue=3 |year=2010 |pages=689–718 |last1=Dahl |first1=GB |journal=Demography |doi=10.1353/dem.0.0120}}</ref> In the [[Middle Ages]], under English [[Civil law (legal system)|civil laws]] derived from Roman laws, marriages before the age of 16 existed. In [[Imperial China]], child marriage was the norm.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Saito |first1=O. |year=1996 |title=Historical demography: achievements and prospects |journal=Population Studies |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=537–553 |doi=10.1080/0032472031000149606 |pmid=11618380}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Z. |year=1997 |title=Demographic systems in historic China: some new findings from recent research |journal=Journal of the Australian Population Association |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=201–232 |doi=10.1007/BF03029340 |pmid=12322104 |bibcode=1997JAuPA..14..201Z |s2cid=8006287}}</ref>

In contrast to other pre-modern societies—and for reasons that are subject to debate—[[Northwestern Europe|Northwest Europe]] was characterized by [[Western European marriage pattern|relatively late marriages]] for both men and women, with both sexes commonly delaying marriage until their mid-20s, although the very wealthy, especially aristocrats, married earlier, but they were a minority of the population.<ref>{{cite book |last=Levine |first=David |year=1977 |title=Family Formation in an Age of Nascent Capitalism |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-445050-9 |page=152}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hajnal |first=John |year=1965 |chapter=European marriage pattern in historical perspective |editor-first=D. V. |editor-last=Glass |editor2-first=D.E.C. |editor2-last=Eversley |title=Population in History |url=https://archive.org/details/populationinhist0000glas |url-access=registration |publisher=Arnold |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/populationinhist0000glas/page/101 101–143]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Coontz |first=Stephanie |year=2005 |title=Marriage, a History: From Obedience to Intimacy, or How Love Conquered Marriage |location=New York, New York |publisher=Viking Press, Penguin Group |isbn=978-0-670-03407-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/marriagehistoryf00coon/page/125 125–129] |url=https://archive.org/details/marriagehistoryf00coon/page/125}}</ref> The data available for England suggest this was the case by the 14th century. The pattern was reflected in [[English law|English Common Law]], which was the first in Western Europe to establish statutory [[rape laws]] and ages of consent for marriage. In 1275, sexual relations with girls under either 12 or 14 (depending on the interpretation of the sources) were criminalized; a second law with more severe punishments for those under the age of 10 was enacted in 1576. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the British colonial administration introduced marriage age restrictions for Hindu and Muslim girls in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=Brown3140/>

A Scottish physician living in 18th century [[Syria]] reported that locals tried to contract marriages for their children at a young age, but the marriage was not consummated until the girl "had come of age". Evidence from 19th century Levant, (now Israel and Palestine) suggests that husbands often initiated sexual relations before their wives reached puberty, but that it was a disapproved occurrence, condemned socially and censured by [[sharia]] courts. Writing in the 1830s, [[Edward William Lane]] observed that few Egyptian girls remained single by the age of 16, but socioeconomic transformation, educational reform, and modernity brought significant changes. By 1920, less than 10% of Egyptian women married before the age of 20. In 1923, Egypt's parliament set the minimum age of marriage at 16 for women and 18 for men.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Jonathan A.C. |last=Brown |author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown |year=2015 |title=Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy |publisher=Oneworld Publications (Kindle edition) |pages=3120–3160(Kindle location)}}</ref>

For the latter half of the 19th century, between 13 and 18% of native-born white female first marriages in the United States were of girls under the age of 18.<ref name=Fitch%Ruggles2000>{{Cite book |last1=Fitch |first1=Catherine |last2=Ruggles |first2=Steven |contribution=Historical trends in marriage formation: The United States 1850–1990 |editor-last1=Waite |editor-first1=Linda J. |editor-last2=Bachrach |editor-first2=Christine |title=The Ties that Bind: Perspectives on Marriage and Cohabitation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lEb-ic22xKwC |date=2000 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |pages=59–88 |isbn=9781412839365 |language=en}}</ref>

==Religious norms and laws==
Most religions practiced throughout history have established a minimum age for marriage.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} Christian [[canon law]] forbade the marriage of a girl before the onset of puberty.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Burn, Richard |author2=Tyrwhitt, Robert |author3=Phillimore, Robert |title=The Ecclesiastical Law |location=London |publisher=Sweet Stevens & Norton |volume=4 |page=54}}</ref> Within the [[Catholic Church]], before the [[1917 Code of Canon Law]], the minimum age for a dissoluble betrothal (''{{lang|la|[[sponsalia de futuro]]}}'') was seven years in the {{linktext|contractee}}s. The minimal age for a valid marriage was puberty, or nominally 14 for males, and 12 for females.<ref name="Rock1907">{{Catholic|inline=1|wstitle=Canonical Age|first=P. M. J.|last=Rock|volume=1}}</ref> The 1917 Code of Canon Law raised the minimal age for a valid marriage to 16 for males, and 14 for females.<ref name="Bachofen1920">{{cite encyclopedia |location=St. Louis, MO; London |publisher=B. Herder book |encyclopedia=A commentary on the new code of the canon law |last=Bachofen |first=Charles A. |title=A commentary on the new Code of the canon law. V.5. |series=New Code of canon law, A commentary on the |edition=2nd rev. |volume=5 |year=1920 |lccn=19004568 |at=c. 1067 |hdl=2027/wu.89088314570}}</ref> The [[1983 Code of Canon Law]] maintained the minimal age for a valid marriage at 16 for males and 14 for females.<ref name="CIC1983">{{cite encyclopedia |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Canon Law Society of America |encyclopedia=Code of canon law: new English translation |version=IntraText |year=1999 |orig-year=©1998 |isbn=978-0-943616-79-7 |author=Catholic Church |title=Codex Iuris Canonici |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_INDEX.HTM |via=Vatican.va |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220062727/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_INDEX.HTM |archive-date=20 February 2008}}</ref>{{rp|at=[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P3Y.HTM c. 1083 §1]}}{{efn|name=CIC|While canon 1083 of the [[1983 Code of Canon Law]] sets the minimum age for a valid marriage at 16 for males and 14 for females,<ref name="CIC1983"/>{{rp|at=[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P3Y.HTM c. 1083 §1]}} canon 97 defines a person younger than 18 years of age as a [[Minor (law)|minor]] and subject to parental authority.<ref name="CIC1983"/>{{rp|at=[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__PC.HTM cc. 97 §1, 98 §2]}} The authorization of the [[local ordinary]] must precede the celebration of the marriage of a minor if the marriage "cannot be recognized or celebrated according to the norm of civil law" or if the parents of a minor are "unaware or reasonably opposed".<ref name="CIC1983"/>{{rp|at=[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P3W.HTM c. 1071 §1,2° and 6°]}} Each [[conference of bishops]] can "establish a higher age for the licit celebration of marriage".<ref name="CIC1983"/>{{rp|at=[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P3Y.HTM c. 1083 §§1–2]}} Canon 1072 requires that pastors discourage "marriage before the age at which a person usually enters marriage according to the accepted practices of the region."<ref name="CIC1983"/>{{rp|at=[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P3W.HTM c. 1072]}} [[Edward N. Peters]] explains that canon 1083 "authorized episcopal conferences to recognize the concrete circumstances of marriage in their own territories and to raise the ages for licit marriages within a given nation" to more than the minimum age for a valid marriage.<ref name="Peters1996">{{cite journal |last=Peters |first=Edward N. |date=22 June 1996 |title=Too young to marry |journal=America |volume=174 |issue=20 |pages=14–16 |issn=0002-7049}} Reprinted in {{cite web |last=Peters |first=Edward |title=Too young to marry |publisher=canonlaw.info |url=http://www.canonlaw.info/a_tooyoung.htm |access-date=6 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060221153117/http://www.canonlaw.info/a_tooyoung.htm |archive-date=21 February 2006 |url-status=live}}</ref> Other canons that regulate marriage in general also apply, for example persons "who lack the sufficient use of reason" or "who suffer from a grave defect of discretion of judgment concerning the essential matrimonial rights and duties mutually to be handed over and accepted" "are incapable of contracting marriage."<ref name="CIC1983"/>{{rp|at=[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P3Z.HTM c. 1095]}}}} English [[Canon law|ecclesiastical law]] forbade the marriage of a girl before the age of puberty.<ref>Richard Burn, Robert Tyrwhitt and Robert Phillimore, ''The Ecclesiastical Law'', Volume 4, Sweet Stevens & Norton (London), page 54.</ref>

[[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Halakha|halakhists]] and [[rabbi]]s prohibit a father from betrothing a daughter while she is still a minor.<ref name=friedman80/><ref name="Kiddushin 41a.8">{{cite web |url=https://www.sefaria.org.il/Kiddushin.41a.8?lang=en |title=Kiddushin 41a.8 – sefaria.org |access-date=24 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Shulchan_Arukh%2C_Even_HaEzer.43.1?lang=en |title=Shulchan Aruch, Even HaEzer 43.1-2 – sefaria.org |access-date=24 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Shulchan_Arukh%2C_Even_HaEzer.35.6?lang=en |title=Shulchan Aruch, Even HaEzer 35.6 – sefaria.org |access-date=24 January 2024}}</ref> A girl can be betrothed when she becomes a young woman ({{langx|he|נַעֲרָה|na'arah}}), which may defined as a girl aged 12–12½ or one who has begun puberty.<ref>{{cite web |title=Daf Shevui to Ketubot 36a:3 |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Daf_Shevui_to_Ketubot.36a.3?ven=Daf_Shevui&lang=bi |website=www.sefaria.org |access-date=26 January 2024}}</ref><ref name="Kiddushin 41a.8"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/952875/jewish/Ishut-Chapter-Two.htm |title=Ishut - Chapter Two - Chabad.org}}</ref> In exceptional cases, such as during exile and persecution, girls aged 4–13 years may be betrothed by their fathers.<ref name="MAJORITY – JewishEncyclopedia.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10310-majority |title=MAJORITY – JewishEncyclopedia.com |access-date=9 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QbUXAQAAMAAJ&q=ketannah |title=Beiträge zur jüdischen Altherthumskunde, Band 2 |last1=Lőw |first1=Leopold Lőw |pages=170, 175, 176 |year=1969 |publisher=Gregg |isbn=9780576801270}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Shulchan_Arukh%2C_Even_HaEzer.37.8?lang=en |title=Shulchan Aruch, Even HaEzer 37:8 – sefaria.org |access-date=24 January 2024}}</ref> [[Erusin|Betrothal by intercourse]] is forbidden and punishable by lashing.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Shulchan_Arukh%2C_Even_HaEzer.26.4?lang=en |title=Shulchan Aruch, Even HaEzer 26:4 – sefaria.org |access-date=24 January 2024}}</ref> The [[Talmud]] states that, "those who marry girls who are not yet capable of bearing children" will "delay the coming of the [[messiah]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ph.yhb.org.il/en/14-05-10/ |title=The Age of Marriage for Women – Peninei Halakha |date=5 September 2014 |access-date=25 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Niddah.13b.5-7?lang=en |title=Niddah 13b.5-7 – sefaria.org |access-date=24 January 2024}}</ref> A wide age gap between spouses, in either direction, is advised against.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sefaria.org.il/Yevamot.44a?lang=en |title=Yevamot 44a – sefaria.org |access-date=24 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sefaria.org.il/Yevamot.101b?lang=en |title=Yevamot 101b – sefaria.org |access-date=24 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sefaria.org.il/Avot_D'Rabbi_Natan.23.4?lang=en |title=Avot D'Rabbi Natan 23:4 – sefaria.org |access-date=24 January 2024}}</ref> Marrying one's young daughter to an old man was declared as reprehensible as forcing her into prostitution.<ref name="Sanhedrin 76a.23-25">{{cite web |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.76a.23-25?lang=en |title=Sanhedrin 76a 23-25 – sefaria.org |access-date=24 January 2024}}</ref> The ideal age at which a man should marry is 18. Before this age, he should spend his time studying and getting his life in order.<ref name="jewishencyclopedia.com"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://ph.yhb.org.il/en/14-05-07/ |title=The Age of Marriage for Men – Peninei Halakha |date=5 September 2014 |access-date=24 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Sotah.44a.6?lang=en |title=Sotah 44a.6 – sefaria.org |access-date=24 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sefaria.org/Pirkei_Avot.5.21?lang=en |title=Pirkei Avot 5.21 – sefaria.org |access-date=24 January 2024}}</ref>

There is no minimum marriage age defined in traditional Islamic law (although the [[Ja'fari school]] put the minimum at 10); the legal discussion of this topic is centered primarily on women's physical maturity and intellectual maturity (''buluq'' and ''rushd'' respectively)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-19 |title=The Beginning Of Sexual Life: Bulugh And Rushd |url=https://al-islam.org/religion-al-islam-and-marriage/beginning-sexual-life-bulugh-and-rushd |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=al-islam.org |language=en}}</ref>. Classical [[Fiqh|Sunni jurisprudence]] allows a father to contract a marriage for his underaged daughter. The appropriate age for consummating the marriage, which could occur several years after signing the marriage contract, was to be determined by the bride, groom, and the bride's guardian since medieval jurists held that the age of fitness for intercourse was too variable for legislation.<ref name=brown-islam>{{Cite book |first=Jonathan A.C. |last=Brown |author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown |year=2015 |title=Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy |publisher=Oneworld Publications (Kindle edition) |pages=3090–3110 (Kindle locations)}}</ref> This was based in part on the precedent set by the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]], as described in the [[hadith]] collections considered to be authentic by Muslims. According to these sources, Muhammad married [[Aisha]], his third wife, when she was about six,{{efn|some sources suggest age at marriage as six and some as seven, see Denise Spellberg (1996), Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231079990}}, pp 39–40}} and consummated the marriage when she was about nine.{{efn|Most sources suggest age at consummation as nine, and one that it may have been age 10; See: [[Denise Spellberg]] (1996), ''Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr'',
[[Columbia University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0231079990}}, pp. 39–40; The [[Ahmadiyya]] sect has published the opinion of Pakistani writer [[Muhammad Ali (writer)|Muhammad Ali]] that [[Sahih al-Bukhari]] is inauthentic; Ali argued that Aisha may have been a teenager.{{cite book |last1=Ali |first1=Muhammad |author1-link=Muhammad Ali (writer) |title=Muhammad the Prophet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=od6dAQKgK-YC&pg=PT150 |year=1997 |publisher=Ahamadiyya Anjuman Ishaat Islam |isbn=978-0913321072}} However, Ahmadiyya sect views about Islam and its history are widely disputed by mainstream Islam. See: Siddiq & Ahmad (1995), ''Enforced Apostasy: Zaheeruddin v. State and the Official Persecution of the Ahmadiyya Community in Pakistan, Law & Inequality'', 14: pp. 275–284.}}{{efn|See:
* L. Ahmed, ''[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174138 Women and the Advent of Islam]'', Signs, Vol. 11, No. 4 (Summer, 1986), pp. 677–678;
* Cynthia Gorney, "Too Young to Wed – The secret world of child brides", ''National Geographic'', June 2011, quote: "'If there were any danger in early marriage, Allah would have forbidden it,' a Yemeni member of parliament named Mohammed Al-Hamzi told me in the capital city of Sanaa one day. 'Something that Allah himself did not forbid, we cannot forbid.' Al-Hamzi, a religious conservative, is vigorously opposed to the legislative efforts in Yemen to prohibit marriage for girls below a certain age (17, in a recent version), and so far those efforts have met with failure. Islam does not permit marital relations before a girl is physically ready, he said, but the Holy Koran contains no specific age restrictions and so these matters are properly the province of family and religious guidance, not national law. Besides, there is the matter of the '''Prophet Muhammad's beloved Ayesha—nine years old, according to the conventional account, when the marriage was consummated.'''"}} Some modern Muslim authors and Islamic scholars, such as [[Ali Gomaa]], who served as the [[Grand Mufti of Egypt]], doubt the traditionally accepted narrative and believe based on other evidence that Aisha was in her late teens at the time of her marriage.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Jonathan A.C. |last=Brown |author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown |year=2015 |title=Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy |publisher=Oneworld Publications (Kindle edition) |pages=3200 (Kindle location)}}</ref> As a general rule, intercourse was prohibited for girls "not able to undergo it," on the grounds of potential physical harm. Disputes regarding physical maturity between the involved parties were to be resolved by a [[Qadi|judge]], potentially after examination by a female expert witness.<ref name=brown-islam/> The [[Ottoman family law|1917 Codification of Islamic Family Law]] in the [[Ottoman Empire]] distinguished between the age of competence for marriage, which was set at 18 for boys and 17 for girls, and the minimum age for marriage, set at 12 for boys and 9 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence was permissible only if proof of sexual maturity was accepted in court, while marriage under the minimum age was forbidden. During the 20th century, sharia-based legislation in most countries in the Middle East followed the Ottoman precedent in defining the age of competence, while raising the minimum age to 15–16 for boys and 13–16 for girls.<ref name=EI2-8-29/> In 2019, [[Saudi Arabia]] raised the age of marriage to 18.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/entertainment/naija-fashion/369729-saudi-arabia-bans-under-18-marriage.html |title=Saudi Arabia bans under 18 marriage |date=24 December 2019|newspaper=[[Premium Times]]}}</ref>

In [[Hinduism]] the [[Vedas]], specifically the [[Rigveda]] and [[Atharvaveda]], have several verses that indicate girls were only to be married long after attaining puberty.<ref name="Nagi 6">{{Cite book |last=Nagi |first=B. S. |title=Child Marriage in India: A Study of Its Differential Patterns in Rajasthan |date=1 January 1993 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-460-2 |page=6 |language=en}}</ref> However, during the [[Vedic period]], there is indication that girls were married before attaining and also during puberty.<ref name="Nagi 6"/> Some early [[Dharmaśāstra]], which are secondary texts (''Smritis'') to the Vedas (''Srutis''), also state that girls should be married after they have attained puberty,<ref>{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2008 |page=420}}</ref> while some Dharmaśāstra texts extend the marriageable age to before puberty.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA420 |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |first=Upinder |last=Singh |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |page=420 |isbn=9788131716779}}</ref> It should be understood that Smritis are descriptions of recommended laws for the times and Vedas are the ultimate authority. Nonetheless, Smritis were often followed by society until they were revised or amended, similar to constitutions or other forms of law.

In the [[Manusmriti]],<ref>Donald Davis (2010), The Spirit of Hindu Law, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521877046}}, page 14</ref> a father is considered to have wronged his daughter if he fails to marry her before puberty and if the girl is not married in less than three years after reaching puberty, she can search for the husband herself.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xp35-8gTRDkC&pg=PA113 |title=Megasthenes and Indian Religion: A Study in Motives and Types |author=Allan Dahlaquist |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |pages=113–114 |isbn=9788120813236 |date=31 December 1996}}</ref> However, in modern India, the minimum age of marriage is 21 years for males and 18 years for females as per both the [[Hindu Marriage Act]] and the [[Special Marriage Act]]. The [[Hindu Marriage Act]] is applicable and valid for all Hindus including Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs who altogether form more than 83% of Indian population.

By the beginning of the 21st century, most countries had enacted laws establishing the general [[Marriageable age|minimum age for marriage]] at 18 years. However, in many of these countries, some exceptions allowed marriage before this age with the consent of the parents and/or by court decision. In some countries, a religious marriage is still recognized by the state authorities, while in others, a registered civil marriage is mandatory.

==Problems (gendered effects)==
Child marriage has lasting consequences on girls, from their health (mental and physical), education, and social development perspectives.<ref name="Parsons"/> These consequences last well beyond adolescence.<ref name=hrwconsq/> One of the most common causes of death for girls aged 15 to 19 in developing countries was pregnancy and childbirth.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2013/12/01/247843225/5-things-you-may-not-know-about-child-marriage 5 Things you may not know about Child Marriage] NPR, Washington DC</ref> In [[Niger]], estimated to have the world's highest rate of child marriage, approximately three out of four girls marry before their 18th birthday.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/niger/ |title=Niger |work=Girls Not Brides |access-date=9 July 2016 |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icrw.org/child-marriage-facts-and-figures |title=Child Marriage Facts and Figures – ICRW – PASSION. PROOF. POWER. |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828070027/https://www.icrw.org/child-marriage-facts-and-figures/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Boys are sometimes married as children, almost always to a female minor. [[UNICEF]] states that "girls [are] disproportionately affected by the practice. Globally, the prevalence of child marriage among boys is just one-sixth that among girls."<ref name="Child Marriage"/> Research on the effects of child marriage on underage boys is scant, which researchers state is likely because child marriage involving boys is less common and boys do not face the adverse health effects as a result of early pregnancy and childbirth.<ref name="Gastón"/> The effects of child marriage on boys include being ill-prepared for certain responsibilities such as providing for the family, early fatherhood, and a lack of access to education and career opportunities.<ref name="Gastón"/> {{As of|2014|9}}, 156 million living men were married as underage boys.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/09/18/the-sad-hidden-plight-of-child-grooms.html |title=The Sad Hidden Plight of Child Grooms |first=Nina |last=Strochlic |date=18 September 2014 |access-date=9 July 2016 |newspaper=The Daily Beast}}</ref>

In its first in-depth analysis of child grooms, UNICEF revealed that an estimated 115 million boys and men around the world were married as children. Of these, 1 in 5, or 23 million, boys were married before the age of 15. According to the data, the Central African Republic has the highest prevalence of child marriage among males (28%), followed by Nicaragua (19%) and Madagascar (13%). The estimates bring the total number of child brides and child grooms to 765 million. Girls remain disproportionately affected, with 1 in 5 young women aged 20 to 24 years old married before their 18th birthday, compared to 1 in 30 young men.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/115-million-boys-and-men-around-world-married-children-unicef |title=115 million boys and men around the world married as children – UNICEF |website=www.unicef.org}}</ref>

==Causes==
According to the [[United Nations Population Fund]], factors that promote and reinforce child marriage include poverty and economic survival strategies; [[gender inequality]]; sealing land or property deals or settling disputes; control over sexuality and protecting family honor; tradition and culture; and insecurity, particularly during war, famine or epidemics.<ref name="too young">{{cite web |title=Marrying Too Young: End Child Marriage |url=http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/MarryingTooYoung.pdf |publisher=[[United Nations Population Fund|UNFPA]]}}</ref> Other factors include family ties in which marriage is a means of consolidating powerful relations between families.<ref name="too young"/>

===Dowry and bride price===
[[File:Thai Bride Price 2008.jpg|thumb|left|A traditional, formal presentation of the bride price at a Thai engagement ceremony]]
Providing a girl with a [[dowry]] at her marriage is an ancient practice that continues in some parts of the world, especially in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Parents bestow property on the marriage of a daughter as a dowry, which is often an economic challenge for many families. The difficulty in saving for dowry was common, particularly in times of economic hardship, or persecution, or unpredictable seizure of property and savings. These difficulties pressed families to betroth their girls, irrespective of their age, as soon as they had the resources to pay the dowry. Thus, Goitein notes that European Jews would marry their girls early, once they had collected the expected amount of dowry.<ref name=goitein78>S.D. Goitein (1978), A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World, Vol. 3, University of California Press</ref>

A [[bride price]] is the amount paid by the groom to the parents of a bride for them to consent to him marrying their daughter. In some countries, the younger the bride, the higher the bride price.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bearak |first=Barry |title=The bride price |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/09/magazine/09BRI.html |date=9 July 2006}}</ref><ref name="nourreport" /> This practice can create an economic incentive where girls are sought and married early by her family to the highest bidder. Child marriages of girls can function as a way out of desperate economic conditions or simply as a source of income for the parents.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tremayne |first=Soraya |title=Modernity and early marriage in Iran: a view from within |journal=[[Journal of Middle East Women's Studies]] |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=65–94 |doi=10.1215/15525864-2006-1003 |jstor=40326888 |date=Winter 2006 |s2cid=54509784 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/194426}} [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_middle_east_womens_studies/v002/2.1tremayne.pdf Pdf.]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boyden |first1=Jo |last2=Pankhurst |first2=Alula |last3=Tafere |first3=Yisak |title=Child protection and harmful traditional practices: female early marriage and genital modification in Ethiopia |journal=Development in Practice |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=510–522 |doi=10.1080/09614524.2012.672957 |date=June 2012 |s2cid=144583426 |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:ad065460-bef4-4578-8fd4-b22d62ac599e}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chowdhury |first=F.D. |title=The socio-cultural context of child marriage in a Bangladeshi village |journal=[[International Journal of Social Welfare]] |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=244–253 |doi=10.1111/j.1369-6866.2004.00318.x |date=July 2004}}</ref> Bride price is another cause of child marriage and [[child trafficking]].<ref name=icrwchild/><ref name=africachild>{{cite web |url=http://www.forwarduk.org.uk/key-issues/child-marriage |title=Eradicating child marriage in Africa |publisher=FORWARD UK |access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Warner |first=Elizabeth |title=Behind the wedding veil: Child marriage as a form of trafficking in girls |journal=Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=233–247 |year=2004 |url=http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/jgspl/vol12/iss2/1/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/current%20series/tandi/401-420/tandi415.html |title=The trafficking of children in the Asia–Pacific |publisher=Aic.gov.au |access-date=18 February 2015 |archive-date=27 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027094118/http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/current%20series/tandi/401-420/tandi415.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Bride kidnapping===
[[File:RaidbyKURDS.jpg|thumb|Depiction of [[bride kidnapping]]]]
{{Main|Bride kidnapping}}

[[Bride kidnapping]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/bridenapping-ndash-a-growing-hidden-crime-2367811.html |title='Bridenapping': a growing hidden crime |date=9 October 2011 |website=The Independent |language=en |access-date=26 August 2019}}</ref> also known as marriage by abduction or marriage by capture, is a practice in which a male abducts<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/out-of-eden-walk/articles/2017-06-captured-hearts/ |title=Captured Hearts |website=nationalgeographic.org |access-date=26 August 2019}}</ref> the female he wishes to marry. Bride kidnapping has been practiced around the world and throughout history. It continues to occur in countries in [[Central Asia]], the [[Caucasus]] region, parts of [[Africa]], among people as diverse as the [[Hmong people|Hmong]] in Southeast Asia, the [[Tzeltal people|Tzeltal]] in Mexico, and the [[Romani people|Romani]] in Europe.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} Bride kidnapping is a widespread issue in Ethiopia. A 2003 study found the custom's prevalence rate was estimated at 69 percent nationally,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/unicef-supports-fight-end-marriage-abduction-ethiopia |title=UNICEF supports fight to end marriage by abduction in Ethiopia |publisher=reliefweb.int |date=9 November 2004 |access-date=29 August 2013}}</ref> with reports of girls as young as 11 being taken for marriage.<ref name="et1">{{Cite web |date=23 February 2007 |title=Ethiopia: Surviving forced marriage |url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/feature/2007/02/23/ethiopia-surviving-forced-marriage |access-date=25 October 2024 |website=The New Humanitarian}}</ref> In response, Ethiopia has enacted laws to outlaw this practice and established a minimum marriage age of 18.<ref name="et2">{{Cite web |last=Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information |first=Bureau of Public Affairs |date=11 March 2008 |title=Ethiopia |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100481.htm |access-date=26 October 2024 |website=2001-2009.state.gov |language=en}}</ref> However, the effectiveness of these measures in reducing bride kidnapping remains unclear.<ref name="et1" /><ref name="et2" />

In most nations, bride kidnapping is considered a crime rather than a valid [[types of marriages|form of marriage]]. Some types of it may also be seen as falling along the continuum between [[forced marriage]] and [[arranged marriage]]. However, even when the practice is against the law, judicial enforcement remains lax in some areas. Bride kidnapping occurs in various parts of the world, but it is most common in the Caucasus and Central Asia.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-37256574 |title=Police swoop on fake 'bride kidnapping' |date=2 September 2016 |access-date=26 August 2019 |language=en-GB}}</ref> Bride kidnapping is often a form of child marriage.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kyrgyzstan-women-bride-kidnapping-idUSKBN1AH5GI |title=One in five girls and women kidnapped for marriage in Kyrgyzstan:... |date=1 August 2017 |work=Reuters |access-date=26 August 2019 |language=en}}
</ref> It may be connected to the practice of bride price, and the inability or unwillingness to pay it.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/30/world/asia/abduction-often-violent-a-kyrgyz-wedding-rite.html |title=Abduction, Often Violent, a Kyrgyz Wedding Rite |last=Smith |first=Craig S. |date=30 April 2005 |work=The New York Times |access-date=26 August 2019 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}
</ref>

===Persecution, forced migration, and slavery===
Social upheavals such as wars, major military campaigns, [[forced religious conversion]], taking natives as [[prisoners of war]] and converting them into slaves, arrest and [[forced migration]]s of people often made a suitable groom a rare commodity. Bride's families would seek out any available bachelors and marry them to their daughters before events beyond their control moved the boy away. Persecution and displacement of [[Romani people|Roma]] and [[Jews|Jewish]] people in Europe, colonial campaigns to get slaves from various ethnic groups in West Africa across the Atlantic for [[Plantation (settlement or colony)|plantations]], and Islamic campaigns to get Hindu slaves from India across Afghanistan's [[Hindu Kush]] as property and for work were some of the historical events that increased the practice of child marriage before the 19th century.<ref name=goitein78/><ref>Andre Wink (1997), Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 2, The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest, 11th–13th Centuries (Leiden)</ref><ref>Assaf Likhovski (2006), Law and Identity in Mandate Palestine, {{ISBN|978-0-8078-3017-8}}; University of North Carolina Press, pages 93–103</ref>

Among [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Jewish]] communities, child marriages became frequent from the 10th to 13th centuries, especially in Muslim Spain.<ref name=Lieberman/> This practice intensified after the Jewish community was expelled from Spain, and resettled in the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Child marriages among the Eastern [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic Jews]] continued through the 18th century in Islamic majority regions.<ref name=Lieberman>Julia Rebollo Lieberman (2011), Sephardi Family Life in the Early Modern Diaspora, pages 8–10; Brandeis University Press; {{ISBN|978-1-58465-957-0}}</ref><ref>Ruth Lamdan, Child Marriages in Jewish Society in Eastern Mediterranean during the 16th Century, Mediterranean Historical Review, 2 (June 1996); Vol 11, pages 37–59</ref><ref>Joseph Hacker, in Moreshet Sheparad: The Sephardi Legacy, Vol 2, (Editor: Haim Beinart), Magnes Press, 1992; pages 109–133</ref>

===Fear, poverty, social pressures, and a sense of protection===
[[File:Dame (Alice) Ellen Terry ('Choosing') by George Frederic Watts.jpg|thumb|English stage actress [[Ellen Terry]] was married at age 16 to 46-year-old [[George Frederic Watts]], a marriage her parents thought would be advantageous; later she said she was uncomfortable being a child bride. Terry died at the age of 81, in 1928.]]

A sense of social insecurity is a cause of child marriages across the world. For example, in Nepal, parents fear [[social stigma]] if adult daughters (past 18 years) stay at home. Others fear crimes such as rape, which not only would be traumatic but may lead to less acceptance of the girl if she becomes a victim of such a crime.<ref>Thapa, S. (1996). ITS PREVALENCE AND CORRELATES. Contributions to Nepalese Studies, 23(2), pages 361–375</ref> For example, girls may not be seen as eligible for marriage if they are not virgins.<ref name=":1" /> In other cultures, the fear is that an unmarried girl may engage in illicit relationships,<ref name=saudi2009>{{cite web |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2009-04-30-saudi-arabia_N.htm |title=8-year-old Saudi girl divorces 50-year-old husband |work=[[USA Today]]}}</ref> or elope, causing a permanent social blemish to her siblings, or that the impoverished family may be unable to find bachelors for grown-up girls in their socioeconomic group. Such fears and social pressures have been proposed as causes that lead to child marriages. Insofar as child marriage is a social norm in practicing communities, the elimination of child marriage must come through a changing of those social norms. The mindset of the communities, and what is believed to be the proper outcome for a child bride, must be shifted to bring about a change in the prevalence of child marriage.<ref>[[Cristina Bicchieri|Bicchieri C]], Lindemans, Jiang. A social norms perspective on child marriage: The general framework. UNICEF, 2014</ref>

Families in extreme poverty may perceive daughters as an economic burden.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/s/gwi/rls/rem/2010/144989.htm |title=Targeting Girls in the Name of Tradition: Child Marriage |work=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> If they cannot afford to raise a child, seeking a [[Child marriage in the United States|child marriage]] for a girl can be seen as a way of ensuring her economic security and thus benefiting her as well as her parents.<ref name="Nour child marriage"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Zia |first=Asad |date=1 January 2013 |title=42% of underage married girls from Pakistan |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/487659/child-marriages-42-of-underage-married-girls-from-pakistan |access-date=5 October 2023 |website=The Express Tribune |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |title=International Law as an Instrument to Combat Child Marriage |last=Gaffney-Rhys |first=Ruth |year=2011 |journal=The International Journal of Human Rights |doi=10.1080/13642980903315398 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=359–373 |s2cid=143307822}}</ref> In reviews of Jewish community history, scholars<ref>Lamdān, R. (2000). A Separate People: Jewish Women in Palestine, Syria, and Egypt in the Sixteenth Century (Vol. 26). Brill; see pages 28–31</ref><ref>A. Grossman, 'Child marriage in Jewish society in the Middle Ages until the thirteenth century' (in Hebrew), Peamim 45 (1990), 108–126</ref><ref>Abrahams, Israel (2005). Jewish life in the Middle Ages. Routledge; see pages 183–189</ref> claim poverty, shortage of grooms, and uncertain social and economic conditions were a cause of frequent child marriages.

[[File:Drawings by young Syrian refugee girls in a community centre in southern Lebanon promote the prevention of child marriage. (14496389777).jpg|left|thumb|Drawings by young Syrian refugee girls in a community center in southern [[Lebanon]] promote the prevention of child marriage.]]
An additional factor causing child marriage is the parental belief that early marriage offers protection. Parents feel that marriage provides their daughter with a sense of protection from sexual promiscuity and safe from sexually transmitted infections.<ref name="Nour child marriage">{{cite journal |last1=Nour |first1=NM |title=Child Marriage: a silent health and human rights issue |journal=Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology |year=2009 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=51–56 |pmid=19399295 |pmc=2672998}}</ref><ref name="nourreport"/> However, in reality, young girls tend to marry older men, placing them at an increased risk of contracting a sexually transmitted infection.

Protection through marriage may play a specific role in conflict settings. Families may have their young daughters marry members of an armed group or military in hopes that they will be better protected. Girls may also be taken by armed groups and forced into marriages.<ref name=":4" />

In many communities, there is social pressure to marry off girls at a young age. This practice is often justified by cultural norms and the belief that it provides social and economic stability.

===Climate disasters===
A 2023 study found that the increase in environmental disasters tied to climate change were contributing factor to a rise in child marriage in at least 20 countries.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 October 2023 |title=Cambio climático: por qué las inundaciones y el clima extremo están causando un aumento de matrimonios infantiles forzados en el mundo |url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/articles/cx7j247lg40o |access-date=9 October 2023 |website=BBC News Mundo |language=es}}</ref>

===Religion, culture and civil law===
Although the general marriageable age is 18 in the majority of countries, most jurisdictions allow for exceptions for underage youth with parental and/or judicial consent.<ref name="too young"/> Such laws are neither limited to developing countries, nor a state's religion. In some countries, a religious marriage by itself has legal validity, while in others it does not, as [[civil marriage]] is obligatory. For Catholics incorporated into the [[Latin Church]], the [[1983 Code of Canon Law]] sets the minimum age for a valid marriage at 16 for males and 14 for females.<ref name="CIC1983"/>{{rp|at=[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P3Y.HTM c. 1083 §1]}}{{efn|name=CIC}} In 2015, Spain raised its minimum marriageable age to 18 (16 with court consent) from the previous 14.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://time.com/3970710/spain-marriage-age-of-consent-europe/ |title=Spain marriage age of consent Europe |publisher=time-com |date=24 July 2015}}</ref> In Mexico, marriage under 18 is allowed with parental consent, from age 14 for girls and age 16 for boys.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://embamex.sre.gob.mx/canada_eng/index.php/marriage-in-mexico |title=Marriage requirements in Mexico |publisher=Embamex.sre.gob.mx |access-date=18 February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218215805/http://embamex.sre.gob.mx/canada_eng/index.php/marriage-in-mexico |archive-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> In Ukraine, in 2012, the Family Code was amended to equalize the marriageable age for girls and boys to 18, with courts being allowed to grant permission to marry from 16 years of age if it is established that the marriage is in the best interest of the youth.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Child Marriage in Ukraine (Summary) |url=https://eeca.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/unfpa%20ukraine%20summary.pdf |access-date=1 October 2023 |website=UNFPA}}</ref>

Many states in the US permit child marriages [[Marriageable age#Americas|with the court's permission]]. Since 2015, the minimum marriageable age throughout Canada is 16. In Canada, the [[age of majority]] is set by province/territory at 18 or 19, so minors under this age have additional restrictions (i.e. parental and court consent). Under the Criminal Code, Art. 293.2 Marriage under the age of 16 years reads: "Everyone who celebrates, aids or participates in a marriage rite or ceremony knowing that one of the persons being married is under the age of 16 years is guilty of an indictable offense and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years."<ref name="laws-lois.justice.gc.ca">{{cite web |url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-46/page-160.html#docCont |title=Consolidated federal laws of Canada, Criminal Code |publisher=Legislative Services Branch |website=laws-lois.justice.gc.ca |access-date=3 March 2018}}</ref> The Civil Marriage Act also states: "2.2 No person who is under the age of 16 years may contract marriage."<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web |url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-31.5/page-1.html |title=Consolidated federal laws of Canada, Civil Marriage Act |publisher=Legislative Services Branch |website=laws-lois.justice.gc.ca |access-date=3 March 2018 |date=18 June 2015}}</ref> In the UK, marriage is allowed for 16–17 years old with parental consent in [[England and Wales]] as well as in [[Northern Ireland]], and even without parental consent in [[Scotland]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/marriages-civil-partnerships/overview |title=Marriages and civil partnerships in the UK |publisher=GOV.UK |date=16 December 2014 |access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> However, a marriage of a person under 16 is [[void marriage|void]] under the [[Matrimonial Causes Act 1973]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1973/18 |title=Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 |publisher=Legislation.gov.uk |access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> The [[United Nations Population Fund]] stated the following:<ref name="too young"/>

{{blockquote|In 2010, 158 countries reported that 18 years was the minimum legal age for marriage for women without parental consent or approval by a pertinent authority. However, in 146 countries, state or customary law allows girls younger than 18 to marry with the consent of parents or other authorities; in 52 countries, girls under age 15 can marry with parental consent. In contrast, 18 is the legal age for marriage without consent among males in 180 countries. Additionally, in 105 countries, boys can marry with the consent of a parent or a pertinent authority, and in 23 countries, boys under age 15 can marry with parental consent.}}

A lower legally allowed marriage age does not necessarily cause high rates of child marriages. However, there is a correlation between restrictions placed by laws and the average age of first marriage. In the United States, per [[1960 United States census|1960 census]] data, 3.5% of girls married before the age of 16, while an additional 11.9% married between 16 and 18. States with lower marriage age limits saw higher percentages of child marriages.<ref name=ncbi/> This correlation between the higher age of marriage in civil law and the observed frequency of child marriages breaks down in countries with Islam as the state religion. In Islamic nations, many countries do not allow child marriage of girls under their civil code of laws, but the state-recognized Sharia religious laws and courts in all these nations have the power to override the civil code, and often do. [[UNICEF]] reports that the top eight nations in the world with the highest observed child marriage rates are Niger (75%), Chad (72%), Mali (71%), Bangladesh (64%), Guinea (63%), Central African Republic (61%), Mozambique (56%), and Nepal (51%).<ref name=unicef12a>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/sowc09/docs/SOWC09-CountryExample-Mali.pdf |title=Child Marriage is a Death Sentence for Many Young Girls |publisher=UNICEF |year=2012 |access-date=11 August 2013 |archive-date=13 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113035429/https://www.unicef.org/sowc09/docs/SOWC09-CountryExample-Mali.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Marriageable age in religious sources===
====Judaism====
Ancient [[Rabbi]]s set the age of marriage for every [[Israelite]] at 18 years old; males are expected to be married by 20 years old in [[teenage marriage]] and females can stay unmarried but must be celibate.<ref name="jewishencyclopedia.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10435-marriage-laws |title=MARRIAGE LAWS |website=jewishencyclopedia.com |access-date=10 June 2020}}</ref>

In [[Rabbinic Judaism]], males cannot consent to marriage until they reach the age of 13 years and a day and have undergone puberty. They are considered [[Minor (law)|minors]] until the age of twenty. The same rules apply to females, except their age is 12 years and a day. If females show no signs of puberty and males show no signs of puberty or do show impotence, they automatically become adults by age 35 and can marry.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10861-minority |title=MAJORITY |website=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10888-mi-un |title=MI'UN |website=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref>

A large age gap between spouses, in either direction, is advised against as unwise.<ref>''[[Yebamot]]'' 44a</ref> A younger woman marrying a significantly older man however is especially problematic: marrying one's young daughter to an old man was declared as reprehensible as forcing her into prostitution.<ref name="Sanhedrin 76a.23-25"/>

A ''ketannah'' (literally meaning "little [one]") was any girl between the age of 3 years and 12 years plus one day;<ref name="JewEncMaj">{{Jewish Encyclopedia |article=Majority |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?letter=M&artid=91}}</ref> she was subject to her father's authority, and he could arrange a marriage for her without her agreement.<ref name="JewEncMaj" /> However, after reaching the age of maturity, she would have to agree to the marriage to be considered married.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/legal-religious-status-of-married-woman |title=CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR LEGAL MARRIAGE |author=Tirzah Meacham |access-date=10 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10435-marriage-laws |title=MARRIAGE LAWS |author1=Solomon Schechter |author2=Julius H. Greenstone |access-date=10 June 2020}}</ref>

====Christianity====
The minimum ages of consent for marriage in the Catholic Church are 14 for girls and 16 for boys. Being underage constitutes a [[diriment impediment]]. That is, a marriage involving an underage bride or groom is canonically invalid. A [[Conference of Bishops]] may adopt a higher age for marriage, but in that case, the higher age only creates a prohibitive impediment, that is, a marriage involving a bride or groom above the Church's minimum age but below that set by the Conference is ''[[valid but illicit]]''. Permission to marry against a civil authority's directive requires the permission of the [[Ordinary (Catholic Church)|Ordinary]], which, in the case of sensible and equal laws regarding marriage age, is not usually granted. The permission by the Ordinary is also required in case of a marriage of a minor when their parents are unaware of his marriage or if their parents reasonably oppose the marriage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/cod-iuris-canonici/eng/documents/cic_lib4-cann998-1165_en.html#CHAPTER%20III |title=Code of Canon Law – IntraText |publisher=Vatican.va |access-date=20 January 2021}}</ref>

====Islam====
In classical [[Sharia|Islamic law]], suitability for marital relations is conditional on physical maturity (''bulugh'') and mental maturity (''rushd''). Classical jurists did not stipulate a minimum marriageable age because they did not believe that maturity is reached by everyone at a specific age.<ref name="Watt">{{harvnb|Watt|1960}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Spellberg|1996|p=40}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="Nour child marriage"/><ref>{{harvnb|Barlas|2002|pp=125–126}}</ref> Büchler and Schlater observe that "marriageable age according to classical Islamic law coincides with the occurrence of puberty. The notion of puberty refers to signs of physical maturity such as the emission of semen or the onset of menstruation". Traditional schools of Islamic jurisprudence ([[madhaahib]]) define the age of full legal capacity to enter marriage as follows:<ref name=buchler-schlater>{{cite journal |url=http://www.zora.uzh.ch/78204/1/Beitrag_Buechler_Schlatter_final.pdf |title=Marriage Age in Islamic and Contemporary Muslim Family Laws: A Comparative Survey |last1=Büchler |first1=Andrea |last2=Schlatter |first2=Christina |journal=Electronic Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law |volume=1 |issn=1664-5707 |year=2013 |archive-date=4 July 2016 |access-date=6 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704233057/http://www.zora.uzh.ch/78204/1/Beitrag_Buechler_Schlatter_final.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" 60%;
|-
! !! Male age !! Female age !! Notes
|-
| [[Shafi'i]]||align=center|15||align=center|15||
|-
| [[Hanbali]]||align=center|15||align=center|15||
|-
| [[Maliki]]||align=center|17||align=center|17||
|-
| [[Hanafi]]||align=center|12–18||align=center|9–17||Marriageable age is whenever the person reaches puberty, which may vary from person to person. Listed ages are when Hanafis presume puberty occurs in males and females.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.zora.uzh.ch/78204/1/Beitrag_Buechler_Schlatter_final.pdf |title=Marriage Age in Islamic and Contemporary Muslim Family Laws: A Comparative Survey |last1=Büchler |first1=Andrea |last2=Schlatter |first2=Christina |journal=Electronic Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law |volume=1 |issn=1664-5707 |year=2013 |quote=Marriageable age according to classical Islamic law coincides with the occurrence of puberty. The notion of puberty refers to signs of physical maturity such as the emission of semen or the onset of menstruation. In the absence of such signs, the Hanafi school assumes that puberty will occur no later than at eighteen years for males and seventeen years for females |archive-date=4 July 2016 |access-date=6 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704233057/http://www.zora.uzh.ch/78204/1/Beitrag_Buechler_Schlatter_final.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| [[Ja'fari jurisprudence|Jafari]]||align=center|15||align=center|9||[[Shia]]
|}

According to Büchler and Schlater, while marriageable age is not the same as the legal majority under civil law, these age limits may correspond.<ref name=buchler-schlater/>

The 1917 codification of Islamic family law in the [[Ottoman Empire]] distinguished between the age of competence for marriage, which was set at 18 for boys and 17 for girls, and the minimum age for marriage, which followed the traditional Hanafi ages of the legal majority of 12 for boys and 9 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence was permissible only if proof of sexual maturity was accepted in court, while marriage under the minimum age was forbidden. During the 20th century, most countries in the Middle East followed the Ottoman precedent in defining the age of competence, while raising the minimum age to 15 or 16 for boys and 13–16 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence is subject to approval by a judge and the legal guardian of the adolescent. Egypt diverged from this pattern by setting the age limits of 18 for boys and 16 for girls, without a distinction between competence for marriage and minimum age.<ref name=EI2-8-29>{{Cite encyclopedia |author1=Schacht, J. |author2=Layish, A. |author3=Shaham, R. |author4=Ansari, Ghaus |author5=Otto, J.M. |author6=Pompe, S. |author7=Knappert, J. |author8=Boyd, Jean |year=1995 |title=Nikāḥ |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |editor1=P. Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=C.E. Bosworth |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs |volume=8 |page=29}}</ref> In 2020, Saudi Arabia officially banned all marriages under the age of 18.<ref name=":8">{{cite web |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/gcc/saudi-arabia-moves-to-ban-child-marriage-with-a-new-ruling-1.955310 |title=Saudi Arabia moves to ban child marriage with a new ruling |website=The National |date=24 December 2019 |language=en |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref> The push to ban child marriage was initially opposed by senior clergy, who argued that a woman reaches adulthood at puberty.<ref name=thenational>{{cite news |title=Saudi push to end child marriages |newspaper=The National |author=Wael Mahdi |date=1 July 2009 |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/mena/saudi-push-to-end-child-marriages-1.541430}}</ref> However, by 2019 the [[Saudi Shura Council]] had outlawed marriages under the age of 15 and required court approval for those under 18.<ref name=":7">{{cite web |url=https://aawsat.com/english/home/article/1540156/saudi-arabia-introduces-new-regulations-early-marriage |title=Saudi Arabia Introduces New Regulations for Early Marriage |last=Al Khataf |first=Iman |website=Asharq Al-aswat}}</ref>

===Politics and financial relationships===
[[File:Lodewijk XIV-Marriage.jpg|thumb|Child marriage in 1697 of [[Marie Adélaïde of Savoy]], age 12 to Louis, heir apparent of France age 15. The marriage created a political alliance.]]
Child marriages may depend upon socio-economic status. The aristocracy in some cultures, as in the European [[feudal]] era tended to use child marriage as a method to secure political ties. Families were able to cement political and/or financial ties by having their children marry.<ref>Shulamith Shaha (1983), ''The Fourth Estate: A History of Women in the Middle Ages'', {{ISBN|0-415-30851-8}}, Routledge, pages 131–149</ref> The betrothal is considered a binding contract between the families and the children. The breaking of a betrothal can have serious consequences both for the families and for the betrothed individuals themselves.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

==Effects on global regions==
A UNFPA report stated: "For the period 2000–2011, just over one third (an estimated 34 percent) of women aged 20 to 24 years in developing regions were married or in union before their eighteenth birthday. In 2010 this was equivalent to almost 67 million women. About 12 percent of them were married or in union before age 15."<ref name="too young"/> The prevalence of child marriage varies substantially among countries.<ref name="too young"/> Around the world, girls from rural areas are twice as likely to marry as children as those from urban areas.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://data.unicef.org/resources/a-profile-of-child-marriage-in-africa/ |title=A Profile of Child Marriage in Africa |date=23 November 2015 |website=UNICEF DATA}}</ref>

===Africa===
[[File:RUN.webm|thumb|''RUN'', a short documentary film focusing on [[child marriage in Nigeria]]]]
[[File:Girl_Summit_-_22nd_July_in_London_(14498368279).jpg|thumb|Poster against child and forced marriage]]

According to [[UNICEF]], [[Africa]] has the highest incidence rates of child marriage, with over 50% of girls marrying under the age of eighteen in five nations.<ref name=unicef12a/> Girls in West and [[Central Africa]] have the highest risk of marrying in childhood. Niger has one of the highest rates of early marriage in sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Giwa |first1=Audee T. |last2=Hamza |first2=Sha'awanatu |date=15 December 2021 |title=Interrogating the Spectre of Child Marriage in the Selected Works of Zaynab Alkali and Abubakar Gimba |url=https://www.ejlls.com/paper/interrogating-the-spectre-of-child-marriage-in-the-selected-works-of-zaynab-alkali-and-abubakar-gimba |journal=Ebonyi Journal of Language and Literary Studies |volume=4 |issue=1}}</ref> Among Nigerien women between the ages of twenty and twenty-four, 76% reported marrying before the age of eighteen, and 28% reported marrying before the age of fifteen.<ref name=autogenerated4/> This UNICEF report is based on data that is derived from a small sample survey between 1995 and 2004, and the current rate is unknown given the lack of infrastructure and in some cases, regional violence.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Early_Marriage_12.lo.pdf |title=Child Marriage |publisher=UNICEF |year=2005 |volume=Table 1 |access-date=12 August 2013 |archive-date=28 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140828013412/http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Early_Marriage_12.lo.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

UNICEF stated in 2018 that although the number of child marriages has declined on a worldwide scale, the problem remains most severe in Africa, despite the fact that Ethiopia cut child marriage rates by one third.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 March 2018 |title=Child marriages declining, says Unicef |language=en-GB |publisher=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-43297085 |access-date=6 March 2018}}</ref>

African countries have enacted marriageable age laws to limit marriage to a [[minimum age]] of 16 to 18, depending on the jurisdiction. In Ethiopia, Chad and Niger, the legal marriage age is 15, but local customs and religious courts have the power to allow marriages below 12 years of age.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/82419/ |title=IRIN Africa – NIGER: Early marriage – from rural custom to urban business – Niger – Children – Economy – Education – Gender Issues – Human Rights |newspaper=Irinnews |agency=The New Humanitarian |date=16 January 2009}}</ref> Child marriages of girls in West Africa, Central Africa and Northeast Africa are widespread.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://esaro.unfpa.org/public/cache/offonce/pid/12340;jsessionid=335EEB85D3DDF28D04E3D82F7753FC83.jahia01 |title=Africa – Child marriage |author=Lbarnes |work=unfpa.org |access-date=12 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014172929/http://esaro.unfpa.org/public/cache/offonce/pid/12340;jsessionid=335EEB85D3DDF28D04E3D82F7753FC83.jahia01 |archive-date=14 October 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Additionally, poverty, religion, tradition, and conflict make the rate of child marriage in Sub-Saharan Africa very high in some regions.<ref name="nourreport">{{citation |last=Nour |first=Nawal M. |title=Health Consequences of Child Marriage in Africa |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=12 |issue=11 |pages=1644–1649 |year=2006 |url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/11/06-0510_article |issn=1080-6059 |pmid=17283612 |doi=10.3201/eid1211.060510 |pmc=3372345}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.plan-uk.org/early-and-forced-marriage/ |title=Ending Forced Child Marriage |access-date=4 January 2025 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108051310/https://plan-uk.org/resources/documents/Breaking-Vows-Early-and-Forced-Marriage-and-Girls-Education/ |archive-date=8 November 2011}}</ref>

In many traditional systems, a man pays a [[bride price]] to the girl's family to marry her (comparable to the customs of dowry and [[dower]]). In many parts of Africa, this payment, in cash, cattle, or other valuables, decreases as a girl gets older. Even before a girl reaches puberty, it is common for a married girl to leave her parents to be with her husband. Many marriages are related to poverty, with parents needing the bride price of a daughter to feed, clothe, educate, and house the rest of the family. In Mali, the female-to-male ratio of marriage before age 18 is 72:1; in Kenya, 21:1.<ref name="nourreport" />

The various reports indicate that in many Sub-Saharan countries, there is a high incidence of marriage among girls younger than 15. Many governments have tended to overlook the particular problems resulting from child marriage, including [[obstetric fistula]]e, [[premature birth]]s, [[stillbirth]], [[sexually transmitted diseases]] (including [[cervical cancer]]), and [[malaria]].<ref name="nourreport" />

In parts of Ethiopia and Nigeria, many girls are married before the age of 15, some as young as 7.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 May 2022 |title=FEATURE {{!}} 'Living as orphan': The story of Nigerian girls running away from child marriage |url=https://theinformant247.com/feature-living-as-orphan-the-story-of-nigerian-girls-running-away-from-early-marriage/ |access-date=8 June 2022 |website=The Informant247 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite web |url=http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2005/presskit/factsheets/facts_child_marriage.htm |title=Child marriage – UNFPA – United Nations Population Fund |work=unfpa.org}}</ref> In parts of Mali, 39% of girls are married before the age of 15. In Niger and Chad, over 70% of girls are married before the age of 18.<ref name="nourreport" /> Over fifty million women in Africa were married before the age of 18.<ref name="i538">{{cite web |last=Hassfurter |first=Karoline |title=Child marriage in Eastern and Southern Africa: A statistical overview and reflections on ending the practice |website=UNICEF DATA |date=16 June 2022 |url=https://data.unicef.org/resources/child-marriage-in-eastern-and-southern-africa-a-statistical-overview-and-reflections-on-ending-the-practice/ |access-date=27 October 2024}}</ref>

====The Gambia====
In 2016, during a feast ending the [[Muslim]] holy month of [[Ramadan]], [[the Gambia|Gambia]]n President [[Yahya Jammeh]] announced that child and forced marriages were banned.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/cb97e2220e2d4ced8046032c8387606f/gambias-leader-says-ban-child-marriage-today |title=Gambia's leader says ban on child marriage 'as from today' |agency=Associated Press |access-date=11 July 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220123839/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/cb97e2220e2d4ced8046032c8387606f/gambias-leader-says-ban-child-marriage-today |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated5">{{cite web |date=16 December 2015 |title=Gambia and Tanzania outlaw child marriage – BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36746174 |access-date=11 July 2016 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>

====Kenya====
In [[Kenya]], 23% of girls are married before age 18, including 4% by age 15.<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/kenya/ |title=Child marriage around the world: KENYA |work=[[Girls Not Brides]] |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref>

==== Malawi ====
In 2015, [[Malawi]] passed a law banning child marriage, which raises the minimum age for marriage to 18.<ref>{{cite news |last=Batha |first=Emma |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-malawi-childmarriage-law-idUSKBN0LK1Z020150217 |title=Malawi bans child marriage, lifts minimum age to 18 |work=Reuters |date=9 February 2009 |access-date=18 February 2015 |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018234916/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/02/17/us-malawi-childmarriage-law-idUSKBN0LK1Z020150217 |url-status=live}}</ref> This major accomplishment came following years of effort by the Girls Empowerment Network campaign, which ultimately led to tribal and traditional leaders banning the cultural practice of child marriage.<ref>{{cite web |title=United Nations General Assembly. Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights: Preventing and eliminating child, early and forced marriage |url=https://www.unodc.org/res/e4j/data/_university_uni_/preventing_and_eliminating_child_early_and_forced_marriage_html/english.pdf}}</ref>

====Morocco====
In [[Morocco]], child marriage is a common practice. Over 41,000 marriages every year involve child brides.<ref name=almo2012>{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/culture/2012/12/outlawing-child-marriage-in-morocco.html |title=Outlawing Child Marriage in Morocco – Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East |work=Al-Monitor |date=27 December 2012}}</ref> Before 2003, child marriages did not require a court's or state's approval. In 2003, Morocco passed the family law (''Moudawana'') that raised the minimum age of marriage for girls from 14 to 18, with the exception that underage girls may marry with the permission of the government-recognized official/court and girl's guardian.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://magharebia.com/fr/articles/awi/reportage/2009/10/09/reportage-01 |title=Les marocains évaluent les progrès de la Moudawana Siham Ali, Magharebia à Rabat (October 9, 2009) |access-date=3 March 2018}}</ref><ref>[http://www.crin.org/resources/infodetail.asp?ID=23980 Morocco: Underage marriages increase] CRIN, Rabat (28 January 2011)</ref> Over the 10 years preceding 2008, requests for child marriages have been predominantly approved by Morocco's Ministry for Social Development, and have increased (c. 29% of all marriages).<ref name=almo2012/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/CultureAndMedia/?id=1.0.2375314024 |title=Morocco: Child marriages continue despite law to curb practice – Adnkronos Culture And Media |work=adnkronos.com |access-date=28 September 2013 |archive-date=22 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822123838/http://www1.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/CultureAndMedia/?id=1.0.2375314024 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Some child marriages in Morocco are a result of Article 475 of the Moroccan penal code, a law that allows rapists to avoid punishment if they marry their underage victims.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/policyanalysis/morocco_62113.html |title=In Morocco, the rape and death of an adolescent girl prompts calls for changes to the penal code |date=28 March 2012 |work=UNICEF |access-date=28 September 2013 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828035630/https://www.unicef.org/policyanalysis/morocco_62113.html |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://arabia.msn.com/news/middle-east/1357449/morocco-eyes-law-on-rape-and-child-marriage/ |title=Morocco eyes law on rape and child marriage |publisher=[[MSN]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002161705/http://arabia.msn.com/news/middle-east/1357449/morocco-eyes-law-on-rape-and-child-marriage/ |archive-date=2 October 2013}}</ref> Article 475 was amended in January 2014 after much campaigning, and rapists can legally no longer avoid sentencing by marrying their victims.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25855025 |publisher=BBC News |title=Morocco amends controversial rape marriage law |date=23 January 2014}}</ref>

====Mozambique====
In 2019, [[Mozambique|Mozambique's]] national assembly passed a law prohibiting child marriage. This law came after national movements condemning Mozambique's high rate of child marriage, with 50% of girls marrying under the age of 18.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/19/mozambique-passes-law-end-child-marriage |title=Mozambique Passes Law to End Child Marriage |date=19 July 2019 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |language=en |access-date=28 July 2019}}</ref>

====Nigeria====
[[File:Marriage age in Nigeria.png|thumb|250px|Minimum age of marriage as implemented in different states]]
As of 2006, 15–20% of school dropouts in Nigeria were the result of child marriage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nguyen, Minh Cong and Quentin Wodon. 2012. "Child Marriage and Education: A Major Challenge". |url=http://www.ungei.org/files/Child_Marriage_Edu_Note.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818222110/http://www.ungei.org/files/Child_Marriage_Edu_Note.pdf |archive-date=18 August 2019 |access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref> In 2013, Nigeria attempted to change Section 29, Subsection 4 of its laws and thereby prohibit child marriages. Christianity and Islam are each practiced by roughly half of its population, and the country continues with personal laws from its [[Colonial Nigeria|British colonial-era]] laws, in which child marriages are forbidden for its Christians and allowed for its Muslims.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nigeria: Senate Denies Child Marriage Wrongdoing, Says Law May Be Revisited |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201307240287.html |work=[[AllAfrica]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=More on child brides: After a political fight, Nigeria will continue allowing them |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/07/24/more-on-child-brides-after-a-political-fight-nigeria-will-continue-allowing-them/}}</ref> In Nigeria, child marriage is a divisive topic and widely practiced. In northern states, which are predominantly Muslim, over 50% of the girls marry before the age of 15.<ref>{{cite news |date=4 September 2013 |title=Nigeria – Child Not Bride |work=[[AllAfrica]] |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201309040944.html}}</ref>

==== South Africa ====
In [[South Africa]], the law provides for respecting the marriage practices of traditional marriages, whereby a person might be married as young as 12 for females and 14 for males.<ref name="nourreport" /> Early marriage is cited as "a barrier to continuing education for girls (and boys)". This includes ''absuma'' ([[arranged marriage]]s set up [[cousin marriage|between cousins]] at birth in a local Islamic ethnic group), [[bride kidnapping]], and elopement decided on by the children.<ref>{{cite web |title=Learning from Children, Families and Communities to Increase Girls' Participation in Primary School |url=http://www.positivedeviance.org/projects/ethopedu/Ethiopia_girls_ed.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217053046/http://www.positivedeviance.org/projects/ethopedu/Ethiopia_girls_ed.pdf |archive-date=17 December 2008 |work=Save the Children USA report}}</ref>

==== Tanzania====
In 2016, the [[High Court of Tanzania|Tanzanian High Court]] – in a case filed by the ''Msichana Initiative'', a lobbying group that advocates for girls' right to education – ruled in favor of protecting girls from the harms of early marriage.<ref name="autogenerated5" /><ref name="Tanzania">{{cite web |date=8 July 2016 |title=Dispatches: Tanzanian High Court Rules Against Child Marriage | Human Rights Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/07/08/dispatches-tanzanian-high-court-rules-against-child-marriage |access-date=11 July 2016 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> It is now illegal for anyone younger than 18 to marry in Tanzania.<ref name="Tanzania" />

==== Zimbabwe ====
A 2015 Human Rights Watch report stated that in [[Zimbabwe]], one-third of women aged between 20 and 49 years old had married before reaching the age of 18.<ref>{{cite web |title=Zimbabwe's top court outlaws child marriage {{!}} News {{!}} DW.COM {{!}} 20 January 2016 |url=http://www.dw.com/en/zimbabwes-top-court-outlaws-child-marriage/a-18994890 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=23 January 2016 |first=Deutsche Welle |last=(www.dw.com)}}</ref> In January 2016, two women who had been married as children brought a court case requesting a change in the legal age of marriage to the Constitutional Court,<ref>{{cite web |title=Zimbabwe's Constitutional Court Outlaws Child Marriages |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/zimbabwe-constitutional-court-oulaws-child-marriages/3154549.html |website=VOA |date=20 January 2016 |access-date=23 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224001425/http://www.voanews.com/content/zimbabwe-constitutional-court-oulaws-child-marriages/3154549.html |archive-date=24 February 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> with the result that the court declared that 18 is to be the minimum age for a legal marriage for both men and women (previously the legal age had been 16 for women and 18 for men). The law took effect immediately and was hailed by several human rights, women's rights, medical, and legal groups as a landmark ruling for the country.<ref>{{cite web |title=Landmark ruling hailed {{!}} The Herald |url=http://www.herald.co.zw/landmark-ruling-hailed/ |website=herald.co.zw |date=20 January 2016 |access-date=23 January 2016}}</ref>

===Americas===
====Latin America====
Child marriage is common in [[Latin America]] and the [[Caribbean]] island nations. About 29% of girls were married before age 18 (as of 2007).<ref name="pbs2010" /> The [[Dominican Republic]], [[Honduras]], [[Brazil]], [[Guatemala]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Haiti]], and [[Ecuador]] report some of the highest rates in the [[Americas]],<ref name="unfpa.org" /> while [[Bolivia]] and [[Guyana]] have shown the sharpest decline in child marriage rates as of 2012.<ref>{{cite web |title=Marrying Too Young: End Child Marriage |url=http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/MarryingTooYoung.pdf |publisher=[[United Nations Population Fund|UNFPA]] |page=24}}</ref> Brazil is ranked fourth in the world in terms of absolute numbers of girls married or cohabitating by age 15.<ref name="blogs.cfr.org">{{cite web |title=Women Around the World » Child Marriage in Latin America |url=http://blogs.cfr.org/women-around-the-world/2015/08/04/child-marriage-in-latin-america/ |website=Council on Foreign Relations – Women Around the World |access-date=10 December 2015 |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211000316/http://blogs.cfr.org/women-around-the-world/2015/08/04/child-marriage-in-latin-america/ |archive-date=11 December 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Poverty and lack of laws mandating minimum age for marriage have been cited as reasons for child marriage in Latin America.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/digest7e.pdf |title=Early Marriages – Child Spouses |publisher=UNICEF |year=2010 |pages=5–9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.plan-uk.org/resources/documents/Breaking-Vows-Early-and-Forced-Marriage-and-Girls-Education |title=Breaking Vows: Early and Forced Marriage and Girls' Education |first1=Juliette |last1=Myers |first2=Rowan |last2=Harvey |publisher=Plan UK |location=London |page=24 |access-date=14 September 2013 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922121241/https://plan-uk.org/resources/documents/Breaking-Vows-Early-and-Forced-Marriage-and-Girls-Education |url-status=dead}}</ref> In an effort to combat the widespread belief among poor, rural, and indigenous communities that child marriage is a route out of poverty, some NGOs are working with communities in Latin America to shift norms and create safe spaces for adolescent girls.<ref name="blogs.cfr.org" />

In Guatemala, early marriage is most common among indigenous Mayan communities.<ref>{{cite web |title=What's Next in the Fight to End Child Marriage in Guatemala? |url=https://riseuptogether.org/whats-next-in-the-fight-to-end-child-marriage-in-guatemala/#:~:text=According%20to%20Unicef%2C%2030%20percent,boys%20and%2014%20for%20girls |website=Rise Up |access-date=23 May 2022 |date=10 October 2017}}</ref> In southeastern Colombia, historically the indigenous [[Paez people|Nasa]] sometimes married at early ages to dissuade colonizers from coercively taking girls.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Llano Quintero |first=Alejandra |title=HemBRujaS: Muchas voces de una lucha en la que faltan hombres |publisher=Planeta |year=2019 |isbn=9789584283924 |editor-last=Palacios |editor-first=Claudia |location=Bogotá |page=507 |chapter=Feminismo indígena es volver al origen de nuestra cultura – entrevista por Claudia Palacios}}</ref> In 2024, Colombia's congress voted to change the minimum age from 14 (with parental consent) to 18.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Alvarado |first1=Abel |last2=Torres |first2=Mauricio |date=15 November 2024 |title='They're girls, not wives': Colombia votes to outlaw child marriage |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2024/11/14/americas/colombia-child-marriage-law-intl-latam/index.html |access-date=3 January 2025 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref>

In 2023, 300,000 girls under the age of 18 were sold into marriage in the Mexican state of [[Guerrero]] alone.<ref name="auto6">{{cite web |url=https://www.newsendip.com/mexico-senate-reform-end-child-marriages/ |title=Mexican Senate approves constitutional reform to end child marriages |date=15 February 2024}}</ref> In 2024, the Mexican Senate voted unanimously to abolish the practices of child marriage in indigenous communities in Mexico, considering children's rights to be more important than tradition and customs.<ref name="auto6"/>

====Canada====
Since 2015, the minimum marriageable age throughout [[Canada]] is 16. In Canada, the [[age of majority]] is set by province/territory at 18 or 19, so minors under this age have additional restrictions (i.e. parental and court consent). Under the Criminal Code, Art. 293.2 Marriage under the age of 16 years reads: "Everyone who celebrates, aids or participates in a marriage rite or ceremony knowing that one of the persons being married is '''under the age of 16 years''' is guilty of an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years."<ref name="laws-lois.justice.gc.ca"/> The Civil Marriage Act also states: "2.2 No person who is '''under the age of 16 years''' may contract marriage."<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

According to a study from [[McGill University]], from 2000 to 2018, 3,600 marriage certificates were issued to children (mostly girls) under 18 in Canada.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 January 2021 |title=Child marriage is legal and persists across Canada |url=https://reporter.mcgill.ca/child-marriage-is-legal-and-persists-across-canada/ |access-date=21 May 2021 |website=McGill Reporter |language=en-US}}</ref>

====United States====
{{main|Child marriage in the United States|Age of marriage in the United States}}

Child marriage, as defined by [[Committee on the Rights of the Child]] and UNICEF, is observed in the United States.<ref name=HRWSeptember2023>{{cite news |title=How Do US States Measure Up on Child Rights? |work=[[Human Rights Watch]] |url=https://www.hrw.org/feature/2022/09/13/how-do-states-measure-up-child-rights |date=7 September 2023 |access-date=13 October 2024}}</ref> The UNICEF definition of child marriage includes couples who are formally married, or who live together as a sexually active couple in an informal union, with at least one member – usually the girl – being less than 18 years old.<ref name="Child Marriage"/> The latter practice is more common in the United States, and it is officially called [[cohabitation]]. According to a 2010 report by the United States' [[National Center for Health Statistics]], 2.1% of all girls in the 15–17 age group were either in a child marriage or in an informal union. In the age group of 15–19, 7.6% of all girls in the United States were formally married or in an informal union. The child marriage rates were higher for certain ethnic groups and states. In Hispanic groups, for example, 6.6% of all girls in the 15–17 age group were formally married or in an informal union, and 13% of the 15–19 age group were.<ref name=cohabitation>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_23/sr23_028.pdf |title=Marriage and Cohabitation in the United States: A Statistical Portrait Based on Cycle 6 (2002) of the National Survey of Family Growth |publisher=US Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> Over 350,000 babies are born to teenage mothers every year in the United States, and over 50,000 of these are second babies to teen mothers.<ref name=cdcteen>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/features/vitalsigns/teenpregnancy/ |title=Breaking the Cycle of Teen Pregnancy CDC, US Government (April 2013) |access-date=3 March 2018}}</ref>

Laws regarding child marriage vary in the different states of the United States. Generally, children 16 and over may marry with parental consent, with the age of 18 being the minimum in all but two states to marry without parental consent. However, all states but 16 have exceptions for child marriage within their laws,<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" /> and although those under 16 generally require a court order in addition to parental consent,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tahirih.org/pubs/understanding-state-statutes-on-minimum-marriage-age-and-exceptions/ |title=Understanding State Statutes on Minimum Marriage Age and Exceptions « Tahirih Justice Center |website=tahirih.org}}</ref> when those exceptions are taken into account, four states have no minimum age requirement.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=Child marriage traps girls in an inescapable legal hell. But it is still legal in 46 US states. |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/child-marriage-us-traps-girls-still-legal-in-46-states-2021-4 |website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref><ref name=":9" /> It is the only [[Member states of the United Nations|UN member state]] [[U.S. ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child|that has not yet ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child]].<ref name=HRWSeptember2023/>

Until 2008, the [[Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]] practiced child marriage through the concept of "[[Celestial marriage|spiritual marriage]]" as soon as it was possible for girls to bear children, as part of its [[polygamy]] practice, but laws have raised the age of legal marriage in response to criticism of the practice.<ref>{{Citation |last=D'Onofrio |first=Eve |title=Child Brides, Inegalitarianism, and the Fundamentalist Polygamous Family in the United States |journal=International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=373–394 |year=2005 |postscript=. |doi=10.1093/lawfam/ebi028}}</ref> In 2007, church leader [[Warren Jeffs]] was convicted of being an accomplice to [[statutory rape]] of a [[Minor (law)|minor]] due to arranging a marriage between a 14-year-old girl and a 19-year-old man.<ref>Dobner, Jennifer. [https://abcnews.go.com/TheLaw/wireStory?id=3645951 Polygamist Leader Convicted in Utah]. Associated Press. ABC News. 25 September 2007.</ref> In March 2008, officials of the state of Texas believed that children at the [[YFZ Ranch|Yearning For Zion Ranch]] were being married to adults and were being abused.<ref name="Blumenthal">Blumenthal, Ralph. "[https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/23/us/23raid.html?_r=1&ref=us&oref=slogin Court Says Texas Illegally Seized Sect's Children]". ''The New York Times''. 23 May 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-24.</ref> The state of Texas removed all 468 children from the ranch and placed them into temporary state custody.<ref name="Blumenthal" /> After the Austin's 3rd Court of Appeals and the [[Supreme Court of Texas]] ruled that Texas acted improperly in removing them from the YFZ Ranch, the children were returned to their parents or relatives.<ref>{{Citation |last=Winslow |first=Ben |title=All FLDS children returned to parents |date=5 June 2008 |url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700231922/All-FLDS-childrenreturned-to-parents.html |work=Deseret News |location=San Angelo, Texas}}{{dead link|date=November 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> In 2008, the Church changed its policy in the United States to no longer marry individuals younger than the local legal age.<ref>{{cite news |last=Anthony |first=Paul A. |date=2 June 2008 |title=Sect renounces underage marriage as children return |newspaper=Standard Times – San Angelo |publisher=Scripps Newspaper Group |url=http://www.gosanangelo.com/news/2008/jun/02/flds-children-heading-home-today/?print=1 |url-status=dead |access-date=9 July 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130710024402/http://www.gosanangelo.com/news/2008/jun/02/flds-children-heading-home-today/?print=1 |archive-date=10 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Winslow |first1=Ben |title=FLDS official: No more underage marriages, reunifications begin with the children |date=2 June 2008 |url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700231225/FLDS-official-No-more-underage-marriages-reunifications-begin-with-the-children.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012064054/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700231225/FLDS-official-No-more-underage-marriages-reunifications-begin-with-the-children.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 October 2013 |newspaper=[[Deseret News]] |access-date=10 September 2013 |last2=O'Donoghue |first2=Amy Joi}}</ref>

{{As of|2024|June}}, child marriage is legal in [[List of states and territories of the United States|34 states]].<ref name=HRWSeptember2023/><ref name="auto7"/><ref name=":9"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=New Hampshire law raises marriage age |url=http://wcax.com/2024/06/14/new-hampshire-law-raises-marriage-age/ |access-date=19 June 2024 |website=WCAX |date=14 June 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12" /><ref name=":11" /> Sixteen states have banned underage marriages, with no exception: Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Rhode Island, New York, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, Michigan, Washington, New Hampshire, Virginia, Maine, Oregon and Missouri.

In 2018, Delaware became the first state to ban child marriage without exceptions,<ref name="reuters.com">{{cite news |last=Thomsen |first=Jacqueline |date=10 May 2018 |title=Delaware becomes first state to ban child marriage |newspaper=The Hill |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/state-watch/387212-delaware-becomes-first-state-to-ban-child-marriage/}}</ref> followed by New Jersey the same year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 June 2018 |title=New Jersey governor signs law banning underage marriage |url=https://apnews.com/general-news-f4ab94a0b9444a01b803750491220983 |access-date=11 July 2023 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref> Pennsylvania<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 May 2020 |title=Pennsylvania just became the third state to ban child marriage – CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/pennsylvania-child-marriage-ban-third-state/ |access-date=11 July 2023 |website=www.cbsnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref> and Minnesota<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rep. Kaohly Vang Her – Governor Walz signs bill to end child marriages |url=https://www.house.mn.gov/members/profile/news/15532/29817 |access-date=11 July 2023 |website=www.house.mn.gov |language=en}}</ref> ended child marriage in 2020, followed by Rhode Island<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2021 |title=Rhode Island Is the Fifth US State to Officially Ban Child Marriage |url=https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/rhode-island-bans-child-marriage/ |access-date=11 July 2023 |website=Global Citizen |language=en}}</ref> and New York<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pietsch |first=Bryan |date=23 July 2021 |title=New York becomes sixth state in U.S. to ban child marriages |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2021/07/23/child-marriage-ban-new-york/ |access-date=11 July 2023}}</ref> in 2021, Massachusetts<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ibraj |first=Alba |date=4 August 2022 |title=Massachusetts Becomes 7th State to Ban Child Marriage |url=https://www.unicefusa.org/stories/massachusetts-becomes-7th-state-end-child-marriage |access-date=29 October 2023 |website=UNICEF USA}}</ref> in 2022, Vermont,<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 April 2023 |title=Vermont governor signs bill raising marriage age to 18 |url=https://apnews.com/article/marriage-age-18-vermont-child-f79af8798cd4f5adfa96fdb15f297275 |access-date=11 July 2023 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref> Connecticut,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2023 |title=Connecticut bans child marriage |url=https://www.courant.com/2023/06/02/connecticut-bans-child-marriage/ |access-date=11 July 2023 |website=Hartford Courant |language=en-US}}</ref> and Michigan<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 September 2023 |title=Gov. Whitmer Signs Final Bill in Package Protecting Children, Officially Banning Child Marriage in Michigan |url=https://www.michigan.gov/whitmer/news/press-releases/2023/09/27/whitmer-signs-final-bill-in-package-protecting-children-officially-banning-child-marriage |access-date=29 October 2023 |website=Governor Gretchen Whitmer}}</ref> in 2023, Washington,<ref name="auto7">{{Cite web |date=8 March 2024 |title=Washington Gov. Jay Inslee signs bill to ban child marriages |url=https://www.koin.com/news/washington/washington-child-marriage-ban-03082024/ |access-date=9 April 2024 |website=KOIN.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Virginia<ref name=":9" /> and New Hampshire<ref name=":10" /> in 2024 and Maine, Oregon, Missouri and Washington, D.C. in 2025.

Between 2000 and 2021, some 315,000 minors were legally married in the United States,<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|title=United States' Child Marriage Problem: Study Findings 2000-2021|url=https://www.unchainedatlast.org/united-states-child-marriage-problem-study-findings-through-2021/|website=Unchained At Last|access-date=2025-12-02|language=en}}</ref><ref name=HRWSeptember2023/> some as young as 10.<ref name=HRWSeptember2023/><ref name=":13" /> Most child marriages in the US are girls marrying adult men.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=HRWSeptember2023/> In fact, many of these marriages occurred at an age or with a spousal age difference that would typically be considered sexual violence.<ref name=HRWSeptember2023/><ref name=":13" />

===Asia===
More than half of all child marriages occur in the South Asian countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal.<ref name=":2" /> There was a decrease in the rates of child marriage across the [[Indian subcontinent]] from 1991 to 2007, but the decrease was observed among young adolescent girls and not girls in their late teens. Some scholars<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Changes in Prevalence of Girl Child Marriage in South Asia |last=Raj |first=Anita |year=2012 |journal=JAMA |doi=10.1001/jama.2012.3497 |pmid=22665097 |volume=307 |issue=19 |pages=2027–9 |pmc=4386922}}</ref> believe this age-specific reduction was linked to girls increasingly attending school until about age 15 and then marrying.

====Western Asia====
A 2013 report claims 53% of all married women in [[Afghanistan]] were married before age 18, and 21% of all were married before age 15.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/related_material/Afghanistan_brochure_0913_09032013.pdf |title=Afghanistan – Ending Child Marriage and Domestic Violence |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=September 2013 |pages=3–10}}</ref> Afghanistan's official minimum age of marriage for girls is 15 with her father's permission. In all 34 provinces of Afghanistan, the customary practice of ''[[Baad (practice)|ba'ad]]'' is another reason for child marriages; this custom involves village elders, or ''jirga'', settling disputes between families or unpaid debts or ruling punishment for a crime by forcing the guilty family to give their 5- to 12-year-old girls as wives. Sometimes a girl is forced into child marriage for a crime her uncle or distant relative is alleged to have committed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=44950 |title=United Nations News Centre |date=20 May 2013 |work=UN News Service Section}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?docid=49dc4b201c |title=Refworld – Afghan Girls Suffer for Sins of Male Relatives |author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |work=Refworld}}</ref> Andrew Bushell claims the rate of marriage of 8- to 13-year-old girls exceeds 50% in Afghan refugee camps along the Pakistan border.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://americamagazine.org/issue/364/article/child-marriage-afghanistan-and-pakistan |title=Child Marriage in Afghanistan and Pakistan |work=America Magazine |date=11 March 2002}}</ref>

{{anchor|Saudi Arabia}}The widespread prevalence of child marriage in the [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]] has been documented by human rights groups.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.aawsat.com/2009/01/article55256323/saudi-human-rights-commission-tackles-child-marriages |title=Saudi Human Rights Commission Tackles Child Marriages |date=13 January 2009 |access-date=19 October 2015 |publisher=Asharq Al Awsat |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807031314/http://english.aawsat.com/2009/01/article55256323/saudi-human-rights-commission-tackles-child-marriages |archive-date=7 August 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Saudi clerics have justified the marriage of girls as young as 9, with sanction from the judiciary.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/01/17/saudi.child.marriage/ |publisher=CNN |title=Top Saudi cleric: OK for young girls to wed |date=17 January 2009}}</ref> No laws define a minimum age of consent in Saudi Arabia, though drafts for possible laws have been created since 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/07/25/159321.html |title=Saudi Arabia to set minimum marriage age following surge in such weddings |publisher=Al Arabiya |access-date=3 March 2018 |date=25 July 2011}}</ref> Members of the Saudi Shoura Council in 2019 approved fresh regulations for minor marriages that will outlaw the marrying of 15-year-olds and force the need for court approval for those under 18. Chairman of the Human Rights Committee at the Shoura Council, Dr. Hadi Al-Yami, said that the introduced controls were based on in-depth studies presented to the body. He pointed out that the regulation, vetted by the Islamic Affairs Committee at the Shoura Council, has raised the age of marriage to 18 and prohibited it for those under 15.<ref name=":7" /> Saudi Arabia has officially updated the law, banning all marriages under the age of 18.<ref name=":8" />

Research by the [[United Nations Population Fund]] indicates that 28.2% of [[Marriage in Turkey|marriages in Turkey]] – almost one in three – involve girls under 18.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unfpa.org/webdav/site/eeca/shared/documents/publications/Turkey%20English.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001082934/http://unfpa.org/webdav/site/eeca/shared/documents/publications/Turkey%20English.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 October 2013 |title=Turkey – Child Marriage |publisher=[[United Nations Population Fund]] |access-date=21 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Turkish-women-strive-for-gender-equality-323694 |title=Turkish women strive for gender equality |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |date=20 August 2013}}</ref>

Child marriage was also found to be prevalent among Syrian and Palestinian-Syrian refugees in Lebanon, in addition to other forms of sexual and gender-based violence. Marriage was seen as a potential way to protect family honor and protect a girl from rape, given how common rape was during the conflict.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Syrian and Palestinian Syrian Refugees in Lebanon: The Plight of Women and Children |last=Charles |first=Lorraine |year=2013 |journal=Journal of International Women's Studies |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=96–111 |url=http://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol14/iss5/7}}</ref> Incidents of child marriages increased in Syria and among Syrian refugees over the course of the conflict. The proportion of Syrian refugee girls living in [[Jordan]] who were married increased from 13% in 2011 to 32% in 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Syrian Refugee Crisis: Regional and Human Security Implications |last=Berti |first=Benedetta |year=2015 |journal=Strategic Assessment}}</ref> Journalists Magnus Wennman and Carina Bergfeldt documented the practice, and some of its results.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mashable.com/2016/03/31/syrian-child-brides/ |title=He was 28, I was 13: The stories of Syrian child brides |first=Elizabeth |last=Pierson |website=[[Mashable]] |date=31 March 2016 |access-date=9 July 2016}}</ref> According to UNICEF, 28% of women in [[Iraq]] were married before the age of 18.<ref>{{cite news |title=Iraq: Personal Status Law Amendment Sets Back Women's Rights |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2025/03/10/iraq-personal-status-law-amendment-sets-back-womens-rights |work=Human Rights Watch |date=30 March 2025}}</ref>

====Southeast Asia====
[[Hill tribe]] girls are often married young. For the [[Karen people]], it is possible that two couples can arrange their children's marriage before the children are born.<ref>Marshall, H. I., (1922) ''The Karen of Burma''. Bangkok: White Lotus (Reprinted, 1997).</ref>

==== Indonesia ====
In a move to curb child marriage in [[Indonesia]], the minimum marriage age for girls in Indonesia was raised to 19 in 2019, equalizing it to that of males. Previously, under the 1974 marriage law, the marriage age for girls was 16, and there was no minimum with judicial consent.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/17/asia/indonesia-marriage-age-raise-intl-scli/index.html |title=Indonesia raises minimum age for marriage to curb child brides |first=Amy |last=Woodyatt |date=17 September 2019 |website=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-women-marriage-idUSKBN1W212M |title=Indonesia raises minimum age for brides to end child marriage |date=17 September 2019 |work=Reuters |access-date=17 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

There has been an increase in underage marriage which has been attributed to a rise in [[social networking]] sites like Facebook. It has been reported that in areas like Gunung Kidul, [[Yogyakarta]], couples become acquainted through Facebook and continue their relationships until girls become pregnant.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/08/04/facebook-blamed-sharp-increase-underage-marriage-g-kidul.html |title=Facebook blamed for sharp increase in underage marriage in G. Kidul |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |date=4 August 2011 |access-date=18 February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108093744/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/08/04/facebook-blamed-sharp-increase-underage-marriage-g-kidul.html |archive-date=8 January 2015}}</ref> Under Indonesian law, underage marriage is prosecuted as sexual abuse, though unregistered marriages between young girls and older men are common in rural areas.<ref name=thejakartaglobe>{{cite web |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/archive/cleric-with-child-bride-should-be-jailed-six-years-court-told/402657/ |title=Cleric With Child Bride Should Be Jailed Six Years, Court Told |work=Jakarta Globe |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203003635/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/archive/cleric-with-child-bride-should-be-jailed-six-years-court-told/402657/ |archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref> In one case that caused a nationwide outcry, a wealthy Muslim cleric married a 12-year-old girl. He was prosecuted for sexually abusing a minor and sentenced to four years in jail.<ref name=thejakartaglobe/><ref>{{cite news |title=Indonesia Cleric Jailed for Marrying 12-Year-Old |date=24 November 2010 |agency=The Associated Press |work=CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/indonesia-cleric-jailed-for-marrying-12-year-old/}}</ref>

Among the [[Aceh]] of [[Sumatra]], girls formerly married before puberty. The husbands, though usually older, were still unfit for sexual union.<ref name='nature man'>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j2-RUs_rbH8C&pg=PA90 |first=Elie |last=Metchnikoff |title=The Nature of Man: Studies in Optimistic Philosophy |publisher=Putnam |location=New York |year=1903 |page=90 |isbn=9780405095788}}</ref>

==== Malaysia ====

The current laws involving child marriage are very complex in Malaysia, primarily due to conflicts between the beliefs of the government and those disposed by the religious teachings of Islam.

