Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

K. K. Lele

2026-05-06T11:20:38Z

ReaganRiordan: put up post

'''Kaśināth Kṛṣṇa Lele''', normally cited and referred to as '''K. K. Lele''' (d. ''circa'' 1935),<ref>Mentioned as deceased in 1939, see Ganpat Rao Gopal Khondekar, “Gopal Sambhaji," ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'' 3 (1939), pp. 1283–90. URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/44252474.</ref> was a civil servant in [[Dhar State]], a Princely State in the [[Central India Agency]] of British India. Early in his career, in 1887, he took over the educational department in [[Dewas State]], introducing reforms and opening a number of schools.<ref>C. E. Luard, ''Western States (Mālwā) Gazetteer'', Volume V.- Part A, Text, p. 54. URL: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35238/page/n73/mode/2up?q=Lele.</ref> In 1899, he shifted to [[Dhar State]] where he was appointed tutor to the Rājā of Dhār.<ref>C. E. Luard, ''Western States (Mālwā) Gazetteer'', Volume V.- Part A, Text (Bombay: Printed at the British India Press, Byculla, 1908), p. 54. URL: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35238/page/n73/mode/2up?q=Lele.</ref> He also served as Director of Education in Dhār State.<ref>C. E. Luard and K. K. Lele, ''The Paramāras of Dhār and Mālwā'' (Bombay: British India Press, 1908). On the title page of this work he is shown as: "Formerly Director of Education in Dhār State."</ref> In anticipation of the visit of [[Lord Curzon]] to Dhār in 1902, Captain Ernest Barnes, the political agent, formed an archaeological department and placed Lele in charge in September 1902.<ref>Ernest Barnes, “Art. XI. - Dhar and Mandu,” ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay Branch'' 21 (1904), pp. 339-91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10949373; C. E. Luard, ''Western States (Mālwā) Gazetteer'', Volume V.- Part A, Text (Bombay: Printed at the British India Press, Byculla, 1908), p. 400. URL: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35238/page/n463/mode/2up?q=Lele.</ref>

Lele was a gifted scholar of Sanskrit and had particular interests in epigraphy, publishing a number of articles on the inscriptions in Dhār state.<ref>For example, K. K. Lele, “Fragment of an Inscribed Hymn of Sarasvatī found at Mandu,” ''ABORI'' 8, no. 1 (1926), pp. 142–44; K. K. Lele, “A Fragmentary Inscription of Maṇḍu,” ''ABORI'' 11, no. 1 (1930), pp. 49-53, this apparently his last published work.</ref> He was responsible for recovering the ''[[Kodaṇḍakāvya]]'' from the Kamāl Maula campus in [[Dhar]] and arranging the fragments in the museum in Dhār fort (now a museum under the jurisdiction of the Directorate of Archaeology, Museums and Archives, Madhya Pradesh). Much of his work on [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]]-period inscriptions was collected and published by his nephew, C. B. Lele.<ref>C. B. Lele, ''Parmar Inscriptions in Dhar State, 875-1310 AD'', Dhar State, Historical record series, v. 1 (Dhar: [Department of History and Museum, 1944]).</ref> Of published work in his lifetime, the most wide-ranging was ''The Paramāras of Dhār and Mālwā'', appended to the ''Dhār State Gazetteer'' but released only as a separate volume.<ref>C. E. Luard and K. K. Lele, ''The Paramāras of Dhār and Mālwā'' (Bombay: British India Press, 1908). The title page says "Reprinted from the Dhār State Gazetteer," but overleaf it says: "This account of the Paramāra rulers of Mālwā was drawn up for the Dhār State Gazetteer, but was only printed in the separate volumes issued for the use of the Darbār."</ref> He also co-authored ''History of Dhar State : Modern Period'' with S. K. Oak.<ref>K. K. Lele and S. K. Oak, ''History of Dhar State : Modern Period'' (Dhar: Itihas Kachery Sansthan, 1926).</ref>

Lele's most significant discoveries were inscriptions in the Kamal Maula masjid: the ''Kūrmaśatakadvayam'', two poems praising Kūrma in Prakrit<ref>R. Pischel, ed. ''Kūrmaśatakadvayam: Two Prakrit poems on Tortoise who supports the Earth'', translated with selected glossary by V. M. Kulkarni, introduction by Devangana Desai (Ahmedabad, 2003). This is not the Kūrma incarnation, but rather the primal tortise Ādikūrma. An open access copy is available through JainQuantum.</ref> and the ''Vijayaśrīnāṭikā'', a drama by the poet Madana for his patron [[Arjunavarman]] (c. 1210-15).<ref>S. K. Dikshit, ed., ''Pārijātamañjarī alias Vijayaśrī by Rāja-Guru Madana alias Bāla-Sarasvatī'' (Bhopal, 1968). Other inscriptions examined by Lele are discussed in Saarthak Singh, “Serpentine Scimitars and Sarasvati’s Speech: The Materials of Knowledge in Medieval Malwa, c.1100–1400,” ''Arts Asiatiques'' 79 (2025), pp. 5-30.</ref> A concise and informative analysis of the dramatic inscription is given by H. V. Trivedi.<ref>H. V. Trivedi, ''Inscriptions of the Paramāras, Chandēllas, Kachchapaghātas and Two Minor Dynasties'', 2 parts. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. 7, part 1 (New Delhi: Director General, Archaeological Survey of India, 1991), p. 194. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10878801.</ref> Lele's views about the ''Vijayaśrīnāṭikā'' were circulated in a report dated 30 December 1903, subsequently printed and published in full by S. K. Dikshit in 1968.<ref>S. K. Dikshit, ed., ''Pārijātamañjarī alias Vijayaśrī by Rāja-Guru Madana alias Bāla-Sarasvatī'' (Bhopal, 1968), pp. xvii-xxiv.</ref> Because a number of the literary inscriptions found at Dhār had colophons attributing the works to Bhoja, Lele coined the term 'Bhojshālā' for the Kamāl Maula masjid, a building that was popularly known as Rājā Bhoja's madrasa in his time.<ref>Ernest Barnes, “Art. XI. - Dhar and Mandu,” ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay Branch'' 21 (1904), p. 350 used the term, Barnes's paper first read in June 1902. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10949373; C. E. Luard, ''Western States (Mālwā) Gazetteer'', Volume V.- Part A, Text, (Bombay: Printed at the British India Press, Byculla, 1908), p. 498. URL: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.206907/page/n583/mode/. The term 'Bhoja Shala' already appears in this work, see p. 496.</ref> The fact that ''Vijayaśrīnāṭikā'' opens with an invocation to Sarasvatī has prompted the idea that the Bhojshala was sacred to this goddess. Although this association cannot predate Lele's discovery of the ''Vijayaśrīnāṭikā'' in November 1903, it has led to social tensions and a legal case that reached the [[Madhya Pradesh High Court]] in 2024.<ref>Ishita Mishra, “Madhya Pradesh HC orders ASI survey of Bhojshala complex,” ''The Hindu'' (March 11, 2024).</ref> Thus Lele's research and historical interpretations, conducted more than a century ago, continue to have significant implications.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lele, K. K.}}
[[Category:Princely states of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:1930s deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:Year of death uncertain]]
[[Category:Indian academics]]
[[Category:Indian educators]]
[[Category:Indian epigraphers]]
[[Category:People from British India]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian people]]

K. Sornam

2026-05-06T00:14:03Z

ReaganRiordan: put up details

{{Short description|Indian writer (1933–2021)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| birth_date = 1933
| birth_place = [[Thirukkuvalai]], [[Madras Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2021|06|08|1933||}}
| death_place = [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| other_names = Swarnam, Swornam
| occupation = Writer, director, journalist
}}

'''K. Sornam''' (1933 – 8 June 2021) was an Indian journalist, screenwriter and director who worked in [[Tamil cinema]]. He was active in the second half of the 1900s, and shared close associations with chief ministers of Tamil Nadu [[M. Karunanidhi|Karunanidhi]] and [[M. G. Ramachandran]].

== Film career ==
Born in [[Thirukkuvalai]], Sornam worked as a literary writer with his relative, [[M. Karunanidhi|Karunanidhi]]. He had a key role in the operations of the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]]'s political newspaper, ''[[Murasoli (India)|Murasoli]]''. While at ''Murasoli'', Sornam brought out the supplement ''Pudhayal'', and also worked on archiving Karunanidhi's writings. In the 1960s, he worked on the theatrical play ''Vidai Kodu Thaaye'' (Bid Me Farewell Mother), a revolutionary play written to highlight the need for social reforms. For his script, he was presented with an award by [[C. N. Annadurai]].<ref name="toi">{{Cite news |last=Govardan |first=D |date=9 June 2021 |title='Voice' of megastars of Tamil Nadu politics, K Sornam, falls silent |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/voice-of-megastars-of-tamil-nadu-politics-k-sornam-falls-silent/articleshow/83356984.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611000001/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/voice-of-megastars-of-tamil-nadu-politics-k-sornam-falls-silent/articleshow/83356984.cms |archive-date=11 June 2021 |access-date=10 June 2021 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

Sornam went on to enrol in film institute in Chennai, besides becoming the secretary of Tamil Eyal Isai Nadaga Manram, a theatre organisation. Sornam wrote the dialogues for 3 movies starring [[M. G. Ramachandran|MGR]], including ''[[Nam Naadu (1969 film)|Nam Naadu]]'' (1969), ''[[Adimai Penn]]'' (1969) and ''[[Ulagam Sutrum Valiban]]'' (1973).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Guy |first=Randor |author-link=Randor Guy |date=30 April 2016 |title=Ulagam Sutrum Vaaliban (1973) |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/ulagamsutrum-vaaliban1973/article8541302.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250818151455/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/ulagamsutrum-vaaliban1973/article8541302.ece |archive-date=18 August 2025 |access-date=10 June 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Guy |first=Randor |author-link=Randor Guy |date=21 September 2013 |title=Aadavantha Deivam (1960) |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-columns/aadavantha-deivam-1960/article5153599.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925235340/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-columns/aadavantha-deivam-1960/article5153599.ece |archive-date=25 September 2013 |access-date=10 June 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sri Kantha |first=Sachi |author-link=Sachi Sri Kantha |date=March 17, 2020 |title=MGR Remembered – Part 55 {{!}} Ulagam Suttru Vaaliban [The Globe Trotting Youth] |url=https://sangam.org/mgr-remembered-part-55/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610235118/https://sangam.org/mgr-remembered-part-55/ |archive-date=10 June 2021 |access-date=10 June 2021 |website=[[Ilankai Tamil Sangam]]}}</ref> He also directed films with actors such as [[Sivakumar]] and [[Kamal Haasan]] in ''[[Thangathile Vairam]]'' (1975), [[R. Muthuraman]]'s ''[[Seer Varisai]]'' (1976), and [[Jaishankar (actor)|Jaishankar]]'s ''[[Aasai Manaivi]]'' (1977).

In 1987, he directed the film ''[[Ore Raththam]]'' featuring [[Karthik (actor)|Karthik]] in the lead role. The film has since garnered attention for marking the acting debut of politician [[M. K. Stalin]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shekar |first=Anjana |date=26 March 2021 |title=MK Stalin's brief stint with acting: Two films and a TV serial |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/mk-stalins-brief-stint-acting-two-films-and-tv-serial-145993 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610235058/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/mk-stalins-brief-stint-acting-two-films-and-tv-serial-145993 |archive-date=10 June 2021 |access-date=10 June 2021 |website=[[The News Minute]]}}</ref> In the 1990s, Sornam was later the editor-in-charge for the magazine ''Ilaya Suriyan'', that had been created by M. K. Stalin, and regularly served as the political party's voice.<ref name="toi" /><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Katyal |first1=Sugita |last2=Swamy |first2=Prakash M. |date=April 30, 1993 |title=DMK fails to exploit Congress(I)-AIADMK divorce due to rampant infighting within party |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/special-report/story/19930430-dmk-fails-to-exploit-congressi-aiadmk-divorce-due-to-rampant-infighting-within-party-811012-1993-04-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415152726/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/special-report/story/19930430-dmk-fails-to-exploit-congressi-aiadmk-divorce-due-to-rampant-infighting-within-party-811012-1993-04-30 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=10 June 2021 |work=[[India Today]]}}</ref>

== Death ==
Sornam died on 8 June 2021, aged 88, due to age-related ailments.<ref name="toi" />

== Partial filmography ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width:35px;"| Year
! rowspan="2" style="width:250px;"| Film
! colspan="2" style="width:195px;"| Credited as
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; width:250px;" class="unsortable"| Notes
|-
! style="width:65px;" | Director
! width=65 | Writer
|-
| 1960 || ''[[Aada Vandha Deivam]]'' || style="text-align:center;"| {{n}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} ||
|-
| 1969 || ''[[Nam Naadu (1969 film)|Nam Naadu]]'' || style="text-align:center;"| {{n}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} ||
|-
| 1969 || ''[[Adimai Penn]]'' || style="text-align:center;"| {{n}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} ||
|-
| 1971 || ''[[Kumari Kottam]]'' || style="text-align:center;"| {{n}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} || screenplay credits
|-
| 1973 || ''[[Ulagam Sutrum Valiban]]'' || style="text-align:center;"| {{n}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} ||
|-
| 1975 || ''[[Thangathile Vairam]]'' || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} ||
|-
| 1976 || ''Nee Oru Maharani'' || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} ||
|-
| 1977 || ''[[Aasai Manaivi]]'' || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} ||
|-
| 1978 || ''Ganga Yamuna Kaveri'' || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} ||
|-
| 1978 || ''[[Seervarisai]]'' || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} ||
|-
| 1978 || ''[[Mela Thalangal]]'' || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} ||
|-
| 1979 || ''Naan Oru Kai Paarkiren'' || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} ||
|-
| 1987 || ''[[Ore Raththam]]'' || style="text-align:center;"| {{y}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{n}} ||
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|10509301|name=Sornam, K.}}

{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sornam, K.}}
[[Category:1933 births]]
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Film directors from Chennai]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Chennai]]
[[Category:Tamil screenwriters]]

Soma Mondal

2026-05-05T15:52:49Z

ReaganRiordan: adding basic article w/ refs

{{Short description|Indian businesswoman}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Soma Mondal
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =1963
| birth_place = [[Bhubaneswar]], [[Odisha]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality =
| other_names =
| occupation = Businessperson
| years_active =
| known_for = Member PESB, Ex-Chairperson of [[Steel Authority of India]]
| notable_works =
}}

'''Soma Mondal''' (born 1963) is an Indian businesswoman, who served as a Chairperson of [[Steel Authority of India]] from 1 January 2021 to 30 April 2023.<ref name="Standard 2023 a006">{{cite web | last=Standard | first=Business | title=Amarendu Prakash takes over as SAIL chairman, succeeds Soma Mondal | website=Business News, Finance News, India News, BSE/NSE News, Stock Markets News, Sensex NIFTY, Union Budget 2023 | date=31 May 2023 | url=https://www.business-standard.com/india-news/amarendu-prakash-takes-over-as-sail-chairman-succeeds-soma-mondal-123053100925_1.html | access-date=7 December 2023}}</ref> She also served as a member of the Public Enterprises Selection Board (PESB) constituted by the Government of India from 1 May 2023 onwards for a period of three years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thy name is succession planning: PESB gathers full-strength, Ms. Mondal appointed as Member |url=https://www.indianmandarins.com/news/thy-name-is-succession-planning-pesb-gathers-full-strength-ms-mondal-appointed-as-member/26665 |access-date=2024-11-15 |website=IndianMandarins |language=en}}</ref> Smt. Soma Mondal has the distinction of not only being the first woman Functional Director of SAIL, but she was also the first woman chairman of the company.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|author=Surojit Gupta|date=13 Aug 2020|title=SAIL's Soma Mondal set to breach steel ceiling - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/sails-soma-mondal-set-to-breach-steel-ceiling/articleshow/77514689.cms|access-date=2021-08-30|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Soma Mondal takes over as Chairperson of SAIL|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/soma-mondal-takes-over-as-chairperson-of-sail/article33472188.ece|access-date=2021-09-26|website=@businessline|date=January 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Soma Mondal scripts history, assumes charge as 1st female Chairperson of SAIL|url=https://psuwatch.com/soma-mondal-assumes-charge-as-chairperson-of-sail|access-date=2021-09-26|website=psuwatch.com|date=2 January 2021 |language=en-US}}</ref> As a chairperson she was also the chief executive of the corporation.<ref name=":1" /> Post retirement from SAIL, Smt. Mondal is now a member of Public Enterprise Selection Board.<ref name="Public Enterprises Selection Board r067">{{cite web | title=Board Structure | website=Public Enterprises Selection Board | url=https://pesb.gov.in/Home/WhosWho | language=hi | access-date=7 December 2023}}</ref> Known as the "Queen of Steel" for her immense contributions to the industry, Soma Mondal has been included in the list of "World's 100 most powerful women" by [[Forbes]] in 2022 and 2023 (70th rank in 2023).<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |date=2023-12-06 |title=Who is Soma Mondal? The 'Queen of Steel' who is among World's Most Powerful Women |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/who-is-soma-mondal-the-queen-of-steel-who-is-among-worlds-most-powerful-women/articleshow/105779246.cms |access-date=2023-12-08 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=BURHO" |first="MOIRA FORBES AND MAGGIE MCGRATH WITH NICOLETTE JONES AND ERIKA |title=The World’s Most Powerful Women 2023 |url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/power-women/ |access-date= |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Soma Mondal was born and grew up in a [[Bengalis|Bengali]] middle-class family in Bhubaneswar.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.utkaltoday.com/soma-mondal-sail/|title=Soma Mondal: Odisha's first woman to head Steel Authority of India|date=2021|publisher=Utkal Today|access-date=16 December 2021|archive-date=16 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216170452/https://www.utkaltoday.com/soma-mondal-sail/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Her father was an agricultural economist. She majored in Electrical Engineering from [[National Institute of Technology, Rourkela]] in 1984.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite news|last=Mazumdar|first=Rakhi|title=PESB picks Soma Mondal as the next chairman of Steel Authority of India|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/steel/pesb-picks-soma-mondal-as-the-next-chairman-of-steel-authority-of-india/articleshow/77465114.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-09-26}}</ref><ref name=":3" />

==Career==
Mondal has over 35 years of experience in the metal industry. She commenced her career as a Graduate Engineer Trainee at NALCO and rose through the ranks to take over the mantle of Director (Commercial) at NALCO in the year 2014. Mondal joined SAIL in March 2017 as Director (Commercial).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.businesstoday.in/specials/most-powerful-women-in-business/story/soma-mondal-queen-of-steel-315156-2021-12-10|title=Soma Mondal: Queen of Steel|date=2021|publisher=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> She took over as chairperson of the [[Maharatna]] PSU from Anil Kumar Chaudhary, who retired in December, 2020.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pandey|first=Manohar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNBSEAAAQBAJ&dq=soma+mondal&pg=PT21|title=General Knowledge 2022|date=2021-04-08|publisher=Arihant Publications India limited|isbn=978-93-252-9558-2|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Smt. Soma Mondal {{!}} SAIL|url=https://sail.co.in/en/ms-soma-mondal-profile|access-date=2021-08-30|website=sail.co.in}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> During her tenure, in FY2022, SAIL for a first time crossed the revenue milestone of Rs 1 lakh crore, entering an elite club of Indian companies having a turnover above Rs 1 lakh crore.<ref name=":4" />

Mondal is well known in the Aluminium Industry for her contribution in various Industry forums.<ref name=":2" /> In March 2021 she was elected as the chairperson of Standing Conference of Public Enterprises (SCOPE), the organization representing the Central Government Public Enterprises.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Divekar|first=Aditi|date=2021-03-26|title=SAIL chief Soma Mondal is new chairperson of SCOPE|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/sail-chief-soma-mondal-is-new-chairperson-of-scope-121032601276_1.html|access-date=2021-09-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Soma Mondal elected as SCOPE Chairperson|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/soma-mondal-elected-as-scope-chairperson/article34171840.ece|access-date=2021-09-26|website=@businessline|date=26 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Chairman, SAIL Soma Mondal elected as new Chairman, SCOPE|url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/business/chairman-sail-soma-mondal-elected-as-new-chairman-scope|access-date=2021-09-26|website=Free Press Journal|language=en}}</ref>

In 2023, Soma Mondal honored with 'CEO of the Year' at ETPrime Women Leadership Awards.<ref>{{cite web |title=ETPrime Women Leadership Awards 2023 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/spotlight/etpwla2023 |website=The Economic Times |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mondal, Soma}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian businesswomen]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian businesspeople]]
[[Category:People from Bhubaneswar]]
[[Category:1963 births]]

{{India-business-bio-stub}}

Vishwanathapura, Bengaluru North district

2026-05-05T15:02:39Z

ReaganRiordan: adding first place basic info...

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Vishwanathapura
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| pushpin_map = India Karnataka
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Karnataka, India
| coordinates = {{coord|13.2803066|N|77.6227212|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Bengaluru North district|Bengaluru North]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of taluks of Karnataka|Taluk]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Devanahalli]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body = Grama Panchayath
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 2.3
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 930
| population_total = 1701 <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/587/download/1996/DH_2011_2929_PART_B_DCHB_BANGALORE_RURAL.pdf|access-date=31 March 2024|title=Census Data Handbook 2011}}</ref>
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 562110
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code =
| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in India#KA—Karnataka|KA-43]]
| website =
| footnotes =
| official_name = Vishwanathapura
| image_seal =
| image_caption =
}}
'''Vishwanathapura''' is a village in [[Devanahalli]] taluk in [[Bengaluru North district]] of [[Karnataka]], [[India]]. It is located 13 km from both Devanahalli (towards west) and [[Doddaballapura]] (towards east).

As per census survey 2011, its location code number is 625274.

It lies on [[National Highway 648 (India)|National Highway 648]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bengaluru/how-bengaluru-is-getting-closer-to-its-satellite-towns-2670913|access-date=1 April 2024|title=NH-648}}</ref> between Doddaballapura and Devanahalli. It is around 38 km north, from the state capital [[Bangalore|Bengaluru]].

This region is famous for growing [[Devanahalli pomelo]], which is protected under GI Tag.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bangalorerural.nic.in/en/culinary-delight/devanahalli-chakota/|access-date=1 April 2024|title=Devanahalli Pomelo}}</ref>

==Administration==
The District Administration Building that hosts the offices of [[District Magistrate|Deputy Commissioner]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bangalorerural.nic.in/en/divisions/deputy-commissioners-office|access-date=1 April 2024|title=District Website}}</ref> [[District council (India)|Zilla Panchayath]] and District Health Officer of [[Bengaluru North district]] is located in Vishwanathapura, making it the '''de facto''' capital of Bengaluru North district. Vishwanathapura also has a police station.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Bangalore Rural district]]

List of Indian Bengali films of 1951

2026-05-04T14:49:15Z

ReaganRiordan: Redirect article

#REDIRECT [[List of Indian Bengali films of the 1950s]]{{Redirect category shell|{{R from merge}}{{R from history}}}}

Dadar–Sainagar Shirdi Superfast Express

2026-04-30T22:37:28Z

ReaganRiordan: put up new post and citations.

{{short description|Train in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox rail service
| name = Dadar–Sainagar Shirdi Superfast Express
| image = Sainagar Shirdi Express.jpg
| caption =
| type = [[Superfast Express trains in India|Superfast Express]]
| locale = [[Maharashtra]]
| first = 28 August 2010
| last =
| operator = [[Central Railway zone|Central Railways]]
| ridership =
| start = {{stnlnk|Dadar}}
| stops = 8
| end = {{stnlnk|Sainagar Shirdi}}
| distance = {{convert|336|km|0|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 6 hours
| frequency = Tri-weekly
| class = AC 2 tier, AC 3 tier, Sleeper class, General Unreserved
| seating = Yes
| sleeping = Yes
| autorack =
| catering = Not available
| observation = Large windows
| entertainment =
| baggage =
| other facilities=
| stock = Standard [[Indian Railways]] coaches
| gauge = {{track gauge|1676mm|allk=on}}
| el =
| trainnumber = 12131 / 12132
| speed = {{convert|55.16|km/h|0|abbr=on}}, including halts
| map = [[File:(Shiridi - Mumbai) Express (via Manmad) Route map.png|300px]]
| map_state =
}}

The 12131/12132 '''Dadar–Sainagar Shirdi Superfast Express''' is a [[Superfast Express trains in India|Superfast Express]] train belonging to [[Indian Railways]] that run between [[Mumbai]] and [[Shirdi]] in India. It operates as train number 12131 from Dadar to Sainagar Shirdi and as train number 12132 in the reverse direction.