A 41-year-old [[Malaysia]]n man married an 11-year-old girl in Golok, a border town in southern [[Thailand]], in June 2018, according to information made public in Malaysia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 June 2018 |title=41-year-old Malaysian weds 11-year-old girl in Thailand – Nation {{!}} The Star Online |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/06/30/41yearold-malaysian-weds-girl-30-years-younger-in-thailand/ |access-date=9 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630133131/https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/06/30/41yearold-malaysian-weds-girl-30-years-younger-in-thailand/ |archive-date=30 June 2018}}</ref> The man was the [[imam]] of a [[surau]] in a hamlet near [[Gua Musang District|Gua Musang, Kelantan]], and he already had two wives and six children. The girl's parents defended their choice to consent to the marriage.<ref>{{cite web |date=30 June 2018 |title='I'm just 11 and you're 41, but I'll wait for you' |url=http://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2018/06/30/im-just-11-and-youre-41-but-ill-wait-for-you/ |access-date=19 July 2018 |website=Free Malaysia Today}}</ref>

In response to this incident, Deputy Prime Minister Datuk Seri [[Wan Azizah Wan Ismail]] said that the marriage remained valid under [[Islam]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thesundaily.my/news/2018/07/10/govt-powerless-nullify-child-marriage-it-valid-under-islamic-laws |title=Govt powerless to nullify child marriage as it is valid under Islamic laws |last=Phung |first=Adrian |date=10 July 2018 |website=The Sun Daily |access-date=19 July 2018}}</ref> She also said in a press statement that "the Malaysian government 'unequivocally' opposes child marriages and is already taking steps to raise the minimum age of marriage to 18".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/malaysia-man-married-11-year-old-girl-oppose-child-marriage-10538734 |title=Malaysia 'unequivocally' opposes child marriages: DPM Wan Azizah on case of man who married 11-year-old |last=Chew |first=Amy |date=17 July 2018 |publisher=Channel NewsAsia |access-date=19 July 2018 |archive-date=19 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719113835/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/malaysia-man-married-11-year-old-girl-oppose-child-marriage-10538734 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Minister in the Prime Minister's Department, Datuk [[Mujahid Yusof Rawa]], proposed a blanket ban on marriages involving minors.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sinarharian.com.my/nasional/sekat-kahwin-bawah-umur-mujahid-1.860163 |title=Sekat kahwin bawah umur: Mujahid |last=Muah |first=Nurulfatiha |date=25 July 2018 |website=Sinar Online |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thestartv.com/v/mujahid-syariah-court-will-have-temporary-sop-on-child-marriage |title=Mujahid: Syariah court will have temporary SOP on child marriage |date=25 July 2018 |publisher=Star TV |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2018/07/392091/mujahid-wants-review-laws-which-allow-child-marriages |title=Mujahid wants review of laws which allow child marriages |last=Khairulrijal |first=Rahmat |date=18 July 2018 |website=The New Straits Times |access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/434735 |title=Mujahid: Underage marriage must be stopped |last=Loone |first=Susan |date=18 July 2018 |website=Malaysia Kini |access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref> In response, [[Malaysian Islamic Party|PAS]] Vice President Datuk Mohd Amar Nik Abdullah said that imposing a blanket ban on child marriage contradicts Islamic religious teachings and could not be accepted.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/07/25/kelantan-pas-imposing-a-blanket-ban-on-child-marriage-contravenes-religious-teachings/ |title=Kelantan PAS: Imposing child marriage blanket ban contravenes religious teachings |last=Habibu |first=Sira |date=25 July 2018 |website=The Star Online |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725121754/https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/07/25/kelantan-pas-imposing-a-blanket-ban-on-child-marriage-contravenes-religious-teachings/ |archive-date=25 July 2018 |url-status=dead |access-date=26 July 2018}}</ref> He also said it would be better to enforce existing laws to protect children from being forced into early marriages.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/07/26/pas-says-no-to-ban-on-child-marriage-vp-from-a-religious-perspective-it-is-not-wrong-to-marry-young/ |title=PAS says no to ban on child marriage |date=26 July 2018 |website=The Star Online |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726011722/https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/07/26/pas-says-no-to-ban-on-child-marriage-vp-from-a-religious-perspective-it-is-not-wrong-to-marry-young/ |archive-date=26 July 2018 |url-status=dead |access-date=26 July 2018}}</ref>

In July 2018, another case of a child bride was reported in Malaysia, involving a 19-year-old man from [[Terengganu]] and a 13-year-old girl from [[Kelantan]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Abdullah |first=Sharifah Mahsinah |date=22 July 2018 |title=[Exclusive] Another child bride case |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/exclusive/2018/07/393036/exclusive-another-child-bride-case |access-date=25 July 2018 |website=The New Straits Times}}</ref>

In August 2018, [[Selangor]] announced plans for an amendment to the Islamic Family Law (State of Selangor) Enactment 2003 which would raise the minimum age of marriage for [[Muslim]] women from 16 to 18 years.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 August 2018 |title=Selangor to raise minimum age for marriage for Muslim women |language=en-US |work=Free Malaysia Today |url=http://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2018/08/01/selangor-to-raise-minimum-age-for-marriage-for-muslim-women/ |access-date=2 August 2018}}</ref>

Another child marriage case was covered by the media in September 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2018/09/412355/yet-another-one-15-year-old-girl-marries-father-two-tumpat |title=Yet another one: 15-year-old girl marries father of two in Tumpat |last=Abdullah |first=Sharifah Mahsinah |date=18 September 2018 |website=The New Straits Times |access-date=18 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 September 2018 |title=Teenage girl marries 44-year-old man in Kelantan |language=en-US |work=Free Malaysia Today |url=https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2018/09/18/teenage-girl-marries-44-year-old-man-in-kelantan/ |access-date=18 September 2018}}</ref>

Malaysia planned to tighten the requirements for child marriages in 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.malaymail.com/s/1693756/dpm-child-marriage-amendments-only-next-year |title=DPM: Child marriage amendments only next year |work=[[Malay Mail]] |access-date=15 November 2018 |language=en}}</ref> Subsequently, any marriage with minors would have to go through a stringent approval process involving Shariah Court Department, the Home Ministry, State Religious Council, and Customary Courts.

==== Philippines ====
In December 2021, President [[Rodrigo Duterte]] signed a law criminalizing child marriage, including its facilitation and solemnization, and [[cohabitation]] of an adult with a child outside wedlock.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Parrocha |first1=Azer |title=Duterte signs law criminalizing child marriage |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1164695 |access-date=7 January 2022 |work=Philippine News Agency |date=6 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106192427/https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1164695 |archive-date=6 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Slisco |first1=Aila |title=Philippines bans child marriage while 44 U.S. states allow it |url=https://www.newsweek.com/philippines-bans-child-marriage-while-44-us-states-allow-it-1666658 |access-date=7 January 2022 |work=Newsweek |date=7 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107104344/https://www.newsweek.com/philippines-bans-child-marriage-while-44-us-states-allow-it-1666658 |archive-date=7 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Before the law change, the legal age for marriage was 18 for most Filipinos; however, [[Muslim Filipino]] boys were able to marry from age 15, and Muslim girls from puberty.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stephens |first1=Matthew |title=Islamic Law in the Philippines: Between Appeasement and Neglect |journal=Islam, Syari'ah and Governance Background Paper Series |year=2011 |page=8 |url=https://law.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/1547795/Stephens_web2.pdf |access-date=7 January 2022}}</ref>

According to UNICEF, 15% of Filipino girls were married before age 18, and 2% were married by age 15,<ref name="ph-inquirer">{{cite news |last1=Corrales |first1=Nestor |title=New law bans child marriage: 'Major victory' vs abuse of girls |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1537254/new-law-bans-child-marriage-major-victory-vs-abuse-of-girls |access-date=7 January 2022 |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |date=7 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107101541/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1537254/new-law-bans-child-marriage-major-victory-vs-abuse-of-girls |archive-date=7 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref> mostly in the Muslim-dominated [[Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao]] region.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nortajuddin |first1=Athira |title=Child Brides in Philippines' Bangsamoro |url=https://theaseanpost.com/article/child-brides-philippines-bangsamoro |access-date=7 January 2022 |work=The ASEAN Post |date=24 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116000855/https://theaseanpost.com/article/child-brides-philippines-bangsamoro |archive-date=16 January 2021 |quote=Although there are limited data in relation to child marriages in the region, the practice is reported to occur in BARMM, especially common among Moro and Indigenous communities}}</ref>

====Bangladesh====
Child marriage rates in [[Bangladesh]] are amongst the highest in the world.<ref name=unicef12a/> Every 2 out of 3 marriages involve child marriages. According to statistics from 2005, 49% of women then between 25 and 29 were married by the age of 15 in Bangladesh.<ref name=autogenerated4 /> According to a 2008 study, for each additional year a girl in rural Bangladesh is not married she will attend school an additional 0.22 years on average.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |url=http://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/3200264/ambrus_earlymarriage.pdf?sequence=2 |title=Early Marriage, Age of Menarche, and Female Schooling Attainment in Bangladesh |last1=Field |first1=Erica |year=2008 |journal=Journal of Political Economy |doi=10.1086/593333 |last2=Ambrus |first2=Attila |volume=116 |issue=5 |pages=881–930 |s2cid=215805592}}</ref> The later girls were married, the more likely they were to utilize preventive health care.<ref name=":0" /> Married girls in the region were found to have less influence on family planning, higher rates of maternal mortality, and lower status in their husband's family than girls who married later.<ref name=":0" /> Another study found that women who married at age 18 or older were less likely to experience IPV (intimate partner violence) than those married before age 18. It also found that girls married before age 15 were at an even higher risk for IPV.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yount |first1=Kathryn M. |last2=Crandall |first2=AliceAnn |last3=Cheong |first3=Yuk Fai |last4=Osypuk |first4=Theresa L. |last5=Bates |first5=Lisa M. |last6=Naved |first6=Ruchira T. |last7=Schuler |first7=Sidney Ruth |date=1 December 2016 |title=Child Marriage and Intimate Partner Violence in Rural Bangladesh: A Longitudinal Multilevel Analysis |journal=Demography |language=en |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=1821–1852 |doi=10.1007/s13524-016-0520-8 |pmid=27812927 |issn=1533-7790 |pmc=5568420}}</ref>

====India====
{{Main|Child marriage in India}}

[[File:Marriage of H.H Sri Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV and Rana Prathap Kumari of Kathiawar.jpg|thumb|In 1900, Rana Prathap Kumari, aged 12, married [[Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV]], aged 16. Two years later, he was recognized as the [[Maharaja of Mysore]] under [[British India]].]]
According to UNICEF's "State of the World's Children-2009" report, 47% of India's women aged 20–24 married before the legal age of 18, with 56% marrying before age 18 in rural areas.<ref name="unicef.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/sowc09/docs/SOWC09_Table_9.pdf |title=Child Protection |access-date=18 January 2009 |archive-date=19 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619111412/http://www.unicef.org/sowc09/docs/SOWC09_Table_9.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> The report also showed that 40% of the world's child marriages occur in India.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/01/18/stories/2009011855981100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090127015155/http://www.hindu.com/2009/01/18/stories/2009011855981100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 January 2009 |location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] |title=40 p.c. child marriages in India: UNICEF |date=18 January 2009}}</ref> As with Africa, this UNICEF report is based on data that is derived from a small sample survey in 1999.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Early_Marriage_12.lo.pdf |title=Child Marriage |publisher=UNICEF |volume=Table 1 |access-date=12 August 2013 |archive-date=28 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140828013412/http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Early_Marriage_12.lo.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> The latest available UNICEF report for India uses 2004–2005 household survey data, on a small sample, and other scholars<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Raj |first1=A. |last2=Saggurti |first2=N. |last3=Balaiah |first3=D. |last4=Silverman |first4=J. G. |year=2009 |title=Prevalence of child marriage and its effect on fertility and fertility-control outcomes of young women in India: a cross-sectional, observational study |journal=The Lancet |volume=373 |issue=9678 |pages=1883–1889 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60246-4 |pmid=19278721 |pmc=2759702}}</ref> report lower incidence rates for India. According to Raj et al., the 2005 small sample household survey data suggests 22% of girls ever married aged 16–18, 20% of girls in India married between 13 and 16, and 2.6% married before age 13. According to 2011 nationwide census of India, the average age of marriage for women in India is 21.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mospi.nic.in/mospi_new/upload/women_men_2012_31oct12.pdf |title=Women and men in India 2012 |publisher=CSO/Census India 2011, Government of India |page=xxi, Highlights item 5 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012024158/http://mospi.nic.in/mospi_new/upload/women_men_2012_31oct12.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2013}}</ref> The child marriage rates in India, according to a 2009 representative survey, dropped to 7%.<ref name=toi2012>K. Sinha [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Nearly-50-fall-in-brides-married-below-18/articleshow/11829410.cms Nearly 50% fall in brides married below 18] The Times of India (10 February 2012)</ref> In its 2001 demographic report, the Census of India stated zero married girls below age 10, 1.4 million married girls out of 59.2 million girls in the age 10–14, and 11.3 million married girls out of 46.3 million girls in the age 15–19 (which includes 18–19 age group).<ref name="censusindia.gov.in">[http://censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/C-Series/c_series_tables_2001.aspx Table C-2 Marital Status by Age and Sex] Subtable C0402, India Total Females Married by Age Group, 2001 Census of India, Government of India (2009)</ref> For 2011, the Census of India reports child marriage rates dropping further to 3.7% of females aged less than 18 being married.<ref name=chap22011>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/vital_statistics/SRS_Report/9Chap%202%20-%202011.pdf |title=Percentage of Female by age at effective marriage and by residence India and bigger States, 2011, chapter 2: Population Composition, Table Statement 12, India totals for ''< 18'', 2011 Census of India, Government of India (2013), page 26}}</ref>

The [[Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929]] was passed during the tenure of British rule on [[British India|Colonial India]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 19 of 1929 {{!}} Ministry of Women & Child Development{{!}}IN{{!}}uopzb |url=https://wcd.nic.in/child-marriage-restraint-act-1929-19-1929#:~:text=An%20Act%20to%20restrain%20the%20solemnisation%20of%20child%20marriage.&text=(1)%20This%20Act%20may%20be,India%20without%20and%20beyond%20India |access-date=11 October 2023 |website=wcd.nic.in}}</ref> It forbade the marriage of a male younger than 21 or a female younger than 18 for Hindus, Buddhists, Christians, and most people of India. However, this law did not and currently does not apply to India's 165 million Muslim population, and only applies to India's Hindu, Christian, Jain, Sikh, and other religious minorities. This link of law and religion was formalized by the British colonial rule with the Muslim personal laws codified in the Indian Muslim Personal Law ([[Sharia]]t) Application Act of 1937. The age at which India's Muslim girls can legally marry, according to this [[Muslim Personal Law#Muslim law|Muslim Personal Law]], is 9, and can be lower if her guardian (''wali'') decides she is sexually mature.<ref>Htun, M., & Weldon, L., {{cite web |url=http://www.gigronline.org/PDF/WBfam.pdf |title=Sex equality in family law: historical legacies, feminist activism, and religious power in 70 countries |publisher=World Development Report, (Purdue University, 2012) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006202313/http://gigronline.org/PDF/WBfam.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Wakf-Board-bristles-at-women-panels-advice-on-child-marriages/articleshow/20825619.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130702154934/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-06-29/hyderabad/40270978_1_wakf-board-child-marriages-aimplb |url-status=live |archive-date=2 July 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Wakf Board bristles at women panel's advice on child marriages |date=29 June 2013}}</ref> Over the last 25 years, All India Muslim Personal Law Board and other Muslim civil organizations have actively opposed India-wide laws and enforcement action against child marriages; they have argued that Indian Muslim families have a religious right to marry a girl aged 15 or even 12.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2238321.stm |publisher=BBC News |first=Charles |last=Haviland |title=Battle over India's marriage age |date=5 September 2002}}</ref> Several states of India claim specially high child marriage rates in their Muslim and tribal communities.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20101102142907/http://www.hindu.com/2010/10/29/stories/2010102965680300.htm Call to avoid ambiguity on minimum age of marriage] The Hindu (29 October 2010)</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/nation/story/20130715-child-marriage-indian-union-muslim-league-kerala-underage-marriages-764491-1999-11-29 |title=Legalising underage marriage is Indian Union Muslim League's new ploy to gain political mileage in Kerala : NATION |work=India Today |date=30 November 1999}}</ref> India, with a population of over 1.2 billion, has the world's highest total number of child marriages. It is a significant social issue. As of 2016, the situation has been legally rectified by [[The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006]].

According to the "National Plan of Action for Children 2005", published by Indian government's Department of Women and Child Development, set a goal to eliminate child marriage completely by 2010. In 2006, The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 was passed to prohibit solemnization of child marriages. This law states that men must be at least 21 years of age and women must be at least 18 years of age to marry.

Some Muslim organizations planned to challenge the new law in the Supreme Court of India.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/south/story/muslim-marital-age-muslim-women-indian-union-muslim-league-cpi-m-criticises-211990-2013-09-22 |title=Muslim marital age: CPI(M) criticises, Congress cautious |date=23 September 2013 |access-date=9 July 2016}}</ref> In latter years, various high courts in India – including the [[Gujarat High Court]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/prohibition-of-child-marriage-act-to-prevail-over-personal-laws-hc/ |title=Prohibition of Child Marriage Act to prevail over personal laws: HC |date=25 September 2015 |access-date=9 July 2016}}</ref> the [[Karnataka High Court]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Child-Marriage-Act-overrides-Muslim-Personal-Law-Karnataka-high-court/articleshow/18700656.cms |title=Child Marriage Act overrides Muslim Personal Law: Karnataka high court |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=27 February 2013 |access-date=9 July 2016}}</ref> and the [[Madras High Court]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-madras-hc-says-anti-child-marriage-act-prevails-over-muslim-personal-law-2073796 |title=Madras HC says anti-child marriage act prevails over Muslim Personal Law |date=1 April 2015 |access-date=9 July 2016}}</ref> – have ruled that the act prevails over any personal law (including Muslim personal law).

====Nepal====
{{main|Child marriage in Nepal}}

[[UNICEF]] reported that 28.8% of marriages in Nepal were child marriages as of 2011.<ref name=":5" /> A UNICEF discussion paper determined that 79.6 percent of Muslim girls in Nepal, 69.7 percent of girls living in hilly regions irrespective of religion, and 55.7 percent of girls living in other rural areas, are all married before the age of 15. Girls born into the highest wealth quintile marry about two years later than those from the other quintiles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Child_Marriage.pdf |title=Child Marriages in Southern Asia (see Solutions to Ending Child Marriage in Southern Asia: Nepal, Australian AID – ICRW |year=2009 |website=reliefweb.int}}</ref>

====Pakistan====
{{Main|Child marriage in Pakistan}}

According to a [[UNICEF]] report from 2018, around 18% of the girls in Pakistan were married before the age of 18<ref name="unicef18">[https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Child-marriage-database_Mar2021.xlsx Child Marriage Database]. UNICEF. 30 July 2021.</ref><ref>[https://atlas.girlsnotbrides.org/map/pakistan Atlas: Pakistan]. Girls Not Brides. 31 July 2021</ref> and 4% of the girls were married before the age of 15.<ref name="unicef18"/> In the past two 2013 reports suggest that over 50% of all marriages in [[Pakistan]] involve girls less than 18 years old.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nasrullah |first1=M |year=2013 |title=Bielefeld University, Germany, Girl Child Marriage and Its Effect on Fertility in Pakistan: Findings from Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey, 2006–2007 |journal=Matern Child Health J |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=534–43 |doi=10.1007/s10995-013-1269-y |pmid=23580067 |s2cid=26184621 |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/597697/social-customs-nearly-half-of-pakistani-women-are-married-before-the-age-of-18/ |title=Social customs: 'Nearly half of Pakistani women are married before the age of 18' – The Express Tribune |date=31 August 2013 |access-date=9 July 2016}}</ref>

The exact number of child marriages in Pakistan below the age of 13 is unknown, but rising according to the United Nations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/33985/pakistan-child-marriages-on-the-rise-across-rural-sindh |title=IRIN Asia – PAKISTAN: Child marriages on the rise across rural Sindh – Pakistan – Children – Human Rights |newspaper=Irinnews |agency=The New Humanitarian |date=31 March 2006}}</ref>

Another custom in Pakistan, called ''[[Swara (custom)|swara]]'' or ''[[Vani (custom)|vani]]'', involves village elders solving family disputes or settling unpaid debts by marrying off girls. The average marriage age of ''swara'' girls is between 5 and 9.<ref name=star2013>{{cite web |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2013/08/26/pakistans_child_brides_suffering_for_others_crimes.html |title=Pakistan's child brides: suffering for others' crimes |date=26 August 2013 |work=Toronto Star}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/10/2012101792934276587.html |title=Child brides blot tribal Pakistan |author=Mehreen Zahra-Malik |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> Similarly, the custom of [[watta satta]] has been cited<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.plan.fi/File/416b7ead-4c65-4ab5-a26c-0eb4cb80c560/Stealing+Innocence+-+Child+Marriage+in+Pakistan+(Plan+2011).pdf |title=Stealing innocence: child marriage in Pakistan |first=Samuel |last=Lane |work=Abo Akademi University |location=Finland |year=2012 |access-date=14 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012035244/http://www.plan.fi/File/416b7ead-4c65-4ab5-a26c-0eb4cb80c560/Stealing+Innocence+-+Child+Marriage+in+Pakistan+(Plan+2011).pdf |archive-date=12 October 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> as a cause of child marriages in Pakistan.

According to [[Population Council]], 35% of all females in Pakistan become mothers before they reach the age of 18, and 67% have experienced pregnancy – 69% of these have given birth – before they reach the age of 19.<ref>[http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/ayp0102.pdf Adolescents and Youth in Pakistan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312003405/http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/ayp0102.pdf |date=12 March 2014 }} Zeba Sathar, Cynthia Lloyd, et al., Population Council, with support from UNICEF; pp. 96–101</ref> Less than 4% of married girls below the age of 19 had some say in choosing her spouse; over 80% were married to a near or distant relative. Child marriage and early motherhood is common in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/ayp0102.pdf |title=Adolescents and Youth in Pakistan |first1=Zeba |last1=Sathar |first2=Cynthia |last2=Lloyd |work=Population Council, with support from UNICEF |volume=Table 5.8 and 5.15 |pages=188–193 |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312003405/http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/ayp0102.pdf |archive-date=12 March 2014}}</ref>

====Iran====
In [[Iran]], as in other developing societies, the phenomenon of child marriage, or early child marriage, is widespread.<ref>Ahmady, Kameel Et al 2017: An Echo of Silence (A Comprehensive Research Study on Early Child Marriage (ECM) in Iran). Nova Publishing, USA.</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite news |title=A Tale of Two Child Marriages |language=en |url=https://iranwire.com/en/society/103764-a-tale-of-two-child-marriages/ |access-date=7 February 2023}}</ref><ref name="auto5">{{Cite journal |title=The trend of girl child marriage in Iran based on national census data – PMC |year=2020 |pmc=7887999 |last1=Azimi |first1=K. |journal=Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters |volume=28 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/26410397.2020.1820655 |pmid=33032487}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Ahmady |first=Kameel |title=The Role of Temporary Marriage (TM) in Promoting Early Child Marriage (ECM) in Iran |date=2021 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4469-3_3 |work=Temporary and Child Marriages in Iran and Afghanistan: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Issues |pages=47–66 |editor-last=Hosseini |editor-first=S. Behnaz |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-981-33-4469-3_3 |isbn=978-981-334-469-3 |s2cid=234317299 |access-date=7 February 2023 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> According to the official statistics of Iran in 2013, as many as 187,000 marriages of children under the legal age were registered with the country's Civil Registration Organization.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ahmady |first=Kameel |date=29 March 2018 |title=Feminization of Poverty- The Cause and Consequence of Early Childhood Marriages in Iran |url=http://swiftjournals.org/sjssh/abstract/2018/march/Kameel2.php |journal=Swift Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=01–10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ahmady |first=Kameel |date=2018 |title=Feminization of Poverty- The Cause and Consequence of Early Childhood Marriages in Iran |journal=The Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities |s2cid=56407086 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ahmady |first=Kameel |title=Feminization of Poverty - The Cause and Consequence of Early Childhood Marriages in Iran |url=http://www.swiftjournals.org/sjssh/pdf/2018/march/Kameel2.pdf |issn=2986-9811}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=25 December 2018 |title=Iran's Parliament Rejects Motion To Raise legal age of marriage |url=https://iran-hrm.com/2018/12/25/irans-parliament-rejects-motion-to-raise-legal-age-of-marriage/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref> The vice president of prevention of social harms of the government's welfare organization stated that, in 2016, 17% of girls’ marriages in Iran took place before they reached the age of 18.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 June 2016 |title=17 درصد دختران قبل از 18 سالگی ازدواج می‌کنند |url=https://www.isna.ir/news/95031508655/17-درصد-دختران-قبل-از-18-سالگی-ازدواج-می-کنند |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=ایسنا |language=fa}}</ref> The border provinces of [[Razavi Khorasan province|Khorasan Razavi]], [[East Azerbaijan province|East Azerbaijan]], and [[Sistan and Baluchestan province|Sistan and Baluchistan]] are the three provinces where the highest number of child marriages occur.<ref>{{Cite web |title=irna./news |url=https://www.irna.ir/news/82775889/%D8%B0%D8%A8%D8%AD-%D9%83%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%83%DB%8C-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%AE-%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C-%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=www.irna.ir |date=26 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Child and forced marriage, including in humanitarian settings |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/women/child-and-forced-marriage-including-humanitarian-settings |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=OHCHR |language=en}}</ref><ref>احمدی کامیل. '''زنانه شدن فقر:''' علت‌ها و پیامدهای ازدواجهای موسوم به «کودک همسری» در ایران، فصلنامه مطالعات روانشناسی و علوم تربیتی، دوره 5، شماره 2، تابستان 1399، صفحات 177 – 163.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ahmady |first=Kameel |date=22 June 2021 |title=An Echo of Silence: A Comprehensive Research on Early Child Marriage in Iran |url=http://www.aftj.ir/article_160339.html |journal=Journal of Applied Family Therapy |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=508–527 |doi=10.22034/aftj.2022.338197.1533 |issn=2717-2430}}</ref>

Though the legal age of marriage in [[Iran]] is 13 years for girls and 15 for boys, there are cases of girls below the age of 10 being married.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ibtimes.com/child-bride-practice-rising-iran-parliament-seeks-lower-girls-legal-marriage-age-9-760263 |title=Child Bride Practice Rising in Iran, Parliament Seeks To Lower Girl's Legal Marriage Age To 9 |first=Vivian |last=Tsai |date=30 August 2012 |website=International Business Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tsai |first=Vivian |date=30 August 2012 |title=Child Bride Practice Rising In Iran, Parliament Seeks To Lower Girl's Legal Marriage Age To 9 |url=https://www.ibtimes.com/child-bride-practice-rising-iran-parliament-seeks-lower-girls-legal-marriage-age-9-760263 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=International Business Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="auto3">{{Cite web |title=Iranian girls ruined by child marriage – DW – 09/11/2017 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/child-marriage-in-iran-forces-girls-into-a-life-of-oppression/a-40450099 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=dw.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name="auto2"/> The same source pointed out that "child marriages are more common in socially backward rural areas often afflicted with high levels of illiteracy and drug addiction".<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |date=30 August 2021 |title=The Life of an Iranian Child Bride: An Animation by Marjan Farsad |url=https://iranhumanrights.org/2021/08/the-life-of-an-iranian-child-bride-an-animation-by-marjan-farsad/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Center for Human Rights in Iran}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Efevbera |first1=Yvette |last2=Bhabha |first2=Jacqueline |date=15 October 2020 |title=Defining and deconstructing girl child marriage and applications to global public health |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=1547 |doi=10.1186/s12889-020-09545-0 |issn=1471-2458 |pmc=7560271 |pmid=33054856 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="auto5"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=رپرتاژ - ازدواج کودکان |url=https://www.manototv.com/episode/2684 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=Manoto TV |language=fa |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223131128/https://www.manototv.com/episode/2684 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Ahmady, Kameel. The Role of Temporary Marriage (TM) in Promoting Early Child Marriage (ECM) in Iran, Swift Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, February 2021, pp 47–66.</ref> In October 2019, a prosecutor annulled the marriage of an 11-year-old girl to her adult cousin in rural Iran, and said he was indicting the mullah (officiant) and the girl's parents for an illegal underage marriage.<ref name="jpostOct19">{{Cite web |url=https://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/WATCH-Iranian-man-marries-11-year-old-girl-605352 |title=WATCH: Iranian man marries 11-year-old girl |date=22 October 2019}}</ref><ref name="auto4">{{Cite journal |last=Ahmady |first=Kameel |date=8 October 2021 |title=CHANGING THE ATTITUDE OF YOUNG PEOPLE TOWARDS MARRIAGE WITH A FOCUS ON LAW AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS SUCH AS RELIGION AND CUSTOM |url=http://psychologyandeducation.net/pae/index.php/pae/article/view/6826 |journal=Psychology and Education Journal |language=en |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=5233–5244 |issn=1553-6939}}</ref> According to the Iranian Students News Agency, nearly 6,000 children are married each year in Iran.<ref name="jpostOct19" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 March 2018 |title=وجود ۱۵ هزار بیوه زیر ۱۵ سال در کشور |url=https://www.isna.ir/news/96121709566/وجود-۱۵-هزار-بیوه-زیر-۱۵-سال-در-کشور |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=ایسنا |language=fa}}</ref>

The [[Committee on the Rights of the Child|UN Committee on the Rights of the Child]] (CRC) examining child marriage in Iran has warned of a rising number of young girls forced into marriage in Iran.<ref name="newsweek.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.newsweek.com/un-condemns-iran-increase-child-brides-young-10-423435 |title=U.N. condemns Iran for increase in child brides as young as 10 years old |website=[[Newsweek]] |date=5 February 2016 |access-date=3 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="auto3"/> The Committee deplored the fact that the State party allows sexual intercourse involving girls as young as 9 [[Lunar calendar|lunar years]] and that other forms of sexual abuse of even younger children is not criminalized.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/mideast/2016/02/04/un-decries-child-marriages-in-iran-whose-laws-permit-sexual-intercourse-with-girls-as-young-as-9 |title=UN decries child marriages in Iran whose laws permit sexual intercourse with girls as young as 9 |website=[[Daily Sabah]] |date=4 February 2016 |access-date=3 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title="سیاستی برای خاتمه ختنه زنان در ایران وجود ندارد" – DW – ۱۳۹۷/۸/۲۱ |url=https://www.dw.com/fa-ir/iran/a-46260381 |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=dw.com |publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]] |language=fa}}</ref>
CRC said that Tehran must "repeal all provisions that authorize, condone or lead to child sexual abuse" and called for the age of sexual consent to be increased from nine years old to 16.<ref name="auto2"/> The Society For Protecting The Rights of The Child said that 43,459 girls aged under 15 married in 2009. In 2010, 716 girls under the age of 10 married, up from 449 in the year prior.<ref name="newsweek.com" /><ref name="auto2"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Despite Outrage, No End In Sight For Child Marriage In Iran |url=https://en.radiofarda.com/a/many-iran-religious-leaders-support-child-marriage/29735413.html |access-date=7 February 2023 |website=RFE/RL |date=28 January 2019 |language=en}}</ref> On 8 March 2018 a member of the [[Tehran City Council]], [[Shahrbanoo Amani]] said that there were 15,000 widows under the age of 15 in the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.isna.ir/news/96121709566/وجود-۱۵-هزار-بیوه-زیر-۱۵-سال-در-کشور |title=وجود ۱۵ هزار بیوه زیر ۱۵ سال در کشور |date=8 March 2018 |website=ایسنا}}</ref><ref name="auto4"/><ref>{{Cite AV media |title=طنین سکوت (پژوهشی جامع بر باب ازدواج کودکان در ایران) |date=5 January 2023 |type=Learning |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yQp2ZIZINjI |publisher=kameel Ahmady |language=fa |access-date=7 February 2023 |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>

The Iranian Government has been criticized by the international community over its high rate of child marriage.<ref name="auto1"/>

In August 2019, Iran demonstrated its sensitivity towards its birth rates by arresting [[Kameel Ahmady]], an expert in the area of child marriage, and sentencing him to a nine-year and three-month imprisonment for alleged "subversive research." Ahmady's research focuses on harmful traditional practices such as early child marriage, female genital mutilation (FGM), sexuality and the [[LGBT|LGBTQ]]+ community, [[child labour]] and ethnic issues.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.practices-of-violence.net/female-genital-mutilation-in-iran/ |title=Female Genital Mutilation in Iran |access-date=7 February 2023 |archive-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129183216/https://www.practices-of-violence.net/female-genital-mutilation-in-iran/ |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=14 December 2020 |title=Kameel Ahmady: British FGM academic 'jailed in Iran' |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-55300694 |access-date=7 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=British-Iranian FGM, child marriage researcher arrested in Iran on unknown charges |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/british-iranian-fgm-researcher-arrested-iran-unknown-charges?amp=1 |access-date=7 February 2023 |newspaper=The New Arab |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=World needs to shout about scholars silenced by the state – Dr Alice König |language=en-GB |work=The Scotsman |url=https://www.scotsman.com/news/opinion/columnists/world-needs-shout-about-scholars-silenced-state-dr-alice-konig-1404878 |access-date=7 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Dehghan |first=Saeed Kamali |date=4 June 2015 |title=Female genital mutilation practised in Iran, study reveals |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/04/female-genital-mutilation-iran-fgm |access-date=7 February 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> His group fieldwork research on child marriage, carried out in 2017 and published under the title An Echo of Silence: A Comprehensive Research Study on Early Child Marriage (ECM) in Iran, brought him to the attention of the authorities because they believed he was campaigning to raise the legal age of marriage for girls.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Susanti |first1=Christina Esti |last2=Ahmady |first2=Kameel |date=7 November 2015 |title=Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in Iran |url=http://swiftjournals.org/sjssh/abstract/2015/november/Kameel.php |journal=Swift Journal of Social Sciences and Humanity |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=28–42}}</ref><ref>Ahmady, Kameel. THE NEXUS BETWEEN TEMPORARY MARRIAGE AND EARLY CHILD MARRIAGE IN IRAN, Paper presented at the 14th Eurasian Conference on Language and Social Sciences Hosted by University of Gjakova‘Fehmi Agani, KOSOVO, pp. 376–391, Jan 2022.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmady |first=Kameel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V4RZtAEACAAJ&q=kameel+ahmady |title=An Echo of Silence: A Comprehensive Research Study on Early Child Marriage (ECM) in Iran |date=2018 |publisher=Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated |isbn=978-1-5361-2365-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=An Echo of Silence: A Comprehensive Research Study on Early Child Marriage (ECM) in Iran – Nova Science Publishers |url=https://novapublishers.com/shop/an-echo-of-silence-a-comprehensive-research-study-on-early-child-marriage-ecm-in-iran/ |access-date=7 February 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>Ahmady, Kameel Et al 2021: An Echo of Silence (A Comprehensive Research Study on Early Child Marriage (ECM) in Iran). Avayebuf, Denmark.</ref>

==== Yemen ====
Child marriage is a common practice in Yemen, both in urban and rural areas.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=7 December 2011 |title="How Come You Allow Little Girls to Get Married?" |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2011/12/07/how-come-you-allow-little-girls-get-married/child-marriage-yemen |journal=Human Rights Watch |language=en}}</ref> As of 2023, an estimated 3.8 million Yemeni girls (about 30%) are married before the age of 18, with approximately 1.3 million girls (about 7%) married before the age of 15.<ref name=":yemen0">{{Cite web |title=Child Marriage in Yemen |url=https://childmarriagedata.org/country-profiles/yemen/ |access-date=26 October 2024 |website=Child Marriage Data Portal |language=en}}</ref>

According to [[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW), in 1999 the minimum marriage age 15 for women was abolished; the onset of puberty, interpreted by conservatives to be at age nine, was set as a requirement for consummation of marriage.<ref name=HRWYemenReport2001>{{Citation |title=World Report 2001 |chapter=Yemen: Human Rights Developments |publisher=Human Rights Watch |year=2001 |chapter-url=https://www.hrw.org/wr2k1/mideast/yemen.html |access-date=8 April 2010}}</ref> In April 2008, [[Nujood Ali]], a 10-year-old girl, successfully obtained a divorce after being raped under these conditions. Her case prompted calls to raise the legal age for marriage to 18.<ref name=Daragahi2008>{{Citation |last=Daragahi |first=Borzou |title=Yemeni bride, 10, says I won't |work=Los Angeles Times |date=11 June 2008 |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-jun-11-fg-childbride11-story.html |access-date=16 February 2010}}</ref> Later in 2008, the Supreme Council for Motherhood and Childhood proposed to define the minimum age for marriage at 18 years, the law passed in April 2009 with the age voted for as 17, however due to maneuvers by opposing parliamentarians the law was dropped the next day.<ref name="Assamiee&Al-Sakkaf2010">{{Citation |author=Mahmoud Assamiee and Nadia Al |title=Relative breakthrough in Yemen's early marriage dilemma |work=Yemen Times |date=25 March 2010 |url=http://www.yementimes.com/defaultdet.aspx?SUB_ID=33771 |access-date=8 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608055754/http://www.yementimes.com/defaultdet.aspx?SUB_ID=33771 |archive-date=8 June 2011}}</ref>

Since 2014 the [[Yemeni civil war (2014–present)|Yemeni civil war]] has led to severe disruption of economic, social and political systems. Extreme poverty drives many families in Yemen to marry off their daughters for financial relief, receiving a dowry in exchange, or sometimes to ensure the safety of girls in an unstable environment.<ref name=":yemen1">{{Cite web |date=24 June 2024 |title=Yemen's Daughters: The Battle Against Child Marriage Amidst War - ECDHR |url=https://www.ecdhr.org/yemens-daughters-the-battle-against-child-marriage-amidst-war/ |access-date=26 October 2024 |website=www.ecdhr.org |language=en-GB}}</ref> Limited access to education leaves young girls with limited options, as child marriage rates are significantly higher among uneducated girls (39.5%) compared to those with secondary education (22.3%).<ref name=":yemen0" /> [[Houthi movement|Houthi]] laws and policies have also forced the closure of several civil and human rights organisations and also further restricted access to education,<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 February 2023 |title=Houthis Violating Women's and Girls' Rights in Yemen {{!}} Human Rights Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/02/06/houthis-violating-womens-and-girls-rights-yemen |access-date=26 October 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=26 September 2023 |title=Gender Segregation at Sanaa University: A Worrying Trend for Yemen |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/2023/09/gender-segregation-at-sanaa-university-a-worrying-trend-for-yemen?lang=en |access-date=25 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=1 September 2022 |title=They are suffocating us': Amnesty condemns Houthis' stifling male guardianship rules |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/amnesty-condemns-houthi-guardianship-rules-women |access-date=25 October 2024 |website=[[The New Arab]]}}</ref> indirectly increasing child marriage rates.

===Europe===

====General====
Each European country has its own laws; in both the [[European Union]] and the [[Council of Europe]] the marriageable age falls within the jurisdiction of individual member states. The [[Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence|Istanbul convention]], the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the field of violence against women and domestic violence,<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 March 2014 |title=The Convention of Belém do Pará and the Istanbul Convention: A response to violence against women worldwide |url=https://www.oas.org/es/mesecvi/docs/CSW-SideEvent2014-Flyer-EN.pdf |access-date=3 November 2023 |website=[[Organization of American States]]}}</ref> only requires countries which ratify it to prohibit [[forced marriage]] (Article 37) and to ensure that forced marriages can be easily voided without further victimization (Article 32), but does not make any reference to a minimum age of marriage.

====European Union====
In the European Union, the general age of marriage ''as a right'' is 18 in all member states. When all exceptions are taken into account (such as judicial or parental consent), the minimum age is 16 in most countries. In 7 countries marriage under 18 is completely prohibited. By contrast, in 6 countries there is no set minimum age, although all these countries require the authorization of a public authority (such as a judge or social worker) for the marriage to take place.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! rowspan=2 | State
! colspan=2 | Minimum age
! rowspan=2 class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
!| Minimum age when all exceptions are taken into account
!| General age
|-
| {{flag|Austria}}
| 16
| 18
| 16 with parental consent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.austria.org/marriage-in-austria/ |title=Marriage in Austria |website=Austria |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-date=11 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111041737/http://www.austria.org/marriage-in-austria/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Belgium}}
| data-sort-value="0"|none
| 18
| Younger than 18 and only after judicial consent (with no strict minimum age). With parental consent, serious reasons are required for a minor to obtain judicial consent for a marriage; without parental consent, serious reasons are required and the unwillingness of the parents has to constitute an abuse.<ref>Articles 144, 145, and 148 of the Civil Code of Belgium.</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Bulgaria}}
| 16
| 18
| The new 2009 Family Code fixes the age at 18, but allows for an exception for 16 years olds, stating that "Upon exception, in case that important reasons impose this, matrimony may be concluded by a person at the age of 16 with permission by the regional judge". It further states that both persons wanting to marry, as well as the parents/guardians of the minor, must be consulted by the judge. (Chapter 2, Article 6)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kenarova.com/law/Family%20Code.pdf |title=Family Code : General Provisions |publisher=Kenarova.com |access-date=20 November 2015}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Croatia}}
| 16
| 18
| 16 with judicial consent.
|-
| {{flag|Cyprus}}
| 16
| 18
| 16 with parental consent, if there are serious reasons for the marriage.<ref name="coe.int">{{cite web |url=http://www.coe.int/t/dg3/familypolicy/Source/4_1_i%20Legislation%20on%20marriage.pdf |title=Council of Europe Family Policy Database : 4. Social Policy and Family Law : Marriage, Divorce and Parenthood |publisher=Coe.int |access-date=20 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151010091437/http://www.coe.int/t/dg3/familypolicy/Source/4_1_i%20Legislation%20on%20marriage.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.youthpolicy.org/pdfs/factsheets/Cyprus.pdf |title=Youth Policy Fact Sheet : Cyprus |publisher=Youthpolicy.org |access-date=20 November 2015 |archive-date=24 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024100043/http://www.youthpolicy.org/pdfs/factsheets/Cyprus.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Czech Republic}}
| 16
| 18
| Article 672 of Act No. 89/2012 Coll. the Civil Code (which came into force in 2014) states that the court may, in exceptional cases, allow a marriage of a 16-year-old, if there are serious reasons for it.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zakonyprolidi.cz/cs/2012-89 |title=Občanský zákoník (nový) – č. 89/2012 Sb. – Aktuální znění |work=Zákony pro lidi |access-date=28 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Denmark}}
| 18
| 18
|Since 2017, marriage is no longer allowed under 18.<ref name=Denmark2019/>
|-
| {{flag|Estonia}}
| 18
| 18
| Since 2022, marriage under 18 is prohibited.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ESTONIA Comprehensive national review report |url=https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2024-09/b30_report_estonia_en.pdf |website=www.unwomen.org}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Finland}}
| 18
| 18
| Under 18 marriages with judicial authorization were banned in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ts.fi/uutiset/4487764 |title=Lapsiavioliitot kielletään Suomessa – Oikeusministeri: "Lapsien tulee saada olla lapsia täysi-ikäisyyteen asti" |first=Niko |last=Vahtera |publisher=[[Turun Sanomat]] |date=20 February 2019 |access-date=9 April 2019 |language=fi}}</ref>

|-
| {{flag|France}}
| data-sort-value="0"|none
| 18
| Under 18 needs judicial authorization.<ref>{{Citation |title=Code civil – Article 145 |url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006070721&idArticle=LEGIARTI000006421971&dateTexte=20171110 |access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Germany}}
| data-sort-value="17.9"|18/unclear
| 18
| The minimum age was set at 18 in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bgbl.de/xaver/bgbl/start.xav?startbk=Bundesanzeiger_BGBl&start=//*%5B@attr_id='bgbl117s2429.pdf'%5D#__bgbl__//*%5B@attr_id='bgbl117s2429.pdf'%5D__1502380300881 |title=Bundesgesetzblatt |website=bgbl.de |access-date=10 August 2017}}</ref> In 2023, the German [[Federal Constitutional Court]] ruled this law in parts unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=29 March 2023 |date=1 February 2023 |title=BVerfG, Beschluss des Ersten Senats vom 1. Februar 2023 - 1 BvL 7/18 |url=https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Entscheidungen/DE/2023/02/ls20230201_1bvl000718.html |website=bundesverfassungsgericht.de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |access-date=31 March 2023 |title=Gesetz zur Bekämpfung von Kinderehen mangels Regelungen zu den Folgen und zu Fortführungsmöglichkeiten nach inländischem Recht unwirksamer Auslandskinderehen mit dem Grundgesetz unvereinbar |type=Pressemitteilung Nr. 36/2023 vom 29. März 2023 |url=https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Pressemitteilungen/DE/2023/bvg23-036.html}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Greece}}
| data-sort-value="0"|none
| 18
| |Under 18 requires court permission, which may be given if there are serious reasons for such a marriage<ref name="coe.int"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://greece.angloinfo.com/family/marriage-partnerships/ |title=Getting Married in Greece |access-date=28 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717165849/http://greece.angloinfo.com/family/marriage-partnerships/ |archive-date=17 July 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Hungary}}
| 16
| 18
| 16 with authorization from the guardianship authority<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.impowr.org/content/current-legal-framework-marriage-or-child-marriage-hungary |title=Current Legal Framework: Marriage or Child Marriage in Hungary |publisher=impowr.org |access-date=20 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117024830/http://www.impowr.org/content/current-legal-framework-marriage-or-child-marriage-hungary |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Ireland}}
| 18
| 18
| Since 2019, marriage under 18 is banned.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/birth_family_relationships/getting_married/legal_prerequisites_for_marriage.html |title=Legal requirements for marriage |last=Citizensinformation.ie |website=citizensinformation.ie |language=en |access-date=26 August 2019}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Italy}}
| 16
| 18
| 16 with court consent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://r2e.gn.apc.org/country-node/443/country-minimum |title=National law and policies on minimum ages – Italy – Right to Education |website=r2e.gn.apc.org |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110225502/http://r2e.gn.apc.org/country-node/443/country-minimum |archive-date=10 November 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Latvia}}
| 16
| 18
| 16 with court consent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://r2e.gn.apc.org/country-node/362/country-minimum |title=National law and policies on minimum ages – Latvia – Right to Education |website=r2e.gn.apc.org |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110225457/http://r2e.gn.apc.org/country-node/362/country-minimum |archive-date=10 November 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Lithuania}}
| data-sort-value="1"|none girls/15 boys
| 18
| 15 with court permission. Girls can marry below 15 with court permission if they are pregnant.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:yvIqWHiISFgJ:www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/CsaLithuania.pdf+lithuania+age+of+consent+interpol&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESi0C0o0KxrchPH7-cgnwLw8l9STSGqek6FgmlZbX1FW219q-nhlrRA4pHiMnbOZlQD4Ci-z8_TPuz3JGI5j3QeqE73RMNsoRtKjdtK-qJ9OxiQh8kGTRKil4Aoc80DOVrh4BX0X&sig=AHIEtbRwMRy1vEGSvVjsc2QmIUNUFc_l2A |title=Powered by Google Docs |access-date=14 January 2013}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Luxembourg}}
| data-sort-value="0"|none
| 18
| Under 18 need judicial permission. New laws of 2014 fixed the marriageable at 18 for both sexes; prior to these regulations the age was 16 for females and 18 for males. The new laws still allow both sexes to obtain judicial consent to get married under 18.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guichet.public.lu/citoyens/fr/actualites/2014/06/19-mariage-gay/index.html |title=Mariage et adoption s'ouvrent aux couples de personnes du même sexe |access-date=28 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024116/http://www.guichet.public.lu/citoyens/fr/actualites/2014/06/19-mariage-gay/index.html |archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Malta}}
| 16
| 18
| 16 with parental consent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.justiceservices.gov.mt/DownloadDocument.aspx?app=lom&itemid=8749&l=1 |title=Marriage Act, Section 3 "Restrictions on Marriage" |access-date=8 April 2016}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Netherlands}}
| 18
| 18
|Exceptions were removed by a change in the law in 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0037085/2015-12-05 |title=wetten.nl – Regeling – Wet tegengaan huwelijksdwang – BWBR0037085 |website=wetten.overheid.nl |language=nl |access-date=3 June 2018}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Poland}}
| data-sort-value="16.1"|16 girls/18 boys
| 18
| 16 for girls with court consent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://r2e.gn.apc.org/country-node/489/country-minimum |title=National law and policies on minimum ages – Poland – Right to Education |website=r2e.gn.apc.org |access-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110225409/http://r2e.gn.apc.org/country-node/489/country-minimum |archive-date=10 November 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Portugal}}
| 18
| 18
|Since 2025, marriage of minors is prohibited.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-28 |title=Unicef elogia Portugal por mudar lei que permitia casamento a partir de 16 anos {{!}} ONU News |url=https://news.un.org/pt/story/2025/03/1846726 |access-date=2025-08-30 |website=news.un.org |language=pt}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Romania}}
| 16
| 18
| 16, if there are valid reasons, with both judicial and parental permission, as well as medical approval.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://legeaz.net/noul-cod-civil/art-272-varsta-matrimoniala-conditiile-de-fond-pentru-incheierea-casatoriei-incheierea-casatoriei |title=Art. 272 Noul cod civil Vârsta matrimonială Condiţiile de fond pentru încheierea căsătoriei Încheierea căsătoriei | Noul Cod Civil actualizat 2015 – Legea 287/2009 |publisher=Legeaz.net |date=29 October 2011 |access-date=20 November 2015}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Slovakia}}
| 16
| 18
| 16 with court consent, with a serious reason such as pregnancy.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}
|-
| {{flag|Slovenia}}
| data-sort-value="0"|none
| 18
| Under 18 may be approved by the Social Work Centre if there are "well founded reasons" arising upon the investigation of the situation of the minor. (Art 23, 24 of the Law on Marriage and Family Relations).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mddsz.gov.si/fileadmin/mddsz.gov.si/pageuploads/dokumenti__pdf/zakonodaja/law_on_marriage_and_family_relations.pdf |title=Law on marriage and family relations |access-date=10 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417042710/http://www.mddsz.gov.si/fileadmin/mddsz.gov.si/pageuploads/dokumenti__pdf/zakonodaja/law_on_marriage_and_family_relations.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Spain}}
| 16
| 18
| 16 with court consent.
|-
| {{flag|Sweden}}
| 18
| 18
| Not possible to marry under the age of 18 for Swedish citizens since 1 July 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lansstyrelsen.se/Stockholm/En/manniska-och-samhalle/vigsel/Pages/default.aspx |title=Marriage |last=Marriage |website=lansstyrelsen.se |access-date=10 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024111611/http://www.lansstyrelsen.se/Stockholm/En/manniska-och-samhalle/vigsel/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=24 October 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Authorities take a different approach to individuals who were already married when they arrived in Sweden, as during the [[European migrant crisis]], the [[Swedish Migration Agency]] identified 132 married children, of which 65 were in [[Malmö]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.sydsvenskan.se/2016-06-21/132-gifta-barn-i-sverige-65-i-malmo |title=132 gifta barn i Sverige – 65 i Malmö |work=Sydsvenskan |access-date=13 February 2018 |language=sv-SE}}</ref>
|}

====Scandinavia====
In April 2016, [[Reuters]] reported "Child brides sometimes tolerated in Nordic asylum centers despite bans". For example, at least 70 girls under 18 were living as married couples in Sweden; in Norway, "some" under 16 lived "with their partners". In Denmark, it was determined there were "dozens of cases of girls living with older men", prompting immigration minister [[Inger Støjberg]] to state she would "stop housing child brides in asylum centers".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Doyle |first1=Alister |title=Child brides sometimes tolerated in Nordic asylum centers despite bans |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-europe-migrants-brides-idUSKCN0XI1MZ?feedType=RSS&feedName=worldNews&rpc=69 |access-date=22 April 2016 |work=Reuters |location=Oslo |date=21 April 2016 |quote=10 of those aged under 16 – the minimum local age for sex or marriage – were married and four had children, the Norwegian Directorate of Immigration (UDI) said. Of the 10 "some live in adult asylum centers, some in their own rooms and some with their partners", it said in emailed replies to Reuters questions ... Minister [[Inger Støjberg]] said that she would "stop housing child brides in asylum centers" after a review found dozens of cases of girls living with older men. ... authorities said that at least 70 girls under 18 were married in asylum centers run by municipalities including Stockholm and Malmo.}}</ref>

Marriage under 18 was completely banned in [[Sweden]] in 2014, in [[Denmark]] in 2017,<ref name=Denmark2019>{{cite web |url=https://www.ft.dk/samling/20161/lovforslag/l94/index.htm |title=SIDSTE STJERNEITEM |website=Folketinget |date=9 January 2017}}</ref> and in [[Finland]] in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ts.fi/uutiset/4487764 |title=Lapsiavioliitot kielletään Suomessa – Oikeusministeri: "Lapsien tulee saada olla lapsia täysi-ikäisyyteen asti" |date=20 September 2019 |website=[[Turun Sanomat]] |language=fi |access-date=26 August 2019}}</ref>

====Balkans/Eastern Europe====
In these areas, child and forced marriages are associated with the [[Romani people|Roma]] community and with some rural populations. However, such marriages are illegal in most of the countries from that area. In recent years, many of those countries have taken steps in order to curb these practices, including equalizing the marriageable age of both sexes (e.g. Romania in 2007, Ukraine in 2012). Therefore, most of those 'marriages' are informal unions (without legal recognition) and often arranged from very young ages. Such practices are common in Serbia,<ref>[https://www.unicef.org/serbia/en/child-marriage-among-roma-population-serbia "Child marriages in the Roma population in Serbia"], UNICEF, 2017.</ref> Bulgaria and Romania<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/4972768/Romanian-gypsy-children-become-engaged-aged-six-and-four.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/4972768/Romanian-gypsy-children-become-engaged-aged-six-and-four.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Romanian gypsy children become engaged aged six and four |date=11 March 2009 |access-date=3 March 2018 |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/early-marriage-deters-lesser-roma-girls-from-school-in-bulgaria-02-22-2016 |title=Bulgarian Roma Girls Still Quitting School Young |access-date=3 March 2018 |date=22 February 2016}}</ref> (in these countries the marriageable age is 18, and can only be lowered to 16 in special circumstances with judicial approval<ref>[https://advokatiubeogradu.rs/zakoni/PORODICNI-ZAKON-REPUBLIKE-SRBIJE.pdf Porodični zakon Republike Srbije] "The Family Law of The Republic of Serbia: Article 23" (in Serbian), 2005.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=FAMILY CODE |url=https://kenarova.com/law/Family%20Code.pdf |access-date=3 November 2023 |website=kenarova.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://legeaz.net/noul-cod-civil/art-272-varsta-matrimoniala-conditiile-de-fond-pentru-incheierea-casatoriei-incheierea-casatoriei |title=Art. 272 Noul cod civil Vârsta matrimonială Condiţiile de fond pentru încheierea căsătoriei Încheierea căsătoriei |access-date=3 March 2018}}</ref>). A 2003 case involving the daughter of an informal 'gypsy king' of the area has made international news.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3159818.stm |title=Gypsy child couple separated |date=2 October 2003 |access-date=3 March 2018 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>

====Belgium====
''[[The Washington Post]]'' reported in April 2016 that "17 child brides" arrived in Belgium in 2015 and a further 7 so far in 2016. The same report added that "Between 2010 and 2013, the police registered at least 56 complaints about a forced marriage."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ishaan |first1=Ishaan |title=Refugee child bride went on a hunger strike after Belgium separated her from husband |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/01/refugee-child-bride-went-on-a-hunger-strike-after-belgium-separated-her-from-husband/ |access-date=22 April 2016 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=1 April 2016 |quote=Official figures indicate some 17 child brides arrived among the refugee influx last year and another seven this year ... Belgium has had wider concerns over the prevalence of forced child marriages among some of the country's communities. Between 2010 and 2013, the police registered at least 56 complaints about a forced marriage.}}</ref>

==== Germany ====
In 2016 there were 1475 underage foreigners in Germany registered as married, of which 1100 were girls. [[Syrians in Germany|Syrians]] represented 664, [[Afghans in Germany|Afghans]] 157 and [[Iraqis in Germany|Iraqis]] 100. In July 2016, 361 foreign children under 14 were registered as married.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/gesellschaft/kinderehen-1475-minderjaehrige-in-deutschland-sind-verheiratet-a-1111624.html |title=Kinderehen: 1475 Minderjährige in Deutschland sind verheiratet |date=9 September 2016 |work=Der Spiegel |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125230033/http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/gesellschaft/kinderehen-1475-minderjaehrige-in-deutschland-sind-verheiratet-a-1111624.html |archive-date=25 November 2016}}</ref>

====Netherlands====
The Dutch government's National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings and Sexual Violence against Children wrote that "between September 2015 and January 2016 around 60 child brides entered the Netherlands".<ref>{{cite web |title=National Rapporteur concerned about Syrian child brides and Roma children |url=https://www.dutchrapporteur.nl/current/news/archief/new-report-national-rapporteur-concerned-about-syrian-child-brides-and-roma-children.aspx?cp=64&cs=69412 |publisher=National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings and Sexual Violence against Children |access-date=22 April 2016 |quote=child marriages occur in the Netherlands, drawing attention to the Syrian child brides who travel from Syria, often with an adult male. Between September 2015 and January 2016 around 60 child brides entered the Netherlands. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509024840/https://www.dutchrapporteur.nl/current/news/archief/new-report-national-rapporteur-concerned-about-syrian-child-brides-and-roma-children.aspx?cp=64&cs=69412 |archive-date=9 May 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> At least one was 14 years old.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dutchnews.nl/news/archives/2016/04/key-advisor-warns-on-child-brides-calls-for-more-action/ |title=Key advisor warns on Syrian child brides, calls for more action – DutchNews.nl |date=15 April 2016 |access-date=9 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nltimes.nl/2016/04/14/some-60-syrian-child-brides-as-young-as-14-entered-netherlands/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20160823032923/http://www.nltimes.nl/2016/04/14/some-60-syrian-child-brides-as-young-as-14-entered-netherlands/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 August 2016 |title=Some 60 Syrian child brides, as young as 14, entered Netherlands |date=14 April 2016 |access-date=9 July 2016}}</ref> ''The Washington Post'' reported that asylum centers in the Netherlands were "housing 20 child brides between ages 13 and 15" in 2015.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ishaan |first1=Ishaan |title=Refugee child bride went on a hunger strike after Belgium separated her from husband |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/04/01/refugee-child-bride-went-on-a-hunger-strike-after-belgium-separated-her-from-husband/ |access-date=22 April 2016 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=1 April 2016 |quote=Last year, asylum centers next door in the Netherlands were reportedly housing 20 child brides between ages 13 and 15.}}</ref>

====Russia====
The common marriageable age established by the [[Family Code of Russia]] is 18 years old. Marriages of persons at age from 16 to 18 years are allowed only with good reasons and by local municipal authority permission. Marriage before 16 years old may be allowed by [[federal subject of Russia]] law as an exception just in special circumstances.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://base.garant.ru/10105807/3/ |title=Ст. 13 Семейного кодекса РФ |date=30 December 2015 |publisher=[[Garant]] |access-date=9 November 2016 |language=ru}}</ref>

By 2016, a minimum age for marriage in special circumstances had been established at 14 years (in [[Adygea]],<ref name="ag">{{cite web |url=http://docs.cntd.ru/document/804932443 |title=Закон Республики Адыгея от 30 ноября 1998 г. N 101 "О порядке и условиях вступления в брак граждан Российской Федерации в возрасте от четырнадцати до шестнадцати лет, постоянно либо преимущественно проживающих на территории Республики Адыгея" |date=2 April 2012 |work=Электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации |publisher={{interlanguage link|Kodeks|ru|Кодекс (справочно-правовая система)}} |access-date=16 December 2016 |language=ru}}</ref> [[Kaluga Oblast]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.cntd.ru/document/972205041 |title=Закон Калужской области от 06 июня 1997 года №10-ОЗ "О порядке и условиях вступления в брак на территории Калужской области лиц, не достигших возраста шестнадцати лет" |date=29 May 1997 |work=Электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации |publisher={{interlanguage link|Kodeks|ru|Кодекс (справочно-правовая система)}} |access-date=16 December 2016 |language=ru}}</ref> [[Magadan Oblast]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.cntd.ru/document/412309526 |title=Закон Магаданской области от 04 мая 2001 года №182-ОЗ "О порядке и условиях получения разрешения на вступление в брак на территории Магаданской области лиц, не достигших возраста шестнадцати лет" (с изменениями на: 10.03.2016) |date=10 March 2016 |work=Электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации |publisher={{interlanguage link|Kodeks|ru|Кодекс (справочно-правовая система)}} |access-date=16 December 2016 |language=ru}}</ref> [[Moscow Oblast]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.cntd.ru/document/819047310 |title=Закон Московской области от 30 апреля 2008 года №61/2008–ОЗ "О порядке и условиях вступления в брак на территории Московской области лиц, не достигших возраста шестнадцати лет" (с изменениями на 15 июля 2015 года) |date=15 July 2015 |work=Электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации |publisher={{interlanguage link|Kodeks|ru|Кодекс (справочно-правовая система)}} |access-date=16 December 2016 |language=ru}}</ref> [[Nizhny Novgorod Oblast]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.cntd.ru/document/465505566 |title=Постановление Правительства Нижегородской области от 23 октября 2013 года №765 "Об утверждении Положения о порядке принятия решений о разрешении на вступление в брак гражданам, не достигшим возраста шестнадцати лет, в Нижегородской области" |date=23 October 2013 |work=Электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации |publisher={{interlanguage link|Kodeks|ru|Кодекс (справочно-правовая система)}} |access-date=16 December 2016 |language=ru}}</ref> [[Novgorod Oblast]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.cntd.ru/document/424034453 |title=Закон Новгородской области от 02 февраля 2009 года №465-ОЗ "О порядке и условиях вступления в брак на территории Новгородской области лиц, не достигших возраста шестнадцати лет" (с изменениями на: 25.04.2014) |date=25 April 2014 |work=Электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации |publisher={{interlanguage link|Kodeks|ru|Кодекс (справочно-правовая система)}} |access-date=16 December 2016 |language=ru}}</ref> [[Oryol Oblast]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.cntd.ru/document/453100152 |title=Закон Орловской области от 04 марта 2011 года №1177-ОЗ "О порядке и условиях выдачи разрешения на вступление в брак лицам, не достигшим возраста шестнадцати лет, в Орловской области" |date=4 March 2011 |work=Электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации |publisher={{interlanguage link|Kodeks|ru|Кодекс (справочно-правовая система)}} |access-date=16 December 2016 |language=ru}}</ref> [[Sakhalin Oblast]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.cntd.ru/document/802032194 |title=Закон Сахалинской области от 11 июля 2005 года №46-ЗО "О порядке и условиях вступления в брак граждан, проживающих на территории Сахалинской области, не достигших возраста шестнадцати лет" (ред. от 29.06.2015) |date=29 June 2015 |work=Электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации |publisher={{interlanguage link|Kodeks|ru|Кодекс (справочно-правовая система)}} |access-date=16 December 2016 |language=ru}}</ref> [[Tambov Oblast]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.cntd.ru/document/948000488 |title=Закон Тамбовской области от 24 июня 1997 года №120-З "О порядке и условиях вступления в брак на территории Тамбовской области лиц, не достигших возраста шестнадцати лет" (с изменениями на 5 мая 2014 года) |date=5 May 2014 |work=Электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации |publisher={{interlanguage link|Kodeks|ru|Кодекс (справочно-правовая система)}} |access-date=16 December 2016 |language=ru}}</ref> [[Tatarstan]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.cntd.ru/document/429039678 |title=Закон Республики Татарстан от 13 января 2009 года №4-ЗРТ "Семейный кодекс Республики Татарстан" (с изменениями на 07.05.2016) |date=7 May 2016 |work=Электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации |publisher={{interlanguage link|Kodeks|ru|Кодекс (справочно-правовая система)}} |access-date=16 December 2016 |language=ru}}</ref> [[Vologda Oblast]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.cntd.ru/document/453133717 |title=Закон Вологодской области от 14 августа 1996 года №95-ОЗ "О снижении брачного возраста" (с изменениями на: 27.11.2000) |date=27 November 2000 |work=Электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации |publisher={{interlanguage link|Kodeks|ru|Кодекс (справочно-правовая система)}} |access-date=16 December 2016 |language=ru}}</ref>) or to 15 years (in [[Murmansk Oblast]]<ref name="mur">{{cite web |url=http://docs.cntd.ru/document/913501229 |title=Закон Мурманской области от 18 ноября 1996 года №42-01-ЗМО "Об условиях и порядке вступления в брак лиц, не достигших возраста шестнадцати лет" |date=18 November 1996 |work=Электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации |publisher={{interlanguage link|Kodeks|ru|Кодекс (справочно-правовая система)}} |access-date=16 December 2016 |language=ru}}</ref> and [[Ryazan Oblast]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.cntd.ru/document/423906474 |title=Закон Рязанской области от 30 декабря 2014 года №105-ОЗ "О порядке и условиях выдачи разрешения на вступление в брак лицам, не достигшим возраста шестнадцати лет" |date=30 December 2014 |work=Электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации |publisher={{interlanguage link|Kodeks|ru|Кодекс (справочно-правовая система)}} |access-date=16 December 2016 |language=ru}}</ref>). Others subjects of Russia also can have marriageable age laws.

Abatement of marriageable age is an ultimate measure acceptable in cases of life threat, pregnancy, and childbirth.<ref name="ag"/><ref name="mur"/>

====United Kingdom====
Since 1 May 2022, the marriageable age in both England and Wales is 18 with no exemptions (16 with consent of both parents or guardians, plus also a magistrate approval required within Northern Ireland only),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itv.com/news/2022-04-27/minimum-marriage-age-to-be-raised-from-16-to-18-in-england-and-wales |title=Minimum marriage age to be raised from 16 to 18 in England and Wales |date=28 April 2022}}</ref><ref name=uklaw>{{cite web |title=Marriage Act 1949 |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/12-13-14/76 |website=legislation.gov.uk |access-date=6 March 2018 |language=en |at=sections 2, 3 and 78 as amended by the Family Law Reform Act 1987}}</ref> although in [[Scotland]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Caloum |first1=Leslie |title=How has Scotland's law on marriage evolved over the centuries? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-26019306 |access-date=15 February 2015 |publisher=BBC News |date=4 February 2014}}</ref> no parental consent is required over 16.<ref>{{cite web |title=Did You Know? – How to Get Married in Scotland |url=http://www.rampantscotland.com/know/blknow_marriage_howto.htm |access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref> Scotland and Andorra are the only European jurisdictions where 16-year-olds can marry as ''a right'' (i.e. without parental or court approval); see {{section link|Marriageable age|Europe}}.

According to a 2004 report in ''[[The Guardian]]'', girls as young as 12 have been smuggled into the UK to be the brides of men in the [[Islam in the United Kingdom|Muslim community]]. Girls trying to escape this child marriage can face death because this [[Honor killing|breaks the honor code]] of her husband and both families.<ref name="12 years guardian">{{cite web |last1=Hill |first1=Amelia |title=Revealed: the child brides who are forced to marry in Britain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/feb/22/ukcrime.gender |website=The Guardian |date=22 February 2004 |access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref>

As with the United States, underage cohabitation is observed in the [[United Kingdom]]. According to a 2005 study, 4.1% of all girls in the 15–19 age group in the UK were cohabiting (living in an informal union), while 8.9% of all girls in that age group admitted to having been in a cohabitation relation (child marriage per UNICEF definition<ref name="Child Marriage"/>), before the age of 18. Over 4% of all underage girls in the UK were teenage mothers.<ref name=cohabitteen>Sharon K. Houseknecht and Susan K. Lewis, "Explaining Teen Childbearing and Cohabitation: Community Embeddedness and Primary Ties", ''Family Relations'', Vol. 54, No. 5, Families and Communities (Dec. 2005), pp. 607–620</ref>

In July 2014, the United Kingdom hosted its first global Girl Summit; the goal of the Summit was to increase efforts to end child, early, and [[forced marriage]], as well as [[female genital mutilation]] within a generation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/girl-summit-aims-end-child-marriage-223504733.html#lkd4Kdu |title='Girl Summit' Aims To End Child Marriage |publisher=Yahoo! News |date=22 July 2014 |access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref>

==Consequences==
[[File:2007 - 2012, Adolescent birth rate per 1000 women world map.svg|upright=1.35|thumb|Birth rates per 1,000 women aged 15–19 years, worldwide]]

Child marriage has consequences that last well beyond adolescence.<ref name=hrwconsq>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/06/14/q-child-marriage-and-violations-girls-rights |title=Q & A: Child Marriage and Violations of Girls' Rights |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=14 June 2013}}</ref><ref>Bunting, Annie. 2005. Stages of development: marriage of girls and teens as an international human rights issue. Social and Legal Studies 14(2):17–38</ref> Women married as children struggle with the impact of pregnancy at a young age on the body, often with little spacing between children.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |url=http://adc.bmj.com/content/early/2010/10/07/adc.2009.178707.short |title=When the Mother Is a Child: The Impact of Child Marriage on the Health and Human Rights of Girls |last=Raj |first=Anita |year=2010 |journal=Archives of Disease in Childhood |doi=10.1136/adc.2009.178707 |pmid=20930011 |volume=95 |issue=11 |pages=931–935 |s2cid=41625496 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Early marriages followed by teen pregnancy also significantly increase birth complications and [[social isolation]]. In poor countries, early pregnancy limits or can even eliminate a woman's education options, affecting her economic independence. Girls in child marriages are more likely to suffer from [[domestic violence]], [[child sexual abuse]], and [[marital rape]].<ref name=hrwconsq/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/people/features/ihavearightto/four_b/casestudy_art16.shtml |title=I have a right to | BBC World Service |publisher=BBC |access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref>

===Health===
Child marriage threatens the health and life of girls.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/meast/04/09/yemen.child.bride.death/ |title=Yemeni child bride dies of internal bleeding |publisher=CNN}}</ref> Complications from pregnancy and childbirth are the main cause of death among adolescent girls below age 19 in developing countries. Girls aged 15 to 19 are twice as likely to die in childbirth as fully-grown women in their 20s, and girls under the age of 15 are five to seven times more likely to die during childbirth.<ref name="nourreport" /> These consequences are due largely to girls' physical immaturity wherefore the pelvis and birth canal are not fully developed. Teen pregnancy, particularly below age 15, increases risk of developing an [[obstetric fistula]], since their smaller pelvises make them prone to obstructed labor.<ref name="nourreport" /> Girls who give birth before the age of 15 have an 88% risk of developing a fistula,<ref name="nourreport" /> and those between 15 and 18 have a 25% chance. Fistulas can cause urine or fecal incontinence that causes lifelong complications with infection and pain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cook |first1=Rebecca J. |last2=Dickens |first2=Bernard M. |last3=Syed |first3=S. |year=2004 |title=Obstetric fistula: the challenge to human rights |journal=International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=72–77 |doi=10.1016/j.ijgo.2004.07.005 |pmid=15464787 |s2cid=42899619 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID909260_code333799.pdf?abstractid=888771 }}</ref> Unless surgically repaired, obstetric fistulas can cause years of permanent disability and shame to mothers, and can result in being shunned by the community.<ref name="Nour child marriage"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nour |first1=Nawal |title=Health Consequences of Child Marriage in Africa |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |year=2006 |volume=12 |issue=11 |pages=1644–1649 |doi=10.3201/eid1211.060510 |pmid=17283612 |pmc=3372345}}</ref> Married girls also have a higher risk of [[sexually transmitted infection]]s, [[cervical cancer]], and [[malaria]] than non-married peers or girls who marry in their 20s.<ref name="nourreport" />

Child marriage also threatens the lives of offspring. Mothers under the age of 18 years have 35 to 55% increased risk of delivering pre-term or having a low birth weight baby than a mother who is 19 or 20 years old. In addition, infant mortality rates are 60% higher when the mother is under 18 years old. Infants born to child mothers tend to have weaker immune systems and face a heightened risk of malnutrition.<ref name="Nour child marriage"/>

Prevalence of child marriage may also be associated with higher rates of population growth, more cases of children left orphaned, and the accelerated spread of disease which for many translates into prolonged poverty.<ref name=":0" />

===Illiteracy and poverty===
Child marriage often ends a girl's education, particularly in impoverished countries where child marriages are common.<ref>International Center for Research in Women (2005), Too young to wed: education & action toward ending child marriage. Washington DC</ref> In addition, uneducated girls are more at risk for child marriage. Girls who have only a primary education are twice as likely to marry before age 18 than those with a secondary or higher education, and girls with no education are three times more likely to marry before age 18 than those with a secondary education.<ref name="too young"/> Early marriage impedes a young girl's ability to continue with her education as most drop out of school following marriage<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |title=What Works to Prevent Child Marriage: A Review of the Evidence |last1=Lee-Rife |first1=Susan |year=2012 |journal=Studies in Family Planning |doi=10.1111/j.1728-4465.2012.00327.x |pmid=23239248 |last2=Malhotra |first2=Anju |last3=Warner |first3=Ann |last4=McGonagle Glinski |first4=Allison |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=287–303}}</ref> to focus their attention on domestic duties and having or raising children.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rai |first1=Rajesh Kumar |last2=Singh |first2=Prashant Kumar |last3=Singh |first3=Lucky |last4=Kumar |first4=Chandan |title=Individual Characteristics and Use of Maternal and Child Health Services by Adolescent Mothers in Niger |journal=Maternal and Child Health Journal |date=April 2014 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=592–603 |doi=10.1007/s10995-013-1276-z |pmid=23737107 |s2cid=10581145}}</ref> Girls may be taken out of school years before they are married due to family or community beliefs that allocating resources for girls' education is unnecessary given that her primary roles will be that of wife and mother.<ref name=":4" /> Without education, girls and adult women have fewer opportunities to earn an income and financially provide for themselves and their children. This makes girls more vulnerable to persistent poverty if their spouses die, abandon them, or divorce them.<ref name=hrwconsq/> Given that girls in child marriages are often significantly younger than their husbands, they become widowed earlier in life and may face associated economic and social challenges for a greater portion of their life than women who marry later.<ref name=":4" />

===Domestic violence===
Married teenage girls with low levels of education suffer greater risk of social isolation and [[domestic violence]] than more educated women who marry as adults.<ref name="nourreport" /><ref>Haberland, Nicole, Eric L. Chong, and Hillary J. Bracken. 2006. A world apart: the disadvantage and social isolation of married adolescent girls. Brief based on background paper prepared for the WHO/UNFPA/Population Council Technical Consultation on Married Adolescents. New York: The Population Council</ref> Following marriage, girls frequently relocate to their husband's home and take on the domestic role of being a wife, which often involves relocating to another village or area. This transition may result in a young girl dropping out of school, moving away from her family and friends, and a loss of the social support that she once had.<ref name="Nour child marriage"/> A husband's family may also have higher expectations for the girl's submissiveness to her husband and his family because of her youth.<ref name=":1" /> This sense of isolation from a support system can have severe mental health implications including depression.

Large age gaps between the child and her spouse make her more vulnerable to domestic violence and [[marital rape]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cfr.org/childmarriage |title=Child Marriage |website=www.cfr.org}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Girls who marry as children face severe and life-threatening marital violence at higher rates.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Association between adolescent marriage and marital violence among young adult women in India |last1=Raj |first1=Anita |year=2010 |journal=International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics |doi=10.1016/j.ijgo.2010.01.022 |pmid=20347089 |last2=Saggurti |first2=Niranjan |last3=Lawrence |first3=Danielle |last4=Balaiah |first4=Donta |last5=Silverman |first5=Jay G. |volume=110 |issue=1 |pages=35–39 |pmc=3260080}}</ref> Husbands in child marriages are often more than ten years older than their wives. This can increase the power and control a husband has over his wife and contribute to prevalence of spousal violence.<ref name=":4" /> Early marriage places young girls in a vulnerable situation of being completely dependent on her husband. Domestic and sexual violence from their husbands has lifelong, devastating mental health consequences for young girls because they are at a formative stage of psychological development.<ref name="hrwconsq" /> These mental health consequences of spousal violence can include depression and suicidal thoughts.<ref name=":1" /> Child brides, particularly in situations such as [[vani (custom)|vani]], also face social isolation, emotional abuse and discrimination in the homes of their husbands and in-laws.

===Women's rights===
The United Nations, through a series of conventions has declared child marriage a violation of human rights. The [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women|Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination of Women]] (CEDAW), the Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC), and the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] form the international standard against child marriage.<ref name="too young"/> Child marriages impact violates a range of women's interconnected rights such as equality on grounds of sex and age, to receive the highest attainable standard of health, to be free from slavery, access to education, freedom of movement, freedom from violence, reproductive rights, and the right to consensual marriage.<ref name=hrwconsq/><ref>{{cite web |title=Child Marriage And the Law |publisher=[[UNICEF]] |url=http://www.unicef.org/french/files/Child_Marriage_and_the_Law.pdf |access-date=28 April 2015 |archive-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703221007/https://www.unicef.org/french/files/Child_Marriage_and_the_Law.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Shelley |last2=Bruce |first2=Judith |last3=Dude |first3=Annie |year=2006 |title=Protecting young women from HIV/AIDS: the case against child and adolescent marriage |journal=International Family Planning Perspectives |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=79–88 |doi=10.1363/3207906 |pmid=16837388 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The consequence of these violations impact woman, her children, and the broader society.{{how|date=March 2014}}

=== Development ===
High rates of child marriage negatively impact countries' economic development because of early marriages' impact on girls' education and labor market participation.<ref name=":3" /> Some researchers and activists note that high rates of child marriage prevent significant progress toward each of the eight [[Millennium Development Goals]] and global efforts to reduce poverty due to its effects on educational attainment, economic and political participation, and health.<ref name=":3" />

A [[UNICEF]] Nepal issued report noted that child marriage impacts Nepal's development due to loss of productivity, poverty, and health effects. Using Nepal Multi-Indicator Survey data, its researchers estimate that all girls delaying marriage until age 20 and after would increase cash flow among Nepali women in an amount equal to 3.87% of the country's GDP.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |url=http://girlsnotbrides.theideabureau.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/UNICEF-Nepal-Cost-of-Inaction_WPo1_2014.pdf |title=Cost of Inaction: Child and Adolescent Marriage in Nepal |last=Rabi |first=Amjad |year=2014 |journal=UNICEF Nepal Working Paper Series |access-date=8 May 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304123759/http://girlsnotbrides.theideabureau.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/UNICEF-Nepal-Cost-of-Inaction_WPo1_2014.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> Their estimates considered decreased education and employment among girls in child marriages in addition to low rates of education and high rates of poverty among children from child marriages.

== Divorce ==

Divorce in the case of child marriage is more difficult because in some places minors aren't old enough to file for divorce. The law often does not provide clear guidance for married minors because divorce law is written with the assumption that the people who are married are adults. In these places, minors need permission from a judge to participate in their divorce proceedings, or they need an adult [[guardian ad litem]] to advocate for them. Some places, such as [[New York state]], have recently modified their divorce laws so that a minor can initiate a divorce themselves, without a guardian ad litem.<ref name=Belanger2017>{{cite magazine |title=Child Marriage and Divorce in the United States |last=Belanger |first=Ashley |magazine=Teen Vogue |date=September 8, 2017 |url=https://www.teenvogue.com/story/child-marriage-and-divorce-in-the-united-states}}</ref>

== Prevention ==

Child marriage is always [[forced marriage]], according to the [[OHCHR]], because children cannot give full informed consent to marriage. Many organizations offer ways to help prevent child marriage and forced marriage.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/women/child-and-forced-marriage-including-humanitarian-settings |title=Child and forced marriage, including in humanitarian settings |website=United Nations OHCHR}}</ref>

=== For children ===

Child marriage is illegal in many places; however, children who have been forced into marriage have not broken the law. There are organizations that offer help, such as housing and legal aid, to children who are trying to escape or prevent a marriage.

==== In the United States ====
{{See also|Child marriage in the United States}}

A child who has been forced into a marriage has not broken any laws in the United States and is not at fault. The US government is opposed to child marriage, and offers legal help and social services to children who have been forced to marry. Children in the United States who need to prevent or leave a forced marriage can call the [[National Domestic Violence Hotline]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/forced-marriage |title=Forced Marriage |website=U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services |date=3 June 2022}}</ref> They can also reach out to [[Fraidy Reiss|Unchained At Last]], a survivor-led nonprofit organization dedicated to ending forced and child marriage in the United States through direct services and systems change. Unchained provides crucial legal and social services, always for free, to help people in the U.S. to escape arranged/forced/child marriages and rebuild their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Unchained At Last|url=https://www.unchainedatlast.org/|website=Unchained At Last|access-date=2025-12-02|language=en}}</ref>

Within the United States, each [[U.S. state|state]] and [[U.S. Territories|territory]] and the [[Washington, D.C.|federal district]] set the [[marriage age in the United States|marriage age]] in its jurisdiction. {{As of|2024|March}}, in four states there is no statutory minimum age when all exemptions are taken into account. These states are [[California]], [[Mississippi]], [[New Mexico]], and [[Oklahoma]].

{{As of|2024|June}}, 16 states have banned underage marriages, with no exception: [[Delaware]] (2018),<ref name="CNNDelaware2">{{Cite news |date=12 May 2018 |title=Delaware becomes first US state to fully ban child marriage |publisher=[[CNN]] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/05/12/us/delaware-child-marriage-ban/index.html |access-date=17 September 2018}}</ref> [[New Jersey]] (2018),<ref>{{cite news |date=22 June 2018 |title=New Jersey governor signs law banning underage marriage |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/f4ab94a0b9444a01b803750491220983}}</ref> [[Pennsylvania]] (2020),<ref name="CBSNews">{{Cite news |last=McNamara |first=Audrey |date=9 May 2020 |title=Pennsylvania Just Became The Third State To Ban Child Marriage |newspaper= |publisher=[[CBS News]] |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/pennsylvania-third-state-to-ban-child-marriage/ |access-date=9 May 2020}}</ref> [[Minnesota]] (2020),<ref name="MinnesotaLegislature">{{Cite news |url=https://www.house.leg.state.mn.us/members/profile/news/15532/29817 |title=Governor Walz signs bill to end child marriages |date=14 May 2020 |access-date=9 June 2020}}</ref> [[Rhode Island]] (2021),<ref name="globalcitizen.org">{{Cite web |title=Rhode Island Is the Fifth US State to Officially Ban Child Marriage |url=https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/rhode-island-bans-child-marriage/ |access-date=24 June 2021 |website=Global Citizen |date=8 June 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[New York (state)|New York]] (2021),<ref name="washingtonpost.com">{{cite news |last1=Pietsch |first1=Bryan |title=New York becomes sixth state in U.S. to ban child marriages |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2021/07/23/child-marriage-ban-new-york/ |access-date=27 July 2021 |work=washingtonpost.com}}</ref> [[Massachusetts]] (2022),<ref>{{Cite web |last=Coffey |first=Alexandra Boyer |date=28 July 2022 |title=Massachusetts just ended child marriage! |url=https://www.unchainedatlast.org/massachusetts-just-ended-child-marriage/ |access-date=28 July 2022 |publisher=[[Unchained At Last]] |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Vermont]] (2023),<ref name="Vermont governor signs bill raising marriage age to 18-2023">{{Cite news |date=21 April 2023 |title=Vermont governor signs bill raising marriage age to 18 |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/marriage-age-18-vermont-child-f79af8798cd4f5adfa96fdb15f297275 |access-date=10 June 2023}}</ref> [[Connecticut]] (2023),<ref name="Cross-2023">{{Cite news |last=Cross |first=Alison |date=2 June 2023 |title=Connecticut bans child marriage |work=[[Hartford Courant]] |url=https://www.courant.com/2023/06/02/connecticut-bans-child-marriage/ |access-date=10 June 2023}}</ref> [[Michigan]] (2023),<ref name="New Michigan law raises marriage age to 18 in effort to end child marriage-2023">{{cite web |url=https://mycbs4.com/news/nation-world/new-michigan-law-raises-marriage-age-to-18-in-effort-to-end-child-marriage-nonprofit-unchained-at-last-michigan-senate-governor-gretch-whitmer-protecting-youth |title=New Michigan law raises marriage age to 18 in effort to end child marriage |date=12 July 2023}}</ref> [[Washington (state)|Washington]] (2024),<ref name="auto7"/> [[Virginia]] (2024),<ref name=":9" /> [[New Hampshire]] (2024),<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Hampshire law raises marriage age|url=http://wcax.com/2024/06/14/new-hampshire-law-raises-marriage-age/|access-date=19 June 2024|website=WCAX|date=14 June 2024|language=en}}</ref> [[Maine]] (2025),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gov. Mills lets Maine child marriage ban become law without her signature|url=https://wgme.com/news/local/gov-mills-lets-maine-child-marriage-ban-become-law-without-her-signature-legislature-marry-written-consent-parents-guardians|website=WGME|date=2025-05-07|access-date=2025-12-02|language=en|first=Billy Kobin, Bangor Daily|last=News}}</ref> [[Oregon]] (2025)<ref>{{Cite web|title=DONE! Governor Tina Kotek signs legislation to end child marriage in Oregon|url=https://www.nwprogressive.org/weblog/2025/05/done-governor-tina-kotek-signs-legislation-to-end-child-marriage-in-oregon.html|website=NPI's Cascadia Advocate|date=2025-05-29|access-date=2025-12-02|language=en-US|first=Andrew|last=Villeneuve}}</ref> and [[Missouri]] (2025).<ref name=":12" /> [[American Samoa]] and [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], both United States territories, have also ended child marriage in that time, as has Washington, D.C.<ref name="RadioNZ3">{{Cite news |url=https://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/366260/governor-moliga-signs-into-law-bill-to-increase-marriage-age-for-girls |title=Governor Moliga signs into law bill to increase marriage age for girls |date=12 September 2018 |work=Radio New Zealand |access-date=19 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.vi.gov/governor-bryan-takes-action-on-31-bills/ |title=Governor Bryan Takes Action on 31 Bills |website=Government of the United States Virgin Islands |date=22 January 2020 |access-date=3 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=DC Legislation Information Management System |url=https://lims.dccouncil.gov/legislation/B25-0955 |access-date=2 April 2025 |website=lims.dccouncil.gov |language=en}}</ref> Several other U.S. states have similar legislation pending.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.unchainedatlast.org/child-marriage-progress/ |title=Child Marriage – Progress |publisher=[[Unchained at Last]]}}</ref>

==== In Europe ====

In the [[United Kingdom]], when anything is done to make someone marry before they turn 18 the government of the UK considers this to be a forced marriage, which is unlawful. The Forced Marriage Unit offers help to children facing it.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/forced-marriage |title=Guidance: Forced marriage |website=Gov.uk |date=7 March 2023}}</ref>

In the [[Netherlands]], the minimum age to marry is 18. Forcing someone to marry is unlawful, even if the marriage took place outside the Netherlands. Children who have been forced to marry may contact National Expertise Centre on Forced Marriage and Abandonment for help.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About us {{!}} Landelijk Knooppunt Huwelijksdwang en Achterlating |url=https://www.huwelijksdwangenachterlating.nl/about-us |access-date=29 June 2023 |website=www.huwelijksdwangenachterlating.nl |language=nl}}</ref>

==== In Africa ====
In June 2024, the [[Sierra Leone]] Parliament passed the Prohibition of Child Marriage Bill 2024, which makes marrying or [[cohabitation|cohabitating]] with anyone under 18 years old illegal, with a punishment of 15 years in prison or a large fine.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pulse.com.gh/news/filla/sierra-leones-first-lady-and-other-women-dance-to-celebrate-child-marriage-ban/60pzwtg |title=Sierra Leone's First Lady and other women dance to celebrate child marriage ban |first=Andreas |last=Kamasah |date=27 June 2024 |website=Pulse Ghana}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/06/28/sierra-leone-acts-ban-child-marriage |title=Sierra Leone Acts to Ban Child Marriage | Human Rights Watch |date=28 June 2024}}</ref> The bill was signed into law in July 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/sierra-leone-outlaws-child-marriage-witnesses-weddings-can-face-jail-time/ |title=Sierra Leone outlaws child marriage. Even witnesses to such weddings can face jail time. - CBS News |date=3 July 2024 |website=www.cbsnews.com}}</ref>

===International initiatives===

In December 2011 a resolution adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (A/RES/66/170) designated 11 October as the ''[[International Day of the Girl Child]]''.<ref name="who.int">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=%20A/RES/66/170/ |title=United Nations Official Document |publisher=United Nations |access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> On 11 October 2012 the first ''[[International Day of the Girl Child]]'' was held, the theme of which was ending child marriage.<ref name="who.int"/>

In 2013 the first [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] resolution against child, early, and forced marriages was adopted; it recognizes child marriage as a human rights violation and pledges to eliminate the practice as part of the UN's post-2015 global development agenda.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/16/india-child-marriage-un-resolution-sponsor_n_4108408.html |work=HuffPost |first=Hunter |last=Stuart |title=Country with the Most Child Brides Won't Agree To End Forced Child Marriage |date=16 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://reproductiverights.org/en/feature/un-takes-major-action-to-end-child-marriage |title=UN Takes Major Action to End Child Marriage | Center for Reproductive Rights |date=17 October 2013 |publisher=Reproductiverights.org |access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Girls Not Brides |url=http://www.girlsnotbrides.org/states-adopt-first-ever-resolution-on-child-marriage-at-human-rights-council/ |title=States adopt first-ever resolution on child, early and forced marriage at Human Rights Council |publisher=Girls Not Brides |date=27 September 2013 |access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref>

In 2014 the UN's [[Commission on the Status of Women]] issued a document in which they agreed, among other things, to eliminate child marriage.<ref>{{cite news |author=Liz Ford |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/mar/23/campaigners-welcome-agreement-un-gender-csw-talks |title=Campaigners welcome 'milestone' agreement at UN gender equality talks | Global development |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref>

The [[World Health Organization]] recommends increased educational attainment among girls, increased enforcement structures for existing minimum marriage age laws, and informing parents in practicing communities of the risks associated as primary methods to prevent child marriages.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chandra- Mouli |first1=Venkatraman |last2=Virginia Camacho |first2=Alma |last3=Michaud |first3=Pierre-Andre |year=2013 |title=WHO Guidelines on Preventing Early Pregnancy and Poor Reproductive Outcomes Among Adolescents in Developing Countries |journal=Journal of Adolescent Health |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=517–22 |doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.03.002 |pmid=23608717}}</ref>

Programs to prevent child marriage have taken several different approaches. Various initiatives have aimed to empower young girls, educate parents on the associated risks, change community perceptions, support girls' education, and provide economic opportunities for girls and their families through means other than marriage. A survey of a variety of prevention programs found that initiatives were most effect when they combined efforts to address financial constraints, education, and limited employment of women.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |url=https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentredirects |title=Documents & Reports – Temporary Redirects |website=World Bank}}</ref>

Girls in families participating in an [[unconditional cash transfer]] program in Malawi aimed at incentivizing girls' education married and had children later than their peers who had not participated in the program. The program's effects on rates of child marriage were greater for unconditional cast transfer programs than those with conditions. Evaluators believe this demonstrated that the economic needs of the family heavily influenced the appeal of child marriage in this community. Therefore, reducing financial pressures on the family decreased the economic motivations to marry daughters off at a young age.<ref name=":6" />

The [[Haryana]] state government in India operated a program in which poor families were given a financial incentive if they kept their daughters in school and unmarried until age 18. Girls in families who were eligible for the program were less likely to be married before age 18 than their peers.<ref name=":6" />

A similar program was operated in 2004 by the [[Population Council]] and the regional government in Ethiopia's rural [[Amhara Region]]. Families received cash if their daughters remained in school and unmarried during the two years of the program. They also instituted mentorship programs, livelihood training, community conversations about girls' education and child marriage, and gave school supplies for girls. After the two-year program, girls in families eligible for the program were three times more likely to be in school and one tenth as likely to be married compared to their peers.<ref name=":6" />

The Global Campaign for the Prevention of Child Marriage (GCPCM) was launched in March 2019. Its primary goal is raising awareness and addressing child marriage in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cpnn-world.org/new/?p=15882 |title=The Global Campaign for the Prevention of Child Marriage |website=cpnn-world.org |date=26 May 2019 |access-date=24 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wntv.uk/the-global-campaign-for-the-prevention-of-child-marriage/ |title=The Global campaign for the prevention of child marriage |publisher=World News TV, UK |date=24 May 2019 |access-date=24 January 2020}}</ref>

Other programs have addressed child marriage less directly through a variety of programming related to girls' empowerment, education, sexual and reproductive health, financial literacy, life skills, communication skills, and community mobilization.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icrw.org/publications/more-power-to-her-how-empowering-girls-can-end-child-marriage/ |title=More power to her: how empowering girls can end child marriage |website=ICRW {{!}} PASSION. PROOF. POWER. |language=en-US |access-date=26 August 2019}}</ref>

In 2018, [[UN Women]] announced that [[Jaha Dukureh]] would serve as Goodwill Ambassador in Africa to help organize to prevent child marriage.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mlambo-Ngcuka |first=Phumzile |title=See Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka's activity on LinkedIn |author-link=Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka |url=https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:6366400305088733184 |publisher=LinkedIn |access-date=7 February 2018 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

==== Tipping point analysis ====
Researchers at the [[International Center for Research on Women]] found that in some communities rates of child marriage increase significantly when girls are a particular age. This "tipping point", or age at which rates of marriage increase dramatically, may occur years before the median age of marriage. Therefore, the researchers argue prevention programs should focus their programming on girls who are pre-tipping point age rather than only on girls who are married before they reach the median age for marriage.<ref>Jain, Saranga, and Kathleen Kurz. 2007. [http://wpfpak.org/pdfs/GBV-RH/ProgramResources/2007-new-insights-preventing-child-marriage.pdf ''New Insights on Preventing Child Marriage'']. International Center for Research on Women. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208151004/http://wpfpak.org/pdfs/GBV-RH/ProgramResources/2007-new-insights-preventing-child-marriage.pdf |date=8 December 2015 }}</ref>

{{anchor|prevalence}}
==Prevalence data==

{| class="wikitable sortable" text-align:left;"
|+ Prevalence data by country
|-
! Country
! % Females married < 18
! Year of assessment
! Article
! Class="unsortable" | Ref
|-
| {{AFG}}
| 28%
| 2017
| [[Child marriage in Afghanistan]]
|<ref name="unicef18"/><ref name="Medica Mondiale">{{cite journal |last=Bahgam |first=S |author2=Mukhatari |title=Study on Child Marriage in Afghanistan |journal=Medica Mondiale |year=2004 |pages=1–20 |url=http://www.medicamondiale.org/fileadmin/content/07_Infothek/Afghanistan/Afghanistan_Child_marriage_medica_mondiale_study_2004_e.pdf |access-date=7 November 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120506222217/http://www.medicamondiale.org/fileadmin/content/07_Infothek/Afghanistan/Afghanistan_Child_marriage_medica_mondiale_study_2004_e.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2012}}</ref>
|-
| {{AGO}}
| 30%
| 2017
| [[Child marriage in Angola]]
| <ref>{{citation |url=https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/angola/ |title=Angola |work=[[Girls Not Brides]] |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref>
|-
| {{BGD}}
| 59%
| 2018
| [[Child marriage in Bangladesh]]
| <ref name="ReferenceC">[https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/where-does-it-happen/atlas/ Atlas] Girls Not Brides. Retrieved 12 May 2020.</ref>
|-
| |{{flag|Burkina Faso}}
| 52%
| 2018
|[[Child marriage in Burkina Faso]]
| <ref name="ReferenceC"/>
|-
| |{{flag|Central African Republic}}
| 68%
| 2018
|[[Child marriage in the Central African Republic]]
| <ref name="ReferenceC"/>
|-
| {{CHA}}
| 67%
| 2017
|
| <ref>{{cite news |title=Chad |url=https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/chad/ |access-date=7 November 2019 |website=Girls not brides |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref>
|-
| {{DRC}}
| 37%
| 2017
| [[Child marriage in Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
| <ref>{{cite news |title=Democratic Republic of the Congo |url=https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/democratic-republic-of-the-congo/ |access-date=7 November 2019 |website=Girls not brides |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref>
|-
| {{CMR}}
| 31%
| 2017
| [[Child marriage in Cameroon]]
|<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/cameroon/ |title=Cameroon |work=[[Girls Not Brides]] |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref>
|-
| {{COG}}
| 33%
| 2017
| [[Child marriage in Republic of the Congo]]
| <ref>{{citation |url=https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/congo/ |title=Congo |work=[[Girls Not Brides]] |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref>
|-
| |{{flag|Eritrea}}
| 41%
| 2018
|
|<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
|-
| {{ETH}}
| 40%
| 2017
| [[Child marriage in Ethiopia]]
| <ref>{{citation |url=https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/ethiopia/ |title=Ethiopia |work=[[Girls Not Brides]] |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref>
|-
| {{IND}}
| 27%
| 2015–16
| [[Child marriage in India]]
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-gender-child-marriage/indias-child-marriage-numbers-drop-sharply-driving-down-global-rate-unicef-idUSKBN1GI03F |title=India's child marriage numbers drop sharply, driving down global rate: UNICEF |last=Srivastava |first=Roli |date=6 March 2018 |access-date=27 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/child-marriages-widespread-in-bihar-rajasthan-and-bengal-unicef-report-1454035-2019-02-12 |title=Child marriage widespread in Bihar, Rajasthan and Bengal: Unicef report |date=12 February 2019 |work=India Today |access-date=27 February 2019}}</ref>
|-
| {{CIV}}
| 27%
| 2017
| [[Child marriage in Ivory Coast]]
|<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/cote-divoire/ |title=Cote D'Ivoire |work=[[Girls Not Brides]] |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref>
|-
| |{{flag|Nepal}}
| 40%
| 2018
|
|<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
|-
| |{{flag|Niger}}
| 76%
| 2018
|
| <ref name="ReferenceC"/>
|-
| {{NGR}}
| 43%
| 2017
| [[Child marriage in Nigeria]]
| <ref>{{citation |url=https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/nigeria/ |title=Nigeria |work=[[Girls Not Brides]] |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref>
|-
| |{{flag|Malawi}}
| 42%
| 2018
|
|<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
|-
| |{{flag|Madagascar}}
| 41%
| 2018
|
|<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
|-
| {{MLI}}
| 52%
| 2017
| [[Child marriage in Mali]]
|<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/mali/ |title=Mali |work=[[Girls Not Brides]] |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref>
|-
| |{{flag|Mauritania}}
| 37%
| 2018
|
|<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
|-
| |{{flag|Mozambique}}
| 48%
| 2018
|
|<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
|-
| {{PAK}}
| 18%
| 2018
| [[Child marriage in Pakistan]]
| <ref name="unicef18"/>
|-
| {{SEN}}
| 31%
| 2017
|
|<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/senegal/ |title=Senegal |work=[[Girls Not Brides]] |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref>
|-
| |{{flag|Sierra Leone}}
| 39%
| 2018
|
|<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
|-
| {{SOM}}
| 36%
| 2020
| [[Child marriage in Somalia]]
|<ref>{{cite web |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/somali-health-and-demographic-survey-2020 |website=reliefweb.int |date=30 April 2020 |author=Govt. Somalia, [[United Nations Population Fund|UNFPA]] |title=The Somali Health and Demographic Survey 2020}}</ref>
|-
| {{SSD}}
| 52%
| 2017
| [[Child marriage in South Sudan]]
|<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/south-sudan/ |title=South Sudan |work=[[Girls Not Brides]] |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref>
|-
| |{{flag|Uganda}}
| 40%
| 2018
|
|<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
|-
| {{ZWE}}
| 32%
| 2017
| [[Child marriage in Zimbabwe]]
|<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/child-marriage/zimbabwe/ |title=Zimbabwe |work=[[Girls Not Brides]] |last1=Brides |first1=Girls Not}}</ref>
|}

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Country
! % males married <18<ref name = "UNICEF">{{cite web |title=Data Warehouse – UNICEF DATA |url=https://data.unicef.org/resources/data_explorer/unicef_f/?ag=UNICEF&df=GLOBAL_DATAFLOW&ver=1.0&dq=.PT_F_20-24_MRD_U15+PT_M_20-24_MRD_U18+PT_F_20-24_MRD_U18..&startPeriod=2016&endPeriod=2019 |access-date=6 November 2019 |publisher=[[United Nations Children's Fund]] |website=unicef.org}}</ref>
! Year assessed
|-
| {{ALB}}
| 1.2
| 2018
|-
| {{ANG}}
| 6
| 2016
|-
| {{ARM}}
| 0.4
| 2016
|-
| {{BEN}}
| 4.8
| 2018
|-
| {{BLZ}}
| 22.2
| 2016
|-
| {{BOL}}
| 5.2
| 2016
|-
| {{flag|Côte d'Ivoire}}
| 3.5
| 2016
|-
| {{flag|Burundi}}
| 1.4
| 2017
|-
| {{ETH}}
| 5
| 2016
|-
| {{HAI}}
| 1.6
| 2017
|-
| {{IND}}
| 4.2
| 2016
|-
| {{LAO}}
| 10.8
| 2017
|-
| {{NEP}}
| 10.3
| 2016
|-
| {{NGR}}
| 3
| 2017
|-
| {{SEN}}
| 0.6
| 2017
|-
| {{flag|Sierra Leone}}
| 6.5
| 2017
|-
| {{flag|Timor-Leste}}
| 1.2
| 2016
|-
| {{TAN}}
| 3.9
| 2016
|-
| {{UGA}}
| 5.5
| 2016
|}

==See also==
* [[Arranged marriage]]
* [[Baad (practice)]]
* [[Because I Am a Girl]]
* [[Child sexuality]]
* [[Forced marriage]]
* [[Jewish views on marriage]]
* [[Jirga]]
* [[Karo kari]]
* [[List of child brides]]
* [[List of child bridegrooms]]
* [[Marriageable age]]
* [[Marriage in Islam]]
* [[wikt:minor-attracted person]]
* [[Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery]]
* [[Teenage marriage]]
* [[Teenage pregnancy]]
* [[Vani (custom)]]
* [[Watta satta]]
* [[Westermarck effect]]
* [[Women related laws in Pakistan]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite book |last1=Barlas |first1=Asma |title=Believing women in Islam : unreading patriarchal interpretations of the Qur'ān |date=2002 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, TX |isbn=9781477315927}}
* {{cite book |last1=Spellberg |first1=Denise A. |title=Politics, gender, and the Islamic past : the Legacy of ʻAʼisha bint Abi Bakr |date=1996 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-07999-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Watt |first1=William Montgomery |author1-link=William Montgomery Watt |title=ʿĀʾis̲h̲a Bint Abī Bakr |url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/aisha-bint-abi-bakr-SIM_0440 |year=1960 |publisher=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] Online |isbn=978-9004161214 |edition=2nd}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[https://www.unfpa.org/child-marriage UN Population Fund on Child Marriage]

{{Child marriage in Africa}}
{{Types of marriages|state=autocollapse}}{{Pedophilia}}{{Sexual ethics}}
{{Abuse}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Child Marriage}}
[[Category:Child marriage| ]]
[[Category:Child sexual abuse]]
[[Category:Arranged marriage]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

Lok Bhavan, Nagpur

2026-03-21T03:40:00Z

RealArifHossain: new the data nd citations

{{Short description|Second residence of the Governor of Maharashtra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{More citations needed|date=May 2012}}
{{Infobox building
|name = Lok Bhavan (Nagpur)
|image =
|caption =
|coordinates = {{coord|21.167871|79.074019|display=inline,title}}
|construction_start_date =
|completion_date =
|number_of_rooms =
|elevator_count =
|current_tenants = * '''[[Jishnu Dev Varma]]''' ([[ Governor of Maharashtra|Governor of MH]])
* '''Sudha Debbarma''' ([[ Governor of Maharashtra|First Lady of MH]])
|cost =
|floor_area =
|architect =
|engineer =
|main_contractor =
|developer =
|owner = [[Government of Maharashtra]]
|operator = [[Government of Maharashtra]]
|references =
}}
''' Lok Bhavan''' formerly '''Raj Bhavan''' (translation: ''Government House'') of Nagpur is the second [[official residence|residence]] of the [[Governor of Maharashtra|Governor of Maharashtra, India]]. It is located in Nagpur, the second capital city of the state [[Maharashtra]].

==History==

Lok Bhavan or Raj Bhavan or Government House was built in 1866.

In its more than 110 years of existence, the building was used as

* House of the Chief Commissioner of Central Province in 1891
* House of the Chief Commissioner of Central Province and Berar in 1903
* Government House of the Governor of the [[Central Provinces and Berar]] in 1920
* Government House of the Governor of Madhya Pradesh in 1950
* Government House of the Governor of Bombay State in 1956
* Government House of the Governor of Maharashtra in 1960

In 1988 it became the second house of the [[Governor of Maharashtra]] in Nagpur, the second capital city of [[Maharashtra]]; its name was changed to Raj Bhavan (Hindi for {{Gloss|Government House}}).

==See also==
* [[Government Houses of the British Empire and Commonwealth#British Indian Empire|Government Houses of the British Indian Empire]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*http://rajbhavan.maharashtra.gov.in {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120909070145/http://rajbhavan.maharashtra.gov.in/ |date=9 September 2012 }}

{{Raj Bhavan}}

[[Category:Governors' houses in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Nagpur]]
[[Category:Houses completed in 1866]]
[[Category:1920 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Government Houses of the British Empire and Commonwealth]]

{{India-struct-stub}}
{{India-gov-stub}}

Battle of Pavan Khind

2026-03-12T06:53:58Z

RealArifHossain: Revised and enhanced article content

{{Short description|1660 battle between Maratha and Bijapur in India}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}

{{Use Indian English|date=September 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Pavan Khind
| width =
| partof =
| image = Baji Prabhu Deshpande Statue in Panhala Fort.jpg
| caption =
| date = 1660
| place = Pavan Khind, [[Vishalgad]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| coordinates =
| map_type =
| map_relief =
| latitude =
| longitude =
| map_size =
| map_marksize =
| map_caption =
| map_label =
| territory =
| result = Inconclusive
| combatants_header =
| combatant1 = [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|25px]] [[Maratha Empire]]
| combatant2 = [[Bijapur Sultanate]]
| commander1 = [[Bajiprabhu|Baji Prabhu Deshpande]]{{KIA}} Fulaji Prabhu Deshpande{{KIA}} Rayaji Bandal {{KIA}} Shambu Singh Jadhav{{KIA}}
| commander2 = [[Siddi Masud]] Siddi Jauhar Rustam Zaman Fazar Khan
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| notes =
}}

The '''Battle of Pavan Khind''' ({{IPAc-en|p|aː|v|ʌ|n|x|ɪ|n|d|audio=Paawankhind.ogg}} {{Respell|PAAVANKHIND}}) was a rearguard [[last stand]] that took place in September 1660, at a mountain pass in the vicinity of [[Vishalgad]] between the forces of the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] and the pursuing [[Sultanate of Bijapur|Bijapur Sultanate]] forces.

After escaping the [[Siege of Panhala (1660)|Siege of Panhala]], [[Shivaji]] and his small accompaniment were pursued by [[Siddi Masud]] of the Bijapur Sultanate with a much larger force. As morning was breaking, the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] generals [[Baji Prabhu Deshpande]] and Shambhu Singh Jadhav with half of the force fortified a narrow mountain pass and repulsed the chasing cavalry and continued fighting off the Bijapuri infantry. When Shivaji and the rest of the force reached the fort they sounded the signal with cannon and the remaining Maratha forces retreated.

According to legends, despite being mortally wounded Baji Prabhu Deshpande continued defending and encouraging his troops until he heard the signal. The engagement ended with the destruction of the Maratha forces, and a tactical victory for the Bijapur Sultanate that failed to achieve the strategic victory of capturing Shivaji.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Duff |first=James Grant |author-link=James Grant Duff |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/britishraj/Duff.html |title=A History of the Mahrattas |publisher=Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green |year=1826 |location=London |pages=151-153 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kincaid |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Kincaid |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.8382/page/n115 |title=The Grand Rebel: An Impression of Shivaji, Founder of the Maratha Empire |publisher=Collins |year=1936 |pages=127-128 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |url=http://archive.org/details/shivajihistimes00sarkrich |title=Shivaji and his times |date= |publisher=Longmans, Green and co. |others=University of California Libraries |year=1920 |edition=2nd |location=London, New York |pages=83-85}}</ref>

==In popular culture==

* The battle was depicted in episodes of ''[[Raja Shivchatrapati]]''
* In 2022, ''[[Pawankhind (film)|Pawankhind]],'' a Marathi-language film depicting the battle directed by Digpal Lanjekar and starring [[Chinmay Mandlekar]] as [[Shivaji]] and Ajay Purkar as [[Baji Prabhu Deshpande]] was released on 21 January.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/these-character-posters-of-digpal-lanjekars-pawankhind-will-get-you-all-excited-for-the-film/articleshow/88539211.cms|title=THESE character posters of Digpal Lanjekar's 'Pawankhind' will get you all excited for the film|date=28 December 2021|publisher=Times of India|access-date=5 January 2022}}</ref>
* Also in 2022, ''[[Har Har Mahadev]]'', another Marathi-language film depicting the prior siege and the battle directed by Abhijeet Deshpande and starring [[Subodh Bhave]] as Shivaji and [[Sharad Kelkar]] as Baji Prabhu Deshpande was released on 25 October.

== See also ==
* [[Battle of Kolhapur]]
* [[Third Battle of Panipat]]
* [[List of last stands]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{MarathaEmpire}}

{{coord|16|52|N|73|50|E|display=title}}

[[Category:1660 in India]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Maratha Empire|Pavankhind]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1660|Pavan Khind]]
[[Category:Last stands|Pavan Khind]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Sultanate of Bijapur]]

Mir Jawad Zar Khan

2026-03-08T11:23:49Z

RealArifHossain: new the info from scratch

{{Short description|Indian orthopedic surgeon}}
{{Orphan|date=February 2026}}
{{Infobox doctor
| honorific_prefix = Dr.
| name = Mir Jawad Zar Khan
| birth_place = [[India]]
| nationality =
| citizenship = Indian
| occupation = [[Orthopedic surgery|Orthopedic surgeon]]
| organization = Germanten Hospital
| title = Founder, Medical Director and Senior Orthopedic Consultant
| known_for = [[Joint replacement]], [[Arthroscopy]], Spine surgery
| education = [[Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery|MBBS]]
| alma_mater = [[Osmania University]]; University of Seychelles – American Institute of Medicine, [[University of Munich]], [[Germany]]
| field = [[Orthopedic surgery]]
| work_institutions = [[Osmania General Hospital]]
| awards = Champion of Change Award (2023)
}}

'''Mir Jawad Zar Khan''' is an internationally recognized Indian [[Orthopedic surgery|orthopedic surgeon]] specializing in [[Joint replacement]], [[Arthroscopy]], Spine surgery, and advanced orthopedic care.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Dr. Mir Jawad Zar Khan, An Orthopedic Surgeon With Over 20,000 Attendances To Surgeries |url=https://zeenews.india.com/consumer-connect/dr-mir-jawad-zar-khan-an-orthopedic-surgeon-with-over-20000-attendances-to-surgeries-2944861.html |access-date=2026-01-28 |website=Zee News |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Khan |first=Sameer |date=2025-08-13 |title=Hyderabad orthopaedic surgeon Dr Mir Jawad Zar Khan revolutionizes joint care |url=https://www.siasat.com/hyderabad-orthopedic-surgeon-dr-mir-jawad-zar-khan-revolutionizes-joint-care-3258307/ |access-date=2026-01-28 |website=The Siasat Daily |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=Joint Pain Is No Longer Just an Aging Problem. Dr. Mir Jawad Zar Khan, After Performing 20,000+ Surgeries Explains the Alarming Rise Among Millennials |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/joint-pain-is-no-longer-just-an-aging-problem-dr-mir-jawad-zar-khan-after-performing-20000-surgeries-explains-the-alarming-rise-among-millennials-1914757 |access-date=Jan 28, 2026 |website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref> Khan is the founder, medical director, and senior orthopedic consultant of Germanten Hospital, a robotic joint replacement and rehabilitation center.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

== Early life and education ==
Khan completed his [[Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery]] (MBBS) and M.S. [[Orthopedic surgery|Orthopedics]] from [[Osmania University]]. He later obtained an [[Magister Chirurgiae|M.Ch.]] in Orthopedics from the University of Seychelles – American Institute of Medicine. He pursued advanced fellowship training in [[Arthroplasty]] in [[Munich]], [[Germany]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

== Career ==
After postgraduate training, Khan undertook senior residency and advanced surgical exposure at [[Osmania General Hospital]], managing a wide range of [[Orthopedic trauma|trauma]], [[arthroscopy]], [[joint replacement]], and spine surgeries, including Ligament reconstruction procedures.<ref name=":0" /> He later established a clinical practice focused on joint replacement, [[Minimally invasive surgery|minimally invasive orthopedic surgery]], [[Sports injury|sports injuries]], spine surgery, and navigation-assisted and [[Robotic surgery|robotic]] techniques.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

In 2018, Khan founded Germanten Hospital, a tertiary care center providing orthopedic, trauma, arthroscopy, joint replacement, spine, [[Rehabilitation medicine|rehabilitation]], and [[Geriatrics|geriatric]] services in [[Attapur]], [[Hyderabad]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

=== Clinical contributions ===
Khan performed more than 20,000 surgeries over the course of his career, including complex [[Knee replacement|knee]], [[Hip replacement|hip]], and [[Shoulder replacement]] procedures, [[Arthroscopic surgery|arthroscopic reconstructions]], and spine surgeries.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> He has also contributed to the adoption of [[Computer-assisted orthopedic surgery|computer-navigated]] and robotic-assisted joint replacement techniques in clinical practice in India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khan |first=Dr Mir Jawad Zar |date=2023-05-03 |title=Effective Robotic Joint Replacement Backed by German Precision |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/life-style/health/effective-robotic-joint-replacement-backed-by-german-precision-795702 |access-date=2026-01-28 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Maintain Mobility in Your 60s and 70s: Dr. Mir Jawad Zar Khan's Expert Guide Based on 26 Years and 20,000+ Surgeries |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/delhi/south-delhi-dr-mir-jawad-zar-khan-expert-guide-based-on-26-years-and-surgeries-9925365.html |access-date=Jan 28, 2026 |website=News 18}}</ref>

Khan has also been associated with initiatives to strengthen community-based geriatric care through structured training programs for [[Health care worker|healthcare workers]]. These initiatives focus on early screening of common geriatric conditions, provision of basic care, timely referral of complex cases, and the promotion of [[Healthy aging|healthy ageing]] practices at the community level.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=IGNOU invites applications for 6 month course in geriatric health care |url=https://www.siasat.com/ignou-invites-applications-for-6-month-course-in-geriatric-health-care-3258468/ |access-date=2026-01-28 |website=The Siasat Daily |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iZJp72S6Nnk |title=Transforming Joint Care in India: Dr. Mir Jawad Zar Khan on German-Tech Precision |date=2025-06-05 |last=Times Now |access-date=2026-01-28 |via=YouTube}}</ref>

=== Public health ===
Khan attributes the increasing prevalence of [[Musculoskeletal disorder|musculoskeletal pain]] in adults aged 30 to 40 to [[sedentary lifestyle]]s, prolonged screen time, and irregular exercise. He specifically identifies [[Vitamin D deficiency]] as a treatable factor contributing to [[Muscle weakness]] and early [[Osteoarthritis|joint degeneration]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Gupta |first=Priyanka |title=Joint Pain Was Once an Old Age Thing |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/insights/report-joint-pain-was-once-an-old-age-thing-3180404 |access-date=2026-01-28 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref>

He has also worked on age-related mobility decline in older adults, advocating early screening, lifestyle modification, and structured rehabilitation to reduce the impact of [[Arthritis]], [[Osteoporosis]], and [[Degenerative joint disease]].<ref name=":3" />

=== Academic and public engagement ===
In November 2021, he was a featured speaker at the seminar “Impact of COVID on Education” in Hyderabad, where he delivered a talk on “Coping with online learning health-related challenges,” addressing the health effects of prolonged [[Educational technology|digital learning]] during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Today |first=Telangana |date=2021-11-22 |title=ICBM, Telangana Today, Namasthe Telangana to hold seminar on 'Impact of Covid in Education' |url=https://telanganatoday.com/icbm-telangana-today-namasthe-telangana-to-hold-seminar-on-impact-of-covid-in-education |access-date=2026-01-28 |website=Telangana Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Affiliations ==
Khan is a member of the [[Indian Orthopaedic Association]], [[Indian Medical Association]], Orthopaedic Surgeons Society of Andhra Pradesh, Indo-German Orthopaedic Foundation, [[International Society of Arthroscopy, Knee Surgery and Orthopaedic Sports Medicine]] (ISAKOS), and [[Société Internationale de Chirurgie Orthopédique et de Traumatologie]] (SICOT).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" />

== Awards and recognition ==
In 2022, he was named Iconic Joint Replacement Surgeon of Telangana by the [[Governor of Telangana]].<ref name=":3" /> In 2023, Mir Jawad Zar Khan received the Champion of Change Award, presented by former [[President of India]] [[Ram Nath Kovind]] at [[Vigyan Bhavan]], [[New Delhi]], in recognition of his contributions to healthcare.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /> In 2025, Germanten Hospital, under his leadership, was awarded Centre of Excellence in Orthopedics & Joint Replacement Surgery at the Times Network India Health Summit – South Edition, held in Hyderabad.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-07 |title=From Critical Dialogues to Celebrating Healthcare Champions, Times Network Hosts India Health Summit – South Edition |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/health/times-network-india-health-summit-2025-spotlights-womens-healthcare-and-industry-advancements-article-151581107 |access-date=2026-01-28 |website=Times Now |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Mir Jawad Zar}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian orthopaedic surgeons]]
[[Category:Osmania University alumni]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Uthama Puthiran (1940 film)

2026-03-06T03:39:32Z

RealArifHossain: data.

{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Uthama Puthiran
| image = Uthama Puthiran 1940 poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical poster
| director = [[T. R. Sundaram]]
| story = N. Mian
| screenplay = T. V. Swami
| writer = D. V. Chari (dialogues)
| starring = [[P. U. Chinnappa]] [[M. V. Rajamma]]
| producer = [[Modern Theatres]] ([[Salem, Tamil Nadu|Salem]])
| distributor =
| music = G. Ramanathan<ref name=vamanan />
| cinematography = P. V. Krishna Iyer
| editing = P. P. Varghese
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1940|10|24|ref1={{Sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|page=34}}}}
| budget =
| gross =
| runtime = 212 minutes
| language = Tamil
}}

'''Utthama Puthiran''' is a 1940 [[Tamil language]] film directed by [[T. R. Sundaram]]. [[P. U. Chinnappa]], [[M. V. Rajamma]], and [[T. S. Balaiah]] played the lead roles. It was the first Tamil film in which the leading actor [[P. U. Chinnappa]] played a double role.

== Production ==
''Uthama Puthiran'' was adapted from the 1939 Hollywood film ''[[The Man in the Iron Mask (1939 film)|The Man in the Iron Mask]]'', which was based on the 1847–1850 novel ''[[The Vicomte of Bragelonne: Ten Years Later]]'' by the French adventure fiction maestro, [[Alexandre Dumas]].{{Sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|page=34}} The film was produced and directed by the [[Salem, Tamilnadu|Salem]] based movie mogul, [[Modern Theatres|T. R. Sundaram]], it proved successful and established the singing star of the 1940s, P. U. Chinnappa. The film featured him in dual roles and thus made him a first Tamil actor to feature him double roles. The double action scenes of Chinnappa was shot by Bodo Gutschwager, a German technician.{{Sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|page=35}} There was a sequence of the twins engaged in a duel while singing a duet, throwing challenges making it one of the rare scenes in Indian cinema.<ref name="Uthama">{{Cite web |date=2 May 2008 |title=Uthama Puthiran 1940 |website=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/article3022854.ece}}</ref>

[[M. V. Rajamma]], Kannada theatre and film actress, played the heroine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=M. V. Rajamma, the favorite 'Amma' |url=http://www.kalyanamalaimagazine.com/Content/Thiraichuvai/Oct10_1_15/Potpourri_of_titbits_about_Tamil_cinema_MV_Rajamma.html |website=Kalyanamalai}}</ref> Uthama Puthran was her second film with Chinnappa, the first being ''Yayathi'' (1938).<ref name="Uthama" /> [[T. S. Balaiah]] portrayed the negative role. The film had supporting cast featuring [[N. S. Krishnan|NSK]], Mathuram, Kali N. Ratnam, and [[P. A. Periyanayaki]].<ref name="Uthama" />

== Cast ==

* [[P. U. Chinnappa]] as Vikrama Pandiyan / Sokkanatha Pandiyan
* [[M. V. Rajamma]] as Meenatchi
* [[T. S. Balaiah]] as 'Minister' Naganathan
* T. S. Krishnaveni as Shanthamani
* Kali N. Ratnam as Pattabi
* Pulimoottai Ramasamy as Subbramani Samy

=== Guest appearance ===

* [[N. S. Krishnan]] as Iyengar
* [[T. A. Mathuram]] as Iyengar's wife

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[G. Ramanathan]]<ref name="vamanan">{{Cite book |last=Vamanan |title=Sangeetha Chakravarthi G. Ramanathan |date=December 2006 |publisher=Manivasagar Publishers |edition=1st |location=Chennai |pages=46 & 50 |language=ta |author-link=Vamanan}}</ref> and the lyrics were penned by S. Velsamy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Film News Anandan |url=http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1940-cinedetails2.asp |title=Sadhanaigal Padaitha Thamizh Thiraipada Varalaru |date=23 October 2004 |publisher=Sivakami Publishers |location=Chennai |language=ta |trans-title=History of Landmark Tamil Films |author-link=Film News Anandan |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190716112839/http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1940-cinedetails2.asp |archive-date=16 July 2019}}</ref> Even though the British Indian government banned the Tamil rebel poet Bharati's work, Sundaram had the actor render the famous song "Senthamizh Naadenum Podhiniley" and got away with it.<ref name="Uthama" />{{Sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|page=35}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=P U Chinnappa – Tamil film songs |url=http://www.indian-heritage.org/flmmusic/puchinapa.html |access-date=2020-03-17 |website=www.indian-heritage.org}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!No
!Title
!Singer(s)
!Length
|-
|1
|Igamo Unadharul
|[[P. U. Chinnappa]]
| --
|-
|2
|Kalangamilla Madhiyaa
|[[P. U. Chinnappa]]
| --
|-
|3
|Senthamizh Naadenum
|[[P. U. Chinnappa]]
| --
|}

== Themes and influences ==
''Uthama Puthiran'' adapted from Hollywood film ''[[The Man in the Iron Mask (1939 film)|The Man in the Iron Mask]]'' which was based on novel of same name notably became the first Tamil film to feature an actor in two roles.<ref name="Uthama" /> The story of identical twins was used often in Tamil cinema, and Dumas himself used it to write his famous ''[[The Corsican Brothers]]'' which was also adapted into Tamil.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 September 2006 |title=Uthama Puthiran — Making history with historicals |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/25411.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715075331/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/25411.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 July 2009 |access-date=2 May 2012 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref> The [[Gemini Studios]] version ''[[Apoorva Sagodharargal (1949 film)|Apoorva Sagotharargal]]'' (1949) with M. K. Radha playing the twins was a box office hit.{{Sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|page=35}} [[M. G. Ramachandran]] played the twins in a rehash of the film titled ''[[Neerum Neruppum]]''.<ref name="TRIAL">{{Cite news |last=Guy |first=Randor |date=17 March 2011 |title=A trailblazer |work=The Hindu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article1546580.ece |access-date=9 April 2012}}</ref> The film was [[Uthama Puthiran (1958 film)|remade]] again in 1958 with [[Sivaji Ganesan]].{{Sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|page=35}}<ref name="RANDOR">{{Cite news |last=Guy |first=Randor |author-link=Randor Guy |date=5 January 2013 |title=Blast from the Past: Uthama Puthran 1958 |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/uthama-puthran-1958/article4276441.ece |access-date=14 February 2013}}</ref> ''Uthama Puthiran'' also was the inspiration behind ''[[Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikecei|Imsai Arasan 23 m Pulikesi]]'', a 2006 [[historical film|historical]] [[comedy film]] starring comedian [[Vadivelu]] as the twins.<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 July 2006 |title=Messages in a light vein — Imsai Arasan 23rd Pulikesi |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2006/07/14/stories/2006071400010200.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=20 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060717114521/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2006/07/14/stories/2006071400010200.htm |archive-date=17 July 2006}}</ref>{{Sfn|Dhananjayan|2014|page=35}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080505073330/http://www.hindu.com/cp/2008/05/02/stories/2008050250361600.htm Article about the film by Randor Guy in Hindu]

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |last=Dhananjayan |first=G. |title=Pride of Tamil Cinema: 1931–2013 |title-link=Pride of Tamil Cinema |publisher=Blue Ocean Publishers |year=2014 |oclc=898765509 |author-link=G. Dhananjayan}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}

{{Modern Theatres}}
{{T. R. Sundaram}}
{{The Man in the Iron Mask}}

[[Category:1940 films]]
[[Category:1940s historical films]]
[[Category:1940 Indian films]]
[[Category:1940 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Films about twin brothers]]
[[Category:Films based on The Vicomte of Bragelonne: Ten Years Later]]
[[Category:Films directed by T. R. Sundaram]]
[[Category:Indian historical films]]
[[Category:Twins in Indian films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Sultana Daku (1972 film)

2026-03-03T23:38:00Z

RealArifHossain: update page additionally and fixed typos

{{more citations needed|date=June 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Sultana Daku
| image = Sultana Daku (1972).jpg

| caption = Poster
| director = [[Mohammed Hussain]]
| producer =
| writer =
| narrator =
| starring = [[Helen Jairag Richardson]] and [[Dara Singh]]
| music = [[Madan Mohan]]
| cinematography =
| editing =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1972}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
}}

'''''Sultana Daku''''' is a [[List of Bollywood films of 1972|1972]] [[Bollywood]] [[drama film]] directed by [[Mohammed Hussain]]. The film stars [[Helen Jairag Richardson]] and [[Dara Singh]]. This movie is based on a person named Sultana who fought against British imperialists.

== Cast ==
* [[Dara Singh]]
* [[Ajit Khan|Ajit]]
* [[Helen (actress)|Helen]]

== Music ==
{|class="wikitable"
! Song !! Singer
|-
| "Humko Bhi Munna Dila De Uparwale"
| [[Mohammed Rafi]], '''[[Asha Bhosle]]'''
|-
| "Tune Dil Mera Churaya Hai"
| Asha Bhosle
|-
| "Bhor Hote Balam Chale"
| Asha Bhosle
|-
| "Aake Apni Suratiya"
| Asha Bhosle
|-
|}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|id=0230828|title=Sultana Daku}}

[[Category:1972 films]]
[[Category:1972 crime drama films]]
[[Category:1972 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1972 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian crime drama films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Madan Mohan]]
[[Category:Indian films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Hindi-language films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Indian biographical drama films]]

{{1970s-Hindi-film-stub}}
{{1970s-crime-drama-film-stub}}

Eradu Kanasu (1974 film)

2026-03-03T22:21:19Z

RealArifHossain: quick fix

{{Short description|1974 Indian Kannada film by Dore Bhagavan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Eradu Kanasu
| image = Eradu Kanasu 1974 poster.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Dorai–Bhagavan]]
| writer = [[Vani (writer)|Vani]]
| based_on = {{Based on|''Eradu Kanasu''|Vani}}
| starring = [[Dr. Rajkumar|Rajkumar]] [[Kalpana (Kannada actress)|Kalpana]] [[Manjula (Kannada actress)|Manjula]]
| producer = Dorai Bhagawan
| music = [[Rajan–Nagendra]]
| cinematography = R. Chittibabu
| editing = Venkatram
| studio = Anupam Movies
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1974}}
| runtime = 144 minutes
| language = Kannada
| country = India
}}
'''''Eradu Kanasu''''' (ಎರಡು ಕನಸು)({{audio|Kn-ಎರಡು ಕನಸು.ogg|pronunciation}} {{translation|Two Dreams}}) is a 1974 Indian [[Kannada]]-language [[romantic drama]] film directed by the duo [[Dorai–Bhagavan]], and is based on the novel of the same name by [[Vani (writer)|Vani]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Team Udayavani |date=24 April 2019 |title=ರಾಜ್ ಹಬ್ಬ |url=https://www.udayavani.com/cinema/balcony-sandalwood-news/raj-festival-a-mirror-of-the-grooms-novel-films |website=udayavani.com}}</ref><ref name="Eradu Kanasu novel">{{Cite web |title=Eradu Kanasu novel |url=http://www.totalkannada.com/products/books/novels-vaani/eradu-kanasu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302120418/http://www.totalkannada.com/products/books/novels-vaani/eradu-kanasu |archive-date=2 March 2014 |access-date=24 February 2014}}</ref> The film stars [[Dr. Rajkumar|Rajkumar]], [[Kalpana (Kannada actress)|Kalpana]] and [[Manjula (Kannada actress)|Manjula]].

The film was a musical blockbuster with all the songs composed by [[Rajan–Nagendra]] considered evergreen hits. They were awarded with the [[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Music Director]] for 1974–75.

The movie saw a theatrical run of 30 weeks.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 April 2007 |title='Raja' of Chalanachitra |url=http://www.chitratara.com/showCelbProfile.asp?newsid=8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717135525/http://www.chitratara.com/showCelbProfile.asp?newsid=8 |archive-date=17 July 2007}}</ref> The movie completed 100 days when it was re-released in 1982.<ref>{{cite web | title=ಅಣ್ಣಾವ್ರ ಚಿತ್ರಗಳು ಬೆಂಗಳೂರಿನ ಯಾವ ಯಾವ ಥಿಯೇಟರ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ ರಿಲೀಸ್ ಆಗಿತ್ತು..? | Halu Jenu Ramkumar | Ep 104 | website=[[YouTube]] | date=13 December 2023 | url=https://m.youtube.com/watch?si=NEinUHkbTxYL7zL0&v=cjAN48Mk0J0&feature=youtu.be }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=27 January 2019 |title=Dr. Rajkumar – Annavru, Karnataka Ratna, Kentucky Colonel, Padma Bhushan, Nata Saarvabhouma |url=https://www.sandalwoodking.rocks/threads/dr-rajkumar-annavru-karnataka-ratna-kentucky-colonel-padma-bhushan-nata-saarvabhouma.4293/page-379 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=sandalwoodking.rocks |archive-date=31 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131072757/https://www.sandalwoodking.rocks/threads/dr-rajkumar-annavru-karnataka-ratna-kentucky-colonel-padma-bhushan-nata-saarvabhouma.4293/page-379 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> The film's success led to its second re-release on 6 February 2015 across Karnataka state. The movie was remade in Telugu in 1975 as ''[[Pooja (1975 film)|Pooja]]'' with three songs of this movie retained in the Telugu version.

== Plot ==
Ramachandra "Ramu" is a [[professor]] at a college in [[Bangalore]], who is married to Gowri, the daughter of a [[Advocate|lawyer]] for his mother's wishes, but is brooding over his past relationship with his cousin/love interest Lalitha, when her father refused to let Ramu marry Lalitha, due to some internal disputes. After their marriage, Ramu is distant from Gowri, who remains devoted to Ramu and is yearning for her husband's love. Ramu's parents observe his behaviour and leave for their village, hoping that their absence unites the couple. Gowri asks Ramu about his negligent behaviour towards her, but to no avail. When Ramu visits his lecturer friend, he sees that his friend is happily married to Lalitha and has a child. He realizes his mistake of brooding over the past for too long and neglecting Gowri and heads to meet her at a temple. When Ramu meets Gowri, the latter meets with an accident. Ramu admits her to a hospital and spends the night by her side. In the morning, the two make up and Ramu asks Gowri to forgive him for ignoring her.

== Cast ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Dr. Rajkumar|Rajkumar]] as Ramu
* [[Kalpana (Kannada actress)|Kalpana]] as Gowri
* [[Manjula (Kannada actress)|Manjula]] as Lalitha
* [[K. S. Ashwath]] as Ramu's father
* [[Balakrishna (Kannada actor)|Balakrishna]] as uncle
* [[Rajanand]] as Lalitha's father
* [[Sampath (Kannada actor)|Sampath]] as Gowri's father
* [[Advani Lakshmi Devi]] as Ramu's mother
* [[M. Jayashree]] as Gowri's mother
* [[Bhargavi Narayan]] as lecturer
* Ramgopal as Lalitha's husband
* [[Vaishali Kasaravalli]] as Latha
* [[Pandari Bai]] in Special Appearance
{{div col end}}

== Production ==
''Eradu Kanasu'' is based on the novel of the same name by [[Vani (writer)|Vani]].<ref name="Eradu Kanasu novel" /> The song "Endendu Ninnanu Marethu" was shot at Gajanur dam in Shivamoga district.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Special Correspondant |date=13 April 2006 |title=Rajkumar had a special affinity for Shivamoga |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/rajkumar-had-an-affinity-for-shimoga/article3146813.ece |website=thehindu.com|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230910074524/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/rajkumar-had-an-affinity-for-shimoga/article3146813.ece|archive-date=10 September 2023}}</ref>

== Themes and influences ==
Though ''Eradu Kanasu'' is based on a novel,<ref name="Eradu Kanasu novel" /> Muralidhara Khajane of ''The Hindu'' mentioned that the plot was similar to [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Muralidhara Khajane |date=23 April 2016 |title=Shakespeare influenced Kannada films too |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/shakespeare-influenced-kannada-films-too/article8510212.ece|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230910075904/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/shakespeare-influenced-kannada-films-too/article8510212.ece|archive-date=10 September 2023}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Eradu Kanasu
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Rajan–Nagendra]]
| cover =
| border = yes
| alt =
| caption = Soundtrack cover
| released = 1974
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length =
| label = [[Saregama]]
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

The music was composed by [[Rajan–Nagendra]] with lyrics penned by [[Chi. Udaya Shankar]]. The album consists of six tracks.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eradu Kanasu (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) |url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/eradu-kanasu-original-motion/id918816656 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206045843/https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/eradu-kanasu-original-motion/id918816656 |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 December 2014 |access-date=6 October 2014 |publisher=[[iTunes]]}}</ref> All the songs composed for the film were received extremely well and considered as evergreen songs.

The song ''Thamnam Thamnam'' was remixed by Mano Murthy in ''[[Abhinetri (2015 film)|Abhinetri]]'' (2015).<ref>{{Cite web |last=S. Vishwanath |date=1 February 2015 |title=The rise and fall of an actress |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/456982/rise-fall-actress.html |website=deccanherald.com}}</ref>

The tune of the song ''Endendu Ninnanu Marethu'' <ref name="merged1">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CwlSyNSFEo0 |title=Endendu Ninnanu Marethu {{!}} Eradu Kanasu--ಎರಡುಕನಸು {{!}} Rajkumar {{!}} Kalpana {{!}} Manjula {{!}} Kannada Video Song |date=25 March 2015 |publisher=SRS Media Vision Entertainment |access-date=16 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824072905/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CwlSyNSFEo0 |archive-date=24 August 2021 |url-status=live |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> was used in the 1992 Hindi movie ''[[Jaan Se Pyaara]]'' as ''Bin Tere Kuch Bhi Nahi Hai Jeevan Mera''.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gqc2zcnupt8 |title=Udit narayan rare song – Bin Tere Kuch Bhi Nahin Hai Jeevan Mera. |date=23 October 2010 |publisher=420punamshah |access-date=16 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205081604/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gqc2zcnupt8 |archive-date=5 February 2017 |url-status=live |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> The same song was also recreated in ''[[Muddina Kanmani]]'' starring Shivarajkumar.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!No.
!Title
!Lyrics
!Singers
!Picturization
!Length
|-
|01
|"Endu Ninna Noduve"
|[[Chi. Udayashankar|Chi. Udaya Shankar]]
|[[P. B. Sreenivas]]
|[[Dr. Rajkumar|Rajkumar]]
|4:06
|-
|02
|"Endendu Ninnanu Marethu"
|Chi. Udaya Shankar
|P. B. Sreenivas
[[Vani Jairam|Vani Jayaram]]
|Rajkumar
[[Manjula (Kannada actress)|Manjula]]
|4:34
|-
|03
|"Baadi Hoda Balli inda "
|Chi. Udaya Shankar
|P. B. Sreenivas
|Rajkumar
|3:21
|-
|04
|"Poojisalendhe Hoogala tande "
|Chi. Udaya Shankar
|S. Janaki
|[[Kalpana (Kannada actress)|Kalpana]]
|4:21
|-
|05
|"Thamnam Thamnam"
|Chi. Udaya Shankar
|P. B. Sreenivas
S. Janaki
|Rajkumar
Kalpana
|4:21
|-
|06
|"Indu Enage Govindha "
|[[Raghavendra Tirtha|Raghavendra Swamy]]
|[[S. Janaki]]
|Kalpana
|4:21
|}

== Reception ==
In a 2015 review of the film, a critic from ''[[The Hans India]]'' gave the film a rating of 4 {{frac|1|2}} out of 5 and wrote that "The film was a blockbuster hit and a must watch".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Cinema/2015-02-06/Dr-Rajkumars-Eradu-Kanasu-review-rating/129992|title=Dr Rajkumar's Eradu Kanasu review, rating|date=6 February 2015|work=[[The Hans India]]}}</ref>

== Awards ==
At the 1973–74 [[Karnataka State Film Awards]], the film won the award for [[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Director]] ([[Rajan–Nagendra]]).

== Legacy ==
The film is considered as one of the greatest romantic films in Kannada noted for the strong performances of lead actors Rajkumar and Kalpana.

The film's title inspired a 2017 film of [[Eradu Kanasu (2017 film)|same name]] starring Vijay Raghavendra.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Special Correspondant |date=27 May 2017 |title=Kannada film directors, four others arrested on abduction charges |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/kannada-film-director-four-others-arrested-on-abduction-charges/article18589420.ece |website=thehindu.com}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|1407978}}

{{Dorai–Bhagavan}}

[[Category:1974 films]]
[[Category:1974 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:1974 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic musical films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Rajan–Nagendra]]
[[Category:Films based on Indian novels]]
[[Category:Kannada films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:1974 romantic drama films]]
[[Category:1970s romantic musical films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Dorai–Bhagavan]]
[[Category:1974 musical films]]

Ponman

2026-03-03T09:34:35Z

RealArifHossain: stub

{{Short description|2025 film by Jothish Shankar}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Ponman
| image = Ponman poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Jotish Shankar
| producer = Vinayaka Ajith
| writer = [[G. R. Indugopan]] Justin Mathew
| based_on = {{Based on|''Nalanchu cheruppakkar'' (transl. "Four or five young people")|G. R. Indugopan}}
| story =
| starring = {{plainlist|* [[Basil Joseph]]
* [[Sajin Gopu]]
* [[Lijomol Jose]]
* Anand Manmadhan
* [[Deepak Parambol]]
}}
| music = [[Justin Varghese]]
| cinematography = [[Sanu John Varghese]]
| editing = Nidhin Raj Arol
| studio = Ajith Vinayaka Films
| distributor = Ajith Vinayaka Release
| released = {{film date|2025|1|30|df=yes}}
| runtime = 127 minutes<ref name=":HR" />
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget = {{INR}}3 crore<ref name=gross></ref>
| gross = {{INR}}18.3 crore<ref name=gross>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-18 |title=Ponman box office verdict: Basil Joseph's film earns Rs 18.3 crore in its full run, trade analyst says 'RoI is high'|url=https://www.indiatimes.com/entertainment/originals/ponman-malayalam-movie-box-office-verdict-basil-josephs-film-earns-rs-183-crore-in-its-full-run-trade-analyst-says-roi-is-high-654797.html|language=ml}}</ref>
}}
'''''Ponman''''' ({{translation|Kingfisher}}; {{lit|Gold man}}) is a 2025 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[black comedy]] [[thriller film]] directed by Jothish Shankar. The film stars [[Basil Joseph]], [[Sajin Gopu]], [[Lijomol Jose]], Anand Manmadhan and [[Deepak Parambol]] and is based on the novel ''Naalanchu Cheruppakar'' (transl. "Four or five young men") penned by GR Indugopan.

Kollam was the main location of this movie. Filming took place in many parts of Kollam like Munrothuruth, Thanni, Chinnakada, Kundara, Thekkumbhagam.

The film was released on 30 January 2025 and received critical acclaim from both critics and audience. The film was commercial success at box office.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-23 |title=8 സൂപ്പർ ഹിറ്റുകൾ, 7 ഹിറ്റുകൾ; നഷ്ടം 360 കോടി; 2025 മലയാളസിനിമ കണക്ക് ഇങ്ങനെ|url=https://www.manoramanews.com/entertainment/box-office/2025/12/23/malayalam-cinema-2025-hits-and-losses.html|language=ml}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Set in the coastal town of [[Kollam]] the story follows Bruno, an unemployed and hot-tempered man deeply involved in [[politics]]. He lives with his mother and younger sister, Steffi, near the seashore. Bruno has a reputation for stirring trouble, making enemies in the community. His aggressive nature is evident when he beats up a church member who protests against his political party pasting campaign posters on the church walls.

Bruno’s mother is eager to get Steffi married, but in Kollam’s dowry-driven society, they struggle to meet the demands. The family arranges Steffi’s marriage with Mariano, a [[Shrimp farming|prawn farmer]] from the island of Thalavettichira, whose family demands 25 sovereigns of gold as dowry. With no savings and no goodwill due to Bruno’s behavior, they find themselves helpless. The church refuses aid, and Bruno’s political party expels him for his misdeeds.

Desperate, Bruno turns to P.P. Ajesh, a middleman for a jewellery syndicate that supplies gold to brides in exchange for the cash received as wedding gifts. If the cash falls short, the remaining gold must be returned immediately. Steffi’s family agrees to the terms, and the wedding goes ahead.

On the wedding night, Ajesh collects the cash gifts but finds only enough to cover 13 sovereigns—far less than expected due to Bruno’s poor reputation keeping guests away. With 12 sovereigns still unpaid, Ajesh demands the gold back. Steffi’s mother stalls for time, and as Ajesh dozes off, Mariano leaves with Steffi and all the gold. When Ajesh wakes up, he realizes he has been deceived. Bruno, now indifferent, warns Ajesh that Mariano is ruthless and his island is dangerous.

Determined, Ajesh follows Steffi to Thalavettichira, posing as her cousin. He soon realizes the challenge ahead—Mariano’s family is protective of the gold, which they plan to use to settle past dowry debts and for their younger daughter’s future marriage. Ajesh demands Steffy return the gold, but Steffy refuses while belittling him and her brother Bruno. As tensions rise, Mariano discovers Ajesh’s real identity. When confronted, Steffi is forced to confess the truth.

Ajesh pleads with Mariano, explaining the deal, but Mariano coldly refuses, claiming it’s not his problem. He declares that he won't be returning the gold as it is rightfully his and he intends to give it away to his younger sister on her marriage. An argument ensues, ending with Mariano stabbing Ajesh and leaving him injured. When Mariano returns home, Steffi notices blood on his knife and senses something is wrong. The next day, Bruno arrives to take Steffi home, but Mariano ensures all the gold remains with him before letting her go.

Steffi and Bruno track down Ajesh’s home and discover his impoverished background—his mother and sister struggle as daily wage laborers. His mother, unaware of what happened, simply asks Steffi to tell Ajesh to call home, as she hasn’t heard from him in days. This deeply affects Steffi, making her realize the injustice done to him.

Determined to set things right, Steffi attempts to steal the gold from Mariano but gets caught and publicly humiliated by him. Ajesh, now recovered, returns to confront Mariano once again, vowing not to leave without his rightful share.

On the night of the island’s grand church feast, Mariano has Steffi wear part of the gold, while the rest remains in his pocket. Spotting them at the church, Ajesh devises a plan. He sneaks to Mariano’s prawn farm and calls him, threatening to open the floodgates and release all the prawns into the open water—destroying his livelihood. Furious, Mariano rushes to stop him, leading to a final, intense confrontation. In the struggle, Ajesh traps Mariano’s hand in heavy machinery and retrieves exactly 12 sovereigns of gold—what he was owed.

Before leaving, he finds Steffi still waiting at the church. Thanking her for her help, he prepares to depart, but she confesses she cannot return to Mariano’s abusive household. Without hesitation, Ajesh offers her a way out. As they sail away together, he tells her, “You don’t need gold. You are valuable even without it.” They leave the island, choosing freedom over the weight of their past.

== Cast ==
* [[Basil Joseph]] as P P Ajesh
* [[Sajin Gopu]] as Mariano
* [[Lijomol Jose]] as Steffi
* Anand Manmadhan as Bruno
* [[Deepak Parambol]] as Markandeya Sharma
* Rejin Sivadas as Marutha Lalu
* Midhun Venugopal as Kaala Ambro
* Maju Anchal as Brochan
* Sandhya Rajendran as Agnes
* Shylaja P. Ambu as Lovely
* [[Rajesh Sharma (Malayalam actor)|Rajesh Sharma]] as Priest
* Suvarnnan Paravur as Lopez Gonzalves, Party office comrade
* Jaya Kurupp as Lusiyamma
* Vyshnavi Kalyani as Chris Soniya (Mariyano's younger sister)
* Lakshmi Sanju as Chris Niva (Mariyano's elder sister)
* Rakesh Keshav as Amal

== Production ==
The film was announced in February 2024.<ref>{{cite news |title=Basil Joseph to join hands with debut director Jothish Shankar |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/Feb/12/basil-joseph-to-join-hands-with-debut-director-jothish-shankar-51978.html |work=Cinema Express |date=3 February 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Basil Joseph's next begins |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2024/Feb/13/basil-josephs-next-begins |work=The New Indian Express |date=1 February 2024 |language=en}}</ref> The film marks the directorial debut of Jothish Shankar, who previously worked as a production designer on films such as ''[[Kumbalangi Nights]]'', ''[[Android Kunjappan Version 5.25]]'', and ''[[Nna Thaan Case Kodu]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ponman: First-look poster of Basil Joseph's next unveiled |url=https://thesouthfirst.com/entertainment/malayalam/ponman-first-look-poster-of-basil-josephs-next-unveiled/ |work=The South First |date=19 August 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

Kollam was the main location of this movie. Filming took place in many parts of Kollam like [[Munroe Island|Munrothuruth]] (Munroe Island), [[Thanni Beach|Thanni]], [[Chinnakada]], [[Kundara]], [[Chavara Thekkumbhagom|Thekumbhagam]].

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Ponman
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Justin Varghese]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 30 January 2025
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 16:08
| language = Malayalam
| label = [[Think Music]]
| producer =
| chronology = [[Justin Varghese]]
| prev_title = [[Sky Force (film)|Sky Force]]
| prev_year = 2025
| next_title =
| next_year =
| misc = {{external media
| audio1 = {{YouTube|3jvNDog6k0E|Ponman – Jukebox}}}}
}}
The soundtrack was composed by [[Justin Varghese]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Ponman Songs by Justin Varghese |url=https://gaana.com/album/ponman |website=[[Gaana (music streaming service)|Gaana]] |language=en |date=30 January 2025}}</ref>
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Kollam Pattu
| length1 = 4:06
| lyrics1 = [[Anwar Ali (poet)|Anwar Ali]]
| extra1 = [[Resmi Sateesh]]
| title2 = Braidaathi
| length2 = 3:48
| lyrics2 = [[Suhail Koya]]
| extra2 = Bineetha Ranjith
| title3 = Paka
| length3 = 4:36
| lyrics3 = Suhail Koya
| extra3 = [[K. S. Chithra]], [[Justin Varghese]]
| title4 = Arbhadam
| length4 = 3:38
| lyrics4 = Suhail Koya
| extra4 = Zia Ul Haq
| total_length = 16:08
}}

== Release ==
=== Theatrical ===
''Ponman'' was originally scheduled to be released on 6 February 2025, but it was rescheduled and was released theatrically on 30 January 2025.<ref>{{cite news |title=Release preponed for Basil Joseph's 'Ponman' |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2025/Jan/21/release-preponed-for-basil-josephs-ponman |work=The New Indian Express |date=11 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
=== Home media ===
The digital streaming rights of the film are acquired by [[JioHotstar]] and began streaming from 14 March 2025.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ponman OTT Release: When and where you can watch Basil Joseph starrer Malayalam dark comedy film online |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/south/ponman-ott-release-when-and-where-you-can-watch-basil-joseph-starrer-malayalam-dark-comedy-film-online-1376352 |work=Pinkvilla |date=7 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

== Reception ==
Anna Mathews of ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the film four-and-a-half-out of five stars and wrote, "''Ponman'' is cinematic gold with its brilliant script, acting, direction".<ref>{{cite news |title=Ponman Movie Review: Ponman is cinematic gold with its brilliant script, acting, direction |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/ponman/amp_movie_review/117733648.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=30 January 2025}}</ref> Sajin Shrijith of ''[[The Week (Indian magazine)|The Week]]'' gave it four out of five stars and wrote, "''Ponman'' is one of those rare films where not even one second is dull or boredom-inducing. Every character has a purpose; every character has a clear reason for doing what they do; every character has their share of vulnerabilities; and every character is answerable to somebody."<ref>{{cite news |title='Ponman' review: Superbly written and staged tale of wounded pride, survival and courage |url=https://www.theweek.in/review/movies/2025/01/30/superbly-written-and-staged-tale-of-wounded-pride-survival-and-courage.html |work=The Week |date=30 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

Vivek Santhosh of ''[[Cinema Express]]'' gave it four out of five stars and opined that "The film unravels a tense pursuit of gold, laced with humour and deep-rooted emotions, exposing the dark side of the dowry system from a different vantage point with brilliant performances".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Santhosh |first1=Vivek |title=Ponman Movie Review: A gripping tale of unyielding resilience forged in gold |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/review/2025/Jan/30/ponman-movie-review-a-gripping-tale-of-unyielding-resilience-forged-in-gold |work=Cinema Express |date=30 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref> Kirubhakar Purushothaman of ''[[News18]]'' gave it four out of five stars and wrote, "The film, starring Basil Joseph, leaves a lot to ponder about resilience, will of the heart, and survival of the bravest, despite being modest in its story and execution."<ref>{{cite news |title=Ponman Movie Review: Basil Joseph Shines In A Well-Written Film Of Grit And Resilience |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/ponman-movie-review-basil-joseph-shines-in-a-well-written-film-of-grit-and-resilience-9208593.html |work=News18 |date=30 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

Janani K. of ''[[India Today]]'' gave it three-and-a-half out of five stars and wrote, "With brilliant performances and hardly any lags, ''Ponman'' is a realistic film that holds a mirror to society."<ref>{{cite news |title=Ponman review: Basil Joseph, Sajin Gopu breathe life as underdogs in brilliant drama |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/ponman-review-basil-joseph-sajin-gopu-breathe-life-as-underdogs-in-brilliant-drama-2672443-2025-01-30 |work=India Today |date=30 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref> S. R. Praveen of ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote, "''Ponman'' could have easily turned into another film with a progressive message against dowry and the unhealthy obsession with gold. But what we get instead is an engrossing, non-judgemental study of characters, most of whom are victims of social malaise. ''Ponman'' is worth its weight in gold."<ref name=":HR">{{cite news |last1=Praveen |first1=S. R. |title='Ponman' movie review: Basil Joseph headlines an engrossing character study that's worth its weight in gold |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/ponman-movie-review-basil-joseph-headlines-an-engrossing-character-study-thats-worth-its-weight-in-gold/article69159728.ece |work=The Hindu |date=30 January 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

Vishal Menon of ''[[The Hollywood Reporter India]]'' wrote, "As viewers, it's never easy to hitch your loyalty to any one character in ''Ponman'' in which all the great writing decisions are complemented with equally great performances".<ref>{{cite news |title='Ponman' Movie Review: A Stunning Basil Joseph Shines In This Stressful, High-Stakes Drama |url=https://www.hollywoodreporterindia.com/reviews/theatrical/ponman-movie-review-a-stunning-basil-joseph-shines-in-this-stressful-high-stakes-drama |work=The Hollywood Reporter India |date=30 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref> Anandu Suresh of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' gave it two-and-a-half out of five stars and noted that "The Basil Joseph and Sajin Gopu-starer is one of those films that deserve appreciation for its technical brilliance and stellar performances, yet is filled with glaring misrepresentations and the glorification of wrongdoings."<ref>{{cite news |title=Ponman movie review: Basil Joseph and Sajin Gopu lead a technically brilliant but deeply problematic film |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/ponman-movie-review-basil-joseph-and-sajin-gopu-lead-a-technically-brilliant-but-deeply-problematic-film-9806890/ |work=The Indian Express |date=30 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

[[Category:2025 drama films]]
[[Category:2025 films]]
[[Category:2025 Indian films]]
[[Category:2025 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kollam]]
[[Category:Films about families]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Indian family films]]

Pekamedalu

2026-03-03T09:13:10Z

RealArifHossain: done.

{{Short description|2024 Indian film by Neelagiri Mamilla}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}

{{Infobox film
| name = Pekamedalu
| image = Pekamedalu film poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Neelagiri Mamilla
| screenplay = {{plain list|
* Neelagiri Mamilla
* Hamza Ali
* Sreenivas Ittam
}}
| story = Neelagiri Mamilla
| producer = Rakesh Varre
| starring = {{plain list|
* [[Vinoth Kishan]]
* Anoosha Krishna
}}
| cinematography = Haricharan K.
| editing = {{plain list|
* Srujana Adusumilli
* Hamza Ali
}}
| music = Smaran
| studio = Crazy Ants Productions
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2024|07|19}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Telugu
}}

'''''Pekamedalu''''' ({{Translation|House of cards}}) is a 2024 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[comedy drama]] film directed by Neelagiri Mamilla and produced by Rakesh Varre through Crazy Ants Productions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harsh |first=B. H. |date=2024-07-20 |title=Rakesh Varre: There is so much male dominance in industry {{!}} Team Pekamedalu interview |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/video/interview/2024/Jul/20/rakesh-varre-there-is-so-much-male-dominance-in-industry-team-pekamedalu-interview |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=Cinema Express |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240808064433/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/video/interview/2024/Jul/20/rakesh-varre-there-is-so-much-male-dominance-in-industry-team-pekamedalu-interview |url-status=live }}</ref> The film features [[Vinoth Kishan]] and Anoosha Krishna in lead roles, with music composed by Smaran. ''Pekamedalu'' was released on 19 July 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-09 |title=Rakesh Varre's Pekamedalu Trailer Released; Film Will Hit The Screens On July 19 |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/telugu/rakesh-varres-peka-medalu-trailer-released-film-will-hit-the-screens-on-july-19-article-111608310 |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=Times Now |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240808064434/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/telugu/rakesh-varres-peka-medalu-trailer-released-film-will-hit-the-screens-on-july-19-article-111608310 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2024-06-29 |title=Vinoth Kishan starrer Peka Medalu to release on this date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2024/Jun/29/vinoth-kishan-starrer-peka-medalu-to-release-on-july-19 |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=Cinema Express |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240808064433/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2024/Jun/29/vinoth-kishan-starrer-peka-medalu-to-release-on-july-19 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Plot ==

The story centers on Laxman ([[Vinod Kishan]]), an engineering graduate living in a small neighborhood in Hyderabad. Unlike most, Laxman has no interest in pursuing a conventional job. Instead, he dreams of making quick money through real estate and plays [[Rummy|online rummy]] all the time and building castles in the air. His wife, Varalaxmi (Anoosha Krishna), supports the family by making and selling snacks, also working in other households. She aspires to start her own curry point, needing Rs.50,000 for the venture. Laxman borrows this amount from a friend called Shivanna but spends it on personal needs. He lies to Varalaxmi he got the amount through one of his deals.

Laxman becomes entangled with an NRI woman, Swetha ([[Rethika Srinivas]]), married to another man, under the guise of a real estate business partnership. This affair introduces significant changes in his life. Laxman decides to marry Swetha for her property, who decides to give divorce to her husband, who is against this. Meanwhile, Laxman friend warns his actions as wrong, but he wantedly makes a deaf year and asks for a divorce to Varalaxmi, which makes her shatter.

Later in one of his business meetings, the client reveals himself as Swetha's brother and gets to know all the facts through his brother in law and bashes Laxman. Then, he records all the truth from Laxman and sends it to her sister, and then she ends her relationship with him. After coming home, he gets to know that Varalaxmi went back to her hometown. Later, both families meet for a settlement with their community people. Their Laxman shows his chauvinistic nature towards Varalaxmi and orders to come back his home. But her brother bashes Laxman and his family by blaming them as frauds. Later, Varalaxmi decides to go back to her husband because of unbearable taunts by her sister in law.

After coming back to her home, Laxman becomes decent, and he gets a small job in [[Business Process Outsourcing|BPO]]. Life seems happy for Varalaxmi they puts a financial goals to increase their lifestyle, and one of her household supports her financially to set up a curries point in a center, which eventually becomes a profitable vent one day, Varalaxmi accidentally lifts the call of Laxman and gets to know that he left the job a week ago without informing anyone. Then she confronts her husband again, and then he shows his real face and slaps her.

Later, Laxman comes to her workplace to apologize, and then suddenly, Shivanna appears and asks his money. Laxman tries to manage the situation, but Varalaxmi overheard all the facts and shouts at him. Then, the reckless Laxman slaps his wife again and damages all the products and leaves. Later, the Varalaxmi's house hold who is a cop who has a daughterly affection on her bashes Laxman and warns him to be straight. Later at night, Laxman becomes angered and commits [[Domestic Violence]] against Varalaxmi, then she retaliates back then the neighbors become alert and tries to bash Laxman but he escapes from them then they safe guards Varalaxmi and her son Tinku.

After one year, now Varalaxmi is shifted to a middle-class locality with her son, and now her curries point business is increased into an outlet. The film ends with Laxman becoming a loafer and addicted completely online rummy.

==Cast==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Vinoth Kishan]] as Laxman
* Anoosha Krishna as Varalaxmi "Varalu", Laxman's wife
* [[Rethika Srinivas]] as Swetha
* [[Muralidhar Goud]] as Varalaxmi's relative
* Jagan Yogi Raj
* Anusha Nuthala
* Ganesh Thipparaju
* Naren Yadav
}}

==Music==
{{Infobox album
| name = Pekamedalu
| type = soundtrack
| artist = Smaran
| released = 2024
| recorded = 2024
| language = Telugu
| label = [[Sony Music India]]
| producer = Smaran
| prev_title = [[Martin Luther King (film)|Martin Luther King]]
| prev_year = 2024
| year = 2024
| next_title =
| next_year = 2023
}}

The film's [[soundtrack|soundtrack album]] and [[background score]] were composed by Smaran.

{{Track listing
| headline = Track list
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| all_lyrics = Bhargava Karthik
| all_music =
| title1 = Boom Boom Lacchanna
| note1 =
| length1 = 2:57
| extra1 = [[Mano (singer)|Mano]] '''Background Vocals:''' Aishwarya Daruri, Sindujha Srinivasan, Vinayak, Rajshaker Katlakunta, Smaran
| title2 = Adapilla – Her Anthem
| length2 = 4:38
| extra2 = Sakae Rajashekar
| title3 = Sher Shiva
| length3 = 1:30
| extra3 = Niklesh Sunkoji, Saurabh Chaganty, Smaran Sai, Deviprasad Thatikonda, Ganesh, Vivek
| title4 =
Varalaxmi
| length4 = 3:34
| extra4 = Smaran, Sarathy
| total_length = 11:39
}}

==Release and reception==
''Pekamedalu'' was released on 19 July 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-27 |title=Telugu Film Pekamedalu, Starring Vinoth Kishan And Anoosha Krishna, Releases In USA |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/telugu-film-pekamedalu-starring-vinoth-kishan-and-anoosha-krishna-releases-in-usa-8980930.html |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=News18 |language=en |archive-date=13 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913102040/https://www.news18.com/movies/telugu-film-pekamedalu-starring-vinoth-kishan-and-anoosha-krishna-releases-in-usa-8980930.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Citing it as "one of the best Telugu films", BH Harsh of ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' gave a rating of 4 out of 5, while praising Neelagiri Mamilla's direction, screenplay and performances of lead actors. He further stated "Pekamedalu one of the most captivating and impactful films of the year so far".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harsh |first=B. H. |date=2024-07-20 |title='Pekamedalu' movie review: Anoosha Krishna, Vinoth Kishan excel in one of best Telugu films |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2024/Jul/20/pekamedalu-movie-review-anoosha-krishna-vinoth-kishan-excel-in-one-of-best-telugu-films |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=[[The New Indian Express]] |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240808064434/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2024/Jul/20/pekamedalu-movie-review-anoosha-krishna-vinoth-kishan-excel-in-one-of-best-telugu-films |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Deccan Chronicle]]'''s Bhavana Sharma too echoed the same, while stating that "''Pekamedalu'' relies on character-driven storytelling and genuine emotions".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Bhavana |date=2024-07-19 |title=Pekamedalu review: A peek into the middle-class life |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-review/pekamedalu-review-a-peek-into-the-middle-class-life-1811101 |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |language=en |archive-date=8 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240808064434/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-review/pekamedalu-review-a-peek-into-the-middle-class-life-1811101 |url-status=live }}</ref> Giving a nearly positive review, ''[[The Times of India]]'' stated "Director Nilgri Mamilla did a commendable job portraying and narrating a story on real-life struggles, supported by content-oriented actors and great music".<ref>{{Cite news |title=Pekamedalu Movie Review : An empowering story of a woman with a satisfying ending |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/pekamedalu/movie-review/111900422.cms |access-date=2024-08-08 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=13 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913102134/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/pekamedalu/movie-review/111900422.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Suhas Sistu of ''[[The Hans India]]'' opined that the film have similar narratives like ''[[Ammo! Okato Tareekhu]]'' (2000), ''[[Sarada Saradaga]]'' (2006) and ''[[Sriramachandrulu|Sreeramachandralu]]'', yet stands out with its unique storyline. Citing it as "must watch", Suhas in his review wrote that "''Peka Medalu'' is a commendable effort in portraying real-life struggles and the importance of perseverance. With strong performances, especially by Vinod Kishan and Anusha Krishna, and solid technical work, the film delivers a heartfelt narrative".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sistu |first=Suhas |date=2024-07-19 |title='Peka Medalu' review: A new tale of dreams and struggles|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/peka-medalu-review-a-new-tale-of-dreams-and-struggles-893006 |access-date=2025-06-30 |website=[[The Hans India]] |language=en |archive-date= |archive-url= }}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|28444513|title=Pekamedalu}}

[[Category:2024 films]]
[[Category:2024 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Films set in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:2024 Indian films]]
[[Category:2024 comedy films]]
[[Category:2024 drama films]]
[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Smaran]]

Political career of Vladimir Putin

2026-02-24T03:34:11Z

RealArifHossain: minor changes

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
[[File:Владимир Путин (08-12-2025).jpg|thumb|Putin in 2025]]
{{Putin sidebar}}
The '''political career of Vladimir Putin''' concerns the career of [[Vladimir Putin]] in politics, including his current tenure as [[President of Russia]]. Putin's career has evolved from early administrative roles in [[Saint Petersburg]] to national security leadership and long-standing presidency.