==Coaches==
12131/12132 Dadar–Sainagar Shirdi Superfast Express presently has 1 AC 2 tier, 1 AC 3 tier, 7 Sleeper class & 9 General Unreserved coaches. As with most train services in India, coach composition may be amended at the discretion of Indian Railways depending on demand.
[[File:Sainagar Shirdi Express - Sleeper Class coach.jpg|thumb|Dadar–Sainagar Shirdi Superfast Express – Sleeper class coach]]

==Service==
12131 Dadar–Sainagar Shirdi Superfast Express covers the distance of 336 kilometres in 6 hours 6 mins (55.08 km/h) and 6 hours 5 mins as 12132 Sainagar Shirdi–Dadar Superfast Express (55.23 km/h). As the average speed of the train is above 55 km/h, as per Indian Railways rules, its fare includes a [[Superfast Express trains in India|Superfast]] surcharge.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* http://goindia.about.com/b/2010/08/28/new-direct-train-from-mumbai-to-shirdi.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514003726/http://goindia.about.com/b/2010/08/28/new-direct-train-from-mumbai-to-shirdi.htm |date=14 May 2013 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081156/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=pastissues2&BaseHref=TOIM/2010/08/28&PageLabel=13&EntityId=Pc01308&ViewMode=HTML ]
*https://sai-baba.in/sai-baba-live-darshan/

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dadar-Sainagar Shirdi Superfast Express}}

[[Category:Transport in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Transport in Shirdi]]
[[Category:Superfast Express trains]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Maharashtra]]

Vishnupuri, Nanded

2026-04-30T09:05:13Z

ReaganRiordan: adding new info w/ refs...

{{short description|Village in Maharashtra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Vishnupuri
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Maharashtra#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Maharashtra, India
| coordinates = {{coord|19|06|43|N|77|17|20|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Nanded district|Nanded]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Gram panchayat]]
| governing_body =
| leader_title = Sarpanch
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 6910
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym = Hambarde Vishnupurikar
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 431606<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pincode.net.in/MAHARASHTRA/NANDED/V/VISHNUPURI |title=VISHNUPURI, NANDED, MAHARASHTRA, India, Pincode.net.in |publisher=Pin Code |date= |accessdate=2015-09-18}}</ref>
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 02466
| registration_plate = MH-26
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Vishnupuri''' is a village in [[Nanded]] [[tehsil|taluka]] of [[Nanded district]] in the [[Indian state]] of [[Maharashtra]]. It is {{convert|10|km|mi}} from [[Nanded]] city on the Nanded-[[Latur]] highway. Though it is a village, it is now a suburb of the city due its close proximity and rapid urbanisation. [[Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University]], [[Shri Guru Gobind Singhji Institute of Engineering and Technology]], [[Dr. Shankarrao Chavan Government Medical College]], sahayog educational campus are located there

==Demography==
*As per 2011 census, Vishnupuri has total 1,256 families residing. Village has population of 6,910 of which 3,570 were males while 3,340 were females.
*Average Sex Ratio of village is 936 which is higher than Maharashtra state average of 929.
*Literacy rate of village was 80% compared to 82.95% of Maharashtra. Male literacy rate was 87% while female literacy rate was 72%.
*[[Schedule Caste]] (SC) constitutes 23.5% of total population while [[Schedule Tribe]] population was 1.2%.

==Geography and transport==
Following table shows distance of Vishnupuri from various cities.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! City !! Distance(km)
|-
| [[Nanded]] || 10
|-
| [[Loha, Nanded|Loha]] || 24
|-
| [[Sonkhed]] || 13
|-
| [[Parbhani]] || 58
|-
| [[Latur]] || 126
|-
| [[Hingoli]] || 78
|-
| [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]] || 237
|-
| [[Mumbai]] || 540
|}

==Politics==
Vishnupuri is a part of [[Nanded South (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Nanded South constituency]] for the [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]. {{As of|2019}}, the [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] representing Vishnupuri was [[Mohanrao Hambarde]] of the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] party.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nanded(South)|url=https://www.elections.in/maharashtra/assembly-constituencies/nanded-south.html|publisher=elections|accessdate=10 May 2015}}</ref> Since, Hemant Patil has been elected as an MP from neighbouring Hingoli LS constituency, this assembly seat is vacant and election for the same was set to be held in October 2019 along with the state general election.

For elections to the [[Parliament of India]], the village is a part of [[Nanded (Lok Sabha constituency)|Nanded constituency]] and has Prataprao Patil Chikhalikar, a former [[Chief Minister of Maharashtra|MLA]] as its representative in the [[Lok Sabha]]. Conventionally Shiv Sena has a strong hold in this region.

==Notable people==
* [[Mohanrao Marotrao Hambarde]], MLA (2019-2024)

==References==
{{Portal|India}}
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Nanded district]]

Piyush Ranjan Nishad

2026-04-30T02:18:20Z

ReaganRiordan: put up new post

{{Short description|Member of the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Piyush Ranjan Nishad
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1972|9|9}}
| birth_place = [[Prayagraj]], Uttar Pradesh
| constituency = [[Karachhana Assembly constituency|Karachhana]]
| office = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member]] of [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = March 2022
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Ujjwal Raman Singh]]
| successor =
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| profession = Politician
}}
'''Piyush Ranjan Nishad''' is an Indian politician and a member of the [[18th Uttar Pradesh Assembly]] from the [[Karachhana Assembly constituency]] of [[Prayagraj district]].<ref name="UPLA">{{Cite web |url=https://uplegisassembly.gov.in/Members/main_members_en.aspx#/Data/18260/18 |title=Members of Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly |publisher=[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] |access-date=25 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.amarujala.com/election/vidhan-sabha-elections/uttar-pradesh/candidates/piyush-ranjan-nishad-bjp-2022-karachhana-248-uttar-pradesh |title=Bjp Piyush Ranjan Nishad Candidate Karachhana Uttar Pradesh Vidhan Sabha Election Result 2022 |publisher=[[Amar Ujala]] |language=hi |access-date=25 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/uttar-pradesh/prayagraj/news/for-the-first-time-in-history-kamal-blossomed-in-prayagrajs-karchana-seat-piyush-ranjan-defeated-ujjwal-r-prayagraj-karachhana-election-result-bjp-nishad-candidate-piyush-ranjan-vs-sp-ujjwal-aman-129492487.html |title=Prayagraj Karachhana Election Result; BJP Nishad Candidate Piyush Ranjan Ujjwal Raman Singh |publisher=[[Dainik Bhaskar]] |access-date=25 June 2024 |language=hi}}</ref> He is a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref name="UPLA"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.myneta.info/uttarpradesh2022/candidate.php?candidate_id=3430 |website=myneta.info |title=Piyush Ranjan Nishad(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- KARACHHANA(PRAYAGRAJ) |access-date=25 June 2024}}</ref>

==Early life==

Piyush Ranjan Nishad was born on 9 September 1972 in [[Prayagraj]], Uttar Pradesh, to a [[Hindu]] family of Kamta Prasad Nishad.<ref name="UPLA"/> He married Shakuntala Nishad in 1995, and they had four children.<ref name="UPLA"/>

== See also ==

* [[18th Uttar Pradesh Assembly]]
* [[Karachhana Assembly constituency]]
* [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Portal bar|India|Politics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nishad, Piyush Ranjan}}
[[Category:1972 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus]]
[[Category:People from Prayagraj]]
[[Category:Indian political people]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]

{{UttarPradesh-BJP-politician-stub}}

Anniyur Siva

2026-04-24T22:57:40Z

ReaganRiordan: Adding initial article w/ infobox!

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Anniyur Siva
| office = Member of [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 13 July 2024
| predecessor = [[N. Pugazhenthi]]
| constituency = [[Vikravandi Assembly constituency|Vikravandi]]
| party = [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]]
| spouse =
}}
'''Anniyur Siva''' is an Indian politician from [[Tamil Nadu]]. As a member of [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]], he is the incumbent MLA from [[Vikravandi Assembly constituency|Vikravandi]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-07-13 |title=DMK retains Vikravandi assembly seat overcoming opposition's aggressive campaign |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/dmk-retains-vikravandi-assembly-seat-overcoming-oppositions-aggressive-campaign/articleshow/111711215.cms |access-date=2024-07-13 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultByeJuly24/candidateswise-S2275.htm {{dead link|date=August 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siva, Anniyur}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam politicians]]
[[Category:Tamil Nadu MLAs 2021–2026]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{DMK-politician-stub}}

Khadir Bet

2026-04-24T01:59:59Z

ReaganRiordan: put up new page

{{Short description|Island in Gujarat, India}}
{{Infobox islands
| name = Khadir Bet
| image_name = Gujarat Solar park & Great Rann of Kutch, India - Pakistan (34377492370).jpg
| image_size = 250px
| image_caption = Satellite image showing the [[Thar Desert|Thar Salt Desert]] (center), [[Gujarat Solar Park]] (center-bottom), and Khadir Bet (bottom-left)
| location = [[Great Rann of Kutch]], [[Gujarat]], India
| area_km2 = 200
| elevation_m = 125
| coordinates = {{coord|23|51|41|N|70|19|45|E|display=inline,title}}
| country = India
| country_admin_divisions_title = State
| country_admin_divisions = [[Gujarat]]
| country_admin_divisions_title_1 = District
| country_admin_divisions_1 = [[Kutch district|Kutch]]
| pushpin_map = India Gujarat
| pushpin_label = Khadir Bet
| pushpin_label_position = bottom
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in [[Gujarat]], India
}}

'''Khadir Bet''' is an island located in the [[Great Rann of Kutch]] in [[Gujarat]], India. It spans around 200 square kilometers. It is known for its archaeological significance, particularly as the site of the ancient [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley Civilization]] city of [[Dholavira]], also a [[UNESCO]]<ref>{{cite news
| title = Dholavira: The lost-found civilisation
| author =
| date = October 29, 2021
| publisher = [[Deccan Herald]]
| url = https://www.deccanherald.com/features/dholavira-the-lost-found-civilisation-1028649.html
}}</ref> world heritage site.<ref name="drs">{{cite journal |last1=Gaur |first1=A.S. |last2=Murali |first2=R. Mani |title=Looking for the Harappan Ports around Dholavira, Khadir Bet, Kachchh, Gujarat |journal=Indian Journal of Geo Marine Sciences |date=November 2019 |volume=48 (11) |page=1769-1773 |url=https://drs.nio.res.in/drs/bitstream/handle/2264/8237/Indian_J_Geo_Mar_Sci_48_1769a.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |publisher=[[Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]], [[National Institute of Oceanography, India]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Best Laid Plans |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/features/best-laid-plans-713650.html |publisher=[[Deccan Herald]] |date=2019-04-05}}</ref>

The term "Khadir" is derived from the [[Kutchi language|Kutchi]] word "Khad", which translates to "grass".<ref>{{cite web |title=News in Frames: Connecting Dholavira |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/news-in-frames-connecting-dholavira/article38388088.ece |publisher=[[The Hindu]] |date=2022-03-10}}</ref> [[National Highway 927C (India)|NH927C]] (called '''''Road to Heaven''''') connects it to Lodran in the east, and the [[National Highway 754K (India)|NH754K]] to [[Khavda]] in the west. '''''Road to Infinity''''', a newer north-to-south 24.5 km road connecting Bambhanka on Khadir Bet to Ekal in [[Bhachau]] Taluka via salt desert and tortoise-shaped tiny Hanuman Bet island which was approved in 2022 and completed in 2026, reduced Khadir Bet to Bhachau distance from earlier 150 km to now just 75 km, thus also improved accessibility to the Dholavira World Heritage Site.<ref>[https://ianslive.in/gujarat-road-to-infinity-in-kutch-near-completion-to-pave-new-path-for-development--20260322192703 Gujarat: "Road to Infinity" in Kutch near completion], ianslive.in, 22 March 2026.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=વહીવટી મંજુરી:એકલ-બાંભણકા વચ્ચે રસ્તો બનતા ખડીરના વિકાસના નવા દ્વાર ખુલશે |url=http://www.divyabhaskar.co.in/local/gujarat/kutch/news/a-new-door-will-open-for-the-development-of-khadir-which-will-become-a-road-between-ekal-bambhanka-130067455.html |publisher=[[Divya Bhaskar]] |date=2022-07-17 |language=Gu}}</ref>

== Geography ==
It lies in the [[Great Rann of Kutch]], approximately 5 kilometers from the mainland. Khadir Bet is [[Triangle|triangular]], with sharp cliffs on its northern edge rising up to 125 meters, while the southern part slopes gently into the surrounding salt flats. The southern part slopes gently into the surrounding salt flats. The geology of Khadir Island consists mainly of sandstones, claystone, and fossiliferous limestone, with cultivable soil in some areas.<ref name="drs"/>

In July 2023, researchers from the Gujarat Ecological Education and Research Foundation (GEERF) documented the presence of [[Soda oppositifolia|Salsola oppositifolia]], a [[Halophyte|halophytic]] ([[salt-tolerant]]) [[shrub]] typically found around the [[Mediterranean Sea]], including regions of [[Italy]] and [[North Africa|Northern Africa]], for the first time in India at Khadir Bet.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mediterranean halophyte discovered in Khadir Bet |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/mediterranean-halophyte-discovered-in-khadir-bet/articleshow/101681955.cms |publisher=[[The Times of India]] |date=2023-07-29}}</ref>

== Archaeology ==
[[File:Dholavira East Gate.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Dholavira]], located on Khadir Island, is one of the largest [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Harappan sites]] in India, dating from around 2650 to 1450 BCE.]]
Khadir Bet is best known for its connection to [[Dholavira]], an ancient city of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley Civilization]]. The Harappans extracted over three million cubic meters of earth and rock from the island, which were used in construction, pottery, and artifact production for both local use and export.<ref name="drs"/>

Apart from Dholavira, several other archaeological sites have been identified on Khadir Bet. One notable site is Jhandiasar, located about 2 kilometers north of Dholavira, near a seasonal rivulet. This site reveals remnants of stone structures, such as walls and square formations, indicating it might have functioned as a harbor or logistical base for transporting materials to Dholavira. Another site, Bambhanka, located about 15 kilometers south of Dholavira, situated on a high tableland near a seasonal stream that flows into the sea.<ref name="drs"/>

=== Recent prehistoric findings ===
In 2025, a collaborative archaeological study led by the Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar (IITGN), along with researchers from IIT Kanpur, the Inter-University Accelerator Centre (IUAC), and the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), identified prehistoric shell-midden sites on Khadir Bet and neighboring islands in the Rann of Kutch. Radiocarbon dating using Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) placed these deposits at approximately 10,000 BCE, significantly earlier than the Harappan settlement of the region.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Shell Chronicles of Ancient Kachchh |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2133799 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703072143/https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2133799 |archive-date=2025-07-03 |access-date=2025-07-17 |website=www.pib.gov.in |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kutch Pre-Harappan Discovery: Human Habitation Dates Back 5,000 Years |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/gujarat/archaeological-evidence-reveals-human-habitation-in-kutch-predated-harappans-by-5000-years-study-3572252 |access-date=2025-07-17 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

The sites contained large accumulations of mollusc shells (including oysters and gastropods), along with lithic (stone) tools and flaking debris from tool production, suggesting habitation by coastal foraging communities. These findings point to human presence in the Kutch region during the terminal Pleistocene to early Holocene period. The sites show signs of repeated or prolonged use over time. The research proposes that such early communities were adapted to mangrove-rich coastal ecologies, and the presence of tool-making debris indicates on-site subsistence activity.<ref name=":0" />

This research adds to the archaeological record of the region by indicating human presence in Kutch several millennia before the development of Harappan urban centres such as Dholavira. Similar coastal foraging patterns have also been recorded in coastal sites of present-day Pakistan and the Arabian Peninsula.<ref name=":0" />

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Dholavira gujarat.jpg|Dholavira, Khadir Bet
File:Little fruit vendors (16062448453).jpg|Fruit vendors
File:Bird at dholavira.jpg|A bird
</gallery>
== See also ==
* [[Great Rann of Kutch]]
* [[Meruda Takkar]]
* [[Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Geography of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Islands of India]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Islands of Gujarat]]

S. Niranjan Reddy

2026-04-21T02:53:23Z

ReaganRiordan: put up new page

{{Short description|Indian Producer and politician}}
{{confuse|Singireddy Niranjan Reddy}}
{{Use dmy dates|date= May 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Sirgapoor Niranjan Reddy
| birth_name = Sirgapoor Niranjan Reddy<ref name="cd">{{cite web |title=ABOUT SIRGAPOOR NIRANJAN REDDY |url=https://corporatedir.com/officer/00337600 |website=Corporatedir |access-date=2 July 2022}}</ref>
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1970|7|22|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Nizamabad, Telangana|Nizamabad]], Andhra Pradesh (present{{endash}}day Telangana), India
| image = File:YSRCP Rajya Sabha Niranjan Reddy.jpg
| caption = Reddy in 2022
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha]]
| term_start = 22 June 2022
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Y. S. Chowdary]]
| successor =
| constituency = [[List of Rajya Sabha members from Andhra Pradesh| Andhra Pradesh]]
| party = [[YSR Congress Party]]
| other_party =
| education =
| alma_mater = [[Symbiosis Law School]], [[Pune]]
| occupation = Lawyer, producer, politician
| parents =
| spouse =
| children = 2
}}
'''Sirgapoor Niranjan Reddy''' (born 22 July 1970) is an Indian lawyer, practicing in Supreme Court of India and National Company Law Appellate Tribunal. He is a [[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha|Member of Parliament]] in [[Rajya Sabha]] representing the State of [[Andhra Pradesh]] since 2022. He is also known for maintaining diverse interests and is popularly recognized for having produced the Telugu films, ''[[Kshanam]]'' (2016), [[Ghazi (film)|''Ghazi'']] (2017), [[Wild Dog (film)|''Wild Dog'']] (2021), and [[Acharya (2022 film)|''Acharya'']] (2022).

==Early life==
Niranjan Reddy was born on 22 July 1970 in [[Nirmal]], [[Adilabad district]], Telangana.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-18 |title=Chiranjeevi’s Acharya Producer Niranjan Reddy Gets Rajya Sabha Seat |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/chiranjeevis-acharya-producer-niranjan-reddy-gets-rajya-sabha-seat-5197513.html |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref> His father, Vidya Sagar Reddy, was a well- known lawyer in the said region. He did his early schooling from a rural convent school in Kisan Nagar of [[Nizamabad district]] and then shifted to [[Hyderabad]] for his secondary and higher education. He studied and completed his schooling from Siva Sivani Public School in 1987. He thereafter pursued a 5 year Integrated Law Course from [[Symbiosis Law School]] in [[Pune]] and graduated in 1992.

==Career==
===Legal===
After completing his [[Bachelor of Laws|LLB]] in 1992, he joined the legal practice of the erstwhile senior advocates O. Manohar Reddy and K. Pratap Reddy, in the [[Andhra Pradesh High Court]]. He also worked briefly in the [[Supreme Court of India]], in 1994-95, with Justice Muralidhar.

He started his independent practice as a lawyer in 1995 in Hyderabad. He had extensive practice across all courts/fora in Hyderabad. He was particularly sought after in commercial, criminal, and arbitration matters. He was the standing counsel for the [[Election Commission of India]] and [[Medical Council of India]]. He was designated as a Senior Advocate in the year 2016. He has since shifted to and is currently practising in the [[Supreme Court |Supreme Court, New Delhi]]. He also represented various corporate groups and worked as the lawyer for [[Y. S. Jagan Mohan Reddy]] in the CBI/PMLA Cases.<ref name="YSRC finalises four candidates for Rajya Sabha">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=YSRC finalises four candidates for Rajya Sabha |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/politics/180522/ysrc-finalises-four-candidates-for-rajya-sabha.html |access-date=31 May 2022 |work= |date=18 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531155832/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/politics/180522/ysrc-finalises-four-candidates-for-rajya-sabha.html |archive-date=31 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
When film star Allu Arjun needed legal assistance in the Sandhya Theatre stampede case, he sought the help of Mr Reddy, a distinguished lawyer who also has deep insights into the film industry. As a practising advocate before the Supreme Court of India, he has represented several high-profile and sensitive matters from the Telugu states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, as well as leading corporates across the country, earning recognition as one of the leading advocate at the Supreme Court of India.<ref>https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/fighting-for-allu-arjun-a-juggler-of-many-hats/articleshow/117157318.cms</ref>

===Political===
In 2022, he was elected as an [[Member of Parliament (India)|MP]] from Andhra Pradesh to the [[Rajya Sabha]], from YSRCP.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-06-03 |title=Andhra Pradesh: Four YSRCP nominees elected to Rajya Sabha unopposed |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/andhra-pradesh-four-ysrcp-nominees-elected-to-rajya-sabha-unanimously/article65491174.ece |access-date=2023-06-01 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

He is currently serving as a Member of Rajya Sabha Standing Committee of Housing and Urban Affairs. He is also a member of the Rajya Sabha Committee on Subordinate Legislation. He is a member of the Hindi Salahkar Samiti of Ministry of Jal Shakti. He is also a member of the Consultative Committee of Ministry of Law and Justice, Union of India.

He was a member of the Joint Parliamentary Committee constituted on The Multi-State Co-operative Societies Amendment Bill, 2022.

=== Film ===
He maintains an abiding interest in the creative aspects of film making. He had worked as an assistant director to [[Ram Gopal Varma]]. He is also credited with writing the screenplay for ''[[Ghazi (film)|Ghazi]]'' (2012).

He has produced several films including ''[[Gaganam]]'' (2011), ''[[Kshanam]]'' (2016), ''Ghazi'', [[Wild Dog (film)|''Wild Dog'']] (2021), and [[Acharya (2022 film)|''Acharya'']] (2022).

===Other interests===
Reddy maintains a healthy interest in Arts and Films. He is the Founder Trustee of Art @ Telangana, an Art Foundation, that was formed prior to the bifurcation of the State of Andhra Pradesh to promote the cultural ethos of Telangana region.

He is an avid nature enthusiast and pursues environmental issues.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* {{IMDb name|id=12280055}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:YSR Congress Party politicians]]
[[Category:Telugu politicians]]
[[Category:1970 births]]
[[Category:Rajya Sabha members from Andhra Pradesh]]

Bayana Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:20:27Z

ReaganRiordan: Adding first article first draft!