His political rise began in the [[Saint Petersburg City Administration]] (1990–1997), where in May 1990 he was appointed as an advisor on international affairs to Mayor [[Anatoly Sobchak]]. Shortly thereafter, in June 1991, he became the head of the Committee for External Relations of the Saint Petersburg Mayor’s Office, overseeing the promotion of international ties, foreign investment, and the registration of business ventures. Though his tenure was marred by investigations from the city legislative council concerning discrepancies in asset valuation and the export of metals, Putin retained his position until 1996. During the mid-1990s, he expanded his responsibilities in Saint Petersburg, serving as first deputy head of the city administration and leading the local branch of the pro-government political party [[Our Home Is Russia]], as well as participating in advisory roles with regional newspapers.

Transitioning to the national scene in 1996, Putin was called to Moscow following the electoral defeat of Sobchak, where he assumed the role of Deputy Chief of the Presidential Property Management Department. In this capacity, he was responsible for managing the transfer of former Soviet assets to the Russian Federation. His career in Moscow advanced rapidly with his appointment in 1997 as deputy chief of the Presidential Staff and later as chief of the Main Control Directorate of the same department. A pivotal moment came in 1998 when President [[Boris Yeltsin]] appointed him director of the [[Federal Security Service|FSB]], Russia’s primary intelligence and security agency. In this role, Putin concentrated on reorganising and strengthening the agency after years of perceived decline, a period that would prove formative for his later approach to governance.

In August 1999, Putin’s profile increased substantially when he was named one of the three first deputy prime ministers, and later the acting prime minister following the dismissal of [[Sergei Stepashin's Cabinet]]. Endorsed by Yeltsin as his preferred successor, Putin quickly capitalised on his law-and-order reputation and rose in popularity, winning the presidential election in March 2000 and being inaugurated on 7 May 2000. Throughout his subsequent terms, alternately serving as president and prime minister, Putin has overseen extensive reforms aimed at consolidating state power, restructuring federal relations, and curbing the influence of oligarchs. His tenure has been punctuated by significant foreign policy actions, including the controversial [[2014 Russian annexation of Crimea|annexation of Crimea]] in 2014, [[Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war|military interventions in Syria]], and ongoing involvement in the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]].

==Saint Petersburg administration (1990–1997)==
[[File:Владимир Путин, 1990-е.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Putin as deputy mayor of [[Saint Petersburg]], 1991]]
In May 1990, Putin was appointed Mayor Sobchak's advisor on international affairs. On 28 June 1991, he was appointed head of the [https://web.archive.org/web/20070221044544/http://kvs.spb.ru/en/ Committee for External Relations] of the [[Saint Petersburg City Administration|Saint Petersburg Mayor's Office]], with responsibility for promoting international relations and foreign investments. The Committee also registered business ventures in Saint Petersburg. Less than one year later, Putin was investigated by a commission of the city legislative council. Commission deputies [[Marina Salye]] and [[Yury Gladkov]] concluded that Putin understated prices and permitted the export of metals valued at $93 million, in exchange for foreign food aid that never arrived.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sptimes.ru/index.php?action_id=2&story_id=1124|title=Uproar At Honor For Putin|last=Kovalev|first=Vladimir|date=23 July 2004|work=The Saint Petersburg Times|access-date=21 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320150048/http://sptimes.ru/index.php?action_id=2&story_id=1124|archive-date=20 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/russiagov/putin.htm|title=Putin's Career Rooted in Russia's KGB|last=Hoffman|first=David|date=30 January 2000|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> Despite the commission's recommendation that Putin be fired, Putin remained head of the Committee for External Relations until 1996.<ref>[[Catherine Belton|Belton, Catherine]] (19 May 2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927010325/http://www.rusnet.nl/news/2003/05/19/print/report03.shtml Putin's Name Surfaces in German Probe], RUSNET.nl website.</ref><ref>Walsh, Nick Paton (29 February 2004). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/feb/29/russia.features "The Man Who Wasn't There"]. ''The Observer''.</ref>

From 1994 to 1997, Putin was appointed to other positions in [[Saint Petersburg]]. In March 1994, he became first deputy head of the city administration. From 1995 through June 1997, he led the Saint Petersburg branch of the pro-government [[Our Home Is Russia]] political party.<ref name=30bio>{{cite web|url=http://gazeta.lenta.ru/daynews/09-08-1999/30bio.htm|script-title=ru:Владимир Путин: от ассистента Собчака до и.о. премьера|publisher=GAZETA.RU|language=Russian}}</ref> From 1995 through June 1996 he was also the head of the advisory board of the JSC Newspaper [[Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti]].<ref name=30bio/>

==Moscow career (1996–1999)==
[[File:RIAN archive 100306 Vladimir Putin, Federal Security Service Director.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Putin as [[Director of the Federal Security Service|FSB director]], 1998]]
In 1996, [[Anatoly Sobchak]] lost the Saint Petersburg mayoral election to [[Vladimir Anatolyevich Yakovlev|Vladimir Yakovlev]]. Putin was called to Moscow and in June 1996 became a Deputy Chief of the Presidential Property Management Department headed by [[Pavel Borodin]]. He occupied this position until March 1997. During his tenure Putin was responsible for the foreign property of the state and organized transfer of the former assets of the Soviet Union and [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]] to the Russian Federation.<ref name=Vlast>{{cite book|last=Pribylovsky|first=Vladimir|script-title=ru:Власть-2010 (60 биографий)|year=2010|publisher=Panorama|isbn=978-5-94420-038-9|pages=132–139|url=http://scilla.ru/works/knigi/vlast2010.pdf|location=Moscow|language=Russian|chapter=Valdimir Putin}}</ref>

On 26 March 1997, President [[Boris Yeltsin]] appointed Putin deputy chief of [[Russian presidential administration|Presidential Staff]], which he remained until May 1998, and chief of the Main Control Directorate of the Presidential Property Management Department (until June 1998). His predecessor in this position was [[Alexei Kudrin]] and the successor was [[Nikolai Patrushev]], both future prominent politicians and Putin's associates.<ref name=Vlast/>

On 27 June 1997, at the [[Saint Petersburg Mining Institute]], guided by rector [[Vladimir Litvinenko]], Putin defended his [[Candidate of Science]] ([[Ph.D.]] equal) dissertation in economics, titled "The Strategic Planning of Regional Resources Under the Formation of Market Relations".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zavtra.ru/cgi/veil/data/zavtra/00/338/32.html|title=ПУТИН – КАНДИДАТ НАУК|date=24 May 2000|publisher=zavtra.ru|language=Russian|access-date=21 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806204506/http://www.zavtra.ru/cgi/veil/data/zavtra/00/338/32.html|archive-date=6 August 2013}}</ref> When Putin later became president, the dissertation became a target of plagiarism accusations by fellows at the [[Brookings Institution]], [[Igor Danchenko]] and Clifford G. Gaddy; though the allegedly plagiarised study was referenced to<ref name=cdi.org>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/2006-78-3a.cfm|title=It All Boils Down to Plagiarism|publisher=Cdi.org|date=31 March 2006|access-date=2 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806181040/http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/2006-78-3a.cfm|archive-date=6 August 2009}}</ref><ref name=kommersant-dissertation>{{cite news|url=http://www.kommersant.com/pda/doc.asp?id=662935|title=The President as Candidate |author=Maxim Shishkin |author2=Dmitry Butrin |author3=Mikhail Shevchuk |newspaper=Kommersant|access-date=30 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511122822/http://www.kommersant.com/pda/doc.asp?id=662935|archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref> the authors of the allegation felt sure it constituted plagiarism, though they were unsure as to whether it was "intentional";<ref name=cdi.org/> the dissertation committee denied the accusations.<ref name=kommersant-dissertation/> In his dissertation,{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} and in a later article published in 1999, Putin advocated the idea of so-called [[National champions]], a concept that would later become central to his political thinking.

On 25 May 1998, Putin was appointed First Deputy Chief of [[Russian presidential administration|Presidential Staff]] for regions, replacing [[Viktoriya Mitina]]; and, on 15 July, the Head of the Commission for the preparation of agreements on the delimitation of power of [[Federal subjects of Russia|regions]] and the federal center attached to the President, replacing [[Sergey Shakhray]]. After Putin's appointment, the commission completed no such agreements, although during Shakhray's term as the Head of the Commission there were 46 agreements signed.<ref>[http://www.itogi.ru/Paper2006.nsf/Article/Itogi_2006_11_19_01_5543.html The Half-Decay Products] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007063156/http://www.itogi.ru/Paper2006.nsf/Article/Itogi_2006_11_19_01_5543.html |date=7 October 2008 }} (in Russian) by Oleg Odnokolenko. Itogi, #47(545), 2 January 2007.</ref> Later, after becoming President, Putin canceled all previous delimitation agreements.<ref name=Vlast/>

=== 1998–1999: Director of FSB ===
On 25 July 1998, Yeltsin appointed Putin [[Director of FSB|director]] of the [[Federal Security Service]] (FSB), the primary intelligence and security organization of the Russian Federation and the successor to the KGB.<ref name="RosefieldeHedlund2009">{{cite book |last1=Rosefielde |first1=Steven |author-link1=Steven Rosefielde |last2=Hedlund |first2=Stefan |author-link2=Stefan Hedlund |title=Russia Since 1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNSiw3S8NIUC&pg=PA139 |access-date=21 May 2017 |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-84913-5 |page=139}}</ref> Putin occupied the position until August 1999. He became a permanent member of the [[Security Council of Russia]] in October 1998 and its [[Secretary of the Security Council of Russia|secretary]] in March 1999. During his tenure as director of the FSB, Putin focused on reorganizing and strengthening the agency, restoring its effectiveness after years of perceived decline following dissolution of the Soviet Union. This period is seen as formative in shaping his approach to governance, marked by consolidating power, suppressing dissent, controlling information, and reinforcing state security.<ref>{{cite book |last=Galeotti |first=Mark |title=Putin's Wars: From Chechnya to Ukraine |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2014 |isbn=978-1472847546}}</ref>

A week after Putin's appointment as FSB director, journalist [[Anatoly Levin-Utkin]] was murdered while investigating corruption allegations involving Putin, in what was suspected to be a targeted killing to silence dissent.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Soshnikov |first1=Andrei |last2=Schreck |first2=Carl |title=The brutal killing of a reporter who probed Putin's past |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/putin-journalist-killing/31910359.html |website=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |access-date=3 January 2025 |date=22 June 2022}}</ref>

==First Premiership (1999)==
{{Main|Vladimir Putin's First Cabinet}}
[[File:President Bill Clinton meets with Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin.jpg|thumb|left|Prime Minister Putin meets with U.S. president [[Bill Clinton]] on 12 September 1999]]
On 9 August 1999, Vladimir Putin was appointed one of three First Deputy Prime Ministers, which enabled him later on that day, as the previous government led by [[Sergei Stepashin]] had been sacked, to be appointed acting prime minister of the Government of the Russian Federation by President [[Boris Yeltsin]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news..co.uk/1/hi/not_in_website/syndication/monitoring/415278.stm|title=Text of Yeltsin's speech in English|access-date=31 May 2007|date=9 August 1999|publisher=BBC News}}{{Dead link|date=October 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Yeltsin also announced that he wanted to see Putin as his successor. Later, that same day, Putin agreed to run for the presidency.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/415087.stm Yeltsin redraws political map] BBC, 10 August 1999</ref> On 16 August, the [[State Duma]] approved his appointment as prime minister with 233 votes in favour (vs. 84 against, 17 abstained),<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/422001.stm |title=Yeltsin's man wins approval |publisher=BBC News |date=16 August 1999 |access-date=22 June 2013}}</ref> while a simple majority of 226 was required, making him Russia's fifth PM in fewer than eighteen months. On his appointment, few expected Putin, virtually unknown to the general public, to last any longer than his predecessors. He was initially regarded as a Yeltsin loyalist; like other prime ministers of Boris Yeltsin, Putin did not choose ministers himself, his cabinet being determined by the presidential administration.<ref>Richard Sakwa ''Putin: Russia's choice'', 2008. p. 20.</ref>

Yeltsin's main opponents and would-be successors, Moscow mayor [[Yury Luzhkov]] and former prime minister [[Yevgeny Primakov]], were already campaigning to replace the ailing president, and they fought hard to prevent Putin's emergence as a potential successor. Putin's [[law and order (politics)|law-and-order]] image and his unrelenting approach to the [[Second Chechen War|renewed crisis in the North Caucasus]], which started when the [[Islamic International Brigade]] based in Chechnya invaded a neighboring region starting the [[War in Dagestan]], soon combined to raise Putin's popularity and allowed him to overtake all rivals.

While not associated with any party, Putin pledged his support to the newly formed [[Unity Party of Russia|Unity Party]],<ref>[http://www.nupi.no/cgi-win/Russland/polgrupp.exe?Unity Political groups and parties: Unity] Norsk Utenrikspolitisk Institutt {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927213217/http://www.nupi.no/cgi-win/Russland/polgrupp.exe?Unity |date=27 September 2007 }}</ref> which won the second largest percentage of the popular vote (23.3%) in the December 1999 [[Duma]] elections, and in turn he was supported by it.

==Acting Presidency (1999–2000)==
[[File:Putin in Su-27-1.jpg|thumb|Putin landing in Grozny in a [[Su-27]] fighter jet (20 March 2000)]]{{Main articles| Vladimir Putin's rise to power}}
On 31 December 1999, Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned and, according to the constitution, Putin became [[Acting President of the Russian Federation]]. On assuming this role, Putin went on a previously scheduled visit to Russian troops in Chechnya.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}

The first [[Decree of the President of Russia|Presidential Decree]] that Putin signed, on 31 December 1999, was titled "On guarantees for former president of the Russian Federation and members of his family".<ref>[http://www.rg.ru/oficial/doc/ykazi/1763.htm УКАЗ от 31 декабря 1999 г. № 1763 ''О ГАРАНТИЯХ ПРЕЗИДЕНТУ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ, ПРЕКРАТИВШЕМУ ИСПОЛНЕНИЕ СВОИХ ПОЛНОМОЧИЙ, И ЧЛЕНАМ ЕГО СЕМЬИ''.] [[Rossiyskaya Gazeta]]</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Александр Колесниченко |url=http://www.newizv.ru/politics/2004-03-18/5273-razvrashenie-pervogo-lica.html |title='Развращение' первого лица. Госдума не решилась покуситься на неприкосновенность экс-президента |publisher=Newizv.ru |date= |access-date=22 June 2013 |archive-date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703000757/http://www.newizv.ru/politics/2004-03-18/5273-razvrashenie-pervogo-lica.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> This ensured that "corruption charges against the outgoing President and his relatives" would not be pursued, although this claim is not strictly verifiable.{{clarify|date=January 2012}}<ref name=Time.com-POTY2007>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071221162151/http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/personoftheyear/article/0,28804,1690753_1690757_1690766-4,00.html "Person of the Year 2007: A Tsar Is Born"] by Adi Ignatius, (p. 4). Retrieved 19 November 2009, ''Time''</ref> Later, on 12 February 2001, Putin signed a [[federal law]] on guarantees for former presidents and their families, which replaced the similar [[Decree of the President of Russia|decree]].

While his opponents had been preparing for an election in June 2000, Yeltsin's resignation resulted in the [[2000 Russian presidential election|Presidential elections]] being held within three months, on 26 March 2000; Putin won in the first round with 53% of the vote.<ref name=elections-history>[http://www.ria.ru/vybor2012_infographics/20120309/590825026.html History of Presidential Elections in Russia: Infographics] [[RIAN]]</ref>

==First Presidential term (2000–2004)==
Vladimir Putin was inaugurated president on 7 May 2000. He appointed [[Minister of Finance (Russia)|Minister of Finance]] [[Mikhail Kasyanov]] as his prime minister. Having announced his intention to consolidate power in the country into a strict vertical, in May 2000 he issued a decree dividing 89 [[federal subjects of Russia]] between 7 [[federal districts of Russia|federal districts]] overseen by representatives of his in order to facilitate federal administration.

[[File:Vladimir Putin taking the Presidential Oath, 7 May 2000.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Putin taking the presidential oath with [[Boris Yeltsin]] looking on (7 May 2000)]]

During his first term in office, he moved to curb the political ambitions of some of the Yeltsin-era ''[[business oligarchs|oligarchs]]'' such as former Kremlin insider [[Boris Berezovsky (businessman)|Boris Berezovsky]], who had "helped Mr. Putin enter the family, and funded the party that formed Mr. Putin's parliamentary base", according to a BBC profile.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6708103.stm Profile: Boris Berezovsky] [[BBC]]. Retrieved 1 May 2008</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/russia/article/0,,1655229,00.html What a carve-up!] [[The Guardian]]. Retrieved 28 April 2008</ref> At the same time, according to [[Vladimir Solovyov (journalist)|Vladimir Solovyev]], it was [[Alexey Kudrin]] who was instrumental in Putin's assignment to the [[Presidential Administration of Russia]] to work with [[Pavel Borodin]],<ref>[[Vladimir Solovyov (journalist)|Solovyev V. R.]] Putin. Guide For Those Who Cares / V. Solovyev. – Moscow, "Eksmo", 2008. – 416 pp. {{ISBN|978-5-699-23807-1}}. (Solovyev 2008). p. 36. (In Russian: Владимир Соловьев. "Путин. Путеводитель для неравнодушных." 2008.)</ref> and according to Solovyev, Berezovsky was proposing [[Igor Ivanov]] rather than Putin as a new president.<ref>[[Vladimir Solovyov (journalist)|Solovyev]] 2008, p. 39</ref><ref>''Fisher Investments on Emerging Markets''
By Austin B. Fraser, ([[John Wiley & Sons]], 2009), p. 92</ref>

Between 2000 and 2004, and ending following the Yukos-affair, Putin apparently won a power-struggle with the oligarchs, reaching a 'grand-bargain' with them. This bargain allowed the oligarchs to maintain most of their powers, in exchange for their explicit support and alignment with his government.<ref>''Putin: Russia's Choice'', By Richard Sakwa, (Routledge, 2008) pp. 143–150</ref><ref>''Playing Russian Roulette: Putin in search of good governance'', by Andre Mommen, in ''Good Governance in the Era of Global Neoliberalism: Conflict and Depolitisation in Latin America, Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa'', By Jolle Demmers, Alex E. Fernández Jilberto, Barbara Hogenboom (Routledge, 2004)</ref>

A new [[Political groups under Vladimir Putin's presidency|group of business magnates]], such as [[Arkady Rotenberg]], [[Igor Sechin]], [[Gennady Timchenko]], [[Vladimir Yakunin]], [[Yuriy Kovalchuk]], [[Sergey Chemezov]], with close personal ties to Putin, also emerged.

Russia's legal reform continued productively during Putin's first term. In particular, Putin succeeded in the codification of land law and tax law, where progress had been slow during Yeltsin's administration, because of Communist and oligarch opposition, respectively. Other legal reforms included new codes on labour, administrative, criminal, commercial and civil procedural law, as well as a major statute on the Bar.<ref name=sharlet>{{cite book|last=Sharlet|first=Robert|title=Developments in Russian Politics|editor1=White |editor2=Gitelman |editor3=Sakwa|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2005|volume=6|chapter=In Search of the Rule of Law|isbn=0-8223-3522-0}}</ref>

The first major challenge to Putin's popularity came in August 2000, when he was criticised for his alleged mishandling of the [[Russian submarine Kursk explosion|''Kursk'' submarine disaster]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1487112.stm Spectre of Kursk haunts Putin], [[BBC News]], 12 August 2001</ref>

In December 2000, Putin sanctioned the law to change the [[National anthem of Russia]]. At the time, the Anthem had music by [[Mikhail Glinka|Glinka]] and no words. The change was to restore (with a minor modification) the music of the post-1944 [[Soviet anthem]] by [[Alexander Vasilyevich Alexandrov|Alexandrov]], while the new text was composed by [[Sergey Mikhalkov]], who previously had authored the lyrics of the two versions of the Soviet anthem.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/europe/12/08/russia.anthem/ |title=Duma approves old Soviet anthem |publisher=CNN |date=8 December 2000 |access-date=22 June 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.statesymbol.ru/russymbols/symbols/20050407/39593449.html National anthem of Russian Federation], StateSymbol.Ru</ref>

[[File:Vladimir Putin with Pope John Paul II-1.jpg|thumb|Putin with [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] in the [[Vatican City]] (5 June 2000)]]

Many in the Russian press and in the international media warned that the death of some 130 hostages in the special forces' rescue operation during the 2002 [[Moscow theater hostage crisis]] would severely damage President Putin's popularity. However, shortly after the siege had ended, the Russian president was enjoying record public approval ratings – 83% of Russians declared themselves satisfied with Putin and his handling of the siege.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2565585.stm Moscow siege leaves dark memories], [[BBC News]], 16 December 2002</ref>

A few months before the elections, Putin fired Kasyanov's cabinet and appointed [[Mikhail Fradkov]] in his place. [[Sergei Ivanov]] became the first ever civilian in Russia to hold the title of defense minister.

In 2003, a referendum was held in Chechnya on the adoption of a new constitution which declares the Republic as a part of Russia. Chechnya has been gradually stabilized with the establishment of parliamentary elections and a regional government.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070308093714/http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article2331993.ece Can Grozny be groovy?] by [[The Independent]], 13 March 2007. </ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/campaigns/russia/chechnya/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061121224006/http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/russia/chechnya/ |archive-date=21 November 2006 |title=Human Rights Watch Reports, on human rights abuses in Chechnya |date= |access-date=22 June 2013}}</ref> Throughout the [[Second Chechen War|war]], Russia had severely disabled the Chechen rebel movement, although sporadic violence continued to occur throughout the North Caucasus.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20260115083458/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ Russia Factbook] [[Central Intelligence Agency]]</ref>

==Second Presidential term (2004–2008)==
[[File:Victory Day Parade 2005-5.jpg|thumb|Putin speaking at the 2005 [[Victory Day (9 May)|Victory Day]] Parade on [[Red Square]]. [[Saint Basil's Cathedral]] is on the background.]]

On 14 March 2004, [[2004 Russian presidential election|Putin was elected]] to the presidency for a second term, receiving 71% of the vote.<ref name=elections-history/>

The [[Beslan school hostage crisis]] took place in September 2004, in which hundreds died. Among the administrative measures taken after that terrorist act, Putin launched an initiative to replace the direct election of the Governors and Presidents of the [[Federal subjects of Russia]] with a system whereby they would be nominated by the President and approved or disapproved by regional [[legislature]]s.<ref>Lynch, Dov (2005). [https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2005.00442.x "The enemy is at the gate": Russia after Beslan]. ''[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]]'' 81 (1), 141–161.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3650966.stm Putin tightens grip on security], [[BBC News]], 13 September 2004.</ref> In 2005 Putin created the [[Public Chamber of Russia]].

In 2005, the [[National Priority Projects]] were launched to improve Russia's [[Health care in Russia|health care]], [[Education in Russia|education]], [[Real estate in Russia|housing]] and [[Agriculture in Russia|agriculture]]. The most high-profile change within the national priority project frameworks was probably the 2006 across-the-board increase in wages in healthcare and education, as well as the decision to modernise equipment in both sectors in 2006 and 2007.<ref name=bofit>{{cite journal|journal=BOFIT Online|url=http://www.suomenpankki.fi/en/suomen_pankki/organisaatio/asiantuntijoita/Documents/bon0608.pdf|title=The challenges of the Medvedev era|publisher=Bank of Finland|date=24 June 2008|access-date=24 September 2011|issn=1456-811X|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320025511/http://www.suomenpankki.fi/en/suomen_pankki/organisaatio/asiantuntijoita/Documents/bon0608.pdf|archive-date=20 March 2012}}</ref> In his May 2006 annual speech, Putin announced increasing maternity benefits and state support of [[prenatal care]] for women. By 2012, the demographic programmes of the government led to a 45% increase in second child births by women, and a 60% increase in third, fourth, etc. births.<ref name=bbc-demography>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/russian/mobile/russia/2012/04/120411_putin_duma_constitution.shtml Путин очертил "дорожную карту" третьего срока] [[BBC]]</ref>

[[File:Vladimir Putin 8 March 2008-3.jpg|thumb|left|Putin with Chancellor of Germany [[Angela Merkel]] in March 2008]]
The continued criminal prosecution of Russia's richest man, President of [[YUKOS]] company [[Mikhail Khodorkovsky]], for fraud and [[tax evasion]] was seen by the international press as a retaliation for Khodorkovsky's donations to both liberal and communist opponents of the Kremlin. The government said that Khodorkovsky was corrupting a large segment of the Duma to prevent tax code changes such as taxes on windfall profits and closing [[tax haven|offshore tax evasion vehicles]]. Khodorkovsky was arrested, Yukos was bankrupted and the company's assets were auctioned at below-market value, with the largest share acquired by the state company [[Rosneft]].<ref>[http://www.themoscowtimes.com/opinion/article/how-to-steal-legally/302115.html How to Steal Legally] ''[[The Moscow Times]]'', 15 February 2008 (iss. 3843, p. 8).</ref> The fate of Yukos was seen in the West as a sign of a broader shift of Russia towards a system of [[state capitalism]].<ref>[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/gvosdev200311050739.asp ''Putin's Gamble. Where Russia is headed''] by [[Nikolas Gvosdev]], http://www.nationalreview.com, 5 November 2003.</ref><ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A37580-2004Jul8.html ''Putin's Kremlin Asserting More Control of Economy. Yukos Case Reflects Shift on Owning Assets, Notably in Energy''] by [[Peter Baker (author)|Peter Baker]], ''[[The Washington Post]]'', 9 July 2004.</ref>

A study by [[Bank of Finland]]'s Institute for Economies in Transition (BOFIT) in 2008 found that state intervention had made a positive impact on the [[corporate governance]] of many companies in Russia: the governance was better in companies with state control or with a stake held by the government.<ref name=yakovlev>Andrei Yakovlev [http://www.suomenpankki.fi/bofit_en/tutkimus/tutkimusjulkaisut/dp/Documents/dp2608.pdf State-business relations and improvement of corporate governance in Russia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224031743/http://www.suomenpankki.fi/bofit_en/tutkimus/tutkimusjulkaisut/dp/Documents/dp2608.pdf |date=24 February 2013 }} Bank of Finland Institute for Economies in Transition, 29 December 2008</ref>

[[File:George Bush and Vladimir Putin 2008-04-05.jpg|thumb|upright|[[George W. Bush]] and Vladimir Putin take a sunset walk on a pier along the [[Black Sea]], 5 April 2008]]
Putin was criticized in the West and also by Russian liberals for what many observers considered a wide-scale crackdown on [[media freedom in Russia]]. On 7 October 2006, [[Anna Politkovskaya]], a journalist who exposed corruption in the [[Russian Ground Forces|Russian army]] and its conduct in [[Chechnya]], was shot in the lobby of her apartment building. The death of Politkovskaya triggered an outcry in Western media, with accusations that, at best, Putin has failed to protect the country's new independent media.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://comment.independent.co.uk/columnists_m_z/joan_smith/article1822204.ece |title=Putin's Russia failed to protect this brave woman |author=Joan Smith |publisher=Comment.independent.co.uk |date=9 October 2006 |access-date=22 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927201301/http://comment.independent.co.uk/columnists_m_z/joan_smith/article1822204.ece |archive-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=06/10/09/1358259 Anna Politkovskaya, Prominent Russian Journalist, Putin Critic and Human Rights Activist, Murdered in Moscow] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114163923/http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=06%2F10%2F09%2F1358259 |date=14 November 2007 }}, Democracy Now</ref> When asked about the Politkovskaya murder in his interview with the German TV channel [[ARD (broadcaster)|ARD]], Putin said that her murder brings much more harm to the Russian authorities than her writing.<ref>[http://president.kremlin.ru/appears/2006/10/10/2300_type63379_112351.shtml Answers on questions asked during interview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611010557/http://president.kremlin.ru/appears/2006/10/10/2300_type63379_112351.shtml |date=11 June 2008 }} to [[ARD (broadcaster)|ARD]] TV channel (Germany), [[Dresden]], 10 October 2006</ref> By 2012, the performers of the murder were arrested and named [[Boris Berezovsky (businessman)|Boris Berezovsky]] and [[Akhmed Zakayev]] as a possible clients.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itar-tass.com/en/c142/354859.html |title=The accused of murder of Anna Politkovskaya name possible clients |language=ru |publisher=Itar-tass.com |date=29 February 2012 |access-date=7 May 2012}}</ref>

In 2007, "[[Dissenters' March]]es" were organized by the opposition group [[The Other Russia (coalition)|The Other Russia]],<ref>{{cite news|last=Lee|first=Steven|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/10/world/europe/10kasparov.html?ex=1331182800&en=2f3ff57730367a82&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss|title=Kasparov, Building Opposition to Putin|location=Russia|work=The New York Times|date=10 March 2007|access-date=2 March 2010}}</ref> led by former chess champion [[Garry Kasparov]] and national-Bolshevist leader [[Eduard Limonov]]. Following prior warnings, demonstrations in several Russian cities were met by police action, which included interfering with the travel of the protesters and the arrests of as many as 150 people who attempted to break through police lines.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7110910.stm|publisher=BBC News|title=Garry Kasparov jailed over rally|date=24 November 2007|access-date=9 April 2010}}</ref> The Dissenters' Marches have received little support among the Russian general public, according to polls.<ref>[http://www.regnum.ru/news/district-volga/kostroma/851572.html VCIOM: Dissenters' Marches Do Not Interest Russians] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801023028/http://www.regnum.ru/news/district-volga/kostroma/851572.html |date=1 August 2013 }}, Regnum.ru, 3 July 2007</ref>

On 12 September 2007, Putin dissolved the government upon the request of Prime Minister [[Mikhail Fradkov]]. Fradkov commented that it was to give the President a "free hand" in the run-up to the parliamentary election. [[Viktor Zubkov]] was appointed the new prime minister.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/putin-dissolves-government-nominates-viktor-zubkov-as-new-prime-minister|title=Putin Dissolves Government, Nominates Viktor Zubkov as New Prime Minister|publisher=Fox News Channel|date=12 September 2007|access-date=2 March 2010}}</ref>

In December 2007, [[United Russia]] won 64.24% of the popular vote in their run for [[State Duma]] according to election preliminary results.<ref>[http://www.rbc.ru/rbcfreenews.shtml?/20071204122205.shtml Election Preliminary Results for United Russia], 4 December 2007, Rbc.ru</ref> United Russia's victory in the December 2007 elections was seen by many as an indication of strong popular support of the then Russian leadership and its policies.<ref>[http://www.izvestia.ru/politic/article3110945/ Russians Voted In Favour of Putin], 4 December 2007, ''Izvestia''</ref><ref>[http://www.izvestia.ru/politic/article3110880/ Assenters' March], 3 December 2007, ''Izvestia''</ref>

On 8 February 2008, Putin delivered a speech before the expanded session of the [[State Council of the Russian Federation|State Council]] headlined "On the Strategy of Russia's Development until 2020".<ref>[http://www.kremlin.ru/appears/2008/02/08/1542_type63374type63378type82634_159528.shtml Выступление на расширенном заседании Государственного совета «О стратегии развития России до 2020 года».] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090803035257/http://kremlin.ru/appears/2008/02/08/1542_type63374type63378type82634_159528.shtml |date=3 August 2009 }} RF President's official web site, 8 February 2008.</ref> In his last days in office, Putin was reported to have taken a series of steps to re-align the regional bureaucracy to make the governors report to the prime minister rather than the president.<ref>[http://newsru.com/russia/30apr2008/ukazz.html Будущий премьер Путин намерен лично контролировать губернаторов] [[NEWSru.com]] 30 April 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.ng.ru/politics/2008-04-30/1_gubernator.html?mthree=1 Губернаторов начальник. Будущий премьер намерен лично контролировать региональных руководителей (''The chief of governors. The future premier intends to personally check regional leaders.'')] [[Nezavisimaya gazeta]] 30 April 2008.</ref> The presidential site explained that "the changes... bear a refining nature and do not affect the essential positions of the system. The key role in estimating the effectiveness of activity of regional authority still belongs to President of the Russian Federation."

==Second Premiership (2008–2012)==
{{Main|Vladimir Putin's Second Cabinet}}
[[File:Vladimir Putin's Second Cabinet.jpg|thumb|Second Cabinet of Vladimir Putin]]
[[File:Vladimir Putin 11 March 2008-1.jpg|thumb|Vladimir Putin with [[Dmitry Medvedev]]]]
Putin was barred from a third term by the Constitution. First Deputy Prime Minister [[Dmitry Medvedev]] was elected his successor. On 8 May 2008, only a day after handing the presidency to Medvedev, Putin was appointed [[Prime Minister of Russia]], maintaining his political dominance.<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin Is Approved as Prime Minister (Published 2008) |work=The New York Times |date=9 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604072939/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/09/world/europe/09russia.html |archive-date=4 June 2023 |url-status=live |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/09/world/europe/09russia.html |last1=Chivers |first1=C. J. }}</ref>

The [[Great Recession]] hit the Russian economy [[2008 Russian financial crisis|especially hard]], interrupting the flow of cheap Western credit and investments. This coincided with tension in relationships with the [[European Union|EU]] and the U.S. following the [[2008 South Ossetia war]], in which Russia defeated a small force in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] due to its hopes to join NATO.

However, the large financial reserves, accumulated in the [[Stabilization Fund of Russia]] in the previous period of high oil prices, alongside the strong management helped the country to cope with the crisis and resume economic growth since mid-2009. The Russian government's anti-crisis measures have been praised by the [[World Bank]], which said in its Russia Economic Report from November 2008: "prudent fiscal management and substantial financial reserves have protected Russia from deeper consequences of this external shock. The government's policy response so far—swift, comprehensive, and coordinated—has helped limit the impact."<ref name=worldbankreports>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/RUSSIANFEDERATIONEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20888536~menuPK:2445695~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSitePK:305600,00.html|title=Russian Economic Reports|publisher=Web.worldbank.org|date=10 November 2009|access-date=2 March 2010|archive-date=13 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813073808/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/RUSSIANFEDERATIONEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20888536~menuPK:2445695~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSitePK:305600,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Putin himself named the overcoming of consequences of the world economic crisis one of the two main achievements of his 2nd Premiership<ref name=bbc-demography/> (the other named achievement being the [[Demographics of Russia|stabilisation of the size of Russia's population]] between 2008 and 2011 following the long period of demographic collapse started in the 1990s).<ref name=bbc-demography/>

At the [[United Russia]] Congress in [[Moscow]] on 24 September 2011, Medvedev officially proposed that Putin stand for the Presidency in 2012; an offer which Putin accepted. Given United Russia's near-total dominance of Russian politics, many observers believed that Putin was all but assured of a third term. The move was expected to see Medvedev stand on the United Russia ticket in the parliamentary elections in December, with a goal of becoming prime minister at the end of his presidential term.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15045816|title=Russia's Putin set to return as president in 2012|date=24 September 2011|access-date=24 September 2011|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> During the [[2012 Russian presidential election|2012 presidential campaign]], Putin published 7 articles to present his vision for the future.<ref>{{cite web |author=Paul Bummer |url=http://neprussia.ru/news/maximum/1170 |title=7 статей и джек-пот: Путин завершил серию публикаций |publisher=Neprussia.ru |access-date=7 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305193507/http://neprussia.ru/news/maximum/1170 |archive-date=5 March 2012 }}</ref>

After the [[2011 Russian legislative election|parliamentary elections]] on 4 December 2011, tens of thousands Russians engaged in [[2011 Russian protests|protests]] against alleged electoral fraud, the largest protests in Putin's time; protesters criticized Putin and [[United Russia]] and demanded annulment of the election results.<ref name=GuardLive>[https://www.theguardian.com/global/2011/dec/10/russia-elections-putin-protest ''Russian election protests – follow live updates''], ''The Guardian''. Retrieved 10 December 2011</ref> However, those protests, organized by the leaders of the Russian [[non-systemic opposition]], sparked the fear of a [[colour revolution]] in society, and a number of "anti-Orange" counter-protests (the name alludes to the [[Orange Revolution]] in [[Ukraine]]) and rallies of Putin supporters were carried out, surpassing in scale the opposition protests.<ref>[http://www.politonline.ru/comments/10432.html Как митинг на Поклонной собрал около 140 000 человек] politonline.ru {{in lang|ru}}</ref>

==Third Presidential term (2012–2018)==
[[File:Vladimir Putin inauguration 7 May 2012-10.jpeg|thumb|Putin taking the presidential oath at his 3rd inauguration ceremony (7 May 2012)]]

On 4 March 2012, Putin won the [[2012 Russian presidential election]]s in the first round, with 63.6% of the vote.<ref name=elections-history/> While extraordinary measures were taken to make the elections transparent, including the usage of [[webcam]]s on the vast majority of polling stations, the vote was criticized by Russian opposition and some international bodies for perceived irregularities.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}. Several heads of states around the world congratulated Putin on winning elections. [[Chinese Communist Party]] [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|general secretary]] [[Hu Jintao]] congratulated Vladimir Putin on taking office as Russian president, and wished the Russian people greater achievements in developing their country under Putin's leadership.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-05/07/content_15229863.htm |title=Hu congratulates Putin on presidential term |Politics |publisher=chinadaily.com.cn |date=7 May 2012 |access-date=22 June 2013}}</ref> The Prime Minister of [[India]], [[Manmohan Singh]] said "Your success in these elections is an affirmation by the Russian people of your vision of a strong, prosperous and democratic Russia," and added that he "deeply appreciated the personal commitment and attention that you have brought to nurturing the India-Russia strategic partnership over the last 12 years".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/world/prime-minister-manmohan-singh-congratulates-putin-on-election-victory-183603 |title=Prime Minister Manmohan Singh congratulates Putin on election victory |publisher=NDTV.com |date=7 March 2012 |access-date=22 June 2013}}</ref> The President of [[Pakistan]], [[Asif Ali Zardari]] called the election results a "resounding victory".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nation.com.pk/08-Mar-2012/zardari-congratulates-putin |title=Zardari congratulates Putin |publisher=Nation.com.pk |date= 8 March 2012|access-date=22 June 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021025959/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/islamabad/08-Mar-2012/zardari-congratulates-putin/ |archive-date=21 October 2013 }}</ref> [[Venezuela]] President [[Hugo Chavez]] personally congratulated Putin on his victory, calling Putin "a driving force behind strategic ties of cooperation between Venezuela and Russia."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thenewage.co.za/45209-1020-53-Chavez_welcomes_Putins_victory_in_Russia |title=Chavez welcomes Putin's victory in Russia | The New Age Online |publisher=Thenewage.co.za |date=5 March 2012 |access-date=22 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516231608/http://www.thenewage.co.za/45209-1020-53-Chavez_welcomes_Putins_victory_in_Russia |archive-date=16 May 2013 }}</ref>

Anti-Putin protests took place during and directly after the presidential campaign. The most notorious protest was the 21 February [[Pussy Riot]] performance, and subsequent trial.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/aug/17/pussy-riot-sentenced-prison-putin | work=The Guardian | first=Miriam | last=Elder | title=Pussy Riot sentenced to two years in prison colony over anti-Putin protest | date=17 August 2012}}</ref> Also, an estimated 8,000-20,000 protesters gathered in Moscow on 6 May,<ref name=vz-provocation>[http://vz.ru/politics/2012/5/6/577272.html Провокация вместо марша] vz.ru</ref><ref name="Russian police battle anti-Putin protesters">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-protests-idUSBRE8440CK20120506|title=Russian police battle anti-Putin protesters|work=Reuters|access-date=7 May 2012|date=6 May 2012}}</ref> when eighty people were injured in confrontations with police,<ref>[http://lenta.ru/news/2012/05/10/more/ СК пересчитал пострадавших полицейских во время "Марша миллионов"] [[Lenta.ru]]</ref> and 450 were arrested, with another 120 arrests taking place the following day.<ref name="Inauguration protests">{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/vladimir-putin/9250729/Vladimir-Putin-inauguration-shows-how-popularity-has-crumbled.html|title=Vladimir Putin inauguration shows how popularity has crumbled|work=The Daily Telegraph|access-date=7 May 2012|location=London|first=Tom|last=Parfitt|date=7 May 2012}}</ref>

Putin was [[Russian presidential inauguration|inaugurated]] in the [[Kremlin]] on 7 May 2012. On his first day as president, Putin issued 14 [[Decree of the President of Russia|Presidential decrees]], including a lengthy one stating wide-ranging goals for the [[Economy of Russia|Russian economy]]. Other decrees concerned [[Education in Russia|education]], housing, skilled-labor training, [[European Union-Russia relations|relations with the European Union]], the [[Defense industry of Russia|defense industry]], inter-ethnic relations, and other policy areas dealt with in [[Vladimir Putin#Programme articles|Putin's programme articles]] issued during the Presidential campaign.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.ruvr.ru/2012_05_07/74079067/ |title=Putin decrees EU closeness policy |publisher=Voice of Russia (English.ruvr.ru) |date=7 May 2012 |access-date=22 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513181423/http://english.ruvr.ru/2012_05_07/74079067/ |archive-date=13 May 2013 }}</ref>

In 2012 and 2013, Putin and the United Russia backed stricter legislation against the rights of the [[LGBT]] community in Russia, first in [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Arkhangelsk]] and [[Novosibirsk]], but a law against "homosexual propaganda" (which prohibits such symbols as the [[rainbow flag]] as well as published works containing homosexual content) was adopted by [[State Duma]] in June 2013.<ref name="BBC-LGBT">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/russian/russia/2013/06/130611_duma_gay_propaganda.shtml?print=1|title=Госдума приняла закон о "нетрадиционных отношениях"|publisher=[[BBC|BBC Russia]]|date=11 June 2013|access-date=11 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301045821/http://www.bbc.co.uk/russian/russia/2013/06/130611_duma_gay_propaganda.shtml?print=1|archive-date=1 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="RBC-LGBT">{{cite web|url=http://www.rbc.ru/rbcfreenews/20130611172814.shtml?print|title=ГД приняла закон об усилении наказания за пропаганду гомосексуализма среди подростков|publisher=[[РБК (медиахолдинг)|РБК]]|date=11 June 2013|access-date=11 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003040126/http://www.rbc.ru/rbcfreenews/20130611172814.shtml?print|archive-date=3 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/two-arrested-in-st-petersburg-for-violating-city-s-new-anti-gay-law-a-826199.html "Discrimination in Russia: Arrests for Violation of St. Petersburg Anti-Gay Law"], [[Spiegel Online]], 6 April 2012</ref><ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-gay-idUSBRE90O0QT20130125 "Russian parliament backs ban on "gay propaganda"], [[Reuters]], 25 January 2013</ref><ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/world/russia-moves-to-enact-laws-against-homosexual-propaganda/ "Russia moves to enact laws against 'homosexual propaganda'"], [[Fox News]], 21 January 2013</ref> Responding to international concerns about Russia's legislation, Putin asked critics to note that the law was a "ban on the propaganda of [[pedophilia]] and homosexuality" and he stated that homosexual visitors to the [[2014 Winter Olympics]] should "leave the children in peace" but denied there was any "professional, career or social discrimination" against homosexuals in Russia.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/vladimir-putin-i-know-some-people-who-are-gay-were-on-friendly-terms-9070363.html |title = Vladimir Putin: 'I know some people who are gay, we're on friendly terms' |work = [[The Independent]] |first = Tomas |last = Jivanda |date = 19 January 2014 |access-date = 8 February 2014 |location = London |archive-date = 13 February 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140213004803/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/vladimir-putin-i-know-some-people-who-are-gay-were-on-friendly-terms-9070363.html |url-status = live }}</ref>

In June 2013, Putin attended a televised rally of the [[All-Russia People's Front]] where he was elected head of the movement,<ref name=Putleader>[http://www.interfax.co.uk/ukraine-news/putin-becomes-popular-front-for-russia-leader-2/ Putin becomes Popular Front for Russia leader], [[Interfax-Ukraine]] (13 June 2013)</ref> which was set up in 2011.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/echo-of-soviet-era-in-putins-bid-for-votes/story-e6frg6so-1226076653930 | title=Echo of Soviet era in Putin's bid for votes | publisher=[[The Australian]] | date=17 June 2011}}</ref> According to journalist [[Steve Rosenberg]], the movement is intended to "reconnect the Kremlin to the Russian people" and one day, if necessary, replace the increasingly unpopular [[United Russia]] party that currently backs Putin.<ref name="People's Front">{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22879644 | title=Putin inaugurates new movement amid fresh protests | work=BBC News | date=12 June 2013 | access-date=12 June 2013}}</ref>

=== Annexation of Crimea ===
{{Main|Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation}}
{{Further|Russia–Ukraine relations|Russo-Ukrainian War|War in Donbas (2014–2022)|Normandy Format|Minsk agreements}}
[[File:Location UK-Crimea-RU.PNG|thumb|Crimea (dark green), rest of Ukraine (light green) and Russia (light red) in Europe]]
[[File:Asia-Europe (ASEM) Summit meeting of the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, Germany and France, October 2014.jpg|thumbnail|Putin in [[Normandy Format]] talks with Ukrainian president [[Petro Poroshenko]], German chancellor [[Angela Merkel]] and French president [[François Hollande]], 17 October 2014.]]

In February 2014, Russia made several military incursions into Ukrainian territory. After the [[Euromaidan]] protests and the fall of Ukrainian president [[Viktor Yanukovych]], [[Little green men (Russo-Ukrainian War)|Russian soldiers without insignias]] took control of strategic positions and infrastructure within the Ukrainian territory of Crimea. Russia then [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexed Crimea]] and [[Sevastopol]] after a [[2014 Crimean status referendum|referendum]] in which, according to official results, Crimeans voted to join the Russian Federation.<ref name="Maskarovka">{{#invoke:cite|web|url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b050674y |title = BBC Radio 4 – Analysis, Maskirovka: Deception Russian-Style |publisher = BBC |access-date = 11 April 2015 |archive-date = 24 November 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181124183459/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b050674y |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="washingtonpost">{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/putin-changes-course-admits-russian-troops-were-in-crimea-before-vote/2014/04/17/b3300a54-c617-11e3-bf7a-be01a9b69cf1_story.html |title = Putin's remarks raise fears of future moves against Ukraine |newspaper = The Washington Post |access-date = 14 September 2014 |first = Kathy |last = Lally |date = 17 April 2014 |archive-date = 20 November 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151120120204/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/putin-changes-course-admits-russian-troops-were-in-crimea-before-vote/2014/04/17/b3300a54-c617-11e3-bf7a-be01a9b69cf1_story.html |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="KremlinRU01">{{#invoke:cite|web|url = http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/20796 |title = President of Russia |website = eng.kremlin.ru |date = 1 June 2010 |access-date = 20 April 2014 |archive-date = 16 April 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150416141220/http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/20796 |url-status = live }}</ref>
Subsequently, demonstrations against Ukrainian Rada legislative actions by pro-Russian groups in the [[Donbas]] area of Ukraine escalated into the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]] between the Ukrainian government and the Russia-backed separatist forces of the self-declared [[Donetsk People's Republic|Donetsk]] and [[Luhansk People's Republic]]s. In August 2014,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date = 8 April 2015 |url = http://www.unian.info/war/1065276-debaltseve-pocket-in-donbas-was-created-by-russian-troops-yashin.html |title = Debaltseve pocket in Donbas was created mainly by Russian troops – Yashin |website = unian.info |access-date = 15 October 2020 |archive-date = 3 February 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220203231935/https://www.unian.info/war/1065276-debaltseve-pocket-in-donbas-was-created-by-russian-troops-yashin.html |url-status = live }}</ref> Russian military vehicles crossed the border in several locations of Donetsk Oblast.<ref name="Time0x01">{{#invoke:cite|news|url = http://time.com/3142580/ukrain-russia-luhansk-donetsk-rebels-reinforcements/ |agency = Time |author = Per Liljas |title = Rebels in Besieged Ukrainian City Reportedly Being Reinforced |date = 19 August 2014 |access-date = 28 August 2014 |magazine = Time |archive-date = 21 February 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220221225703/https://time.com/3142580/ukrain-russia-luhansk-donetsk-rebels-reinforcements/ |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="how the war transformed">{{#invoke:cite|web|url = http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/how-the-war-zone-transformed-between-june-16-and-sept-19-infographic-365795.html |title = How the war zone transformed between June 16 and Sept. 19 |website = Kyiv Post |date = 25 September 2014 |access-date = 21 March 2015 |archive-date = 9 September 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150909210949/http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/how-the-war-zone-transformed-between-june-16-and-sept-19-infographic-365795.html |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="tanks white circles">{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis-tanks-exclusive-idUSKCN0IC1GE20141023 |title = Exclusive: Charred tanks in Ukraine point to Russian involvement |work = Reuters |date = 23 October 2014 |access-date = 11 November 2023 |archive-date = 1 March 2022 |archive-url = https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220301/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis-tanks-exclusive-idUSKCN0IC1GE20141023 |url-status = live }}</ref> The incursion by the Russian military was seen by Ukrainian authorities as responsible for the defeat of Ukrainian forces in early September.<ref name="ch40x02">Channel 4 News, 2 September 2014 [http://www.channel4.com/news/tensions-still-high-in-ukraine-video tensions still high in Ukraine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903200121/http://www.channel4.com/news/tensions-still-high-in-ukraine-video |date=3 September 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/17/ukraine-ceasefire-frontline-counting-cost-war-uneasy-calm |title = Ukraine ceasefire leaves frontline counting cost of war in uneasy calm |author = Luke Harding |website =[[The Guardian]] |date = 17 December 2014 |access-date = 29 December 2014 |archive-date = 9 November 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211109023811/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/17/ukraine-ceasefire-frontline-counting-cost-war-uneasy-calm |url-status = live }}</ref>

In October 2014, [[Valdai speech of Vladimir Putin|Putin addressed Russian security concerns]] in Sochi at the [[Valdai International Discussion Club]]. In November 2014, the Ukrainian military reported intensive movement of troops and equipment from Russia into the separatist-controlled parts of eastern Ukraine.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://en-maktoob.news.yahoo.com/kiev-claims-intensive-movements-troops-crossing-russia-123248755.html |title = Kiev claims 'intensive' movements of troops crossing from Russia |date = 2 November 2014 |agency = Agence France-Presse |access-date = 13 November 2014 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141114002830/https://en-maktoob.news.yahoo.com/kiev-claims-intensive-movements-troops-crossing-russia-123248755.html |archive-date = 14 November 2014 }}</ref> The Associated Press reported 80 unmarked military vehicles on the move in rebel-controlled areas.<ref name="various reuters">{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis-idUSKBN0IT0AF20141109 |title = Worst east Ukraine shelling for month |date = 9 November 2014 |work = Reuters |access-date = 10 November 2014 |archive-date = 21 January 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220121133558/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis-idUSKBN0IT0AF20141109 |url-status = live }}</ref> An [[OSCE]] Special Monitoring Mission observed convoys of heavy weapons and tanks in [[Donetsk People's Republic|DPR]]-controlled territory without insignia.<ref name="osce.org">{{#invoke:cite|web|url = http://www.osce.org/ukraine-smm/126483 |title = Spot report by the OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine (SMM), 8 November 2014 |publisher = osce.org |date = 8 November 2014 |access-date = 9 November 2014 |archive-date = 21 February 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220221225703/https://www.osce.org/ukraine-smm/126483 |url-status = live }}</ref> OSCE monitors further stated that they observed vehicles transporting ammunition and soldiers' [[killed in action|dead bodies]] crossing the Russian-Ukrainian border under the guise of [[humanitarian aid|humanitarian-aid]] convoys.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-30039004 |title = Ukraine Crisis: Russian 'Cargo 200' Crossed Border – OSCE |publisher = BBC |date = 13 November 2014 |access-date = 13 November 2014 |archive-date = 25 December 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211225120728/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-30039004 |url-status = live }}</ref>

As of early August 2015, the OSCE observed over 21 such vehicles marked with the Russian military code for soldiers killed in action.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|script-title = ru:ОБСЕ заявляет, что на ростовских КПП были машины с надписью "груз 200" |url = http://ria.ru/world/20150806/1166231249.html |agency = RIA Novosti |date = 6 August 2015 |access-date = 7 August 2015 |language = ru |archive-date = 30 June 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180630025038/https://ria.ru/world/20150806/1166231249.html |url-status = live |work = РИА Новости }}</ref> According to ''[[The Moscow Times]]'', Russia has tried to intimidate and silence human-rights workers discussing Russian soldiers' deaths in the conflict.<ref name="Moscow Times">{{#invoke:cite|news|url = http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/moscow-stifles-dissent-as-russian-soldiers-return-from-ukraine-in-coffins/506979.html |title = Moscow Stifles Dissent as Soldiers Return From Ukraine in Coffins |work = [[Moscow Times]] |date = 12 September 2014 |agency = Reuters |access-date = 9 November 2014 |archive-date = 5 May 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150505162628/http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/moscow-stifles-dissent-as-russian-soldiers-return-from-ukraine-in-coffins/506979.html |url-status = live }}</ref> The OSCE repeatedly reported that its observers were denied access to the areas controlled by "combined Russian-separatist forces".<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title = Response to Special Representative in Ukraine Ambassador Martin Sajdik and OSCE Special Monitoring Mission Chief Monitor Ertugrul Apakan |url = http://osce.usmission.gov/nov_4_15_ukraine_sajdik_apakan.html |website = U.S. Mission to the OSCE |date = 4 November 2015 |access-date = 6 November 2015 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151222145845/http://osce.usmission.gov/nov_4_15_ukraine_sajdik_apakan.html |archive-date = 22 December 2015 }}</ref>

In October 2015, ''[[The Washington Post]]'' reported that Russia had redeployed some of its elite units from Ukraine to Syria in recent weeks to support Syrian president [[Bashar al-Assad]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = http://www.foxnews.com/world/2015/10/24/russia-said-to-redeploy-special-ops-forces-from-ukraine-to-syria/ |title = Russia said to redeploy special-ops forces from Ukraine to Syria |publisher = [[Fox News]] |date = 24 October 2015 |access-date = 24 October 2015 |quote = "The special forces were pulled out of Ukraine and sent to Syria," a Russian Ministry of Defense official said, adding that they had been serving in territories in eastern Ukraine held by pro-Russia rebels. The official described them as "akin to a Delta Force," the U.S. Army's elite counterterrorism unit. |archive-date = 24 October 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151024085128/http://www.foxnews.com/world/2015/10/24/russia-said-to-redeploy-special-ops-forces-from-ukraine-to-syria/ |url-status = live }}</ref> In December 2015, Putin admitted that Russian military intelligence officers were operating in Ukraine.<ref name="GN151217">{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/17/vladimir-putin-admits-russian-military-presence-ukraine |title = Putin admits Russian military presence in Ukraine for first time |first = Shaun |last = Walker |work =[[The Guardian]] |date = 17 December 2015 |access-date = 12 February 2017 |archive-date = 5 April 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200405143525/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/17/vladimir-putin-admits-russian-military-presence-ukraine |url-status = live }}</ref>

''The Moscow Times'' quoted pro-Russian academic [[Andrei Tsygankov]] as saying that many members of the international community assumed that Putin's annexation of Crimea had initiated a completely new type of Russian foreign policy<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last = Rutland |first = Peter |date = 18 May 2014 |title = A Paradigm Shift in Russia's Foreign Policy |url = https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2014/05/18/a-paradigm-shift-in-russias-foreign-policy-a35534 |access-date = 14 October 2020 |website = Moscow Times |archive-date = 4 November 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211104132945/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2014/05/18/a-paradigm-shift-in-russias-foreign-policy-a35534 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last = Zevelev |first = Igor |date = 27 April 2014 |title = Границы русского мира |trans-title = The Borders of the Russian World |url = https://globalaffairs.ru/articles/graniczy-russkogo-mira/ |access-date = 14 October 2020 |website = Россия в глобальной политике |language = ru |archive-date = 23 January 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220123222954/https://globalaffairs.ru/articles/graniczy-russkogo-mira/ |url-status = live }}</ref> and that his foreign policy had shifted "from state-driven foreign policy" to taking an offensive stance to recreate the Soviet Union. In July 2015, he opined that this policy shift could be understood as Putin trying to defend nations in Russia's sphere of influence from "encroaching western power".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tsygankov |first=Andrei |date=4 July 2015 |title=Vladimir Putin's last stand: the sources of Russia's Ukraine policy |journal=Post-Soviet Affairs |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=279–303 |doi=10.1080/1060586x.2015.1005903 |s2cid=154892438 |issn=1060-586X}}</ref>

=== Intervention in Syria ===
{{Main|Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war|Russian involvement in the Syrian civil war}}
{{See also|Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war|Russia–Syria relations}}
[[File:Vladimir Putin and Barack Obama (2015-09-29) 04.jpg|thumb|Putin meets with U.S. president [[Barack Obama]] in New York City to discuss Syria and ISIL, 29 September 2015.]]
[[File:Vladimir Putin and Bashar al-Assad (2017-11-21) 02.jpg|thumb|Putin with Syrian president [[Bashar al-Assad]] in 2017]]
On 30 September 2015, President Putin authorized Russian military intervention in the [[Syrian civil war]], following a formal request by the Syrian government for military help against rebel and jihadist groups.<ref name="latimes">{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-kremlin-oks-troops-20150930-story.html |title = Russia Launches Airstrikes in Syria Amid U.S. Concern About Targets |date = 30 September 2015 |access-date = 7 October 2015 |work = Los Angeles Times |author1 = Patrick J. McDonnell |author2 = W.J. Hennigan |author3 = Nabih Bulos |archive-date = 5 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220305052015/https://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-kremlin-oks-troops-20150930-story.html |url-status = live }}</ref>

The Russian military activities consisted of air strikes, cruise missile strikes and the use of front line advisors and Russian special forces against militant groups opposed to the [[Council of Ministers (Syria)|Syrian government]], including the [[Syrian opposition to Bashar al-Assad|Syrian opposition]], as well as [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] (ISIL), [[al-Nusra Front]] (al-Qaeda in the Levant), [[Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham]], [[Ahrar al-Sham]], and the [[Army of Conquest]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2015/10/08/syrian-general-russian-strikes-helping-ground-offensive |title = Clashes between Syrian troops, insurgents intensify in Russian-backed offensive |date = 8 October 2015 |access-date = 10 October 2015 |work = U.S. News & World Report |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151009151540/http://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2015/10/08/syrian-general-russian-strikes-helping-ground-offensive |archive-date = 9 October 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syrian-army-general-says-new-ground-offensive-backed-by-russian-air-strikes-will-eliminate-a6686086.html |title = Syrian army general says new ground offensive backed by Russian air strikes will 'eliminate terrorists' |first = Lizzie |last = Dearden |date = 8 October 2015 |access-date = 10 October 2015 |work = The Independent |archive-date = 14 May 2022 |archive-url = https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220514/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syrian-army-general-says-new-ground-offensive-backed-by-russian-air-strikes-will-eliminate-a6686086.html |url-status = live }}</ref> After Putin's announcement on 14 March 2016 that the mission he had set for the Russian military in Syria had been "largely accomplished" and ordered the withdrawal of the "main part" of the Russian forces from Syria,<ref name="BBC 14 Mar 2016">{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35807689 |title = Syria conflict: Russia's Putin orders 'main part' of forces out |work = [[BBC World Service]] |date = 14 March 2016 |access-date = 14 March 2016 |archive-date = 5 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220305093822/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35807689 |url-status = live }}</ref> Russian forces deployed in Syria continued to actively operate in support of the Syrian government.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = http://newsru.com/russia/18mar2016/sir.html |title = Новости NEWSru.com :: Генштаб ВС РФ объявил о новых авиаударах по террористам в Сирии |date = 18 March 2016 |access-date = 9 April 2016 |archive-date = 21 July 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210721144043/https://www.newsru.com/russia/18Mar2016/sir.html |url-status = live }}</ref>

=== Russia's interference in the 2016 US election ===
{{Main|Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections|Timeline of Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections}}
{{See also|Russia–United States relations}}
In January 2017, a U.S. intelligence community assessment expressed high confidence that Putin personally ordered an influence campaign, initially to denigrate [[Hillary Clinton]] and to harm her electoral chances and potential presidency, then later developing "a clear preference" for [[Donald Trump]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Background to 'Assessing Russian Activities in Recent US Elections': The Analytic Process and Cyber Incident Attribution |date = 6 January 2016 |work = The New York Times |url = https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/01/06/us/politics/document-russia-hacking-report-intelligence-agencies.html |page = 11 |access-date = 8 January 2017 |url-access = subscription |quote = 'We assess with high confidence that Russian President Vladimir Putin ordered an influence campaign in 2016 aimed at the US presidential election, the consistent goals of which were to undermine public faith in the US democratic process, denigrate Secretary Clinton, and harm her electability and potential presidency. We further assess Putin and the Russian Government developed a clear preference for President-elect Trump.' |archive-date = 8 January 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170108171803/http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/01/06/us/politics/document-russia-hacking-report-intelligence-agencies.html |url-status = live }}</ref> Trump consistently denied any Russian interference in the U.S. election,<ref name="FactCheck_meddling">{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.factcheck.org/2018/02/words-trump-russian-meddling/ |title = In His Own Words: Trump on Russian Meddling |last1 = Kiely |first1 = Eugene |date = 19 February 2018 |work = [[FactCheck.org]] |last2 = Gore |first2 = D'Angelo |access-date = 6 April 2018 |archive-date = 3 July 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190703054816/https://www.factcheck.org/2018/02/words-trump-russian-meddling/ |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Politifact_Meddling">{{#invoke:cite|news|url = http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/statements/2018/feb/19/donald-trump/donald-trump-falsely-denies-he-denied-russian-medd/ |title = Donald Trump falsely says he never denied Russian meddling |last1 = Greenberg |first1 = Don |date = 19 February 2018 |work = [[Politifact]] |access-date = 6 April 2018 |archive-date = 3 July 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190703054442/https://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/statements/2018/feb/19/donald-trump/donald-trump-falsely-denies-he-denied-russian-medd/ |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/06/us/politics/russia-hack-report.html |title = Putin Ordered 'Influence Campaign' Aimed at U.S. Election, Report Says |first = David E. |last = Sanger |date = 6 January 2017 |work = The New York Times |access-date = 21 June 2019 |archive-date = 28 February 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220228175134/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/06/us/politics/russia-hack-report.html |url-status = live }}</ref> as did Putin in December 2016,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1 = Filipov |first1 = David |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/trump-syria-hacking-and-terrorism-in-play-as-russias-putin-meets-the-press/2016/12/23/28ead25a-c878-11e6-acda-59924caa2450_story.html |title = Putin to Democratic Party: You lost, get over it |newspaper = [[The Washington Post]] |date = 23 December 2016 |access-date = 21 July 2017 |quote = Don't be sore losers. That was how Putin answered a question Friday at his nationally televised annual news conference about whether Russia interfered in the U.S. presidential election in favor of Donald Trump. The Democrats 'are losing on all fronts and looking elsewhere for things to blame,' he told the nearly 1,400 journalists packed into a Moscow convention hall for the nearly four-hour event. 'In my view, this, how shall I say it, degrades their own dignity. You have to know how to lose with dignity.' |archive-date = 26 December 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161226080522/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/trump-syria-hacking-and-terrorism-in-play-as-russias-putin-meets-the-press/2016/12/23/28ead25a-c878-11e6-acda-59924caa2450_story.html |url-status = live }}</ref> March 2017,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last = Walker |first = Shaun |url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/30/vladimir-putin-denies-us-election-interference-trump |title = 'Read my lips – no': Putin denies Russian meddling in US presidential election |website = [[The Guardian]] |date = 30 March 2017 |access-date = 21 July 2017 |quote = 'Read my lips{{snd}}no,' the Russian president answered when asked whether Russia had tried to influence the vote. He emphasized the denial by saying 'no' in English. |archive-date = 2 June 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210602211848/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/30/vladimir-putin-denies-us-election-interference-trump |url-status = live }}</ref> June 2017,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = https://www.latimes.com/politics/washington/la-na-essential-washington-updates-putin-russian-meddling-claims-lack-1496416198-htmlstory.html |title = Putin says claims of Russian meddling in U.S. election are 'just some kind of hysteria' |date = 2 June 2017 |website = Los Angeles Times |access-date = 20 February 2020 |archive-date = 28 March 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190328164705/https://www.latimes.com/politics/washington/la-na-essential-washington-updates-putin-russian-meddling-claims-lack-1496416198-htmlstory.html |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last = Fahrenthold |first = David A. |author-link = David Fahrenthold |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/putin-calls-election-meddling-charge-a-load-of-nonsense-in-megyn-kelly-interview/2017/06/04/3968c42c-497c-11e7-9669-250d0b15f83b_story.html |title = Putin calls U.S. election-meddling charge a 'load of nonsense' in Megyn Kelly interview |newspaper = [[The Washington Post]] |date = 4 June 2017 |access-date = 21 July 2017 |quote = 'There's a theory that Kennedy's assassination was arranged by the United States intelligence services. So, if this theory is correct{{snd}}and that can't be ruled out{{snd}}then the same agencies could fabricate evidence of Russian hacking, Putin said. |archive-date = 20 October 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201020101045/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/putin-calls-election-meddling-charge-a-load-of-nonsense-in-megyn-kelly-interview/2017/06/04/3968c42c-497c-11e7-9669-250d0b15f83b_story.html |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = https://www.yahoo.com/tv/megyn-kelly-drills-vladimir-putin-presidential-election-hack-003528480.html |title = Megyn Kelly Drills Vladimir Putin on Presidential Election Hack, Russia's Ties With Trump (Video) |website = [[Yahoo News]] |date = 7 June 2017 |access-date = 8 October 2017 |quote = Presidents come and go, and even the parties in power change, but the main political direction does not change. That's why, in the grand scheme of things, we don't care who's the head of the United States. We know more or less what is going to happen. And so in this regard, even if we wanted to, it wouldn't make sense for us to interfere. |archive-date = 8 October 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171008182034/https://www.yahoo.com/tv/megyn-kelly-drills-vladimir-putin-presidential-election-hack-003528480.html |url-status = live }}</ref> and July 2017.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last = Liptak |first = Kevin |url = http://www.cnn.com/2017/07/08/politics/trump-advisers-russia-interference/index.html |title = Trump officials decline to rebut Russia's claims that Trump seemed to accept election denials |publisher =[[CNN]] |date = 8 July 2017 |access-date = 21 July 2017 |quote = Top advisers to President Donald Trump declined three times on Saturday to rebut claims from Russian officials that Trump had accepted their denials of alleged Russian interference in the US election. ... Russian President Vladimir Putin ... told reporters that Trump appeared to accept his assertion that Russia did not meddle in the US presidential contest. |archive-date = 28 June 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200628025650/https://www.cnn.com/2017/07/08/politics/trump-advisers-russia-interference/index.html |url-status = live }}</ref>

Putin later stated that interference was "theoretically possible" and could have been perpetrated by "patriotically minded" Russian hackers,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last = Pinchuk |first = Denis |date = 1 June 2017 |title = Patriotic Russians may have staged cyber attacks on own initiative: Putin |work = Reuters |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-economic-forum-putin-cyber-idUSKBN18S56Y |access-date = 26 May 2021 |archive-date = 8 November 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211108185403/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-economic-forum-putin-cyber-idUSKBN18S56Y |url-status = live }}</ref> and on another occasion claimed "not even Russians, but Ukrainians, Tatars or Jews, but with Russian citizenship" might have been responsible.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title = Putin says Jews, Ukrainians, Tatars could be behind U.S. election meddling |url = https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2018/03/10/putin-says-jews-russian-citizenship-could-behind-u-s-election-meddling/413321002/ |access-date = 26 May 2021 |website = USA Today |language = en-US |archive-date = 11 March 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180311214030/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2018/03/10/putin-says-jews-russian-citizenship-could-behind-u-s-election-meddling/413321002/ |url-status = live }}</ref> In July 2018, ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported that the [[CIA]] had long nurtured a Russian source who eventually rose to a position close to Putin, allowing the source to pass key information in 2016 about Putin's direct involvement.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/18/world/europe/trump-intelligence-russian-election-meddling-.html |title = From the Start, Trump Has Muddied a Clear Message: Putin Interfered |first1 = David E. |last1 = Sanger |first2 = Matthew |last2 = Rosenberg |date = 18 July 2018 |work = The New York Times |access-date = 22 June 2019 |archive-date = 5 August 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180805210601/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/18/world/europe/trump-intelligence-russian-election-meddling-.html |url-status = live }}</ref> Putin continued similar attempts in the [[2020 U.S. presidential election]].<ref>Polyakova, Alina, "The Kremlin's Plot against Democracy: How Russia Updated Its 2016 Playbook for 2020". ''Foreign Affairs'' 99#5 (2020): 140–145</ref>

== 2018–2024: Fourth presidential term ==
[[File:Meeting with Government members2.jpg|thumb|Putin and the newly appointed prime minister [[Mikhail Mishustin]] meeting with members of [[Mikhail Mishustin's First Cabinet|Mishustin's Cabinet]], 21 January 2020]]
Putin won the [[2018 Russian presidential election]] with more than 76% of the vote.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-43455950 |title = Muted Western reaction to Putin victory |date = 19 March 2018 |work =[[BBC News]] |access-date = 19 March 2018 |archive-date = 16 January 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220116132400/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-43455950 |url-status = live }}</ref> His fourth term began on 7 May 2018.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = http://www.aif.ru/politics/russia/kogda_budet_inauguraciya_prezidenta_rf |title = Когда будет инаугурация президента РФ? |website = aif.ru |date = 19 March 2018 |access-date = 20 March 2018 |archive-date = 20 March 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180320004027/http://www.aif.ru/politics/russia/kogda_budet_inauguraciya_prezidenta_rf |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-43452449 |title = Russia's Putin wins by big margin |date = 18 March 2018 |work =[[BBC News]] |access-date = 18 March 2018 |archive-date = 13 February 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220213231239/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-43452449 |url-status = live }}</ref> On the same day, Putin invited Dmitry Medvedev to form a [[Government of Russia|new government]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = https://ria.ru/20180507/1520044323.html |title = Путин предложил кандидатуру Медведева на пост премьера |date = 7 May 2018 |website = РИА Новости |access-date = 17 April 2019 |archive-date = 30 November 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211130081246/https://ria.ru/20180507/1520044323.html |url-status = live }}</ref> On 15 May 2018, Putin took part in the opening of the movement along the highway section of the [[Crimean bridge]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|script-title = ru:Открытие автодорожной части Крымского моста |url = http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/57472 |work = Kremlin.ru |date = 15 May 2018 |access-date = 15 May 2018 |language = ru |archive-date = 31 December 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211231091526/http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/57472 |url-status = live }}</ref> On 18 May 2018, Putin signed decrees on the composition of the new Government.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|script-title = ru:Президент подписал указы о составе нового Правительства |url = http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/57495 |work = Kremlin.ru |date = 18 May 2018 |access-date = 18 May 2018 |language = ru |archive-date = 30 November 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211130081252/http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/57495 |url-status = live }}</ref> On 25 May 2018, Putin announced that he would not run for president in 2024, justifying this in compliance with the Russian Constitution.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Putin says will step down as president after term expires in 2024 |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-putin-rule-constitution-idUSKCN1IQ2H9 |work = Reuters |date = 25 May 2018 |access-date = 16 November 2020 |archive-date = 5 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220305094415/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-putin-rule-constitution-idUSKCN1IQ2H9 |url-status = live }}</ref> On 14 June 2018, Putin opened the [[2018 FIFA World Cup|21st FIFA World Cup]], which took place in Russia for the first time. On 18 October 2018, Putin said Russians will 'go to Heaven as martyrs' in the event of a [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]] as he would only use [[nuclear weapon]]s in retaliation.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Gessen |first1=Masha |title=Putin Lied About His Nuclear Doctrine and Promised Russians That They Would Go to Heaven |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/putin-lied-about-his-nuclear-doctrine-and-promised-russians-that-they-would-go-to-heaven |magazine=The New Yorker |date=19 October 2018 |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301033326/https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/putin-lied-about-his-nuclear-doctrine-and-promised-russians-that-they-would-go-to-heaven |url-status=live}}</ref>
In September 2019, Putin's administration interfered with the results of Russia's nationwide regional elections and manipulated it by eliminating all candidates in the opposition. The event that was aimed at contributing to the ruling party, [[United Russia]]'s victory, also contributed to inciting mass protests for democracy, leading to large-scale arrests and cases of police brutality.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/sep/08/the-observer-view-on-russia-subversion-of-democracy |title = The Observer view on Putin's ongoing corruption of democracy |access-date = 8 September 2019 |website =[[The Guardian]] |date = 8 September 2019 |archive-date = 19 August 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210819021005/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/sep/08/the-observer-view-on-russia-subversion-of-democracy |url-status = live }}</ref>

On 15 January 2020, Medvedev and his entire government resigned after Putin's [[2020 Presidential Address to the Federal Assembly]]. Putin suggested [[2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia|major constitutional amendments]] that could extend his political power after presidency.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1 = Soldatkin |first1 = Vladimir |last2 = Osborn |first2 = Andrew |date = 15 January 2020 |title = Putin shake-up could keep him in power past 2024 as cabinet steps aside |work = [[Reuters]] |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-putin-idUSKBN1ZE15J |access-date = 24 December 2020 |archive-date = 4 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220304223454/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-putin-idUSKBN1ZE15J |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1 = Ilyushina |first1 = Mary |last2 = McKenzie |first2 = Sheena |date = 15 January 2020 |title = Russian government resigns as Putin proposes reforms that could extend his grip on power |url = https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/15/europe/russian-government-resigns-vladimir-putin-reforms-intl/index.html |access-date = 16 November 2020 |publisher = [[CNN]] |archive-date = 4 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220304080000/https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/15/europe/russian-government-resigns-vladimir-putin-reforms-intl/index.html |url-status = live }}</ref> At the same time, on behalf of Putin, he continued to exercise his powers until the formation of a new government.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://ria.ru/20200115/1563456719.html |script-title = ru:Правительство России уходит в отставку |date = 15 January 2020 |newspaper = Риа Новости |language = ru |access-date = 15 January 2020 |archive-date = 15 January 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200115134943/https://ria.ru/20200115/1563456719.html |url-status = live }}</ref> Putin suggested that Medvedev take the newly created post of deputy chairman of the [[Security Council of Russia|Security Council]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = https://ria.ru/20200115/1563457145.html |title = Путин предложил Медведеву должность зампредседателя Совбеза |work = РИА Новости |date = 15 January 2020 |access-date = 11 November 2023 |archive-date = 5 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220305131438/https://ria.ru/20200115/1563457145.html |url-status = live }}</ref>

On the same day, Putin nominated [[Mikhail Mishustin]], head of the [[Federal Tax Service (Russia)|country's Federal Tax Service]] for the post of prime minister. The next day, he was confirmed by the State Duma to the post,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-politics-mishustin-vote/russian-lawmakers-approve-mishustin-as-pm-idUSKBN1ZF1J2 |title = Russian lawmakers approve Mishustin as PM |date = 16 January 2020 |quote = Mishustin received 383 votes of 424 cast, with no votes against and 41 abstentions in a victory that had been all but assured when he won the unanimous backing of his party, United Russia, which has a strong majority in the chamber. |first1 = Vladimir |last1 = Soldatkin |first2 = Alexander |last2 = Marrow |editor-first = John |editor-last = Stonestreet |work = [[Reuters]] |access-date = 16 January 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200116190440/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-politics-mishustin-vote/russian-lawmakers-approve-mishustin-as-pm-idUSKBN1ZF1J2 |archive-date = 16 January 2020 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://iz.ru/964983/2020-01-16/gosduma-odobrila-mishustina-na-post-premera |title = Госдума одобрила Мишустина на пост премьера |date = 16 January 2020 |newspaper = Известия |language = ru |access-date = 15 October 2020 |archive-date = 29 April 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200429024548/https://iz.ru/964983/2020-01-16/gosduma-odobrila-mishustina-na-post-premera |url-status = live }}</ref> and appointed prime minister by Putin's decree.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = http://www.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/62593 |title = Михаил Мишустин назначен Председателем Правительства Российской Федерации |date = 16 January 2020 |access-date = 16 January 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200116155448/http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/62593 |archive-date = 16 January 2020 |url-status = live }}</ref> This was the first time ever that a prime minister was confirmed without any votes against. On 21 January 2020, Mishustin presented to Putin a draft structure of his [[Mikhail Mishustin's First Cabinet|Cabinet]]. On the same day, the president signed a decree on the structure of the Cabinet and appointed the proposed ministers.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/62622 |title = Указ о структуре федеральных органов исполнительной власти |website = Президент России |date = 21 January 2020 |access-date = 24 February 2021 |archive-date = 23 January 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220123191841/http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/62622 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/62625 |title = Подписаны указы о назначении министров Правительства Российской Федерации |website = Президент России |date = 21 January 2020 |access-date = 24 February 2021 |archive-date = 30 January 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220130000941/http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/62625 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/62624 |title = Назначены министры внутренних дел, иностранных дел, обороны, юстиции и глава МЧС России |website = Президент России |date = 21 January 2020 |access-date = 24 February 2021 |archive-date = 17 August 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210817203952/http://www.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/62624 |url-status = live }}</ref>

=== COVID-19 pandemic ===
{{Main|COVID-19 pandemic in Russia}}
[[File:Vladimir Putin in Kommunarka hospital1.jpg|thumb|Putin (dressed in the yellow hazmat suit) visits COVID-19 patients at the [[City Clinical Hospital No. 40 (Moscow)|City Clinical Hospital No. 40]] in Moscow, 24 March 2020.]]
On 15 March 2020, Putin instructed to form a Working Group of the [[State Council (Russia)|State Council]] to counteract the spread of COVID-19. Putin appointed Moscow Mayor [[Sergey Sobyanin]] as the head of the group.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = https://www.rbc.ru/politics/16/03/2020/5e6f4fc89a79476e28d165c5 |title = Кремль объяснил разницу в полномочиях Собянина и Мишустина по вирусу |website = РБК |date = 16 March 2020 |language = ru |access-date = 21 March 2020 |archive-date = 2 November 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211102061705/https://www.rbc.ru/politics/16/03/2020/5e6f4fc89a79476e28d165c5 |url-status = live }}</ref>

On 22 March 2020, after a phone call with Italian prime minister [[Giuseppe Conte]], Putin arranged the [[Russian Armed Forces|Russian army]] to send military medics, special disinfection vehicles and other medical equipment to Italy, which was the European country hardest hit by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Russian army to send coronavirus help to Italy after Putin phone call |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-russia-italy/russian-army-to-send-coronavirus-help-to-italy-after-putin-phone-call-idUSKBN219081 |access-date = 22 March 2020 |work = Reuters |date = 22 March 2020 |archive-date = 7 May 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200507195107/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-russia-italy/russian-army-to-send-coronavirus-help-to-italy-after-putin-phone-call-idUSKBN219081 |url-status = live }}</ref> Putin began working remotely from his office at [[Novo-Ogaryovo]]. According to [[Dmitry Peskov]], Putin passed daily tests for COVID-19, and his health was not in danger.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Песков сообщил о регулярных тестах Путина на коронавирус |url = https://www.interfax.ru/russia/701791 |access-date = 31 March 2020 |agency = Interfax |date = 3 April 2020 |language = ru |archive-date = 14 December 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211214173805/https://www.interfax.ru/russia/701791 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Путин перешел на удаленку |url = https://www.rosbalt.ru/russia/2020/04/01/1835841.html |access-date = 1 April 2020 |work = Росбалт |date = 3 April 2020 |language = ru |archive-date = 2 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220302151916/https://www.rosbalt.ru/russia/2020/04/01/1835841.html |url-status = live }}</ref>

On 25 March, President Putin announced in a televised address to the nation that the [[2020 Russian constitutional referendum|22 April constitutional referendum]] would be postponed due to COVID-19.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://tass.ru/politika/8075213 |title = Путин: дата голосования по поправкам к Конституции должна быть перенесена |agency = [[TASS]] |date = 25 March 2020 |access-date = 11 November 2023 |archive-date = 16 August 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210816175640/https://tass.ru/politika/8075213 |url-status = live }}</ref> He added that the next week would be a nationwide paid holiday and urged Russians to stay at home.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://tass.com/society/1135339 |title = Putin calls on Russians 'to stay home' due to coronavirus |agency = [[TASS]] |date = 25 March 2020 |access-date = 11 November 2023 |archive-date = 7 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220307210843/https://tass.com/society/1135339 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="mt-mar25">{{#invoke:cite|web|url = https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/03/25/coronavirus-in-russia-the-latest-news-march-25-a69117 |title = Coronavirus in Russia: The Latest News |website = [[Moscow Times]] |date = 25 March 2020 |access-date = 11 November 2023 |archive-date = 25 March 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200325143936/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/03/25/coronavirus-in-russia-the-latest-news-march-25-a69117 |url-status = live }}</ref> Putin also announced a list of measures of [[social protection]], support for [[small and medium-sized enterprises]], and changes in [[fiscal policy]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title = Address to the Nation |url = http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/63061 |website = en.kremlin.ru |access-date = 25 March 2020 |date = 25 March 2020 |archive-date = 25 March 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200325211445/http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/63061 |url-status = live }}</ref> Putin announced the following measures for microenterprises, small- and medium-sized businesses: deferring tax payments (except Russia's [[value-added tax]]) for the next six months, cutting the size of social security contributions in half, deferring social security contributions, deferring loan repayments for the next six months, a six-month moratorium on fines, debt collection, and creditors' applications for bankruptcy of debtor enterprises.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = 'They need to quarantine Moscow' How small businesses in Russia's capital are scrambling to stay afloat as coronavirus clobbers the economy |url = https://meduza.io/en/feature/2020/03/27/they-need-to-quarantine-moscow |access-date = 27 March 2020 |work = [[Meduza]] |date = 27 March 2020 |archive-date = 4 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220304213604/https://meduza.io/en/feature/2020/03/27/they-need-to-quarantine-moscow |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Bankrolling Russia's relief program Putin has proposed sweeping tax cuts to shore up vulnerable businesses as coronavirus cripples the economy, but a lot more might be needed and it's unclear who would foot the bill |url = https://meduza.io/en/feature/2020/03/26/bankrolling-russia-s-relief-program |access-date = 27 March 2020 |work = [[Meduza]] |date = 26 March 2020 |archive-date = 4 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220304213601/https://meduza.io/en/feature/2020/03/26/bankrolling-russia-s-relief-program |url-status = live }}</ref>