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Rajasthan State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Bayana
| map_image = Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan-76-Bayana.svg
| state = [[Rajasthan]]
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 76
| district = [[Bharatpur district|Bharatpur]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Bharatpur Lok Sabha constituency|Bharatpur]]
| established = 2003
| reservation = SC
| mla = [[Ritu Banawat]]<ref name="election2023">{{Cite news |date=2023-12-04 |title=7 BJP rebels, one from Cong rewrite script to win as Independents in Rajasthan |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/7-bjp-rebels-one-fromcong-rewrite-script-towin-as-independents/articleshow/105711394.cms |access-date=2023-12-08 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
| party = [[Shiv Sena]]
| electors = {{formatnum:266511}}<ref name=election2023 name="election2023-1">{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/eci-backend/public/all_files/full-statistical-reports/rajasthan/2023/Detailed_Results.pdf |title=State Election,2023 to the legislative assembly of Rajasthan |website=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 12 February 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{update after|2029|1}}
| latest_election_year = 2023
}}
'''Bayana Assembly constituency''' is one of the 200 [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Rajasthan]] state in [[India]]. This area is considered to be Gurjar dominated.<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3931-delimitation-of-parliamentary-assembly-constituencies-order-2008/ |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary & Assembly Constituencies Order - 2008 |website=Election Commission of India |date=26 November 2008 |accessdate= 12 February 2021}}</ref><ref name=ceomap>{{cite web |url=https://ceorajasthan.nic.in/map/RAJASTHAN_ACS_MAP/RAJASTHAN_ACS_MAP.pdf |title=New Assembly Constituencies |website=ceorajasthan.nic.in |date=25 January 2006| access-date=12 February 2021}}</ref> The number of [[Gurjar]] voters in Bayana Assembly constituency is around 80 thousand and number of villages is around 120. It is part of [[Bharatpur district|Bharatpur]] district and is reserved for candidates belonging to the [[Scheduled Castes]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Election
!Member
!colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[2003 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2003]]
| Atar Singh Badana<ref name=election2003>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3403-rajasthan-2003/ |title=Statistical Data of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election 2003 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=14 January 2022}}</ref>
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[2008 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2008]]
| Gyarsaram<ref name=election2008>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3407-rajasthan-2008/|title=Statistical Data of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election 2008 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=22 December 2021}}</ref>
|-
|[[2013 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2013]]
| Bachchu Singh<ref name=election2013>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3411-rajasthan-2013/ |title=Statistical Data of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election 2013 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=30 September 2021}}</ref>
|-
|[[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2018]]
| [[Amar Singh Jatav]]<ref name=election2018/>
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| [[Ritu Banawat]]<ref name="election2023-2">{{Cite web |title=Bayana Assembly Election Results 2023 Highlights: Independent's Dr. Ritu Banawat wins Bayana with 105749 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/bayana-assembly-election-results-2023-live-2470689-2023-12-03 |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>
| {{Full party name with color|Shiv Sena}}
|}

== Election results ==
=== 2023 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]]: Bayana<ref name="election2023"/>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ritu Banawat
|votes = {{formatnum:105749}}
|percentage = 54.94
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Amar Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:65107}}
|percentage = 33.82
|change = -16.48
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Bachchusingh Banshiwal
|votes = {{formatnum:14398}}
|percentage = 7.48
|change = -38.95
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1003}}
|percentage = 0.52
|change = -0.2
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:40642}}
|percentage = 21.12
|change = +17.25
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:192495}}
|percentage = 72.23
|change = -0.07
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Independent
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]]: Bayana<ref name=election2018>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9645-statistical-data-of-rajasthan-la-2018/ |title=Statistical Data of Rajasthan LA 2018 |website=Election Commission of India |date= |accessdate= 12 February 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Amar Singh Jatav]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:86962}}
|percentage = 50.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Ritu Banawat]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:80267}}
|percentage = 46.43
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Sunil Kumar
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:3054}}
|percentage = 1.77
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1253}}
|percentage = 0.72
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:6695}}
|percentage = 3.87
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:172885}}
|percentage = 72.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Bharatpur district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan}}

{{coord|26.92|77.29|display=title}}

[[Category:Bharatpur district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Politics of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:2003 establishments in Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2003]]

H. Siddaiah

2026-04-19T10:43:12Z

ReaganRiordan: put up a data

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name =
| image =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date = 14 May 1954
| death_place =
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| office = 2nd [[List of Speakers of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly|Speaker of Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 18 June 1952
| term_end = 14 May 1954
| predecessor = [[V. Venkatappa]]
| successor = [[H. S. Rudrappa]]
| constituency = [[Soraba-Shikaripur Assembly constituency|Soraba-Shikaripur]]
| office1 = Minister for Revenue
| term_start1 = 25 October 1947
| term_end1 = 30 March 1952
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 =
| constituency1 = ''[[Mysore Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly not established]]''
| office2 = Minister for Public Works Department
| term_start2 = 25 October 1947
| term_end2 = 30 March 1952
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 =
| constituency2 = ''[[Mysore Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly not established]]''
| office3 = [[Mysore Legislative Assembly|Member of the Mysore Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency3 = [[Soraba-Shikaripur Assembly constituency|Soraba-Shikaripur]]
| term_start3 = April 1952
| term_end3 = 14 May 1954
| predecessor3 = ''[[Mysore Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly not established]]''
| successor3 = Mallikarjunappa Gowda
| alongside3 = Ganga Nayak
| occupation =
| father =
| mother =
| relations =
| website =
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| source =
}}

'''H. Siddaiah''' was an Indian politician from [[India]]n state of [[Mysore state|Mysore]], currently known as [[Karnataka]].<ref name=":eparlib" />

==Political career==
He was the Minister of [[Mysore state]] for Public Works Department and Revenue department of Karnataka from 25 October 1947 to 30 March 1952 as part of the [[K. C. Reddy ministry]]. Later he became the [[List of speakers of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly|Speaker of Mysore Legislative Assembly]] from 18 June 1952 and died on 14 May 1954 after winning [[1952 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] for [[Soraba-Shikaripur Assembly constituency|Soraba-Shikaripur]].<ref name=":eparlib">https://eparlib.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/760901/1/jpi_April_1955.pdf#search=null%20%5B1955%20TO%201959%5D</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kla.kar.nic.in/assembly/member/1assemblymemberslist.htm |access-date=2023-11-10 |website=kla.kar.nic.in}}</ref><ref name="MYSECI1951">{{cite web | url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_MYSORE.pdf | title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 : To the Legislative Assembly of Mysore | publisher=Election Commission of India | access-date=2014-10-14}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siddaiah, H}}
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:State cabinet ministers of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Mysore MLAs 1952–1957]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Speakers of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:1954 deaths]]

Kartick Chandra Paul

2026-04-17T18:26:16Z

ReaganRiordan:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| constituency = [[Raiganj Lok Sabha constituency|Raiganj]]
| term_start = 4 June 2024
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Debasree Chaudhuri]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| other_party = [[All India Trinamool Congress]] [[Indian National Congress]]
}}
'''Kartick Chandra Paul''' is an Indian politician and social worker. He is serving as a [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]] from [[Raiganj Lok Sabha constituency|Raiganj]].<ref name="Lok Sabha Election Results 2024: BJP's Kartick Chandra Paul Wins The Election In Raiganj">{{cite news|title=Lok Sabha Election Results 2024: BJP's Kartick Chandra Paul Wins The Election In Raiganj|url=https://timelinedaily.com/lok-sabha-election-2024/lok-sabha-election-results-2024-bjps-kartick-chandra-paul-wins-the-election-in-raiganj|accessdate=5 July 2025|publisher=TimelineDaily|date=4 June 2024|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250705075350/https://timelinedaily.com/lok-sabha-election-2024/lok-sabha-election-results-2024-bjps-kartick-chandra-paul-wins-the-election-in-raiganj|archivedate=5 July 2025|language=en}}</ref> He is a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]. Kartick Paul won by 68,197 votes over his nearest [[All India Trinamool Congress]] rival, [[Krishna Kalyani]], from the Raiganj Lok Sabha seat in the [[2024 Indian general election]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.uniindia.com/news/east/flash/3213855. Mother Teresa html |title=Kartick Chandra Paul's Victory - UNI India |accessdate=2024-12-10}}</ref><ref name="2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Raiganj2">{{cite news |date=4 June 2024 |title=2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Raiganj |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S255.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250705075256/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S255.htm |archivedate=5 July 2025 |accessdate=5 July 2025 |publisher=Election Commission of India}}</ref><ref name="Raiganj Constituency Lok Sabha Election Results 2014 - 20242">{{cite news |date=4 June 2024 |title=Raiganj Constituency Lok Sabha Election Results 2014 - 2024 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/lok-sabha-constituencies/west-bengal/raiganj |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250705075224/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/lok-sabha-constituencies/west-bengal/raiganj |archivedate=5 July 2025 |accessdate=5 July 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>

He is associated with [[Kaliaganj]]'s Bharat Sebashram Sangha, Baira Kalibari, Mahendraganj Natmandir Committee, and Loknath Mandir Committee as a member.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dspstg.sansad.in/ls/members/biographyM/5691?from=members |title=Member Biography - Sansad |accessdate=2024-12-10}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Politics}}
*[[18th Lok Sabha]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:India MPs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from West Bengal]]

{{WestBengal-BJP-politician-stub}}

Davinchi Santhosh

2026-04-14T19:30:11Z

ReaganRiordan: put up initial post initial version.

{{Short description|Indian actor}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Davinchi Santhosh
| image =
| alt =
| caption = Davinchi Santhosh
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|2010|10|29|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Vellangallur]], India
| other_names = Master Davinchi, Davu
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 2018
}}
'''Davinchi Santhosh''' is a Malayalam film child actor. His debut was in ''[[French Viplavam]]'' directed by K.B.Maju.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-20 |title=Child actor Davinci Santhosh talks about his love for movies, football and more |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/interview/child-actor-davinci-santhosh-talks-about-his-love-for-movies-football-and-more-1.8837143 |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=English.Mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref> His character in the movie ''[[Lonappante Mamodeesa]]'' was noticed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ചിരിയടക്കാനാകാതെ ജയറാം; ഇവൻ ഒരു രക്ഷയുമില്ലല്ലോ എന്ന് ജോജു; മാസ്റ്റർ ഡാവിൻചി ഇങ്ങനെയൊക്കെയാണ് |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/children/kidz-club/2021/08/10/interview-with-master-davinci-santhosh.html |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=ചിരിയടക്കാനാകാതെ ജയറാം; ഇവൻ ഒരു രക്ഷയുമില്ലല്ലോ എന്ന് ജോജു; മാസ്റ്റർ ഡാവിൻചി ഇങ്ങനെയൊക്കെയാണ് |language=ml}}</ref> He received [[Kerala State Film Award]] and [[Kerala State Chalachitra Academy#Kerala State Television Awards|Kerala State Television Award]] for Best Child Actor.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-22 |title=State award a big surprise for child actor Davinci |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/state-award-a-big-surprise-for-child-actor-davinci-1.8752194 |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=English.Mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-07 |title=Kerala State TV Awards 2022 Announced: Here Are The Winners |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/kerala-state-tv-awards-2022-announced-here-are-the-winners-8807034.html |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Davinchi was born to Santhosh and Dhanya on 29 October 2010 at [[Vellangallur]]. He acted in a street drama and then a short films from 4th class. He is student in GHSS Karupadanna.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-14 |title=കുട്ടി ഡാവിഞ്ചിയും തൻമയയും; കുഞ്ഞുനക്ഷത്രങ്ങളുടെ സല്ലാപം |url=https://grihalakshmi.mathrubhumi.com/cinema/interview-of-child-artists-davinci-and-thanmaya-sol-1.9068840 |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=Grihalakshmi |language=en}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2018 || ''[[French Viplavam]]'' || Pachu ||
|-
| ''Samaksham'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2019 || ''[[Lonappante Mamodeesa]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Thottappan]]'' || Joymon ||
|-
| 2021 || ''Kaadakalam'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2022 || ''[[Bheeshma Parvam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Pada (film)|Pada]]'' || Azad ||
|-
| ''[[Varayan]]'' || Keppa ||
|-
| 2023 || ''[[Jaladhara Pumpset Since 1962]]'' || ||
|-
| 2024 || ''[[Pallotty 90's kids]]'' || Young Kannan || [[Kerala State Film Award]] for Best Child Actor<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-09-26 |title=Award-winning short film director Jithin Raj to debut with a feel-good film on friendship |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/award-winning-short-film-director-jithin-raj-to-debut-with-a-feel-good-film-on-friendship/articleshow/78339035.cms |access-date=2024-09-16 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = സംസ്ഥാന അവാർഡ് ജേതാവ് 'പള്ളോട്ടി 90 കളിലെ കുട്ടികൾ' തിയേറ്ററുകളിൽ റിലീസിന് ഒരുങ്ങുന്നു; ടീസർ പുറത്ത്...|url = https://www-onmanoramacom.translate.goog/entertainment/entertainment-news/2023/11/15/state-award-winner-pallotti-90s-kids-is-all-set-to-release-in-theatres-in-2024.html?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=ml&_x_tr_hl=ml&_x_tr_pto=tc|publisher =onmanorama |date = 23 November 2023|accessdate = 14 March 2024
|language = Malayalam}}</ref>
|-
|}

==Short film==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 2018 || ''Pallotty'' ||
|-
| 2019 || ''Ekru'' ||
|-
| 2020 || ''Kalamadan'' ||
|-
| 2022 || ''[[Village Cricket Boy (film)|Village Cricket Boy]]'' || Kerala State Television Award for Best Child Actor.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Daily |first=Keralakaumudi |title=State Television Awards announced: Sivaji Guruvayur Best Actor, Shisira PV Best Actress |url=https://keralakaumudi.com/en/news/news.php?id=1263094&u=state-television-awards-announced-sivaji-guruvayoor-best-actor-sisira-pv-best-actress |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=Keralakaumudi Daily |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2023 || ''Velicham'' ||
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name |nm6319462}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Santhosh, Davinchi}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male child actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:2010 births]]

Purnia Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:32:31Z

ReaganRiordan: put up new article

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Purnia
| type = SLA
| map_image = 62-Purnia constituency.svg
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| mla = [[Vijay Kumar Khemka]] 
| party = {{Party index link|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| alliance = [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]]
| latest_election_year = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]] 
| region =
| state = [[Bihar]]
| district = [[Purnia district|Purnia]]
| division =
| loksabha_cons =
| constituency_no = [[List of constituencies of the Bihar Legislative Assembly|-]]
| established = 1951
| electors = 290,893
| reservation = None
| abolished = 
}}
'''Purnia Assembly constituency''' is an [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] constituency in [[Purnia district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Bihar]].

==Overview==
As per Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008, No 62. Purnia Assembly constituency is composed of the following: Purnia East [[Community Development Block in India|community development block]] including Purnia Municipal Corporation.<ref name=commission>{{cite web|url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |title = Schedule – XIII of Constituencies Order, 2008 of Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008 of the Election Commission of India|work= Schedule VI Bihar, Part A – Assembly constituencies, Part B – Parliamentary constituencies |access-date = 2011-01-10 }}</ref> In the [[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]], Purnia was announced to be one of the 36 seats to have VVPAT enabled electronic voting machines.<ref name="election2043">{{cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/36-seats-in-bihar-to-have-electronic-voting-machines-with-paper-trail-facility-1204308|title=36 Seats in Bihar to Have Electronic Voting Machines With Paper Trail Facility}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/poll-bound-bihar-to-get-36-evms-with-paper-trail-facility/|title=Poll-bound Bihar to get 36 EVMs with paper trail facility}}</ref>

Purnia Assembly constituency is part of No 12 [[Purnia (Lok Sabha constituency)]].<ref name=commission/>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Name<ref name="election2018">{{Cite web|title=Purnia Election and Results 2018, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs|url=https://www.elections.in/bihar/assembly-constituencies/purnia.html|access-date=|website=Elections in India}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1952 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| rowspan="6" |Kamaldeo Narain Sinha
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=5}}
|-
|[[1957 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|-
|[[1962 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|-
|[[1967 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|-
|[[1969 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|-
|[[1972 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (O)|dab=yes}}
|-
|[[1977 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Dev Nath Roy
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1980 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| rowspan="4" |[[Ajit Sarkar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|dab=yes|rowspan=5}}
|-
|[[1985 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|-
|[[1990 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|-
|[[1995 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
|-
|1998^
|[[Madhavi Sarkar]]
|-
|[[2000 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2000]]
| rowspan="4" |[[Raj Kishore Kesri]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=8}}
|-
|[[February 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
|-
|[[October 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
|-
|[[2010 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2010]]
|-
|2011^
|Kiran Devi
|-
|[[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2015]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Vijay Kumar Khemka|Vijay Khemka]]
|-
|[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2020]]
|-
|[[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
|-
|}

==Election results==
=== 2025 ===
{{Election box begin |title=[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Purnia<ref name="Purnia Election Result 2025 Highlights: BJP's Vijay Kumar Khemka win another term">{{cite news |title=Purnia Election Result 2025 Highlights: BJP's Vijay Kumar Khemka win another term |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/purnia-election-results-2025-highlights-bjps-vijay-kumar-khemka-congress-jitendra-kumar-and-jan-suraajs-santosh-kumar-singh-locked-in-fierce-duel/articleshow/125303990.cms |access-date=25 November 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=14 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251125041401/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/purnia-election-results-2025-highlights-bjps-vijay-kumar-khemka-congress-jitendra-kumar-and-jan-suraajs-santosh-kumar-singh-locked-in-fierce-duel/articleshow/125303990.cms |archive-date=25 November 2025}}</ref><ref name="election2020">{{Cite web |date=2021-01-13 |title=Bihar General Legislative Election 2020 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/12787-bihar-legislative-election-2020/ |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Vijay Kumar Khemka]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:127614}}
|percentage = 54.79
|change = +2.01
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Jitendra Kumar Yadav
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:94392}}
|percentage = 40.53
|change = +5.11
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Jan Suraaj Party
|candidate = Santosh Kumar Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:3701}}
|percentage = 1.59
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1436}}
|percentage = 0.62
|change = +0.11
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:33222}}
|percentage = 14.26
|change = -3.1
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:232919}}
|percentage = 80.07
|change = +20.86
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = BJP
|loser =
|swing = NDA
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2020 ===
'''Source:'''<ref name="election2025">{{cite web|url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/purnia-bihar-assembly-constituency|title=Purnia Assembly Constituency Election Result|accessdate=5 Feb 2025}}</ref>
{{Election box begin |title=[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Purnia<ref name="election2020">{{Cite web |date=2021-01-13 |title=Bihar General Legislative Election 2020 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/12787-bihar-legislative-election-2020/ |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Vijay Kumar Khemka]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:97757}}
|percentage = 52.78
|change = +3.52
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Indu Sinha
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:65603}}
|percentage = 35.42
|change = +3.72
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Social Democratic Party of India
|candidate = Vijay Oraon
|votes = {{formatnum:5493}}
|percentage = 2.97
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Apna Kisan Party
|candidate = Sanjay Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:1924}}
|percentage = 1.04
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Neeraj Kumar Sinha
|votes = {{formatnum:1742}}
|percentage = 0.94
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:951}}
|percentage = 0.51
|change = -0.08
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:32154}}
|percentage = 17.36
|change = -0.2
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:185201}}
|percentage = 59.21
|change = -6.68
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2015 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Purnia<ref name="Purnia Constituency Election Results 2015 - 2025">{{cite news |title=Purnia Constituency Election Results 2015 - 2025 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/bihar/constituency-show/purnia |publisher=The Times of India |date=14 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251125041236/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/bihar/constituency-show/purnia |archive-date=25 November 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Vijay Kumar Khemka]]
|votes = {{formatnum:92020}}
|percentage = 49.26
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Indu Sinha
|votes = {{formatnum:59205}}
|percentage = 31.7
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ram Charitra Yadav
|votes = {{formatnum:7614}}
|percentage = 4.08
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = Rajeev Kumar Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:3993}}
|percentage = 2.14
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Jan Adhikar Party (Loktantrik)
|candidate = Arvind Kumar@ Bhola Sah
|votes = {{formatnum:2670}}
|percentage = 1.43
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ashok Kumar Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:1697}}
|percentage = 0.91
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1109}}
|percentage = 0.59
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:32815}}
|percentage = 17.56
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:186786}}
|percentage = 65.89
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of all Bihar Assembly elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/68-bihar/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Bihar}}
{{Purnia Division topics}}
{{coord|25|47|N|87|28|E|region:IN-BR|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Bihar]]
[[Category:Politics of Purnia district]]
[[Category:Purnia]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Bihar]]

Mohit Burman

2026-04-12T15:23:09Z

ReaganRiordan:

{{short description|Indian businessman|bot=PearBOT 5}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Undisclosed paid|date=April 2018}}
{{COI|date=April 2018}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Mohit Burman
| image =
| occupation = Businessman
| alma_mater = [[Richmond, The American International University in London|Richmond College]]
| known_for = Chairman of [[Dabur]] Chairman of [[Aviva India|Aviva Life Insurance Company India]]<ref name="Forbes India">{{cite news|title=Finance Is The Calling Card For Dabur Scion Mohit Burman|date=29 October 2014|url=http://forbesindia.com/article/india-rich-list-2014/finance-is-the-calling-card-for-dabur-scion-mohit-burman/38913/1|publisher=forbesindia.com|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> Co-owner of [[Punjab Kings]]<ref name="The Hindu">{{cite news|title=IPL franchise Kings XI Punjab renamed Punjab Kings |date=17 February 2021|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/ipl-franchise-kings-xi-punjab-renamed-punjab-kings/article33861159.ece|work=The Hindu|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref> and [[Saint Lucia Kings]]
}}

'''Mohit Burman''' is an Indian businessman. He is the chairman of [[Dabur]], an Ayurvedic and FMCG company.<ref name="Business Standard">{{cite news |date=13 August 2022 |title=Amit Burman resigns as Dabur chairman, Mohit Burman takes charge |newspaper=Business Standard |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/amit-burman-resigns-as-dabur-chairman-mohit-burman-takes-charge-122081300029_1.html |access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref> A fifth-generation scion of the [[Bengali Hindu]] Burman family, he also led the family's acquisition of a majority stake in dry cell battery maker [[Eveready Industries India]]<ref name="Dabur India Ltd. Official Website">{{cite web |date=20 June 2022 |title=Eveready Industries to augment product portfolio: Mohit Burman of Dabur India |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/eveready-industries-to-augment-product-portfolio/article65545241.ece |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Hindu Business Line |publisher=Dabur India Ltd.}}</ref> and the family's entry into the life insurance sector through [[Aviva India]]. A sports enthusiast, he is also promoter and co-owner of the [[Indian Premier League]] cricket team [[Punjab Kings]].<ref name="mohitbio">{{cite news|title=Preity Zinta, Ness Wadia, Karan Paul, Mohit Burman|date=2 April 2008|url=http://ipl.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Teams--Profiles/Owners/Preity-Zinta-Ness-Wadia-Karan-Paul-Mohit-Burman/articleshow/2919438.cms|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=18 February 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523205516/http://ipl.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Teams--Profiles/Owners/Preity-Zinta-Ness-Wadia-Karan-Paul-Mohit-Burman/articleshow/2919438.cms |archivedate=23 May 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Promoters of Kings XI Punjab|url=http://www.kxip.in/page/promoters|publisher=[[Kings XI Punjab]]|access-date=18 February 2015|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303192124/http://www.kxip.in/page/promoters|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
After completing his schooling from [[Highgate School]], London, he graduated from [[Richmond, The American International University in London|Richmond College]], in Bachelor of Arts, Business Administration and Economics (Double major: Marketing and General Management) and subsequently completed his Master of Business Administration degree, in Finance from [[Babson College|Babson Graduate School of Business, Massachusetts]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Mohit Burman Director of Dabur India Ltd. MBA from Babson Graduate School of Business|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/people/person.asp?personId=28442143&ticker=DABUR:IN|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="mohitburmanbio">{{cite web|title=Mohit Burman Bio |url=http://www.in.com/mohit-burman/biography-393419.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122200325/http://www.in.com/mohit-burman/biography-393419.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 January 2015|website=in.com|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref>

In October 2024, the Burman family was ranked 23rd on Forbes list of India’s 100 richest tycoons, with a net worth of $10.4 billion.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 9, 2024 |title=India's 100 Richest |url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/india-billionaires/ |website=India’s 100 Richest}}</ref>

==Career==
Burman started his career with Welbeck Property Partnership London and then joined Dabur Finance Ltd., a company specializing in fund and fee-based financial activities, as Senior Manager. He worked in the group's financial services businesses including [[asset management]], [[life insurance]] and pensions by setting up an insurance company with the UK's largest insurance company, [[Aviva]].<ref name="Daburbusiness">{{cite news|title=Dabur Group's Burmans, Espírito Santo Investment Bank Form JV |date=15 November 2011|url=http://www.vccircle.com/news/banking/2011/11/15/dabur-group%C2%92s-burmans-esp%C3%ADrito-santo-investment-bank-form-jv|publisher=Vccircle.com|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> His family in November 2011<ref name="NDTV">{{cite news|title=Dabur promoters, Espirito Santo Investment Bank form JV |date=15 February 2011|url=http://profit.ndtv.com/news/market/article-dabur-promoters-espirito-santo-investment-bank-form-jv-153984|publisher=NDTV|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> had established a joint venture with [[Espírito Santo Investment Bank]] to set up an [[investment banking]] company in [[India]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2018}}

Burman has also been actively involved in expanding Dabur India's presence in overseas markets, and was involved in the acquisition of Balsara Hygiene and Home Care businesses for Rs. 1.43 billion by Dabur India Ltd. on 27 January 2005.<ref name=NDTV />

==Board memberships==
Mohit also holds board membership<ref>{{cite web|title=Board Membership of Mohit Burman|url=http://www.dabur.com/About%20Dabur-Mr.%20Mohit%20Burman|publisher=[[Dabur]]|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="Rediff">{{cite news|title=Dabur's Burmans to enter i-banking, broking | date= 12 October 2011|url=http://www.rediff.com/money/report/daburs-burmans-to-enter-i-banking-broking/20111012.htm|work=[[Rediff.com]]|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> of different other companies like [[Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce]] & Industry, Dabur International Limited, Universal Sompo General Insurance Co. Ltd., KPH Dream Cricket Pvt. Ltd (Kings XI), Aviva Life Insurance Company India Limited,<ref>{{cite web|title=Chairman of Aviva Life Insurance India Ltd.|url=http://www.avivaindia.com/en/AboutUs/BoardofDirectors.aspx|publisher=[[Aviva]]|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> Markettopper Securities Pvt. Ltd., Elephant India Advisors Pvt. Ltd., Caterham Cars Pvt. Ltd, H&B Stores Ltd., Espirito Santo Securities India Pvt. Ltd.