On 2 April 2020, Putin again issued an address in which he announced prolongation of the non-working time until 30 April.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Putin signs decree on non-working days for Russian citizens until April 30 |url = https://tass.com/politics/1139407 |access-date = 2 April 2020 |agency = [[TASS]] |date = 2 April 2020 |archive-date = 27 February 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210227160458/https://tass.com/politics/1139407 |url-status = live }}</ref> Putin likened Russia's fight against COVID-19 to Russia's battles with invading [[Pechenegs|Pecheneg]] and [[Cumans|Cuman]] steppe nomads in the 10th and 11th centuries.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Putin Sets Off Meme Storm By Comparing Medieval Invaders to Coronavirus Quarantine |url = https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/04/09/putin-sets-off-meme-storm-by-comparing-medieval-invaders-to-coronavirus-quarantine-a69931 |work = Moscow Times |date = 8 April 2020 |access-date = 2 May 2020 |archive-date = 5 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220305125750/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/04/09/putin-sets-off-meme-storm-by-comparing-medieval-invaders-to-coronavirus-quarantine-a69931 |url-status = live }}</ref> In a 24 to 27 April [[Levada Center|Levada]] poll, 48% of Russian respondents said that they disapproved of Putin's handling of the COVID-19 pandemic,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Putin's Virus Response Earns Lower Marks Than Local Leaders': Poll |url = https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/04/30/putins-virus-response-rated-lower-than-local-leaders-poll-a70156 |work = Moscow Times |date = 30 April 2020 |access-date = 2 May 2020 |archive-date = 5 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220305000124/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/04/30/putins-virus-response-rated-lower-than-local-leaders-poll-a70156 |url-status = live }}</ref> and his strict isolation and lack of leadership during the crisis was widely commented as sign of losing his "strongman" image.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title = As the Coronavirus Contagion Grows in Russia, Putin's Strongman Image Weakens |url = https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/05/14/as-the-coronavirus-contagion-grows-in-russia-putins-strongman-image-weakens-a70257 |last = Gershkovich |first = Evan |date = 14 May 2020 |website = Moscow Times |access-date = 14 May 2020 |archive-date = 15 August 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210815163326/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/05/14/as-the-coronavirus-contagion-grows-in-russia-putins-strongman-image-weakens-a70257 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1 = Galeotti |first1 = Mark |title = Putin Withdraws From the Coronavirus Crisis in a Political Abdication |url = https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/05/12/putin-withdraws-from-the-coronavirus-crisis-in-a-political-abdication-a70245 |work = Moscow Times |date = 12 May 2020 |access-date = 22 May 2020 |archive-date = 15 August 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210815231916/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/05/12/putin-withdraws-from-the-coronavirus-crisis-in-a-political-abdication-a70245 |url-status = live }}</ref>
[[File:Meeting of Russian Pobeda (Victory) Organising Committee 2019-12-11 (4).jpg|thumb|Putin's first deputy chief of staff [[Sergey Kiriyenko]] (left) is in charge of Russia's domestic politics.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Russia's technocrat-in-chief |url = https://meduza.io/en/feature/2019/10/11/russia-s-technocrat-in-chief |work = Meduza |date = 11 October 2019 |access-date = 5 September 2020 |archive-date = 1 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220301173052/https://meduza.io/en/feature/2019/10/11/russia-s-technocrat-in-chief |url-status = live }}</ref>]]

In June 2021, Putin said he was fully vaccinated against the disease with the [[Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine|Sputnik V vaccine]], emphasising that while vaccinations should be voluntary, making them mandatory in some professions would slow down the spread of COVID-19.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last = Litvinova |first = Daria |title = Putin reveals he was vaccinated with Russia's Sputnik V |url = https://apnews.com/article/europe-business-health-russia-coronavirus-pandemic-035536af03c480bbc4127d7bb5ead1fc |work = Associated Press News |date = 13 August 2021 |access-date = 14 September 2021 |archive-date = 9 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220309020655/https://apnews.com/article/europe-business-health-russia-coronavirus-pandemic-035536af03c480bbc4127d7bb5ead1fc |url-status = live }}</ref> In September, Putin entered [[self-isolation]] after people in his inner circle tested positive for the disease.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1 = Litvinova |first1 = Daria |title = Putin in self-isolation due to COVID cases in inner circle |url = https://apnews.com/article/russia-vladimir-putin-isolation-coronavirus-pandemic-f842e18bbb1bcb7090aa84de9b42951e |work = Associated Press News |date = 14 September 2021 |access-date = 14 September 2021 |archive-date = 7 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220307151201/https://apnews.com/article/russia-vladimir-putin-isolation-coronavirus-pandemic-f842e18bbb1bcb7090aa84de9b42951e |url-status = live }}</ref> According to a report by the ''Wall Street Journal'', Putin's inner circle of advisors shrank during the COVID-19 lockdown to a small number of hawkish advisers.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/putin-russia-ukraine-war-advisers-11671815184 |title = Putin, Isolated and Distrustful, Leans on Handful of Hard-Line Advisers |first1 = Evan |last1 = Gershkovich | first2 = Thomas | last2 = Grove | first3 = Drew | last3 = Hinshaw | first4 = Joe | last4 = Parkinson |website = The Wall Street Journal |date = 23 December 2022 |access-date = 24 December 2022 |archive-date = 24 December 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221224224320/https://www.wsj.com/articles/putin-russia-ukraine-war-advisers-11671815184 |url-status = live }}</ref>

=== Constitutional referendum and amendments ===
{{Main|2020 Russian constitutional referendum}}
Putin signed an executive order on 3 July 2020 to officially insert amendments into the Russian Constitution, allowing him to run for two additional six-year terms. These amendments took effect on 4 July 2020.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/07/putin-orders-constitution-allowing-rule-2036-200703142851167.html |date = 3 July 2020 |title = Putin orders constitution changes allowing him to rule until 2036 |publisher = Al Jazeera |access-date = 11 August 2020 |archive-date = 17 September 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200917114710/https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/news/2020/07/putin-orders-constitution-allowing-rule-2036-200703142851167.html |url-status = live }}</ref>

In 2020 and 2021, protests were held in the [[Khabarovsk Krai]] in Russia's [[Russian Far East|Far East]] in support of arrested regional governor [[Sergei Furgal]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Anti-Putin Protests in Russia's Far East Gather Steam |url = https://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/anti-putin-protests-russias-far-east-gather-steam |publisher = [[Voice of America]] |date = 25 July 2020 |agency = Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Russia |access-date = 11 August 2020 |archive-date = 6 August 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200806072808/https://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/anti-putin-protests-russias-far-east-gather-steam |url-status = live }}</ref> The [[2020 Khabarovsk Krai protests]] became increasingly anti-Putin over time.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last = Troianovski |first = Anton |author-link = Anton Troianovski |date = 25 July 2020 |title = Protests Swell in Russia's Far East in a Stark New Challenge to Putin |work = [[The New York Times]] |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/25/world/europe/russia-protests-putin-khabarovsk.html |url-access = registration |access-date = 11 August 2020 |archive-date = 22 November 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211122122714/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/25/world/europe/russia-protests-putin-khabarovsk.html |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last = Odynova |first = Alexandra |date = 3 August 2020 |title = Anti-Kremlin protests continue in Russia's far east for 24 consecutive days |url = https://www.cbsnews.com/news/anti-kremlin-protests-khabarovsk-russia-24-days/ |publisher = CBS News |location = New York City |access-date = 11 August 2020 |archive-date = 5 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220305093028/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/anti-kremlin-protests-khabarovsk-russia-24-days/ |url-status = live }}</ref> A July 2020 [[Levada Center|Levada]] poll found that 45% of surveyed Russians supported the protests.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = https://www.levada.ru/2020/07/28/protesty-v-habarovske/ |title = ПРОТЕСТЫ В ХАБАРОВСКЕ |website = Levada Center |date = 28 July 2020 |access-date = 11 November 2023 |archive-date = 28 July 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200728110005/https://www.levada.ru/2020/07/28/protesty-v-habarovske/ |url-status = live }}</ref> On 22 December 2020, Putin signed a bill giving lifetime prosecutorial immunity to Russian ex-presidents.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date = 22 December 2020 |title = Putin signs bill granting lifetime immunity to former Russian presidents |url = http://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/22/putin-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-immunity-to-former-russian-presidents |access-date = 24 December 2020 |website = [[The Guardian]] |archive-date = 26 November 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211126004011/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/22/putin-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-immunity-to-former-russian-presidents |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date = 20 December 2020 |title = Russia's Putin signs bill giving ex-presidents lifetime immunity |url = https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/12/22/russias-putin-signs-bill-giving-presidents-lifetime-immunity |access-date = 24 December 2020 |publisher = [[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] |archive-date = 4 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220304213555/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/12/22/russias-putin-signs-bill-giving-presidents-lifetime-immunity |url-status = live }}</ref>

=== 2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis ===
{{Main|Prelude to the Russian invasion of Ukraine}}

[[File:Talks between Vladimir Putin and President of the United States Joseph Biden.jpg|thumb|Putin holds a video call with U.S. president [[Joe Biden]] on 7 December 2021.|left]]
In July 2021, Putin published an essay titled ''[[On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians]]'', in which he states that Belarusians, Ukrainians and Russians should be in one [[All-Russian nation]] as a part of the [[Russian world]] and are "one people" whom "forces that have always sought to undermine our unity" wanted to "divide and rule".<ref name=infess>{{#invoke:cite|web|last = Putin |first = Vladimir |author-link = Vladimir Putin |date = 12 July 2021 |title = Article by Vladimir Putin 'On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians' |url = http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/66181 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220125053520/http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/66181 |archive-date = 25 January 2022 |website = The Kremlin |publisher = [[Government of Russia]]. }}</ref> The essay [[Right to exist|denies the existence]] of Ukraine as an independent nation.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=How Putin's Denial of Ukraine's Statehood Rewrites History |url=https://time.com/6150046/ukraine-statehood-russia-history-putin/ |magazine=Time |first=Billy |last=Perrigno |date=22 February 2022 |access-date=22 March 2023 |archive-date=22 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222200708/https://time.com/6150046/ukraine-statehood-russia-history-putin/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Why is Putin attacking Ukraine? He told us |url = https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2022/2/23/22945781/russia-ukraine-putin-speech-transcript-february-22 |work = Vox |date = 23 February 2022 |access-date = 22 May 2022 |archive-date = 16 May 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220516195145/https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2022/2/23/22945781/russia-ukraine-putin-speech-transcript-february-22 |url-status = live }}</ref>

On 30 November 2021, Putin stated that an [[enlargement of NATO]] in Ukraine would be a "red line" issue for Russia.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Russia will act if Nato countries cross Ukraine 'red lines', Putin says|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/30/russia-will-act-if-nato-countries-cross-ukraine-red-lines-putin-says|work=[[The Guardian]] |first=Andrew|last=Roth|date=30 November 2021|access-date=22 March 2023|archive-date=17 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217112550/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/30/russia-will-act-if-nato-countries-cross-ukraine-red-lines-putin-says|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = NATO Pushes Back Against Russian President Putin's 'Red Lines' Over Ukraine |url = https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/43334/nato-pushes-back-against-russian-president-putins-red-lines-over-ukraine |work = The Drive |date = 1 December 2021 |access-date = 13 December 2021 |archive-date = 14 December 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211214164345/https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/43334/nato-pushes-back-against-russian-president-putins-red-lines-over-ukraine |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Putin warns Russia will act if NATO crosses its red lines in Ukraine |url = https://www.reuters.com/markets/stocks/putin-warns-russia-will-act-if-nato-crosses-its-red-lines-ukraine-2021-11-30/ |work = Reuters |date = 30 November 2021 |access-date = 13 December 2021 |archive-date = 19 January 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220119022224/https://www.reuters.com/markets/stocks/putin-warns-russia-will-act-if-nato-crosses-its-red-lines-ukraine-2021-11-30/ |url-status = live }}</ref> The Kremlin repeatedly denied that it had any plans to invade Ukraine,<ref name="russpy">{{#invoke:cite|news|date = 27 November 2021 |title = Russia spy chief says Ukraine invasion plan 'malicious' U.S. propaganda |work = Reuters |url = https://www.reuters.com/business/media-telecom/russia-spy-chief-says-ukraine-invasion-plan-malicious-us-propaganda-2021-11-27/ |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221124064332/https://www.reuters.com/business/media-telecom/russia-spy-chief-says-ukraine-invasion-plan-malicious-us-propaganda-2021-11-27/ |archive-date = 24 November 2022 }}</ref><ref name="skywest">{{#invoke:cite|news|date = 7 December 2021 |title = West voices its concern over Russia's military build-up on Ukrainian border ahead of Biden call with Putin |publisher = Sky News |url = https://news.sky.com/story/west-voices-its-concern-over-russias-military-build-up-on-ukrainian-border-ahead-of-biden-call-with-putin-12488742 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221210085207/https://news.sky.com/story/west-voices-its-concern-over-russias-military-build-up-on-ukrainian-border-ahead-of-biden-call-with-putin-12488742 |archive-date = 10 December 2022 }}</ref><ref name="appre">{{#invoke:cite|news|date = 17 January 2022 |title = Russia denies looking for pretext to invade Ukraine |work = Associated Press News |url = https://apnews.com/article/russia-officials-ukraine-invasion-f58cbbd7eca51cccf74ebd4be68484e8 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220118144105/https://apnews.com/article/russia-officials-ukraine-invasion-f58cbbd7eca51cccf74ebd4be68484e8 |archive-date = 18 January 2022 }}</ref> and Putin himself dismissed such fears as "alarmist".<ref name="gaslight">{{#invoke:cite|news|date = 17 November 2021 |title = The world is worried Putin is about to invade Ukraine |publisher = [[CNBC]] |url = https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/17/the-world-is-worried-putin-is-about-to-invade-ukraine-heres-why.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221015082559/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/17/the-world-is-worried-putin-is-about-to-invade-ukraine-heres-why.html |archive-date = 15 October 2022 }}</ref> On 21 February 2022, Putin signed a [[International recognition of the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic|decree recognizing]] the two self-proclaimed [[separatist]] republics in [[Donbas]] as independent states and made an [[address concerning the events in Ukraine]].<ref name="extracts">{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Extracts from Putin's speech on Ukraine |url = https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/extracts-putins-speech-ukraine-2022-02-21/ |work = Reuters |date = 21 February 2022 |access-date = 11 November 2023 |archive-date = 1 March 2022 |archive-url = https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220301/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/extracts-putins-speech-ukraine-2022-02-21/ |url-status = live }}</ref>

Putin was persuaded to invade Ukraine by a small group of his closest associates, especially [[Nikolai Patrushev]], [[Yury Kovalchuk]] and [[Alexander Bortnikov]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=A look at the trio who convinced Putin to invade |url=https://news.yahoo.com/look-trio-convinced-putin-invade-084200834.html |work=Yahoo News |date=9 January 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=22 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230622191223/https://news.yahoo.com/look-trio-convinced-putin-invade-084200834.html |url-status=live }}</ref> According to sources close to the Kremlin, most of Putin's advisers and associates opposed the invasion, but Putin overruled them. The invasion of Ukraine had been planned for almost a year.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=How Putin blundered into Ukraine – then doubled down |url=https://www.ft.com/content/80002564-33e8-48fb-b734-44810afb7a49 |work=Financial Times |date=23 February 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=21 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021151545/https://www.ft.com/content/80002564-33e8-48fb-b734-44810afb7a49 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Full-scale invasion of Ukraine (2022–present) ===
{{Main|Russian invasion of Ukraine|Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine}}
[[File:Manifestation contre guerre en Ukraine Nice 27 02 2022 (51907203661).jpg|thumb|[[Protest against the Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in Nice, France, 27 February 2022]]
On 24 February, Putin in a [[On conducting a special military operation|televised address]] announced a "[[special military operation]]"<ref name=rtr2>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Russia's Putin authorises 'special military operation' against Ukraine |date = 24 February 2022 |url = https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russias-putin-authorises-military-operations-donbass-domestic-media-2022-02-24/ |work = Reuters |access-date = 30 July 2022 |last1 = Osborn |first1 = Andrew |last2 = Nikolskaya |first2 = Polina |last3 = Nikolskaya |first3 = Polina |archive-date = 24 February 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220224032217/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russias-putin-authorises-military-operations-donbass-domestic-media-2022-02-24/ |url-status = live }}</ref> (SMO) in Ukraine,<ref name="ftputin">{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Full text: Putin's declaration of war on Ukraine |url = https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/full-text-putin-s-declaration-of-war-on-ukraine |publisher = The Spectator (1828) Ltd |date = 24 February 2022 |access-date = 2 March 2022 |archive-date = 27 February 2022 |archive-url = https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220227/https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/full-text-putin-s-declaration-of-war-on-ukraine |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="msnsmo">{{#invoke:cite|web|url = https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/russian-president-vladimir-putin-announces-military-assault-against-ukraine-in-surprise-speech/ar-AAUebpI |title = Russian President Vladimir Putin announces military assault against Ukraine in surprise speech |publisher = MSN |date = 24 February 2022 |access-date = 11 November 2023 |archive-date = 24 February 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220224064559/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/russian-president-vladimir-putin-announces-military-assault-against-ukraine-in-surprise-speech/ar-AAUebpI |url-status = live }}</ref> launching an invasion.<ref name="dwrus">{{#invoke:cite|news|publisher = Deutsche Welle |title = Russia launches massive invasion of Ukraine – live updates |date = 24 February 2022 |url = https://www.dw.com/en/russia-launches-massive-invasion-of-ukraine-live-updates/a-60893588 |access-date = 24 February 2022 |archive-date = 24 February 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220224215952/https://www.dw.com/en/russia-launches-massive-invasion-of-ukraine-live-updates/a-60893588 |url-status = live }}</ref> Citing "[[denazification]]", he claimed to be invading to protect people in the Russian-speaking Donbas region who, according to Putin, faced "humiliation and genocide".<ref name="eight">{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Putin's claims that Ukraine is committing genocide are baseless, but not unprecedented |url = https://theconversation.com/putins-claims-that-ukraine-is-committing-genocide-are-baseless-but-not-unprecedented-177511 |work = [[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |date = 25 February 2022 |access-date = 3 March 2022 |archive-date = 26 February 2022 |archive-url = https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220226/https://theconversation.com/putins-claims-that-ukraine-is-committing-genocide-are-baseless-but-not-unprecedented-177511 |url-status = live }}</ref> He [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|launched a war]] to gain control of the rest of Ukraine and overthrow the [[government of Ukraine|elected government]] under the pretext it was run by Nazis.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Putin's "Nazi" rhetoric reveals his terrifying war aims in Ukraine |url = https://www.vox.com/2022/2/24/22948944/putin-ukraine-nazi-russia-speech-declare-war |work = Vox |first = Zack |last = Beauchamp |date = 24 February 2022 |access-date = 17 March 2023 |archive-date = 28 February 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220228214635/https://www.vox.com/2022/2/24/22948944/putin-ukraine-nazi-russia-speech-declare-war |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Fact check: Do Vladimir Putin's justifications for going to war against Ukraine add up? |url = https://www.dw.com/en/fact-check-do-vladimir-putins-justifications-for-going-to-war-against-ukraine-add-up/a-60917168 |publisher = Deutsche Welle |date = 25 February 2022 |access-date = 22 May 2022 |archive-date = 25 February 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220225162831/https://www.dw.com/en/fact-check-do-vladimir-putins-justifications-for-going-to-war-against-ukraine-add-up/a-60917168 |url-status = live }}</ref> Russia's invasion was met with international condemnation.<ref name="intcon">{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Russia's War of Self-Destruction |url = https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2022/02/russias-war-of-self-destruction-in-ukraine.html |work = New York |first = Jonah |last = Shepp |date = 28 February 2022 |access-date = 17 March 2023 |archive-date = 11 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220311040920/https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2022/02/russias-war-of-self-destruction-in-ukraine.html |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="miscal">{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Putin's miscalculation in Ukraine could lead to his downfall |url = https://www.newstatesman.com/international-content/2022/03/putins-miscalculation-in-ukraine-could-lead-to-his-downfall |work = New Statesman |date = 2 March 2022 |access-date = 11 November 2023 |archive-date = 6 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220306132058/https://www.newstatesman.com/international-content/2022/03/putins-miscalculation-in-ukraine-could-lead-to-his-downfall |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="ecocol">{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Russians Fleeing As Nation Faces Economic Collapse |url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2022/03/05/russians-fleeing-as-nation-faces-economic-collapse/?sh=67e59fb07089 |work = Forbes |date = 5 March 2022 |access-date = 11 November 2023 |archive-date = 6 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220306132049/https://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2022/03/05/russians-fleeing-as-nation-faces-economic-collapse/?sh=67e59fb07089 |url-status = live }}</ref> [[International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War|International sanctions were imposed]] against Russia, including against Putin.<ref name="bbcuki">{{#invoke:cite|web|url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-60530065 |title = Ukraine conflict: UK to impose sanctions on Russia's President Putin |website =[[BBC News]] |date = 25 February 2022 |access-date = 25 February 2022 |archive-date = 1 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220301152624/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-60530065 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="bbcukw">{{#invoke:cite|web|url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-60530171 |title = Ukraine invasion: West imposes sanctions on Russia's Putin and Lavrov |website =[[BBC News]] |date = 26 February 2022 |access-date = 26 February 2022 |archive-date = 27 February 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220227233312/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-60530171 |url-status = live }}</ref> The invasion led to calls for Putin to be charged with war crimes.<ref name="CNN-warcrimes">{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Everything you need to know about war crimes and how Putin could be prosecuted |url = https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/03/politics/putin-war-crimes-russia-ukraine-us-what-matters/index.html |access-date = 26 March 2022 |publisher =[[CNN]] |archive-date = 9 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220309080701/https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/03/politics/putin-war-crimes-russia-ukraine-us-what-matters/index.html |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1 = Orentlicher |first1 = Diane |title = The case for a Putin war crimes trial |url = https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/russia-ukraine-war-updates-trickle-case-trying-vladimir-putin-war-crim-rcna27996 |publisher = NBC News |date = 10 May 2022 |access-date = 11 November 2023 |archive-date = 20 September 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220920200610/https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/russia-ukraine-war-updates-trickle-case-trying-vladimir-putin-war-crim-rcna27996 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Johnson: Putin may face war crimes charges |url = https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2022/feb/24/uk-politics-live-boris-johnson-sanctions-russia-invasion-ukraine-latest-updates?filterKeyEvents=false&page=with:block-6217d52c8f08762827838ae5#block-6217d52c8f08762827838ae5 |access-date = 24 February 2022 |work =[[The Guardian]] |archive-date = 25 February 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220225045929/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/live/2022/feb/24/uk-politics-live-boris-johnson-sanctions-russia-invasion-ukraine-latest-updates?filterKeyEvents=false&page=with%3Ablock-6217d52c8f08762827838ae5#block-6217d52c8f08762827838ae5 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Biden calls Putin a 'war criminal' after meeting with troops in Poland |url = https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/biden-calls-putin-war-criminal-meeting-troops-poland/story?id=83670309 |access-date = 26 March 2022 |work = ABC News |archive-date = 26 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220326210451/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/biden-calls-putin-war-criminal-meeting-troops-poland/story?id=83670309 |url-status = live }}</ref> The [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC) stated that [[International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine|it would investigate]] possible war crimes in Ukraine since 2013,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Everything you need to know about war crimes and how Putin could be prosecuted |url = https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/03/politics/putin-war-crimes-russia-ukraine-us-what-matters/index.html |access-date = 7 March 2022 |publisher =[[CNN]] |archive-date = 9 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220309080701/https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/03/politics/putin-war-crimes-russia-ukraine-us-what-matters/index.html |url-status = live }}</ref> and the US pledged to help the ICC to prosecute Putin for war crimes.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = U.S. looks to assist war crimes prosecutions targeting Russian leaders |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2022/04/25/russia-ukraine-war-crimes-prosecutions/ |newspaper = The Washington Post |first = Missy |last = Ryan |date = 25 April 2022 |access-date = 11 November 2023 |archive-date = 25 April 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220425211628/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2022/04/25/russia-ukraine-war-crimes-prosecutions/ |url-status = live }}</ref> In response, Putin put the [[Strategic Rocket Forces]]'s [[nuclear deterrence]] units on high alert.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Ukraine invasion: Putin puts Russia's nuclear forces on 'special alert' |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60547473 |work =[[BBC News]] |date = 28 February 2022 |access-date = 1 March 2022 |archive-date = 14 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220314123310/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60547473 |url-status = live }}</ref> By March, U.S. intelligence agencies determined that Putin was frustrated by slow progress due to unexpectedly strong Ukrainian defense.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Slow Progress and Fierce Resistance in Ukraine Could Prompt Brutal Russian Offensive |url = https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/03/01/slow-progress-and-fierce-resistance-in-ukraine-could-prompt-brutal-russian-offensive-a76689 |work = Moscow Times |date = 1 March 2022 |access-date = 1 March 2022 |archive-date = 3 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220303231827/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/03/01/slow-progress-and-fierce-resistance-in-ukraine-could-prompt-brutal-russian-offensive-a76689 |url-status = live }}</ref>

[[File:Vladimir Putin in Ryazan Oblast (2022-10-20) 01.jpg|thumb|Putin and Defense Minister [[Sergei Shoigu]] with Russian officers on 20 October 2022]]
On 4 March, Putin signed a law introducing [[Russian fake news laws|prison sentences of up to 15 years]] for publishing "knowingly false information" about the Russian military and its operations, leading to some [[Mass media in Russia|media outlets in Russia]] stopping reporting on Ukraine.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url = https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/03/04/putin-signs-law-introducing-jail-terms-for-fake-news-on-army-a76768 |title = Putin Signs Law Introducing Jail Terms for 'Fake News' on Army |website = Moscow Times |date = 4 March 2022 |archive-date = 14 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220314132340/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/03/04/putin-signs-law-introducing-jail-terms-for-fake-news-on-army-a76768 |url-status = live }}</ref> On 7 March, as a condition for ending the invasion, the Kremlin demanded Ukraine's [[Neutral country|neutrality]], recognition of [[Crimea]] as Russian territory, and the self-proclaimed republics of Donetsk and Luhansk as independent states.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Russia will stop 'in a moment' if Ukraine meets terms – Kremlin |url = https://www.reuters.com/world/kremlin-says-russian-military-action-will-stop-moment-if-ukraine-meets-2022-03-07/ |work = Reuters |date = 7 March 2022 |access-date = 8 March 2022 |archive-date = 9 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220309093347/https://www.reuters.com/world/kremlin-says-russian-military-action-will-stop-moment-if-ukraine-meets-2022-03-07/ |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Ukraine's Zelenskiy Says Open to 'Compromise' with Russia on Crimea, Separatist Territories |url = https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/03/08/ukraines-zelenskiy-says-open-to-compromise-with-russia-on-crimea-separatist-territories-a76821 |work = [[Moscow Times]] |date = 8 March 2022 |access-date = 11 November 2023 |archive-date = 12 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220312125557/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/03/08/ukraines-zelenskiy-says-open-to-compromise-with-russia-on-crimea-separatist-territories-a76821 |url-status = live }}</ref> Putin promised that no conscripts would be used in the SMO.<ref name="rtr1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/putin-says-will-not-use-conscript-soldiers-ukraine-2022-03-07/|title=Putin says will not use conscript soldiers in Ukraine|website=[[Reuters]] }}</ref> On 16 March, Putin issued a warning to Russian "traitors" who he said the West wanted to use as a "[[fifth column]]" to destroy Russia.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Putin warns Russia against pro-Western 'traitors' and scum |url = https://www.reuters.com/world/putin-warns-russia-against-pro-western-traitors-scum-2022-03-16/ |work = Reuters |date = 16 March 2022 |access-date = 16 March 2022 |archive-date = 24 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220324034118/https://www.reuters.com/world/putin-warns-russia-against-pro-western-traitors-scum-2022-03-16/ |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Putin says Russia must undergo a 'self-cleansing of society' to purge 'bastards and traitors' as thousands flee the country |url = https://www.businessinsider.com/putin-says-russia-must-undergo-self-cleansing-society-2022-3 |work = Business Insider |date = 16 March 2022 |access-date = 16 March 2022 |archive-date = 22 March 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220322184001/https://www.businessinsider.com/putin-says-russia-must-undergo-self-cleansing-society-2022-3 |url-status = live }}</ref> Following the invasion of Ukraine in 2022,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Kolesnikov |first1=Andrei |title=Russia's Second, Silent War Against Its Human Capital |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/politika/88983 |work=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] |date=8 February 2023 |access-date=1 July 2023 |archive-date=25 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525202705/https://carnegieendowment.org/politika/88983 |url-status=live }}</ref> Russia's long-term [[demographic crisis of Russia|demographic crisis]] deepened due to [[Russian emigration following the Russian invasion of Ukraine|emigration]], lower fertility rates and [[Casualties of the Russo-Ukrainian War|war casualties]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Putin's War Escalation Is Hastening Demographic Crash for Russia |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-10-18/putin-s-war-escalation-is-hastening-demographic-crash-for-russia |work=Bloomberg |date=18 October 2022 |access-date=1 July 2023 |archive-date=12 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012065405/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-10-18/putin-s-war-escalation-is-hastening-demographic-crash-for-russia |url-status=live }}</ref>

As early as 25 March, the UN [[Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights]] reported that Putin ordered a "kidnapping" policy, whereby Ukrainian nationals who did not cooperate with the Russian takeover of their homeland were victimized by FSB agents.<ref name="mmbbc">{{#invoke:cite|news|last1 = Murphy |first1 = Matt |last2 = Greenall |first2 = Robert |title = Ukraine War: Civilians abducted as Russia tries to assert control |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60858363 |publisher = BBC |date = 25 March 2022 |access-date = 21 May 2022 |archive-date = 3 April 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220403090420/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60858363 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="voxjk">{{#invoke:cite|news|last1 = Kirby |first1 = Jen |title = When Russian troops arrived, their relatives disappeared |url = https://www.vox.com/23012456/ukraine-russia-war-disappearances-kidnappings |publisher = Vox Media, LLC |date = 12 April 2022 |access-date = 21 May 2022 |archive-date = 19 May 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220519121602/https://www.vox.com/23012456/ukraine-russia-war-disappearances-kidnappings |url-status = live }}</ref> Ukrainian president [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] said he was sure Putin thought the Ukrainians would welcome the invading force with "flowers and smiles" while he negotiated that Ukraine would become a [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-aligned state]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Volodymyr Zelensky says Ukraine ready to discuss neutrality in peace talks with Russia |url=https://www.ft.com/content/c5aa8066-715d-43dd-8a3c-b6907d839a36 |work=Financial Times |date=28 March 2022 |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401004201/https://www.ft.com/content/c5aa8066-715d-43dd-8a3c-b6907d839a36 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In September, Putin announced a [[2022 Russian mobilization|partial mobilization]], following a successful [[2022 Ukrainian Kharkiv counteroffensive|Ukrainian counteroffensive in Kharkiv]] as well as [[2022 annexation referendums in Russian-occupied Ukraine|annexation referendums]] in Russian-[[occupied territories of Ukraine|occupied Ukraine]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url = https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/putin-signs-decree-mobilisation-says-west-wants-destroy-russia-2022-09-21/ |title = Putin escalates Ukraine war, issues nuclear threat to West |work = [[Reuters]] |date = 21 September 2022 |access-date = 22 September 2022 |archive-date = 7 October 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221007185123/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/putin-signs-decree-mobilisation-says-west-wants-destroy-russia-2022-09-21/ |url-status = live }}</ref>

[[File:Annexation of Southern and Eastern Ukraine.svg|thumb|left|Ukrainian oblasts annexed by Russia since 2014 ([[Crimea]]) and 2022 ([[Donetsk Oblast|Donetsk]], [[Kherson Oblast|Kherson]], [[Luhansk Oblast|Luhansk]], and [[Zaporizhzhia Oblast|Zaporizhzhia]]), with a red line marking the area of actual control by Russia on 30 September 2022]]
On 30 September, Putin signed decrees which [[annexation of Southern and Eastern Ukraine|annexed]] Donetsk, Luhansk, Zaporizhzhia, and Kherson Oblasts of Ukraine into Russia. The annexations are [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/4|not recognized]] by the international community and are illegal under international law.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last = Lawler |first = Dave |date = 30 September 2022 |title = Putin claims 15% of Ukraine is now part of Russia |url = https://www.axios.com/2022/09/30/putin-claims-annexation-four-ukrainian-oblasts |access-date = 30 September 2022 |website = Axios |language = en |archive-date = 4 October 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221004072425/https://www.axios.com/2022/09/30/putin-claims-annexation-four-ukrainian-oblasts |url-status = live }}</ref> On 11 November the same year, Ukraine [[Liberation of Kherson|liberated Kherson]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Ukraine liberated Kherson city. Now, Russia is destroying it. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/14/kherson-destroyed-russia-ukraine-liberated/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=14 January 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=27 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627200942/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/14/kherson-destroyed-russia-ukraine-liberated/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In December 2022, he said a war against Ukraine could be a "long process".<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title = Russia could be fighting in Ukraine for a long time: Putin |url = https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/12/7/putin-russian-forces-could-be-fighting-in-ukraine-for-long-time |publisher = Al Jazeera |date = 7 December 2022 |access-date = 16 December 2022 |archive-date = 16 December 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221216104749/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/12/7/putin-russian-forces-could-be-fighting-in-ukraine-for-long-time |url-status = live }}</ref> Hundreds of thousands of people have been killed in the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title='Terrible toll': Russia's invasion of Ukraine in numbers |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/global-europe/news/terrible-toll-russias-invasion-of-ukraine-in-numbers/ |work=[[Euractiv]] |date=14 February 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=12 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230712061818/https://www.euractiv.com/section/global-europe/news/terrible-toll-russias-invasion-of-ukraine-in-numbers/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Hussain |first1=Murtaza |title=The War in Ukraine Is Just Getting Started |url=https://theintercept.com/2023/03/09/ukraine-war-russia-iran-iraq/ |work=The Intercept |date=9 March 2023 |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=18 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518234805/https://theintercept.com/2023/03/09/ukraine-war-russia-iran-iraq/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In January 2023, Putin cited recognition of Russia's sovereignty over the annexed territories as a condition for [[2022 Russia–Ukraine peace negotiations|peace talks]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Putin Signals Readiness for Peace Talks if Kyiv Cedes Occupied Regions |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/01/05/putin-signals-readiness-for-peace-talks-if-kyiv-cedes-occupied-regions-a79877 |work=The Moscow Times |date=5 January 2023 |access-date=24 March 2023 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324094745/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/01/05/putin-signals-readiness-for-peace-talks-if-kyiv-cedes-occupied-regions-a79877 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In March 2023, Chinese leader [[Xi Jinping]] visited Russia and [[2023 visit by Xi Jinping to Russia|met with Putin]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Xi, Putin meeting highlights US tensions with China |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/xi-putin-meeting-highlights-us-tensions-china/story?id=97997247 |work=ABC News |date=21 March 2023 |access-date=24 March 2023 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324103055/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/xi-putin-meeting-highlights-us-tensions-china/story?id=97997247 |url-status=live }}</ref> It was the first international meeting of Putin since the ICC issued a warrant for his arrest.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Gan |first=Nectar |date=20 March 2023 |title=Xi makes 'journey of friendship' to Moscow days after Putin's war crime warrant issued |language=en |work=[[CNN]] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/03/20/china/china-xi-putin-russia-visit-analysis-intl-hnk-mic/index.html |archive-date=21 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321195643/https://edition.cnn.com/2023/03/20/china/china-xi-putin-russia-visit-analysis-intl-hnk-mic/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Putin-Xi press conference (2023).jpg|thumb|Putin welcomes Chinese leader [[Xi Jinping]] to Moscow, 21 March 2023.]]
In May 2023, South Africa announced it would grant diplomatic immunity to Putin to attend the [[BRICS#Summits|15th BRICS Summit]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date=30 May 2023 |title=South Africa moves to let Putin attend BRICS summit despite ICC arrest warrant over Ukraine war |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/south-africa-vladimir-putin-icc-arrest-warrant-ukraine-war-brics-immunity/ |website=www.cbsnews.com |language=en-US |access-date=16 June 2023 |archive-date=16 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230616001351/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/south-africa-vladimir-putin-icc-arrest-warrant-ukraine-war-brics-immunity/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 2023, South African president [[Cyril Ramaphosa]] announced that Putin would not attend the summit "by mutual agreement" and instead send Foreign Minister [[Sergey Lavrov|Sergei Lavrov]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Russian President Vladimir Putin evades arrest warrant by skipping BRICS summit in South Africa |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-putin-brics-summit-south-africa/ |work=The Globe and Mail |date=19 July 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=1 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901035615/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-putin-brics-summit-south-africa/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Vladimir Putin and Cyril Ramaphosa (2023-06-17).jpg|thumb|Putin with South African president [[Cyril Ramaphosa]] in St. Petersburg on 17 June 2023]]
In July 2023, Putin threatened to take "reciprocal action" if Ukraine used US-supplied [[cluster munition]]s during a [[2023 Ukrainian counteroffensive|Ukrainian counter-offensive]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Ukraine war: Vladimir Putin threatens cluster bomb retaliation if weapons used against Russian forces |url=https://news.sky.com/story/ukraine-war-vladimir-putin-threatens-cluster-bomb-retaliation-if-weapons-used-against-russian-forces-12921775 |work=Sky News |date=16 July 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=23 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723072814/https://news.sky.com/story/ukraine-war-vladimir-putin-threatens-cluster-bomb-retaliation-if-weapons-used-against-russian-forces-12921775 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 17 July, Putin withdrew from a deal that allowed Ukraine to [[Black Sea Grain Initiative|export grain across the Black Sea]] despite a blockade,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Putin tightens grip on Africa after killing Black Sea grain deal |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/africa-beholden-to-russia-after-vladimir-putin-kills-black-sea-grain-deal-ukraine/ |work=Politico |date=19 July 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=31 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831120649/https://www.politico.eu/article/africa-beholden-to-russia-after-vladimir-putin-kills-black-sea-grain-deal-ukraine/ |url-status=live }}</ref> risking deepening the [[2022–2023 food crises|global food crisis]] and antagonizing neutral countries in the [[Global South]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=By pulling out of the Ukrainian grain deal, Russia risks alienating its few remaining partners |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-war-putin-grain-turkey-syria-ac5c945990c2c53eeca37e642ab6c5a7 |work=AP News |date=21 July 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=12 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012044738/https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-war-putin-grain-turkey-syria-ac5c945990c2c53eeca37e642ab6c5a7 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 27–28 July, Putin hosted the [[2023 Russia–Africa Summit]] in St. Petersburg,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Wolff |first1=Stefan |title=Russia-Africa summit: Putin offers unconvincing giveaways in a desperate bid to make up for killing the Ukraine grain deal |url=https://theconversation.com/russia-africa-summit-putin-offers-unconvincing-giveaways-in-a-desperate-bid-to-make-up-for-killing-the-ukraine-grain-deal-210330 |work=The Conversation |date=28 July 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=31 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731063859/https://theconversation.com/russia-africa-summit-putin-offers-unconvincing-giveaways-in-a-desperate-bid-to-make-up-for-killing-the-ukraine-grain-deal-210330 |url-status=live }}</ref> attended by delegations from more than 40 African countries.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Putin meets Ethiopian PM Abiy Ahmed |url=https://www.africanews.com/2023/07/26/putin-meets-ethiopian-pm-abiy-ahmed/ |work=Africanews |date=26 July 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810162823/https://www.africanews.com/2023/07/26/putin-meets-ethiopian-pm-abiy-ahmed/ |url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of|August 2023}}, the total number of Russian and Ukrainian soldiers [[Casualties of the Russo-Ukrainian War|killed or wounded]] during the invasion was nearly 500,000.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=18 August 2023 |title=Troop Deaths and Injuries in Ukraine War Near 500,000, U.S. Officials Say |work=The New York Times |language=en |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/18/us/politics/ukraine-russia-war-casualties.html |last1=Cooper |first1=Helene |last2=Gibbons-Neff |first2=Thomas |last3=Schmitt |first3=Eric |last4=Barnes |first4=Julian E. |access-date=3 September 2023 |archive-date=3 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230903175102/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/18/us/politics/ukraine-russia-war-casualties.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Putin condemned the [[2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel]] that sparked the [[Gaza war]] and said Israel had a right to defend itself, but criticized Israel's response and said Israel should not [[2023 Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip|besiege]] the [[Gaza Strip]] in the way Nazi Germany [[Siege of Leningrad|besieged Leningrad]]. Putin suggested Russia could be a mediator.<ref>Cullison, Alan. [https://www.wsj.com/world/hamas-attack-ends-a-delicate-entente-between-russia-and-israel-b5745a20 Hamas Attack Ends a Delicate Entente Between Russia and Israel]. [[Wall Street Journal]]. Retrieved on 15 October 2023</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news| url=https://www.reuters.com/world/putin-israeli-ground-operation-gaza-will-result-civilian-losses-2023-10-13/| title= Putin cautions Israel against using tactics in Gaza like Nazi siege of Leningrad| date= 13 October 2023|work=Reuters}}</ref> Putin blamed the war on the US' [[United States foreign policy in the Middle East|policy in the Middle East]] and expressed concern over the suffering of Palestinian children.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Russia's Putin tries to use Gaza war to his geopolitical advantage |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/russias-putin-sees-political-economic-upside-israels-war-with-hamas-2023-11-17/ |work=Reuters |date=17 November 2023}}</ref> In a December 2023 call, [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] expressed displeasure to Putin, over Russia's conduct at the UN and described its growing [[Iran–Russia relations|ties to Iran]] as dangerous.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Netanyahu tells Putin: Your cooperation with Iran is dangerous |url=https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-777415 |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=10 December 2023}}</ref>

In November 2023, Putin claimed Russia was always "ready for talks" to end the "tragedy" of the war in Ukraine, and accused Ukrainian leadership of rejecting [[Peace negotiations in the Russian invasion of Ukraine|peace talks]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Putin calls war a 'tragedy'; Moscow claims Ukraine is seeing 'colossal losses' after crossing river |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/11/22/ukraine-war-live-updates-latest-news-on-russia-and-the-war-in-ukraine.html |work=CNBC |date=22 November 2023}}</ref> However, on 14 December 2023, Putin said, "there will only be peace in Ukraine when we achieve our aims", which he said are "de-Nazification, de-militarization and a neutral status" of Ukraine.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Putin: No Peace in Ukraine Until Russia Achieves Goals |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/putin-no-peace-in-ukraine-until-russia-achieves-goals-/7397708.html |work=VOA News |date=14 December 2023}}</ref> On 23 December, Putin was reported as signaling through intermediaries since September 2022 that "he is open to a ceasefire that freezes the fighting along the current lines".<ref name="NYTimes-2023-12-23">{{cite news |title=Putin Quietly Signals He Is Open to a Cease-Fire in Ukraine |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/23/world/europe/putin-russia-ukraine-war-cease-fire.html |work=The New York Times |date=23 December 2023}}</ref>
[[File:Kyiv after Russian shelling, 2022-10-10 (073).webp|thumb|[[Kyiv]] after [[Russian strikes against Ukrainian infrastructure (2022–present)|Russian missile strikes]] on 10 October 2022.]]

=== ICC arrest warrant ===
{{Main|International Criminal Court arrest warrants for Russian leaders}}
{{See also|International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine|Child abductions in the Russian invasion of Ukraine}}
[[File:Vladimir Putin in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia on September 3, 2024 (4).jpg|thumb|Putin with Mongolian president [[Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh]] in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia in September 2024. [[Mongolia]] was the first [[States parties to the Rome Statute|ICC member state]] to openly defy the court's arrest warrant for Putin]]

On 17 March 2023, the [[International Criminal Court]] issued a [[International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine|warrant for Putin's arrest]],<ref name="issues_warrant_2023_03_17_reuters">[https://www.reuters.com/world/us-says-video-shows-russian-jet-intercepted-spy-drone-near-ukraine-2023-03-16/ "Ukraine war: International court issues warrant for Putin's arrest,"] 17 March 2023, [[Reuters]], retrieved 18 March 2023</ref><ref name="Khan_statement_Putin_LvovaBelova_17March2023">{{cite Q|Q117194521}}</ref><ref name="situation_2023_03_17_icc">[https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/situation-ukraine-icc-judges-issue-arrest-warrants-against-vladimir-vladimirovich-putin-and "Situation in Ukraine: ICC judges issue arrest warrants against Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin and Maria Alekseyevna Lvova-Belova,"] 17 March 2023, [[International Criminal Court]], retrieved 18 March 2023</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Hofmański|first1=Piotr|author1-link=Piotr Hofmański|title=ICC arrest warrants in the situation of Ukraine: Statement by President Piotr Hofmański|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FbKhCAaRLfc|publisher=[[International Criminal Court]] |website=youtube.com |language=en |format=video |date=17 March 2023}}</ref> alleging that Putin held criminal responsibility in the [[Child abductions in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|illegal deportation and transfer of children from Ukraine to Russia]] during the Russian invasion of Ukraine.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Corder |first1=Mike |last2=Casert |first2=Raf |date=17 March 2023 |title=ICC issues arrest warrant for Putin over Ukraine war crimes |work=[[Associated Press]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/icc-putin-war-crimes-ukraine-9857eb68d827340394960eccf0589253|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317153603/https://apnews.com/article/icc-putin-war-crimes-ukraine-9857eb68d827340394960eccf0589253|archive-date= 17 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Michaels |first=Daniel |date=17 March 2023 |title=U.N. Court Issues Arrest Warrant for Russia's Putin And Another Kremlin Official |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-n-court-issues-arrest-warrant-for-russias-putin-and-another-kremlin-official-d3b9cb8e?mod=Searchresults_pos1&page=1}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Fowler|first=Sarah |date=17 March 2023|title= "No excuse to deport children to Russia, says ICC prosecutor," |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]]|url= https://www.bbc.com/news/live/world-europe-64994087|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20230317212759/https://www.bbc.com/news/live/world-europe-64994087|archive-date= 17 March 2023}}</ref>

It was the first time that the ICC had issued an arrest warrant for the head of state of one of the five [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|Permanent Members of the United Nations Security Council]],<ref name="issues_warrant_2023_03_17_reuters" /> (the world's five principal nuclear powers).<ref name="nuclear_powers">[https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/SIPRIYB20c10s0.pdf "Table 10.1. World nuclear forces, January 2020"], page 326, Chapter 10: "World nuclear forces", ''Military Spending and Armaments, 2019,'' [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] (SIPRI), retrieved 18 March 2023</ref>

The ICC simultaneously issued an arrest warrant for [[Maria Lvova-Belova]], Commissioner for Children's Rights in the Office of the President of the Russian Federation. Both are charged with:
<blockquote>:...the war crime of unlawful deportation of population (children) and that of unlawful transfer of population (children) from occupied areas of Ukraine to the Russian Federation,...<ref name="situation_2023_03_17_icc" />
...for their publicized program, since 24 February 2022, of forced deportations of thousands of unaccompanied Ukrainian children to Russia, from areas of eastern Ukraine under Russian control.<ref name="issues_warrant_2023_03_17_reuters" /><ref name="situation_2023_03_17_icc" /> </blockquote>

Russia has maintained that the deportations were humanitarian efforts to protect orphans and other children abandoned in the conflict region.<ref name="issues_warrant_2023_03_17_reuters" />

=== 2023 Wagner rebellion ===
{{Main|Wagner Group rebellion}}
[[File:Vladimir Putin (24.06.2023).jpg|thumb|Putin making an address to the Russian people regarding Yevgeny Prigozhin's private military company Wagner Group rebellion on 24 June 2023]]
On 23 June 2023, the [[Wagner Group]], a Russian paramilitary organization, [[rebelled]] against the [[government of Russia]]. The revolt arose amidst [[Wagner Group–Russian Ministry of Defence conflict|escalating tensions]] between the [[Russian Ministry of Defense]] and [[Yevgeny Prigozhin]], the leader of Wagner.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Bryant |first=Miranda |date=24 June 2023 |title=Wagner mutiny: how the world reacted |language=en-GB |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/24/wagner-mutiny-how-the-world-reacted |access-date=24 June 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

Prigozhin portrayed the rebellion as a response to an alleged attack on his forces by the ministry.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Osborn |first1=Andrew |last2=Liffey |first2=Kevin |date=24 June 2023 |title=Russia accuses mercenary boss of mutiny after he says Moscow killed 2,000 of his men |language=en |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russian-mercenary-boss-says-moscows-war-ukraine-based-lies-2023-06-23/ |url-status=live |access-date=24 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623173129/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russian-mercenary-boss-says-moscows-war-ukraine-based-lies-2023-06-23/ |archive-date=23 June 2023}}</ref><ref name="tmt2">{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Tubridy |first1=Mack |last2=Kozlov |first2=Pyotr |last3=Berkhead |first3=Samantha |date=24 June 2023 |title=Prigozhin Charged With 'Inciting Armed Revolt' After Vowing to Stop 'Evil' Military Leadership |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/06/23/prigozhin-charged-with-inciting-armed-revolt-after-vowing-to-stop-evil-military-leadership-a81615 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623225351/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/06/23/prigozhin-charged-with-inciting-armed-revolt-after-vowing-to-stop-evil-military-leadership-a81615 |archive-date=23 June 2023 |access-date=24 June 2023 |website=[[The Moscow Times]]}}</ref> He dismissed the government's justification for [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|invading Ukraine]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Rosenberg |first=Steve |date=23 June 2023 |title=Yevgeny Prigozhin: Wagner chief blames war on defence minister |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-65996531 |url-status=live |access-date=24 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623210158/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-65996531 |archive-date=23 June 2023}}</ref> blamed Defense Minister [[Sergei Shoigu]] for the country's military shortcomings,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Sauer |first=Pjotr |date=23 June 2023 |title=Russia investigates Wagner chief for 'armed mutiny' after call for attack on military |language=en-GB |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/23/wagner-chief-accuses-russias-military-of-attack-and-says-evil-leadership-must-be-stopped |url-status=live |access-date=24 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624004806/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jun/23/wagner-chief-accuses-russias-military-of-attack-and-says-evil-leadership-must-be-stopped |archive-date=24 June 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> and accused him of waging the war for the benefit of [[Russian oligarchs]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Dress |first=Brad |date=23 June 2023 |title=Wagner chief says Russia's war in Ukraine intended to benefit elites, accuses Moscow of lying |language=en-US |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |url=https://thehill.com/policy/defense/4064431-wagner-chief-says-russias-war-in-ukraine-intended-to-benefit-elites-accuses-moscow-of-lying/ |access-date=24 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=23 June 2023 |title=Wagner chief rejects Putin's accusations of treason |language=en |work=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/23/russian-authorities-launch-criminal-probe-into-wagner-group |access-date=24 June 2023}}</ref> In a televised address on 24 June, Russian president Vladimir Putin denounced Wagner's actions as [[treason]] and pledged to quell the rebellion.<ref name="tmt2" /><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date=24 June 2023 |title=Путин назвал мятеж Пригожина "предательством" и "изменой" |trans-title=Putin calls Prigozhin's rebellion "betrayal" and "treason" |url=https://meduza.io/news/2023/06/24/putin-nazval-myatezh-prigozhina-predatelstvom-i-izmenoy |access-date=24 June 2023 |website=[[Meduza]] |language=ru}}</ref>

Prigozhin's forces seized control of [[Rostov-on-Don]] and the [[Southern Military District]] headquarters and advanced towards Moscow in an armored column.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=24 June 2023 |title=Rebel Russian mercenaries turn back short of Moscow 'to avoid bloodshed' |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/wagner-head-suggests-his-mercenaries-headed-moscow-take-army-leadership-2023-06-24/ |access-date=26 June 2023 |archive-date=24 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624070212/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/wagner-head-suggests-his-mercenaries-headed-moscow-take-army-leadership-2023-06-24/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Following negotiations with Belarusian president [[Alexander Lukashenko]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last=Seddon |first=Max |date=24 June 2023 |title=Belarus claims deal with Prigozhin to end advance on Moscow |url=https://www.ft.com/content/9cd09366-25db-4057-a41d-0ea04b659d97#post-afe02cd3-667f-458f-a4dd-52a3a5133bb8 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624105349/https://www.ft.com/content/9cd09366-25db-4057-a41d-0ea04b659d97#post-afe02cd3-667f-458f-a4dd-52a3a5133bb8 |archive-date=24 June 2023 |access-date=24 June 2023 |website=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref> Prigozhin agreed to stand down<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Seddon |first1=Max |last2=Ivanova |first2=Polina |date=24 June 2023 |title=Prigozhin says Wagner has agreed to stand down |url=https://www.ft.com/content/9cd09366-25db-4057-a41d-0ea04b659d97#post-e5d60873-da90-4116-a3f7-fe859734f2ca |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624105349/https://www.ft.com/content/9cd09366-25db-4057-a41d-0ea04b659d97#post-e5d60873-da90-4116-a3f7-fe859734f2ca |archive-date=24 June 2023 |access-date=24 June 2023 |website=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref> and, late on 24 June, began withdrawing from Rostov-on-Don.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/wagner-fighters-leaving-rostov-and-voronezh-after-aborted-mutiny/|title=Wagner fighters leaving Rostov and Voronezh after aborted mutiny|work=[[Politico]]|date=25 June 2023}}</ref>

On 23 August 2023, exactly two months after the rebellion, Prigozhin was killed along with nine other people when [[2023 Wagner Group plane crash|a business jet crashed]] in [[Tver Oblast]], north of Moscow.<ref name="FearedDeadBBC">{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Wagner chief Yevgeny Prigozhin presumed dead after Russia plane crash |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-66599733 |access-date=23 August 2023 |publisher=[[BBC News]] |first1=Frank|last1=Gardner|first2=Robert|last2=Greenall|first3=Jaroslav|last3=Lukiv |date=23 August 2023 |archive-date=23 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230823171520/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-66599733 |url-status=live}}</ref> Western intelligence reported that the crash was probably caused by an explosion on board, and it is widely suspected that the Russian state were involved.<ref name="Troianovski_Barnes_Schmitt_8/24/2023">{{#invoke:cite|web| last1=Troianovski | first1=Anton | last2=Barnes | first2=Julian E | last3=Schmitt | first3=Eric | title='It's Likely Prigozhin Was Killed,' Pentagon Says | website=[[The New York Times]] | date=24 August 2023 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2023/08/24/world/prigozhin-russia-ukraine-news/heres-the-latest-on-the-crash | access-date=27 August 2023 | archive-date=27 August 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827103203/https://www.nytimes.com/live/2023/08/24/world/prigozhin-russia-ukraine-news/heres-the-latest-on-the-crash | url-status=live }}</ref>

== 2024–present: Fifth presidential term ==
[[File:Телеобращение Путина 23 марта 2024 года.webm|thumb|Putin's speech on the [[Crocus City Hall attack]] on 23 March 2024]]
[[File:2024 BRICS Summit (1729758533).jpg|thumb|Putin with heads of delegations at the [[16th BRICS summit]] in [[Kazan]], Russia in October 2024]]
Putin won the [[2024 Russian presidential election]] with 88% of the vote. International observers did not consider the election to be either [[Free and fair election|free or fair]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Alexei Navalny: Widow urges Russians to protest on election day |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-68479832 |access-date=15 March 2024 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=6 March 2024 |archive-date=15 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315124841/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-68479832 |url-status=live}}</ref> with Putin having increased political repressions after launching his [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|full-scale war with Ukraine]] in 2022.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roth |first1=Andrew |last2=Sauer |first2=Pjotr |title=A forever war, more repression, Putin for life? Russia's bleak post-election outlook |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/mar/15/a-forever-war-more-repression-vladimir-putin-for-life-russias-bleak-post-election-outlook |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=15 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318054303/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/mar/15/a-forever-war-more-repression-vladimir-putin-for-life-russias-bleak-post-election-outloo |archive-date=18 March 2024}}</ref><ref name="tmt-87.28">{{cite news |title=Putin Wins 87.28% of Votes With All Ballots Counted – Election Officials |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/03/18/putin-wins-8728-of-votes-with-all-ballots-counted-election-officials-a84515 |work=The Moscow Times |date=18 March 2024 |language=en |access-date=19 March 2024 |archive-date=19 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240319032009/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/03/18/putin-wins-8728-of-votes-with-all-ballots-counted-election-officials-a84515 |url-status=live}}</ref> The elections were also held in the [[Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine]].<ref name="tmt-87.28"/> There were reports of [[Electoral fraud|irregularities]], including [[ballot stuffing]] and coercion,<ref>Robyn Dixon, Siobhán O'Grady, David L. Stern, Serhii Korolchuk and Serhiy Morgunov, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/03/16/putin-election-voting-gunpoint-occupied-ukraine/ For Putin's election in occupied Ukraine, voting is forced at gunpoint] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240317041955/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/03/16/putin-election-voting-gunpoint-occupied-ukraine/ |date=17 March 2024 }}, ''Washington Post;'' (16 March 2024).</ref> with statistical analysis suggesting unprecedented levels of fraud in the 2024 elections.<ref>{{cite news |title=At least 22 million fake votes cast for Putin in presidential election |url=https://novayagazeta.eu/articles/2024/03/19/at-least-22-million-fake-votes-cast-for-putin-in-presidential-election-en-news |work=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |date=19 March 2024}}</ref><ref name="Le Monde">{{cite news |title=The extent of fraud in Russia's presidential election begins to emerge |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2024/03/20/the-extent-of-fraud-in-russia-s-presidential-election-begins-to-emerge_6638830_4.html |work=[[Le Monde]] |date=20 March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Putin 2024 - Meduza breaks down the evidence pointing to the most fraudulent elections in modern Russian history |url=https://meduza.io/en/feature/2024/03/21/putin-2024 |work=[[Meduza]] |date=20 March 2024}}</ref>

On 22 March 2024, the [[Crocus City Hall attack]] took place, causing the deaths of at least 145 people and injuring at least 551 more.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2024 |title=Death toll from concert hall attack in Russia's Moscow region rises to 144 |website=AA |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/death-toll-from-concert-hall-attack-in-russia-s-moscow-region-rises-to-144/3178519}}</ref><ref name="360-injured">{{cite news |title=Number of Wounded in Crocus City Hall Attack Rises to 360 |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/03/27/number-of-wounded-in-crocus-city-hall-attack-rises-to-360-a84642 |access-date=27 March 2024 |publisher=The Moscow Times |date=27 March 2024 |archive-date=27 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327130616/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/03/27/number-of-wounded-in-crocus-city-hall-attack-rises-to-360-a84642 |url-status=live}}</ref> It was the deadliest terrorist attack on Russian soil since the [[Beslan school siege]] in 2004.<ref name="Belam-2024">{{cite news |last=Belam |first=Martin |date=23 March 2024 |title=Moscow concert hall attack: Putin tells Russians Ukraine linked to attack which killed 115, claims denied by Kyiv officials – live updates |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2024/mar/23/moscow-concert-attack-crocus-city-hall-shooting-russia-live-updates |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240323093345/https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2024/mar/23/moscow-concert-attack-crocus-city-hall-shooting-russia-live-updates |archive-date=23 March 2024 |access-date=23 March 2024 |work=[[The Guardian]] |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/vladimir-putin-autocrat-election-terrorism/ |title=Putin the autocrat comes of age |date=30 March 2024 |first=Eva |last=Hartog |website=Politico}}</ref>

On 7 May 2024, Putin [[Fifth inauguration of Vladimir Putin|was inaugurated as president of Russia]] for the fifth time.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vladimir Putin Takes Oath as President of Russia for Record Fifth Time (Watch Video) |url=https://www.lokmattimes.com/international/vladimir-putin-takes-oath-as-president-of-russia-for-record-fifth-time-watch-video-a517/ |website=Lokmat Times |access-date=7 May 2024}}</ref> According to analysts, replacing Sergei Shoigu with [[Andrey Belousov]] as defense minister signals that Putin wants to transform the Russian economy into a [[war economy]] and is "preparing for many more years of war".<ref>{{cite news |title=Ukraine war: Putin's choice of new defense chief reveals strategy ahead of summer offensive |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/ruble-bullet-vladimir-putin-put-economist-andrei-belousov-charge-military-sergei-shoigu/ |work=Politico |date=13 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Andrei Belousov: Putin picks trusted technocrat to run defence ministry |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/may/14/andrei-belousov-putin-picks-trusted-technocrat-to-run-defence-ministry |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=14 May 2024}}</ref> In May 2024, four Russian sources told Reuters that Putin was ready to end the war in Ukraine with a negotiated ceasefire that would recognize Russia's war gains and [[Frozen conflict|freeze the war]] on current front lines, as Putin wanted to avoid unpopular steps such as further nationwide [[2022 Russian mobilization|mobilization]] and increased war spending.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vladimir Putin ready to 'freeze' war in Ukraine with ceasefire recognising recent Russian gains, sources say |url=https://news.sky.com/story/vladimir-putin-ready-to-freeze-war-in-ukraine-with-ceasefire-recognising-recent-russian-gains-sources-say-13142402 |work=Sky News |date=24 May 2024}}</ref>

On 2 August 2024, Putin pardoned American journalist [[Evan Gershkovich]], opposition figures [[Vladimir Kara-Murza]], [[Ilya Yashin]] and others in a [[prisoner swap]] with western countries.<ref name="f24">{{cite news |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kwJPJR3LfwI |title=Putin's ominous message: 'We can kill people in broad daylight in EU, we'll take care of our people' |date=2 August 2024}}</ref><ref name="tg1">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/aug/02/kremlin-admits-vadim-krasikov-is-an-russian-state-assassin |title=Kremlin admits Vadim Krasikov is a Russian state assassin |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=2 August 2024 |last1=Walker |first1=Shaun |last2=Cole |first2=Deborah}}</ref><ref name="rfe1">{{cite news |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-prisoner-swap-terrorism-espionage-putin/33061336.html |title=Beyond the Elation, Putin's Prisoner Swap Has Ominous Implications |newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=3 August 2024 |last1=Coalson |first1=Robert}}</ref> The [[2024 Ankara prisoner exchange]] was the most extensive prisoner exchange between Russia and United States since the end of the Cold War, involving the release of twenty-six people.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-01 |title=Things to know about the largest US-Russia prisoner swap in post-Soviet history |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-gershkovich-whelan-prisoner-swap-354df585ad321ecdbea4c0f2c557f0aa |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=AP News |quote=The U.S. and Russia on Thursday completed their largest prisoner swap in post-Soviet history... |archive-date=2 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240802233705/https://apnews.com/article/russia-gershkovich-whelan-prisoner-swap-354df585ad321ecdbea4c0f2c557f0aa |url-status=live}}</ref>

On 25 September 2024, Putin warned the West that if attacked with conventional weapons Russia would consider a [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear retaliation]],<ref>{{cite news |title=The Unthinkable: What Nuclear War In Europe Would Look Like |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/nuclear-war-europe-russia-ukraine/33137063.html |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=27 September 2024}}</ref> in an apparent deviation from the [[no first use]] doctrine.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Vladimir Putin warns west he will consider using nuclear weapons |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/sep/25/vladimir-putin-warns-west-nuclear-weapons |work=[[The Guardian]] |first=Pjotr |last=Sauer |date=2024-09-25 |access-date=2024-09-26}}</ref> Putin went on to threaten nuclear powers that if they supported another country's attack on Russia, then they would be considered participants in such an aggression.<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin's nuclear red line: Does he actually mean it? |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/defence-and-security/news/putins-nuclear-read-line-does-he-actually-mean-it/ |work=[[Euractiv]] |date=27 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Putin's nuclear threats: empty rhetoric or a shift in battlefield strategy? |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20240927-vladimir-putin-nuclear-weapons-declaration-more-than-an-empty-threat-ukraine-nato-us-war |work=[[France 24]] |date=27 September 2024}}</ref> Russia and the United States are the world's biggest [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear powers]], holding about 88% of the world's [[nuclear weapon]]s.<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin outlines new rules for Russian use of vast nuclear arsenal |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/26/putin-outlines-new-rules-for-russian-use-of-vast-nuclear-arsenal |work=Al Jazeera |date=26 September 2024}}</ref> Putin has made several implicit [[Nuclear risk during the Russian invasion of Ukraine|nuclear threats]] since the outbreak of war against Ukraine.<ref>{{cite news |title=The US tests Putin's nuclear threats in Ukraine |url=https://www.vox.com/world-politics/353796/us-weapons-ukraine-russia-putin-escalation-nuclear |work=Vox |date=5 January 2024}}</ref> Experts say Putin's announcement is aimed at dissuading the United States, the United Kingdom and France from allowing Ukraine to use Western-supplied long-range missiles such as the [[Storm Shadow]] and [[ATACMS]] in [[Attacks in Russia during the Russian invasion of Ukraine|strikes against Russia]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin lowers bar for nuclear strike amid Ukraine attacks: Why it matters |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/26/putin-lowers-bar-for-nuclear-strike-amid-ukraine-attacks-why-it-matters |work=Al Jazeera |date=26 September 2024}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Vladimir Putin legislation and programs]]
*[[Russia under Vladimir Putin]]

==References and notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{cite episode|title=Putin's Way|series=Frontline|series-link=Frontline (American TV program)|network=[[PBS]]|station=[[WGBH-TV|WGBH]]|date=January 13, 2015|season=33|number=2|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/documentary/putins-way/|access-date=March 12, 2025}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Political career of Vladimir Putin}}
[[Category:Vladimir Putin]]
[[Category:Political careers by person|Putin, Vladimir]]
[[Category:Politics of Russia|Putin, Vladimir]]
[[Category:History of Russia (1991–present)]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

1956–57 Ranji Trophy

2026-02-23T16:33:25Z

RealArifHossain:

{{Short description|Indian cricket tournament}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox cricket tournament
| name = 1956–57 Ranji Trophy
| image = Ranji_trophy.jpg
| imagesize = 350px
| caption = The Ranji Trophy
| administrator = [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]]
| cricket format = [[First-class cricket|First-class]]
| tournament format = [[Single-elimination tournament|Knockout]]
| fromdate =
| todate =
| champions = [[Mumbai cricket team|Bombay]]
| count = 9
| participants = 22
| matches =
| attendance =
| player of the series =
| most runs = [[Ramnath Kenny]] (Bombay) (529)<ref>{{cite web|title=Ranji Trophy, 1956/57 / Records / Most runs |url-access=subscription |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/1/Ranji_Trophy_1956-57/Batting_by_Runs.html|access-date=14 November 2014}}</ref>
| most wickets = [[Polly Umrigar]] (Bombay) (35)<ref>{{cite web|title=Ranji Trophy, 1956/57 / Records / Most wickets |url-access=subscription |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/1/Ranji_Trophy_1956-57/Bowling_by_Wickets.html|access-date=14 November 2014}}</ref>
| website =
| previous_year = 1955–56
| previous_tournament = 1955–56 Ranji Trophy
| next_year = 1957–58
| next_tournament = 1957–58 Ranji Trophy
}}

The '''1956–57 Ranji Trophy''' was the 23rd season of the [[Ranji Trophy]]. [[Mumbai cricket team|Bombay]] won the title defeating [[Services cricket team|Services]] in the final.

==Zonal Matches==
=== West Zone ===
{{Round8|style=white-space:nowrap

| seed-width = 25px
| team-width = 125px
| score-width = 80px

|||||
|||||
|24 Nov 1956 – Khadakvasla|'''[[Maharashtra cricket team|Maharashtra]]'''|'''332'''|[[Saurashtra cricket team|Saurashtra]]|83 & 88
|||||

|8 Dec 1956 – Bombay|'''[[Bombay cricket team|Bombay]]'''|'''525 & 49/1'''|[[Gujarat cricket team|Gujarat]]|222 & 366
|18 Jan 1957 – Nasik|'''[[Maharashtra cricket team|Maharashtra]]'''|'''441'''|[[Baroda cricket team|Baroda]]|226 & 358/6

|12 Feb 1957 – Bombay|'''[[Bombay cricket team|Bombay]]'''|'''657/9d'''|[[Maharashtra cricket team|Maharashtra]]|171 & 193

|skipmatch01=yes|skipmatch02=yes|skipmatch03=no|skipmatch04=yes
|RD1 = Round 1|RD2 = Round 2|RD3 = Round 3}}

=== North Zone ===
{{Round4|style=white-space:nowrap

| seed-width = 25px
| team-width = 125px
| score-width = 80px

|8 Dec 1956 – Delhi|'''[[Delhi cricket team|Delhi]]'''|'''271 & 87/1'''|[[Eastern Punjab cricket team|Eastern Punjab]]|166 & 190
|13 Jan 1957 – Delhi|'''[[Services cricket team|Services]]'''|'''246 & 85'''|[[Patiala cricket team|PEPSU]]|164 & 121

|9 Feb 1957 – Delhi|'''[[Services cricket team|Services]]'''|'''289 & 269'''|[[Delhi cricket team|Delhi]]|221 & 218/7
|RD1 = Round 1|RD2 = Round 2}}

=== South Zone ===
{{Round8|style=white-space:nowrap

| seed-width = 25px
| team-width = 125px
| score-width = 80px

|||||
|||||
|12 Jan 1957 – Guntur|'''[[Andhra cricket team|Andhra]]'''|'''171 & 201/3'''|[[Travancore-Cochin cricket team|Travancore-Cochin]]|180 & 185
|||||

|14 Dec 1956 – Salem|'''[[Madras cricket team|Madras]]'''|'''431 & 329/6d'''|[[Hyderabad cricket team|Hyderabad]]|310 & 194/7
|30 Jan 1957 – Guntur|[[Andhra cricket team|Andhra]]|266 & 234/8d|'''[[Mysore cricket team|Mysore]]'''|'''296 & 215/8'''

|15 Feb 1957 – Madras|'''[[Madras cricket team|Madras]]'''|'''384 & 128/3'''|[[Mysore cricket team|Mysore]]|251 & 254/9d

|skipmatch01=yes|skipmatch02=yes|skipmatch03=no|skipmatch04=yes
|RD1 = Round 1|RD2 = Round 2|RD3 = Round 3}}

===Central Zone===
{{Round4|style=white-space:nowrap

| seed-width = 25px
| team-width = 125px
| score-width = 80px

|15 Dec 1956 – Banaras|'''[[Uttar Pradesh cricket team|Uttar Pradesh]]'''|'''238 & 56/1'''|[[Madhya Pradesh cricket team|Madhya Pradesh]]|116 & 177
|22 Dec 1956 – Indore|[[Madhya Bharat cricket team|Madhya Bharat]]|91 & 184|'''[[Rajasthan cricket team|Rajasthan]]'''|'''594/8d'''

|2 Feb 1957 – Banaras|'''[[Uttar Pradesh cricket team|Uttar Pradesh]]'''|'''310 & 342/5'''|[[Rajasthan cricket team|Rajasthan]]|256
|RD1 = Round 1|RD2 = Round 2}}

===East Zone===
{{Round4|style=white-space:nowrap

| seed-width = 25px
| team-width = 125px
| score-width = 80px

|26 Jan 1957 – Jorhat|[[Assam cricket team|Assam]]|54 & 245|'''[[Bengal cricket team|Bengal]]'''|'''505'''
|22 Dec 1956 – Jamshedpur|'''[[Bihar cricket team|Bihar]]'''|'''217 & 254/4'''|[[Orissa cricket team|Orissa]]|196 & 350/7d

|9 Feb 1957 – Calcutta|'''[[Bengal cricket team|Bengal]]'''|'''356'''|[[Bihar cricket team|Bihar]]|124 & 83
|RD1 = Round 1|RD2 = Round 2}}

==Inter-Zonal Knockout matches==
{{Round8|style=white-space:nowrap

| seed-width = 25px
| team-width = 125px
| score-width = 90px

|||||
|||||
|2 Mar 1957 – Banaras|[[Uttar Pradesh cricket team|Uttar Pradesh]]|147 & 229|'''[[Bombay cricket team|Bombay]]'''|'''575'''
|||||

|23 Feb 1957 – Calcutta|[[Bengal cricket team|Bengal]]|302/4|'''[[Services cricket team|Services]] (T)'''|399
|16 Mar 1957 – Bombay|'''[[Bombay cricket team|Bombay]]'''|'''634/9d'''|[[Madras cricket team|Madras]]|150 & 161

|29 Mar 1957 – Delhi|[[Services cricket team|Services]]|171 & 150|'''[[Bombay cricket team|Bombay]]'''|'''359/7d'''

|skipmatch01=yes|skipmatch02=yes|skipmatch03=no|skipmatch04=yes
}}

'''(T)''' – Advanced to final by spin of coin.

===Final===
{{Test match
| date = 29 March – 1 April 1957
| team1 = [[Services cricket team|Services]] (H)
| team2 = [[Mumbai cricket team|Bombay]]
| score-team1-inns1 = '''171 (87.4 overs)'''
| runs-team1-inns1 = [[Chandrasekhar Gadkari]] 53
| wickets-team1-inns1 = [[Polly Umrigar]] 4/65
| score-team2-inns1 = '''359/7 decl (142 overs)'''
| runs-team2-inns1 = [[Yatin Rele]] 162*
| wickets-team2-inns1 = N. P. Jagdishan 3/51
| score-team1-inns2 = '''150 (77.1 overs)'''
| runs-team1-inns2 = [[Chandrasekhar Gadkari]] 40
| wickets-team1-inns2 = K. R. Panjri 5/57
| result = Bombay won by an innings and 38 runs
| venue = [[Roshanara Bagh|Roshanara Club Ground]], [[Delhi]]
| umpires = [[Noshirvan Nagarwala]] and [[M. G. Vijayasarathi]]
| report = [https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/22/22370.html Scorecard]
| toss = Toss not known
| rain =
| notes =
}}

==Scorecards and averages==
*[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/1/Ranji_Trophy_1956-57.html CricketArchive]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Ranji Trophy Seasons}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:1956-57 Ranji Trophy}}
[[Category:1956 in Indian cricket]]
[[Category:1957 in Indian cricket]]
[[Category:Ranji Trophy seasons]]
[[Category:Domestic cricket competitions in 1956–57]]

{{Indian-domestic-cricket-competition-stub}}

Prabhu Narayan Government Inter College

2026-02-21T21:42:13Z

RealArifHossain: data

{{More citations needed|date=August 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Prabhu Narayan Government Inter College (PNGIC)
| latin_name =
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| location = [[Ramnagar, Varanasi|Ramnagar]]
| address =
| district = [[Varanasi district|Varanasi]]
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| county = {{flag|India}}
| postal_code = 221008
| country = [[India]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|25.275802|83.0276402|type:edu|display=inline,title}}
| religious_affiliation = All Society
| affiliation =
| founder = [[Baron Meston|Sir James Meston]]
| president =
| Head of school =
| principal = Dr. Prabhas kumar Jha
| principal2 =
| principal3 =
| principal4 =
| staff =
| type = [[Board of High School and Intermediate Education Uttar Pradesh|Intermediate College]]
| teaching_staff = 30+ teaching staff
| enrollment =
| classes_offered = 6 to 12th
| gender = Male
| schooltype = [[Government]]
| age_range =
| language = Hindi, Urdu
and English
| classrooms = 50+
| campus =
| campus_size = Near about 7 acres
| campus_type = Rectangular
| hours_in_day = 6
| motto =
| accreditation =
| yearbook = Nav Jyoti
| publication =
| established = {{Start date|1913|01|13|df=y}}
| footnotes =
| picture =
| website =
}}
'''Prabhu Narayan Government Inter College''' is one of the oldest college of [[Ramnagar, Varanasi|Ramnagar]] and also of [[Varanasi]]. This institution has two floored laboratory of physics and chemistry and has one of the largest playgrounds in [[Ramnagar, Varanasi|Ramnagar]], where different colleges play many types of tournament.<ref name="Location">{{cite news|title=Location|publisher=Latlong.net|url=http://www.latlong.net/|access-date=31 July 2017|archive-date=7 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807151635/http://www.latlong.net/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==History==
It was established on 13 January 1913 by [[Baron Meston|Sir James Meston]] as Meston High School. [[Prabhu Narayan Singh]] was instrumental in setting up the school and donated requisite land for the school. A science laboratory was built in 1978 for proper education of the students. This college is also known as PN College. The hostel was arranged for the students coming from far away but later it was closed after it was not needed. In 1953, the first edition of ''Nav Jyoti'' magazine was published in the college. This college is famous for its heritage buildings. The red color of this school makes it stand out. There is a well in the middle of a field and an old ficus tree. There is a stage for cultural programs known as "Krishna Rang Manch". That stage was made by the then present principal in 1988. It became a government college after the independent India and has named Prabhu Narayan on the name of King of Ramnagar.

There is another stage which was built in 2000. For the first time, in 2000, then-Chief Minister [[Ram Prakash Gupta]] addressed the rally of the "Kisan Morcha". At that time the present central minister [[Rajnath Singh]] and former chief secretary of the state [[Om Prakash Singh]] were also present. After 17 years on 22 November 2017, chief minister of the province [[Yogi Adityanath]] addressed the people of Ramnagar from this stage.<ref name=College-history>{{cite news |title=History of PNGIC |newspaper=The Times of India |date=20 November 2017 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/varanasi/yogi-adityanath-to-address-two-meetings-in-kashi/articleshow/61722711.cms |publisher=Times Of India website }}</ref>
[[File:Hostel of PN College.jpg|thumb|Team of college participating in the Team March Post of Junior Redcross Regional Parade, 1976 from Nav Jyoti magazine]]
[[File:PNGIC.jpg|thumb|40 years ago scene of College]]

==Campus==
It owns a large Hall which is one of the largest hall where many types of programs is held such as quiz competition, cultural programs, debates competition and several types of other programs. Playground of college is large for playing district level sports. In 2016, on the [[World Population Day]], Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister [[Akhilesh Yadav]] initiated a campaign to make UP a green state. Calling it "UP Goes Green", Akhilesh aims to plant 5 crore saplings within a span of 24 hours. The saplings were also planted in the 2 hectare area of college for being a part of "UP Goes Green Campaign". More than 2,000 plants were planted in the field, college and students also contributed to planting the plants.<ref name=Forestation>{{cite web |title=UP Goes Green Campaign |date=11 July 2016 |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/world-population-day-up-goes-green-campaign-akhilesh-yadav-launches-scheme-to-plant-5-crore-saplings-2906756/ |publisher=Akhilesh Yadav launches scheme to plant 5 crore saplings, Indian Express website }}</ref>
[[File:Contribution of a student in UP Goes Green Campaign.jpg|thumb|right|A student contributed in UP Goes Green Campaign, 11 July 2016]]

==See also==
*[[List of educational institutions in Varanasi]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Portal bar|India|Education}}
{{Varanasi}}

[[Category:Schools in Varanasi]]
[[Category:Boys' schools in India]]
[[Category:Intermediate colleges in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1898]]
[[Category:1898 establishments in India]]

2026 in Indian public domain

2026-02-21T07:27:08Z

RealArifHossain:

{{short description|none}}
{{Infobox recurring event
|name = Public Domain Day 2026 in India
|nickname = [[Public Domain Day]]
|image =
|image_size =
|alt =
|caption =
|date = {{start date|2026|1|1}}
|frequency = Annually
|country = India
|prev = [[2025 in Indian public domain|2025]]
|next = [[2027 in Indian public domain|2027]]
}}
When a work's [[copyright]] expires, it enters the [[public domain]], becoming free for anyone to use, adapt, and share without restriction. The following is a comprehensive list of creators and works whose copyrights expire in India on January 1, 2026, as per the [[Copyright law of India]].

== Background on Indian Copyright Law ==

The Indian Copyright Act of 1957 governs copyright protection in India. Key provisions include:

* Literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works: Protected for the lifetime of the author plus 60 years<ref name="india_copyright">[https://copyright.gov.in/Documents/Copyright_Act_1957.pdf Indian Copyright Act, 1957]</ref>
* Cinematograph films, sound recordings, photographs: Protected for 60 years from first publication
* Government works: Protected for 60 years from first publication
* Anonymous and pseudonymous works: Protected for 60 years from first publication

== Public Domain Day 2026 Overview ==

Public Domain Day 2026 marks the entry of numerous significant works into the public domain in India, including:

* Works by authors who died in 1965
* Films first published in 1965
* Photographs, sound recordings, and government publications from 1965
* Anonymous and pseudonymous works from 1965

This represents a significant cultural heritage becoming freely accessible to the public, researchers, educators, and creators.