==Sports==
Mohit Burman is one of a group of promoters who have formed the [[cricket]] team [[Punjab Kings]].<ref>{{Cite news|agency=PTI|date=2021-02-17|title=IPL franchise Kings XI Punjab renamed Punjab Kings|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/ipl-franchise-kings-xi-punjab-renamed-punjab-kings/article33861159.ece|access-date=2021-05-03|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He is also a director and co-Owner of a Caribbean Premier League team [[Saint Lucia Kings]].<ref name="Forbes">{{cite magazine |date=17 February 2020 |title=Kings XI Punjab Set To Acquire St Lucia Franchise Of Caribbean Premier League |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/sports-news-kings-xi-punjab-set-to-acquire-st-lucia-franchise-of-caribbean-premier-league/347469 |magazine=OutlookIndia.com |access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref><ref name="getreading.co.uk">{{cite news |date=17 February 2020 |title=St Lucia Zouks sold to Kings XI Punjab owners |work=ESPN Cric Info |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/st-lucia-zouks-sold-to-kings-xi-punjab-owners-1216718 |access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Dabur Group}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Burman, Mohit}}
[[Category:People educated at Highgate School]]
[[Category:1968 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Indian businesspeople in the insurance industry]]
[[Category:Indian Premier League franchise owners]]
[[Category:Dabur Group]]

Reshma Rathore

2026-04-05T06:59:22Z

ReaganRiordan: put up article

{{Short description|Indian actress and model}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Reshma Rathore
|image = Actress_Reshma_Rathore.jpg
|caption =
|birth_name =
|partner =
|birth_date =
|birth_place =
|occupation = Film Actress, Model
|yearsactive = 2012–present
|education = [[Bachelor of Law]]
|relatives =
|parents =
|website =
}}

'''Reshma Rathore'''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Telugu-girl-to-make-Kollywood-debut/articleshow/48032151.cms// |title=Telugu girl to make Kollywood debut|website=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref> is an Indian actress and model who appears predominantly in Telugu-language films.

==Early life and education==
Reshma Rathore<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/Reshma-in-awe-of-Mwood/articleshow/47554217.cms// |title=Reshma in awe of M'wood|website=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.manoramaonline.com/entertainment/interview/reshma-rathore-appavum-veenjum-actress-talks-about-her-debut-in-malayalam-film.html// |title=Malayalam movies are brilliant, realistic: Reshma Rathore}}</ref> was born in Yellandhu, [[Bhadradri Kothagudem]] district, to Shri Haridas Rathore who is working as a Deputy Superintending Mining Engineer in [[Singareni Collieries Company]], [[Godavarikhani]] and late Smt. Radha Bai Rathore, who is a [[High Court]] [[lawyer]]. She secured an admission at [[Kakatiya University]] to pursue a Bachelor of Law degree in [[Warangal]]. She has one younger brother, Prithviraj Rathore, who is doing [[MBBS|Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery]].

==Career==

Reshma Rathore<ref>{{cite web|url=http://food.manoramaonline.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/reshma-rathore-forays-into-malayalam-cinema.html |title=Reshma Rathore forays into Malayalam cinema}}</ref> started her film career started with ''[[Bodyguard (2012 film)|Bodyguard]]'', in which she played [[Trisha (actress)|Trisha]]'s friend's role, thereafter she made her debut with ''[[Ee Rojullo]]'', directed by [[Maruthi]]. Her acting was appreciated by [[Dasari Narayana Rao]]. In ''[[Jai Sriram]]'' platinum disc function [[Dasari Narayana Rao]] said "I like Reshma's performance in ''[[Ee Rojullo]]'' very much, she is very simple girl & will be a very successful in full actress" in Telugu film industry. ''[[Ee Rojullo]]'' was successful at the box office completing 175 days on 13 September 2012, 365 days on 23 March 2013. She got [[CineMAA Awards]] for ''[[Ee Rojullo]]'' and also was nominated for [[2nd South Indian International Movie Awards]] for best female debutant for ''[[Ee Rojullo]]''.

Thereafter she did films like ''[[Jai Sriram]]'' with hero [[Uday Kiran]], ''[[Love Cycle]]'', ''Jeelakarabellam'', ''Pratighatana'' with [[Tammareddy Bharadwaja]]. In the film, ''Prathighatana'' (a socio-political thriller), she plays the role of a rape victim.

==Political career==

Reshma took a break from acting in 2018 and entered politics. She joined in BJP on April 14 AmbedkarJayanthi and currently works as a youth leader in youth wing (BJYM). In an interview with Times of India she said the reason behind her political<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/telangana-assembly-elections-2018-reshma-rathore-lends-glam-to-wyra-campaign-trail/articleshow/66779803.cms |title=Reshma Rathore campaign in wyra|newspaper=The Times of India |date=24 November 2018 }}</ref> entry is to establish Bayyaram steel factory which gives self employment for thousands of local youth. "This region is known for its natural resources, but we need to tap them".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/060418/actress-turned-politician-reshma-rathore-to-fight-for-bayyaram-steel-p.html|title= Reshma Rathore shows special interest in fighting for bayyaram steel plant|date= 6 April 2018}}</ref>

== Awards ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Award
! Category
! Movie
! class="unsortable"|Result
|-
| 2012 || [[CineMAA Awards]] || Best Confident Face of The Year || ''[[Ee Rojullo]]'' || {{won}}
|-
| 2012 || [[2nd South Indian International Movie Awards]]|| Best Female Debutant || ''[[Ee Rojullo]]'' || {{nom}}
|-
|}

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role
! Language
! class="unsortable"|Notes
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2012 || ''[[Bodyguard (2012 film)|Bodyguard]]''|| Keerthi's friend || rowspan="5" |[[Telugu language|Telugu]] ||
|-
| ''[[Ee Rojullo]]''|| Shreya ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2013 || ''[[Jai Sriram]]''|| Reshma ||
|-
| ''[[Love Cycle]]''|| Sharanya ||
|-
| 2014 || ''Pratighatana''|| Shanthi ||
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Appavum Veenjum]]''|| Jala Fernandez || [[Malayalam]] ||
|-
| 2016 || ''Jeelakarra Bellam'' || Mithili || Telugu language |Telugu ||
|-
| 2017 || ''[[Adhagappattathu Magajanangalay]]'' || Shruthi || [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ||
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{Facebook|ActressReshma}}
* {{IMDb name|7478939|Reshma Rathore}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rathore, Reshma}}
[[Category:Actresses from Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam cinema]]

List of current city mayors in Andhra Pradesh

2026-03-27T11:18:13Z

ReaganRiordan:

{{short description|None}}
In [[Andhra Pradesh]], Mayor is the head of city corporations in 17 cities.<ref name=corp>{{cite news|title=Municipal Corporation Status for All District HQs in AP|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra_pradesh/Municipal-Corporation-Status-for-All-District-HQs-in-AP/2015/02/17/article2672622.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616233830/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra_pradesh/Municipal-Corporation-Status-for-All-District-HQs-in-AP/2015/02/17/article2672622.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 16, 2015|access-date=7 February 2016|work=The New Indian Express|date=17 February 2015|location=Hyderabad}}</ref> All the duties in the city at Corporation level are carried in his name. He is also first citizen of the city. However in Andhra Pradesh, the Mayor is the ceremonial head as he was elected among the corporators and executive authority rests with the municipal commissioner. Following elections to any municipal corporation, there will be an election to the mayor and after that election to the post of deputy mayor is also being conducted. the governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the state government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given they have the municipal corporation's confidence, the mayor's term is usually for a maximum of five years; there are no limits to the number of terms they can serve.<ref>{{Citation|title=Municipal corporation (India)|date=2021-02-09|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Municipal_corporation_(India)&oldid=1005753085|work=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2021-02-24}}</ref>

== Current office-holders ==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! City {{small|(Corporation)}}
! District
! Name
! colspan="2" scope="col" | Party
! class="unsortable" |Ref.
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Visakhapatnam]]''' {{small|([[Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Visakhapatnam district|Visakhapatnam]] [[Anakapalli district|Anakapalli]]
|''Vacant'' <ref>{{cite web
|title=Special Officers Appointed to Administer Urban Local Bodies in AP
|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/andhra-pradesh/special-officers-appointed-to-administer-urban-local-bodies-in-ap-1942915
|website=Deccan Chronicle
|date=10 March 2026
|access-date=25 March 2026
}}</ref>
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Vijayawada]]''' {{small|([[Vijayawada Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[NTR district|NTR]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Guntur]]''' {{small|([[Guntur Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Guntur district|Guntur]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Mangalagiri]]{{dash}}[[Tadepalle, Guntur district|Tadepalli]]''' {{small|([[Mangalagiri Tadepalli Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Guntur district|Guntur]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Kurnool]]''' {{small|([[Kurnool Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Kurnool district|Kurnool]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Nellore]]''' {{small|([[Nellore Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Nellore district|Nellore]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Rajahmundry|Rajamahendravaram]]''' {{small|([[Rajamahendravaram Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[East Godavari district|East Godavari]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Kadapa]]''' {{small|([[Kadapa Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Kadapa district|Kadapa]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Kakinada]]''' {{small|([[Kakinada Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Kakinada district|Kakinada]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Tirupati]]''' {{small|([[Tirupati Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Tirupati district|Tirupati]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Eluru]]''' {{small|([[Eluru Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Eluru district|Eluru]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Anantapur]]amu''' {{small|([[Anantapur Municipal Corporation|Anantapuramu Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Anantapur district|Anantapuramu]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Vizianagaram]]''' {{small|([[Vizianagaram Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Vizianagaram district|Vizianagaram]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Ongole]]''' {{small|([[Ongole Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Prakasham district|Prakasham]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Machilipatnam]]''' {{small|([[Machilipatnam Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Krishna district|Krishna]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Chittoor]]''' {{small|([[Chittoor Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Chittoor district|Chittoor]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|- style="text-align:center;"
|'''[[Srikakulam]]''' {{small|([[Srikakulam Municipal Corporation]])}}
|[[Srikakulam district|Srikakulam]]
|''Vacant''
|
|
|
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Local government in Andhra Pradesh]]

Crime

2026-03-27T04:42:11Z

ReaganRiordan: corrected intro after review and updated info

{{Short description|Unlawful act punishable by an authority}}
{{Redirect2|Criminal|Criminals|other uses|Crime (disambiguation)|and|Criminal (disambiguation)|and|Criminals (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
In ordinary language, a '''crime''' is an unlawful act punishable by a [[State (polity)|state]] or other authority.<ref name="oed">{{cite book |title=Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |chapter=Crime}}</ref> The term ''crime'' does not, in modern [[criminal law]], have any simple and universally accepted definition,<ref name="Farmer">Farmer, Lindsay: "Crime, definitions of", in Cane and Conoghan (editors), ''[[The New Oxford Companion to Law]]'', Oxford University Press, 2008 ({{ISBN|978-0-19-929054-3}}), p. 263 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=xjo5AQAAIAAJ Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604015215/https://books.google.com/books?id=xjo5AQAAIAAJ |date=2016-06-04 }}).</ref> though [[Statute|statutory]] definitions have been provided for certain purposes.<ref>In the United Kingdom, for instance, the definitions provided by section 243(2) of the [[Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992]] and by the Schedule to the [[Prevention of Crimes Act 1871]].</ref> The most popular view is that crime is a [[Theory of categories|category]] created by [[law]]; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law.<ref name="Farmer" /> One proposed definition is that a crime or '''offence''' (or '''criminal offence''') is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state ("a public [[wrong]]"). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.<ref name="oed" /><ref name="oxdic">{{cite book |title=Oxford Dictionary of Law |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-860756-4 |author=Elizabeth A. Martin |edition= 7}}</ref>

The notion that acts such as [[murder]], [[rape]], and [[theft]] are to be prohibited exists worldwide.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news |last=Easton |first=Mark |title=What is crime? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/thereporters/markeaston/2010/06/what_is_crime.html |access-date=10 June 2013 |newspaper=BBC News |date=17 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130227042428/http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/thereporters/markeaston/2010/06/what_is_crime.html |archive-date=27 February 2013 }}</ref> What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by the [[criminal law]] of each relevant [[jurisdiction]]. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the [[criminal code]], in some [[Common law (legal system)|common law]] nations no such comprehensive [[statute]] exists.

The state ([[Forms of government|government]]) has the power to severely restrict one's [[liberty]] for committing certain crimes. In most modern societies, there are [[Criminal procedure|procedures]] to which investigations and [[trial]]s must adhere. If found [[Guilt (law)|guilty]], an offender may be [[Sentence (law)|sentenced]] to a form of reparation such as a [[community sentence]], or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo [[imprisonment]], [[life imprisonment]] or, in some [[jurisdiction]]s, [[Capital punishment|death]].

Usually, to be classified as a crime, the "act of doing something criminal" (''[[actus reus]]'') is accompanied by the "intention to do something criminal" (''[[mens rea]]'').<ref name="oxdic" /> Some criminal offenses are defined as [[Strict liability (criminal)|strict liability crimes]], meaning that the prosecution must prove the actus reus to secure a conviction, but is not required to establish any mens rea with respect to one or more elements of the offense.

While every crime violates the law, not every [[violation of the law]] counts as a crime. Breaches of [[private law]] ([[tort]]s and [[breach of contract|breaches of contract]]) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through [[civil procedure]].

== Definition ==
The exact definition of crime is a philosophical issue without an agreed upon answer. Fields such as law, politics, sociology, and psychology define crime in different ways.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|pp=30–37}} Crimes may be variously considered as wrongs against individuals, against the community, or against the state.{{Sfn|Ashworth|Horder|2013|pp=2–3}} The criminality of an action is dependent on its context; acts of violence will be seen as crimes in many circumstances but as permissible or desirable in others.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|p=49}} Crime was historically seen as a manifestation of [[evil]], but this has been superseded by modern criminal theories.{{Sfn|Sumner|2004|p=5}}

=== Legalism ===
{{Main|Legalism (Western philosophy)}}

Legal and political definitions of crime consider actions that are banned by authorities or punishable by law.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|pp=31–35}} Crime is defined by the criminal law of a given jurisdiction, including all actions that are subject to [[criminal procedure]]. There is no limit to what can be considered a crime in a legal system, so there may not be a unifying principle used to determine whether an action should be designated as a crime.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lamond |first=G. |date=2007-01-01 |title=What is a Crime? |url=https://academic.oup.com/ojls/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/ojls/gqm018 |journal=Oxford Journal of Legal Studies |language=en |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=609–632 |doi=10.1093/ojls/gqm018 |issn=0143-6503|url-access=subscription }}</ref> From a legal perspective, crimes are generally wrong actions that are severe enough to warrant punishment that infringes on the perpetrator's liberties.{{Sfn|Ashworth|Horder|2013|pp=1–2}}

[[English criminal law]] and the related [[common law]] of [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation: [[common law offence]]s. The courts used the concept of ''[[malum in se]]'' to develop various common law offences.<ref>''Canadian Law Dictionary'', John A. Yogis, Q.C., Barrons: 2003</ref>

=== Sociology ===
As a sociological concept, crime is associated with actions that cause [[harm]] and violate [[social norm]]s.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|pp=35–36}} Under this definition, crime is a type of [[Social constructionism|social construct]],{{Sfn|Sumner|2004|p=3}} and societal attitudes determine what is considered criminal.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|p=29}}{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=10}}

In legal systems based on [[legal moralism]], the predominant moral beliefs of society determine the legal definition as well as the social definition of crime. This system is less prominent in [[liberal democratic]] societies that prioritize [[individualism]] and [[multiculturalism]] over other moral beliefs.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|p=38}}

[[Paternalism]] defines crime not only as harm to others or to society, but also as harm to the self.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|p=38}}

=== Psychology ===
Psychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|pp=36–37}}

== Criminal law ==
{{Main|Criminal law}}

{{Criminal law}}
Virtually all countries in the 21st century have criminal law grounded in [[Civil law (common law)|civil law]], [[common law]], [[Islamic law]], or [[socialist law]].{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=48}} Historically, criminal codes have often divided criminals by class or caste, prescribing different penalties depending on status.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=11}} In some tribal societies, an entire clan is recognized as liable for a crime. In many cases, disputes over a crime in this system lead to a [[feud]] that lasts over several generations.{{sfn|Roth|2014|pp=23–24}}

=== Criminalization ===
{{Main|Criminalization}}

The state determines what actions are considered criminal in the scope of the law.{{Sfn|Ashworth|Horder|2013|p=22}} Criminalization has significant [[human rights]] considerations, as it can infringe on rights of autonomy and subject individuals to unjust punishment.{{Sfn|Ashworth|Horder|2013|pp=32–33}}

=== Criminal procedure ===
{{Main|Criminal procedure}}

When the perpetrator of a crime is found guilty of the crime, the state delivers a [[Sentence (law)|sentence]] to determine the penalty for the crime.{{Sfn|Ashworth|Horder|2013|p=18}}

=== Liability ===
{{Main|Legal liability}}

If a crime is committed, the individual responsible is considered to be liable for the crime. For liability to exist, the individual must be capable of understanding the criminal process and the relevant authority must have legitimate power to establish what constitutes a crime.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Duff |first=R. |date=1998-06-01 |title=Law, language and community: some preconditions of criminal liability |url=https://academic.oup.com/ojls/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/ojls/18.2.189 |journal=Oxford Journal of Legal Studies |language=en |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=189–206 |doi=10.1093/ojls/18.2.189 |issn=0143-6503|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== International criminal law ===
{{Main|International criminal law}}

International criminal law typically addresses serious offenses, such as [[genocide]], [[crimes against humanity]], and [[War crime|war crimes]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frulli |first=M. |date=2001-04-01 |title=Are Crimes against Humanity More Serious than War Crimes? |journal=European Journal of International Law |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=329–350 |doi=10.1093/ejil/12.2.329 |issn=0938-5428|doi-access=free |hdl=2158/209025 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> As with all international law, these laws are created through [[treaties]] and [[Customary international law|international custom]],{{Sfn|Bantekas|Nash|2009|pp=2–3}} and they are defined through the consensus of the involved states.{{Sfn|Bantekas|Nash|2009|p=6}} International crimes are not prosecuted through a standard legal system, though international organizations may establish [[Tribunal|tribunals]] to investigate and rule on egregious offenses such as genocide.{{Sfn|Bantekas|Nash|2009|pp=10–11}}

== Types ==

=== White-collar crime ===
{{Main article|White-collar crime}}

White-collar crime refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=White-Collar Crime - FBI |url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/white_collar |access-date=2024-08-03 |website=fbi.gov}}</ref> The crimes are believed to be committed by middle- or upper-class individuals for financial gains. Typical white-collar crimes could include [[wage theft]], [[fraud]], [[bribery]], [[Ponzi scheme|Ponzi schemes]], [[insider trading]], [[Racketeering|labor racketeering]], [[embezzlement]], [[cybercrime]], [[copyright infringement]], [[money laundering]], [[identity theft]], and [[forgery]].

=== Blue-collar crime ===
{{Main article|Blue-collar crime}}

Blue-collar crime is any crime committed by an individual from a lower [[social class]] as opposed to white-collar crime which is associated with crime committed by someone of a higher-level social class. These crimes are primarily small scale, for immediate beneficial gain to the individual or group involved in them. Examples of blue-collar crime include Narcotic production or distribution, [[sexual assault]], [[theft]], [[burglary]], [[assault]] or [[murder]].

=== Violent crime ===
{{Main|Violent crime|Offence against the person}}

Violent crime is crime that involves an act of violent [[aggression]] against another person.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Felson |first=Richard B. |date=2009-05-01 |title=Violence, Crime, and Violent Crime |url=https://www.ijcv.org/index.php/ijcv/article/view/2791 |journal=International Journal of Conflict and Violence |volume=3 |issue=1 |language=en |pages=23–39 Pages |doi=10.4119/IJCV-2791}}</ref> Common examples of violent crime include [[homicide]], [[assault]], [[sexual assault]], and [[robbery]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Connealy |first=Nathan T. |date=2020 |title=Can we Trust Crime Predictors and Crime Categories? Expansions on the Potential Problem of Generalization |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12061-019-09323-5 |journal=Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy |language=en |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=669–692 |doi=10.1007/s12061-019-09323-5 |bibcode=2020ApSAP..13..669C |s2cid=210251609 |issn=1874-463X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://apo.org.au/sites/default/files/resource-files/2008-07/apo-nid8593.pdf |title=Trends in violent crime |last=Bricknell |first=Samantha |date=2008 |publisher=Australian Institute of Criminology |issue=359}}</ref> Some violent crimes, such as assault, may be committed with the intention of causing harm. Other violent crimes, such as robbery, may use violence to further another goal. Violent crime is distinct from noncriminal types of violence, such as [[self-defense]], [[use of force]], and [[acts of war]]. Acts of violence are most often perceived as deviant when they are committed as an overreaction or a disproportionate response to provocation.<ref name=":1" />

=== Property crime ===
{{Main|Property crime}}

Common examples of property crime include [[burglary]], [[theft]], and [[vandalism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tseloni |first=A. |date=2002-01-01 |title=Modelling Property Crime Using the British Crime Survey. What Have We Learnt? |url=https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/bjc/42.1.109 |journal=British Journal of Criminology |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=109–128 |doi=10.1093/bjc/42.1.109|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Van den Bogaard |first1=Joop |last2=Wiegman |first2=Oene |date=1991 |title=Property Crime Victimization: The Effectiveness of Police Services for Victims of Residential Burglary |journal=Journal of Social Behavior and Personality |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=329–362}}</ref>

Examples of financial crimes include [[counterfeiting]], [[smuggling]], [[tax evasion]], and [[bribery]]. The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the beginning of modern economics in the 17th century.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=13}} In [[occupational crime]], the complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the most costly [[confidence trick|scams]] include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions.<ref name="Computing1">Sara Baase, ''A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing and The Internet''. Third Ed. "Employee Crime" (2008)</ref>

=== Public order crime ===
{{Main|Public-order crime}}

Public order crime is crime that violates a society's norms about what constitutes socially acceptable behavior. Examples of public order crimes include [[gambling]], [[drug-related crime]], [[public intoxication]], [[prostitution]], [[loitering]], [[breach of the peace]], [[Aggressive panhandling|panhandling]], [[vagrancy]], [[street harassment]], [[Noise regulation|excessive noise]], and [[littering]].{{Sfn|Skogan|2012|pp=173–174}} Public order crime is associated with the [[broken windows theory]], which posits that public order crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime.{{Sfn|Skogan|2012|p=173}} Some public order crimes are considered [[Victimless crime|victimless crimes]] in which no specific victim can be identified.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wertheimer |first=Alan |date=1977 |title=Victimless Crimes |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/292044 |journal=Ethics |language=en |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=302–318 |doi=10.1086/292044 |s2cid=222817127 |issn=0014-1704|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Most nations in the [[Western world]] have moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes in the modern era.{{Sfn|Tonry|2011|p=3}}

[[Adultery]], [[fornication]], [[blasphemy]], [[apostasy]], and [[Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain|invoking the name of God]] are commonly recognized as crimes in [[theocratic]] societies or those heavily influenced by religion.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=11}}

=== Political crime ===
{{Main|Political crime}}

Political crime is crime that directly challenges or threatens the state. Examples of political crimes include [[subversion]], [[rebellion]], [[treason]], [[mutiny]], [[espionage]], [[sedition]], [[terrorism]], [[riot]], and [[unlawful assembly]]. Political crimes are associated with the [[political agenda]] of a given state, and they are necessarily applied against political [[Dissident|dissidents]].{{Sfn|Head|2016|p=1}} Due to their unique relation to the state, political crimes are often encouraged by one nation against another, and it is political alignment rather than the act itself that determines criminality.{{Sfn|Hoefnagels|1973|p=111}}{{Sfn|Head|2016|p=2}} [[State crime]] that is carried out by the state to [[Political repression|repress]] law-abiding citizens may also be considered political crime.{{Sfn|Ross|2003|pp=3–4}}

=== Inchoate crime ===
{{Main|Inchoate offense}}

Inchoate crime is crime that is carried out in anticipation of other illegal actions but does not cause direct harm. Examples of inchoate crimes include [[attempt]] and [[conspiracy]]. Inchoate crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime's occurrence. This is distinct from simple preparation for or consideration of criminal activity. They are unique in that [[renunciation]] of criminal intention is generally enough to absolve the perpetrator of criminal liability, as their actions are no longer facilitating a potential future crime.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cahill |first=Michael T. |date=2011–2012 |title=Defining Inchoate Crime: An Incomplete Attempt |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/osjcl9&id=755&div=&collection= |journal=Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law |volume=9 |pages=751}}</ref>