== Works Entering Public Domain in 2026 ==

=== Literary Works (Author-based) ===

These works enter the public domain 60 years after the author's death (or, in the case of a multi-author work, the death of the last surviving author), counted from the beginning of the following calendar year<ref name="india_copyright" />

==== List of Authors and their works entering Public Domain ====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name
! Date of birth
! Date of death
! Occupation
! Notable Works Entering into Public Domain
! Original Language of works
|-
| [[G. N. Balasubramaniam]]
| 6 January 1910
| 1 May 1965
| Carnatic vocalist
| Composed over 250 kritis and invented new ragas (Chandrahasita, Sivasakti). Known for renditions like "Brochevarevarura". Acted in films like [[Sakuntalai (1940 film)|''Sakuntalai'' (1940)]].
| Tamil
|-
| [[Satinath Bhaduri]]
| 27 September 1906
| 30 March 1965
| Novelist
| "[[Jagari (novel)|Jagari]]" (1946, Rabindra Puraskar winner), "[[Satinath Bhaduri|Dhorai Charita Manas]]" (1949/1951), "[[Satinath Bhaduri|Gananayak]]" (1948), "[[Satinath Bhaduri|Chitragupter File]]" (1949)
| Bengali
|-
| [[Dhumketu (writer)|Dhumketu]] (Gaurishankar Joshi)
| 1 January 1892
| 1 January 1965
| Short story writer, novelist
| "[[Post Office (short story)|Post Office]]" (short story), "[[Gaurishankar Govardhanram Joshi|Tankha]]" (short story collection), historical novels like "Chauladevi" (1940) and "[[Gaurishankar Govardhanram Joshi|Aamrapali]]" (1954).
| Gujarati
|-
| [[Zinda Kaul]]
| 1 August 1884
| 1 January 1965
| Poet
| "[[Zinda Kaul|Sumran]]" poetry collection (first Kashmiri work to win Sahitya Akademi Award in 1956).
| Kashmiri
|-
| [[Balwantrai Mehta]]
| 19 February 1900
| 19 September 1965
| Politician, Chief Minister of Gujarat
| Chaired the committee that recommended the three-tier [[Panchayati Raj in India|Panchayati Raj]] system, earning him the title "Architect of Panchayati Raj."
| Gujarati
|-
| [[Ardeshir Darabshaw Shroff]]
| 1 January 1899
| 1 January 1965
| Industrialist, economist
| Co-author of the "[[Bombay Plan]]" (1944), a plan for India's post-war economy, and represented India at the [[Bretton Woods Conference]].
| English
|-
| [[Swami Madhavananda]]
| 5 December 1888
| 6 October 1965
| Religious leader, writer
| Translations of Hindu scriptures, including the "[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]" with Shankara's commentary, and "[[Vivekachudamani]]".
| English, Bengali
|-
| [[Ullaskar Dutta]]
| 16 April 1885
| 17 May 1965
| Revolutionary, writer
| Memoir "[[Ullaskar Dutta|Amar Karajiban]]" ("Twelve Years of Prison Life") on his imprisonment for revolutionary activities, including his role in the [[Alipore bomb case|Alipore Bomb Conspiracy]].
| Bengali
|-
| [[Thanjai N. Ramaiah Dass]]
| 5 June 1914
| 15 January 1965
| Tamil writer
| Wrote dialogues and lyrics for over 100 films, including "[[Missiamma]]" (1955) and the popular song "Jaalilo Jimkhaanaa".
| Tamil
|-
| [[Godabarish Mohapatra]]
| 10 January 1898
| 25 November 1965
| Writer, humorist
| Award-winning poetry collections "[[Godabarish Mohapatra|Kanta O Phula]]" and "[[Godabarish Mohapatra|Banka O Sidha]]". Famous short story "[[Magunira Shagada]]". Edited the satirical magazine "[[Niankhunta]]".
| Odia
|-
| Sundaram Seshu
| 1 June 1926
| 1 January 1965
| Electrical Engineer & Professor
| Co-authored "[[Electrical engineering|Linear Network Analysis]]" (1959) and "[[Electrical engineering|Linear Graphs and Electrical Networks]]" (1961).
| English
|-
| [[Ganesh Bodas]]
| 1 January 1880
| 1 January 1965
| Theatre artist
| Known for roles like Phalgunrao in "Samshaykallol". Author of autobiography "[[Ganpatrao Bodas|Majhi bhumika]]" (1940).
| Marathi
|-
| [[Yusuf Kandhlawi|Muhammad Yusuf Kandhalawi]]
| 22 March 1917
| 1 January 1965
| Islamic scholar
| "[[Hayat Al-Sahaba]]" and "[[Hadith|Muntakhab Ahadith]]".
| Urdu, Arabic
|-
| Abinash Chandra Ghoshal
| 1 January 1898
| 1 January 1965
| Writer
| "Mrittika" (poetry collection), "Nabajug" (essays), edited "Bharati" literary journal
| Bengali
|-
| [[Abdul Hameed Khan]]
| 1 January 1894
| 1 January 1965
| Politician
| Member of [[Madras Legislative Council]] (1927-1936) and editor-in-chief of [[The Deccan Times]].
| English, Urdu
|-
| [[Braja Mohan Panda]]
| 1 January 1890
| 1 January 1965
| Educator & Poet
| Founder of Larambha High School (1938) and Larambha College (1964).
| Odia
|-
| Ashok Guha
| 1 January 1911
| 1 January 1965
| Writer
| "Shesh Parikalpana" (novel), "Nayan O Nandini" (short stories), "Ekti Banshi Batas" (poetry)
| Bengali
|-
| Somanchi Vasudeva Rao
| 1 January 1902
| 1 January 1965
| Writer
| "[[Shivanandalahari]]", "[[Somanchi Vasudeva Rao|Stutiratnamalika]]" (1961), "[[Somanchi Vasudeva Rao|Sri Nirvachana Sundarakanda]]" (1961).
| Telugu, Sanskrit
|-
| [[Chaudry Mohammad Aslam]]
| 1 January 1900
| 1 January 1965
| Mathematician & Cartographer
| Surveyor General of Pakistan; Mapped North West Frontier province, demarcated borders for East and West Pakistan and with Persia.
| English
|-
| [[C. Tadulinga Mudaliar]]
| 1 January 1878
| 1 January 1965
| Botanist
| Co-authored "[[A Handbook of Some South Indian Grasses]]" (1921) and "[[A Handbook of Some South Indian Weeds]]" (1932).
| English, Latin
|-
| [[Rameshwar Prasad Sinha]]
|
| 1 January 1965
| Politician, writer
| Political writings
| English, Hindi
|-
| [[Rajalakshmi]]
| 2 June 1930
| 18 January 1965
| Writer
| "Oru Sylluvinte Kadha" (short story collection), "[[Rajalakshmi (writer)|Njanenna Bhavam]]" (novel), award-winning story "Thrihasikha"
| Malayalam
|-
| Tamil Oli
| 21 September 1924
| 24 March 1965
| Writer
| "Kadaloram" (poetry collection), "Thenmazhai" (short stories), social reform essays in "Tamil Murasu"
| Tamil
|-
| Kedarnath Chattopadhyay
| 12 December 1891
| 16 May 1965
| Writer
| "[[Indian independence movement|Bharater Swadhinata Sangram]]" (freedom movement history), "[[Bengali literature|Bangla Sahitya Parichay]]" (literary guide), historical biographies
| Bengali
|-
| [[Ibrahim Raza Khan]]
| 1 January 1907
| 12 June 1965
| Religious scholar
| "[[Tafsir|Tafseer-e-Quran]]" (Quranic exegesis), "[[Seerah|Seerat-un-Nabi]]" (Prophet's biography), Islamic jurisprudence treatises
| Urdu, Arabic
|-
| [[Jyotirmoy Ghosh]]
| 1 January 1896
| 19 June 1965
| Writer
| "Shahitya Charcha" (literary criticism), "Bangla Kavita" (poetry analysis), editor of "Prabasi" journal
| Bengali
|-
| Prabodhendunath Tagore
| 1 January 1907
| 28 June 1965
| Writer
| "Rabindranath: A Biography" (biographical work), "Tagore Family Chronicles", translated Tagore's poems to English
| Bengali, English
|-
| [[P. J. Thomas, Parakunnel]]
| 25 February 1895
| 26 July 1965
| Economist, writer
| "The Economic Development of India", "Agricultural Problems of India", "Indian Economic Policy" analysis
| English
|-
| [[Ishwar Chander Nanda|Ishwar Chand Nanda]]
| 30 September 1892
| 3 September 1965
| Writer
| "Likhari" (play), "[[Folklore of Punjab|Punjab Di Lokdhara]]" (folklore studies), "Jagat Tamasha" (dramatic works)
| Punjabi
|-
| [[Malladi Ramakrishna Sastry]]
| 16 June 1905
| 12 September 1965
| Writer
| "[[Andhra Vignana Sarvasvam]]" (encyclopedia), "[[Andhra Kavula Charitramu|Telugu Kavula Charitra]]" (poets' history), classical translations
| Telugu
|-
| [[Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad]]
| 12 January 1889
| 7 November 1965
| Religious leader
| "Haqiqat-ul-Wahi" (revelation theology), "Tafseer-e-Kabeer" (Quranic commentary), "A Message of Peace"
| Urdu, Arabic, English
|-
| [[Durga Mohan Bhattacharyya]]
| 13 October 1899
| 12 November 1965
| Academic, writer
| "[[Indian philosophy|Indian Philosophy]]" (textbook), "Logic and Epistemology" research papers, "[[Sanskrit literature|Sanskrit Literary Tradition]]"
| English, Bengali
|-
| [[Taher Saifuddin]]
| 4 August 1888
| 12 November 1965
| Religious leader
| "Nasuhat al-Zahira" (spiritual guidance), "Al-Majalis al-Saifiyyah" (sermons collection), [[Dawoodi Bohra]] theological treatises
| Arabic, Gujarati
|-
| [[Gunvantrai Acharya]]
| 9 September 1900
| 25 November 1965
| Writer
| "[[Dariyalal]]" (novel), "[[Saurashtra Ni Rasdhara]]" (cultural history), "[[Gujarati Sahityano Itihas]]" (literary history)
| Gujarati
|-
| Asamanja Mukhopadhay
| 4 June 1882
| 1 December 1965
| Writer
| "[[Bichitra]]" (short story collection), "[[Kolkata Rajniti]]" (political essays), "[[Banger Sanskriti]]" (cultural studies)
| Bengali
|-
| [[Ambulal Purani|Ambalal Purani]]
| 26 May 1894
| 11 December 1965
| Writer
| "[[Sri Aurobindo: A Biography]]", "[[Yoga and Spiritual Life]]" essays, Gujarati literary criticism collections
| Gujarati, English
|-
| [[Badri Datt Pandey]]
| 15 February 1882
| 13 February 1965
| Historian, writer
| "[[Kumaun Kingdom|Kumaon Ka Itihas]]" (comprehensive history of Kumaon region), "[[Kumaoni folklore|Kumaoni Folklore]]" collection, editor of "[[Almora Akhbar]]"
| Hindi, Kumaoni
|-
| [[Pio Gama Pinto]]
| 31 March 1927
| 25 February 1965
| Journalist, activist
| Editor of "The Daily Chronicle", "[[Mau Mau Uprising|Kenya Freedom Struggle]]" columns, anti-colonial activist writings
| English
|-
| Kartik Chandra Dasgupta
| 6 August 1884
| 27 February 1965
| Writer
| "Palliter Parikatha" (village chronicles), "Sambad Parichay" (literary criticism), edited "Bangashri" magazine
| Bengali
|-
| Sabitri Prasanna Chattopadhyay
| 6 July 1898
| 23 March 1965
| Writer
| "Jhorer Dhoop" (novel), "Mukh O Mukhosh" (short stories), women's rights essays in "Sahitya Patrika"
| Bengali
|-
| Hira Singh Dard
| 30 september 1889
| 22 June 1965
| Writer
|
| Punjabi
|}

==== List of Feature Films entering Public Domain ====

Pursuant to the '''[[Copyright law of India|Indian Copyright Act of 1957]]''', cinematograph films in India are protected for a duration of '''60 years from the date of their first publication'''. Consequently, on '''January 1, 2026''', a total of '''387 films'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=indiancine.ma {{!}} 1965 Released Movies List |url=https://indiancine.ma/grid/year/year==1965 |url-status=live}}</ref> first published in '''1965''' will officially enter the public domain, becoming free for anyone to use, adapt, and share without restriction. This transition encompasses a vast array of '''Indian regional cinema''', including the entire production catalogs for that year across multiple languages. According to archival data, the largest language-specific contributions to this cohort include '''114 Hindi films''', '''51 Tamil films''', and '''51 Telugu films'''. The list further includes '''35 Bengali films''', '''31 Malayalam films''', '''21 Kannada films''', and '''15 Marathi films''', as well as '''Odia''' productions from 1965. This release of nearly 400 titles represents a significant expansion of '''accessible cultural heritage''', providing a wealth of material for researchers, educators, and creators to preserve and repurpose.

* [[List of Indian Bengali films of 1965]]
* [[List of Kannada films of 1965]]
* [[List of Hindi films of 1965]]
* [[List of Odia films of 1965]]
* [[List of Malayalam films of 1965]]
* [[List of Marathi films of 1965]]
* [[List of Tamil films of 1965]]
* [[List of Telugu films of 1965]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Years_in_Public_Domain_in_India}}

[[Category:2026 in India]]
[[Category:2026 in Indian law]]
[[Category:Intellectual property law in Asia]]
[[Category:Public domain in India]]
[[Category:Public domain by year|India]]

Indian name

2026-02-18T15:11:23Z

RealArifHossain: Revised and enhanced article content

{{short description|none}} 
{{multiple issues|
{{original research|date=May 2011}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=November 2011}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2020}}
{{Culture of India}}

'''Indian names''' are based on a variety of systems and [[naming conventions]], which vary from region to region. Names are also influenced by religion and [[caste]] and may come from [[Indian epic poetry|epics]]. In Hindu culture, names are often chosen based on astrological and numerological principles. It is believed that a person's name can influence their destiny, and astrologers may be consulted to ensure a name suits the individual's birth chart.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Connection Between 12 Rashi and Name Initials |url=https://dazelled.com/index.php/2023/08/27/12-rashi/ |website=dazelled.com |access-date=8 September 2023 |archive-date=8 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908055510/https://dazelled.com/index.php/2023/08/27/12-rashi/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[India]]'s population speaks a [[Languages of India|wide variety]] of languages, and many [[Religions of the world|religion]]s of the world have a following in India. This variety makes for subtle differences in names and naming styles.

In some cases, an Indian [[birth name]] is different from their official name; the birth name starts with a selected name from the [[Hindu astrology|person's horoscope]] (based on the ''[[nakshatra]]'' or lunar mansion corresponding to the person's birth).

Many children are given three names, sometimes as a part of a religious teaching.

Research suggests that many Indians have officially adopted caste-neutral last names<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bhupatiraju |first=Sandeep |last2=Chen |first2=Daniel L. |last3=Joshi |first3=Shareen |last4=Neis |first4=Peter |date=2024-10-21 |title=Caste Aside? Names, Networks and Justice in the Courts of Bihar, India |url=https://publicera.kb.se/ejels/article/view/23821 |journal=European Journal of Empirical Legal Studies |language=en |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=151–178 |doi=10.62355/ejels.23821 |issn=2004-8556|doi-access=free }}</ref> to mitigate historical inequalities. Some of India’s most famous celebrities have changed their names. For example, [[Amitabh Bachchan]] was originally named Inquilab Srivastava, [[Akshay Kumar]] was named Rajiv Hari Om Bhatia, and [[Dilip Kumar]] was originally named Muhammad Yusuf Khan. In many parts of India, the practice of name "doubling" is now wide-spread, i.e. a citizen adopts a “caste-neutral” last name for school, work and official settings, but retains a traditional name for personal interaction or to access certain state schemes.

==Pronunciation==
{{cleanup|section|reason=Confusing and non-standard pronunciation guide.|date=June 2019}}

When written in Latin script, Indian names may use the vowel characters to denote sounds different from conventional American or British English. Although some languages, like Kannada or Tamil, may have different vowel sounds, the ones used in most major Indian languages are represented in this table along with typical English transcriptions.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!IPA
|[[Mid central vowel|ə]]/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|ɔ]]
|aː
|[[Near-close front unrounded vowel|ɪ]]
|[[Close front unrounded vowel|iː]]
|[[Near-close back rounded vowel|ʊ]]
|[[Close back rounded vowel|uː]]
|[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|eː]]
|[[Near-open front unrounded vowel|ɛː]]/əɪ/ɔi
|[[Close-mid back rounded vowel|o]]
|[[Open-mid back unrounded vowel|ɔː]]/əʊ/ou
|-
!English transcription
|a
|a
|i
|ee
|u
|oo
|e
|ai
|o
|au/ou
|}

Furthermore, the letters used in English /t/ and /d/ that are used to represent the retroflex stops /ʈ/ and /ɖ/, are also used to represent dental stops /t̪/ and /d̪/ (as in Tenginkai or Rohit), especially when they occur in the onset of a word. As an example, the Indian name 'Dev' would not have its first consonant pronounced as in the American name 'Dave'. Similarly the name 'Tarun' would not have its first consonant sounded as in 'Tom'.

The letter 'h' is used to represent aspirated consonants. So, in the names 'Khare', 'Ghanshyam', 'Kaccha', 'Jhumki', 'Vitthal', 'Ranchodh', 'Siddharth', 'Phaneesh', and 'Bhanu,' the 'h' means the sound before it should be pronounced with a strong outward breath (see [[Aspirated consonant]] for more on this). These names are more likely to be found in places that speak an Indo-Aryan language like [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], or [[Bundeli language|Bundeli.]]

==Names by culture==

=== Assamese ===
Assamese names follow the '''First name''' – '''Middle name''' – '''Surname''' or '''First name''' – '''Surname''' pattern. The [[Paik system]] used by various Assamese kingdoms, most notably the [[Ahom kingdom|Ahom]], granted men titles depending on the number of paiks they could command, and these titles are often still used as surnames today. Titles such as [[Bora (surname)|Bora]] (20), Saika (100), [[Hazarika]] (1000) imply that their ancestors commanded 20, 100 or 1000 men. The topmost ranks were granted titles such as [[Phukan]], [[Barua]] and Rajkhowa. Some titles, such as Phukan, derive from [[Ahom language|Tai Ahom]] rather than Assamese. These surnames can be held by people from any community. For instance, in [[Binanda Chandra Barua]], Binanda is the first name, Chandra the middle name and Barua the last name, indicating his ancestors were high in the Paik system.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2023-05-25 |title=Assamese Surnames that originated from Job Roles |url=https://www.indiatodayne.in/visualstories/webstories/assamese-surnames-that-originated-from-job-roles-38408-25-05-2023 |access-date=2024-01-29 |website=www.indiatodayne.in |language=en}}</ref>

There are some community-specific surnames such as [[Gogoi]] ([[Ahom people|Ahom]]) and [[Sharma|Sarma]] ([[Assamese Brahmin|Brahmin]]) (ex: [[Himanta Biswa Sarma]]). Tribal communities such as [[Bodo–Kachari people|Boro]], [[Dimasa people|Dimasa]] and [[Karbi people|Karbi]] follow a similar naming scheme, although their surnames are generally clan names.<ref name=":2" />

===Bengali===
{{Main article|Bengali name}}
Bengali names follow '''First name''' – '''Middle name''' – '''Surname''' pattern, as seen with [[Subhas Chandra Bose]].

[[Bengali Brahmin]] surnames include [[Acharya (surname)|Acharjee]], [[Banerjee]], [[Bagchi]], [[Bhaduri]], [[Bhattacharya (surname)|Bhattacharjee]], [[Chakraborty]], [[Chatterjee]], [[Ganguly (surname)|Ganguly]], [[Goswami]], [[Ghosal|Ghoshal]], [[Lahiri]], [[Maitra]], [[Mukherjee]], [[Sanyal]], [[Kanjilal]], Bhattashali, Putatundu etc. A Brahmin name is often the name of the clan or gotra, but can be an honorific, such as ''[[Chakraborty]]'' or ''[[Bhattacharya (surname)|Bhattacharya]]''.

Common [[Baidya]] surnames are [[Sengupta]], [[Dasgupta]], Duttagupta, Debgupta, [[Sen (surname)|Sen]], [[Gupta]], Das Sharma, and Sen Sharma.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

[[Bengali Kayastha]] surnames include [[Basu|Basu, Bose]], [[Dutta]], [[Ghosh]], [[Chowdhury|Choudhury]], Roy Chowdhury, Ray, [[Guha (surname)|Guha]], [[Mitra (surname)|Mitra]], [[Sinha|Sinha/Singha]], [[Pal (surname)|Pal]], [[De (surname)|De/Dey/Deb/Dev]], [[Palit (surname)|Palit]], [[Chanda (surname)|Chanda/Chandra]], [[Das (surname)|Das]], [[Rakshit (surname)|Rakshit]], [[Sen (surname)|Sen]], Dam, [[Dhar (surname)|Dhar]], [[Mallik (surname)|Mallik]], Kar, [[Nandy (surname)|Nandi]], Nag, Som, etc.<ref name="sharma2005discovery1">{{cite book|editor=S. K. Sharma, U. Sharma|title=Discovery of North-East India: Geography, History, Culture, Religion, Politics, Sociology, Science, Education and Economy. North-East India. Volume 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JUozqyA2e90C |publisher=Mittal Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-81-83-24035-2|page=182}}</ref>

===Odia===
Odia names follow the '''First name''' – '''Middle name''' – '''Surname''' or '''First name''' – '''Surname''' pattern.

Odia surnames come from caste based on human occupation. For example, the common surnames Kar, [[Mohapatra]], and Dash (as opposed to Das) are Brahmin surnames. Similarly, [[Mishra]], Nanda, Rath, Satpathy, Panda, Panigrahi, and [[Tripathi|Tripathy]] are all [[Brahmin]] surnames.

[[Mohanty]], [[Das (surname)|Das]], [[Chowdhury|Choudhury]], [[Rai (surname)|Ray]], Kanungo, Mangaraj, Bohidar, [[Bakshi]], [[Patnaik]], [[Samantray|Samantaray]], [[Routray]], Mahasenapati, Srikarana, Chhotray and Das Mohapatra are [[Karan (caste)|Karan]] surnames. Others are Samant, Singhar, Sundaraya, Jagdev, Baliarsingh, Harichandan, Mardraj, Srichandan, Pratihari, Paikray, Patasani, Parida, Samal, Sahu, Nayak, and Muduli.

=== Goan ===
[[Konkani people]] inhabiting Goa, and also Konkan regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra, use '''First name''' – '''Middle name''' – '''Village name/Surname''' pattern. Generally, the first name is followed by the father's name, though this is now mostly observed by Hindus, who are traditionally patriarchal.<ref name="pat">{{cite book|last=da Silva Gracias|first=Fátima|url=https://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/166|title=Kaleidoscope of women in Goa, 1510–1961|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|year=1996|isbn=9788170225911|pages=[https://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/166 166 pages (see page:148)]}}</ref>

Village names were used only after the arrival of the Portuguese, when the people migrated from their ancestral villages. A suffix ''kar'' or ''hailing from'' was attached to the village name.<ref>{{Citation|last=Nāyaka|first=Puṇḍalīka Nārāyaṇa|title=Upheaval|pages=144|year=2002|language=en, kok|author2=Vidya Pai}}</ref>

Many of the originally Hindu residents were converted to Catholicism by the Portuguese. Almost all of the Konkani Catholics have Portuguese surnames like Rodrigues, Fernandes, Pereira and D'Souza.<ref name="catholic">{{cite book|last=Kurzon|first=Dennis|title=Where East looks West: success in English in Goa and on the Konkan Coast|publisher=Multilingual Matters|year=2004|isbn=9781853596735|pages=158 pages9see page:27)}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pinto|1999|p=168}}</ref> Catholic families belonging to the [[Roman Catholic Brahmin]] (Bamonn) caste use [[Lusophone|lusophonised]] versions of Hindu surnames like Prabhu, Bhat, etc.<ref name="Porbu">{{harvnb|Maffei|1882|p=217}}</ref>

=== Gujarati ===
Gujarati names follow a pattern of '''First name''' – '''Father's first name''' – '''Surname'''. In many Gujarati households, a paternal aunt has the honour of naming her brother's child.<ref>{{cite book |last=Singh |first=K.S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IWrTs5yt1DkC&q=phui&pg=PA1325 |title=Gujarat, part 3 |publisher=Popular Prakashan Limited |year=2003 |isbn=81-7991-106-3 |page=1176}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-21 |title=100 Cute Gujarati Baby Names With Meanings (ગુજરાતી નામો) |url=https://www.momjunction.com/baby-names/ |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=MomJunction |language=en-US}}</ref> Traditionally, the suffix '''-bhai''' or '''-ben''' is added to the end of a given name to show respect for men and women respectively, but this practice is uncommon in contemporary times, and many are choosing to remove it.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-18 |title=Here's why 'bhais and bens' are lining up outside Gujarat's passport office |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/heres-why-bhais-and-bens-are-lining-up-outside-gujarats-passport-office-1237927.html|access-date=2025-01-19 |website=deccanherald|language=en-IN}}</ref> After marriage, a woman can take her husband's patronymic or his given name as her new middle name. The surname or family name is derived from place names, trades or occupations, religious or caste names, or nicknames. Given names and their suffixes differ based on sex and religion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mistry |first=P.J. |date=1982 |title=PERSONAL NAMES: Their Structure, Variation, and Grammar in Gujarat |journal=South Asian Review |volume=6 |issue=3|pages=174–190 |doi=10.1080/02759527.1982.11933101 }}</ref> Examples:
* [[Mahatma Gandhi|Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]]: Mohandas is his given name, Karamchand is [[Karamchand Gandhi|his father's]] name, and [[Gandhi (surname)|Gandhi]] is his surname.
* [[Jashodaben Narendrabhai Modi]]: Jashoda is her given name, -ben is the suffix, Narendrabhai is [[Narendra Modi|her husband]]'s name, and [[Modi (surname)|Modi]] is her surname.

Traditionally, names were often borrowed from religion, but in modern times, names are borrowed from literature, film, and politicians. Sanskrit [[tatsama]] names are also increasing as a source for names to the detriment of [[tadbhava]] and deshya names, especially amongst tribal groups. In modern times, there has also been the creation of [[Euphony|pleasant-sounding]] but meaningless names, as well as the borrowing of foreign names among [[English language|English]]-educated metropolitans due to [[British Raj|India's history with Britain]]. Mistry states these processes in name changes are due to social factors where members of the lower strata of Gujarati society adopt Sanskrit names in mimicry of higher strata, who must then create new names from native or foreign sources to maintain status. Another factor he states is the declining religiosity of modern generations.{{Sfn|Mistry|1982|pp=178-181}}

=== Hindi Belt ===
This naming custom is prevalent throughout the [[Hindi Belt]], and is also followed also by groups in this region who may not speak a Hindi-related language variety as their first language such as [[Gondi people|Gonds]] or [[Santal people|Santals]]. Northern naming customs follow a standard pattern of '''First name''' – '''Middle name''' – '''Surname'''. Many times the middle name will be appended onto the first name, or not exist at all. Sometimes middle name would even be father's first name. The surname is most commonly a caste-related name however, there are some caste-neutral surnames like [[Kumar]]. For example: [[Bhajan Lal Sharma]] (Bhajan is his first name, Lal is a middle name, and [[Sharma]] is a caste surname). Many women, especially in rural areas, take on the surname ''Devi'' (meaning Goddess) or ''Kumari'' (princess) when they are married (ex. [[Phoolan Devi]], known as Phoolan Mallah before marriage). Muslims in North India use [[Arabic name|Islamic naming conventions]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2006 |title=UK Naming Guide |url=https://www.fbiic.gov/public/2008/nov/Naming_practice_guide_UK_2006.pdf |publisher=UK Government}}</ref>

===Kannada===
[[Kannada people|Kannada]] names vary by region as follows.

[[North Karnataka]] follows the '''First name''' – '''Father's first name''' – '''Surname''' order. This system is also found in other parts of Karnataka.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

Surnames are drawn from the names of places, food items, dresses, temples, type of people, platforms, cities, professions, and so on.<ref name="Names have interesting surnames in north Karnataka">{{cite news | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hubballi/Names-have-interesting-surnames-in-north-Karnataka/articleshow/7682047.cms | title=Names have interesting surnames in north Karnataka | work=The Times of India | date=11 March 2011 | agency=The Times of India | access-date=23 June 2016 | author=Vincent D'Souza}}</ref> Surnames are drawn from many other sources.

''Katti'' as a suffix is used for soldiers while ''Karadis'' is related to local folk art. Surnames according to trade or what they traditionally farm include ''Vastrad'' (piece of cloth), ''Kubasad'' (blouse), ''Menasinkai'' (chili), ''Ullagaddi'' (onion), ''Limbekai'', ''Ballolli'' (garlic), ''Tenginkai'' (coconut), ''Byali'' (pulse), and ''Akki'' (rice). Surnames based on house include ''Doddamani'' (big house), ''Hadimani'' (house next to the road), ''Kattimani'' (house with a platform in its front), ''Bevinmarad'' (person having a big [[neem]] tree near his house), and ''Hunasimarad'' (person having a big [[tamarind]] tree near his house). A carpenter will have ''Badigar'' as a surname, while ''Mirjankar'', ''Belagavi'', ''Hublikar'', and ''Jamkhandi'' are surnames drawn from places. ''Angadi'' (shop), ''Amavasya'' (new moon day), ''Kage'' (crow), ''Bandi'' (bullock cart), ''Kuri'' (sheep), ''Kudari'' (horse), ''Toppige'' (cap), ''Beegadkai'' (key), ''Pyati'' (market), ''Hanagi'' (comb), and ''Rotti'' (bread) are some other surnames.

In coastal Karnataka, the surnames are different in different regions. Surnames like Hegde and Hebbar belong to the Brahmin community, while other titles like ''Ballal'', ''Shetty'', and ''Rai'' are mostly used by the landed [[Bunt (community)|Bunt]] community. Names in coastal Karnataka have both systems '''Village name'''–'''Father's name'''–'''Personal name'''–'''Surname''' and '''Personal name''' – '''Father's name''' – '''Surname'''. {{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

Names in [[South Karnataka]] follow '''Village name''' – '''Father's name''' – '''Personal name''' – '''Surname'''. Examples:
* [[H. D. Kumaraswamy|H[aradanahalli] D[evegowda] Kumaraswamy]]: [[Haradanahalli]] is his native village, Devegowda is [[H. D. Deve Gowda|his father]]'s name, and Kumaraswamy is his given name.
* '''T[umkur] M[ahesh] Pranav''': [[Tumkur]] is his native town, Mahesh is his father's name, and Pranav is his given name.

For married women, it is '''Husband's name''' – '''First name''' or the opposite (ex. [[Sumalatha|Sumalatha Ambareesh]], where [[Ambareesh]] is her husband's name).<ref name=":0" />

In South Karnataka, caste names are not common except among the higher castes. [[Kannada Brahmins]] have surnames like ''Rao'', ''Murthy'', ''Poojari'', and ''Bhat''. The title ''Gowda'' was a title given to any village headman, irrespective of caste, and was written as an appendage to the person's name. For example [[Siddaramaiah]]'s father belonged to the [[Kuruba]] community but was called Siddarame Gowda. Nowadays it is mostly used as a [[Vokkaliga]] surname. Most people in South Karnataka, regardless of caste, do not use caste surnames.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

===Kashmiri===
[[Kashmiri people|Kashmiri]] names often follow the naming convention '''First name''' – '''Middle name''' (optional) – '''Family name'''. (For example: [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Jawahar Lal Nehru]])

Nicknames often replace family names. Hence, some family names like Razdan and Nehru may very well be derived originally from the Kaul family tree.<ref>' '''Toward Freedom:''' An Autobiography of JawaharLal Nehru', the first prime minister of India. Chapter III - Descent from Kashmir, p. 16. {{ISBN|978-1-299-41105-0}} 
Nehru Says: 
''We were Kashmiris. Over two hundred years ago, early in the eighteenth century, our ancestor came down from that mountain valley to seek fame and fortune in the rich plains below. Those were the days of the decline of the Moghal Empire. Raj Kaul was the name of that ancestor of ours, and he had gained eminence as a Sanskrit and Persian scholar. He attracted the notice of the Emperor and, probably at his instance, the family migrated to Delhi, the imperial capital, about the year 1716. A jagir with a house situated on the banks of a canal had been granted to Raj Kaul, and, from the fact of this residence, "Nehru" (from nahar, a canal) came to be attached to his name. Kaul had been the family name; in later years, this dropped out and we became simply Nehrus.''</ref>

=== Malayali ===
[[Malayali]] surnames include Nair, Menon, Pillai, Nambootri, Panikkar, and Kurup. Some Malayalis follow similar naming customs to Tamils and people in South Karnataka, using '''Village name''' – '''Father's name''' – '''Personal name'''. Some [[Islam in Kerala|Muslim Malayalis]] also follow this system, though their first names follow the Islamic system.

Members of the Menon, Nair, and related communities often use their mother's house name or directly add their caste name.<ref>{{Cite web|last=syngrafi|date=3 November 2019|title=Should I call myself a Nair?|url=https://syngrafi.medium.com/should-i-call-myself-a-nair-110f85892aad|access-date=28 December 2020|website=Medium|language=en}}</ref> For example, [[K. Karunakaran|Kannoth Karunakaran]], ''Karunakaran'' is his given name and ''Kannoth'' is his mother's house name. [[P. K. Vasudevan Nair]], ''Vasudevan'' is his given name and ''Nair'' is his caste surname.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Members - Kerala Legislature|url=http://www.niyamasabha.org/codes/members/m726.htm|access-date=28 December 2020|website=www.niyamasabha.org}}</ref> Most of the Malayalis write name as '''Given name''' – '''Father's name''' – '''Grandfather's name/house name/village name''' – '''Surname/caste title'''. For instance, Shreelakshmi Dhanapalan Sadhu Kunjpilla; where Shreelakshmi is the first name, Dhanapalan is the middle name/father's name, Sadhu is the grandfather's name, and Kujnpilla is the surname/caste title. It might also be written as Shreelakshmi Dhanapalan S K.

Earlier times (until the 20th century), [[Saint Thomas Christians|Malayali Christians]] (Nasranis) were bound by only Christian names and usually used the '''Family/house name – Father's name – Baptismal name''' naming convention. Nowadays, however, Christians have various naming conventions such as '''Name – Surname – Father's Name''' or '''Name – Father's name''''' or '''''Name – Surname''''' or '''''Name – Father's Name – Grandfather's Name'''''.'' It can be concluded that Syrian Christian names are '''Patryonmic'''. E.g.: [[A. K. Antony|Arackaparambil Kurien Antony]], better known as A. K. Antony, here the politician's name is Antony, while his father's name is Kurien, and his family name is Arackaparambil. During the 20th century, some names were created by joining two or more syllables. For example, Abey (AB), Aji (AG), Bibi (BB), Biji (BG), Siby (CB) and so on. Today, several Syrian Christians name their children with popular Indian names like [[Deepak]], Rahul, Neethu, [[Asha]], etc.{{Citation needed|date=August 2025}} But by the 21st century, more biblical names began to reappear. Thus names like, [[Isaac]], [[Joshua]], [[David]], [[Saul]], [[Ezekiel]], [[Timothy (name)|Timothy]], appeared on the scene.

=== Marathi ===
[[Marathi people|Marathi]] people of Hindu religion follow a partially [[patronymic]] naming system. For example, it is customary to associate the father's name with the given name. In the case of married women, the husband's name is associated with the given name. Therefore, the constituents of a Marathi name as given name/first name, father/husband name, family name/surname. For example:
* [[Mahadev Govind Ranade]]: Here Mahadev is the given name, Govind is his father's given name and Ranade is the surname.
*Sunil Madhav Jadhav: Here Sunil is the given name, Madhav is his father's name and Jadhav is the surname.
* Jyotsna Mukund Khandekar: Here Jyotsna is the given name, Mukund is the husband's given name, and Khandekar is the surname of the husband<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sharma|first1=D.D.|title=Panorama of Indian anthroponomy : (an historical, socio-cultural & linguistic analysis of Indian personal names|date=2005|publisher=Mittal Publications|location=New Delhi, India|isbn=9788183240789|page=192|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a4rccspy46sC&q=%22hindu+personal+names%22+&pg=PR5}}</ref>

====Personal names====
Marathi Hindus choose given names for their children from a variety of sources. They could be characters from [[Hindu mythology|Hindu mythological]] epics such as the ''[[Ramayana]]'' or ''[[Mahabharat]]'', names of holy rivers such as [[Yamuna]] and [[Godavari]], Hindu historical characters from Maratha or Indian history such as [[Shivaji]] and [[Ashoka]], Marathi varkari saints such as [[Tukaram]], [[Dnyaneshwar]], [[Janabai]], popular characters from modern Marathi literature, names of fragrant flowers for girls (e.g. [[Mimusops elengi|Bakul]], Kamal/Kamla for [[Lotus flower|lotus]]), senses such as ''Madhura'' for sweetness, precious metals such female name ''Suwarna'' for gold, heavenly bodies such as the Sun and the Moon, ''Vasant'' and ''Sharad'' for spring and autumn respectively, names of film stars (e.g. Amit after [[Amitabh Bachchan]]) or sportsmen, and after virtues (e.g.,''Vinay'' for modesty). Nicknames such as Dada, Bandu, Balu, Sonya and Pillu for males and Chhabu and Bebi for girls have been popular too.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dhongde |first1=R. V. |title=Personal Names in Marathi |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute |date=1986 |volume=45 |pages=25–36 |jstor=42930151 }}</ref>

====Surnames====
A large number of Maharashtrian surnames are derived by adding the suffix ''kar'' to the village from which the family originally hailed.{{sfn|Chopra|1982|p=52}} For example, Junnarkar came from town of [[Junnar]], Waghulkar comes from the town of Waghul. Names like [[Kumbhar]], [[Sutar]], [[Kulkarni]], [[Deshpande]], [[Deshmukh]], [[Patil (surname)|Patil]], [[Pawar]], [[Desai]], and [[Joshi]] denote the family's ancestral trade or professions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kulkarni|first1=A.R|title=Maharashtra in the Age of Shivaji|date=1969|publisher=R.J. Deshmukh Deshmukh|page=32|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJNirJVU9PUC&q=patilki+brahmin|access-date=2 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chatterjee|first1=Ramananda|title=The Modern Review, Volume 16|publisher=Modern Review Office|page=604|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1l_k7kNP95QC&q=patilki+brahmin|access-date=2 April 2018|year=1914}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Gaborieau|first1=Marc|last2=Thorner|first2=Alice|title=Colloques internationaux du Centre national de la recherche scientifique, Issue 582|date=1979|publisher=Ed. du Centre national de la recherche scientifique, 1979|pages=201, 202|quote=Patilki vatan is both coveted and fought over: Brahmins, Marathas and Mahars may all be past and present sharers in}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Proceedings of the Session, Volume 38|publisher=Superintendent Government Printing, India, 1967|date=1967|quote=Most of the Brahmin families hereditarily enjoyed the patilki (village headmanship) or kulkarnigiri (village accountancy) of villages}}</ref><ref name="IWI">{{cite journal |title=Their surnames |journal=The Illustrated Weekly of India |volume=91 |issue=3|date=July 1970 |publisher=Bennett, Coleman & Company |page=12 |quote=Generally speaking, excepting names such as Kulkarni, Thackerey, Chitnis, Deshmukh, Deshpande, which are common to many communities in Maharashtra, a C.K.P. can be recognised by his surname. }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Home, Family and Kinship in Maharashtra|editor1=Irina Glushkova |editor2= Rajendra Vora |publisher=Oxford University Press|page=118|quote= The wada tells us of a story of three generations of a family called Deshpande who belong to the Deshastha Brahmin caste. ....Spread all over Maharashtra as a result of this process, Deshastha Brahmans held, in particular, the office of kulkarni.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hassan|first1=Syed Siraj ul|title=The Castes and Tribes of H.E.H. the Nizam's Dominions, Volume 1|publisher=Times Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lYSd-3yL9h0C&q=desai+deshastha+brahmin&pg=PA111|access-date=2 April 2018|isbn=9788120604889|year=1989}}</ref>

Families of the historical Maratha chiefs use their clan name as their surname. Some of these are [[Jadhav]], [[Bhosale]], [[Chavan]], [[Shinde]], Shirke, [[Morè (clan)|More]], Nimbalkar, [[Pawar]], and Ghatge.<ref name="Dumont1980">{{cite book|author=Louis Dumont|title=Homo hierarchicus: the caste system and its implications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XsOtRGdvIigC&pg=PA121|access-date=13 May 2011|year=1980|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-16963-7|pages=121–}}</ref> Members of the numerically largest [[Maratha (caste)|Maratha]]-[[Kunbi]] cultivator class among Marathi people have also adopted some of the Maratha clan names, whether to indicate allegiance to the Maratha chief they served, or as an attempt at upward mobility.<ref name="O'Hanlon2002">{{cite book|author=Rosalind O'Hanlon|title=Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth-Century Western India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kMrsTj1NeYC&pg=PA17|access-date=13 May 2011|date=22 August 2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52308-0|pages=17–}}</ref>

=== Punjabi ===
Punjabi names vary based on religious and regional sub-systems.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=29 October 2014 |title=Panjabi: Names and writing system |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/multilingual/panjabi_writing_system.shtml |access-date=23 January 2025 |website=BBC}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Bhatia |first=Tej K. |title=Punjabi: A Cognitive-descriptive Grammar |publisher=Routledge |year=1993 |isbn=9780415003209 |pages=193–194 |chapter=2.1.1.4.31: Personal names}}</ref> Punjabi [[Punjabi Muslims|Muslims]], [[Punjabi Hindus|Hindus]], and [[Punjabi Sikhs|Sikhs]] follow different naming traditions.<ref name=":3" /> Punjabi Muslims often have [[Urdu]] or Islamic names, such as Muhammad, whilst Hindus have general Hindu names.<ref name=":3" /> Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus may share a common set of names.<ref name=":4" /> For Punjabi Muslims and Hindus, names are generally not unisex and thus certain names are only given to bearers' belonging to a particular gender.<ref name=":4" /> For Muslims, an example of this is ''Razia'' being given to females whilst for Hindus an example is ''Shóba'' being given to females.<ref name=":4" /> For Punjabi Sikh names, a common set of names are used for both males and females as Sikh names are generally unisex, with the marker of the gender of the bearer resting on if either Kaur or Singh forms part of their name.<ref name=":4" /> After getting married, Punjabi women adopt a new name from their husband's family.<ref name=":4" /> Married Sikh and Hindu Punjabi women have the ''shrimatī'' title prepended to their first name when others call on them.<ref name=":4" /> Meanwhile, unwedded Punjabi women have the ''kumārī'' title prepended to their first name when others mention them.<ref name=":4" /> In intimate settings, both the personal name or the family name are said.<ref name=":4" /> Honorifical terms, such as ''[[-ji]]'', can be used in conjunction either the first, middle, or last name, being appended to the respective name.<ref name=":4" /> To show closeness to someone, the person's nickname may also be appended with the -ji honorifical suffix.<ref name=":4" />

In rural areas of Punjab, wives generally do not refer to their husbands by their actual first name, preferring instead to use vocative rather than interrogative intonative language.<ref name=":4" /> Methods of this including calling their husband as the father of one of their children, such as "the father of Ram", or by using expressions, such as ''bolde náī'' ['don't (you) speak'] or ''suNde o'' ['do (you) hear (me)?'].<ref name=":4" /> Some rural wives only call their husbands with the ji honorific.<ref name=":4" /> Another naming trend in rural Punjab is naming children "unflattering names with negative overtones" due to a prevailing superstition.<ref name=":4" />

=== Sikh ===
{{Main|Sikh names|Sikh titles}}
[[Sikhs|Sikh]] names often have the following format: '''First name''' – '''Religious name''' – '''Family name'''.<ref name=":3" /> Sikh first names serve as personal names and are selected through the [[Naam Karan]] ceremony, where a random page of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]] is opened by a [[granthi]] (Sikh priest) and the first letter of the first prayer on the opened page is used as the basis for the first name as an initial.<ref name=":3" /> Most Sikh first names are unisex and often are appended with prefixes and suffixes, such as -''jit'', -''winder'', or -''want''.<ref name=":3" /> The religious name is ''[[Singh]]'' ("lion") for males and ''[[Kaur]]'' ("princess") for females.<ref name=":3" /> First and religious names are usually used together by Sikhs.<ref name=":3" /> Some Sikhs have a family name whilst others only have a personal name and religious name.<ref name=":3" /> For the Sikhs that have a family name, it usually consists of a caste-based or sub-caste-based name which marks the individual's caste identity.<ref name=":3" /> Sikhism opposes the caste system, thus traditionally Sikhs did not have caste-based surnames, however they have been adopted by some Sikhs to match with naming conventions outside of India.<ref name=":3" /> For the Sikhs who do not have a caste-based surname, some use Singh or Kaur as their surname instead.<ref name=":3" />

Many Sikhs append the name of their sub-caste (known as a ''got'' in Punjabi and ''[[gotra]]'' in Hindi) as their surname.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Sikh Diaspora: Migration and the Experience Beyond Punjab |publisher=South Asia Books |year=1989 |isbn=9788170010470 |editor-last=Barrier |editor-first=Norman Gerald |edition=1st |page= |chapter= |quote= |editor-last2=Dusenbery |editor-first2=Verne A.}}</ref>{{Rp|page=40–41}} A ''got'' is an exogamous grouping within a particular caste (known as a ''zat'' in Punjabi and ''[[Jāti|jati]]'' in Hindi).<ref name=":03" />{{Rp|page=343}} A ''zat'' is an endogamous caste grouping, which contains ''gots'' under it.<ref name=":03" />{{Rp|page=345}} Some Sikhs are against the usage of ''got'' names as surnames because they think it promotes the [[Caste|caste system]] and the discrimination that comes from it, which is against Sikh doctrines.<ref name=":03" />{{Rp|page=98}} Sikhs tend to marry someone belonging to a different ''got'' as themself whilst belonging to the same ''zat''.<ref name=":03" />{{Rp|page=40–41}} Since the second-half of the 20th century, some Sikhs from socially and economically-disadvantaged castes have adopted the gotra names of privileged castes as their surnames in an attempt to hide their original caste-background and seek upward social mobility.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ram |first=Ronki |date=2023-03-01 |title=Understanding Diversity and Deras within the Sikh Panth (Community): Some Critical Reflections. {{!}} Journal of Sikh & Punjab Studies {{!}} EBSCOhost |url=https://openurl.ebsco.com/contentitem/gcd:176639809?sid=ebsco:plink:crawler&id=ebsco:gcd:176639809 |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=openurl.ebsco.com |page=151 |language=en |quote=In the latter half of the twentieth century another practice of hiding caste under the cover of adopted gotras (clan surnames) of the dominant/upper castes, especially among the lower castes, became quite popular. Gotras like 'Atwal', 'Gill', 'Sandhu', and 'Sidhu' are often being adopted by many 'ex-untouchables' in their desperate attempts towards upward social mobility.}}</ref>

''Sardar'' for males and ''Sardarni'' for females are sometimes prefixed as titles. A lot of Sikh first names can be used by both sexes.<ref name=":0"/>

===Tamil{{anchor|Tamil_names}}===
{{See also|Personal name#Tamil}}

[[Tamils|Tamil]] names usually follow this pattern: '''Initial''' (Village name) – '''Initial''' (Father's name) – '''First name''' – '''Surname''' (Example: [[M. P. Sivagnanam]], where the M stands for Mylai, and P stands for Ponnusamy, the father's name. Another example is R. Karthik, where R stands for Ravichandran, the father's name). There is a widespread usage of a [[Patronymic#India|patronym]] (use of the father's given name as the last name). This means that the first name of one generation becomes the last name of the next. In many cases, the father's given name appears as an initial and when written in full (for example, on a passport),<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/open-page/first-name-middle-name-surname-real-name/article387414.ece|title = First name, middle name, surname... real name?|newspaper = The Hindu|date = 4 April 2010|author = Hariharan, S. A.}}</ref> the initial is expanded as last name. For example, a name like "R. Kumaresh" will be written in full as "or "Kumaresh Ramaiah", and refers to "Kumaresh son of Ramaiah". If Kumaresh then has a son named Vijay, then his name would be "K. Vijay" or "Vijay Kumaresh" as it would be in the West. There is also a general custom for Tamil women, after marriage to adopt their husband's first name as their new initial or new last name instead of their father's. A woman named K. Anitha / Anitha Kumaresh (Anitha daughter of Kumaresh) might change her name after marriage to S. Anitha / Anitha Saravanan (Anitha wife of Saravanan). However, these customs vary from family to family and are normally never carried on over successive generations.

One of the factors is due to the influence of the [[Dravidian movement]], from the 1930s, most Tamils abandoned their surnames, both in India and nations like Singapore, due to the arising consciousness that these surnames were synonymous with their [[Caste system in India|caste]] identity, leading to social stigma. This is just one of the reasons.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krishnaswamy |first=M. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_wJuAAAAMAAJ&q=surnames+dravidian+movement |title=In Quest of Dravidian Roots in South Africa |date=2002 |publisher=International School of Dravidian Linguistics |isbn=978-81-85692-32-6 |pages=274 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Solomon |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sRXeCwAAQBAJ&dq=caste+names+dravidian+movement&pg=PT240 |title=A Subaltern History of the Indian Diaspora in Singapore: The Gradual Disappearance of Untouchability 1872-1965 |date=2016-03-31 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-35380-5 |language=en}}</ref>

More common among women, making the patronym or husband name the last name is a custom adopted by people migrating to the West, who want to be called by their first names without having to explain Indian naming conventions. However, women frequently adopt their father's or husband's name, and take it for successive generations.

The various Tamil caste names include ''[[Paraiyar]], [[Vishwakarma (caste)|Vishwakarma]], [[Vishwakarma (caste)|Aachari]], [[Konar (caste)|Konar]], [[Konar (caste)|Idaiyar]], [[Reddiar]], [[Udayar (caste)|Udayar]], [[Yadav|Yadhavar]], [[Iyengar]], [[Iyer]], [[Pillai (surname)|Pillai]], [[Mudaliar]], [[Thevar]], [[Nadar (caste)|Nadar]], [[Chettiar]], [[Gounder]], [[Naicker]]'', [[Vanniyar]] etc. The naming is therefore done in the fashion: Sunitha Ram Kumar Iyer. And hence they are known to only use initials besides their name except for when caste names are given more preference by certain families rather than the family name itself.<ref>{{cite book |title= Some Contributions of South India to Indian Culture |author= Sakkottai Krishnaswami Aiyangar|year= 1923 |publisher= Asian Educational Services|isbn= 8120609999 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= The Kural |author= P.S. Sundaram|year= 1987}}</ref>

=== Telugu ===
{{see also|Telugu names}}
[[Telugu people]] have a different naming style from the rest of India. The '''family name''' is a [[genitive case]], hence stands first, which is followed by '''personal name'''.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=Charles Philip|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pnAIAAAAQAAJ&q=name|title=A Grammar of the Telugu Language|date=1857|publisher=printed at the Christian Knowledge Society's Press|pages=209|language=en}}</ref> This practice of placing family name first is also seen in [[Chinese people|Chinese]], [[Japanese people|Japanese]], [[Koreans]], [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] and [[Hungarians]].<ref name=":1" />

This "'''Family name''' (surname), '''Given name'''" format differs from that used in North India, where the family name typically appears last. This practice also contrasts with that of other parts of [[South India]], where family names are little used. These differences can sometimes cause confusion within India and rest of the world.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Agency|first=United States Central Intelligence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P6UfAAAAMAAJ&q=reverse|title=Telugu Personal Names|date=1964|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|pages=5|language=en}}</ref>

Occasionally, [[caste]] name is also suffixed at the end. For example, Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, where Neelam is the family name, Sanjiva is the given name, and Reddy is the caste name.

Occasionally, some Telugu names may follow a slightly different convention where two personal names are given along with a family name. In the name, Aakula Anjaneya Prasad, Aakula is the family name and Anjaneya Prasad are the given names.

Telugu Muslims, however, typically have family names expressed at the end of their names.<ref>{{cite book|author=Vēlcēru Nārāyaṇarāvu|title=Hibiscus on the Lake Twentieth-century Telugu Poetry from India|publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]]|year=2003|isbn=9780299177041|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pjxyfqOmOKMC&dq=Telugu+names+family+name+last&pg=PR19 xix]}}</ref>

==== Personal names ====
Telugu people are often named after Hindu gods or goddesses.<ref name=":1" />

==== Family names ====
Nearly all Telugus possess family names called "''Inti peru''" ({{Literal translation|House name}}).

Telugu family names are often named after places. For example, ''Pasupaleti'' after Pasupaleru, ''Kondaveeti'' after [[Kondaveedu Fort|Kondaveedu]], ''Kandukuri'' after [[Kandukur, Prakasam district|Kandukur]], etc. Unlike western names, in which the family name is more well known than the personal name, among the Telugu given names are how people are most widely known.<ref name=":1" />

Telugu family names are often abbreviated and written, ''e.g''., P. V. Narasimha Rao, D. Ramanaidu, etc., unlike western names where given name is abbreviated.<ref name=":1" />

== Indexing ==
According to ''[[The Chicago Manual of Style]]'', Indian names are usually [[index (publishing)|index]]ed by the family name, with the family name separated from the other names by a comma, but indexing may differ according to the local usage and the preferences of the individual.<ref>"[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/CHIIndexingComplete.pdf Indexes: A Chapter from The Chicago Manual of Style]" ({{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226005234/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/CHIIndexingComplete.pdf |date=26 February 2015 }}). [[Chicago Manual of Style]]. Retrieved on 23 December 2014. p. 26 (PDF document p. 28/56).</ref>

== Global Indian influence in names ==
{{Expand section|date=November 2019}}

See [[Indosphere]], [[Sanskritisation]], [[Indianization of Southeast Asia]] as well as [[Indian honorifics#Influence on other cultures|Influence of Indian honorifics in Southeast Asia]], influenced the [[Malay styles and titles|Malay]]/[[Indonesian names#Honorifics|Indonesian]], [[Thai royal ranks and titles|Thai]], and [[Filipino styles and honorifics|Filipino]] honorifics.

== See also ==
* [[Indian honorifics]]
* [[Place names in India]]
* [[Surnames by country]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|2}}

* {{cite book |last=Chopra |first=Pran Nath |year=1982 |title=Religions and communities of India |publisher=Vision Books |isbn=978-0-85692-081-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HAtuAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Maffei |first=Angelus Francis Xavier |title=A Konkani grammar |url=https://archive.org/details/akonkanigrammar00maffgoog |publisher=Basel Mission & Tract Depository |place=Mangalore |year=1882}}
* {{cite book |last=Pinto |first=Pius |author-link=Pius Fidelis Pinto |year=1999 |title=History of Christians in coastal Karnataka, 1500-1763 A.D. |publisher=Samanvaya Prakashan |location=Mangalore}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
*Bhupatiraju, Sandeep, Daniel Chen, Shareen Joshi and Peter Neis, “[[doi:10.62355/ejels.23821|Caste Aside? Names, Networks and Justice in the Courts of Bihar, India]]“, ''European Journal of Empirical Legal Studies'', Vol. 1(2) (2024):151–178.
*Kaushik, Devendra Kumar (2000) ''[http://sites.google.com/site/opencatalogingrules/aacr2-chapter-22 Cataloguing of Indic Names in AACR-2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110315175155/http://sites.google.com/site/opencatalogingrules/aacr2-chapter-22 |date=15 March 2011 }}''. Delhi: Originals. {{ISBN|81-7536-187-5}}
*{{cite web|url=https://www.thebizdom.in/how-well-do-you-know-about-the-origins-of-some-indian-occupational-surnames/|title=How well do you know about the origins of some Indian Occupational Surnames?|date=22 February 2020|access-date=23 February 2022|publisher=TheBizdom}}

{{Names in world cultures}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indian Name}}
[[Category:Indian names| ]]
[[Category:Surnames of Indian origin|*]]
[[Category:Indian given names|*]]
[[Category:Names by country]]
[[Category:Hindu given names]]

Sengal Dhora

2026-02-14T15:43:40Z

RealArifHossain: new

{{Short description|Hindu temple in Rajasthan, India}}
{{original research |date=October 2024}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{Infobox temple
| name = Sengal Dhora
| image =
| alt =
| caption = Shengal dhora

| map_type = India Rajasthan#India
| map_caption = Location in Rajasthan

| coordinates = {{coord|27|26|47.3|N|73|16|51|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| native_name = सेंगाल धोरा<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiapl.com/rajasthan/sengal-dhora-shiv-temple-590540.html|title=sengal dhora|website=indiaapl.com|access-date=17 October 2023}}</ref>
| country = India
| state = [[Rajasthan]]
| district = [[Bikaner district|Bikaner]]
| location = Sengal Dhora, kakkoo, Nokha
| elevation_m =
| deity = [[Shiva]]ji, [[Pabuji]], Roopnathji, [[Gorakhnath]] ji
| festivals = [[Maha Shivaratri]]
| architecture =
| inscriptions =
| year_completed =
| creator =
}}

'''Sengal Dhora'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/amp/local/rajasthan/bikaner/panchoo/news/guru-gorakhnath-used-to-live-in-a-40-feet-deep-cave-in-this-shiva-temple-with-the-effigy-of-throne-battisi-128794640.html|title=Sengal dhora shiv temple|website=Bhaskar.com|access-date=17 October 2023}}</ref> (सेंगाल धोरा) or '''Senghal Dhora''', where सेंगाल means hundred [[Cheeks Hill|cheeks]] or hundred "[[Dune|Dhora]]", is a Shiva temple at a height of 320 feet amidst hundred sand dunes, which is also known as the Taposthali of [[Gorakhnath|Guru Gaurathnath]]. There is also a smoke here which has been alive for years. The speciality of this temple is that the location, height and number of dhoras around the temple keep changing every time.

It is situated between kakkoo and panchu about 28Km from [[Nokha, Bikaner|Nokha]]

==Description==
{{more citations needed|section|date=October 2024}}
To perform Abhishek in Shivalaya, one has to register first because thousands of Shiva devotees reach here every weekend and Monday. Every month, two Sahastra Ghatabhishek and five [[Rudrabhisheka|Rudrabhishek]] with milk are performed in the temple. In Rudrabhishek, only milk from the cowshed of the temple is used. Spread over 10 bighas, this temple has a cave near the Shivalaya which is as long as the temple.

Apart from sages and mahatmas, common people are not allowed to enter this cave which is about 40 feet deep. For the last several years, viewing of this cave has been allowed only from a distance. Thousands of devotees from all over the country reach here on Sawan, Mahashivratri and Navratri.

Here are these statues and mausoleums: There are temples of Guru [[Gorakhnath]], Roopnathji and [[Pabuji]]. Apart from this, 25–30 idols have been consecrated, including the idols of Radha-Krishna, Ganeshji, [[Vishvakarma]]ji [[Durga]]mata, Kaal Bhairav, Santosh Giri Maharaj, Sefaraj Maharaj etc. Pandit Chandrabhan Shastri, who studied in the Gurukul of the temple, tells that there is a temple of Rupnathji Maharaj here. The same Rupnathji is known as [[Baba Balak Nath]] Himachal Pradesh.

An effigy was found during the reconstruction of the temple: There is also an effigy of King Vikramaditya of Ujjain in the temple. It is included among the 32 statues on which Emperor Vikramaditya used to sit and administer justice. Mahant Padmagiri Maharaj of the temple tells that till 1992 the temple of Sengal Dhora was built only in 10 by 10 feet. Reconstruction was done in 1993. During the excavation during the renovation of the temple, this effigy was found carved in the ground.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Temples in Rajasthan]]

Karmma Calling

2026-02-06T21:34:25Z

RealArifHossain: put up a stub - done

{{Short description|2024 Indian primetime drama thriller television series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Karmma Calling.jpg
| caption =
| genre = [[Soap opera]] [[Drama (film and television)|Drama]] [[Psychological thriller]] [[Mystery fiction|Mystery]] [[Serial drama]]
| creator = [[Mike Kelley (writer)|Mike Kelley]]
| based_on = ''[[Revenge (TV series)|Revenge]]'' by [[Mike Kelley (writer)|Mike Kelley]] {{based on|''[[The Count of Monte Cristo]]''|[[Alexandre Dumas]]}}
| developer =
| screenplay =
| story =
| writer =
| director = [[Ruchi Narain]]
| creative_director =
| starring = {{Plain list|
* [[Raveena Tandon]]
* Namrata Sheth
* [[Varun Sood (actor)|Varun Sood]]
* [[Vikramjeet Virk]]
}}
| theme_music_composer =
| opentheme =
| open_theme =
| composer =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 7
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer = [[Mike Kelley (writer)|Mike Kelley]]
| producer = Ashutosh Shah
| location =
| cinematography = Bhushankumar Jain
| editor =
| camera = [[Single-camera]]
| runtime = 45 minutes
| company = {{Plain list|
* R.A.T Films
* [[ABC Signature]]
}}
| network = [[Disney+ Hotstar]]
| first_aired = {{start date|df=yes|2024|01|26}}
| last_aired =
| related = ''[[Revenge (TV series)|Revenge]]''
}}

'''''Karmma Calling''''' ({{translation|Fate Calling}}) is an Indian [[Hindi]]-language primetime [[Drama (film and television)|drama thriller]] television series on [[Disney+ Hotstar]], directed by [[Ruchi Narain]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/disney-hotstar-announces-raveena-tandon-led-series-karmma-calling-2812708 | title=Disney+ Hotstar announces Raveena Tandon-led series 'Karmma Calling' | access-date=21 December 2023 | archive-date=21 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221072409/https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/disney-hotstar-announces-raveena-tandon-led-series-karmma-calling-2812708 | url-status=live }}</ref> Produced by Ashutosh Shah under the banner of R.A.T Films and [[ABC Signature]], it stars [[Raveena Tandon]], Namrata Sheth, [[Varun Sood (actor)|Varun Sood]] And [[Vikramjeet Virk]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://variety.com/2023/tv/asia/raveena-tandon-disney-hotstar-revenge-india-adaptation-karmma-calling-1235837818/ | title=Raveena Tandon Headlines Disney+ Hotstar 'Revenge' India Adaptation 'Karmma Calling' (EXCLUSIVE) | date=15 December 2023 | access-date=21 December 2023 | archive-date=21 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221074524/https://variety.com/2023/tv/asia/raveena-tandon-disney-hotstar-revenge-india-adaptation-karmma-calling-1235837818/ | url-status=live }}</ref> It is the Indian remake of [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] TV series ''[[Revenge (TV series)|Revenge]]'' created by [[Mike Kelley (writer)|Mike Kelley]]. The plot is inspired by [[Alexandre Dumas]]' 1844 novel ''[[The Count of Monte Cristo]]'', and premiered on January 26, 2024.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/raveena-tandon-headline-karmma-calling-indian-adaptation-revenge-set-january-26-2024-premiere/ | title=Raveena Tandon to headline Karmma Calling, Indian adaptation of Revenge; set for January 26, 2024 premiere : Bollywood News - Bollywood Hungama | website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] | date=15 December 2023 | access-date=21 December 2023 | archive-date=21 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221081716/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/raveena-tandon-headline-karmma-calling-indian-adaptation-revenge-set-january-26-2024-premiere/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

== Premise ==
A young woman, Karma Talwar poses as a new resident and returns to an affluent beachside town, Alibaug, in order to seek revenge on the families that wronged her father 20 years earlier. In the midst of her plan, she uncovers secrets, lies, and affairs, and finds herself in multiple dangerous situations that could tear the beachside town apart.

==Cast==
* [[Raveena Tandon]] as Indrani Kothari
* Namrata Sheth as Karma Talwar/Ambika Mehra
* [[Varun Sood (actor)|Varun Sood]] as Ahaan Kothari
* [[Vikramjeet Virk]] as Sameer
* Rachit Singh as Vedang
* [[Viraf Patel]] as Zane Khan
* Gaurav Sharma as Kaushal Kothari
* [[Waluscha De Sousa]] as Dolly Bhatia
* Devangshi Sen as Mira Kothari
* Piyush Khati as Dash
* Amy Aela as Yana
* Ahmed Masi Wali as Krish
* [[Rohit Roy]] as Satyajit Mehra

==Production==
It is based on [[Mike Kelley (writer)|Mike Kelley]]'s ''[[Revenge (TV series)|Revenge]]''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/ranveena-tandon-to-headline-hotstars-karmma-calling-an-adaption-of-abc-series-revenge-first-look-out/2b1cf7456d473 | title=Raveena Tandon to headline Hotstar's Karmma Calling, an adaption of ABC series Revenge – First look out! | access-date=21 December 2023 | archive-date=21 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221074610/https://www.ottplay.com/news/ranveena-tandon-to-headline-hotstars-karmma-calling-an-adaption-of-abc-series-revenge-first-look-out/2b1cf7456d473 | url-status=live }}</ref> The series was announced on [[Disney+ Hotstar]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/disney-hotstar-announces-raveena-tandons-series-karmma-calling/article67641254.ece | title=Disney+ Hotstar announces Raveena Tandon's series 'Karmma Calling' | newspaper=The Hindu | date=15 December 2023 | access-date=21 December 2023 | archive-date=21 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221074628/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/disney-hotstar-announces-raveena-tandons-series-karmma-calling/article67641254.ece | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Raveena Tandon]], Namrata Sheth and [[Varun Sood (actor)|Varun Sood]] were signed as the lead.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.news18.com/movies/raveena-tandon-turns-reigning-queen-for-new-show-karmma-calling-calls-it-never-done-before-role-8705028.html | title=Raveena Tandon Turns Reigning Queen for New Show Karmma Calling, Calls It 'Never-Done-Before Role' | date=15 December 2023 | access-date=21 December 2023 | archive-date=21 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221075211/https://www.news18.com/movies/raveena-tandon-turns-reigning-queen-for-new-show-karmma-calling-calls-it-never-done-before-role-8705028.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/namrata-sheth-to-star-in-raveena-tandon-starrer-web-series-karmma-calling/article67647186.ece | title=Namrata Sheth to star in Raveena Tandon starrer web series 'Karmma Calling' | newspaper=The Hindu | date=17 December 2023 | access-date=21 December 2023 | archive-date=21 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231221075447/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/namrata-sheth-to-star-in-raveena-tandon-starrer-web-series-karmma-calling/article67647186.ece | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/web-series/varun-sood-set-to-make-web-series-debut-with-raveena-tandon-starrer-karmma-calling-101703664520626.html | title=Varun Sood set to make web series debut with Raveena Tandon starrer 'Karmma Calling' | date=27 December 2023 | access-date=28 December 2023 | archive-date=28 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024811/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/web-series/varun-sood-set-to-make-web-series-debut-with-raveena-tandon-starrer-karmma-calling-101703664520626.html | url-status=live }}</ref> The teaser of the series was released on December 14, 2023.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/karmma-calling-teaser-raveena-tandon-goes-ultra-glam-for-disney-plus-hotstar-new-series-9069546/ | title=Karmma Calling teaser: Raveena Tandon goes ultra glam for Disney Plus Hotstar new series | date=15 December 2023 | access-date=21 December 2023 | archive-date=24 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224085126/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/karmma-calling-teaser-raveena-tandon-goes-ultra-glam-for-disney-plus-hotstar-new-series-9069546/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|id=30460964}}
* [https://www.hotstar.com/in/shows/karmma-calling/1260159864 ''Karmma Calling''] on [[Disney+ Hotstar]]

{{Disney+ Hotstar|state=collapsed}}
{{Revenge|state=expanded}}
{{The Count of Monte Cristo}}
{{Portal bar|India|Television}}

[[Category:Revenge (TV series)| ]]
[[Category:2024 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Hindi-language television shows]]
[[Category:Hindi-language Disney+ Hotstar original programming]]
[[Category:Psychological thriller television series]]
[[Category:Television series about revenge]]
[[Category:Serial drama television series]]
[[Category:Television series about dysfunctional families]]
[[Category:Television series by ABC Studios]]
[[Category:Fiction about wrongful convictions]]
[[Category:Television shows based on The Count of Monte Cristo]]
[[Category:Indian television series based on American television series]]
[[Category:Films based on The Count of Monte Cristo]]

Anil Kumar Singh (politician)

2026-02-06T05:35:20Z

RealArifHossain: Adding Basic Biography And Citations

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1979)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Anil Kumar Singh
| honorific_suffix = Member of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1979|02|08}}
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
}}

'''Anil Kumar Singh''' is an Indian politician of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]. He is a member of the [[18th Uttar Pradesh Assembly]], representing the [[Purwa Assembly constituency]].<ref>{{Cite news | date=2022 |title=myneta.info uttarpradesh 2022 candidate candidate id |work=My Neta Info. |url=https://myneta.info/uttarpradesh2022/candidate.php?candidate_id=2505}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022 |title=news18 assembly elections 2022 uttar pradesh anil kumar singh purwa candidate |url=https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2022/uttar-pradesh/anil-kumar-singh-purwa-candidate-s24a167c01/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=No Corruption |date=2022 |title=nocorruption politician anil-kumar singh |url=https://nocorruption.in/politician/anil-kumar-singh/}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

# "[https://myneta.info/uttarpradesh2022/candidate.php?candidate_id=2505 Anil Kumar Singh in Uttar Pradesh election PURWA (UNNAO)]" ''myneta.info.'' Retrieved in 4 January 2023
# "[https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2022/uttar-pradesh/anil-kumar-singh-purwa-candidate-s24a167c01/ Anil Kumar Singh BJP | Purwa | Uttar Pradesh]" ''News 18.''
# "[https://nocorruption.in/politician/anil-kumar-singh/ Anil Kumar Singh MLA of PURWA Uttar Pradesh]" ''Nocorruption.''

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Anil Kumar}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Living people]]

2007 Bihar flood

2026-02-03T02:36:28Z

RealArifHossain: Adding New Data Basic Info

{{Short description|Flood in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2013}}{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox weather event
|image location =
|caption = Flooded north [[Bihar]], [[India]]
|name = 2007 Bihar flood
}}{{Infobox weather event/History
|duration = August 2007
}}{{Infobox weather event/Effects
|total damages =
|fatalities = 1,287
|affected = [[Bihar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Nepal]]
}}{{Infobox weather event/Footer}}

The '''2007 Bihar flood''' occurred in August 2007 in the east Indian state of [[Bihar]]. It was described by the United Nations as the worst flood in the living memory of Bihar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/aug/06bihar.htm|title = Floods: Helpless Bihar seeks PM's help}}</ref> Although annual floods are common in Bihar,<ref>A CASE STUDY INTO THE BAGMATI FLOOD FORECASTING IN NORTH BIHAR, https://swat.tamu.edu/media/114999/f2_1_sharan.pdf</ref> heavier than usual rainfall during the monsoon season that year led to increasing water levels. By 3 August, the estimated death toll was 41 people, and 48 schoolgirls were marooned in a school in the [[Darbhanga]] district.<ref name="HT">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/storypage/storypage.aspx?id=350136a1-29a2-44bb-a354-ed2dda77a713&&Headline=North+India+inundated|title=North India inundated|newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=3 August 2007|access-date=23 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205020930/http://www.hindustantimes.com/storypage/storypage.aspx?id=350136a1-29a2-44bb-a354-ed2dda77a713&&Headline=North+India+inundated|archive-date=5 February 2008|url-status=dead}} Last accessed 3 August 2007.</ref> By 8 August, the flooding had impacted an estimated 10 million people in Bihar.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Hunger, disease stalk children hit by South Asia floods |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DEL187242.htm
|agency=[[Reuters]]
|date=8 August 2007
|access-date=2007-08-15}}</ref> Army helicopters delivered food packets to residents, and 180 relief camps were established. By 10 August, aid workers in Bihar reported a dramatic increase in people with diarrhea<ref>{{cite news
|title=Bangladeshi hospital struggles to cope with flood victims |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DEL241115.htm
|agency=[[Reuters]]|date=10 August 2007 |access-date=2007-08-15}}</ref> and by 11 August, flood-related deaths were still occurring.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Flood victims clash with police in India, 30 hurt |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DEL219103.htm
|agency=[[Reuters]]
|date=11 August 2007
|access-date=2007-08-15}}</ref> The total number of deaths recorded in the 2007 Bihar floods was more than 1,3050, the highest death toll in the state since the 1987 Bihar floods, in which more than 2,500 deaths were reported.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/interactives/bihar-floods-2017/|title=Bihar's scary new flood}}</ref>

==Incident==

The states of [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]] were the most affected due to their high population density. Nearly two million people, spread over eleven districts in Bihar, were affected by the floods. Many major rivers, including the [[Ganges]], [[Punpun River|Punpun]], [[Bagmati River|Bagmati]], [[Gandaki River|Gandak]], and [[Kosi River|Kosi]], flowed above the danger mark.

Rainfall in July exceeded the monthly average over a 30-year period by a factor of five, leading to more than 40% of the state of Bihar being submerged. The town of Darbhanga and its surrounding areas were among the most severely affected locations in the state, and roads leading to other areas were rendered impassable by the flood. Many residents were forced to seek refuge on higher ground, while others were marooned and unable to access assistance.<ref>Jason Motlagh, [https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/floods-devastate-northern-india-state-2519742.php "Floods devastate northern India state 20 million people affected and 4,000 die – officials blame onset of climate change"], Chronicle Foreign Service, 5 October 2007, "Flooding has submerged more than 40 percent of Bihar, and Relief Commissioner R. Srivastava, citing government figures, said rainfall in July was five times higher than the monthly average over a 30-year span."</ref>

==Affected areas==
The flood affected 19 districts of the state. Some of the worst affected districts were [[Muzaffarpur]], [[Sitamarhi]], [[Saharsa]], [[East Champaran]], [[Supaul]], [[Darbhanga]], [[Patna]], [[Bhagalpur]], [[West Champaran]], [[Katihar]], [[Madhubani district|Madhubani]], [[Samastipur]], [[Sheohar]], [[Nalanda]], [[Khagaria]], [[Gopalganj district, India|Gopalganj]], [[Madhepura]], [[Araria]], and [[Begusarai]].<ref name="affact">{{Cite web |url=http://act-intl.org/news/dt_nr_2007/CASA_SITREP_EastIndiaFloods2007_090807.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=25 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821122548/http://act-intl.org/news/dt_nr_2007/CASA_SITREP_EastIndiaFloods2007_090807.pdf |archive-date=21 August 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Impact==

At least 4,822 villages and 10,000,000 hectares of farm land were affected. About 29,000 houses were destroyed and 44,000 houses were damaged by the floods. Thousands of people were shifted to places of safety, including relief camps.<ref name="affact"/>

==Response==
The United Nations described the flood as the worst to occur in the living memory of Bihar.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Indian |first=The Logical |date=2015-11-10 |title=[Watch/Read] Displaced in 2007, Waiting for Compensation in 2015: A Bihar Story |url=https://thelogicalindian.com/news/watchread-displaced-in-2007-waiting-for-compensation-in-2015-a-bihar-story/ |access-date=2023-09-17 |website=thelogicalindian.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Relief work==
===Assistance implemented===
Grain (38,86,896 Qtls) distributed to affected families was around 50 lakhs. For emergency expenses (Rs 20/- per adult and Rs 15/- per child) that a person is entitled for, GoB had, till August 2008, paid Rs. 84.05 Crores against a demand of Rs. 1105 Crores made to the center. This was just about 8 per cent of the requirement.<ref name="Dinesh">Mishra Dinesh Kumar, ''Bihar Floods of 2007– 1'', EPW, 23 November 2007</ref>

==See also==
*[[2004 Bihar flood]]
*[[2008 Bihar flood]]
*[[2008 Indian floods]]
*[[Koshi river]]
*[[Floods in Bihar]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Kosi Division topics}}
{{Darbhanga Division topics}}
{{Purnia Division topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bihar Flood (2007)}}
[[Category:2007 disasters in India|Bihar flood]]
[[Category:Floods in Bihar]]
[[Category:2007 floods in Asia]]
[[Category:2007 in Nepal]]

Jinnah Antarctic Station

2026-02-01T15:59:06Z

RealArifHossain:

{{short description|Pakistani research station in East Antarctica}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{use British English|date=October 2020}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2015}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Jinnah Antarctica Station
| native_name = {{Nastaliq|جناح جنوبی قطب اسٹیشن}}
| native_name_lang = ur
| settlement_type = [[Research stations in Antarctica|Antarctic research station]]
| image_skyline =
| imagesize = 275
| image_caption = [[Pakistan]]i postal stamp commemorating the establishment of the Jinnah Antarctic Station, issued in October 1991.<ref="Stamp" />
| image_flag =
| flag_size = 50px
| flag_border = no
| flag_alt =
| image_seal =
| seal_alt =
| image_shield =
| shield_alt =
| nickname =
| motto =
| image_map =
| mapsize = 275
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = Antarctica
| pushpin_map_alt = Pakistani research station within East Antarctica
| pushpin_map_caption = Location within [[Antarctica]]
| pushpin_mapsize = 275
| pushpin_relief = y
| pushpin_label_position = left
| coordinates = {{coord|70.4|S|25.75|E|format=dms|region:AQ|display=inline,title}}
| coor_pinpoint =
| coordinates_footnotes =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| subdivision_type1 = Location in Antarctica
| subdivision_name1 = [[Sør Rondane Mountains]], [[Queen Maud Land]] (claimed by [[Norway]])
| subdivision_type2 = Administration
| subdivision_name2 = [[Pakistan Antarctic Programme]] (via [[National Institute of Oceanography, Pakistan|National Institute of Oceanography]])
| subdivision_type3 =
| subdivision_name3 =
| established_title = Established
| established_date = {{start date|1991|01|25|df=yes}}{{sfn|Headland|2009|p=539}} ({{Age in years and months|1991|01|15}} ago)
| extinct_title = Evacuated
| extinct_date =
| named_for = [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]]
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_as_of =
| timezone1 = [[Time in Antarctica|SYOT]]
| utc_offset1 = +3:00
| timezone1_DST =
| utc_offset1_DST =
| blank_name_sec1 = Type
| blank_info_sec1 = Seasonal
| blank1_name_sec1 = Period
| blank1_info_sec1 = Summer
| blank2_name_sec1 = Status
| blank2_info_sec1 = Active
| blank_name_sec2 = Activities
| blank_info_sec2 = Oceanography
| postal_code_type =
| postal_code =
| area_code_type =
| area_code =
| iso_code =
| website = [https://niopk.gov.pk/ National Institute of Oceanography]
| footnotes =
| official_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| pushpin_label = Jinnah Antarctic Station
}}

The '''Jinnah Antarctic Station''' is an [[Research stations in Antarctica|Antarctic research station]] operated by the [[Pakistan Antarctic Programme]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mills |first=J.M. |title=Exploring polar frontiers: a historical encyclopedia |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2003 |volume=1 (A–M) |location=Santa Barbara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Antarctic Research |url=http://www.niopk.gov.pk/antarct.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815075238/http://www.niopk.gov.pk/antarct.html |archive-date=2010-08-15 |publisher=[[National Institute of Oceanography, Pakistan|National Institute of Oceanography]] |place=Pakistan}}</ref> Located in [[East Antarctica]], it lies in the vicinity of the [[Sør Rondane Mountains]] in [[Queen Maud Land]], and is named after [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], the founder and first [[Governor-General of Pakistan|Governor-General]] of [[Pakistan]].

==History==
In 1991, shortly after Pakistan became a member of the [[Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=SCAR Member Countries and Unions |url=https://www.scar.org/about-us/members/detailed-information/ |access-date=2022-07-29 |website=[[Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research]] |language=en-GB}}</ref> the Pakistan Antarctic Programme was launched by the [[National Institute of Oceanography, Pakistan|National Institute of Oceanography]] under the [[Ministry of Science and Technology (Pakistan)|Ministry of Science and Technology]]. It was led by the [[Pakistan Navy]], which provided logistical support for the research effort as well as for the establishment of the Jinnah Antarctic Station. The first expedition landed on 15 January,<ref>{{Cite web |date=1991-10-28 |title=Pakistan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica |url=https://istampgallery.com/pakistani-scientific-expedition-to-antarctica/ |access-date=2025-08-20 |website=iStampGallery |language=en-US}}</ref> before they formally established the summer research station (Jinnah I) on 25 January 1991.{{sfn|Headland|2009|p=539}}

The station was used by the second Pakistani Antarctic expedition in 1992–1993, when they established a new field station, Jinnah II, at {{coord|70|50|S|25|10|E|format=dms|region:AQ|display=inline}}. During this expedition they also established a new automatic weather station, the Iqbal Weather Observatory, 125 kilometers south of the station at {{coord|71|27|36|S|25|17|24|E|display=inline}}.{{sfn|Headland|2009|p=552}}

Pakistan currently maintains this as its one summertime research station and the Iqbal Observatory in Queen Maud Land, a [[Territorial claims in Antarctica|Norwegian-claimed Antarctic territory]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jamal |first=Sana |date=2020-10-25 |title=Pakistan eager to revive Antarctic expedition |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/pakistan/pakistan-eager-to-revive-antarctic-expedition-1.74813273 |access-date=2025-08-20 |website=[[Gulf News]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Facilities==
{{Cleanup section|reason=excess weight|date=July 2022}}
The facilities were quickly expanded by the National Institute of Oceanography. Government advisors belonging to the Ministry of Science and Technology frequently visited the area. Pakistani naval engineers and scientists oversaw the development of the base. In 2001, the data operational system was linked to the [[Badr-B]] satellite, beginning regular transmission of digital imagery of the region to NIO headquarters in [[Karachi]]. In 2002, [[SUPARCO]] scientists visited the base, where they set up and installed an advanced, supercomputer-equipped facility, run by the [[National Institute of Oceanography (Pakistan)|NIO]] and SUPARCO's scientists. In 2005, [[Pakistan Air Force]] engineers and scientists built a small airstrip, and a control room to monitor flights to and from [[Pakistan]]. In 2010, Pakistan's government approved a plan to expand the JAS facility into a permanent operational base.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-23 |title=Pakistan eager to revive Antarctic expedition – W.A.P. |url=https://www.waponline.it/pakistan-eager-to-revive-antarctic-expedition/ |access-date=2025-08-20 |website=Worldwide Antarctic Program}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-23 |title=Pakistan desires to reactivate its antarctic programme |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2269645/pakistan-desires-to-reactivate-its-antarctic-programme |access-date=2025-08-20 |website=[[The Express Tribune]] |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Research stations in Antarctica#List of research stations|List of Antarctic research stations]]
* [[Antarctic field camps|List of Antarctic field camps]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{Cite book |last=Headland |first=Robert K. |title=A Chronology of Antarctic exploration |publisher=[[Quaritch]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-9550852-8-4 |location=[[London]]}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite web |title=Antarctic Research |url=http://www.niopk.gov.pk/antarct.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815075238/http://www.niopk.gov.pk/antarct.html |archive-date=2010-08-15 |publisher=[[National Institute of Oceanography, Pakistan|National Institute of Oceanography]] |location=Pakistan}}
* {{Cite web |last=Jamal |first=Sana |date=25 October 2020 |title=Pakistan eager to revive Antarctic expedition |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/pakistan/pakistan-eager-to-revive-antarctic-expedition-1.74813273 |website=[[GulfNews]] }}
* {{Cite web |date=18 November 2020 |title=Jinnah Antarctic Station (JAS): Antarctic Scientific Research Station |url=https://pakstrategic.com/jinnah-antarctic-station-jas-antarctic-scientific-research-station/}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mills |first=J.M. |title=Exploring polar frontiers: a historical encyclopedia |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2003 |volume=1 (A–M) |location=Santa Barbara}}
* {{Cite web |last=Molle |first=Kris |date=29 October 2010 |title=Pakistan and Antarctica |url=http://www.polarconservation.org/education/antarctic-bases/pakistan-and-antarctica/pakistan-and-antarctica |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128171202/http://www.polarconservation.org/education/antarctic-bases/pakistan-and-antarctica/pakistan-and-antarctica |archive-date=28 January 2012 |publisher=Polar Conservation Organisation}}{{Failed verification|date=November 2014}}
* {{Cite web |date=2017-01-05 |title=Pakistan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica 1991 |url=https://www.istampgallery.com/pakistani-scientific-expedition-to-antarctica/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111230430/https://www.istampgallery.com/pakistani-scientific-expedition-to-antarctica/ |archive-date=2020-01-11 |access-date=2020-10-07 |website=www.istampgallery.com}}
* {{Cite web |date=24 October 2020 |title=Pakistan wishes to relaunch its Antarctic programme |url=https://pk.mashable.com/science/5681/pakistan-wishes-to-relaunch-its-antarctic-programme}}
* {{Cite web |last= |title=SCAR Member Countries and Unions |url=https://www.scar.org/about-us/members/detailed-information/ |access-date=2022-07-29 |website=[[Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research]] |language=en-GB}}

==External links==
* [http://www.niopk.gov.pk/ National Institute of Oceanography Pakistan]

{{Portal bar|Earth sciences|Geography|Pakistan}}
{{Antarctic research stations}}
{{Antarctica}}

[[Category:Pakistan Antarctic Programme]]
[[Category:Nawaz Sharif administration]]
[[Category:History of science and technology in Pakistan]]
[[Category:1991 establishments in Antarctica]]
[[Category:Memorials to Muhammad Ali Jinnah]]

Varkala Municipality

2026-01-21T05:56:38Z

RealArifHossain:

{{Short description|Municipal council in Kerala, India}}
{{one source|date=November 2020}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = Varkala Municipality
| coa_pic =
| coa_res =
| coa_alt =
| coa-pic =
| coa-res =
| house_type = Municipality
| body =
| leader1_type = Chairperson
| leader1 = Geetha Hemachandran
| party1 = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
| leader2_type = Vice Chairman
| leader2 =
| party2 = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
| leader3_type = Leader Of Opposition
| leader3 = TBA
| party3 = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| members = 34
| structure1 = {{Switcher|[[File:India Kerala Varkala Municipality Election Partywise 2025.svg|270px]]|By party|[[File:India Kerala Varkala Municipality Election Alliance Wise 2025.svg|270px]]|By alliance}}
| political_groups1 =
'''[[Government]] (16)''' 
{{colorbox|#FF0000}} [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]] (16)
*{{colorbox|#CC0D0D}} [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] (16)
'''Official Opposition (10)''' 
{{colorbox|#F98C1F}} [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]] (10)
*{{colorbox|#FF9933}} [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] (10)
'''Other Opposition (6)''' 
{{colorbox|#046FFF}} [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]] (6)
*{{colorbox|#00BFFF}} [[Indian National Congress|INC]] (6)
{{colorbox|#B2B2B2}} [[Independent politician|Other]] (2)
*{{colorbox|#B2B2B2}} [[Independent politician|IND]] (2)

| last_election1 = [[2025 Kerala local elections|December 2025]]
| next_election1 = December 2030
| website = {{url|http://www.varkalamunicipality.in}}
}}

'''Varkala Municipality''' is the municipal council that manages a portion of the city of Varkala in [[Kerala]] state in [[India]]. The [[Municipality]] manages the 14.5 km2 area of city of [[Varkala]] and has a population of 40,048 in that area. It is the most densely populated municipality in the state capital district [[Trivandrum|Thiruvananthapuram]] .<ref>{{Cite web|title=Varkala municipality near Thiruvananthapuram to get a mobile septage treatment plant|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/2019/aug/30/varkala-municipality-near-thiruvananthapuram-to-get-a-mobile-septage-treatment-plant-2026310.html|access-date=2020-11-01|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

==Current members==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!style="background-color:#FF0000; color:white" colspan=9|Chairperson: TBA
|-
! colspan=2|Ward Details
! rowspan=2|Councillor<ref>{{cite web|url=https://trend.kerala.nic.in/|title=2025 Kerala local election results|work=SEC Kerala|accessdate=14 December 2025}}</ref>
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | Party
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | Alliance
! rowspan=2|Remarks
|-
!No.
!Name
|-
| 1 || Vilakkulam || Fahad H. || {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=5|dab=yes}} || {{Party name with color|Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|rowspan=5}}
|
|-
| 2 || Idapparambu || Siji
|
|-
| 3 || Janathamukku || Ninumol Roy
|
|-
| 4 || Karunilakode || Sajith Royi
|
|-
| 5 || Kallazhi || Seetha Santosh
|
|-
| 6 || Pullannikode || Dr.Indulekha C. U. || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}} || {{Party name with color|United Democratic Front (Kerala)}}
|
|-
| 7 || Ayanikkuzhivila || G. P. Vijayakumari || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}} || {{Party name with color|National Democratic Alliance|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 8 || Kannamba || Priya Gopan
|
|-
| 9 || Nadayara || Y. Shahjahan || {{Party name with color|Independent}} || {{party color cell|Others}} ||align=left|None
|
|-
| 10 || Kanwasramam || P. J. Naisam || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}} || {{Party name with color|United Democratic Front (Kerala)}}
|
|-
| 11 || Chaluvila || B. Praveen || {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=4|dab=yes}} || {{Party name with color|Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|rowspan=4}}
|
|-
| 12 || Kallamkonam || Saji B.
|
|-
| 13 || Cherukunnam || Mary (Lilly)
|
|-
| 14 || Sivagiri || S. Prasannan
|
|-
| 15 || Teachers Colony || Rakhi R. || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} || {{Party name with color|National Democratic Alliance}}
|
|-
| 16 || Raghunathapuram || A. Kabeer || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}} || {{Party name with color|United Democratic Front (Kerala)}}
|
|-
| 17 || Puthenchantha || Shahjahan M. I. || {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|dab=yes}} || {{Party name with color|Left Democratic Front (Kerala)}}
|
|-
| 18 || Thachankonam || Sheena K. Govind || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} || {{Party name with color|National Democratic Alliance}}
|
|-
| 19 || Ramanthali || Prasad S. || {{Party name with color|Independent}} || {{party color cell|Others}} ||align=left|None
|
|-
| 20 || Panayil || Sumaiya || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}} || {{Party name with color|United Democratic Front (Kerala)}}
|
|-
| 21 || Vallakkadavu || Ajayan S. || {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|dab=yes}} || {{Party name with color|Left Democratic Front (Kerala)}}
|
|-
| 22 || Perumkulam || Sheeba Vijayakumar || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} || {{Party name with color|National Democratic Alliance}}
|
|-
| 23 || Kottumoola || Prameela || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}} || {{Party name with color|United Democratic Front (Kerala)}}
|
|-
| 24 || Maithanam || Sajitha Manikandan || {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|dab=yes}} || {{Party name with color|Left Democratic Front (Kerala)}}
|
|-
| 25 || Municipal Office || Premkumari S. || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}} || {{Party name with color|National Democratic Alliance|rowspan=3}}
|
|-
| 26 || Hospital || Rama K.
|
|-
| 27 || Temple || Adv.R. Anilkumar
|
|-
| 28 || Janardhanapuram || Ranju Binu || {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=2|dab=yes}} || {{Party name with color|Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 29 || Mundayil || B. Sunilkumar
|
|-
| 30 || Jawahar Park || Priyanka Raj || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}} || {{Party name with color|National Democratic Alliance|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 31 || Punnamoodu || A. R. Anish
|
|-
| 32 || Parayil || Ragashree || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}} || {{Party name with color|United Democratic Front (Kerala)}}
|
|-
| 33 || Papanasam || Geetha Hemachandra n. || {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=2|dab=yes}} || {{Party name with color|Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|rowspan=2}}
|
|-
| 34 || Kurakkanni || Akhila G. S.
|
|}

== Statistics ==
{| border="1" cellpadding="20" cellspacing="0"
|+ align="top" style="color:#e76700;" |''Statistics''
|'''District'''
|Thiruvananthapuram
|-
|'''Taluk'''
|Varkala
|-
|'''Area'''
|14.87km²
|-
|'''Wards'''
|33
|-
|'''Population'''
|40,048
|-
|'''Male'''
|18,312
|-
|'''Female'''
|21,736
|-
|'''Population density'''
|2700
|-
|'''Sex ratio'''
|1026
|-
|'''Literacy rate'''
|93.57%
|-
|'''Literacy (male)'''
|95.43%
|-
|'''Literacy (Female)'''
|92.04%
|-
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{coord missing|Kerala}}

[[Category:Thiruvananthapuram district]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Kerala]]

{{Kerala-stub}}

All India Services

2026-01-17T13:54:00Z

RealArifHossain:

{{Short description|Government services in India}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2009}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox official post
| post = All India Services
| flag = Flag of India.svg
| flagsize = 125px
| insignia = Emblem of India (brown).svg
| insigniasize = 50px
| flagcaption = [[Flag of India]]
| insigniacaption = [[National Emblem of India]]
}}

The '''All India Services''' ('''AIS''') comprises three [[Civil Services of India]] common to the [[Central government|centre]] and [[State governments of India|state governments]], which includes the [[Indian Administrative Service]] (IAS), the [[Indian Police Service]] (IPS), and the [[Indian Forest Service]] (IFS).<ref>{{Cite web|title=FAQs {{!}} UPSC|url=https://www.upsc.gov.in/about-us/divisions/all-india-services-ais-branch/faqs|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411221751/https://www.upsc.gov.in/about-us/divisions/all-india-services-ais-branch/faqs |archive-date=11 April 2023 |access-date=2 January 2022|website=www.upsc.gov.in}}</ref><ref name="Laxmikanth 2014 p. 7-PA5">{{cite book | last=Laxmikanth | first=M. | title=Governance in India | publisher=McGraw-Hill Education | year=2014 | isbn=978-93-392-0478-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l_BkBAAAQBAJ&pg=SA7-PA5 | access-date=2022-01-02 | page=7-PA5}}</ref><ref name="All India Services">{{cite web|title=All India Services|url=https://knowindia.gov.in/profile/the-union/public-services.php|website=Know India Official website of Government|access-date=13 April 2021|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413090302/https://knowindia.gov.in/profile/the-union/public-services.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> Civil servants recruited through All India Services by the central government are assigned to different state government cadres. Some civil servants may, later in their career, also serve the centre on deputation.<ref name="All India Services"/> Officers of these three services comply to the All India Services Rules relating to pay, conduct, leave, various allowances, etc.<ref>{{cite web|title=AlS rules|url=http://persmin.gov.in/DOPT_ActRules_AIS_Rules_Vol_I_Index.asp|access-date=13 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213190156/http://persmin.gov.in/DOPT_ActRules_AIS_Rules_Vol_I_Index.asp|archive-date=13 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The central government is the Cadre Controlling Authority for all three All India Services. In terms of provisions for promotion regulations, the specific authorities are the [[Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions]] for IAS, while the [[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]] is the authority for IPS, and the [[Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change]] is the authority for IFS. Recruitments are conducted by the [[Union Public Service Commission]] (UPSC) based on the annual [[Civil Services Examination]] for IAS and IPS, and the Indian Forest Service Examination for IFS. Since 2013, the preliminary test of the two examinations has been combined.