== Participants ==

=== Criminal ===
A criminal is an individual who commits a crime. What constitutes a criminal can vary depending on the context and the law, and it often carries a pejorative connotation.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|pp=123–124}} Criminals are often seen as embodying certain stereotypes or traits and are seen as a distinct type of person from law-abiding citizens. Despite this, no mental or physical trend is identifiable that differentiates criminals from non-criminals.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|pp=125–126}} Public response to criminals may be indignant or sympathetic. Indignant responses involve resentment and a desire for vengeance, wishing to see criminals removed from society or made to suffer for harm that they cause. Sympathetic responses involve compassion and understanding, seeking to rehabilitate or forgive criminals and absolve them of blame.{{Sfn|Hoefnagels|1973|pp=16–17}}

In the modern era, a criminal is a [[human]] being. Historically, from ancient times until the 19th century, many societies believed that non-human [[animal]]s were capable of committing crimes, and prosecuted and punished them accordingly.<ref name="Girgen">{{cite journal |last1=Girgen |first1=Jen |date=2003 |title=The Historical and Contemporary Prosecution and Punishment of Animals |url=https://law.lclark.edu/live/files/26566-9cgirgen |url-status=live |journal=Animal Law Journal |volume=9 |pages=97 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229201226/https://law.lclark.edu/live/files/26566-9cgirgen |archive-date=29 December 2019 |access-date=1 October 2017}}</ref> Prosecutions of animals gradually dwindled during the 19th century, although a few were recorded as late as the 1910s and 1920s.<ref name="Girgen" />

=== Victim ===
{{See also|Victims' rights|Right to an effective remedy}}
A victim is an individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer.{{Sfn|Spalek|2017|p=4}} In the context of crime, the victim is the individual that is harmed by a violation of criminal law.{{Sfn|Spalek|2017|p=3}} Victimization is associated with [[post-traumatic stress]] and a long-term decrease in [[quality of life]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hanson |first1=Rochelle F. |last2=Sawyer |first2=Genelle K. |last3=Begle |first3=Angela M. |last4=Hubel |first4=Grace S. |date=2010 |title=The impact of crime victimization on quality of life |journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress |volume=23 |issue=2 |language=en |pages=189–197 |doi=10.1002/jts.20508 |pmc=2910433 |pmid=20419728}}</ref> [[Victimology]] is the study of victims, including their role in crime and how they are affected.{{Sfn|Spalek|2017|p=3}}

Several factors affect an individual's likelihood of becoming a victim. Some factors may cause victims of crime to experience short-term or long-term "repeat victimization".{{Sfn|Bottoms|Costello|2010|pp=674–675}}{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|p=153}} Common long-term victims are those that have close relationships with the criminal, manifesting in crimes such as [[domestic violence]], [[embezzlement]], [[child abuse]], and [[bullying]]. Repeat victimization may also occur when a potential victim appears to be a viable target, such as when indicating wealth in a less affluent region.{{Sfn|Bottoms|Costello|2010|pp=674–675}} Many of the traits that indicate criminality also indicate victimality; victims of crime are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior and respond to provocation. Overall demographic trends of victims and criminals are often similar, and victims are more likely to have engaged in criminal activities themselves.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|p=150}}{{Sfn|Spalek|2017|p=2}}

The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to a possible desire for [[deterrence (psychology)|deterrence]].<ref>See Polinsky & Shavell (1997) on the fundamental divergence between the private and the social motivation for using the legal system.</ref> Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale that could allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court.<ref>See Polinsky (1980) on the enforcement of fines</ref>

==Crime statistics==
Information and statistics about crime in a given jurisdiction are collected as crime estimates, typically produced by national or international agencies. Methods to collect [[crime statistics]] may vary, even between jurisdictions within the same nation.<ref name=":3" /> [[Under-reporting]] of crime is common, particularly in developing nations, resulting in the [[dark figure of crime]].<ref name=":2" /> [[Victim study|Victim studies]] may be used to determine the frequency of crime in a given population.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=MacDonald |first=Ziggy |date=2002-02-01 |title=Official Crime Statistics: Their use and Interpretation |url=https://academic.oup.com/ej/article/112/477/F85/5085310 |journal=The Economic Journal |language=en |volume=112 |issue=477 |pages=F85–F106 |doi=10.1111/1468-0297.00685 |s2cid=153397453 |issn=0013-0133|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The gap to official statistics is generally smaller with higher [[Crime harm index|severity of the crime]].<ref name="walsh">{{cite book | title=Introduction to Criminology: A Text/Reader | publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc. | last1=Walsh | first1=Anthony | last2=Hemmens | first2=Craig | year=2014 | location=Thousand Oaks, CA | isbn=978-1-4522-5820-1 | edition=3rd}}</ref> [[Crime clearance rate|Clearance rate]] measures the fraction of crimes where a [[criminal charge]] has been laid or the responsible person [[Conviction|convicted]].<ref name="d087">{{cite journal | last1=Liem | first1=Marieke | last2=Suonpää | first2=Karoliina | last3=Lehti | first3=Martti | last4=Kivivuori | first4=Janne | last5=Granath | first5=Sven | last6=Walser | first6=Simone | last7=Killias | first7=Martin | title=Homicide clearance in Western Europe | journal=European Journal of Criminology | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=16 | issue=1 | date=30 March 2018 | issn=1477-3708 | doi=10.1177/1477370818764840 | doi-access=free | pages=81–101| pmid=30675132 | pmc=6328993 | hdl=1887/64091 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> [[Fear of crime]] can be distinct from crime [[probability]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Murray |date=November 2001 |title=The Genesis of 'Fear of Crime' |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1362480601005004004 |journal=Theoretical Criminology |language=en |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=467–485 |doi=10.1177/1362480601005004004 |issn=1362-4806|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Public perception ===
Crime is often a high priority political issue in developed countries, regardless of the country's crime rates. People that are not regularly exposed to crime most often experience it through media, including news reporting and [[crime fiction]].{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|p=4}} Exposure of crime through news stories is associated with [[alarmism]] and inaccurate perceptions of crime trends. [[Selection bias]] in new stories about criminals significantly over-represent the prevalence of violent crime, and news reporting will often overemphasize a specific type of crime for a period of time, creating a "crime wave" effect.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|pp=14–16}}

As public opinion of morality changes over time, actions that were once condemned as crimes may be considered justifiable.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|pp=63–64}}

== Causes and correlates ==
{{main|Causes and correlates of crime}}

Criminal behavior determinants include [[cost–benefit analysis]],<ref name=":2"/> [[Crime of opportunity|opportunity]] or [[crime of passion]].<ref name="a498">{{cite journal | last1=Hipp | first1=J. R. | last2=Curran | first2=P. J. | last3=Bollen | first3=K. A. | last4=Bauer | first4=D. J. | title=Crimes of Opportunity or Crimes of Emotion? Testing Two Explanations of Seasonal Change in Crime | journal=Social Forces | volume=82 | issue=4 | date=1 June 2004 | issn=0037-7732 | doi=10.1353/sof.2004.0074 | pages=1333–1372}}</ref> A person that commits a criminal act typically believes that its benefits will outweigh the risk of being caught and punished. Negative economic factors, such as [[unemployment]] and [[income inequality]], can increase the incentive to commit crime, while severe punishments can [[deterrence theory|deter]] crime in some cases.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Fajnzylber |first1=Pablo |last2=Lederman |first2=Daniel |last3=Loayza |first3=Norman |date=2002-07-01 |title=What causes violent crime? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014292101000964 |journal=European Economic Review |language=en |volume=46 |issue=7 |pages=1323–1357 |doi=10.1016/S0014-2921(01)00096-4 |issn=0014-2921|hdl=10438/12228 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Social factors similarly affect the likelihood of criminal activity.<ref name=":2" /> Crime corresponds heavily with [[social integration]]; groups that are less integrated with society or that are forcibly integrated with society are more likely to engage in crime.{{Sfn|Sumner|2004|pp=5–6}} Involvement in the community, such as through a church, decreases the likelihood of crime, while associating with criminals increases the likelihood of becoming a criminal as well.<ref name=":2" />

There is no known [[Genetics and crime|genetic cause of crime]]. Some genes have been found to affect traits that may incline individuals toward criminal activity, but no biological or physiological trait has been found to directly cause or compel criminal actions.{{sfn|Davie|2010|pp=44–45}} One biological factor is the [[Sex differences in crime|disparity between men and women]], as men are significantly more likely to commit crimes than women in virtually all cultures. Crimes committed by men also tend to be more severe than those committed by women.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rowe |first1=David C. |last2=Vazsonyi |first2=Alexander T. |last3=Flannery |first3=Daniel J. |date=1995 |title=Sex Differences In Crime: Do Means and Within-Sex Variation Have Similar Causes? |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022427895032001004 |journal=Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency |language=en |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=84–100 |doi=10.1177/0022427895032001004 |s2cid=145215732 |issn=0022-4278|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Crime distribution shows a [[long tail]] with a small fraction of individuals re-offending many times due to high [[recidivism]], while onset of crime at younger age predicts a longer criminal career.<ref name="f204">{{cite journal | last1=Carlsson | first1=Christoffer | last2=Sivertsson | first2=Fredrik | title=Age, Gender, and Crime in a Stockholm Birth Cohort to Age 64 | journal=Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology | volume=7 | issue=3 | date=2021 | issn=2199-4641 | doi=10.1007/s40865-021-00172-w | pages=359–384| doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Criminal justice ==
{{Main|Criminal justice}}

{{Criminology and penology}}

=== Natural-law theory ===
Justifying the state's use of [[coercion|force]] to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of [[natural law]]. This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of [[morality]] or constructs them. [[Thomas Aquinas]] wrote in the 13th century: "the rule and measure of human acts is the [[reason]], which is the first principle of human acts".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thomas, Aquinas |title=On law, morality, and politics |date=2002 |publisher=Hackett Pub |others=Regan, Richard J., Baumgarth, William P. |isbn=0872206637 |edition=2nd |location=Indianapolis |oclc=50423002}}</ref> He regarded people as by nature [[rationality|rational]] beings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. In the 1760s, [[William Blackstone]] described the thesis:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blackstone, William |title=Commentaries on the laws of England |date=1979 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |others=William Blackstone Collection (Library of Congress) |isbn=0226055361 |location=Chicago |page=41 |oclc=4832359}}</ref>

: "This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original."

But [[John Austin (legal philosophy)|John Austin]] (1790–1859), an early [[Legal positivism|positivist]], applied [[utilitarianism]] in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality. He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus, in Austinian terms, a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do. Similarly, [[H. L. A. Hart|H.L.A. Hart]] saw the law as an aspect of [[sovereignty]], with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hart, Herbert Lionel Adolphus |title=The concept of law |date=1994 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0198761228 |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |oclc=31410701}}</ref>

Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law involved internal [[logic]] and [[consistency]], and that the state's agents used state power with [[Social responsibility|responsibility]]. [[Ronald Dworkin]] rejects Hart's theory and proposes that all individuals should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of [[deference]] (the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dworkin, Ronald. |url=https://archive.org/details/takingrightsseri00dwor |title=Taking rights seriously : [with a new appendix, a response to critics] |date=1978 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0674867114 |location=Cambridge |oclc=4313351 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

There are natural-law theorists who have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law.<ref>{{cite book |last=Finnis |first=John |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/natural-law-theories/ |title=Natural Law & Natural Rights |publisher=[[Oxford University Press|OUP]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0199599141 |quote=The moral standards...which Dworkin (in line with natural law theory) treats as capable of being morally objective & true, thus function as a direct source of law and...as already law, except when their fit with the whole set of social-fact sources in the relevant community is so weak that it would be more accurate (according to Dworkin) to say that judges who apply them are applying morality not law. |access-date=2019-07-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806015838/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/natural-law-theories/ |archive-date=2019-08-06 |url-status=live |department=3.2 Natural law & (purely) positive law as concurrent dimensions of legal reasoning}}</ref> This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all valid law must, by definition, count as morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bix |first=Brian H. |date=August 2015 |title=Kelsen, Hart, & legal normativity |department=3.3 Law and morality |journal= Revus|volume=34 |issue=34 |doi=10.4000/revus.3984 |quote=...it was part of the task of a legal theorist to explain the 'normativity' or 'authority' of law, by which they meant 'our sense that ‘legal’ norms provide agents with special reasons for acting, reasons they would not have if the norm were not a ‘legal’ one'...this may be a matter calling more for a psychological or sociological explanation, rather than a philosophical one. |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Corrections and punishment ===
{{Main|Corrections|Punishment}}

Authorities may respond to crime through corrections, carrying out punishment as a means to [[censure]] the criminal act.{{Sfn|Hoefnagels|1973|p=138}} Punishment is generally reserved for serious offenses. Individuals regularly engage in activity that could be scrutinized under criminal law but are deemed inconsequential.{{Sfn|Hoefnagels|1973|p=133}} [[Retributive justice]] seeks to create a system of [[accountability]] and punish criminals in a way that knowingly causes suffering.{{Sfn|Hoefnagels|1973|pp=17–18}} This may arise out of a feeling that criminals deserve to suffer and that punishment should exist for its own sake. The existence of punishment also creates an effect of [[Deterrence (penology)|deterrence]] that discourages criminal action for fear of punishment.{{Sfn|Ashworth|Horder|2013|p=16}}

Developed nations are less likely to use physical punishments. Instead, they will impose financial penalties or imprisonment.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=11}} In places with widespread corruption or limited [[rule of law]], crime may be punished extralegally through [[mob rule]] and [[lynching]].{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=24}}

Whether a crime can be resolved through financial compensation varies depending on the culture and the specific context of the crime. Historically, many societies have absolved acts of homicide through compensation to the victim's relatives.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=23}}

== Crime prevention ==
{{Main|Crime prevention}}

=== Law enforcement ===
{{Main|Law enforcement}}

The enforcement of criminal law seeks to prevent crime and sanction crimes that do occur. This enforcement is carried out by the state through [[Law enforcement agency|law enforcement agencies]], such as [[police]], which are empowered to [[arrest]] suspected perpetrators of crimes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shavell |first=Steven |date=1993 |title=The Optimal Structure of Law Enforcement |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/467275 |journal=The Journal of Law and Economics |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1, Part 2 |pages=255–287 |doi=10.1086/467275 |s2cid=153944387 |issn=0022-2186|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Law enforcement may focus on policing individual crimes, or it may focus on bringing down overall crime rates.{{Sfn|O'Neill|2010|pp=485–486}} One common variant, [[community policing]], seeks to prevent crime by integrating police into the community and public life.{{Sfn|O'Neill|2010|p=487}}

Increased policing was found to decrease crime through [[Deterrence (penology)|deterrence]], with an estimated [[Elasticity (economics)|elasticity]] -0.67 for murder and -0.56 for robbery according to a 2013 study.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.nber.org/papers/w18815 |title=The Effect of Police on Crime: New Evidence from U.S. Cities, 1960-2010 |last=Chalfin |first=Aaron |last2=McCrary |first2=Justin |date=2013 |publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research |issue=w18815 |language=en}}</ref>

===Incapacitation===
{{Excerpt|Incapacitation (penology)|paragraphs=1|only=paragraphs}}

===Rehabilitation===
[[Rehabilitation (penology)|Rehabilitation]] seeks to understand and mitigate the causes of a criminal's unlawful action to prevent [[recidivism]].{{Sfn|Lipsey|Landenberger|Chapman|2004|p=211}} Different criminological theories propose different methods of rehabilitation, including strengthening [[Social network|social networks]], reducing [[poverty]], influencing [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]], and providing [[therapy]] for physical and mental ailments.{{Sfn|Lipsey|Landenberger|Chapman|2004|pp=212–213}} Rehabilitative programs may include [[counseling]] or [[vocational education]].{{Sfn|Lipsey|Landenberger|Chapman|2004|p=215}}
== Criminology ==
{{Main|Crime science}}

The study of crime is called ''criminology''.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|p=29}} Criminology addresses issues of [[Social norm|social norms]], [[social order]], [[Deviance (sociology)|deviance]], and [[violence]]. It includes the [[Motivations for hate crime|motivations]] and [[Criminal justice|consequences]] of crime and its [[Suspect|perpetrators]], as well as [[Crime prevention|preventative measures]], either studying criminal acts on an individual level or the relationship of crime and the community.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-27 |title=Criminology |url=https://www.ucas.com/explore/subjects/criminology |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=UCAS |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Sampson |first=Robert J. |date=2000 |title=Whither the Sociological Study of Crime? |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.711 |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |language=en |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=711–714 |doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.711 |issn=0360-0572|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Due to the wide range of concepts associated with crime and the disagreement on a precise definition, the focus of criminology can vary considerably.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|p=29}} Various theories within criminology provide different descriptions and explanations for crime, including [[social control theory]], [[subcultural theory]], [[Strain theory (sociology)|strain theory]], [[differential association]], and [[labeling theory]].<ref name=":0" />

Subfields of criminology and related fields of study include [[crime prevention]], [[criminal law]], [[crime statistics]], [[anthropological criminology]], [[criminal psychology]], criminal sociology, criminal [[psychiatry]], [[victimology]], [[penology]], and [[forensic science]].{{Sfn|Hoefnagels|1973|pp=57–66}} Besides sociology, criminology is often associated with law and psychology.{{Sfn|Pease|2010|p=7}}

== History ==

=== Early history ===
Restrictions on behavior existed in all prehistoric societies.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=18}} Crime in early human society was seen as a personal transgression and was addressed by the community as a whole rather than through a formal legal system,{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=9}} often through the use of custom, religion, or the rule of a tribal leader.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=46}} Some of the oldest extant writings are ancient [[Criminal code|criminal codes]].{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=9}} The earliest known criminal code was the [[Code of Ur-Nammu]] ({{c.|lk=no|2100|2050 BC}}),<ref name=schoyen>{{cite web |url=https://www.schoyencollection.com/law/sumerian/ur-nammu-ms-2064 |archive-url= |archive-date= |title=The Ur-Nammu Law Code |work=[[Schøyen Collection]] |access-date=July 1, 2024}}</ref> and the first known criminal code that incorporated retaliatory justice was the [[Code of Hammurabi]].{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=26}} The latter influenced the conception of crime across several civilizations over the following millennia.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=47}}

The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] systematized law and applied their system across the [[Roman Empire]]. The initial rules of [[Roman law]] regarded assaults as a matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman law concept involved ''dominion''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daube, David. |title=Roman law: linguistic, social and philosophical aspects. |date=1969 |publisher=Edinburgh U.P |isbn=0852240511 |location=Edinburgh |oclc=22054}}</ref> Most acts recognized as crimes in ancient societies, such as violence and theft, have persisted to the modern era.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=42}} The criminal justice system of Imperial China existed unbroken for over 2,000 years.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=36}}

Many of the earliest conceptions of crime are associated with [[sin]] and corresponded to acts that were believed to invoke the anger of a deity.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=18}} This idea was further popularized with the development of the [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic religions]]. The understanding of crime and sin were closely associated with one another for much of history, and conceptions of crime took on many of the ideas associated with sin.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=8}} [[Islamic law]] developed its own system of criminal justice as [[Islam]] spread in the seventh and eighth centuries.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=64}}

=== Post-classical era ===
In [[post-classical]] Europe and East Asia, central government was limited and crime was defined locally. Towns established their own criminal justice systems, while crime in the countryside was defined by the social hierarchies of [[feudalism]].{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=84, 91–94}} In some places, such as the [[Russian Empire]] and the [[Kingdom of Italy]], feudal justice survived into the 19th century.{{sfn|Roth|2014|pp=97–105}}

[[Common law]] first developed in England under the rule of [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] in the 12th century. He established a system of traveling judges that tried accused criminals in each region of England by applying precedent from previous rulings.{{sfn|Roth|2014|pp=63–64}} Legal developments in 12th century England also resulted in the earliest known recording of official crime data.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=9}}

=== Modern era ===
In the modern era, crime came to be seen as an issue affecting society rather than conflicts between individuals. Writers such as [[Thomas Hobbes]] saw crime as a societal issue as early as the 17th century.{{Sfn|Sumner|2004|p=5}} [[Imprisonment]] developed as a long-term penalty for crime in the 18th century.{{sfn|Roth|2014|p=8}} Increasing [[urbanization]] and [[industrialization]] in the 19th century caused crime to become an immediate issue that affected society, prompting government intervention in crime and the establishment of criminology as its own field.{{Sfn|Sumner|2004|p=5}}

[[Anthropological criminology]] was popularized by [[Cesare Lombroso]] in the late-19th century. This was a [[biological determinist]] school of thought based in [[social darwinism]], arguing that certain people are naturally born as criminals.{{sfn|Davie|2010|pp=23–24}} The [[eugenics]] movement of the early-20th century similarly held that crime was caused primarily by genetic factors.{{sfn|Davie|2010|p=38}}

The concept of crime underwent a period of change as [[modernism]] was widely accepted in the years following [[World War II]]. Crime increasingly came to be seen as a societal issue, and criminal law was seen as a means to protect the public from [[Anti-social behaviour|antisocial]] behavior. This idea was associated with a larger trend in the western world toward [[social democracy]] and [[centre-left politics]].{{Sfn|Sumner|2004|pp=4–5}}

Through most of history, reporting of crime was generally local. The advent of [[mass media]] through radio and television in the mid-20th century allowed for the sensationalism of crime. This created well-known stories of criminals such as [[Jeffrey Dahmer]], and it allowed for dramatization that perpetuates misconceptions about crime.{{Sfn|Fattah|1997|p=14}} Forensic science was popularized in the 1980s, establishing [[DNA profiling]] as a new method to prevent and analyze crime.{{sfn|Davie|2010|p=43}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Law}}
* {{anl|Crime displacement}}
* {{anl|Crime hotspots}}
* {{anl|Law and order (politics)}}
* {{anl|Organized crime}}
* {{anl|Rule of law}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References==
* {{Cite book |last1=Ashworth |first1=Andrew |title=Principles of Criminal Law |last2=Horder |first2=Jeremy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780199672684 |edition=7th}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Bantekas |first1=Ilias |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UmONAgAAQBAJ |title=International Criminal Law |last2=Nash |first2=Susan |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2009 |isbn=9781135241803}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fattah |first=Ezzat A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEauCwAAQBAJ |title=Criminology: Past, Present and Future: A Critical Overview |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |year=1997 |isbn=9781349258383}}
* {{Cite book |last=Head |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sxkpDAAAQBAJ |title=Crimes Against the State: From Treason to Terrorism |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2016 |isbn=9781317157939}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hoefnagels |first=G. Peter |title=The Other Side of Criminology |publisher=Springer Netherlands |year=1973 |isbn=9789026806698}}
* Polinsky, A. Mitchell. (1980). "Private versus Public Enforcement of Fines". ''The Journal of Legal Studies'', Vol. IX, No. 1, (January), pp. 105–127.
* Polinsky, A. Mitchell & Shavell, Steven. (1997). ''[https://ideas.repec.org/p/nbr/nberwo/6259.html On the Disutility and Discounting of Imprisonment and the Theory of Deterrence]'', NBER Working Papers 6259, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
* {{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Jeffrey Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1nwKqP-HkoC |title=The Dynamics of Political Crime |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2003 |isbn=9780803970458}}
* {{Cite book |last=Roth |first=Mitchel P. |title=An Eye for an Eye: A Global History of Crime and Punishment |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-78023-359-8}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6EAeC__66FQC |title=International Handbook of Criminology |publisher=CRC Press |year=2010 |isbn=9781420085525 |editor-last=Shoham |editor-first=Shlomo Giora |editor-last2=Knepper |editor-first2=Paul |editor-last3=Kett |editor-first3=Martin}}
** {{Harvc|c=Crime Science|first=Ken|last=Pease|in=Shoham|in2=Knepper|pp=3–22|year=2010|in3=Kett}}
** {{Harvc|c=Born for Evil? Biological Theories of Crime in Historical Perspective|first=Neil|last=Davie|in=Shoham|in2=Knepper|pp=23–49|year=2010|in3=Kett}}
** {{Harvc|c=The Police Response to Crime|first=Megan|last=O'Neill|in=Shoham|in2=Knepper|pp=483–510|year=2010|in3=Kett}}
** {{Harvc|c=Understanding Repeat Victimization: A Longitudinal Study|first=Anthony E.|last=Bottoms|in=Shoham|in2=Knepper|pp=649–680|year=2010|last2=Costello|first2=Andrew|in3=Kett}}
* {{Cite book |last=Spalek |first=Basia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bhtHEAAAQBAJ |title=Crime Victims: Theory, Policy and Practice |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2017 |isbn=9781137505330 |edition=2nd}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gcGUEAAAQBAJ |title=The Blackwell Companion to Criminology |publisher=Wiley |year=2004 |isbn=9780631220923 |editor-last=Sumner |editor-first=Colin}}
** {{Harvc|c=Rehabilitation: An Assessment of Theory and Research|first=Mark W.|last=Lipsey|in=Sumner|pp=211–227|year=2004|first2=Nana A.|last2=Landenberger|first3=Gabrielle L.|last3=Chapman}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28211 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Crime and Public Policy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=9780199940264 |editor-last=Tonry |editor-first=Michael}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/36312 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Crime Prevention |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=9780199940783 |editor-last=Welsh |editor-first=Brandon C. |editor-last2=Farrington |editor-first2=David P.}}
** {{Harvc|c=Disorder and Crime|first=Wesley G.|last=Skogan|in=Welsh|in2=Farrington|pp=173–188|year=2012}}

==Further reading==
* [[Malcolm Gladwell]], "The Heat of the Moment: To stop violent crime, we need to grasp what really drives it", ''[[The New Yorker]]'', 9 June 2025, pp. 64–66. (Discussed: [[Thinking, Fast and Slow|System 1 and System 2 thinking]], in connection with [[violent behavior]].)

== External links ==

{{Navboxes
| title = Articles related to crime
| list =
{{Types of crime}}
{{International Criminal Law}}
{{Law}}
{{Criminal procedure (investigation)}}
{{World topic|prefix=Crime in|title=By country|noredlinks=yes}}
}}
{{Subject bar|b = |commons = y |d = y |n = |q = y |s = |species = |v = |voy = y |wikt = y |portal = }}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Crime| ]]
[[Category:Criminal law]]
[[Category:Criminology| ]]
[[Category:Morality]]

Vedanta Society of New York

2026-03-26T14:07:51Z

ReaganRiordan: adding first info v1...

{{Short description|Hindu society}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox building
| name = Vedanta Society of New York
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| status = Active
| image = Emblem-Ramakrishna-Mission-Transparent.png
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| caption = [[Ramakrishna Mission#Emblem|Emblem]]
| pushpin_map = United States Manhattan
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| address = 34 West 71st Street
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'''Vedanta Society of New York''' ('''VSNY''') was the first [[Vedanta Society]] founded by the Indian Hindu monk [[Vivekananda|Swami Vivekananda]] in [[New York (state)|New York]] in November 1894.<ref name="Gupta 1986 p118">{{Harvnb|Gupta|1986|pp=118–119}}</ref><ref name="Rinehart 2004">{{Harvnb|Rinehart|2004|p=391}}</ref><ref name="Vedanta Society of New York history"/><Ref>{{cite book |last= Jackson |first= Carl |date= 1994|title= Vedanta for the West |publisher= Indiana University Press|page= 115|isbn= 0-253-33098-X}}</Ref> In 1897, [[Abhedananda|Swami Abhedananda]], another disciple of [[Ramakrishna]], came to the United States and took charge of the society. He was the president of the society until 1921. The Vedanta Society is affiliated with the [[Ramakrishna Math]] religious monastic order and the [[Ramakrishna Mission]].

==History==
===Establishment===
In 1893, Vivekananda went to the United States and joined the [[Parliament of the World's Religions]] held in Chicago. He was a delegate representing [[Hinduism]] and India. After the conclusion of the Parliament, he traveled to many American cities including [[Minneapolis]], [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[Detroit]] and New York. Almost everywhere he went he received a cordial welcome. On 16 May 1894, he delivered a lecture at [[Harvard University]]. In November 1894, Vivekananda established the first Vedanta Society in two rented rooms at 54 West 33rd Street in Manhattan, New York City.<ref name="Vrajaprana 1999 p80–88">{{Harvnb|Vrajaprana|1999|pp=80–88}}</ref>

===1894–1921===
Vivekananda traveled to many other places in the United States and England and returned to India in 1897. [[Abhedananda]], another direct disciple of [[Ramakrishna]], went to the United States in the same year and took charge of the society. He was its president until 1921, when he returned to India. As president, Abhedananda helped structure the society and had it incorporated under New York law.<ref name="Gallagher Ashcraft p3">{{Harvnb|Gallagher|Ashcraft|2006|p=3}}</ref>

===1921–present===
[[File:Vedanta Society of America jeh.jpg|thumb]]
The society initially operated out of a rented house and was relocated several times. In 1921, the society established settled headquarters at 34 West 71st Street, which remains its address.<ref name="Vedanta Society of New York history">{{cite web|title=Vedanta Society of New York history|url=http://www.vedantany.org/vsny-history/|publisher=Vedanta Society of New York|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130912155451/http://www.vedantany.org/vsny-history/|archive-date=12 September 2013|access-date=12 September 2013|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Quinn 2009 p2">{{Harvnb|Quinn|2009|p=2}}</ref>

The society has had six presidents since inception. [[Swami Tathagatananda]] was the president since 1977 until his death on 25 June 2016.<ref name="Vedanta Society of New York history" /> [[Swami Sarvapriyananda]] was appointed as Minister and Spiritual Leader of the Vedanta Society of New York, and assumed his duties on January 6, 2017.

==Activities==
The society is affiliated with the [[Ramakrishna Math]] religious [[monastic order]] and [[Ramakrishna Mission]], and houses a library, bookstore and prayer hall. They conduct weekly lecture classes on [[The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna]]. Seminars and conventions are also regularly organized.<ref name="Vedanta Society of New York activities">{{cite web|title=Vedanta Society of New York activities|url=http://www.vedantany.org/activities/|publisher=Vedanta Society of New York|access-date=12 September 2013|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130912161139/http://www.vedantany.org/activities/|archive-date=12 September 2013|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==References==
{{Portal|New York City}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
*{{cite book|last=Gupta|first=Raj Kumar|title=The Great Encounter: A Study of Indo-American Literature and Cultural Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S720d-apN-kC&pg=PA118|year=1986|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-211-6}}
*{{cite book|last1=Gallagher|first1=Eugene V.|last2=Ashcraft|first2=W. Michael|title=Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America: African diaspora traditions and other American innovations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ClaySHbUEogC&pg=RA3-PA7|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-98717-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Rinehart|first=Robin|title=Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMPYnfS_R90C&pg=PA391|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-905-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Vrajaprana|first=Pravrajika|title=Vedanta: A Simple Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8sObNE1kJP4C&pg=PA86|year=1999|publisher=Vedanta Press|isbn=978-0-87481-373-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Quinn|first=Edward|title=Critical Companion to George Orwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZET2sSUVsgC&pg=PA2|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0873-5}}

== External links ==
*{{Official website}}

{{Swami Vivekananda}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1894 establishments in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Organizations based in New York City]]
[[Category:Ramakrishna Math and Mission branches]]
[[Category:Swami Vivekananda]]
[[Category:Upper West Side]]
[[Category:Hinduism in New York (state)]]

Marian Bottomley Hall

2026-03-25T20:35:34Z

ReaganRiordan: started some details initial version

{{Short description|English missionary (1896–1991)}}
{{Notability|1=Biographies|date=January 2026}}
'''Marian Bottomley Hall''' (21 Jun 1896 – 19 Sep 1991) was a Methodist medical missionary who spent 15 years in Korea and over 20 years in India. She and her husband introduced the first Christmas seals in Korea and their work is in the Smithsonian Institute's National Postal Museum.

== Education ==
Marian Bottomley worked as a school teacher from 1915 to 1917, in both [[Bishop's Mills, Ontario|Bishop Mills, Ontario]] and [[Rootstown Township, Portage County, Ohio|Rootstown, Ohio]]. She attended [[University of Mount Union|Mount Union College]] in Alliance, Ohio and graduated in 1922. Hall received her medical degree in 1924 from the Women's Medical College in [[Philadelphia|Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]. She returned to England for specialized medical training at the School of Tropical Medicine, University of London in 1926.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Gerald H. |title=Biographical Dictionary of Christian Missions |publisher=Macmillan Library Reference |year=1997 |isbn=9780028646046 |pages=275–276}}</ref>

== Mission ==
In 1926, Hall and her husband started their mission at the Norton Memorial Hospital in [[Haeju]], Korea. In the same year, they built the first tuberculosis sanatorium in Korea, the Haeju School for Tuberculosis.<ref name=":0" /> To support their work, they introduced [[Christmas seal]]s. These originated in Denmark and became a way of spreading awareness and raising funds for tuberculosis. The Halls' first Christmas seals were issued on December 3, 1932, and were successful in educating the public and generating revenue. Five local newspapers at the time wrote about the initiative. The seals generated 49,000 [[Japanese yen|Yen]] in the first year and 296,700 Yen in the second year.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hall |first=Sherwood |title=The Story of Korea's First Christmas Seal |url=https://www.seal-society.org/sites/default/files/korea%20pamphlet%20inside.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250313010754/https://www.seal-society.org/sites/default/files/korea%20pamphlet%20inside.pdf |archive-date=March 13, 2025|access-date=December 13, 2025}}</ref>

Korea was under [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese colonial Rule]] and in 1940, the Japanese government accused the Halls of espionage. The government forced them to leave the country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=한국캐나다학회 KACS |url=https://www.kacs.kr/index.php?hCode=PEOPLE_04_05 |access-date=2025-12-13 |website=www.kacs.kr}}</ref>

The couple relocated to [[Rajasthan|Rajasthan, India]] and were assigned to Madar Union Tuberculosis Sanatorium.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Spanjersberg |first=Ivo |date=2018-04-14 |title=Dr. Sherwood Hall’s Christmas and New Year Seals of Korea 1932-1940 catalogue |url=https://koreastampsociety.org/2018/04/14/dr-sherwood-halls-christmas-and-new-year-seals-of-korea-1932-1940-catalogue/ |access-date=2025-12-13 |website=Korea Stamp Society |language=en-US}}</ref> In 1941, they introduced the Christmas seal program with another successful outcome. The Halls improved and expanded the capacity of the sanatorium.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=March 15, 1963 |title=Christmas Seal Pioneers and Christian Leaders in the War Against Tuberculosis - The Halls of India |url=https://www.seal-society.org/sites/default/files/pdf/news/52/halls%20of%20india.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250516113826/https://www.seal-society.org/sites/default/files/pdf/news/52/halls%20of%20india.pdf |archive-date=16 May 2025 |access-date=December 12, 2025 |work=Mount Union College Bulletin}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> In India, Hall primarily worked in the villages using a van that acted as a mobile clinic. She helped treat [[trachoma]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Elimination of trachoma as a public health problem in India |url=https://www.who.int/news/item/08-10-2024-elimination-of-trachoma-as-a-public-health-problem-in-india |access-date=2025-12-13 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> She also started a baby welfare clinic and taught hygiene to mothers.<ref name=":0" />

== Personal life ==
On June 21, 1922, she married Sherwood Hall, another graduate of Mount Union College. He was born and raised in Korea by two medical missionaries, [[Rosetta Sherwood Hall]] and [[William James Hall]].<ref name=":0" /> Hall had four children, all born in Korea. One died in infancy.<ref name=":1" />

== Death and legacy ==
Hall died on September 19, 1991, in [[Richmond, Virginia]]. Her husband had died a few months prior. Both her and her husband's ashes were taken to Korea where they were interred in the same plot in [[Seoul|Seoul, Korea]].<ref name=":0" />

In addition to her missionary work, Hall helped found a branch of [[Planned Parenthood]].<ref name=":0" />

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:1896 births]]
[[Category:1991 deaths]]
[[Category:American medical missionaries]]
[[Category:Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania alumni]]

Royal Indian Air Force

2026-03-25T00:34:36Z

ReaganRiordan: basic add details to improve readability and added references

{{Short description|(1932–1947) military force}}
{{about|the air force of the British Indian Empire (1932–1947) and the air force of the Dominion of India (1947–1950)|the current air force of the Republic of India|Indian Air Force}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = Royal Indian Air Force
| image = Royal Indian Air Force.svg
| caption = [[Badge of the Royal Air Force#Related badges|Badge]]
| dates = 1932–1950
| country = India
:{{flag|British India}}
:{{flag|Dominion of India}}
| type = [[Air Force]]
| garrison = [[RAF India]]
| garrison_label = [[Command (military formation)|Command]]
| nickname = ''RIAF''
| motto = {{native phrase|la|"[[Per Ardua ad Astra]]"|italics=on}} (Through Adversity to the Stars)
| size = 25,000 personnel by [[VJ Day]] (1945)<ref name="rafmuseum">{{cite web |url=https://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/blog/royal-indian-air-force/|title=Royal Indian Air Force |publisher=RAF Museum |access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref>
| battles = {{Collapsible list
| framestyle = border:none; padding:0;
| title = Notable operations
| 1 =[[World War II]]
| 2 =[[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]]
}}
| notable_commanders = {{plainlist|
*[[Sir John Miles Steel]]
*[[Sir Cecil Bouchier]]
*[[Hugh Walmsley|Sir Hugh Walmsley]]
*[[Sir Thomas Elmhirst]]
}}

| identification_symbol = [[File:RAF Far East Command roundel.svg|80px]]
| identification_symbol_label = [[Military aircraft insignia#Former insignia of national air forces|Roundel]]
| identification_symbol_2 = [[File:RAF Type B SEA Fin Flash.svg|80px]]
| identification_symbol_2_label = [[Fin flash]]
| identification_symbol_3 = [[File:Air Force Ensign of India (1945–1947).svg|160px]]
| identification_symbol_3_label = [[Star of India (flag)#Flag of Royal Indian Air Force|Ensign]]
}}

The '''Indian Air Force''' (1932–1945) and the '''Royal Indian Air Force''' (1945–1950) were the air forces of [[British Raj|British India]]. Granted the 'Royal' prefix in March 1945 during the final months of the [[Second World War]], the Royal Indian Air Force continued as the air force of the [[Dominion of India]] until it became a republic in 1950, when the [[President of India|Indian president]] became India's head of state; replacing the [[George VI|British monarch]]. It was replaced by the [[Indian Air Force]] thereafter.

Alongside the [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] and the [[Royal Indian Navy]], it comprised the armed forces of [[British Raj|British India]] and the [[Dominion of India]] between 1932 and 1950.

The Royal Indian Air Force's first flight came into being on 1 April 1933 with six [[RAF]]-trained officers and 19 ''Havai Sepoys'' (air soldiers). The aircraft inventory consisted of four [[Westland Wapiti|Westland Wapiti IIA]] army co-operation biplanes at [[Shahrah-e-Faisal|Drigh Road]], [[Karachi]] as the "A" Flight nucleus of the planned [[No. 1 Squadron IAF|No.1 (Army Co-operation) Squadron]].

==History==
{{See also|RAF India}}
During the [[First World War]], four Indian volunteers – Lieutenants [[Shrikrishna Chandra Welinkar|Shri Krishna Chandra Welinkar]], [[Hardit Malik|Hardit Singh Malik]], [[Erroll Chunder Sen|Errol Suvo Chunder Sen]] and [[Indra Lal Roy]] – served as fighter pilots with the [[Royal Flying Corps]]. In September 1917, Sen was shot down and became a prisoner-of-war; and over the next 10 months, Malik was wounded and Welinkar and Roy were killed. ‘Laddie’ Roy destroyed 10 enemy aircraft before he fell, and on 21 September 1918, he was posthumously awarded the RAF’s new [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|Distinguished Flying Cross]].

In the [[inter-war years]], the idea of [[self-determination]] gained widespread support in [[British India]]. In keeping with this, a committee chaired by [[Andrew Skeen|General Sir Andrew Skeen]] met at [[Simla]], in August 1925, to investigate the ‘Indianisation’ of the [[British Indian Army|Indian Army’s]] officer corps. The creation of a military academy equivalent to [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst|Sandhurst]] was also examined. The Skeen Committee reported in April 1927, and one of its recommendations was that Indian cadets be accepted for officer training at [[RAF Cranwell]]. The bravery of the [[Royal Flying Corps|RFC’s]] South Asian pilots was referenced in support of this, and veteran Hardit Singh Malik’s impressive appearance before the committee lent added weight. Discussions between the British and Indian governments continued until [[Lord Birkenhead]], [[Secretary of State for India]], approved the creation of an Indian Air Force on 5 April 1928. The new service would be open to men of all faiths and castes drawn from every part of the [[Indian subcontinent|subcontinent]].

===Formation and early pilots===
{{main|History of the Indian Air Force}}
The Indian Air Force was established in [[British India]] as an auxiliary air force<ref name="clause4">{{cite book|contribution= CLAUSE 4.—(Relations between Royal Air Force and Indian Air Force, and attachment of personnel.) | url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1933/apr/03/clause-4-relations-between-royal-air |title=HC Deb vol 276 cc1473-501|work=[[Hansard|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]] |date= 3 April 1933 | access-date=8 April 2009}}</ref> of the [[Royal Air Force]] with the enactment of the Indian Air Force Act 1932 on 8 October that year<ref name="IAF">{{cite web| title=History of the IAF| url=http://indianairforce.nic.in/show_page.php?pg_id=98| work=Official Website| publisher=Webmaster IAF – Air Headquarters| access-date=7 April 2009| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409235005/http://indianairforce.nic.in/show_page.php?pg_id=98| archive-date=9 April 2009| url-status=dead| df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="airpower3">{{cite journal |last=Bedi |first=Sanjeev |date=Summer 2008 |title=Strategic Role of Air Power |journal=Air Power Journal |volume=3 |publisher=Center for Air Power Studies |issue=2 |pages=27–45 |url=http://www.aerospaceindia.org/Journals/Summer%202008/Sanjeev%20Bedi.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723023345/http://www.aerospaceindia.org/Journals/Summer%202008/Sanjeev%20Bedi.pdf |url-status=usurped |archive-date=2019-07-23 |access-date=8 April 2009 }}</ref> and adopted the Royal Air Force uniforms, badges, brevets and insignia.<ref name="Heraldry">{{cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Museum/Palam/Heraldry.html |title=INDIAN AIR FORCE MUSEUM – Heraldry (Badges and Insignia) |publisher=Bharat Rakshak |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329193739/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Museum/Palam/Heraldry.html |archive-date=29 March 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> On 1 April 1933, the IAF commissioned its first squadron, [[No. 1 Squadron IAF|No.1 Squadron]], with four [[Westland Wapiti|Westland Wapiti biplanes]] and five Indian pilots. The Indian pilots were led by [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] Commanding officer Flight Lieutenant (later Air Vice Marshal) [[Sir Cecil Bouchier|Cecil Bouchier]].<ref name="Goyal">{{cite web|last=Goyal |first=S.N. |title=1939–45 Second World War: Air Force Reminiscences |url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1940s/Goyal.html |work=Sainik Samachar |publisher=Indian Air Force |date=October 1993 |access-date=8 April 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091006180501/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1940s/Goyal.html |archive-date=6 October 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

The first five pilots commissioned into the IAF were Harish Chandra Sircar, [[Subroto Mukerjee]], Bhupendra Singh, Aizad Baksh Awan and Amarjeet Singh. A sixth officer, J N Tandon had to revert to logistics duties as he was too short. All of them were commissioned as [[Pilot Officer]]s in 1932 from [[RAF Cranwell]]. [[Subroto Mukerjee]] later went on to become the IAF's first [[Chief of the Air Staff (India)|Chief of the Air Staff]]. Subsequent batches inducted before [[World War II]] included [[Aspy Engineer]], K K Majumdar, Narendra, Daljit Singh, Henry Runganadhan, R H D Singh, Baba Mehar Singh, S N Goyal, Prithpal Singh and [[Arjan Singh]].[[File:IAF Wapiti K1260.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Westland Wapiti]], one of the first aircraft of the Indian Air Force.]]

Among the earliest fully Indian-trained flying batches was the 4th Pilot Course, commissioned in the 1940s. This group included several future leaders of the Indian Air Force and played a key role in operationalising squadrons during World War II and the immediate post-independence years.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gupta |first=Anchit |title=Trailblazers in the Skies: The Inspiring Journey of the 4th Pilot Course |url=https://iafhistory.in/2022/12/03/trailblazers-in-the-skies-the-inspiring-journey-of-the-4th-pilot-course/ |website=IAFHistory |date=3 December 2022 |access-date=5 May 2025}}</ref>

===World War II (1939–1945)===
{{main|India in World War II}}
[[File:Pilots of No.263 Squadron RAF.jpg|thumb|left|Pilots of [[No. 263 Squadron RAF|No. 263 Squadron]] pose in front of their Typhoon. Pilot Officer Thyagarajan, an Indian pilot is seated on the engine cowling]]
[[File:kk jumbo majumdar.jpg|thumb|[[Karun Krishna Majumdar|Karun Krishna "Jumbo" Majumdar]] was the first Indian officer to be awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross.]]
[[File:Pilots of No. 83 Squadron RAF.jpg|thumb|left|{{center|83 Squadron aircrew in front of their [[List of surviving Avro Lancasters#Surviving_aircraft_2|Lancaster R5868]], Squadron Leader Shailendra Eknath Sukthankar, an Indian Navigator stands in the middle.}}]]
[[File:Sqn Ldr Shivdev Singh and Flt Lt Asghar Khan, WWII Mission Planning (1945).jpg|thumb|right|Sqn Ldr [[Shivdev Singh]], second from left, is flanked by a British Indian Army officer of the FF Regt, while F/L [[Asghar Khan]], third from the left, is flanked by a Wg Cdr during a mission planning session in [[World War II]] (1945)]]
[[File:No. 4 Squadron RIAF officers at Miho (1945-46).jpg|left|thumb|200px|Pilots of [[No. 4 Squadron RIAF]] in [[Miho, Ibaraki]] (1945). Standing from left: AIK Suares, Toric Zachariah, Leslie Prince Foster, [[FS Hussain]], Rusi Cawasji Bahadurji, and Devaiah Subia Sitting: Muthukumarasami Balan, Andrew Wiseman with a local stray dog, and Joseph Anthony Martin]]
[[File:Royal Air Force Operations in the Far East, 1941-1945. CI204.jpg|thumb|Personnel of the RAF, Indian Air Force and Women's Auxiliary Corps (India) at work in the Operations Room at a Group Headquarters in North-eastern India.]]
[[File:Indian Airforce Pilots after a mission in Burma during WW2.jpg|thumb|Indian Airforce Pilots after a mission in Burma during WW2]]
[[File:RIAF Pilots circa 1944.jpg|thumb|right|From left: [[Nur Khan]], [[Asghar Khan]], [[Abdur Rahim Khan]], [[Om Prakash Mehra]], Minoo Merwan, and an unidentified officer, circa 1944.]]

During [[World War II]], the IAF played an instrumental role in halting the advance of the [[Imperial Japan|Japanese army]] in [[Myanmar|Burma]], where the first IAF air strike was executed. The target for this first mission was the Japanese military base in [[Rakhine State|Arakan]], after which IAF strike missions continued against the Japanese airbases at [[Mae Hong Son]], [[Chiang Mai]] and [[Chiang Rai]] in northern [[Thailand]].

The IAF was mainly involved in [[Airstrike|strike]], [[close air support]], [[aerial reconnaissance]], [[bomber escort]] and pathfinding missions for RAF and [[China Burma India Theater#USAAF Order of Battle|USAAF]] heavy bombers. RAF and IAF pilots would train by flying with their non-native air wings to gain combat experience and communication proficiency. Besides operations in the [[Burma campaign|Burma Theatre]] IAF pilots participated in air operations in [[North African campaign|North Africa]] and [[European theatre of World War II|Europe]].<ref name="rafmuseum"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mgtrust.org/w2.htm|title=Second World War – Europe|website=www.mgtrust.org}}</ref>

In addition to the IAF, many native Indians and some 200 Indians resident in Britain volunteered to join the [[RAF]] and [[Women's Auxiliary Air Force]]. One such volunteer was Sergeant Shailendra Eknath Sukthankar, who served as a navigator with No. 83 Squadron. Sukthankar was commissioned as an officer, and on 14 September 1943, received the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)|DFC]]. Squadron Leader Sukthankar eventually completed 45 operations, 14 of them on board the [[List_of_surviving_Avro_Lancasters#Surviving_aircraft_2|RAF Museum’s Avro Lancaster R5868]]. Another volunteer was Assistant Section Officer [[Noor Inayat Khan]], a Muslim pacifist and Indian nationalist who joined the WAAF, in November 1940, to fight against Nazism. Noor Khan served bravely as a secret agent with the [[Special Operations Executive]] (SOE) in France, but was eventually betrayed and captured.<ref name=rafmuseum></ref> Many of these Indian airmen were seconded or transferred to the expanding IAF such as Squadron Leader [[Mohinder Singh Pujji]] DFC who led [[No. 4 Squadron IAF]] in Burma.

During the war, the IAF experienced a phase of steady expansion. New aircraft added to the fleet included the US-built [[Vultee A-31 Vengeance|Vultee Vengeance]], [[Douglas C-47 Skytrain|Douglas Dakota]], the British [[Hawker Hurricane]], [[Supermarine Spitfire]], [[Bristol Blenheim]], and [[Westland Lysander]].