The [[All India Services Act, 1951]], provides for the creation of two more All India Services, namely, the Indian Service of Engineers and the Indian Medical and Health Service.<ref name="legislative.gov.in">{{cite web |title=The All-India Services Act, 1951 - Act No. 61 of 1951 |url=https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1951-61_0.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181223003232/https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1951-61_0.pdf |archive-date=23 December 2018 |date=29 October 1951 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="164.100.47.4">{{cite web |title=The All-India Services (Amendment) Bill, 1962 |url=http://164.100.47.4/billstexts/lsbilltexts/asintroduced/103_1962_LS_Eng.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203153018/http://164.100.47.4/billstexts/lsbilltexts/asintroduced/103_1962_LS_Eng.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="interstatecouncil.nic.in">{{cite web |title=Chapter VIII All India Services |url=http://interstatecouncil.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/CHAPTERVIII.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214181348/http://interstatecouncil.nic.in/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/CHAPTERVIII.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2023 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://lawmin.nic.in/ld/P-ACT/1951/A1951-61.pdf|title=The All India Services Act, 1951 (Act no. 61 of 1951)|date=29 October 1951|website=[[Ministry of Law and Justice (India)|Ministry of Law and Justice]], [[Government of India]]|access-date=16 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216205607/http://lawmin.nic.in/ld/P-ACT/1951/A1951-61.pdf|archive-date=16 February 2018|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==History==
The history of All India Services dates back to the British era, when initially Civil Servants were appointed by the Court of Directors of the British East India Company. The service in those times was known as 'Covenanted Civil Service'. With time, they came to be known as [[Indian Civil Service]] (ICS).

In 1947, with India gaining independence, ICS was replaced by the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), and the Indian Police (IP) was replaced by [[Indian Police Service]] (IPS), and were recognised by the [[Constitution of India|Indian Constitution]] as All-India Services.
In 1963, the Indian Forest Service (IFS) was created, and it came into existence in 1966.<ref>{{Citation
| last1 = Laxmikanth
| first1 = M.
| title = Indian Polity
| publisher = McGraw-Hill Education
| isbn = 9352604881
}}</ref>

==Power, purpose, and responsibilities==
The All India Services Act, 1951, empowers the government of India to make, after consultation with state governments, rules for the regulation of recruitment and conditions of service of the persons appointed to an All India Service. All India Service is governed by All India Service (Conduct) Rules, 1968, which specifies the code of conduct for Civil Servants in general. The All India Service (Conduct) Rules, 1968<ref>{{cite web|title=The All India Service (Conduct) Rules, 1968|url=http://persmin.gov.in/DOPT/Acts_Rules/AIS_Rules/Revised_AIS_Rules_Vol_I_Updated_Upto_31Oct2011/Revised_AIS_Rule_Vol_I_Rule_10.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119195338/http://persmin.gov.in/DOPT/Acts_Rules/AIS_Rules/Revised_AIS_Rules_Vol_I_Updated_Upto_31Oct2011/Revised_AIS_Rule_Vol_I_Rule_10.pdf|archive-date=19 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Revised All India Services Rules (Vol.-I)|url=http://persmin.gov.in/DOPT_ActRules_AIS_Rules_Vol_I_Index.asp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213190156/http://persmin.gov.in/DOPT_ActRules_AIS_Rules_Vol_I_Index.asp|archive-date=13 December 2014}}</ref> were amended latest by Govt. of India by notification published in official Gazette of India on 10 April 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2015/163600.pdf|title=The Gazette of India|date=10 April 2015|access-date=18 January 2018}}</ref>

===Nature of work===
Responsibilities vary with the seniority of the civil servant. Junior officers begin with probation and move up in the hierarchy. At the district level, the responsibilities are concerned with district matters as well as all developmental affairs, while at the divisional level, the responsibilities focus on law and order as well. Policy framing is carried on at the State and Central levels.

==Allocation, division, and cadres==
=== Cadre allocation policy ===
The [[Government of India|central government]] announced a new cadre allocation policy for the All India Services in August 2017, touting it as a policy to ensure national integration of the bureaucracy and to ensure an All India character of the services.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=http://persmin.gov.in/AIS1/Docs/cadrepolicy2017.pdf|title=Cadre Allocation Policy for the All India Services-IAS/IPS/IFoS – Reg.|date=5 September 2017|website=Department of Personnel and Training, [[Government of India]]|access-date=10 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910183803/http://persmin.gov.in/AIS1/Docs/cadrepolicy2017.pdf|archive-date=10 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/govt-finalises-new-allocation-policy-for-ias-ips-officers/story-N22dUxnK9bGU73JaNoC3xN.html|title=IAS, IPS allocation policy rejigged for 'national integration of bureaucracy'|date=23 August 2017|oclc=231696742|website=[[Hindustan Times]]|access-date=10 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910221545/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/govt-finalises-new-allocation-policy-for-ias-ips-officers/story-N22dUxnK9bGU73JaNoC3xN.html|archive-date=10 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="AIS New Cadre Policy">{{Cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-centre-amends-cadre-allocation-policy-to-protect-national-character-of-all-india-services-2536413|title=New cadre Policy which focuses on National Integration of All India Services|last=Dutta|first=Amrita Nayak|date=21 August 2017|website=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|oclc=801791672|access-date=21 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824143417/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-centre-amends-cadre-allocation-policy-to-protect-national-character-of-all-india-services-2536413|archive-date=24 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The existing twenty-six{{Nbsp}}cadres were to be divided into five{{Nbsp}}zones by the Department of Personnel and Training.<ref name="New Cadre Policy">{{Cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/new-cadre-policy-for-ias-ips-4810709/|title=New cadre policy for IAS, IPS|date=24 August 2017|oclc=70274541|website=[[The Indian Express]]|location=[[New Delhi]]|access-date=20 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910173501/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/new-cadre-policy-for-ias-ips-4810709/|archive-date=10 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/x5gb1MTwzWCn35dsdBKRqI/Govts-proposed-cadre-policy-for-IAS-IPS-officers-draws-ire.html|title=Govt's proposed cadre policy for IAS, IPS officers draws ire|last=Bhaskar|first=Utpal|date=24 August 2017|website=[[Live Mint]]|publisher=[[HT Media Ltd]]|location=[[New Delhi]]|access-date=20 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919234423/http://www.livemint.com/Politics/x5gb1MTwzWCn35dsdBKRqI/Govts-proposed-cadre-policy-for-IAS-IPS-officers-draws-ire.html|archive-date=19 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/pti-feed/story/govt-finalises-new-cadre-policy-for-ias-ips-officers-1020070-2017-08-23|title=Govt finalises new cadre policy for IAS, IPS officers|date=23 August 2017|editor-last=Shrivastava|editor-first=Ashwini|issn=0254-8399|website=[[India Today]]|location=[[New Delhi]]|access-date=10 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828065505/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/govt-finalises-new-cadre-policy-for-ias-ips-officers/1/1032277.html|archive-date=28 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/240817/government-finalises-new-cadre-policy-for-ias-ips-officers.html|title=Central government finalises new cadre policy for IAS, IPS officers|date=24 August 2017|website=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|location=[[New Delhi]]|access-date=20 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910180812/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/240817/government-finalises-new-cadre-policy-for-ias-ips-officers.html|archive-date=10 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Under the new policy, a candidate first selects their zones of preference, in descending order, then indicates a cadre preference from each preferred zone. The candidate indicates their second cadre preference for every preferred zone subsequently. The preference for the zones and cadres remains in the same order, and no change is permitted.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name="AIS New Cadre Policy" />

Officers remain in their allocated cadre or are deputed to the [[Government of India]].<ref name="All India Services" /><ref name="ifs.nic.in">{{Cite web|url=http://ifs.nic.in/deputation/con-depu%20guide.pdf|title=Consolidated Deputation Guidelines for All India Services|date=28 November 2007|website=Department of Personnel and Training, [[Government of India]]|language=en|access-date=13 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918064440/http://ifs.nic.in/deputation/con-depu%20guide.pdf|archive-date=18 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible."
|+Zones under the current cadre allocation policy
!Zone
!Cadres
|-
!Zone-I
|AGMUT ([[Arunachal Pradesh]]-[[Goa]]-[[Mizoram]] and [[Union territory|Union Territories]]), [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Haryana]]
|-
!Zone-II
|[[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]] and [[Odisha]]
|-
!Zone-III
|[[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Chhattisgarh]]
|-
!Zone-IV
|[[West Bengal]], [[Sikkim]], [[Assam]]-[[Meghalaya]], [[Manipur]], [[Tripura]] and [[Nagaland]]
|-
!Zone-V
|[[Telangana]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Karnataka]], [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Kerala]]
|}

===Indian Administrative Service===
{{main|Indian Administrative Service}}
IAS Officers are trained to handle Government affairs. This being the main responsibility, every civil servant is assigned to a particular office that deals with policy matters pertaining to that area. The policy matters are framed, modified, and interpreted in this office under the direct supervision of the Administrative Officer in consultation with the Minister. The implementation of policies is also done on the advice of the Officer. The [[Cabinet Secretary (India)|Cabinet Secretary]] stands at the top of the government machinery involved in policy making, followed by Secretary/Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary, Director, Under Secretary, and Junior Scale Officers in that order. These appointments are filled by civil servants according to seniority in the Civil Services. In the process of decision-making, several officers give their views to the Minister, who weighs the matter and makes a decision considering the issue involved.

The implementation process involves supervision and touring. The allocation of enormous funds to and by the field officers calls for supervision, and the officials concerned have to reply to queries made in the Parliament, for which they must remain well-informed. The Civil servant also has to represent the Government in another country or in international forums. At the level of Deputy Secretary, they are even authorized to sign agreements on behalf of the Government.

A civil servant begins their career in the state with two years in probation. This period is spent at training schools, Secretariat, field offices, or in a [[District Magistrate]]'s office. They are given the position of [[Sub-divisional magistrate|Sub-Divisional Magistrate]] and have to look after the law, order, and general administration, including developmental work in the area under their charge. After the probation and 2 years of service as a junior scale officer, the officer is put in the senior scale. Then they may function as [[District Magistrate]], [[Managing Director]] of a Public Enterprise, or Director of a department. Senior Scale comprises the Senior Time Scale (Joint Secretary), Junior Administrative Grade (Additional Secretary), and the Selection Grade (Special Secretary). Selection Grade is given on promotion after 13 years of regular service. The next promotion within the State is that of a commissioner-cum-secretary after 16 years. This promotion also entitles them to the Super Time Scale. Then, after 24 years of regular service, an IAS officer may be promoted to the Above super time scale, who is designated as [[Principal Secretary (India)|Principal Secretaries]]/Financial Commissioners in some states.

Each State has many Secretaries/Principal Secretaries/[[Additional Chief Secretary]] and only one [[Chief Secretary (India)|Chief Secretary]]. Some appointments of Secretaries are considered more prestigious than others, e.g., the Finance Secretary, Development Commissioners, and Home Secretary, and hence they enjoy the salary of a Principal Secretary. The [[Chief Secretary (India)|Chief Secretary]] in the State is the top-ranking civil servant and may be assisted by [[Additional Chief Secretaries]]. In some cadres/States, e.g., [[New Delhi]], [[Financial Commissioner]], and other high-ranking secretaries such as [[Additional Chief Secretaries]] enjoy the pay of the [[Chief Secretary (India)|Chief Secretary]].

In the District, the administrative head is the [[District collector|Collector]] or [[Deputy Commissioner]] or [[District Magistrate]]. The DM/Collector/DC handles the affairs of the District, including development functions. They necessarily tour all rural sectors, inspecting specific projects, disputed sites, and look into the problems of people on the spot. At the divisional level, the Divisional Commissioner is in charge of their division. Their role is to oversee law and order and general administration, and developmental work. Appeals against the Divisional Commissioner are heard by the chairman of the Board of Revenue.

===Indian Forest Service===
{{main|Indian Forest Service}}

India was one of the first countries in the world to introduce scientific forest management. In 1864, the British Raj established the [[Indian Forest Service#Imperial Forest Service (IFS)|Imperial Forest Department]]. In 1866, Dr. [[Dietrich Brandis]], a German forest officer, was appointed Inspector General of Forests. The Imperial Forest Service (IFS) was organised in 1867.

IFS Officers appointed from 1867 to 1885 were trained in [[Germany]] and [[France]], and from 1885 to 1905 at [[Royal Indian Engineering College|Cooper's Hill]], [[London]], which was a noted professional college of forestry. From 1905 to 1926, the [[University of Oxford]], [[University of Cambridge]], and [[University of Edinburgh]] undertook the task of training Imperial Forestry Service officers.

From 1927 to 1932, forest officers were trained at the Imperial [[Forest Research Institute (India)|Forest Research Institute]] (FRI) at [[Dehradun]] (established in 1906). Later, the [[Forest Research Institute (India)|Indian Forest College]] (IFC) was established in 1938 at [[Dehradun]], and officers recruited to the Superior Forest Service by the states and provinces were trained there. [[Forestry]], which was managed by the federal government until then, was transferred to the "provincial list" by the Government of India Act 1935, and recruitment to the Imperial Forestry Service was subsequently discontinued. The modern Indian Forest Service was established in 1966, after independence, under the ''All India Services Act 1951'', for the protection, conservation, and regeneration of forest resources. India has an area of 635,400 km designated as forests, about 19.32 percent of the country. Forest is included in the [[Concurrent List]].

Ranks of the Indian Forest Service are as follows: Assistant Conservator of Forests - Probationary Officer, Divisional Forest Officer (DFOs),
Deputy Conservator of Forests,
[[Conservator of Forests]] (CFs),
Chief Conservator of Forests (CCFs),
Additional [[Principal Chief Conservator of Forests]] (Addl.PCCFs),
[[Principal Chief Conservator of Forests]] (PCCF) & Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (HoFF) - the highest post in a State,
[[Director General of Forests (India)]] - the highest post at the Centre, selected from amongst the senior-most PCCFs of states.

The training at [[Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy]] is designed in such a way that a Forest Service officer, after completion of the probation, should be hardened enough to serve in the most difficult terrains of India. Another remarkable feature of this service is that it requires keen technical knowledge along with excellent administrative capacity to deliver the duty. Government of India is also providing Hari Singh fellowships to Forest Service officers to get specialised in the field of Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System from the [[ISRO]]'s [[Indian Institute of Remote Sensing]], [[University of Twente]]/[[ITC Enschede|ITC]] [[Netherlands]] and in Wildlife Management from the [[Wildlife Institute of India]]. The Forest Service officers also work in various International and National organisations related to management of forests, wildlife and environment such as [[Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations]], [[International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development]], SAARC Forestry Centre, [[Forest Survey of India]], [[Wildlife Institute of India]], [[Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education]] (ICFRE), [[Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy]] (IGNFA), Directorate of Forest Education, [[Wildlife Crime Control Bureau]] (WCCB), etc. besides getting entrusted with senior positions in the Central Secretariat, State Secretariats and various assignments under the Central Staffing Scheme.

===Indian Police Service===
{{main|Indian Police Service}}

The Indian Police Service, more popularly known as the 'IPS', is responsible for internal security, public safety, and law and order. In 1948, a year after [[India]] gained [[Partition of India|independence]] from [[British Raj|Britain]], the Imperial Police (IP) was replaced by the Indian Police Service. The IPS is not a law enforcement agency in its own right; rather, it is the body to which all senior police officers belong, regardless of the agency for which they work. An IPS officer is subjected to and faces several life-threatening, crucial, complicated, and harsh conditions. They are entrusted with the overall internal security of the entire State as the Director General of Police and entire Districts as its Superintendent of Police, and in Metropolitan Cities as Deputy Commissioner or the entire City as the Commissioner of Police. As the Commissioner of Police, they enjoy magisterial powers.

The IPS officer takes charge as an [[Assistant Superintendent of Police]] of a Sub-division/circle after probation of 2 years. The tenure of this post is normally 3 years. The next appointment is as [[Superintendent of Police]] or [[Deputy commissioner of police (India)|Deputy Commissioner of Police]] after 4 years, they get promoted to Junior Administrative Grade after 9 years, then they serve as [[Superintendent of Police (India)|Senior Superintendent of Police]] and get pay of Selection Grade (Level 13) in 12–14 years, then as [[Deputy Inspector General of Police]] or [[Additional Commissioner of Police]] in 15 years, an [[Inspector General of Police]] in 18 years, [[Additional Director General of Police]] in 25 years and finally, the [[Director General of Police]] after 30 years in service.

IPS officers also work in national government agencies such as [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]], [[Research and Analysis Wing]], [[Central Bureau of Investigation]], etc. IPS officers also get highly placed in several PSUs such as GAIL, SAIL, [[Indian Oil Corporation]] Limited etc. at the State Secretariat the Central Secretariat under the Central Staffing Scheme and in CAPFs at leadership positions of National Security Guards, Border Security Force, the Indo-Tibetan Border Police, the [[Central Reserve Police Force]] and the [[Central Industrial Security Force]], etc. An IPS officer has vast opportunities to work in several International Organisations such as Interpol, International Cricket Council, the United Nations, Consulates (Foreign Missions) and Embassies all over the World in various capacities such as First Secretary, [[Consul (representative)|Consul]], [[Consul General]], Deputy High Commissioner, Minister, [[High Commissioner]] and [[Ambassador]]. The [[Director General of Police]] and [[Commissioner of Police]] is the head of the entire police force of the State or Metropolitan City (e.g. [[Kolkata]], [[Delhi]], [[Mumbai]], [[Chennai]], etc.) and below him is the Additional DGP/Special Police Commissioner. The [[Inspector General#India|Inspector General]] or [[Joint Commissioner of Police]] is at the head of a certain specialised police force like [[Criminal Investigation Department]], Special Branch, etc.

==Changes and reforms==
In January 2012, the Government amended All India Services Rule 16 (3) which permits the Central Government in consultation with the State Government to retire in the public interest, incompetent and non-performing Officers after a review on their completion of 15 years or 25 years of qualifying service or attaining the age of 50.<ref>{{cite news| url= http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Retire-non-performing-bureaucrats-Centre-to-states/Article1-881583.aspx| title= Retire non-performing bureaucrats: Centre to states| date= 1 July 2012| url-status= dead| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120701135717/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Retire-non-performing-bureaucrats-Centre-to-states/Article1-881583.aspx| archive-date= 1 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="AIS lazy retire">{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/lazy-and-incompetent-babus-to-retire-early-147271-2011-11-29 |title=Lazy and incompetent babus to retire early|date=30 November 2011 |publisher=[[India Today]] |location=[[New Delhi]] |access-date=8 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="corruption compulsory retirement">{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/graft-taint-may-lead-to-retirement-for-babus-97325-2012-03-27 |title=Corruption taint may lead to compulsory retirement for babus|date=21 April 2012 |publisher=[[India Today]] |location=[[New Delhi]] |access-date=21 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="AIS retire 15 incompetence">{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/report/proposal-to-retire-incompetent-officers-after-15-year-service/20111130.htm |title=Proposal to retire incompetent officers after 15-year service|date=30 November 2011 |publisher=Rediff News |location=[[New Delhi]] |access-date=3 February 2012}}</ref>

On recommendation by [[Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions]], from the year 2014, state civil servants are required to clear a 1000-mark four-stage process, including a written exam and interview conducted by Union Public Service Commission, to get promoted to the three all-India services, which was previously based solely on seniority and annual confidential reports.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/exams-for-state-civil-services-officers-for-promotion-to-ias-462676| title=Exams for state civil services officers for promotion to IAS| date=4 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url= http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Exams-for-state-civil-services-officers-for-promotion-to-IAS/articleshow/27861653.cms| title=State civil services officers for promotion to IAS| date=4 April 2014}}</ref>

=== Expected Reforms ===
Creating the remaining two All India Services, as provided by the [[All India Services Act, 1951]]:<ref name="legislative.gov.in"/><ref name="164.100.47.4"/><ref name="interstatecouncil.nic.in"/>

====Indian Service of Engineers====
This service is yet to be constituted.

====Indian Medical and Health Service (IMHS)====
The States Reorganization Commission had recommended the constitution of more All-India Services for promoting National Integration. This was considered at the conference of Chief Ministers of all the states and the Central Ministers in August 1961. Following this, in December 1961 the [[Rajya Sabha]] passed the requisite resolution under Article 312(1) of the [[Constitution of India|Constitution]] and the [[All India Services Act, 1951|All India Services act]] was amended in 1963 with provisions for creation of 3 new All India Services namely<ref name=":0">[https://upsc.gov.in/sites/default/files/NO-27_76_77.pdf 27th Annual Report of UPSC, 1977]</ref>

* The Indian Service of Engineers (Irrigation, Power, Buildings, and Roads)
* The [[Indian Forest Service]] (constituted with effect from 1 July 1966)
* The Indian Medical and Health Service

The [[Government of India]], in consultation with the [[Union Public Service Commission]], had promulgated the following 3 rules and regulations for the constitution of the Indian Medical and Public Health Service with effect from 1 February 1969.

* The Indian Medical and Health Service (Recruitment) Rules, 1969
* The Indian Medical and Health Service (Initial Recruitment) Regulations, 1969
* The Indian Medical and Health Service (Cadre) Rules, 1969

As per these rules, the Officers holding Class I posts of the [[Central Health Service|Central Health Service (CHS)]] would be allotted state cadres after the constitution of IMHS, they would be considered as on central deputation, and after a tenure, would revert to their state cadres. The states of Tamil Nadu and Mysore did not agree to participate in the scheme of the service.<ref>[https://upsc.gov.in/sites/default/files/NO-19_68-69.pdf 19th Annual Report of UPSC, 1969]</ref> The constitution of these services were delayed further. Another attempt was made to constitute IMHS with effect from 26 January 1977, but these notifications were cancelled later.<ref name=":0" />

== See also ==
* [[Gazetted officer]]
* [[Order of precedence in India]]
* [[Central Civil Services]]
* [[Civil Services of India]]
* [[Civil Services Examination]]
* [[Indian Railway Management service|Indian Railway Management Service]]
* [[Combined Defence Services Examination]]
* [[Engineering Services Examination]]
* [[Combined Medical Services Examination]]
* [[Union Public Service Commission]]
* [[Staff Selection Commission]]
* [[Public service commissions in India]]
* [[Indian Institute of Public Administration]]
* [[Appointments Committee of the Cabinet]]
* [[Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091220111744/http://www.upsc.gov.in/ais/index.htm All India Services official website]
* [http://upsc.gov.in/ Union Public Service Commission official website]
* [http://persmin.nic.in/ Indian Administrative Service official website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090619060945/http://mha.nic.in/uniquepage.asp?Id_Pk=346 Indian Police Service official website]
* [http://ifs.nic.in/ Indian Forest Service official website]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110927174347/http://persmin.nic.in/ersheet/StartQryERS.asp List of IAS officers]

[[Category:All India Services|All India Services]]

Daruka

2026-01-12T14:14:18Z

RealArifHossain: General cleanup and content improvements

{{short description|Name of multiple characters in Hindu epic Mahabharat}}

'''Daruka''' is the name of two major characters in Hindu epic [[Mahabharat]]:

'''Daruka''' ({{Langx|sa|दारुक|translit=Dāruka}}) refers to the charioteer of the deity [[Krishna]].

'''Dārukā''' ({{Langx|sa|दारुका|translit=Dārukā}}) refers to the name of a [[Rakshasa|rakshasi]].

== Charioteer Daruka ==
{{Hindu mythology}}
The epic [[Mahabharata]] features Daruka as the charioteer of Krishna. Described to be skilled at his task, he appears during a number of chapters of the text. Daruka is assailed by King Shalva's arrows when he attacks [[Dvārakā|Dvaraka]] after the death of his ally, [[Shishupala]]. During the [[Kurukshetra War]], hearing Krishna's [[Panchajanya|conch]], he brings his chariot to the battlefield. He drives [[Satyaki|Satyaki's]] chariot when the warrior fights against [[Karna]], demonstrating excellent manoeuvrability. Krishna bids Daruka to inform his family at Dvaraka and the [[Pandava|Pandavas]] at [[Indraprastha]] of the death of the [[Yadu dynasty|Yaduvamsha]] clan, after his chariot ascends to the heavens.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vaidik Sudha |url=http://archive.org/details/Puranencyclopedia |title=Puran Encyclopedia |date=2020-06-17 |pages=203}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vaswani |first=J. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ePNvEAAAQBAJ&dq=Daruka+Purana&pg=PT297 |title=Stories with a difference from the Bhagavata Purana |date=2019-06-20 |publisher=Gita Publishing House |isbn=978-93-86004-23-9 |pages=297 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hudson |first=D. Dennis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IE8DwAAQBAJ&dq=Shalva+Daruka&pg=PA288 |title=The Body of God: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram |date=2008-09-25 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-536922-9 |pages=288 |language=en}}</ref>
==Rakshasa Daruka==
The [[Shiva Purana]] features the rakshasi Dārukā and her husband, a rakshasa named Dāruka, who terrorised the forest named after them, called the Darukavana. Dārukā is stated to have acquired a boon from the goddess [[Parvati]], upon which she grew arrogant and reckless. The inhabitants of the forest sought the assistance of the sage [[Aurva]], who declared that any rakshasa who attacked them further upon the earth would perish. The [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]], led by [[Indra]], started to wage war on the beings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Books |first=Kausiki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hfZLEAAAQBAJ&dq=Daruka+Shiva+Purana&pg=PT169 |title=Siva Purana: Koti Rudra Samhitha: English Translation only without Slokas |date=2021-10-24 |publisher=Kausiki Books |pages=169–175 |language=en}}</ref> To save the race from extermination, Dārukā suggested that they move to an island beneath the ocean. The forest would follow with them owing to her boon, and they would not be further attacked. Now safe, the beings started to harass people who travelled upon the boats above and imprisoned them. One of the prisoners was a [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] devotee named Supriya. He taught the other prisoners the [[Om Namah Shivaya|Panchakshara mantra]] of [[Shiva]]. The rakshasa Dāruka attempted to kill Supriya. Shiva appeared to rescue his devotee, slaying Dāruka with the [[Pashupatastra]].<ref name="dharmakshetra.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.dharmakshetra.com/literature/puranas/shiva.html|title=Dharmakshetra.com|last=|first=|date=|website=|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031125094642/http://dharmakshetra.com/literature/puranas/shiva.html|archive-date=2003-11-25|accessdate=2020-04-28}}</ref> When his wife, Dārukā, prayed to Parvati for mercy, the goddess urged her consort to spare her life. Hearing her plea, Shiva allowed her and the other rakshasas to reside in the forest. Shiva assumed the form of a [[Jyotirlinga]] with the name [[Nageshvara Jyotirlinga|Nageshvara]] in the site, while the goddess Parvati came to be venerated as Nageshvari.<ref name="dharmakshetra.com" /><ref name="a">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jhEqAAAAYAAJ&q=D%C4%81ruk%C4%81 |title=The Purāṇas: The Encyclopedia of Indian History and Culture |publisher=Shri Bhagavan Vedavyasa Itihasa, Samshodhana Mandira (Bhishma) |year=1993 |language=en}}</ref>[[File:Nageshwar Temple.jpg|thumb|Nageshvara Jyotirlinga Temple|260x260px]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Rakshasa]]
[[Category:Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:People related to Krishna]]

Bigg Boss (Hindi TV series) season 6

2026-01-11T21:40:57Z

RealArifHossain: Adding Some Article First Draft

{{Short description|Season of television series (2012)}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox television season
| season_number = 6
| image = Bigg Boss 6.jpg
| image_alt =
| caption = Title of season 6
| bgcolour = pink
| module1 = {{Infobox reality competition season
| presenter = [[Salman Khan]]
| num_days = 97
| num_housemates = 19
| winner = [[Urvashi Dholakia]]
| runner_up = Imam Siddique
}}
| num_episodes =
| network = [[Colors TV]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|df=yes|2012|10|07}}
| last_aired = {{end date|df=yes|2013|01|12}}
| episode_list =
}}
'''''Bigg Boss 6''''', also known as '''''Bigg Boss 6: Alag Che!''''', is the sixth season of the Indian Hindi-language [[reality TV]] show ''[[Bigg Boss (Hindi TV series)|Bigg Boss]]'', which is telecast on [[Colors TV]]. The season started on 7 October 2012 and ended on 12 January 2013. [[Salman Khan]], who was the host of the previous two seasons, again hosted the season.<ref>{{cite news|title=Twitter abuzz with Salman Khan and 'Bigg Boss 6'!|url=http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/CEL-salman-khan---s-bigg-boss-6-impressed-reality-tv-viewers-3891318-NOR.html?HF-4=|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130118035145/http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/CEL-salman-khan---s-bigg-boss-6-impressed-reality-tv-viewers-3891318-NOR.html?HF-4=|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 January 2013|newspaper=Bhaskar|date=7 October 2012}}</ref> The sixth season was launched as a ''Parivarik'' season with a Gujarati tagline- ''Alag che!'' (English: It's different).

The series was won by soap actress [[Urvashi Dholakia]] on 12 January 2013. Imam Siddiqui was the first runner up while [[Sana Khan]] and [[Niketan Madhok]] were second and third runners-up respectively.

The final episode on 12 January had a 4.4 TVR (television rating points), becoming the highest-rated non-fiction show during the week.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/bigg-boss-sixth-season-fares-better-than-previous-run/499488/|title=Bigg Boss' sixth season fares better than previous run|date=21 January 2013|work=Business Standard}}</ref> The finale also fared better than its previous season, which had dropped to 3.6 TVR. In the fourth season, the finale had rated a 6.7 TVR. The show averaged 3.3 TVR in the week ended 12 January compared to 2.8 in the trailing week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiantelevision.com/mam/headlines/y2k13/jan/janmam76.php|title=Bigg Boss 6 lifts Colors ahead of Star Plus|author=Anil Wanvari|date=16 January 2013|publisher=indiantelevision.com}}</ref>

==Production==
===House themes===

;Luxury house
The purpose built house is located at [[Lonavala]], [[Maharashtra]]. It is designed by renowned art director [[Sabu Cyril]]. The house is built over an area of 15000 square feet. Featuring a more subtle and home-like feel with shades of red and white, it follows a completely different look from the previous year's house.

Rooms/Areas in the house include
* Confession room
* Captain's Quarters (the reward room)
* Living room
* Kitchen/Dining room
* The utility room
* Two separate bedrooms, along with storage shelves to store the housemates possessions
** One with Sunflower beds, wherein the petals act as beds, other with normal beds
* Bathroom
* Garden area which has a small pool with four white chairs placed next it

===Twists===

====Not selected====
In the grand premiere there was a twist where these more housemates came as commoners and the public had to vote which one of them will be selected to go inside. Kashif was selected while Divya and Rohin was rejected.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://m.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-tv-review-bigg-boss-6-starts-with-a-bang/20121008.htm|title=Bigg Boss 6 starts with a bang!|quote=The final contestant is a non-celebrity picked from three finalists -- Radio Jockey Divya Vasudev, Voice artist Rohin Robert and martial artist Kashif Qureshi.|date=8 October 2012}}</ref>

====Secret village====
The ''Padosi Ghar'' (Neighbour house) or the Secret village was revealed on Day 41, following the eviction of Aashka. Bigg Boss revealed that this year some evicted housemates and new entries will move to the village house where they will live for an undisclosed amount of time. Eventually, some of the housemates living in the village may return to the main house.
The house is built on grounds adjacent to the luxury house on a space only one-fourth of the size of the former. This rustic [[Shanty town|squatters' area]] has been designed by Leena Chanda. It is not equipped with amenities like air conditioning, microwave ovens, sink and swimming pool.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/photogallery/7878.html |title='Bigg Boss 6' introduces a village house for 'naye padosi': Movies News Photos-IBNLive |website=ibnlive.in.com |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119223652/http://ibnlive.in.com/photogallery/7878.html |archive-date=19 November 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> 4 days after re-entering the village house Imam was relocated to the main house. 6 days after Imam was moved, the village was intruded by masked men who destroyed the house completely and abducted all five housemates in an attempt of move them to the main house via a tunnel.

Rooms/areas in the village include
* A small confession room
* Single bedroom consisting of 6 beds
* A well
* Couches have been replaced with ''chatayis'' for comfort on the floor
* A vintage television set which shows live feed from the main luxury house

==Housemates status==

{| class="wikitable sortable" style=" text-align:center; font-size:85%; line-height:25px; width:auto;"
! scope="col" style="background:#800080; color:#fff;" | Sr
! scope="col" style="background:#800080; color:#fff;" | Housemate
! scope="col" style="background:#800080; color:#fff;" | {{nowrap|Day entered}}
! scope="col" style="background:#800080; color:#fff;" | {{nowrap|Day exited}}
! scope="col" style="background:#800080; color:#fff;" | Status
|-
| 1
| Urvashi
| Day 1
| Day 98
| {{won|Winner}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2
| rowspan="2" | Imam
| Day 40
| Day 43
| {{CRemoved|Ejected}}
|-
| Day 44
| Day 98
| {{Runner-up|1st runner-up}}
|-
| 3
| Sana
| Day 1
| Day 98
| style="background:#7FFFD4;" | {{nowrap|2nd runner-up}}
|-
| 4
| Niketan
| Day 1
| Day 98
| style="background:#DDA0DD;" | {{nowrap|3rd runner-up}}
|-
| 5
| Rajeev
| Day 1
| Day 95
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 6
| Delnaaz
| Day 1
| Day 94
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 7
| Sapna
| Day 1
| Day 91
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 8
| Aashka
| Day 1
| Day 84
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | 9
| rowspan="2" | Karishma
| Day 1
| Day 23
| {{Quit|Walked}}
|-
| Day 41
| Day 84
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 10
| Vishal
| Day 34
| Day 77
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 11
| Santosh
| Day 43
| Day 68
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | 12
| rowspan="2" | Dinesh
| Day 1
| Day 7
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| Day 42
| Day 66
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 13
| Mink
| Day 34
| Day 61
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 14
| Vrajesh
| Day 1
| Day 61
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 15
| Sampat
| Day 1
| Day 33
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 16
| Sidhu
| Day 1
| Day 33
| {{Quit|Walked}}
|-
| 17
| Aseem
| Day 1
| Day 27
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 18
| Sayantani
| Day 1
| Day 19
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 19
| Kashif
| Day 1
| Day 12
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 20
| Divya
| colspan="2" | Day 1
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|-
| 21
| Rohin
| colspan="2" | Day 1
| {{eliminated|Evicted}}
|}

==Housemates==
The participants in the order of appearance and entrance in the house are:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.missmalini.com/2012/10/08/bigg-boss-season-6-the-contestants-round-up/|title=Bigg Boss 6: Urvashi Dholakia to Navjot Singh Sidhu, meet the final list of contestants|date=8 October 2012}}</ref>

===Original entrants===
*[[Navjot Singh Sidhu]] – Former [[Indian cricket team|Indian]] cricketer and Indian [[Member of Parliament]] from [[Amritsar (Lok Sabha constituency)]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/navjot-singh-sidhu-set-to-enter-bigg-boss/story-UlDwT4hEKTbtnCvFqxiB4O.html|title=Navjot Singh Sidhu set to enter Bigg Boss|date=1 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Navjot-Singh-Sidhu-leaves-the-Bigg-Boss-house/articleshow/17171025.cms|title=Navjot Singh Sidhu leaves the Bigg Boss house|website=[[The Times of India]] |date=10 November 2012}}</ref> He appeared as a judge on ''The Great Indian Laughter Challenge'' for all for its seasons and also acted in the serial ''[[Kyaa Hoga Nimmo Kaa]]'' which starred [[Sanjeeda Sheikh]].
*[[Sana Khan]] – Actress, model and dancer.<ref>{{cite web|last=Thomas|first=Amy Rose|title=I will flaunt my age: Sana Khan|url=http://postnoon.com/2012/10/08/i-will-flaunt-my-age-sana-khan/78553|publisher=Postnoon|access-date=17 November 2012|date=8 October 2012|archive-date=19 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119010043/http://postnoon.com/2012/10/08/i-will-flaunt-my-age-sana-khan/78553|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodlife.com/news-gossip/bigg-boss-6-after-niketan-sana-gets-eliminated/|title=Bigg Boss 6: After Niketan, Sana gets eliminated|date=13 January 2013}}</ref> Sana has appeared in many films like ''[[Dhan Dhana Dhan Goal]]'' (in item song Bilo Rani) and ''[[Halla Bol]]''.
*[[Vrajesh Hirjee]] – Actor. He is known for appearing in films such as ''[[Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai]]'', ''[[Tum Bin]]'', ''[[Rehnaa Hai Terre Dil Mein]]'', ''[[Kucch To Hai]]'', ''[[Krishna Cottage]]'', ''[[Fanaa (2006 film)|Fanaa]]'', ''[[Golmaal (2006 film)|Golmaal]]'', ''[[Salaam-E-Ishq]]'', ''[[Heyy Babyy]]'', ''[[Sunday (2008 film)|Sunday]]'' and ''[[Golmaal Returns]]''. He also appeared in the show ''[[Jassi Jaissi Koi Nahin]]''.
*[[Sampat Pal Devi]] – Social activist. She is the founder and leader of a group of women activists in India's northern [[Uttar Pradesh]] state's [[Banda district (India)|Banda District]], called the "[[Gulabi Gang]]".
*[[Urvashi Dholakia]] – Television actress. She is known for playing the role of Komolika in the show ''[[Kasautii Zindagii Kay (2001 TV series)|Kasautii Zindagii Kay]]''.
*[[Aashka Goradia]] – Television actress. She is known for her role of Kumud in the show ''[[Kkusum]]'' and later appeared in shows like ''[[Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi]]'', ''[[Kahiin to Hoga]]'', ''[[Sinndoor Tere Naam Ka]]'' and ''[[Laagi Tujhse Lagan]]''. She participated in ''[[Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi]]'' in 2011.
*[[Dinesh Lal Yadav]] – Bhojpuri actor.
* [[Delnaaz Irani]] – Actress who separated from her marriage to fellow contestant Rajev Paul in 2010. She is known for playing the role of Sweety in ''[[Kal Ho Naa Ho]]''. She also appeared in shows like ''[[Karam Apnaa Apnaa]]'', ''[[Baa Bahoo Aur Baby]]'' and ''[[Kya Huaa Tera Vaada]]''. She participated in the reality show ''[[Nach Baliye]]''.
* [[Aseem Trivedi]]—Cartoonist.
* [[Sapna Bhavnani]] – Celebrity [[Hairdresser|hairstylist]].
* [[Rajeev Paul]] – Indian television and theatre actor and writer who split from his marriage to fellow contestant Delnaaz Irani in 2010. He is known for his role of Deven Garg in the [[Ekta Kapoor]] show ''[[Kahaani Ghar Ghar Kii]]''. He later participated in ''[[Nach Baliye]]''.
* [[Sayantani Ghosh]] – Model, television and film actress. She is known for her role of Amrita in the [[Zee TV]] show ''[[Naaginn (2007 TV series)|Naaginn]]''. She also appeared in shows like ''[[Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan]]'', ''[[Sabki Laadli Bebo]]'', ''[[Geet – Hui Sabse Parayi]]'' and ''[[Mrs. Kaushik Ki Paanch Bahuein]]''.
* Niketan Madhok – Model.
* [[Karishma Kotak]] – Model. Karishma is a model born from London.
*Kashif Qureshi – Non-celebrity martial arts trainer. He got selected to be the "Common Man" (non-celebrity) via auditions held across India.
* Divya Vasudev – RJ.
* Rohin Robert – Actor.

===Wild card entrants===
* [[Mink Brar]] – Model, actress and producer.<ref>{{cite news|last=Desai|first=Purva|title=Everyone playing safe in Bigg Boss: Mink Brar|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tv/Everyone-playing-safe-in-Bigg-Boss-Mink-Brar/articleshow/17063294.cms|date=3 November 2012|work=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/07/24/stories/2006072401670300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203031246/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/07/24/stories/2006072401670300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 December 2013|date=24 July 2006|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=Mink Fresh!}}</ref>
* [[Vishal Karwal]] – Television actor.<ref>{{cite news|last=Awaasthi |first=Kavita |title=Vishal Karwal to enter Bigg Boss as wildcard entry |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Television/Vishal-Karwal-to-enter-Bigg-Boss-as-wildcard-entry/Article1-957598.aspx |access-date=11 November 2012 |newspaper=Hindustan Times |date=10 November 2012 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111000054/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Television/Vishal-Karwal-to-enter-Bigg-Boss-as-wildcard-entry/Article1-957598.aspx |archive-date=11 November 2012}}</ref>
* Imam Siddique – Fashion stylist and reality television personality.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tv/news/Last-years-Imam-Siddique-to-enter-Bigg-Boss-7/articleshow/24777172.cms | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131030071832/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-10-28/news/43461314_1_imam-siddique-bigg-boss-nirahua | url-status = live | archive-date = 30 October 2013 | title = Last year's Imam Siddique to enter Bigg Boss 7? | first = Swasti | last = Chatterjee | date = 28 October 2013 | work = [[The Times of India]] | access-date = 25 November 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tv/Imam-returns-to-TV-with-Time-Out-with-Imam-Siddique/articleshow/21000672.cms | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130716034320/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-07-10/tv/40491292_1_imam-siddique-mtv-india-show | url-status = live | archive-date = 16 July 2013 | title = Imam returns to TV with Time Out with Imam Siddique | date = 10 July 2013 | work = [[The Times of India]] | access-date = 25 November 2013}}</ref>
* Santosh Shukla – Actor.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-05-17/news-interviews/39335624_1_santosh-shukla-salman-khan-sohail-khan | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130609104611/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-05-17/news-interviews/39335624_1_santosh-shukla-salman-khan-sohail-khan | url-status = dead | archive-date = 9 June 2013 | title = Salman Khan trains Santosh Shukla | first = Akash | last = Wadhwa | date = 17 May 2013 | work = [[The Times of India]] | access-date = 25 November 2013 }}</ref>

===Guest entrants===
* [[Jyoti Amge]] - Actress. Holds the Guinness World Record for being the smallest woman living on Earth.

==Guest appearances==
* [[Daler Mehndi]], [[Antara Biswas|Mona Lisa]], [[Himesh Reshammiya]] and [[Rani Mukherjee]] made appearances on the premier of the season to welcome housemates to the new house.
* On 13 October 2012, Producer/Director [[Karan Johar]] and Bollywood Actors [[Alia Bhatt]], [[Varun Dhawan]] and [[Sidharth Malhotra]] appeared on the eviction interview night to promote their upcoming film [[Student of the Year]].
* On 20 October 2012, Bollywood Actors [[Sanjay Dutt]], [[Sonakshi Sinha]] and [[Ajay Devgn]] appeared on the eviction interview night to promote their upcoming film [[Son of Sardaar]].
* On 27 October 2012, Bollywood Actress [[Preity Zinta]] appeared on the eviction interview night to promote her upcoming film and production [[Ishkq in Paris]].
* On 3 November 2012, [[Bigg Boss (Hindi season 4)|Bigg Boss 4]] winner [[Shweta Tiwari]] and finalist [[Dolly Bindra]] appeared on the eviction interview night.
* On 10 November 2012, Producer/Director & Salman's brother [[Arbaaz Khan]] appeared on the eviction interview night to promote Khan's upcoming film [[Dabangg 2]]. Hip hop singer and rapper [[Hard Kaur]] also appeared on the same night.
* On 24 November 2012, [[Bigg Boss (Hindi season 1)|Bigg Boss 1]] contestant and item girl [[Rakhi Sawant]] entered the Village as a guest for a short amount of time.
* On 28 November 2012, Actress [[Anjana Das]] and Stand-up comedian [[Bharti Singh]] entered the house as part of a task for a short amount of time.
* On 30 November 2012, [[Kareena Kapoor]] to have the first look of her song Fevicol se in [[Dabangg 2]].
*On 1 December 2012, [[Yo Yo Honey Singh]] comes to promote Siftaan and [[Sudesh Lehri]], [[Kapil Sharma (comedian)|Kapil Sharma]], [[Bharti Singh]], [[Aditya Narayan]] comes for the Enjoyment and [[Govinda (actor)|Govinda]] and [[Sanjay Dutt|Sanjay dutt]] Comes for [[Salman Khan]]
* On 8 December 2012, [[Akshay kumar]] and [[Asin]] to promote their movie [[Khiladi 786]].
* On 15 December 2012, [[Rashmi Desai]] appeared to flirt with Salman Khan.
* On 22 December 2012, [[Bipasha Basu]] appeared on the Eviction episode to promote her new fitness album "Break Free".
* On 29 December 2012, [[Anil Kapoor]] and [[Jacqueline Fernandez]] appeared on the eviction interview night to promote their movie [[Race 2]].
* On 12 January 2013, [[Emraan Hashmi]] to promote his film [[Ek Thi Daayan]]. [[Prabhu Deva]] and [[Remo D'Souza]] to promote their film [[ABCD: Anybody Can Dance]]. [[Neha Dhupia]], [[Tusshar Kapoor]] and comedians to promote their show "Nautanki". [[Yana Gupta]] to perform in the "Bigg Boss House". [[Asha Negi]], [[Pooja Gaur]], [[Rashami Desai]] and [[Rati Pandey]] to perform with [[Sampat Pal Devi]] on the "Bigg Boss" stage, [[Kapil Sharma (comedian)|Kapil Sharma]] for a comedy act. All of the evicted contestants also appeared for the Grand Finale.
*

==Nominations table==
<blockquote style="padding: 0em; overflow:auto;">
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; font-size:85%; line-height:15px;"
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" |
! colspan="2" |Week 1
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 2
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 3
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 4
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 5
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 6
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 7
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 8
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 9
! colspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 10
! rowspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 11
! colspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 12
! colspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | Week 13
! colspan="3" style="width: 5%;" | Week 14
|-
! style="width: 5%;" | Day 1
! style="width: 5%;" | Day 2
! style="width: 5%;" | {{nowrap|Day 63}}
! style="width: 5%;" | {{nowrap|Day 66}}
! style="width: 5%;" | {{nowrap|Day 80}}
! style="width: 5%;" | {{nowrap|Day 81}}
! style="width: 5%;" | {{nowrap|Day 83}}
! style="width: 5%;" | {{nowrap|Day 84}}
! style="width: 5%;" | {{nowrap|Day 91}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 5%;" | {{nowrap|Day 97}}
|- style="background:#C2DFFF;"
! colspan="2" | Nominees for Captaincy
| rowspan="3" style="background:#ccc;" |
| Aashka Aseem Delnaaz Dinesh Karishma Kashif Niketan Rajev Sampat Sana Sapna Sayantani Urvashi Vrajesh
| rowspan="3" style="background:#ccc;" | ''No Captain''
| Aashka Aseem Delnaaz Karishma Niketan Rajev Sampat Sana Sapna Sayantani Urvashi Vrajesh
| Aashka Aseem Delnaaz Karishma Niketan Rajev Sampat Sana Sapna Urvashi Vrajesh
| Aashka Delnaaz Niketan Urvashi
| Rajev Sana Urvashi
| Rajev Sana Vishal
| Delnaaz Karishma Niketan
| rowspan="3" style="background:#ccc;" | ''No Captain''
| colspan="2" | Imam Sana Sapna Vishal
| Delnaaz Imam
| colspan="2" | Delnaaz Imam Karishma Niketan Rajev Sana Sapna Urvashi Vishal
| colspan="2" | Delnaaz Imam Niketan Rajev Sana Sapna Urvashi
| colspan="3" rowspan="3" style="background:#ccc;" | ''No Captain''
|- style="background:#cfc;"
| colspan="2" | '''House Captain'''
| '''Niketan'''
| '''Vrajesh'''
| '''Delnaaz'''
| '''Aashka'''
| '''Urvashi'''
| <s>'''Rajev'''</s> '''Sana'''
| '''Karishma'''
| colspan="2" | '''Sapna'''
| '''Delnaaz'''
| colspan="2" | '''Imam'''
| colspan="2" | '''Niketan'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Captain's Nomination
| Sampat Sana (to save)
| style="background:#ccc;" |''Not eligible''
| Sidhu (to save)
| Sampat
| Sapna
|Vishal Delnaaz (to save)
| Rajev Delnaaz Urvashi Sana Vishal
| style="background:#ccc;" |''Not eligible''
| Karishma Aashka Urvashi
| Imam
| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc;" |''Not eligible''
| Imam Delnaaz
| Imam
|-
| colspan="22" style="background:#000;" |
|-
! colspan="2" | Vote to:
! ''none''
! colspan="2" | Evict
! Save
! colspan="5" | Evict
! None
! Evict
! Save
! Evict
! Win
! None
! colspan="2" | Evict
! colspan="3" style="background:#ccc;" |
|-
| colspan="22" style="background:#000;" |
|-
! style="background:#60c;" |
! Urvashi
| style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| Karishma Sapna
| Niketan Rajev
| Sidhu Aashka
| Aseem Sampat
| Niketan Vrajesh
| style="background:#cfc;" |''House Captain''
| Vrajesh Delnaaz
| Vishal Sana
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| Delnaaz Aashka
| Niketan Santosh
| style="background:#FBF373;" |Vishal Rajev
| Niketan Delnaaz Urvashi
| style="background:#ccc;" |''Not eligible''
| Imam Delnaaz
| Delnaaz Sapna
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| style="background:#73FB76;" |{{nowrap|'''''Winner''''' (Day 97)}}
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Imam
| colspan="7" rowspan="2" style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''Not In House''
| style="background:#87CEFA;" | {{nowrap|''Secret Village'' (Days 41–42)}}
| rowspan="2" style="background:#87CEFA;" | {{nowrap|''Secret Village'' (Days 48–51)}}
| rowspan="2" style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| rowspan="2" | Dinesh Rajev
| rowspan="2" | Sana Delnaaz
| rowspan="2" style="background:#959FFD;" |Sapna Niketan
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="background:#cfc;" |''House Captain''
| rowspan="2" | Urvashi Delnaaz
| rowspan="2" style="background:#959FFD;" |Rajev Urvashi
| rowspan="2" style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| rowspan="2" style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| rowspan="2" style="background:#D1E8EF;" |'''''{{nowrap|1st runner-up}}''''' (Day 97)
|-
| style="background:#FFE08B;" | {{nowrap|''Ejected'' (Day 42)}}
|-
! style="background:#FAAFBE;" |
! Sana
| style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| Aseem Dinesh
| Sampat Sayantani
| Karishma Aashka
| Sampat Karishma
| Sapna Niketan
| Vrajesh Niketan
| style="background:#cfc;" |''House Captain''
| Urvashi Delnaaz
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| Urvashi Karishma
| Aashka Delnaaz
| Karishma Sapna
| Delnaaz Aashka Rajev
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''Nominated''
| Imam Sapna
| Sapna Urvashi
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| style="background:#7FFFD4;" |{{nowrap|'''''2nd runner-up''''' (Day 97)}}
|-
! colspan="2" | Niketan
| style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| style="background:#cfc;" |''House Captain''
| Kashif Urvashi
| Sidhu Karishma
| Sampat Aashka
| Sapna Sana
| Sana Sapna
| Sapna Vrajesh
| style="background:#FBF373;" |Sana Vishal
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| Vishal Santosh
| Urvashi Karishma
| Vishal Sana
| Urvashi Niketan Karishma
| style="background:#ccc;" |''Not eligible''
| colspan="2" style="background:#cfc;" |''House Captain''
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| style="background:#DDA0DD;"|{{nowrap|'''3rd runner-up''' (Day 97)}}
|-
! style="background:#20B2AA" |
! Rajev
| style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| Aseem Dinesh
| Kashif Aseem
| Delnaaz Sidhu
| Sampat Karishma
| Sapna Sana
| Vrajesh Aashka
| Sapna Vrajesh
| Urvashi Vishal
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| Vishal Karishma
| Sana Delnaaz
| Vishal Aashka
| Urvashi Delnaaz Rajev
| style="background:#ccc;" |''Not eligible''
| Imam Sapna
| Sapna Urvashi
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| colspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 96)
|-
! style="background:#087830;" |
! Delnaaz
| style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| Sampat Sana
| Sampat Karishma
| Sidhu Aashka
| style="background:#cfc;" |''House Captain''
| Sana Sapna
| Niketan Mink
| Sapna Mink
| Urvashi Vishal
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| Urvashi Rajev
| Aashka Sana
| style="background:#cfc;" |''House Captain''
| Urvashi Aashka Delnaaz
| style="background:#ccc;" |''Not eligible''
| Imam Sapna
| Sana Urvashi
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| colspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 94)
|-
! style="background:#f60;" |
! Sapna
| style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| Aashka Urvashi
| Rajev Sampat
| Aseem Sampat
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''Nominated''
| Sana Vrajesh
| style="background:#959FFD;" |Niketan Mink
|Rajev Urvashi
| style="background:#FBF373;" |Vishal Urvashi
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| colspan="2" style="background:#cfc;" |''House Captain''
| Vishal Sana
| Urvashi Delnaaz Rajev
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''Nominated''
| Imam Delnaaz
| Sana Urvashi
| colspan="3" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 90)
|-
! style="background:#60c;" |
! Aashka
| style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| Karishma Sapna
| Sampat Kashif
| Sidhu Delnaaz
| Karishma Niketan
| style="background:#cfc;" |''House Captain''
| Vrajesh Niketan
| colspan="2" style="background:#87CEFA;" | {{nowrap|''Secret Village'' (Days 41–56)}}
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| Urvashi Imam
| Sana Delnaaz
| Rajev Karishma
| Delnaaz Urvashi Sana
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''Nominated''
| colspan="5" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 83)
|-
! style="background:#f60;" |
! Karishma
| style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| Aashka Urvashi
| Sampat Kashif
| Sidhu Sapna
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''Nominated''
| colspan="2" style="background:#fcf" |''Walked'' (Day 24)
|Vrajesh Rajev
| style="background:#cfc;" |''House Captain''
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| Sana Imam
| Niketan Urvashi
| Sana Vishal
| Niketan Urvashi Delnaaz
| colspan="6" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 80)
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Vishal
| colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''Not In House''
| rowspan="2" style="background:#FFD700;" |''Exempt''
| rowspan="2" |Vrajesh Mink
| Urvashi Rajev
| rowspan="2" style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| rowspan="2" | Niketan Rajev
| rowspan="2" | Sana Santosh
| rowspan="2" | Rajev Aashka
| colspan="7" rowspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 78)
|-
| style="background:#87CEFA;" | {{nowrap|''Secret Village'' (Days 55–56)}}
|-
! colspan="2" | Santosh
| colspan="8" style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''Not In House''
| style="background:#87CEFA;" | {{nowrap|''Secret Village'' (Days 48–56)}}
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| Rajev Niketan
| Vishal Karishma
| colspan="8" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 69)
|-
! style="background:#c00;" |
! Dinesh
|style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| Karishma Sapna
| colspan="5" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 5)
| colspan="2" style="background:#87CEFA;" | {{nowrap|''Secret Village'' (Days 42–57)}}
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| Imam Aashka
| colspan="9" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 66)
|-
! colspan="2" | Mink
| colspan="5" style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''Not In House''
| style="background:#FFD700;" |''Exempt''
| Aashka Sana
|Delnaaz Vishal
| style="background:#FBF373;" |Vishal Sana
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| colspan="10" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 61)
|-
! style="background:#D2B48C;" |
! Vrajesh
|style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| Sampat Sana
| Kashif Rajev
| style="background:#cfc;" |''House Captain''
| Rajev Sapna
| Sapna Sana
| Aashka Rajev
|Sapna Vishal
| style="background:#87CEFA;" | {{nowrap|''Secret Village'' (Days 48–56)}}
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''No Nominations''
| colspan="10" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 61)
|-
! style="background:#FAAFBE;" |
! Sampat
|style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| Aseem Dinesh
| Kashif Aseem
| Sidhu Delnaaz
| Niketan Sapna
| style="background:#959FFD;" |Sana Sapna
| colspan="14" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 33)
|-
! style="background:#20B2AA" |
! Sidhu
| style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| Aseem Dinesh
| Niketan Vrajesh
| Aseem Niketan
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''Nominated''
| Sana Vrajesh
| colspan="14" style="background:#fcf" |''Walked'' (Day 33)
|-
! style="background:#c00;" |
! Aseem
|style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| Karishma Sapna
| Kashif Rajev
| Sidhu Sapna
| style="background:#959FFD;" |''Nominated''
| colspan="15" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 27)
|-
! style="background:#087830;" |
! Sayantani
| style="background:#E5E5E5;" |''In House''
| Sampat Sana
| Sapna Kashif
| Delnaaz Sidhu
| colspan="16" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 19)
|-
! style="background:#D2B48C;" |
! Kashif
| style="background:#1CAC78;" | {{Font colour|white|''Selected''}}
| Sampat Sana
| Rajev Karishma
| colspan="17" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 12)
|-
! colspan="2" | Divya
| style="background:#FF0000;" |{{Font colour|white|''Not Selected''}}
| colspan="19" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 1)
|-
! colspan="2" | Rohin
| style="background:#FF0000;" |{{Font colour|white|''Not Selected''}}
| colspan="19" style="background:#FA8072" |''Evicted'' (Day 1)
|-
| colspan="22" style="background:#000;" |
|-
! colspan="2" |Notes
|
| ''[[#endnote 1|1]]''
| ''[[#endnote 2|2]]''
| ''[[#endnote 3|3]]''
| ''[[#endnote 4|4]]''
| ''[[#endnote 5|5]]''
| ''[[#endnote 6|6]]''
| ''[[#endnote 7|7]]''
| ''[[#endnote 8|8]]''
| ''[[#endnote 9|9]]''
| ''[[#endnote 10|10]]''
| ''[[#endnote 11|11]]''
| ''[[#endnote 12|12]]''
| colspan="2" | ''[[#endnote 13|13]]''
| colspan="2" | ''[[#endnote 14|14]]''
| ''[[#endnote 15|15]]''
| colspan="2" | ''[[#endnote 16|16]]''
|- style="background:#B2FFFF;"
! colspan="2" |Against Public Vote
| Divya Kashif Rohin
| Aseem Dinesh Karishma <s>Sampat Sana</s> Sapna
| Kashif Rajev <s>Sampat</s>
| Rajev <s>Sana</s> Sayantani Urvashi
| Aseem Karishma Sampat Sapna <s>Sidhu</s>
| Sampat Sapna Vrajesh
| Aashka Niketan Sapna Vrajesh
| <s>Delnaaz</s> Mink Rajev Sapna <s>Vishal</s> Vrajesh
| Sana Urvashi Vishal
| Aashka Delnaaz Dinesh Imam Karishma Mink Niketan Rajev Sana Santosh Sapna Urvashi Vishal Vrajesh
| Delnaaz Dinesh Sana Santosh
| Imam Niketan Rajev Santosh Vishal
| Imam Sana Rajev Vishal
| Aashka Karishma Sana Sapna
| Aashka Sana Sapna
| colspan="2" | Delnaaz Imam Sapna Urvashi
| Delnaaz Imam Niketan Sana Rajev Urvashi
| colspan="2" |Imam Niketan Sana Urvashi
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | {{nowrap|Re-entered}}
| colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |''none''
| style="background:#DAFF99;" |'''Karishma'''
| rowspan="2" style="background:#DAFF99;" |'''Imam'''
| colspan="12" rowspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |''none''
|-
| style="background:#DAFF99;" |'''Dinesh'''
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="6" | {{nowrap|Secret Village}}
| colspan="7" rowspan="3" style="background:#ccc" |''none''
| colspan="2" style="background:#87CEFA;" |'''Aashka'''
| colspan="11" rowspan="6" style="background:#ccc" |''none''
|-
| colspan="2" style="background:#87CEFA;" |'''Dinesh'''
|-
| colspan="2" style="background:#87CEFA;" |'''Imam'''
|-
| colspan="8" rowspan="3" style="background:#ccc" |''none''
| style="background:#87CEFA;" |'''Santosh'''
|-
| style="background:#87CEFA;" |'''Vrajesh'''
|-
| style="background:#87CEFA;" |'''Vishal'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Walked
| colspan="4" style="background:#ccc" |''none''
| style="background:#fcf;" |'''Karishma'''
| style="background:#fcf;" |'''Sidhu'''
| colspan="15" style="background:#ccc" |''none''
|-
! colspan="2" | Ejected
! colspan="7" style="background:#ccc" |''none''
| style="background:#FFE08B;" |'''Imam'''
| colspan="12" style="background:#ccc" |''none''
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Evicted
| style="background:#FA8072" |'''Divya'''
! rowspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |'''Dinesh'''
| rowspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |'''Kashif'''
| rowspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |'''Sayantani'''
| rowspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |'''Aseem'''
| rowspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |'''Sampat'''
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#ccc;" |''No eviction''
| style="background:#FA8072" |'''Vrajesh'''
| rowspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |'''Dinesh'''
| rowspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |'''Santosh'''
| rowspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |'''Vishal'''
| rowspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |'''Karishma'''
| rowspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |'''Aashka'''
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="background:#FA8072" |'''Sapna'''
| style="background:#FA8072" |'''Delnaaz'''
| style="background:#DDA0DD;" |'''Niketan'''
| style="background:#7FFFD4;" |'''Sana'''
|-
| style="background:#FA8072" |'''Rohin'''
| style="background:#FA8072" |'''Mink'''
| style="background:#FA8072" |'''Rajev'''
| style="background:#D1E8EF;" |'''Imam'''
| style="background:#73FB76;" |'''Urvashi'''
|-
|}
</blockquote>

{{smalldiv|1=
: {{color box|#959FFD|border=silver}} indicates that the Housemate was directly nominated for eviction.
: {{color box|#FBF373|border=silver}} indicates that the Housemate was immune prior to nominations.
: {{color box|salmon|border=silver}} indicates the contestant has been evicted.
: {{color box|#fcf|border=silver}} indicates the contestant walked out due to emergency.
: {{color box|#FFE08B|border=silver}} indicates the contestant has been ejected.
: {{color box|#CCFFCC|border=silver}} indicates the house captain.
}}

===Nomination notes===
{{smalldiv|1=
* {{note|1|Note 1}}: Housemates were grouped into seven pairs. Niketan, for not being chosen by any housemate to form a pair, was made the House captain. Each pair nominated another pair with consensus when called into the confession room. Vote against a pair added one vote against each individual in the respective pair. The housemates however faced eviction individually.
* {{note|2|Note 2}}: Sidhu refused to vote when called into the confession room, therefore, as punishment Bigg Boss nominated all housemates. This created conflicts among housemates and resulted in protests against Bigg Boss. Sidhu was asked to reconsider nominating two housemates. Nominations concluded when Sidhu contemplated on giving the two names.
* {{note|3|Note 3}}: In a twist to nominations housemates were told to nominate two houses they would like to save from eviction. Vrajesh being the house captain was immune and was not asked to nominate. With receiving no save votes Rajev, Sana, Sayantani and Urvashi were, therefore, nominated.
* {{note|4|Note 4}}: Aseem, Karishma, Sapna and Sidhu were nominated as punishment. Sampat having received the highest number of nominations was also added to the nominations list.
* {{note|5|Note 5}}: Before nominations Sana was given a secret task to garner the highest nominations by convincing her fellow housemates to vote for her. Succeeding in the task will save her from eviction however if she did not receive the highest number of votes, she will be automatically nominated by Bigg Boss. Aashka as captain nominated Sampat directly placing her up for eviction. Sana having received seven out of eight potential votes was spared eviction and Sapna and Vrajesh were, in turn, added to the nominations list.
* {{note|6|Note 6}}: Prior to the voting Urvashi as captain was asked to directly nominate one housemate for eviction. She chose Sapna. Remaining housemates nominated Aashka, Niketan and Vrajesh.
* {{note|7|Note 7}}: Rajev was removed from captaincy as he was found discussing nomination with Niketan and Vishal. Hence, Sana was made captain. Post nominations she was asked to save two housemates from eviction. She chose Vishal and Delnaaz.
* {{note|8|Note 8}}: Karishma as the house captain was asked to take names of five housemates whom she would like the housemates to vote for nominations. Consequently, Sapna, Mink and Niketan became immune. Housemates nominated Sana, Urvashi and Vishal.
* {{note|9|Note 9}}: After the housemates living in the secret village entered the main house, Bigg Boss announced that all fourteen housemates will be put up for eviction and two of them will be evicted. Hence, no nominations took place.
* {{note|10|Note 10}}: In a twist to nominations, housemates with the fewest votes were nominated for eviction.
* {{note|11|Note 11}}: Housemates were asked to save two of their fellow inmates from eviction. With receiving the lowest number of save votes Imam, Niketan, Rajev, Santosh and Vishal were nominated.
* {{note|12|Note 12}}: As a reward for her being successful in the secret task, Urvashi was made immune from nominations. Housemates voted to evict and Imam, Sana, Rajev and Vishal were nominated for eviction.
* {{note|13|Note 13}}: In a twist to nominations, housemates were asked to name three housemates, which may include theirs as well, who they think deserve to win. Owing to receiving the fewest votes Aashka, Karishma, Sana and Sapna were put up for eviction. Karishma was evicted from the house in a surprise mid-week eviction with the aid of a teleportation Magical act. Bigg Boss revealed that the voting lines have remained open only for a day and another housemate will be evicted on Friday.
* {{note|14|Note 14}}: Two nominations took place. For the first housemates voted openly on the interview night before Salman. The other involved housemates' family/friends who nominated on their behalf.
* {{note|15|Note 15}}: During the final week the public initially voted for who they wanted to evict. Delnaaz and Rajev were evicted respectively as a consequence. Audience voted for the four remaining housemates to win Bigg Boss, the three housemates with the fewest votes were evicted on Day 97 (the finale) with the Winner revealed on the same night.
* {{note|16|Note 16}}: In the grand finale; Niketan and Sana was evicted from the house and was declared in 3rd & 4th place. Later the top 2 housemates Imam & Urvashi left the house and entered the stage where Urvashi was declared as the winner.
}}

==Ratings==
The final episode on 12 January clocked a 4.4 TVR (television rating points), becoming the highest-rated non-fiction show during the week.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/bigg-boss-sixth-season-fares-better-than-previous-run/499488/|title=Bigg Boss' sixth season fares better than previous run|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=21 January 2013}}</ref> The finale also fared better than its previous season, which had dropped to 3.6 TVR. In the fourth season, the finale had clocked a 6.7 TVR. The fall in the ratings last year had forced the channel to tweak the format a bit and make it more family-oriented. The show averaged 3.3 TVR in the week ended 12 January compared to 2.8 in the trailing week.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiantelevision.com/mam/headlines/y2k13/jan/janmam76.php|title = Bigg Boss 6 lifts Colors ahead of Star Plus|date = 16 January 2013}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120824234121/http://colors.in.com/in/biggboss Official Website]

{{Bigg Boss (Hindi TV series)}}
{{Colors Programmes}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bigg Boss (season 6)}}
[[Category:2012 Indian television seasons]]
[[Category:2013 Indian television seasons]]
[[Category:Bigg Boss (Hindi TV series) seasons|06]]
[[Category:Colors TV original programming]]

Paradeep

2026-01-11T17:55:03Z

RealArifHossain:

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Paradeep
| other_name = Paradip
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = Shri Jagannath Temple,Paradip.jpg
| photo1b = Paradip Port.jpg
| photo2a = I love paradip.jpg
| photo2b = paradeep sea beach.jpg
| spacing = 1
| color_border =
| size = 300
| text = ''Clockwise from top left:'' Shri Jagannath Temple, [[Paradip Port]], Paradip Sea Beach, 'I LOVE PARADEEP' sign at Paradip Beach
}}
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| nicknames = Smart Industrial Port Town<ref>{{cite web|url =https://www.townland.com/portfolio-item/paradip-smart-industrial-port-city-india.html|title =Paradip Smart Industrial Port City|publisher =townland, 12 May 2020|access-date =2020-05-17}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
| pushpin_map = India Odisha#India#Asia
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Odisha, India
| coordinates = {{coord|20.316|N|86.610|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Odisha]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Jagatsinghpur district|Jagatsinghpur]]
| established_title = 
| established_date = 3 January 1962
| founder = Pandit [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Municipality]]
| governing_body = [[Paradeep Municipality]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 105
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 1
| population_total = 68,585
| population_as_of = 2011<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.citypopulation.de/php/india-odisha.php|title = Odisha (India): Districts, Cities and Towns - Population Statistics, Charts and Map}}</ref>
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym = Paradipians
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Odia language|Odia]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 754142
| registration_plate = OD-21
| website =
| footnotes =
| official_name = Paradweep
| leader_title = [[Chairman]]
| leader_name = Sri Basanta Biswal

| image_blank_emblem = Paradeep Muncipality.png
}}
'''Paradeep''', also spelled '''Paradip''' (originally '''Paradweep''', also spelled '''Paradwip'''), is a major [[industrial town|industrial]] [[seaport]] town and [[municipality]], nearly 80 km from [[Cuttack]] city, in [[Jagatsinghpur district]] of [[Odisha]], India. Paradeep was constituted as an [[Nagar panchayat|NAC]] on 27 September 1979 and converted into a municipality on 12 December 2002. The nearest commercial airport is [[Biju Patnaik International Airport]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2019/feb/25/aai-to-come-up-with-project-report-on-paradip-airport-1943373.html|title=AAI to come up with project report on Paradip airport|website=The New Indian Express|access-date=2019-09-30}}</ref>

The municipality comprises five Revenue Villages, namely Udachandrapur, Chauliapalanda, Sandhakuda, Bijayachandrapur, and Bhitaragarh. Given the increasing population and industrialisation, a proposal to include 15 villages (Paradeep, Garh, Niharuni, Niharuni Kandha, Chouki Matha, Udayabata, Nimidiha, Kotakula, Rangiagarh, Nua Sandhakud, Musadiha, Musadiha Jangle, Boitarkuda, Kaudia, Aganaasi, and Nuagarh) was sent to the state H. & U.D. Department in 2007.

Companies established in Paradeep include [[Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative|IFFCO]], Paradeep Phosphates Limited, [[Indian Oil Corporation]], [[Bharat Petroleum]], [[Hindustan Petroleum]], [[Numaligarh Refinery Limited]] and [[Goa Carbon Limited]].

==History==
During the early 17th century, Paradip and its adjoining areas were connected to [[Cuttack]] through the [[Mahanadi river]] and its branches. Goods were transported to Cuttack from rural areas via the [[Brahmani river|Brahmani]] and [[Dhamra River|Dhamra]] rivers, although this was gradually discontinued due to silting of the river bed.

In 1819, the British constructed a harbour called False Point, north of the present site of Paradip. In 1862, the East India Irrigation Company explored the potential of Paradip for the transportation of rice from the area. The importance of Paradip grew during the great famine of 1866 when it was used as the main entry point for importing food materials into the famine-struck area.
[[File:Pptinaguration.jpg|thumb|Inauguration of [[Paradip Port]]]]

During the early post-independence period, a minor port came into existence at Paradip in 1958 through the efforts of the State Government. Subsequently, the Government decided to construct a major port there. The foundation stone for [[Paradip Port]] was laid on 3 January 1962 by [[Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru]], then Prime Minister of India. On completion in 1965, the port was taken over by the Government of India and was declared open on 12 March 1966. Paradip Port was declared the eighth major port of India and the first major deep sea port on the east coast commissioned after independence. The Paradip Port Trust came into being in 1967 for the development and management of the Port.
[[File:Inaugurationppt.jpg|thumb|]]

==Geography==
Paradip is located at {{Coord|20.16|N|86.40|E|}}.<ref>[http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/21/Paradip_Garh.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Paradip]</ref> It has an average elevation of {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on}}.

==Climate==
{{Weather box
| location = Paradeep (1991–2020, extremes 1969–2012)
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| width = auto
| Jan record high C = 33.2
| Feb record high C = 36.2
| Mar record high C = 39.3
| Apr record high C = 40.7
| May record high C = 41.4
| Jun record high C = 42.4
| Jul record high C = 38.0
| Aug record high C = 39.2
| Sep record high C = 36.4
| Oct record high C = 36.0
| Nov record high C = 34.0
| Dec record high C = 32.6
| year record high C = 42.4
| Jan high C = 26.9
| Feb high C = 29.1
| Mar high C = 31.1
| Apr high C = 32.1
| May high C = 32.9
| Jun high C = 32.5
| Jul high C = 31.5
| Aug high C = 31.5
| Sep high C = 32.0
| Oct high C = 31.9
| Nov high C = 30.1
| Dec high C = 27.9
| year high C = 30.8
| Jan low C = 16.6
| Feb low C = 20.1
| Mar low C = 24.0
| Apr low C = 26.1
| May low C = 27.2
| Jun low C = 27.4
| Jul low C = 26.6
| Aug low C = 26.6
| Sep low C = 26.6
| Oct low C = 24.9
| Nov low C = 20.8
| Dec low C = 17.1
| year low C = 23.6
| Jan record low C = 9.6
| Feb record low C = 12.0
| Mar record low C = 13.4
| Apr record low C = 16.0
| May record low C = 17.5
| Jun record low C = 18.5
| Jul record low C = 18.1
| Aug record low C = 17.8
| Sep record low C = 19.6
| Oct record low C = 16.0
| Nov record low C = 12.0
| Dec record low C = 10.4
| year record low C = 9.6
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 11.1
| Feb rain mm = 11.4
| Mar rain mm = 26.2
| Apr rain mm = 30.5
| May rain mm = 104.2
| Jun rain mm = 204.8
| Jul rain mm = 322.5
| Aug rain mm = 380.1
| Sep rain mm = 320.2
| Oct rain mm = 233.0
| Nov rain mm = 75.6
| Dec rain mm = 11.9
| year rain mm = 1731.4
| Jan rain days = 0.7
| Feb rain days = 0.9
| Mar rain days = 1.1
| Apr rain days = 2.1
| May rain days = 4.0
| Jun rain days = 8.9
| Jul rain days = 13.3
| Aug rain days = 13.8
| Sep rain days = 11.4
| Oct rain days = 7.7
| Nov rain days = 2.4
| Dec rain days = 0.7
| year rain days = 66.9
| time day = 17:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| Jan humidity = 70
| Feb humidity = 74
| Mar humidity = 78
| Apr humidity = 83
| May humidity = 82
| Jun humidity = 82
| Jul humidity = 84
| Aug humidity = 84
| Sep humidity = 83
| Oct humidity = 78
| Nov humidity = 71
| Dec humidity = 68
| year humidity = 78
| source 1 = [[India Meteorological Department]]<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/Climatological%20Tables%201991-2020.pdf
| title = Climatological Tables of Observatories in India 1991-2020
| publisher = [[India Meteorological Department]]
| access-date = April 8, 2024
}}</ref><ref name=IMDnormals>
{{cite web| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf
| title = Station: Paradip Port Climatological Table 1981–2010
| work = Climatological Normals 1981–2010
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = January 2015
| pages = 591–592
| access-date = 26 September 2023}}</ref><ref name=IMDextremes>
{{cite web| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| title = Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012)
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = December 2016
| page = M165
| access-date = 26 September 2023}}</ref>
}}

==Transport==

Paradeep is on [[National Highway 53 (India)|National Highway 53]] and State Highway No. 12, and is also served by the broad-gauge electrified railway system of the East coast. Bus routes connect it to [[Rourkela]], [[Kolkata]], [[Puri]], and [[Konark]]. It is also connected to [[Cuttack]] by bus and train.

[[File:Paradeep Railway station.jpg|thumb|[[Paradeep railway station|Paradeep Railway Station]]]]

==Paradip Port==
{{main|Paradip Port}}
[[File:Paradip Port Authority Administrative Building.jpg|thumb|Paradip Port Administrative Building]]
The [[Port of Paradip]] is the primary [[port]] in Odisha, and one of the largest on India's east coast. Located on the [[Bay of Bengal]] at a latitude of 20° 55.44' N and a longitude of 86°34.62' E, the port is built on an artificial [[harbour]], with ships accessing the port via human-made [[lagoon]]s. The port handled over 100 million tonnes of cargo in 2017–2018, notably thermal coal and iron ore.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://paradipport.gov.in/ |title=Paradip Port Authority website| access-date=26 September 2023 }}</ref>

The port's {{cvt|55,000|m2}} of paved concrete storage area can hold about 1000 TEUs (20 ft). It has three mobile cranes, an in-house stuffing/destuffing facility, a siding facility, an RO-RO jetty, and single-point mooring.