[[Subhas Chandra Bose]] sent a group of [[Indian National Army]] cadets, known as the "[[Tokyo Boys]]", to Japan to train as pilots. They went on to attend the [[Imperial Japanese Army Air Force Academy]] in 1944.<ref>[http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Books/Reviews/810-Burma-to-Japan.html BURMA to JAPAN with Azad Hind: A War Memoir (1941–1945)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713173707/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Books/Reviews/810-Burma-to-Japan.html |date=13 July 2022 }} Air Cmde R S Benegal MVC AVSM</ref>

In recognition of the valiant service by the IAF, [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] conferred the [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefix]] "Royal" on 12 March 1945. Thereafter the IAF was referred to as the ''Royal Indian Air Force''. In 1950, when India became a republic, the prefix was dropped and it reverted to being the Indian Air Force.<ref name=Ahluwalia2012>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sabUQ7zKUvsC&pg=PA41|title=Airborne to Chairborne: Memoirs of a War Veteran Aviator-Lawyer of the Indian Air Force|last=Ahluwalia|first=A.|date=2012|publisher=Xlibris Corporation|isbn=978-1-4691-9657-2|page=41|language=en}}</ref>

Post war, [[No. 4 Squadron IAF]] was sent to [[Japan]] as part of the [[Occupation of Japan|Allied Occupation forces]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=No 4 Squadron (OOrials) |url=http://indianairforce.nic.in/show_unit.php?ch=7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619092930/http://indianairforce.nic.in/show_unit.php?ch=7 |archive-date=June 19, 2009 |access-date=October 5, 2023 |website=Indian Air Force}}</ref>

===Partition of India (1947)===
With the [[Partition of India|partition of the Indian sub-continent]] into two separate nations—[[Dominion of India|India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]]—the military forces were also partitioned. This gave a reduced Royal Indian Air Force and a new [[Royal Pakistan Air Force]] in 1947.

===Dominion of India (1947–1950)===
{{See also|Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948}}
[[File:Dakotas in Poonch 1947.jpg|thumb|Refugees awaiting [[Military operations in Poonch (1948)|evacuation]] by IAF [[Douglas C-47 Skytrain|Dakota]] on [[Poonch district, India|Poonch]] airstrip, December 1947]]
After it became independent from the [[British Empire]] in 1947, [[British Raj|British India]] was [[partition of India|partitioned]] into the new states of the [[Dominion of India]] and the [[Dominion of Pakistan]]. Along the lines of the geographical partition, the assets of the air force were divided between the new countries. India's air force retained the name of the Royal Indian Air Force, but three of the ten operational squadrons and facilities, located within the borders of Pakistan, were transferred to the [[Pakistan Air Force|Royal Pakistan Air Force]].<ref name="Engineer">{{cite web|last=Engineer |first=Aspy M. |author-link=Aspy Engineer|title=Air Marshal Aspy Engineer's Recollections |url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1940s/Aspy01.html |date=February 1993 |publisher=Bharat Rakshak |access-date=8 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091230140314/http://bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1940s/Aspy01.html |archive-date=30 December 2009}}</ref> The RIAF Roundel was changed to an interim 'Chakra' roundel derived from the [[Ashoka Chakra]].<ref name="Heraldry"/>

Around the same time, conflict broke out between them over the control of the [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|princely state of Jammu & Kashmir]]. With Pakistani forces moving into the state, its Maharaja decided to accede to India in order to receive military help.<ref name=Lyon79>{{cite book |last1=Lyon |first1=Peter |title=Conflict Between India and Pakistan: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLwOck15eboC |edition=illustrated |year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-712-2 |page=79}}</ref> The day after, the [[Instrument of Accession (Jammu and Kashmir)|Instrument of Accession]] was signed, the RIAF was called upon to transport troops into the war zone. And this was when a good management of logistics came into help.<ref name=Lyon79/> This led to the eruption of full-scale war between India and Pakistan, though there was no formal declaration of war.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Massey |first1=Reginald |title=Azaadi! |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkWcmnro4fkC |year=2005 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-469-1 |page=97}}</ref> During the war, the RIAF did not engage the Pakistan Air Force in air-to-air combat; however, it did provide effective transport and close air support to the Indian troops.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barua |first1=Pradeep |title=The State at War in South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIIQhuAOGaIC |year=2005 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-1344-9 |page=192}}{</ref>
[[File:Consolidated-Vultee B-24 Liberator heavy bomber over the Deccan plateau in the early 1950s.jpg|thumb|An IAF [[Consolidated B-24 Liberator]] heavy bomber over the [[Deccan Plateau]] in the early 1950s]]
When India became a republic in 1950, the prefix 'Royal' was dropped from the Indian Air Force.<ref name="airpower4">{{cite journal |last=Bedi |first=Sanjeev |date=Summer 2008 |title=Strategic Role of Air Power |journal=Air Power Journal|volume=3 |publisher=Center for Air Power Studies|issue=2 |pages=27–45 |url=http://www.aerospaceindia.org/Journals/Summer%202008/Sanjeev%20Bedi.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723023345/http://www.aerospaceindia.org/Journals/Summer%202008/Sanjeev%20Bedi.pdf|url-status=usurped|archive-date=2019-07-23}}</ref> At the same time, the current IAF roundel was adopted.<ref name="Heraldry"/>

== Aircraft ==
{{See also|List of historical aircraft of the Indian Air Force}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!Name!!Origin!!Primary role(s)!!Service period!!# used!!Notes

|-
|[[Airspeed Oxford]]||UK||transport||1946–1949||5||
|-
|[[Armstrong Whitworth Atalanta]]||UK||transport||1941–1944||5||
|-
|[[Auster AOP.6]]||UK||army co-operation||1946–1970||20 ca.||
|-
|[[Avro Anson]] I||UK||trainer||1942–1945||7||<ref name="ind">{{cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1940s/Trg-1SFTS.html |title=No.1 Service Flying Training School (India) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803171431/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1940s/Trg-1SFTS.html |archive-date=2012-08-03 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Boulton Paul Defiant]] TT.III||UK||target tug||1944–1945||small #||
|-
|[[Bristol Blenheim]] I||UK||bomber||1941–1942||5||
|-
|[[Consolidated B-24J Liberator]]||US||bomber||1948–1967||45||<ref group=note>ex-RAF World War Two lend-lease bombers refurbished by HAL.</ref><ref>[http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Images/Vintage/Fighters/Liberator/ Consolidated B-24 Liberator [www.bharat-rakshak.com]] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112225702/http://bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Images/Vintage/Fighters/Liberator/ |date=2012-01-12 }}. Bharat-rakshak.com (2007-01-18). Retrieved on 2010-09-08.</ref>
|-
|[[de Havilland Devon]]||UK||transport||1947–1991||22||
|-
|[[de Havilland D.H.86]]B||UK||transport||1940–1942||2||
|-
|[[de Havilland Dragon Rapide]]||UK||transport||1941–1945||4||
|-
|[[de Havilland Tiger Moth]]||UK||trainer||1939–1957||192||
|-
|[[de Havilland Vampire|de Havilland Vampire F.3]]||UK||day fighter||1948–1955||3||
|-
|[[Douglas Dakota]]||US||transport||1946–1987||206||
|-
|[[Fairchild PT-19]]||US||trainer||1943–1946||40||<ref name="andrade239">Andrade 1979, p. 239</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Galleries/History/WW2/FlyingTraining/|title = Indian Air Force Gallery :: Training in the IAF}}</ref>
|-
|[[Harlow PC-5|Harlow PC-5A]]||US||transport||1941–1942||4||
|-
|[[Hawker Audax]]||UK||army co-operation||1939–1945||7||
|-
|[[Hawker Hart]] (India)||UK||bomber||1939–1942||7||
|-
|[[Hawker Hind]]||UK||bomber||1939–1941||6||
|-
|[[Hawker Hurricane]]||UK||fighter-bomber||1942–1945||?||
|-
|[[Hawker Tempest II]]||UK||fighter||1945–1955||235||<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Aircraft/Tempest.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824063237/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Aircraft/Tempest.html|url-status=dead|title=IAF-Tempest|archivedate=24 August 2014}}</ref>
|-
|[[North American Harvard]] Mk.II and 4||Canada||trainer||1942–1973||?||
|-
|[[Percival Prentice]] T.3||UK||trainer||1947–1963||62||<ref group=note>includes 42 built by HAL.</ref>
|-
|[[Supermarine Spitfire]] Vc & VIIIc||UK||fighter/reconnaissance||1943–1948||19||<ref name=spitfire>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Aircraft/Spitfire.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206042942/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Aircraft/Spitfire.html|url-status=dead|title=IAF-Spitfire|archivedate=6 December 2007}}</ref>
|-
|[[Supermarine Spitfire]] FR.XIVE & FR.XVIII||UK||fighter reconnaissance||1945–1957||120||<ref name="spitfire"/>
|-
|[[Supermarine Spitfire]] PR.XI & XIX||UK||photo reconnaissance||1947–1959||15||<ref name=spitfire />
|-
|[[Supermarine Spitfire]] T.IX||UK||trainer||1947–1955||10||
|-
|[[Westland Lysander]] II||UK||army co-operation||1941–1943||25 ca.||<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1940s/Lysander.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080115184540/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1940s/Lysander.html|url-status=dead|title=Westland Lysander in Indian Air Force Service|archivedate=15 January 2008}}</ref>
|-
|[[Westland Lysander]] III.T||UK||target tug||1941–1942||48 ca.||<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
|-
|[[Westland Wapiti]]||UK||army co-operation||1933–1942||28||<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Aircraft/Wapiti.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728123414/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Aircraft/Wapiti.html|url-status=dead|title=The Westland Wapiti in Indian Air Force|archivedate=28 July 2013}}</ref>
|}

==Symbols, flags and emblems==
===Roundel===
{{Gallery
| width = 150
| height = 100
| align = center
| title = Roundels<ref name="Heraldry"/>
| File:RAF roundel.svg
| 1933–1942
| File:RAF Far East Command roundel.svg
| 1943–1945
| File:Ashoka Chakra.svg
| 1947–1950
| File:Roundel of India 1947-1948 (variant).svg
| 1947-1950 (variant)
| File:Roundel of India.svg
| 1950
}}
*1933–1942: The RAF roundel was used from 1933 to 1942 as the IAF was first established as an auxiliary air force of the Royal Air Force.
*1943–1945: This roundel was used from 1943–1945 in the [[South East Asia Command|Burma Sector]] during [[World War II]]. The central red disc was removed to eliminate confusion with the [[hinomaru|Japanese Rising Sun Emblem]].
*1947–1950: The [[Ashoka Chakra]] was an interim roundel used from [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian independence]] in 1947 till India became a republic in 1950.
*1950: This roundel was adapted by the IAF in 1950 and kept it after India became a republic and is used to this day.

===Fin flash===
{{Gallery
| width = 150
| height = 100
| align = center
| title = Fin flash<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indian Air Force Flags|url=https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/in%5Eaf.html#47|access-date=2022-01-12|website=www.crwflags.com}}</ref>
| File:RAF-Finflash-Noncombat.svg
| 1933–1942
| File:RAF Type B SEA Fin Flash.svg
| 1943–1947
| File:IAF Fin Flash (1947-1948).jpg
| 1947–1948
| File:Fin Flash of India.svg
| 1948–1950
}}

===Ensign===
{{Gallery
| width = 150
| height = 100
| align = center
| File:Air Force Ensign of India (1945–1947).svg
|
| File:Royal Indian Air Forces Roundel.svg
|
}}
The ensign had a field of [[air force blue]] with the [[Union Jack]] in the canton and the roundel of [[Royal Air Force]] superimposed in centre of inside of [[Star of India (flag)#Emblem|Star of India]] in the fly.

===Badge===
{{Gallery
| width = 150
| height = 100
| align = center
| File:Royal Indian Air Force.svg
| post-1945
| File:Indian Air Force heraldic badge.jpg
| pre-1945
}}
The badge had [[Tudor crown]] on top of ring with an [[Eagle (heraldry)|eagle]] augmented in center. A ribbon in fly below with the force motto ''[[Per ardua ad astra|PER ARDUA AD ASTRA]]''.

==Commanders==
{{See also|RAF India#Commanders|Chief of the Air Staff (India)}}
At Independence, the head of the Air Force designated as the "'''Air Marshal Commanding, Royal Indian Air Force'''". On 1 March 1948, the title of "Chief of the Air Staff" was added,<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Communique|url=http://pibarchive.nic.in/archive/ArchiveSecondPhase/DEFENCE/1948-JAN-JUNE-DEFENCE/PDF/DEF-1948-02-28_119.pdf|website=Press Information Bureau of India – Archive|date=28 February 1948|access-date=16 February 2020}}</ref> with a further re-designation to "'''Chief of the Air Staff and Commander-in-Chief, Royal Indian Air Force'''" on 21 June to maintain uniformity across the three armed services.<ref>{{cite web|title=Press Communique|url=http://pibarchive.nic.in/archive/ArchiveSecondPhase/DEFENCE/1948-JAN-JUNE-DEFENCE/PDF/DEF-1948-06-21_287.pdf|website=Press Information Bureau of India – Archive|date=21 June 1948|access-date=16 February 2020}}</ref>

The "Royal" designation was dropped when India became a republic on 26 January 1950. Thus re-designating the head of IAF to "'''Chief of the Air Staff and Commander-in-Chief, Indian Air Force'''".

===Air Officer Commanding RAF, India (1932–1938)===
{{Officeholder table start
| showorder = y
| showimage = y
| officeholder_title = Name
| showtermlenght = y
| showparty = n
| showdefencebranch = n
}}
{{Officeholder table
| order = 1
| image = blank.png
| military_rank = [[Air Marshal]]
| officeholder = [[John Miles Steel|Sir John Miles Steel]] {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=75%|sep=,|KCB|KBE|CMG}}
| officeholder_sort = Steel, John Miles
| officeholder_note =
| born_year = 1877
| died_year = 1965
| term_start = 8 October 1932
| term_end = 2 March 1935
| timeinoffice = {{ayd|1931|02|06|1935|03|02}}
}}
{{Officeholder table
| order = 2
| image = Air Chief Marshal Sir Edgar Ludlow-Hewitt (cropped).jpg
| military_rank = [[Air Chief Marshal (India)|Air Chief Marshal]]
| officeholder = [[Edgar Ludlow-Hewitt|Sir Edgar Ludlow-Hewitt]] {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=75%|sep=,|KCB|CMG|DSO|MC}}
| officeholder_sort = Ludlow-Hewitt, Edgar
| officeholder_note =
| born_year = 1886
| died_year = 1973
| term_start = 2 March 1935
| term_end = 29 September 1937
| timeinoffice = {{ayd|1935|03|02|1937|09|29}}
}}
{{Officeholder table
| order = 3
| image = Joubert de la Ferte.jpg
| military_rank = [[Air Marshal]]
| officeholder = [[Philip Joubert de la Ferté|Sir Philip Joubert de la Ferté]] {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=75%|sep=,|KCB|CMG|DSO}}
| officeholder_sort = Ferte, Philip Joubert
| officeholder_note =
| born_year = 1886
| died_year = 1973
| term_start = 29 September 1937
| term_end = 27 December 1938
| timeinoffice = {{ayd|1937|09|29|1938|12|27}}
}}
{{Officeholder table end}}

===Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Air Forces in India (1938–1947)===
{{Officeholder table start
| showorder = y
| showimage = y
| officeholder_title = Name
| showtermlenght = y
| showparty = n
| showdefencebranch = n
| showref = y
}}
{{Officeholder table
| order = 1
| image = Joubert de la Ferte.jpg
| military_rank = [[Air Marshal]]
| officeholder = [[Philip Joubert de la Ferté|Sir Philip Joubert de la Ferté]] {{post-nominals|country=UK|size=75%|sep=,|KCB|CMG|DSO}}
| officeholder_sort = de la Ferté, Philip
| officeholder_note =
| born_year = 1886
| died_year = 1973
| term_start = 27 December 1938
| term_end = 6 October 1939
| timeinoffice = {{ayd|1938|12|27|1939|10|06}}
| ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Air-Chiefs/Chiefs-Air-Old.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202204805/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Air-Chiefs/Chiefs-Air-Old.html|url-status=dead|title=Chiefs of the Indian Air Force 1931 to 1947|archivedate=2 February 2007}}</ref>
}}
{{Officeholder table
| order = 2
| image = blank.png
| military_rank = [[Air Marshal]]
| officeholder = [[Jack Higgins (RAF officer)|Sir John Higgins]] {{post-nominals|country=UK|size=75%|sep=,|KCB|KBE|DSO|AFC}}
| officeholder_sort = Higgins, John
| officeholder_note =
| born_year = 1875
| died_year = 1948
| term_start = 6 October 1939
| term_end = 26 September 1940
| timeinoffice = {{ayd|1939|10|06|1940|09|26}}
| ref = —
}}
{{Officeholder table
| order = 3
| image = Playfair in the RFC.jpg
| military_rank = [[Air Marshal]]
| officeholder = [[Patrick Playfair|Sir Patrick Playfair]] {{post-nominals|country=UK|size=75%|sep=,|KCB|CB|CVO|MC}}
| officeholder_sort = Playfair, Patrick
| officeholder_note =
| born_year = 1889
| died_year = 1974
| term_start = 26 September 1940
| term_end = 6 March 1942
| timeinoffice = {{ayd|1940|09|26|1942|03|06}}
| ref = —
}}
{{Officeholder table
| order = 4
| image = INF3-76 pt6 Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard Peirse Artist Tim.jpg
| military_rank = [[Air Chief Marshal (India)|Air Chief Marshal]]
| officeholder = [[Richard Peirse|Sir Richard Peirse]] {{post-nominals|country=UK|size=75%|sep=,|KCB|DSO|AFC}}
| officeholder_sort = Peirse, Richard
| officeholder_note =
| born_year = 1892
| died_year = 1970
| term_start = 6 March 1942
| term_end = 27 April 1943
| timeinoffice = {{ayd|1942|03|06|1943|04|27}}
| ref = —
}}
{{Officeholder table
| order = 5
| image = Air Marshal A G R Garrod.jpg
| military_rank = [[Air Marshal]]
| officeholder = [[Guy Garrod|Sir Guy Garrod]] {{post-nominals|country=UK|size=75%|sep=,|KCB|OBE|MC|DFC}}
| officeholder_sort = Garrod, Guy
| officeholder_note =
| born_year = 1891
| died_year = 1965
| term_start = 27 April 1943
| term_end = 8 March 1944
| timeinoffice = {{ayd|1943|04|27|1944|03|08}}
| ref = —
}}
{{Officeholder table
| order = 6
| image = Air Vice-Marshal Meredith Thomas 1.jpg
| military_rank = [[Air Vice Marshal]]
| officeholder = [[Meredith Thomas]] {{post-nominals|country=UK|size=75%|sep=,|CSI|CBE|DFC|AFC}}
| officeholder_sort = Thomas, Meredith
| officeholder_note =
| born_year = 1892
| died_year = 1984
| term_start = 8 March 1944
| term_end = 1 April 1946
| timeinoffice = {{ayd|1944|03|08|1946|04|01}}
| ref = —
}}
{{Officeholder table
| order = 7
| image = Air Mshl Sir Roderick Carr.jpg
| military_rank = [[Air Marshal]]
| officeholder = [[Roderick Carr|Sir Roderick Carr]] {{post-nominals|country=UK|size=75%|sep=,|KBE|CB|DFC|AFC}}
| officeholder_sort = Carr, Roderick
| officeholder_note =
| born_year = 1891
| died_year = 1971
| term_start = 1 April 1946
| term_end = 22 November 1946
| timeinoffice = {{ayd|1946|04|01|1946|11|22}}
| ref = —
}}
{{Officeholder table
| order = 8
| image = blank.png
| military_rank = [[Air Marshal]]
| officeholder = [[Hugh Walmsley|Sir Hugh Walmsley]] {{post-nominals|country=UK|size=75%|sep=,|KCIE|CB|CBE|MC|DFC}}
| officeholder_sort = Walmsley, Hugh
| officeholder_note =
| born_year = 1898
| died_year = 1985
| term_start = 22 November 1946
| term_end = 15 August 1947
| timeinoffice = {{ayd|1946|11|22|1947|08|01}}
| ref = —
}}
{{Officeholder table end}}

(''On 15 August 1947, the unified RIAF was separated into the [[Indian Air Force|Royal Indian Air Force]] and the [[Royal Pakistan Air Force]]'')

(**''Seconded from the [[Royal Air Force]]'')

===Air Marshal Commanding, Royal Indian Air Force (1947–1948)===
{{Officeholder table start
| showorder = y
| showimage = y
| image_title = Portrait
| officeholder_title = Name
| showtermlenght = y
| showparty = n
| showdefencebranch = n
}}
{{Officeholder table
| order = 1
| image =
| military_rank = [[Air Marshal]]
| officeholder = [[Thomas Elmhirst|Sir Thomas Elmhirst]] {{post-nominals|country=UK|size=75%|sep=,|CB|KBE|AFC}}
| officeholder_sort = Elmhirst, Thomas
| officeholder_note = {{efn|name=RAF|Seconded from the Royal Air Force}}
| born_year = 1895
| died_year = 1982
| term_start = 15 August 1947
| term_end = 20 June 1948
| timeinoffice = {{ayd|1947|08|15|1948|06|20}}
}}
{{Officeholder table end}}

===Chief of the Air Staff and Commander-in-Chief, Royal Indian Air Force (1948–1950)===
{{Officeholder table start
| showorder = y
| showimage = y
| image_title = Portrait
| officeholder_title = Name
| showtermlenght = y
| showparty = n
| showdefencebranch = n
}}
{{Officeholder table
| order = 1
| image =
| military_rank = [[Air Marshal]]
| officeholder = [[Thomas Elmhirst|Sir Thomas Elmhirst]] {{post-nominals|country=UK|size=75%|sep=,|CB|KBE|AFC}}
| officeholder_sort = Elmhirst, Thomas
| officeholder_note = {{efn|name=RAF}}
| born_year = 1895
| died_year = 1982
| term_start = 21 June 1948
| term_end = 25 January 1950
| timeinoffice = {{ayd|1948|06|21|1950|01|25}}
}}
{{Officeholder table end}}

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Aviation}}
*[[Royal Air Force]]
*[[Royal Canadian Air Force]]
*[[Royal Australian Air Force]]
*[[Royal New Zealand Air Force]]

==References==

===Notes===
{{reflist|group=note}}
{{notelist}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=7SufDwAAQBAJ&q=editions:KonQ9SC7sP0C The Forgotten Few; The Indian Air Force in World War II] – KS Nair
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=_p_fAAAAMAAJ The Eagle strikes : the Royal Indian Air Force, 1932–1950] – Rana Chhina
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=IaEDAAAAMAAJ History of the Indian Air Force, 1933–45] – SC Gupta
* [https://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/blog/royal-indian-air-force/ The Royal Indian Air Force, 1932 – 1947] – RAF Museum

{{Indian Air Force}}
{{Air forces}}

[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1932]]
[[Category:1931 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Military history of India during World War II]]
[[Category:History of the Indian Air Force]]
[[Category:Organisations based in India with royal patronage]]

Bairam Khan

2026-03-21T04:48:36Z

ReaganRiordan: small enhanced structure for clarity additionally

{{Short description|Mughal military commander and statesman (1501–1561)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{For|the 1946 Indian film about the general and the later Mughal officer, then respectively|Behram Khan|Bayram Khan}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image = Bairam Khan at the 1557 Siege of Mankot.jpg
| caption = Near contemporary portrait of Bairam Khan at the 1557 [[Siege of Mankot (1557)|Siege of Mankot]]. Painting from the Akbarnama {{Circa|1590}}
| office1 = [[Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire|Grand Vizier]] of the [[Mughal Empire]]
| successor1 = [[Munim Khan]]
| term_start1 = 1556
| term_end1 = March/April 1560
| office2 = [[Vakil of the Mughal Empire]]
| successor2 = [[Munim Khan]]
| term_start2 = 14 February 1556
| term_end2 = March/April 1560<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=Medieval India : from Sultanat to the Mughals|date=2005|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788124110669|page=95|edition=Revised}}</ref>
| monarch1 = [[Akbar]]
| office3 = [[Regent]] of the [[Mughal Empire]]
| term_start3 = 27 January 1556
| term_end3 = March/April 1560
| monarch3 = [[Akbar]]
| birth_date = {{birth date |1501|01|18|df=yes}}<ref>{{cite book |title=The Indian Historical Quarterly |date=1949 |volume=25-26 |page=318 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kd4BAAAAMAAJ&q=1501 |access-date=13 August 2017 |publisher=Calcutta Oriental Press |language=en}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Badakhshan]] (present-day [[Afghanistan]], [[China]] or [[Tajikistan]])
| death_date = {{death date and age|1561|1|31|1501|01|18|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Sahasralinga Talav]], [[Patan, Gujarat|Patan]], [[Sultanate of Gujarat]] {{small|(present-day [[Gujarat]], [[India]])}}
| spouse = Jamal Khan's daughter {{Marriage|[[Salima Sultan Begum]]|7 December 1557}}
| children = [[Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana|Abdul Rahim]]
| profession = Chief advisor of [[Akbar]], Military commander and commander-in-chief of [[Mughal army]] and Mughal Statesman
| allegiance = [[Mughal Empire]]
| serviceyears = 1517–1560
| rank =
| commands = [[Mughal Army]]
| battles = Battle of Ludhiana [[Battle of Khanwa]] [[Battle of Ghaghra]] [[Siege of Sambhal]] [[Battle of Chausa]] [[Battle of Kannauj]] [[Battle of Machhiwara]] [[Battle of Sirhind (1555)|Battle of Sirhind]] [[Battle of Panipat (1556)|Second Battle of Panipat]] [[Battle near Gunecur]] (as the leader of a rebel faction of the Mughal Army)
}}