==Industry==
Major industries in Paradip include:
* [[Paradip Refinery]], which is under [[Indian Oil Corporation Limited]], is a major [[oil refinery]] in Paradip with a capacity of 15 million [[tonne]]s per year
* Paradeep Phosphates Limited, a [[fertilizer]] company
* Multi Modal Logistics Park, Container Corporation of India Limited
* Paradeep Plastic Park Limited
* [[Goa Carbon Limited|Goa Carbon Ltd.]]'s petroleum coke [[calcination]] plant, with a capacity of 1,68,000 TPA<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}}{{!}} Goa Carbon Limited |url=https://goacarbon.com/manufacturing-locations.php |access-date=2023-11-01 |website=goacarbon.com}}</ref>
* [[IFFCO]]'s fertilizer plant
* [[Essar Steel]]'s pellet plant
* [[Indian Oil Corporation|IOCL]] marketing terminal
* [[Bharat Petroleum Corporation|BPCL]] marketing terminal
* [[Hindustan Petroleum Corporation|HPCL]] marketing terminal.
* [[Cargill]]'s edible oil plant
* Skol Breweries Ltd.'s East Coast Brewery

Paradeep has several upcoming steel plants, including a US$12 billion plant being developed by [[POSCO]] of South Korea. In addition, aluminium refineries, thermal power plants, and a petrochemical complex are under development.

Paradeep has been identified for development as one of the six major [[Petroleum, Chemicals and Petrochemicals Investment Region]]s (PCPIRs) in India. The Paradeep PCPIR has identified an investment potential of US$68.84 billion, spread over {{convert|284|km2|mi2}} in the area.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.icis.com/Articles/2009/04/06/9205193/india-sets-out-plans-for-rapid-petrochemicals-growth.html|title=ICIS Login}}</ref>

==Demographics==
As of the 2001 Indian [[census]], Paradip had a population of 73,633.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> The population was 58% male and 42% female, due to rapid migration of young industrial workers to the area. Paradeep has an average literacy rate of 73%, higher than the national average of 59.5%; male literacy is 79%, and female literacy is 65%. 12% of the population is under 6 years of age.
===Languages===
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Languages spoken in Paradip Town (2011)<ref>[https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16T/DDW-C16-TOWN-STMT-MDDS-2000.XLSX 2011 census data] censusindia.gov.in</ref>
|label1 = [[Odia language| Odia]]
|value1= 71.1
|color1 =Orange
|label2= [[Bengali language| Bengali]]
|value2= 13.70
|color2=green
|label3 = [[ Telugu language| Telugu]]
|value3 = 8.76
|color3 = blue
|label4 = [[ Hindi language| Hindi]]
|value4 = 1.78
|color4 =pink
|label5 = [[ Santali language| Santali]]
|value5= 1.67
|color5 = black
|label6 = Others
|value6= 1.55
|color6 = white
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Wikivoyage inline|Paradip}}
* [https://paradipport.gov.in/ Paradip Port Authority]
* [http://www.indianexpress.com/story/3230.html At Hannover, India’s big infrastructure idea: Special Economic Regions]

{{Jagatsinghpur district}}
{{Industrial hubs in Odisha |state=collapsed}}
{{Municipalities of Odisha}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Jagatsinghpur district]]
[[Category:Port cities and towns in India]]

Moro River campaign

2026-01-08T23:54:55Z

RealArifHossain: new the place added tags

{{Short description|Military campaign during World War II}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict='''Moro River campaign'''
|partof=the [[Winter Line|Winter Line and the battle for Rome]] of the [[Italian campaign (World War II)|Italian campaign]], [[World War II]]
|image=Moro 48th counterattack.jpg
|image_size=250px
|caption=Riflemen of the [[48th Highlanders of Canada]] take cover during German counterattack north of San Leonardo, 10 December 1943
|date=4 December 1943 – 4 January 1944
|place=[[Moro (Italian river)|Moro River]], eastern Italy
|territory=
|result=See [[#Aftermath|Aftermath]]
|combatant1={{flag|United Kingdom}}
* {{flagicon|British Raj}} [[British Raj|British India]]
{{flag|Canada|1921}} {{flagcountry|Dominion of New Zealand}}
|combatant2={{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
|commander1={{plainlist|
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|Harold Alexander]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Bernard Montgomery]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Charles Walter Allfrey|Charles Allfrey]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Miles Dempsey]]
}}
|commander2={{plainlist|
* {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Albert Kesselring]]
* {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Heinrich von Vietinghoff]]{{#tag:ref|[[Heinrich von Vietinghoff|von Vietinghoff]] went to Germany on sick leave in late November and Lemelsen commanded the [[10th Army (Wehrmacht)|Tenth Army]] during the major actions on the [[Bernhardt Line]] in December.<ref>Nicholson (1956), p. 269</ref> Von Vietinghof returned in early January|group=nb}}
* {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Joachim Lemelsen]]
* {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Traugott Herr]]
}}
|strength1={{unbulleted list | 4 infantry divisions | 2 armoured brigades}}
|strength2={{unbulleted list | 1 {{lang|de|Panzer}} division | 1 parachute division | 2 {{lang|de|Panzergrenadier}} divisions}}
|casualties1={{plainlist|
* {{flagicon|Canada|1921}} 2,339 casualties<ref>Berton, p. 440</ref>
* {{flagicon|Dominion of New Zealand}} 1,600 casualties{{#tag:ref|From 9 November to 31 December<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c7-2.html#n173 p. 173]</ref> which includes therefore casualties during the operations on the [[Bernhardt Line|Sangro river]]|group=nb}}
* {{flagicon|British Raj}} 3,400 casualties{{#tag:ref|Includes casualties on the [[Bernhardt Line|Sangro]] and Moro,<ref>Molony, p. 507th .</ref>|group=nb}}
* {{flagicon|UK}} Unknown
}}
|casualties2=Unknown
|notes=
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Italy}}
{{Campaignbox Winter Line}}
}}

The '''Moro River campaign''' was an important battle of the [[Italian campaign (World War II)|Italian campaign]] during the [[World War II|Second World War]], fought between elements of the [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|British Eighth Army]] and [[LXXVI Panzer Corps]] ({{lang|de|LXXVI Panzerkorps}}) of the [[10th Army (Wehrmacht)|German 10th Army]] ({{lang|de|10. Armee}}). Lasting from 4 December 1943 to 4 January 1944, the campaign occurred primarily in the vicinity of the [[Moro (Italian river)|Moro River]] in eastern [[Italy]]. The campaign was designed as part of an offensive launched by [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|Sir Harold Alexander]]'s [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[15th Army Group]], with the intention of breaching the [[German Army (Wehrmacht)|German Army]]'s [[Winter Line|Winter Line defensive system]] and advancing to [[Pescara]]—and eventually [[Rome]].

Beginning on 4 December, four infantry divisions—one [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|British]], one [[1st Canadian Division|Canadian]], one [[8th Infantry Division (India)|Indian]] and one [[2nd New Zealand Division|New Zealand]] (which included an [[4th New Zealand Armoured Brigade|armoured brigade]])—and two armoured brigades (one [[4th Infantry Brigade and Headquarters North East|British]] and one [[1st Canadian Armoured Brigade|Canadian]]) of [[V Corps (United Kingdom)|V Corps]] and [[XIII Corps (United Kingdom)|XIII Corps]] attacked heavily defended German positions along the Moro River, achieving several exploitable [[bridgehead]]s by 8 December. Throughout the next week, nearly continuous combat operations by both sides—designed to keep one another pinned down—created stagnated defensive positions near [[Orsogna]] and a narrow pit known as "The Gully". After being held at the Gully for 10 days, the Canadians succeeded in outflanking German defences, and forcing a German withdrawal to the Ortona–Orsogna Line. On 20 December, the line was attacked by both corps.

By 26 December, strong German defences had stalled Canadian forces during the [[Battle of Ortona]] and British and New Zealand forces in Orsogna. Although both Ortona and Villa Grande were captured by the end of December, general exhaustion among the Allied forces prevented the capture of Orsogna and an advance to Pescara. When harsh winter weather set in, it became clear to the Allied commanders that no further progress would be made and General Alexander called off the offensive.

==Background==
[[File:Italy1943Sango+MoroCampaigns.svg|thumb|310px|Map of the campaign]]
In late 1943, the [[15th Army Group]] under [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|Sir Harold Alexander]] were fighting their way northward in Italy against determined German opposition, commanded by {{lang|de|[[Generalfeldmarschall]]}} [[Albert Kesselring]], whose forces had prepared a succession of defensive lines.<ref name=b172>Bercuson, p. 172</ref> East of the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennine Mountain spine]] was the [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|British Eighth Army]], under General [[Bernard Montgomery|Sir Bernard Montgomery]]. In October, the Eighth Army had crossed the Biferno river and pushed the German defenders from the [[Volturno Line|Volturno-Viktor Line]] defences. Delayed by logistical problems, they were not able to attack the next line of defences (the [[Barbara Line]]) behind the [[Trigno|Trigno river]] until 2 November. However, by 9 November forward elements of the Eighth Army were in contact with the forward defences of the German [[Winter Line]], which had been set on the high ground north of the [[Sangro|Sangro River]].<ref name=b172/>

The [[Bernhardt Line|main attack across the Sangro]] by [[V Corps (United Kingdom)|V Corps]] ([[Lieutenant-general (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Charles Walter Allfrey|Charles Allfrey]]), comprising the [[78th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|British 78th Infantry Division]] ([[Major-general (United Kingdom)|Major-General]] [[Vyvyan Evelegh]]) and [[8th Infantry Division (India)|8th Indian Infantry Division]] (Major-General [[Dudley Russell]]) with supporting and diversionary attacks further inland by the [[2nd New Zealand Division]] (Lieutenant-General [[Bernard Freyberg, 1st Baron Freyberg|Sir Bernard Freyberg]]) and [[XIII Corps (United Kingdom)|XIII Corps]] (Lieutenant-General [[Miles Dempsey]]) was delayed by bad weather until late November. After several days of hard fighting, the Germans withdrew to the defences they had prepared on the high ground to the north of the Moro river.<ref>Hoyt (2007), pp. 112–114</ref>

===Offensive strategy and order of battle===
{{Further|Moro River campaign order of battle}}

The Moro River runs from the central mountain spine of Italy to the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] coast south of Ortona. The German defences on the Moro were a centerpiece of the [[Winter Line]], which guarded the eastern side of the Apennines along Route 5. Montgomery hoped to punch through the Winter Line, capture Ortona and Pescara and advance to Rome. The British 78th Infantry Division, which had been spearheading V Corps since the Volturno Line actions and had sustained over 7,000 casualties in less than six months,<ref name="Tiger23">Hingston (1946), p. 23</ref> was relieved by the fresh [[1st Canadian Division|1st Canadian Infantry Division]] (Major-General [[Christopher Vokes]]), ready to renew the offensive on 5 December 1943.<ref name=hoyt115>Hoyt (2007), p. 115</ref> The 78th Infantry Division was sent into the mountains on the relatively quiet left wing of the army, joining the [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|British 5th Infantry Division]] (Major-General [[Gerard Bucknall]]) under XIII Corps.<ref name=hoyt115/>

Montgomery's plan was for the 1st Canadian Division to attack across the Moro in the coastal lowlands to take Ortona first and then Pescara. Inland, in the jagged hills above the headwaters of the Moro, the relatively fresh [[2nd New Zealand Division]] would attack toward Orsogna, while between these two the 8th Indian Infantry Division would hold the centre of the front in a relatively static role.<ref name="Tiger23"/>

Facing the British V Corps was the [[1st Parachute Division (Germany)|1st Parachute Division]] ({{lang|de|1. Fallschirmjägerdivision}}) under Brigadier General ({{lang|de|[[General (Germany)|Generalmajor]]}}) [[Richard Heidrich]] on the coast, to their right stood the [[90th Light Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|90th Panzergrenadier Division]] ({{lang|de|90. Panzergrenadierdivision}}) under Major General [[Carl-Hans Lungershausen]] succeeded by Colonel ({{lang|de|Oberst}}) [[Ernst-Günther Baade]] on 20 December, and further inland of them was the [[23rd Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|26th Panzer Division]] ({{lang|de|26. Panzerdivision}}) under Brigadier General [[Smilo Freiherr von Lüttwitz]] with their right flank on Orsogna. Further inland, facing the British XIII Corps, was the [[65th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|65th Infantry Division]] ({{lang|de|65. Infantriedivision}}) under Brigadier General [[Hellmuth Pfeifer]] supported by elements of 1st Parachute and [[5th Mountain Division (Wehrmacht)|5th Mountain Division]] ({{lang|de|5. Gebirgsdivision}}) under Brigadier General [[Julius Ringel]].<ref name= phillips107>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c5-2.html#n107 p. 107]</ref> Together, these units formed [[Traugott Herr]]′s LXXVI Panzer Corps, the part of [[Joachim Lemelsen]]'s 10th Army responsible for the front line to the east of the Apennines.<ref name=phillips107/>

==Campaign==

===Canadian division across the Moro===
On 6 December 1943, Canadian forces began a series of large-scale assaults on major crossing points along the Moro River with the objective of securing a large bridgehead along the defensive line.<ref name="Z158">Zuehlke (2001), p. 158</ref> Three primary points of attack were chosen: Villa Rogatti, along the western edge of the Canadian sector;<ref name="Z158"/> San Leonardo, {{convert|5|km|mi|abbr=on}} south of Ortona; and San Donato, a small town near the Italian coast. Five primary infantry battalions were selected to assault these positions with the objective of crossing the Moro River. The offensives were scheduled to start on the morning of 6 December.<ref>Bercuson, p. 173</ref>

===Villa Rogatti===
The task of taking Villa Rogatti, the westernmost crossing point, was given to [[Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry]] (PPCLI). Having conducted reconnaissance on their objective during the night of 5 December 1943,<ref name="Z76">Zuehlke (1999), p. 76</ref> an attack plan was devised by the battalion's commander—Lieutenant-Colonel [[Cameron Bethel Ware]]—detailing the objectives of all four rifle companies.<ref name="Z76"/> Once the objectives had been secured by the early morning of 6 December, Anglo-Canadian reinforcements were to be moved into Villa Rogatti, with the intention of repulsing the expected potentially strong German counterattacks.<ref>Zuehlke (1999), p. 77</ref> Elements of three German regiments—the 200th and 361st Panzergrenadier, and 26th Panzer—maintained strong defences within the town.<ref>Zuehlke (1999), p. 48</ref>

At 00:00 on 5 December, two companies of the PPCLI crossed the Moro River, moving towards Villa Rogatti.<ref>Zuehlke (1999), p. 78</ref> Within an hour, vicious fighting had erupted throughout the town as the two companies of Canadian infantry struggled to break the German defensive lines.<ref name="Z79">Zuehlke (1999), p. 79</ref> As B Company broke through the German defences, A Company attacked to the northeast, continuing to engage 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment ({{lang|de|200. Panzergrenadier Regiment}}) near Villa Rogatti.<ref name="Z79"/> Although two Canadian infantry companies now occupied Villa Rogatti, German [[Panzergrenadier]] forces still maintained substantial defences on the outskirts of the town. However, C Company continued to advance steadily along the eastern side of the town, encountering significant resistance from the 361st Panzergrenadier Regiment ({{lang|de|361. Panzergrenadier-Regiment}}).<ref>Zuehlke (1999), p. 80</ref> After approximately an hour of fighting by C and D Companies, Villa Rogatti had been occupied by Canadian forces shortly before dawn.<ref name="Zuehlke8485">Zuehlke (1999), pp. 84–85</ref>

By mid-morning, German counterattacks on PPCLI positions in the town had begun, involving tanks from the 7th Company of the 26th Panzer Regiment ({{lang|de|26. Panzer-Regiment}}),<ref>Zuehlke (1999), p. 89</ref> field guns and substantial infantry forces. Throughout the afternoon two infantry companies of the PPCLI fought off several attacks by German forces, eventually managing to push them back to the vineyards on the northern edge of the town. While the PPCLI had taken 68 casualties, German casualties were estimated at 120.<ref name="Z91">Zuehlke (1999), p. 91</ref> However, three strong German formation surrounded the Canadian positions at Villa Rogatti, rendering further exploitation of the bridgehead unlikely.<ref name="Z91"/> Col. Ware was advised to be ready to withdraw across the Moro River, should German forces counterattack.<ref name="Z91"/> In order to allow the Canadian Division a greater concentration of force, on the night of 7/8 December, the Indian 21st Infantry Brigade from the Indian 8th Infantry Division amalgamated the western flank of the 1st Canadian Division into their own lines.<ref name="Tiger24">Hingston (1946), p. 24</ref> As a result of the withdrawal, Canadian efforts would focus on achieving a bridgehead at San Leonardo.<ref name="Z91"/>

===San Leonardo===
The Canadian attack on San Leonardo by the [[Seaforth Highlanders of Canada]] began late on 5 December 1943 with A Company establishing a bridgehead across the Moro, taking heavy casualties. In the early morning of 6 December, A Company was withdrawn and two additional Seaforth companies resumed the offensive. As PPCLI secured and held their bridgehead over the Moro River, the Seaforth Highlanders were struggling to enter San Leonardo.<ref name="Zuehlke92">Zuehlke (1999), p. 92</ref> By 07:15, a single objective had been taken, with Canadian units pinned down by well-coordinated defensive fire from several companies of the 361st Regiment. Simultaneously, small arms fire prevented C Company from moving up the road from the Moro to San Leonardo, while D Company remained on the southern banks of the Moro throughout the early morning.<ref name="Zuehlke92"/>

In the afternoon, having failed to capture San Leonardo, the [[Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment]] sent two rifle companies to the aid of the Seaforth Highlanders, as Seaforth B Company attacked positions west of San Leonardo – inflicting 129 casualties on German forces in the area.<ref name="Zuehlke94">Zuehlke (1999), p. 94</ref> However, the attack on San Leonardo by three Seaforth companies stalled rapidly when the 26th {{lang|de|Panzer}} Regiment's armoured companies reinforced the sector.<ref name="Zuehlke96">Zuehlke (1999), p. 96</ref> As a result, Forin was ordered to prepare for a withdrawal from the San Leonardo bridgehead.<ref name=Zuehlke96/>

===San Donato===
While attempts were made to cross the Moro at San Leonardo and Villa Rogatti, The Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment launched an attack on the Moro River defences at the small coastal hamlet of San Donato at 13:40 on 6 December.<ref name="Zuehlke9899">Zuehlke (1999), pp. 98–99</ref><ref name= "Zuehlke 2001, p. 159">Zuehlke (2001), p. 159</ref> However, the single rifle company making the attack achieved little territorial gain and Lieutenant-Colonel Kennedy—commander of the Hastings & Prince Edward Regiment—ordered a withdrawal at 15:40. Throughout 6 December, strong German coastal defences would prevent further advancement, despite the incorporation of tanks and artillery into the assault.<ref name="Zuehlke9899"/> By nightfall, the German defenders still possessed control of San Donato, with the Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment withdrawing to the southern bank of the Moro River.<ref name="Zuehlke 2001, p. 159"/>

===Taking the Moro===
[[File:Moro-captured.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Soldiers of the [[Seaforth Highlanders of Canada]] searching German prisoners near the Moro River, 8 December 1943]]

On 8 December 1943, Major General Vokes devised a new plan for taking the Moro River. While the [[48th Highlanders of Canada]] and Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry resumed the assault on San Leonardo from the southwest side of the town, the [[Royal Canadian Regiment]] (RCR) would break out of the bridgehead created by the Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment, then move southwest towards San Leonardo to link up with the 48th and PPCLI. The operation was scheduled to start on the afternoon of 8 December.<ref name="Bercuson174">Bercuson, p. 174</ref>

The attack began with a massive artillery barrage which pounded German positions continuously for two hours.<ref name="Zuehlke122123">Zuehlke (1999), pp. 122–123</ref> At 16:00, the [[Saskatoon Light Infantry]] support battalion joined in, hitting German positions with bursts of machine gun fire.<ref name="Zuehlke122123"/> The moment the heavy bombardment lifted, the 48th Highlanders and the RCR both initiated their attacks. D Company of the 48th Highlanders was able to quickly cross the Moro, taking minimal casualties. However, B Company was subjected to heavy fire from German mortars and {{convert|88|mm|in|2|abbr=on}} artillery positions.<ref name="CoppNov2006">Copp (November 2006)</ref> Eventually, however, both companies managed to establish strong positions on the western ridge overlooking San Leonardo.<ref name="CoppNov2006"/> During the night of 8/9 December, units of the [[Royal Canadian Engineers]] (RCE) constructed a bridge over the Moro, to allow armour and equipment to move into San Leonardo the following day.<ref name="Bercuson174"/>

As the 48th Highlanders secured their positions west of San Leonardo, the Royal Canadian Regiment was involved in intense fighting southwest of San Donato. Two companies had advanced against strong and well prepared German defences of the 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment.<ref name= "Zuehlke130">Zuehlke (1999), p. 130</ref> A Company was quickly tied down by German mortar fire, while B Company flanked German positions to the north of San Donato. By nightfall, all four companies held tenuous positions in the thick of German defences. On the night of 8/9 December, the RCR was subjected to counterattacks by the 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment which were repulsed with the support of continuous Canadian artillery shelling.<ref name="Bercuson174"/>

By the morning of 9 December, the RCE had completed the bridge across the Moro River, enabling the tanks of the [[King's Own Calgary Regiment|14th Armoured Regiment (Calgary Regiment)]] to transport two companies of Seaforth Highlanders across the river into San Leonardo.<ref name="CoppNov2006"/> By mid morning, San Leonardo had been cleared of German defenders, although strong positions still existed outside of the town. Within an hour, the Calgarys' tanks had broken through German positions near Sterlen Castle and two companies had linked up with the 48th Highlanders and Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry within San Leonardo, finally establishing firm Canadian positions across the Moro River.<ref name="Bercuson174"/> Near the end of 9 December, German forces of the 90th Panzergrenadier Division fell back to their second defensive line: a formidable obstacle known as "The Gully".<ref name="Zuehlke 2001, p. 159"/>

===Attacks on Orsogna===
While Canadian crossed the Moro River, the New Zealand Division launched a two-brigade attack, ''Operation Torso'', against Orsogna at 14:30 on 7 December.<ref>Philips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c5-2.html#n107 pp107-109]</ref> The division had the [[2nd Parachute Brigade (United Kingdom)|British 2nd Independent Parachute Brigade]] under their command, anchoring their left flank<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c5-1.html#n105 p. 105]</ref> and were supported by heavy concentrations of artillery and air support.<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c5-2.html#n109 p. 109]</ref> Surprise was achieved as Traugott Herr, the commander of LXXVI Panzer Corps, had been persuaded that the New Zealanders would not be in a position to launch a major attack until 8 December.<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c5-2.html#n110 p. 110]</ref>

Initially, the New Zealand attack progressed well,<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c5-2.html#n111 p. 111]</ref> but the German defenders regained their composure and the attack lost momentum against heavily fortified defensive positions. By 21:00, the NZ 24th Infantry Battalion had fought its way in slow house to house fighting to the centre of the town, but were pinned down with no prospect of further progress without significant armoured support.<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c5-2.html#n114 p. 114]</ref> However, a combination of concealed minefields and well dug in German armour made the task of the Allied tanks impossible.<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c5-2.html#n116 p. 116]</ref> In the early hours of 8 December, the New Zealand commander—Bernard Freyberg—ordered a withdrawal from the town with a view to renewing the attack after further softening up from artillery and bombers.<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c5-2.html#n115 p. 115]</ref>

===Indian Division across the Moro – the "impossible" bridge===
With both the Canadian and New Zealand Divisions finding progress difficult, it was decided to bring the Indian 21st Infantry Brigade into the attack with orders to seize Caldari. With no river crossing available, the Indian engineers rushed to build a bridge across the Moro which was completed on 9 December and allowed infantry and supporting armour to cross and expand the bridgehead on the far bank. The bridge was named the "Impossible Bridge" because the local geography required for it to be built backwards from the enemy bank of the river.<ref name= "Tiger24">Hingston (1946), p. 24</ref>

===The Gully===
[[File:Morotank.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Canadian [[M4 Sherman|Sherman]] driven off the road by German mortar fire, 10 December 1943]]

Following the loss of San Leonardo and the Moro River, the 90th Panzergrenadier Division withdrew to a primary defensive line {{convert|5|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of San Leonardo. The line centred around a natural ravine known as "The Gully", with an average depth of {{convert|200|ft|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Zuehlke166">Zuehlke (1999), p. 166</ref> General Vokes's initial plan to take the position (as well as achieve a foothold on the roads toward Ortona) consisted of a frontal assault by the [[2nd Canadian Infantry Brigade]], which would seize Vino Ridge, capture The Gully and gain positions on the Ortona to Orsogna road.<ref name= "Berton437">Berton, p. 437</ref> However, German defences were adequately prepared, including gun-pits, bunkers and shelters.<ref name="Berton437"/>

On 10 December, three Canadian battalions made their first attempt to cross The Gully. Although they succeeded in capturing Vino Ridge, directly south of The Gully, attempts to neutralise German positions in the ravine were unsuccessful.<ref name="Bercuson174"/><ref name="CoppJan2007">Copp (January 2007)</ref> On 11 December, the three battalions made another attempt, with the [[Loyal Edmonton Regiment]] suffering heavy casualties in their attempts to take German positions in the sector.<ref name="Zuehlke 2001, p. 159"/> Although the badly mauled A Company was able to gain a foothold on the reverse slope, newly arrived German units forced the remaining men to withdraw.<ref>Zuehlke (1999), p. 177</ref>

On 12 December 1943, General Vokes sent the three battalions of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Brigade against German defences in The Gully.<ref name="Berton438">Berton, p. 438</ref> The assault started poorly, when Canadian artillery plans were captured by soldiers of the 90th Panzergrenadier Division's 200th Regiment.<ref>Zuehlke (1999), p. 186</ref> When the [[West Nova Scotia Regiment]] attacked The Gully, they were subject to counterattacks by the 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment approximately 10:30. By 14:00, the regiment had called off its attacks and had taken heavy casualties. To the west, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry fared little better, with C Company taking heavy casualties in their assault.<ref name="Berton438"/> Attempts were again made on 13 December, by two battalions of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Brigade, and the attacks were driven back by tenacious German resistance.<ref name="CoppJan2007"/> On the evening of 13 December, the heavily depleted 90th Panzergrenadier Division were relieved from their positions in The Gully by units of the 1st Parachute Division.<ref>Berton, pp. 438–439</ref>

===Casa Berardi===
{{redirect|Casa Berardi|the mine in Quebec|Casa Berardi Mine}}
By 14 December, Vokes had devised a new assault plan for taking The Gully. A small force from the [[Royal 22e Régiment|Royal 22e Régiment]] would move to [[Casa Berardi]], a small set of farmhouses west of The Gully, before outflanking German positions with infantry and armour, thereby forcing the 1st Parachute Division to withdraw.<ref name="Bercuson174"/> The attack was to begin at dawn, with two companies of the Royal 22e Régiment attacking Casa Berardi with artillery support.<ref name="CoppJan2007"/> By 07:50, both companies had control of the lateral highway leading to Casa Berardi. C Company—under Captain [[Paul Triquet]]—pushed on toward Casa Berardi with support from the [[11th Armoured Regiment (The Ontario Regiment)]], while D Company found itself involved in firefights southwest of Casa Berardi.<ref name="CoppJan2007"/> At 08:30, C Company began their assault toward the manor house in Casa Berardi, some {{convert|2000|yd|m|abbr=on}} away. Strong German defences caused heavy casualties to the attackers; only 21 men and five tanks made it to within {{convert|200|yd|m|abbr=on}} of the objective. Despite the arrival of several [[Panzer IV|{{lang|de|Panzer|cat=no}} IVs]], Triquet's remaining forces captured the manor house at 14:30. However, only 14 men of C Company remained fit to continue fighting.<ref>Zuehlke (1999), p. 210</ref> For his efforts to capture Casa Berardi, Triquet was awarded the [[Victoria Cross]].<ref name="Bercuson175">Bercuson, p. 175</ref>

===Eighth Army reorganises to intensify the attack===
With the Indian Division committed, Montgomery decided to raise the stakes further by bringing the British 5th Infantry Division from the relatively tranquil XIII Corps front in the high mountains on the left wing of the 8th Army and insert them between the New Zealand and Indian Divisions. This would allow the Indian division to narrow and concentrate their attack and give Montgomery four divisions to continue the attack between Orsogna and the sea. By 12 December, the [[17th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)|British 17th Infantry Brigade]]—the first of 5th Division's brigades—was in place and under the New Zealand division's command. Once 5th Division headquarters and its other brigades had arrived, these two left hand divisions were to be organised under the command of XIII Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Miles Dempsey.<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c5-2.html#n119 p. 119]</ref>

[[File:The British Army in Italy 1943 NA9796.jpg|thumb|left|General Montgomery cuts the tape to officially open the Bailey bridge constructed over the Sangro river, 14 December 1943.]]

To the left of the Canadian division, the Indian 21st Brigade had by 13 December established a solid bridgehead around the "Impossible Bridge". That night, a second 8th Indian Division brigade—the 17th Indian Infantry Brigade—passed through and attacked towards Caldari. The 1st Battalion [[Royal Fusiliers]] stormed the village in a wild night's fighting while the 1st Battalion [[5th Gurkha Rifles]] seized Point 198 nearby, holding it against determined counterattacks, including from tanks in the afternoon of 14 December. That evening, 1st Battalion [[12th Frontier Force Regiment]] attacked on the left of the Gurkhas and established positions on the lateral road between Ortona and Orsogna running parallel to the Moro some {{convert|1000|yd|m|abbr=on}} north of the "Impossible Bridge". On the evening of 15 December, the 1st/5th Battalion [[Essex Regiment]] from the Indian Division's 19th Indian Infantry Brigade, which had been held in reserve, was committed on the left flank of the Frontier Force Regiment to advance in the direction of Crecchio and overran a number of German positions. By the end of 16 December, further attacks from the [[15th Punjab Regiment]]'s 3rd Battalion had secured positions on the lateral road, ensuring that the 8th Indian Division was firmly embedded in the main German defences.<ref>Hingston (1946), p. 26</ref>

Meanwhile, at 01:00 on 15 December, the New Zealand Division—electing not to make a further frontal assault on Orsogna—launched their 5th Brigade in ''Operation Florence'', a new flanking attack to the right of the village.<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c6-1.html#n121 p. 121]</ref> By that afternoon, 5th Brigade was well established on the Orsogna to Ortona lateral road and had driven a shallow salient into the German forward defensive line. Although they had exhausted nearly all their reserves,<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c6-1.html#n127 p. 127]</ref> divisional headquarters was optimistic for the prospects for the next day, given the heavy casualties they had inflicted that day.<ref name= "p. 128">Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c6-1.html#n128 p. 128]</ref>

However, the Germans launched a counterattack at 03:15 on 16 December, throwing in men from the 6th Parachute Regiment, sent by Herr to the 26th Panzer Division to relieve the exhausted 9th Panzergrenadier Regiment. These troops had arrived late that evening after a long journey.<ref name="p. 128"/> Supported by tanks, they attacked the right-hand New Zealand positions held by the 21st NZ Battalion, but were held off and had retired by daylight. Meanwhile, even before the German counterattack had been repelled, the 20th Regiment had attacked toward Orsogna with two squadrons of Sherman tanks. Under intense artillery and anti-tank fire, the tanks and infantry became separated and the tanks became a target rather than a threat.<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c6-1.html#n131 p. 131]</ref>

''Operation Florence'' had come to an end. While the German line had been pushed back and they had sustained casualties they could ill afford, they still firmly held Orsogna. Furthermore, the New Zealand Division was, for the time being, fought out and needed a period of consolidation and reorganisation.<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c6-1.html#n133 9. 133]</ref>

By 16 December, the British 5th Division had completed its move into the line between the New Zealand and the Indian divisions. There followed a period of hostile patrolling and skirmishing on the XIII Corps front. The main burden of the fighting was therefore assumed by V Corps as the Canadians pushed for Ortona with the Indian Division on their left flank attacking toward Villa Grande and Tollo.<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c6-1.html#n133 pp. 133–139]</ref>

===Taking The Gully===
In preparation for what he hoped would be the final attack on The Gully, Vokes shifted the 2nd Canadian Infantry Brigade to occupy positions formerly belonging to the 1st Brigade. Vokes planned for an attack by the [[Carleton and York Regiment]] to be the last of the frontal assaults against The Gully. Should this attack fail, the 1st Brigade's Seaforth Highlanders and the Royal Canadian Regiment would move through Casa Berardi and outflank German defences, forcing a withdrawal from The Gully.<ref name="CoppJan2007"/>

At 07:30 on 15 December, two companies of the Carleton and York Regiment attacked. After little more than an hour of fighting, however, the Canadians were forced to call the attack off.<ref name= "Berton438"/> In the afternoon, the two heavily depleted companies of the Royal 22e Régiment fought off a large German counterattack on Casa Berardi, with the [[Royal Canadian Horse Artillery]] firing 5,398 rounds in support of Canadian forces.<ref>Zuehlke (1999), p. 219</ref>

On 18 December, Vokes planned what would be the largest assault on The Gully during the campaign. Beginning at 08:00, Canadian artillery would bombard a {{convert|900|m|ft|abbr=on}} front, to a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Every five minutes, the barrage would move {{convert|100|m|yd|abbr=on}} forward, continuing to pound German defences in the bombardment area. Less than 100 m behind this barrage, the 48th Highlanders would advance across the Ortona–Orsogna Lateral Road. At the same time, the 8th Indian Division would attack northward toward Crecchio, preventing German reinforcements from reaching The Gully. When the 48th Highlanders reached the Cider Crossroads, the Royal Canadian Regiment would move north, overrunning Cider itself, then advance up the Ortona–Orsogna road.<ref name="CoppJan2007"/> Both battalions would be supported by tanks of the [[Three Rivers Regiment]]. At first, the attack went extremely well. However, when the artillery shifted their barrage, the German defences quickly recovered and their machine gun fire devastated the advancing forces. In C Company of the Royal Canadian Regiment, every platoon commander was killed or wounded. The attack was quickly abandoned.<ref name="CoppJan2007"/>

On 20 December, Canadian forces tried again and the Royal Canadian Regiment attacked Cider Crossroads at noon. This time, Vokes was determined that the operation would be successful, with armoured forces of the Three Rivers Regiment moving to the start lines well before 07:00.<ref>Zuehlke (1999), p. 235</ref> Due to shortages of fuel and poor weather, H-Hour was postponed until 14:15. When H-Hour came, a powerful creeping barrage supported two companies of the Royal Canadian Regiment eastward. By evening, B Company controlled the Cider Crossroads, having met virtually no resistance in their advance to the objective.<ref name="Berton438"/> However, German forces had already evacuated The Gully, falling back to prepare for a strong defence of Ortona, with elements of the powerful 1st Parachute Division firmly entrenched in the town.<ref>Zuehlke (2001), p. 160</ref>

===Villa Grande===
On 23 December Montgomery was promoted to command the [[21st Army Group]] in [[Operation Overlord]], the Allied [[invasion of Normandy]].
Command of the Eighth Army passed to Lieutenant General [[Oliver Leese|Sir Oliver Leese]] who kept up pressure on the whole front.

The [[19th Indian Infantry Brigade|19th Indian Brigade]] was ordered to attack Villa Grande and exploit any gains as far as the Arielli river which ran from the mountains through Tollo to the Adriatic.<ref name="Anon27">Hingston (1946), p. 27</ref> The attack went in at 05:30 on 22 December but failed in desperate fighting. The 1/5th Battalion, [[Essex Regiment]] renewed their attack the following morning with more success. After a counterattack by [[Fallschirmjager|German paratroops]] had been repulsed at midday, the Essex advanced to mop up the remainder of the village. However, deadly small scale house-to-house battles continued throughout the rest of 23 December and for the next two days as the determined parachute soldiers clung on. To the south of Villa Grande, the 3rd/[[15th Punjab Regiment|15th Punjabis]] had taken Vezzano on 23 December and a continuous brigade line had been established.<ref>Hingston (1946), p. 28</ref>

On 25 December, reinforcements in the form of 3rd Battalion, [[8th Punjab Regiment]] were brought forward and after a softening up barrage were launched at the east side of Villa Grande. With four battalions now involved (the 5th Battalion, [[Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment|Royal West Kents]] had by now been tasked on the south east side of the village) supported by tanks, Villa Grande was finally cleared by the end of 26 December.<ref>Hingston (1946), pp. 29–30</ref> The troops of the [[8th Infantry Division (India)|8th Indian Division]] entered the village to find a shambles. One correspondent described the scene "as though a giant had trodden on a child's box of blocks".<ref name="Anon 1946, p. 30">Hingston (1946), p. 30</ref>

===XIII Corps attacks Orsogna===
On 23 December, [[Lieutenant-general (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Miles Dempsey|Dempsey]]'s [[XIII Corps (United Kingdom)|XIII Corps]] launched a new attack to push back the German line from Orsogna. In the afternoon, the [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|British 5th Infantry Division]] attacked on the right wing of the Corps front toward the Arielli stream. Their objective was to secure the flank of the [[2nd New Zealand Division]], which was in turn to attack northwest and west from the salient in order to roll up the Orsogna defences on the [[Fontegrande plateau]] from the north.<ref name="Phillips140">Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c6-2.html#n140 p. 140]</ref>

After the British 5th Infantry Division had pushed from [[Poggiofiorito]] they took the town of [[Arielli]] and their objectives.<ref name="Doherty184">Doherty pp 184-68</ref> The [[5th Infantry Brigade (New Zealand)|5th New Zealand Infantry Brigade]] attacked at 04:00 on 24 December.<ref name="Phillips140"/> Despite intensive artillery support (272 guns on a {{convert|3500|yd|m}} front), the tired and understrength New Zealand battalions struggled to make progress. By the afternoon, it had become clear to the New Zealand commander—[[Bernard Freyberg, 1st Baron Freyberg|Bernard Freyberg]]—that the stubborn defences of the [[23rd Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|26th {{lang|de|Panzer|cat=no}} Division]] would not be broached. He is reported to have remarked, "It is not a question of further advance, it is a question of holding on to what we have got".<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c6-2.html#n145 p. 145]</ref> The XIII Corps front was effectively deadlocked and settled into a posture of active defence and patrolling.<ref>Phillips (1957), [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita-c7-1.html#n149 p. 149]</ref>

===Ortona===
{{Main|Battle of Ortona}}
Throughout the week of 11–18 December, the 1st Parachute Battalion from the [[1st Parachute Division (Germany)|German 1st Parachute Division]]—with supporting units—had prepared strong defences within the Italian coastal town of Ortona. Paratroop engineers and infantry had destroyed much of Ortona itself, turning the streets into a debris-filled maze.<ref name="Zuehlke239">Zuehlke (1999), p. 239</ref> Major streets were mined, with demolition charges throughout the main piazza, and [[booby trap]]s littered the town.<ref name= "Bercuson175"/> German forces had also buried tanks in the rubble, leaving only the turrets exposed.<ref name="Bercuson175"/>

On 20 December 1943, the under-strength [[Loyal Edmonton Regiment]] moved toward Ortona, with the [[Seaforth Highlanders of Canada|Seaforth Highlanders]] covering their eastern flank. Throughout the day, they encountered heavy machine gun fire during their attempts to enter Ortona. By nightfall, both battalions held a toehold on the western edge of Ortona, yet had encountered heavy resistance in their attempts to secure it.<ref name="Bercuson175"/> The following day, D Company of the Loyal Edmonton Regiment launched attacks eastward towards the city centre, but accurate German sniper fire rapidly stalled the advance.<ref>Zuehlke (1999), pp. 259–260</ref>

Throughout the remainder of the week, the Battle of Ortona degenerated into a small-scale version of the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], with vicious house-to-house fighting through the narrow streets and debris of Ortona.<ref name="CoppMay07">Copp (May 2007)</ref> Over the course of the battle, Canadian forces developed innovative "mouse-holing" tactics, moving between houses to avoid German sniper fire in the open streets.<ref name="Bercuson176">Bercuson, p. 176</ref> German counterattacks on 24 and 26 December caused significant casualties to Canadian forces in the town.<ref name="CoppMay07"/> In danger of being outflanked by Allied advances west of Ortona, the 1st Parachute Regiment abandoned the town the following day, leaving Ortona to Canadian forces. Canadian casualties in the fighting for the town approached 650 killed or wounded.<ref name= z161>Zuehlke (2001), p. 161</ref>

===End of the offensive===
The battle continued for a few days after the fall of Ortona. With that town and Villa Grande captured, it looked as if it would require the Eighth Army only to regather itself and strike one more concentrated blow at Orsogna to complete the breaching of the Gustav Line's main Adriatic strongpoints. However, on 31 December, as V Corps probed along the coastal plain towards Pescara, a blizzard enveloped the battlefield. Drifting snow, sleet and biting winds paralysed movement and communications on the ground while cloud ceiling and visibility fell to nil and grounded the airforce.<ref name="Anon 1946, p. 30"/> The Canadians managed to advance north from [[Casa Berardi]] along a ridge that ran alongside the [[Riccio River]], and reached the coast at [[Torra Mucchia]], to the east of the river mouth, on 4 January but inland Orsogna remained in German hands.<ref name="Doherty184"/>

Leese—realising the Eighth Army no longer had the strength or conditions to force its way to Pescara and the Via Valeria to Rome—recommended to General Alexander that the Eighth Army offensive should be halted to which Alexander agreed.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}

==Aftermath==
The allies had made gains and had broken into the Gustav Line but the failure to capture [[Orsogna]] put an end to the Allied plans of a strong drive up the eastern coast. Rain, flooded rivers, and high casualties, as well as the departure of Montgomery, all put a halt to Allied plans until the spring of 1944.<ref name="Doherty184"/>

After the offensive had ended, Alexander ordered aggressive patrolling in order to pin the units of the [[LXXVI Panzer Corps|LXXVI {{lang|de|Panzer|cat=no}} Corps]] in the Adriatic sector and prevent [[Albert Kesselring|Kesselring]] moving them to reinforce the [[XIV Panzer Corps|XIV {{lang|de|Panzer|cat=no}} Corps]] front opposite [[Lieutenant general (United States)|Lieutenant General]] [[Mark W. Clark]]'s [[United States Army North|U.S. Fifth Army]] where the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] offensive would continue.<ref>Carver (2002), p. 103</ref>

In spite of this, three attempts during the winter of 1943/44 by the Fifth Army to break through into the Liri valley at [[Cassino]] failed. The offensive went on till 15 January when slowly some ground was gained and a few hilltops were secured but otherwise the weather and stiffening German resistance meant a breakthrough was unachievable.{{cn|date=March 2024}}

As spring approached in 1944, Alexander concentrated his forces in great secrecy by thinning out the Adriatic front and bringing the bulk of Eighth Army's striking power to the Cassino front. The combined attack of his two armies during the fourth and final [[Battle of Monte Cassino]] in early May took Kesselring by surprise and led to the Allied capture of the Italian capital of Rome in early June.<ref name=z161/>

==See also==
* {{anl|Bernhardt Line}}

==Notes==

===Footnotes===
{{reflist|group=nb}}

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Bercuson|first=David|orig-year=1996|year=2001|title=Maple Leaf Against the Axis|publisher=Red Deer Press|location=Calgary, Alberta|isbn=0-88995-305-8|oclc=55973783|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/mapleleafagainst0000berc}}
* Berton, Pierre (2001). ''Marching As to War''. Toronto: Anchor Canada. {{ISBN|0-385-25819-4}}. {{oclc|49928809}}.
* {{cite book|author-link=Michael Carver, Baron Carver|first=Field Marshal Lord|last=Carver|title= The Imperial War Museum Book of the War in Italy 1943–1945|publisher=Sidgwick & Jackson|location= London|year=2001|isbn=0-330-48230-0|oclc=59467991}}
* {{cite journal|last=Copp|first=Terry|author-link=Terry Copp|date=November 2006|title=Overcoming the Moro|journal=Legion Magazine|issue=November 2006|url=http://www.legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2006/11/overcoming-the-moro/|access-date=2008-06-18|location=Ottawa|publisher=Canvet Publications|issn=1209-4331|oclc=36920998|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324233350/http://www.legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2006/11/overcoming-the-moro/|archive-date=24 March 2009}}
* {{cite journal|last=Copp|first=Terry|date=January 2007|title=Clearing The Gully|journal= Legion Magazine|issue=January 2007|url=http://www.legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2007/01/clearing-the-gully/|access-date=2008-06-18|location=Ottawa|publisher=Canvet Publications|issn= 1209-4331 | oclc =36920998}}
* {{cite journal|last=Copp|first=Terry|date=March 2007|title=Into Ortona|journal=Legion Magazine|issue=March 2007|url=http://www.legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2007/03/into-ortona/|access-date=2008-06-18|location=Ottawa|publisher=Canvet Publications|issn=1209-4331|oclc= 36920998}}
* {{cite journal|last=Copp|first=Terry|date=May 2007|title=Winning The Streets of Ortona| journal=Legion Magazine|issue=May 2007|url=http://www.legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2007/05/winning-the-streets-of-ortona/|access-date=2008-06-18|location=Ottawa|publisher=Canvet Publications|issn=1209-4331|oclc=36920998}}
* {{cite book |last1=Doherty |first1=Richard |title=A Noble Crusade: The History of Eighth Army 1941-45 |date=2008 |publisher=History Press Limited |isbn=9781862274792}}
* {{cite book|last=Hingston|first=W. G.|title=The Tiger Triumphs: The Story of Three Great Divisions in Italy|publisher=HMSO |location=London|year=1946|oclc=29051302}}
* {{cite book|first=Edwin P.|last=Hoyt|title=Backwater War: The Allied Campaign in Italy, 1943–45| publisher=Stackpole Books|location=Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania|year=2007|orig-year=2002|isbn= 978-0-8117-3382-3| oclc=70407888}}
* {{cite book|first3=Major-General H.L.|last3=Davies|last2=with Flynn|first2=Captain F.C. (R.N.)| last1=Molony|first1=Brigadier C.J.C.|last4=Gleave|first4=Group Captain T.P.|editor-last=Butler| editor-first=Sir James|editor-link=James Ramsay Montagu Butler|series=History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series|title=The Mediterranean and Middle East, Volume V: The Campaign in Sicily 1943 and The Campaign in Italy 3rd September 1943 to 31st March 1944|publisher=Naval & Military Press|location=Uckfield, UK|year=2004|orig-year=1st. pub. [[HMSO]]:1973|isbn=1-84574-069-6| name-list-style=amp}}
* {{cite book|first=G.W.L.|last=Nicholson|author-link = G. W. L. Nicholson |title=Official history of the Canadian Army in the Second World War, Vol II The Canadians in Italy, 1943–1945|url=http://www.dnd.ca/dhh/collections/books/engraph/details_e.asp?BfBookLang=1&BfId=25&cat=6|location=Ottawa|publisher=Queen's Printer|year=1956|oclc=317692679}}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite book|url=https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Ita.html|series=The Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War 1939–1945|title=Italy Volume I: The Sangro to Cassino| access-date=2008-06-13|last=Phillips|first=N.C.|year=1957|publisher=Historical Publications Branch, republished by the [[New Zealand Electronic Text Centre]]|location=Wellington|oclc= 156862324}}
* {{cite book|last=Zuehlke|first=Mark|year=1999|title=Ortona: Canada's Epic WWII Battle|location= Vancouver|publisher=Douglas & McIntyre|isbn=1-55054-557-4|oclc=52166109}}
* {{cite book|last=Zuehlke|first=Mark|year=2001|title=The Canadian Military Atlas: The Nation's Battlefields from the French and Indian Wars to Kosovo|publisher=Stoddart |location=Toronto|isbn=0-7737-3289-6|oclc= 48680462}}
{{refend}}
{{coord missing|Italy}}
{{good article}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1943]]
[[Category:1943 in Italy]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Italian campaign (World War II)]]
[[Category:20th century in Abruzzo]]
[[Category:Ortona]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Canada]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving India]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Military campaigns involving Germany]]
[[Category:December 1943 in Europe]]

Konakalla Narayana Rao

2026-01-01T13:40:34Z

RealArifHossain: updated details

{{short description|Indian politician (born 1950)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Konakalla Narayana Rao
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1950|5|4}}
| birth_place = [[Machilipatnam]], Madras State, India (now in [[Andhra Pradesh]], India)
| residence = [[Machilipatnam]]
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| constituency = [[Machilipatnam (Lok Sabha constituency)|Machilipatnam]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| predecessor = [[Ramakrishna Badiga]]
| term_start = 16 May 2009
| term_end = 23 May 2019
| spouse = Smt. Padmaja
| relations = Konakalla Bullaiah (Brother)
| alma_mater =
| party = [[Telugu Desam Party]]
| signature =
| width = 150
| parents = {{ubl|Shri Ganapathi | Smt. Kasieswaramma}}
| children = {{ubl|Kiran Ganapathi | Chaitanya Ganpathi}}
| website = [http://www.konakallanarayanarao.in/ KonakallaNarayanaRao.in]
| footnotes =
| source = https://loksabha.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=4527&lastls=16
| successor = [[Vallabhaneni Balashowry]]
}}

'''Konakalla Narayana Rao''' (born 4 May 1950) was an Indian politician who served as a member of the [[Lok Sabha]], representing [[Machilipatnam Lok Sabha constituency|Machilipatnam]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]]. He was elected in 2009 and again in 2014 as a candidate for the [[Telugu Desam Party]].<ref>[http://eciresults.nic.in/frmWinnerList.aspx ECI Winners List Andhra Pradesh] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627024230/http://eciresults.nic.in/frmWinnerList.aspx|date=27 June 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Official Parliament Biography |url=http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/Members/Biography.aspx?mpsno=4527 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160224062636/http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/Members/Biography.aspx?mpsno=4527 |archive-date=24 February 2016 |access-date=20 July 2009}}</ref> Rao belongs to the [[Goud]] community.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-04-09 |title=Caste factors likely to influence outcome of LS poll battle in Machilipatnam |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/pti-feed/story/caste-factors-likely-to-influence-outcome-of-ls-poll-battle-in-machilipatnam-183207-2019-04-09 |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=[[Business Today (India)|Business Today]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-05-13 |title=Machilipatnam (Andhra Pradesh) Election 2019: Contest between Kapu and Gowda community leaders |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/article/machilipatnam-andhra-pradesh-election-2019-machilipatnam-election-results-candidates-voter-population-polling-percentage/403609 |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=[[Times Now]] |language=en |quote=While KN Rao is a Gowda member .....}}</ref> In addition to his political career, he has been involved in social and cultural activities, including organizing theatre competitions in [[Machilipatnam]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Members : Lok Sabha |url=http://164.100.47.192/Loksabha/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=4527 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306035346/http://164.100.47.192/Loksabha/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=4527 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |access-date=2016-03-04 |website=164.100.47.192}}</ref>

== Political career ==
Konakalla Narayana Rao was a member of the Telugu Desam Party. He was elected to the Lok Sabha from the Machilipatnam constituency in [[Krishna district|Krishna District]], Andhra Pradesh, in [[2009 Indian general election|2009 (15th Lok Sabha)]] and [[2014 Indian general election|2014 (16th Lok Sabha)]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2025}}

During the 15th Lok Sabha (2009), Konakalla Narayana Rao was appointed as a member of the Committee of Petroleum and Natural Gas. As a part of the Panel of Chairpersons, he served as a panel speaker in the [[Lok Sabha]].

Key Positions held by Rao:

* May 3, 2013, Member, Committee on the Welfare of [[Other Backward Class|Other Backward Classes (OBCs)]]
* May 2014 Re-elected to the [[16th Lok Sabha]] (2nd term)
* June 12, 2014 Member, House Committee
* Sep 1, 2014 Member, Standing Committee on Agriculture
* October 2024, Chairman (non-official), [[Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation]]<ref name="Will address employees’ woes, says APSRTC new Chairman">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |date=5 October 2024 |title=Will address employees' woes, says APSRTC new Chairman |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/will-address-employees-woes-says-apsrtc-new-chairman/article68722139.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125143811/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/will-address-employees-woes-says-apsrtc-new-chairman/article68722139.ece |archive-date=25 January 2025 |access-date=25 January 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |language=en-IN}}</ref>

== Election results ==
{{Election box begin|title=[[2009 Indian general elections|General Election, 2009]]: [[Machilipatnam (Lok Sabha Constituency)|Machilipatnam]]}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=Konakalla Narayana Rao|votes=409,936|percentage=39.19|change=-5.40}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Indian National Congress|candidate=[[Badiga Ramakrishna]]|votes=397,480|percentage=38.00|change=-13.25}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Praja Rajyam Party|candidate=[[Chennamsetti Ramachandraiah]]|votes=186,921|percentage=17.87|change=}}
{{Election box majority|votes=12,456|percentage=1.19|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=1,045,905|percentage=83.60|change=+7.54}}
{{Election box gain with party link|winner=Telugu Desam Party|loser=Indian National Congress|swing=}}
{{Election box end}}{{Election box begin|title=[[2014 Indian general elections|General Election, 2014]]: [[Machilipatnam (Lok Sabha Constituency)|Machilipatnam]]}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=Konakalla Narayana Rao|votes=587,280|percentage=51.47|change=+12.28}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=YSR Congress Party|candidate=[[Kolusu Partha Sarathy]]|votes=506,223|percentage=44.36|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Indian National Congress|candidate=[[Sistla Ramesh]]|votes=14,111|percentage=1.24|change=}}
{{Election box candidate||party=[[Jai Samaikyandhra Party]]|candidate=[[Kammili Srinivas]]|votes=7,692|percentage=0.67|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Pyramid Party of India|candidate=Vadapalli Raghunadh|votes=4,401|percentage=0.39|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=[[Peggem Prasada Rao]]|votes=4,085|percentage=0.36|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent (politician)|candidate=Parasa Srinivasa Rao|votes=3,399|percentage=0.30|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent (politician)|candidate=Mohammad Ishaq|votes=1,770|percentage=0.16|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent (politician)|candidate=Yunduri Subramanyaswara Rao (Mani)|votes=1,597|percentage=0.14|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent (politician)|candidate=Yarlagadda Rama Mohan Rao|votes=1,405|percentage=0.12|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Independent (politician)|candidate=Jampana Srinivasa Goud|votes=931|percentage=0.08|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=None of the above|candidate=[[None of the Above]]|votes=8,171|percentage=0.72|change=}}
{{Election box majority|votes=81,057|percentage=7.11|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=1,141,065|percentage=83.33|change=-0.27}}
{{Election box hold with party link|winner=Telugu Desam Party|loser=|swing=}}
{{Election box end}}

== Development activities ==
While contesting the Lok Sabha elections, Rao’s campaign included the re-establishment of the [[Machilipatnam Port]], the doubling and electrification of the [[Machilipatnam]]–[[Gudivada]]–[[Vijayawada]] railway line,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Reporter |first=Staff |date=2017-04-01 |title=Doubling of rail line by end of 2019: MP |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/doubling-of-rail-line-by-end-of-2019-mp/article17755868.ece |access-date=2025-12-07 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> the creation of a new Machilipatnam–[[Repalle]] railway line, the modernization of [[Machilipatnam railway station|Machilipatnam Railway Station]], the expansion of NH-214A into a six-lane highway from [[Machilipatnam]] to Vijayawada, and the conversion of the national highway into a four-lane road from Machilipatnam to [[Ongole]]. These projects are currently at various stages of implementation.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://konakallanarayanarao.in/machilipatnam-development.html |title=::Konakalla Narayana Rao:: |access-date=13 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821070322/http://konakallanarayanarao.in/machilipatnam-development.html |archive-date=21 August 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{BLP unreferenced section|date=May 2025}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://loksabha.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=4527&lastls=16 Official biographical sketch on the Parliament of India website]
{{16th LS members from Andhra Pradesh |state=expanded}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rao, Konakalla Narayana}}
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:India MPs 2009–2014]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:People from Machilipatnam]]
[[Category:India MPs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:Telugu Desam Party politicians]]
[[Category:Telugu politicians]]

Abir Goswami

2025-12-30T12:04:07Z

RealArifHossain: small changes

{{short description|Indian actor (1975–2013)}}
{{use Indian English|date=May 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Abir Goswami
| image = Abir Goswami.jpg
| caption = Goswami at the launch of ''[[Ammaji Ki Galli]]''
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1975|04|21}}
| birth_place = [[Kolkata]], West Bengal, India
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2013|05|31|1975|04|21}}<ref name="TOI treadmill">{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/TV-actor-Abir-Goswami-dies-after-cardiac-arrest-on-treadmill/articleshow/20374793.cms|title=TV actor Abir Goswami dies after cardiac arrest on treadmill | Mumbai News – Times of India|website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/health-fitness/fitness/How-much-is-too-much-in-the-gym/articleshow/20396219.cms|title=How much is too much in the gym? – Times of India|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
| death_place = [[Mumbai]], Maharashtra, India
| occupation = Actor
| spouse = Koyel Nath Goswami
| years_active = 2000–2013
}}
'''Abir Goswami''' (21 April 1975 – 31 May 2013) was an Indian actor. He worked in television serials like ''[[Woh Rehne Waali Mehlon Ki]]'', ''[[Pyaar Ka Dard Hai Meetha Meetha Pyaara Pyaara]]'', etc.

== Television ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Show
! Role
|-
| 2000
| ''[[Aahat (Indian TV series)|Aahat]]''
| Episode 258 & Episode 259
|-
| 2001
| ''[[Kabhii Sautan Kabhii Sahelii]]''
| Ranjeet
|-
| 2001
| ''[[Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi]]''
| Ajay
|-
| 2001–2002
| ''[[Kkusum]]''
| Sandeep "Sangu" Gujral
|-
| 2001
| ''[[C.I.D. (Indian TV series)|C.I.D.]]'' – The Case of the No. 9112001: Part 1 & Part 2
| Rohan (Episode 189 & Episode 190)
|-
| 2001–2002
| ''Choti Maa – Ek Anokha Bandhan''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiantelevision.com/headlines/y2k1/sep/sep36.htm?|title=Zee makes Choti Maa a daily|date=14 September 2001|website= Indian Television Dot Com|access-date=26 January 2020}}</ref>
|
|-
| 2002
| ''[[Kammal]]''
| Satya Jajoo
|-
| 2002
| ''[[C.I.D. (Indian TV series)|C.I.D.]]'' – The Case of the Dead Murderer: Part 1 & Part 2
| Raghav (Episode 231 & Episode 232)
|-
| 2002–2004
| ''[[Kittie Party]]''
| Prateek Sharma
|-
| 2003–2004
| ''[[Tum Bin Jaaoon Kahaan]]''
| Advocate Akash
|-
| 2004
| ''[[Bhabhi (TV series)|Bhabhi]]''
| Bhairav
|-
| 2004; 2005
| ''[[Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan]]''
| Asit Sengupta
|-
| 2004
| ''[[Raat Hone Ko Hai]]'' – 65 Crore Ke Liye
| Aryan (Episode 133 – Episode 136)
|-
| 2004–2005
| ''[[Hotel Kingston]]''
| Sujeet
|-
| 2005
| ''[[Prratima]]''
| Malen
|-
| 2005
| ''[[Rooh]]''
| Akash (Episode 15)
|-
| 2005
| ''[[Sarrkkar – Risshton Ki Ankahi Kahani]]''
| Madan
|-
| 2005
| ''CID Special Bureau''
|
|-
| 2005–2006
| ''Yeh Dil Chahe More''
| Paramjeet Singh
|-
| 2006
| ''[[Kkavyanjali]]''
| Aarav Nanda
|-
| 2006
| ''[[Jabb Love Hua]]''
| Inspector Bali Shukla
|-
| 2007
| ''Ssshhhh...Phir Koi Hai'' – Daayan Bani Dulhan
| Rashid (Episode 29)
|-
| 2007
| ''Ssshhhh...Phir Koi Hai'' – Ek Bhoot Ek Wakil Ek Shaitan
| Advocate Amar Sharma (Episode 53)
|-
| 2007
| ''Ssshhhh...Phir Koi Hai'' – Gaadi Mat Rokna
| Shreekant (Episode 57)
|-
| 2007–2009
| ''Sangam''
| Subodh
|-
| 2008–2009
| ''[[Main Teri Parchhain Hoon]]''
| Dheeraj Tyagi
|-
| 2009
| ''[[C.I.D. (Indian TV series)|C.I.D.]]'' – Paheli Laash Ke Tukdon Ki
| Laksh Kumar (Episode 574)
|-
| 2009–2010
| ''[[Jaane Pehchaane Se... Ye Ajnabbi]]''
| Avinash
|-
| 2010–2011
| ''[[Woh Rehne Waali Mehlon Ki]]''
| Akash Johri
|-
| 2011
| ''[[Adaalat (TV series)|Adaalat]]'' – Qatil Murti
| Amrit Nagpal (Episode 22)
|-
| 2011
| ''Ammaji Ki Galli''
| Sardar Surjeet Singh
|-
| 2012
| ''[[Yahaaan Main Ghar Ghar Kheli]]''
| Sushant
|-
| 2012
| ''[[Ek Hazaaron Mein Meri Behna Hai]]''
| Rajeev Talwar
|-
| 2012
| ''[[Crime Patrol (TV series)|Crime Patrol]]''
| Inspector Ajay Mehra (Episode 150 & Episode 151)
|-
| 2013
| ''[[Pyaar Ka Dard Hai Meetha Meetha Pyaara Pyaara]]''
| Kailash Gupta
|-
| 2013
| ''[[Ghar Aaja Pardesi]]''
| Advocate Madhav Mishra
|-
| 2013
| ''[[Crime Patrol (TV series)|Crime Patrol]]''
| Inspector Pratap Juvekar (Episode 254)
|-
|}

==Movies==
* ''[[Khakee (film)|Khakee]]'' as Photographer
* ''[[Lakshya (2004 film)|Lakshya]]'' as Capt. Sudhir Mishra
* ''[[The Legend of Bhagat Singh]]'' as Phanindra Ghosh
* ''Sakkhat'' – a Bengali movie
* ''Bidhatar Lekha'' – a Bengali movie
* ''[[Ugly (film)|Ugly]]''
* ''[[Rocky (2013 film)|Rocky]]'' as an undercover police officer (Bengali Movie)
* ''Darna Mana Hai''
* ''Ratparir Rupkatha'' – a Bengali movie
* ''Banobhumi'' – a Bengali movie

==Death==
Goswami died on 31 May 2013 at the age of 38 due to cardiac arrest on a treadmill.<ref name="TOI treadmill" /><ref name="Television actor Abir Goswami dies of cardiac arrest">{{cite news |title=Television actor Abir Goswami dies of cardiac arrest |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/television-actor-abir-goswami-dies-of-cardiac-arrest-633412 |access-date=25 January 2025 |work= |date=31 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125065733/https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/television-actor-abir-goswami-dies-of-cardiac-arrest-633412 |archive-date=25 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Pyaar Ka Dard... actor Abir Goswami dies of heart attack in Mumbai gym">{{cite news |title=Pyaar Ka Dard... actor Abir Goswami dies of heart attack in Mumbai gym |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/story/tv-actor-abir-goswami-dies-of-cardiac-arrest-in-mumbai-kkusum-pyaar-ka-dard-hai-165174-2013-05-31 |access-date=25 January 2025 |publisher=India Today |date=1 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125065745/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/story/tv-actor-abir-goswami-dies-of-cardiac-arrest-in-mumbai-kkusum-pyaar-ka-dard-hai-165174-2013-05-31 |archive-date=25 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|1571393}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Goswami, Abir}}
[[Category:2013 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:Bengali male actors]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing]]
[[Category:Male actors from Mumbai]]

Central Gymkhana Ground

2025-12-23T06:33:11Z

RealArifHossain: cleaned up layout for accuracy

{{Short description|Stadium in Madhya Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2017}}
{{Infobox venue
| name = Central Gymkhana Ground
| nickname = Central Gymkhana
| logo_image =
| logo_caption =
| image =
| caption =
| fullname = Central Gymkhana Ground
| former_names = Gymkhana Ground
| location = [[Indore]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], India
| coordinates =
| broke_ground = 1960
| built =
| opened = 1960
| renovated =
| expanded =
| closed =
| demolished =
| owner =
| operator =
| surface =
| scoreboard =
| cost =
| architect =
| project_manager =
| structural_engineer =
| services_engineer =
| general_contractor =
| main_contractors =
| capacity = n/a
| suites =
| record_attendance =
| dimensions =
| acreage =
| volume =
| tenants =
| embedded =
| website = [http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/ground/58146.html ESPNcricinfo]
| public_transit =
}}
'''Central Gymkhana Ground''' is a multi purpose stadium in [[Indore]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], India. The ground is mainly used for organizing matches of football, cricket and other sports.

The stadium hosted four [[First-class cricket|first-class]] matches <ref>[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/14/1039_f.html First-class matches]</ref> from 1961 when [[Madhya Pradesh cricket team]] played against [[Pakistan cricket team]] in a tour match.<ref>[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/24/24632.html Scorecard]</ref> until 1965. Since then the ground has hosted non-first-class matches.<ref>[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/14/1039_misc.html Other matches]</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/ground/58146.html ESPNcricinfo profile]
*[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/14/1039.html CricketArchive]

{{Sport venues in Madhya Pradesh}}
{{Neighbourhoods of Indore}}
{{coord missing|Madhya Pradesh}}

[[Category:Sports venues in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Sports venues in Indore]]
[[Category:Sport in Indore]]
[[Category:Cricket grounds in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Multi-purpose stadiums in India]]
[[Category:Sport in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Sports venues completed in 1960]]
[[Category:1960 establishments in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:20th-century architecture in India]]

{{India-cricket-ground-stub}}
{{India-sports-venue-stub}}

Perambalur Buddhas

2025-12-22T07:03:28Z

RealArifHossain: pg

{{short description|Set of historic Buddhist images found in Thiyaganur, Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox religious building
| name = Thiyaganur Buddha temple
| native_name =
| image = Thiyaganur buddha new.JPG
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Image of the Buddha in an open farm
| map_type = India Tamil Nadu
| map_size =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| location = [[Salem district]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
| coordinates = {{coord|11|34|33|N|78|46|42|E|display=inline,title}}
| religious_affiliation = [[Buddhism]]
| deity =
| country = [[India]]
| functional_status =
| website =
| founded_by =
| year_completed =
}}

The '''Perambalur Buddhas''' (or '''Thiyaganur Buddha statues''' or '''Thiyaganur Buddha temple''') are a set of historic Buddhist images found in [[Thiyaganur]], a village in [[salem district]] in the [[South India]]n state of [[Tamil Nadu]]. There are two {{convert|6|ft|m|abbr=on}} images of Buddha in sitting posture, one of which is enshrined in a small temple and various other images scattered in the village. The temple is the only extant Buddhist temple in the state. One of the images in a private farm was later housed in a meditation hall built during 2013 with the help of public contributions. Historians identify the images to the 11th century. With the presence of the images, Thyaganur is counted among [[Madurai]], [[Kanchipuram]], [[Nagapattinam]], [[Uraiyur]], [[Kaveripattinam]] and [[Perambalur]] among famous Buddhist centres in Tamil Nadu. The villagers administer the temple and practise worship similar to Hindu worship practises. The images are spread across three villages, namely, Paravai, Okalur and Perumathur with a majority found in Paravai.

==History==
[[File:Thiyaganur Buddha Temple.JPG|200px|thumb|left|Image of the shrine]]
[[Buddhism]] was popular in the region in modern-day [[Tamil Nadu]] around the 3rd century BCE during the rule of [[Asoka the great|Asoka]]. It flourished under various ruling regimes until the advent of [[Bhakti movement]] during the 6th-9th centuries when the royal patronage decreased. During the rule of [[Chola]] emperor [[Raja Raja Chola]], there were endowments to Buddhist shrines in [[Nagapattinam]] during the 11th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=Buddhism among Tamils, an introduction|last1=Schalk|first1=Peter|last2=Nahl|first2=Astrid van|isbn=978-91-554-8412-5|publisher= Uppsala University Library Uppsala, Sweden|url=http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:604163/FULLTEXT06.pdf|page=24}}</ref> The bronze Buddhist images found around Nagapattinam region dating back to 13th century and the religious texts by eminent Buddhist during the time indicate the presence of the religion during the period. Historians also attribute that Buddhism was not only restricted to big cities like [[Kanchipuram]] and [[Madurai]], but smaller ones like Perambalur where the images are present. The set of images in the village are approximately dated to 11th century.<ref name=hindu>{{cite news|title=Buddha at the crossroads|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/buddha-at-the-crossroads/article3500325.ece|date=9 June 2012|newspaper=The Hindu|last=A.|first=Srivatsan|location=Perambalur}}</ref> Thyaganur is counted among [[Madurai]], [[Kanchipuram]], [[Nagapattinam]], [[Uraiyur]], [[Kaveripattinam]] and [[Perambalur]] among famous Buddhist centres in Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Lord of Vengadam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rntPBAAAQBAJ&q=thiyaganur+buddha&pg=PA163|page=8|last=S.R.|first=Ramanujan|publisher=PartridgeIndia|year=2014|isbn=9781482834628}}</ref> Another view is that Buddhism was prevalent in Chola period as found in the inscriptions and images found in various places in the modern day [[Trichy district|Trichy]], [[Perambalur district|Perambalur]], [[Ariyalur district|Ariyalur]], [[Karur district|Karur]], [[Thanjavur district|Thanjavur]], [[Nagapattinam district|Nagapattinam]], [[Tiruvarur district|Tiruvarur]] and [[Pudukottai district|Pudukottai]] districts.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bronze Buddha statue found in temple tank near Thanjavur|url=https://www.dtnext.in/News/TamilNadu/2018/09/05040911/1087262/Bronze-Buddha-statue-found-in-temple-tank-near-Thanjavur.vpf|publisher=DT Next|date=5 September 2018|access-date=7 February 2021}}{{dead link|date=November 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

==Iconography==
The Buddhist images are located in villages around [[Perambalur]]. There are two major images of Buddha in the village Thiyaganur. One of them is enshrined in a small pillared compound, while the other is located in a private farm. The private farm was converted to a Buddhist Dhyana Mandap (meditation centre) during 2013 enshrining the image at a cost of {{INR}} 50 lakhs with public contribution. It was modelled similar to the Buddhist shrine in Rajagiri, [[Bihar]].<ref name=hindu1>{{cite news|title=Meditation centre inaugurated|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/meditation-centre-inaugurated/article4862675.ece|date=29 June 2013|newspaper=The Hindu|location=Perambalur}}</ref> Both the images are {{convert|6|ft|m|abbr=on}} tall in a cross legged seated posture and sported with coal black hair. Both the images are sported with a smile. Another image is found in the four way junction of Paravai, a village close to Thiyaganur. There is an image in [[Veeraganur]] Dalit Colony. Ogalur houses the image, which has been elevated to a higher structure in modern times by the villagers. The image of Ogalur is locally called "Dubai Buddha" as the locals believe that worshiping the deity helps in overseas travel.<ref name=Bodhi/> There are many other images scattered in the villages, some which are in dilapidated condition.<ref name=hindu/> The images are spread across three villages, namely, Paravai, Okalur and Perumathur.<ref>{{cite web|title=Perambalur|url=https://districts.ecourts.gov.in/perambalur|publisher=District Courts of India|date=7 February 2021}}</ref> As per experts, the image in Perumathur is an image of Jain [[Tirthankara]].<ref name=Bodhi>{{cite web|title=Buddhism in Perambalur, Tamil Nadu|publisher=Way of Bodhi|url=https://www.wayofbodhi.org/buddhism-in-perambalur-tamil-nadu-in-ancient-times/|date=7 February 2021}}</ref>

==Culture==
[[File:Thiyaganur Buddha 2.JPG|200px|thumb|Image of the Buddha in the pillared hall]]
Most of the village people are not aware of the history of [[Buddha]] and treat him as just another god of the region. The common name given to the deity is "Buddha Samy", indicating Buddha the God. Hindu worship practises like decorating the images with decorative clothes and flowers are commonly followed. Lighting lamps and applying sacred ash in the forehead of the images are other [[Common Worship|common worship]] offered. People pray by placing stone on the head of the image for curing their bodily ailments. Some of the images are garlanded regularly, while some of the images are offered Pongal, a rice mixture offered to the deities as the last step of the rituals.<ref name=hindu/> The meditation centre built in 2013 can accommodate hundred people at a time and was targeted to be a tourist centre in the region.<ref name=hindu1/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Thiyaganur}}

[[Category:Buddhist temples in India]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Buddhist temples in Tamil Nadu]]

N. V. V. J. Swamy

2025-12-19T02:57:44Z

RealArifHossain: fixed issues

'''Nyayapathi Venkata Vaikuntha Jagannatha Swamy''' was a [[Mathematical physics|mathematical physicist]]. He is well known for his contributions to the physics of [[Theory of relativity|relativistic]] [[harmonic oscillator]]<ref>{{cite journal | last=Swamy | first=N. V. V. J. | title=Exact Solution of the Dirac Equation with an Equivalent Oscillator Potential | journal=Physical Review| volume=180 | issue=5 | date=1969-04-25 | doi=10.1103/physrev.180.1225 | pages=1225–1226| bibcode=1969PhRv..180.1225S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Swamy | first=N. V. V. J. | title=Erratum: Exact Solution of the Dirac Equation with an Equivalent Oscillator Potential | journal=Physical Review D| volume=1 | issue=4 | date=1970-02-15 | doi=10.1103/physrevd.1.1244 | page=1244| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Swamy | first1=N. V. V. J. | last2=Chaffin | first2=E. F. | title=A relativistic equivalent oscillator in cylindrical co-ordinates | journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B |series=Series 11| volume=25 | issue=1 | year=1975 | doi=10.1007/bf02737662 | pages=28–34| bibcode=1975NCimB..25...28S | s2cid=118394985 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Trecia Markes | first1=C. | last2=Swamy | first2=N. V. V. J. | title=A relativistic model of a charged oscillator in a magnetic field and its application | journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B | volume=69 | issue=2 | year=1982 | doi=10.1007/bf02721264 | pages=177–184| bibcode=1982NCimB..69..177T | s2cid=118413279 }}</ref>
which found wide applications in [[Atomic physics|Atomic]], [[Nuclear Physics|Nuclear]] and [[High Energy Physics]]. Some of the citations to Swamy's work on the relativistic oscillator are given in references.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Kulikov | first1=D. A. | last2=Tutik | first2=R. S. | last3=Yaporoshenko | first3=A. P. | title=An alternative model for the Duffin-Kemmer-Petiau oscillator | journal=Modern Physics Letters A | volume=20 | issue=1 | date=2005-01-10 | doi=10.1142/s0217732305016324 | pages=43–49|arxiv=hep-th/0510152| s2cid=11305530 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Lin | first=Qiong-Gui | title=Exact solutions for neutral particles in the field of a circularly polarized plane electromagnetic wave | journal=Physics Letters A| volume=342 | issue=1–2 | year=2005 | doi=10.1016/j.physleta.2005.05.051 | pages=67–76| bibcode=2005PhLA..342...67L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Lisboa | first1=R. | last2=Malheiro | first2=M. | last3=de Castro | first3=A. S. | last4=Alberto | first4=P. | last5=Fiolhais | first5=M. | title=Pseudospin symmetry and the relativistic harmonic oscillator | journal=Physical Review C| volume=69 | issue=2 | date=2004-02-27 | doi=10.1103/physrevc.69.024319 | article-number=024319|arxiv=nucl-th/0310071| bibcode=2004PhRvC..69b4319L | s2cid=7499466 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Bergstrom | first1=P. M. | last2=Kissel | first2=Lynn | last3=Pratt | first3=R. H. | title=Production or annihilation of positrons with bound electrons | journal=Physical Review A| volume=53 | issue=4 | date=1996-04-01 | doi=10.1103/physreva.53.2865 | pages=2865–2868| pmid=9913204 | bibcode=1996PhRvA..53.2865B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Samuel | first1=Mark A. | last2=Ellis | first2=John | last3=Karliner | first3=Marek | title=Comparison of the Padé Approximation Method to Perturbative QCD Calculations | journal=Physical Review Letters | volume=74 | issue=22 | date=1995-05-29 | doi=10.1103/physrevlett.74.4380 | pages=4380–4383| pmid=10058492 |arxiv=hep-ph/9503411| bibcode=1995PhRvL..74.4380S | s2cid=2925760 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Samuel | first1=Mark A. | last2=Li | first2=Guowen | last3=Steinfelds | first3=Eric | title=Estimating perturbative coefficients in quantum field theory and statistical physics | journal=Physical Review E| volume=51 | issue=5 | date=1995-05-01 | doi=10.1103/physreve.51.3911 | pages=3911–3933| pmid=9963100 | bibcode=1995PhRvE..51.3911S | url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc675317/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Seltzer | first=Stephen M. | title=Calculation of Photon Mass Energy-Transfer and Mass Energy-Absorption Coefficients | journal=Radiation Research| volume=136 | issue=2 | year=1993 | pages=147–170 | doi=10.2307/3578607 | jstor=3578607 | pmid=8248472 | bibcode=1993RadR..136..147S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Castaños | first1=O. | last2=Frank | first2=A. | last3=López | first3=R. | last4=Urrutia | first4=L. F. | title=Soluble extensions of the Dirac oscillator with exact and broken supersymmetry | journal=Physical Review D| volume=43 | issue=2 | date=1991-01-15 | doi=10.1103/physrevd.43.544 | pages=544–547| pmid=10013414 | bibcode=1991PhRvD..43..544C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Palathingal | first1=J. C. | last2=Asoka-Kumar | first2=P. | last3=Lynn | first3=K. G. | last4=Posada | first4=Y. | last5=Wu | first5=X. Y. | title=Single-quantum annihilation of positrons with shell-bound atomic electrons | journal=Physical Review Letters| volume=67 | issue=25 | date=1991-12-16 | doi=10.1103/physrevlett.67.3491 | pages=3491–3494| pmid=10044749 | bibcode=1991PhRvL..67.3491P }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Intemann | first=Robert L. | title=DoubleK-shell ionization in electron capture decay | journal=Physical Review C| volume=31 | issue=5 | date=1985-05-01 | doi=10.1103/physrevc.31.1961 | pages=1961–1964| pmid=9952745 | bibcode=1985PhRvC..31.1961I }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Sheth | first=C. V. | title=Momentum representation of Dirac relativistic wave functions | journal=Physical Review A| volume=30 | issue=3 | date=1984-09-01 | doi=10.1103/physreva.30.1537 | pages=1537–1539| bibcode=1984PhRvA..30.1537S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Bambynek | first1=W. | last2=Behrens | first2=H. | last3=Chen | first3=M. H. | last4=Crasemann | first4=B. | last5=Fitzpatrick | first5=M. L. | last6=Ledingham | first6=K. W. D. | last7=Genz | first7=H. | last8=Mutterer | first8=M. | last9=Intemann | first9=R. L. | title=Orbital electron capture by the nucleus | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics| volume=49 | issue=1 | date=1977-01-01 | doi=10.1103/revmodphys.49.77 | pages=77–221| bibcode=1977RvMP...49...77B | hdl=2060/19760016885 | hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Frankowski | first1=K. | last2=Pekeris | first2=C. L. | title=Logarithmic Terms in the Wave Functions of the Ground State of Two-Electron Atoms | journal=Physical Review| volume=146 | issue=1 | date=1966-06-03 | doi=10.1103/physrev.146.46 | pages=46–49| bibcode=1966PhRv..146...46F }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=INTEMANN | first=R. L. | title=Relativistic Corrections in the Theory ofK-Electron Ejection DuringKCapture | journal=Physical Review| volume=178 | issue=4 | date=1969-02-20 | doi=10.1103/physrev.178.1543 | pages=1543–1550| bibcode=1969PhRv..178.1543I }}</ref> A review of the history and the generalized treatment of the relativistic harmonic oscillator is given by Lisboa et al.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Lisboa | first1=R. | last2=Malheiro | first2=M. | last3=de Castro | first3=A. S. | last4=Alberto | first4=P. | last5=Fiolhais | first5=M. | title=Pseudospin symmetry and the relativistic harmonic oscillator | journal=Physical Review C| volume=69 | issue=2 | date=2004-02-27 | doi=10.1103/physrevc.69.024319 | article-number=024319|arxiv=nucl-th/0310071v2| bibcode=2004PhRvC..69b4319L | s2cid=7499466 }}</ref>

He is also well known for his [[Group theory|group theoretical]] contributions to mathematical physics. His widely used textbook co-authored with Mark A. Samuel,
"Group Theory Made Easy for Scientists and Engineers" (Wiley-Interscience 1979), was very popular.

L.C. Bidenharn and Swamy published very influential papers on the relativistic [[Kepler]] problem.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Biedenharn | first=L. C. | title=Remarks on the Relativistic Kepler Problem | journal=Physical Review| volume=126 | issue=2 | date=1962-04-15 | doi=10.1103/physrev.126.845 | pages=845–851| bibcode=1962PhRv..126..845B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Biedenharn | first1=L. C. | last2=Swamy | first2=N. V. V. J. | title=Remarks on the Relativistic Kepler Problem. II. Approximate Dirac-Coulomb Hamiltonian Possessing Two Vector Invariants | journal=Physical Review| volume=133 | issue=5B | date=1964-03-09 | doi=10.1103/physrev.133.b1353 | pages=B1353–B1360| bibcode=1964PhRv..133.1353B }}</ref> They introduced a symmetric Hamiltonian and solved the Dirac Equation for the Hydrogen atom. The history of this effort is given in [http://delta.cs.cinvestav.mx/~mcintosh/comun/symm/symm.html Harold V. McIntosh's website].

==Background and career==
Swamy received a [[Bachelor of Science|BS]] degree in [[Mathematics]], a BS and [[Master of Science|MS]] degree in [[Physics]] all from [[Bombay University]], and a [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] degree in Physics from [[Florida State University]]. He had lectured at many universities, and was a guest scientist in [[Jülich]],
Germany and [[Cambridge University]] in UK. He had served as a professor of physics at
[[Oklahoma State University]] until his retirement.

Since his retirement in mid eighties, he used his own funds to visit India and teach at various academic institutions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-09-05/vadodara/28109098_1_educational-institutes-indian-and-american-education-average-american-student|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025030513/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-09-05/vadodara/28109098_1_educational-institutes-indian-and-american-education-average-american-student|archive-date=2012-10-25|title=This US prof spends his pension to teach in India|date=2009-09-05|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=2020-03-21}}</ref>

Swamy died in his hometown of Visakhapatnam, India, on 13 June 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://physics.okstate.edu/www/rss/news.php |title=News - Oklahoma State University Physics Department |access-date=2013-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130223095702/http://physics.okstate.edu/www/rss/news.php |archive-date=2013-02-23 }}</ref>

==Books==
* Nyayapathi V.V.J. Swamy and Mark A. Samuel, ''Group Theory Made Easy for Scientists and Engineers'', Wiley-Interscience, 1979, {{ISBN|0-471-05128-4}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Swamy, N. V. V. J.}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian physicists]]
[[Category:Mathematical physicists]]
[[Category:Indian theoretical physicists]]
[[Category:Florida State University alumni]]
[[Category:Oklahoma State University faculty]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]