'''Muhammad Bairam Khan''' ({{Langx|fa|{{nq|محمد بیرم خان}}}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ|title=The Great Mughals and their India p. 98|first=Dirk|last=Collier|date=1 March 2016|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=9789384544980|via=Google Books}}</ref> 18 January 1501 – 31 January 1561), commonly known as '''Bairam Khan''' or '''Bayram Khan''' was an important military commander, and later commander-in-chief of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] army, a powerful statesman and regent at the court of the [[Mughal Emperors]] [[Humayun]] and [[Akbar]]. He was also the guardian, chief mentor, adviser, teacher and the most trusted ally of Akbar.<ref name="Mikaberidze">{{cite book |editor-last=Mikaberidze |editor-first=Alexander |title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World a Historical Encyclopedia. |date=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara |isbn=9781598843378 |page=707}}</ref> Akbar honoured him as ''Khan-i-Khanan'', which means "King of Kings".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ|title=The Great Mughals and their India p. 133|first=Dirk|last=Collier|date=1 March 2016|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=9789384544980|via=Google Books}}</ref> Bairam was originally called Bairam "[[Baig|Beg]]", but later became honoured as [[Khan (title)|Khan]].<ref name="Thackston-xix">Thackston, Wheeler M. (2002) ''The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor'' The Modern Library, New York, p.''xix'', {{ISBN|0-375-76137-3}}</ref><ref>Ahmed, Humayun,(2011) ''Badsha Namdar'', National Library, Dhaka, pp.''200-233.'' {{ISBN|978-984-502-017-6}}</ref> Bairam Khan was an aggressive general who was determined to restore Mughal authority in [[India]].<ref name="Mikaberidze" />

== Biography ==

=== Early life and ancestors ===
[[File:The Princely Lovers, attributable to Mirza Ali. Allusion to a love affair between Soltanum and Bayram Beg.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''The Princely Lovers'', a likely depiction of an affair between Bairam Beg and the Safavid [[Princess Soltanum]].<ref name="SOUD">{{cite book |last1=Soudavar |first1=Abolala |title=Art of the Persian courts : selections from the Art and History Trust Collection |date=1992 |publisher=New York : Rizzoli |isbn=978-0-8478-1660-6 |pages=170-173 |url=https://archive.org/details/artofpersiancour0000soud/page/172/mode/2up}}</ref>]]
Bairam Khan was born in the region of [[Badakhshan]] in [[Central Asia]], and belonged to the [[Baharlu (ethnic group)|Baharlu]] [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] clan of the [[Kara Koyunlu]] confederation.<ref>{{harvnb|Schimmel|1980|page=77}} "[[Humayun]] had been forced to leave Hindustan after his second defeat; he first sought shelter in Sind, where the Turkish dynasty of the Arghuns had replaced the indigenous Samma in 1520. His father's faithful friend Bairam Khan, a Baharlu Turcoman, joined him there, and his son Akbar was born in Umarkot (Sind) in 1542."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ansari|1989|pages=3–5}} "Bayram Khan belonged to the Bahārlū clan of the Qara Qoyunlū Turkmen (Nehāvandī, I, p. 11), whose descendants still live in the Dārābjerd region of Fārs province (Ṣafā, IV, p. 13)."</ref> The Kara Koyunlu had ruled Western Persia for decades before being overthrown by their [[Ak Koyunlu]] rivals. Bairam Khan's father, Seyfali Beg Baharlu, and grandfather, Janali Beg Baharlu, had been part of [[Babur]]'s service.<ref name="Thackston-xix"/> His great-grandparents were Pirali Beg Baharlu and his wife, a daughter of the [[Qara Qoyunlu]] ruler [[Qara Iskander]]; Piroli's niece through his sister Pasha Begum had been one of the wives of Babur.<ref name="Ray1955">{{cite book|last=Ray|first=Sukumar|title=Ancestry and early life of Bairam Khan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nB7jAAAAMAAJ|series=Indian History Congress - Proceedings of the Sixteenth Session |year=1955|publisher=Indian History Congress|page=249}}</ref> Bairam entered Babur's service at the age of 16.

=== Service under Humayun ===
Bairam Khan contributed greatly to the establishment of the [[Mughal Empire]] under [[Humayun]] when he was entrusted with the position of ''muhardar'' (keeper of the seals) and took part in military campaigns in [[Benares]], [[Bengal]] and [[Gujarat]].<ref name="Ray, Sukumar 1992 page 11">Ray, Sukumar & Beg, M.H.A. (1992) Bairam Khan, Mirza Beg, 1992, page 11, {{ISBN|969-8120-01-7}}</ref> In 1540, during the [[Battle of Kannauj]], he was captured by [[Sher Shah Suri]]'s men, but later managed to make an adventurous escape, and rejoined Humayun at [[Sindh]] in July 1543.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ|title=The Great Mughals and their India p. 98|first=Dirk|last=Collier|date=1 March 2016|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=9789384544980|via=Google Books}}</ref> He accompanied Humayun during his exile in [[Persia]] and helped conquer [[Kandahar]] before serving as its [[governor]] for nine years. In 1556, he played a leading role as a commander in Humayun's reconquest of [[Hindustan]].<ref>Ray, Sukumar & Beg, M.H.A. (1992) Bairam Khan, Mirza Beg, 1992, page 27, {{ISBN|969-8120-01-7}}</ref>

=== As regent of Akbar ===
At the time of Humayun's death on 27 January 1556, Bairam Khan was leading a campaign against [[Sikandar Shah Suri]] in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] (in present-day [[India]]) as the then Prince [[Akbar]]'s ''ataliq'' (guardian) and ''sipahsalaar'' (commander-in-chief) of the [[Mughal army]]. To consolidate the Mughal Empire, Bairam Khan kept Humayun's death a secret, sending reassuring messages of his recovery and having [[Mullah]] Bekasi, a loyal cleric in Delhi (who looked similar to Humayun) dressed up in the imperial robes and make the usual daily appearance before the people from the balcony of the fort, till Akbar's coronation. He also secured the [[loyalty]] of his rival, [[Tardi Beg]] by appointing him as the governor of Delhi.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ|title=The Great Mughals and their India p. 132–133|first=Dirk|last=Collier|date=1 March 2016|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=9789384544980|via=Google Books}}</ref>
[[File:Nach der Belagerung von Mankot 1557.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Bairam Khan (center) at the [[Siege of Mankot (1557)]]]]
On 14 February 1556, [[Akbar]] was crowned as the new [[Mughal Emperor]] and his first deed was to appoint Bairam Khan as ''[[Vakil of the Mughal Empire|Vakil]]'' (Prime Minister) and grant him the lofty titles of ''[[Khan-i-Khanan]]'' and ''sipahsalaar itizad-i-daulat qahira'' (commander-in-chief of the army, mainstay of victorious dominion). Under Bairam Khan's leadership, the Mughal army moved to [[Jalandhar]], where they encamped for five months and managed to drive Sikandar Suri deeper into the [[Siwalik hills]]. However, the Mughals now had to face a far greater threat from [[Hemu]], [[Vakil]] of [[Adil Shah Suri]], the final ruler of the [[Sur dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ|title=The Great Mughals and their India p. 134–135|first=Dirk|last=Collier|date=1 March 2016|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=9789384544980|via=Google Books}}</ref>

Taking advantage of the political instability in the Mughal Empire, Hemu swiftly took [[Gwalior]], [[Delhi]] and [[Agra]]. Leaving behind a small force to keep Sikandar Suri in check, Bairam Khan moved the Mughal Army towards [[Sirhind]] and ordered Tardi Beg (who had been defeated by Hemu at the [[Battle of Tughlaqabad]], near Delhi on 7 October 1556 and retreated) to meet the imperial army there. At Sirhind, differences arose between Bairam Khan and Tardi Beg as to what would be their military strategy in the future. Shortly afterwards, Bairam Khan had Tardi Beg executed for his cowardice during the Battle of Tughlaqabad, though there is some doubt as to whether these allegations were true as Tardi Beg was a senior official and a political rival of Bairam Khan and his execution certainly helped consolidate the authority of Bairam Khan.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tripathi|first=Ram Prasad|title=Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empire|year=1960|edition=2nd|pages=158–177|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uK8qAAAAYAAJ }}</ref> Conveniently, Akbar was absent during the whole incident as he was out on a hunting trip. Tardi Beg's execution helped discipline the demoralised Mughal army.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ|title=The Great Mughals and their India p. 135–138|first=Dirk|last=Collier|date=1 March 2016|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=9789384544980|via=Google Books}}</ref>

On 5 November 1556, the Mughals clashed with Hemu's army at the [[Second Battle of Panipat]]. After a fiercely contested battle, the Mughals were victorious. Hemu was captured and decapitated, either by Bairam Khan{{sfn|Chandra|2005|p=93}} or Akbar<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ|title=The Great Mughals and their India|first=Dirk|last=Collier|date=1 March 2016|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=9789384544980|via=Google Books}}</ref> and Delhi and Agra subsequently reconquered. After resting for a month at Delhi, Akbar and Bairam Khan resumed their campaign against Sikandar Suri, who had attempted to attack Lahore; he was driven back to the hill-fortress of Mankot (in present-day Jammu and Kashmir) where he waited for six months for Afghan reinforcements in the [[Siege of Mankot (1557)]], to no avail. Disheartened, he finally surrendered to Akbar on 25 July 1557, where he was treated with clemency and given a fief in Bihar.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ|title=The Great Mughals and their India p. 138–141|first=Dirk|last=Collier|date=1 March 2016|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=9789384544980|via=Google Books}}</ref>

=== Dismissal ===
Towards his last years, relations between Bairam Khan and Akbar grew sour. The main reason was that Bairam Khan had begun to take several decisions without consulting the Emperor first, such as when he unilaterally dismissed his former favourite [[Pir Muhammad Khan Shirwani|Pir Muhammad Khan]], who was a senior Mughal official. Akbar felt jealous that a leash was kept on his private expenses while Bairam Khan's servants grew rich. He had also become increasingly irritable, and executed two of Akbar's favourite personal [[mahouts]], one of which had not been able to restrain an imperial elephant, which killed one of Bairam Khan's animals, and the other had not been able to restrain his elephant which nearly overturned a small boat on which Bairam Khan was resting. After the final incident, Akbar decided that Bairam Khan could no longer stay in his position. In March or April 1560, Akbar told him that he could either retire and stay in the palace or go on the [[hajj]] pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]. He could take whatever land he wished so that his servants could send him remittances of the harvest annually.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ|title=The Great Mughals and their India p. 143–146|first=Dirk|last=Collier|date=1 March 2016|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=9789384544980|via=Google Books}}</ref>

=== Rebellion ===
[[File:Bairam Khan's submission.png|thumb|upright|Bairam Khan submits to Akbar]]
Rejecting the advice of his close friends and supporters he decided not to rebel, but later his political opponents [[Maham Anga]] and her son [[Adham Khan]] sent Pir Muhammad to trail him and 'pack him off to Mecca'. This insult goaded Bairam Khan to rebel,<ref>Chandra 2007, p. 227</ref> and he turned back. Pir Muhammad retreated at the sight of Bairam Khan's deadly Turkoman horse archers. Akbar tried in vain to send another [[firman]] to Bairam Khan, ordering him to continue his pilgrimage. Bairam Khan left his family in the fortress of Tabar-e-Hind (in present-day [[Bathinda]]) and headed towards [[Jalandhar]], intent on taking [[Lahore]]. Forced to fight his former mentor, Akbar sent his foster father [[Ataga Khan|Shams-ud-din]] with a strong vanguard to halt or slow down Bairam Khan's force while he followed with the main army. Near the village Gunecur, near Jalandhar, Shams-ud-Din stopped Bairam Khan's force. He tried to negotiate, but Bairam Khan remained adamant on fighting.

Despite having a much smaller army, Bairam Khan gave a tough fight to his adversary but was eventually defeated. However, Bairam Khan managed to retreat with the majority of his force to [[Talwara]]-[[Hajipur, Punjab|Hazipur]] adjoining [[Rey Khas|Rey]] [[Shikargah]] (Mughal imperial hunting grounds) from where he surrendered and was treated by Akbar with immense respect. Akbar gave him the options of staying in the court as his personal adviser, picking a [[jagir]] of his choice, or continuing his pilgrimage. Bairam Khan chose the last option.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ|title=The Great Mughals and their India p. 146–149|first=Dirk|last=Collier|date=1 March 2016|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=9789384544980|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiagrid.com/cgi-bin/viewarticle.cgi?cat=art&dmmy=ok&postid=4499&stq=1350|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713024808/http://www.indiagrid.com/cgi-bin/viewarticle.cgi?cat=art&dmmy=ok&postid=4499&stq=1350|url-status=dead|title=Rahim-Abdul Rahim Khankhanan at Indiagrid|archivedate=13 July 2011}}</ref>

=== Assassination ===
[[File:Bairam Khan is assassinated by an Afghan at Patan, 1561, Akbarnama.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Bairam Khan is assassinated by an Afghan at Patan, 1561, Akbarnama]]
While travelling through [[Gujarat]] he was assassinated on 31 January 1561<ref name="Bose-205">{{Cite book|editor-last=Bose |editor-first=Mandakranta |year=2000 |title=Faces of the Feminine in Ancient, Medieval, and Modern India |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press|page=205 |isbn=978-0-19-512229-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNOUSo6Eb-oC&pg=PA205}}{{Not in citation||date=December 2023}}</ref> at [[Sahasralinga Tank]], a religious site near [[Anhilwad Patan]], by a group of Afghans led by Mubarak Khan Lohani, whose father had been killed while fighting with the Mughals at the [[Battle of Machhiwara]] in 1555. According to the [[Akbarnama]], the group of Afghans had apparently come to pay their respects to him, so he allowed them to come closer. Thereupon, Mubarak stabbed him with a dagger in the back with such force that the point came out of his chest, and another Afghan struck him on the head, fatally wounding him. Bairam Khan died saying the [[takbir]]. His corpse was later found by a group of locals, who buried him at the tomb of a nearby [[Sufi]] saint.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ|title=The Great Mughals and their India p. 149|first=Dirk|last=Collier|date=1 March 2016|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=9789384544980|via=Google Books}}</ref>

His son and wife managed to escape to [[Ahmedabad]], where they stayed for several months before Akbar heard of their plight and had them escorted to [[Agra]]. Bairam's wife, Salima who was also a cousin of Akbar, married Akbar after his death. Bairam's son, [[Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan]], became an important part of Akbar's administration and was one of the ''nav-ratans'' (nine gems) of Akbar's court.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ|title=The Great Mughals and their India p. 149|first=Dirk|last=Collier|date=1 March 2016|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=9789384544980|via=Google Books}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Bairam Khan was a [[Shia Muslim]] and was disliked by some of the [[Sunni]] Turkic nobles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA13 |title=The Mughal Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-521-25119-8 |series=The New Cambridge History of India |location=Cambridge, England |page=13}}</ref> Although a Shia, he attended Friday services in the [[mosque]] of a noted [[Sufi]]. He also promoted Sheikh Gadai, the son of [[Sikandar Lodi]]'s court poet Jamali [[Kamboh]], to the position of ''sadurat-i-mamalik'' ([[Chief Justice]]) in 1559.{{sfn|Schimmel|1980|p=77}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Elliot |first1=Henry |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924073036752/page/n271/mode/2up?view=theater |title=The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians p. 259 |last2=Downson |first2=John |date=1867 |publisher=London: Trübner & Co. |via=Wayback Machine}}</ref>

===Marriages===
The ''Gazetteer of Ulwur'' states:

{{quote|Soon after Babar's death, his successor, Humayun, was supplemented by Sher Shah in 1540 A.D., later followed by Islam Shah in 1545 A.D. During the reign of the latter, a battle was fought and lost by the Emperor's troops at Firozpur Jhirka in Mewat, on which, however, Islam Shah did not lose his hold. Adil Shah, the third of the Pathan interlopers, who succeeded in A.D. 1552, had to contend for the Empire with the returned Humayun.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/TheImperialGazetteerOfIndiaVolXXI/TXT/0000%20-%200103.txt |title=Full text of "The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Volume- XXI|access-date=2014-01-11}}</ref>}}

In these struggles for the restoration of Babur's dynasty, [[Khanzada]]s apparently do not figure at all. Humayun seems to have conciliated them by marrying the elder daughter of Jamal Khan, the nephew of Babur's opponent [[Hasan Khan Mewati]], and having his minister, Bairam Khan, marry Jamal's younger daughter.<ref name="Mayaram2003">{{cite book |last=Mayaram |first=Shail |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yi6QpFCZBy8C&pg=PA95 |title=Against History, Against State: Counterperspectives from the Margins |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-231-12730-1 |location=New York |page=95}}</ref> Bairam's other wife was [[Salima Sultan Begum]], who married Akbar after his death.<ref name="Haidar2004">{{cite book |last=Haidar |first=Mansura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zSZuAAAAMAAJ |title=Indo-Central Asian Relations: From Early Times to Medieval Period |publisher=Manohar |year=2004 |isbn=978-81-7304-508-0 |page=323}}</ref>

==In popular culture==

* ''[[Behram Khan]]'', a 1946 Indian Hindi-language film by [[Gajanan Jagirdar]] (who also starred in the titular role), is based on the life of Bairam Khan and his role in the founding of the Mughal Empire.<ref>{{Bollywood Hungama movie|id=behram-khan|title=Bairam Khan}}</ref>
* He was portrayed by actor [[Yuri Suri]] in the 2008 Indian [[Epic film|historical epic]] ''[[Jodhaa Akbar]]'' by [[Ashutosh Gowariker]].
* Other notable portrayals include by [[Naved Aslam]] in the television series ''[[Jodha Akbar (TV serial)|Jodha Akbar]]'' (2013–2015) which aired on [[Zee TV]]
* Also by [[Shahbaz Khan (actor)|Shahbaz Khan]] in [[Sony TV (India)|Sony TV]]'s ''[[Bharat Ka Veer Putra – Maharana Pratap]]'' (2013–2015).
* Bairam Khan in Akbar Rakht Se Takht Ka Safar in 2017 Indian drama television series tracing Akbar's journey to the Mughal throne.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
* {{cite encyclopedia | article = BAYRAM KHAN | last = Ansari | first = N.H. | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 1 | pages = 3–5 | year = 1989 | url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bayram-or-bayram-khan-mohammad-kan-e-kanan-an-illustrious-and-powerful-iranian-noble-at-the-court-of-the-mugh}}
* {{cite book|last1=Schimmel|first1=Annemarie|title=Islam in the Indian Subcontinent|date=1980|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004061170}}

==Further reading==

===English===
* Singh, Damodar (2003) ''Khan-i-Khanan Bairam Khan: a political biography'' Janaki Prakashan, Patna, India, {{OCLC|54054058}}
* Shashi, Shyam Singh (1999) ''Bairam Khan : soldier and administrator'' (Series ''Encyclopaedia Indica'' volume 58) Anmol Publishing, New Delhi, India, {{OCLC|247186335}}
* {{EI3|last=Streusand|first=Douglas E.|title=Bayrām Khān|year=2012|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/bayram-khan-COM_24001?s.num=6&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=Khan}}
* Pandey, Ram Kishore (1998) ''Life and achievements of Muhammad Bairam Khan Turkoman'' Prakash Book Depot, Bareilly, India, {{OCLC|5007653}}.
* Ray, Sukumar (1992) ''Bairam Khan'' Institute of Central and West Asian Studies, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan, {{OCLC|29564939}}.

===Hindi===
* Agravāla, Sushamā Devī (1994) ''Bairamakhām̐ aura usake vaṃśaja kā Mugala sāmrājya meṃ yogadāna'' Rāmānanda Vidyā Bhavana, New Delhi, India, {{OCLC|34118191}}, in Hindi. (Contribution of Bairam Khan, 1524?-1561, Mogul nobleman, to the Mogul Empire.)
* Devīprasāda, Munśī (2001) ''Khānakhānā nāmā'' Pratibhā Pratishṭhāna, New Delhi, India, {{ISBN|81-85827-89-3}}, in Hindi. (On the life and achievements of Bairam Khan, 1524?-1561, ruler in the Mogul Empire and Khane Khana Abdul Rahim Khan, 1556–1627, Braj poet.)

===Bengali===
* [[Humayun Ahmed|Ahmed, Humayun]] (2011) ''Badsha Namdar'', Dhaka, Bangladesh, {{ISBN|978-984-502-017-6}}

==External links==
* {{commonscatinline}}
* [https://archive.org/details/ThePersianAndTurkishDivansOfBayramKhan Ross, E. Denison, ed. (1910), ''The Persian and Turki Dîvâns of Bayrâm Khân, Khân Khânân'', Calcutta]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:1561 deaths]]
[[Category:Mughal generals]]
[[Category:Indian military personnel]]
[[Category:Ethnic Turkmen people]]

[[Category:16th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:16th-century regents]]
[[Category:16th-century Mughal Empire people]]

Muhammad of Ghor

2026-03-19T12:46:30Z

ReaganRiordan: Revised and enhanced article content

{{Short description|Ghurid sultan from 1173 to 1206}}
{{leadcite comment}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Muhammad of Ghor
| title = {{ubl|Champion of Islam|Sultan-i-Ghazi|al-Sultan al-Azam|Sikander al-Thani (Second [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]])}}
| image = Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad. AH 599-602 AD 1171-1206.jpg
| caption = Gold coin of Muhammad from [[Ghazni]], for circulation in [[Central Asia]] and what is present-day [[Afghanistan]]
| succession = [[Ghurid dynasty|Sultan of the Ghurid Empire]]
| reign = 1173 – 15 March 1206
| regent = [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]] (1163–1203)
| reg-type = Co-sultan
| coronation =
| predecessor = [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]]
| successor = {{Collapsible list|Ghor and Firuzkuh: [[Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud]]|Lahore and Delhi: [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]]|Ghazni: [[Taj ad-Din Yildiz]]|Bamiyan: [[Jalal al-Din Ali]]|Bayana: [[Bahauddin Tughril]]|Bengal: [[Bakhtiyar Khalji]]|Multan: [[Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha]]|Herat: [[Husain ibn Kharmil]]|Sindh: [[Soomra dynasty|Bhungar II bin Chanesar]]}}
| spouse =
| royal house = [[Ghurid dynasty]]
| module = {{Infobox military person
| embed = yes
| battles = {{Collapsible list
| [[List of battles involving the Ghurid dynasty|Ragh-i-Zar (1163)]] [[List of battles involving the Ghurid dynasty|Ghazni (1173)]] 
{{Tree list}}
*'''[[Ghurid campaigns in India]]'''
**[[Ghurid campaigns in India#Conquest of Multan and Uch|Multan (1175)]]
**[[Ghurid campaigns in India#Conquest of Multan and Uch|Uch (1175)]]
**[[Battle of Kasahrada|Kasahrada (1178)]]
**[[Ghurid campaigns in India#Campaigns against Ghaznavids|Peshawar (1180)]]
**[[Siege of Lahore (1186)#First raid|Lahore (1180)]]
**[[Ghurid campaigns in India|Debal (1182)]]
**[[Siege of Lahore (1186)#Second raid|Lahore (1185)]]
**[[Siege of Lahore (1186)]]
**[[First Battle of Tarain|First Tarain (1191)]]
**[[Second Battle of Tarain|Second Tarain (1192)]]
**[[List of battles involving the Ghurid dynasty|Merv (1192)]]
**[[Battle of Chandawar|Chandawar (1194)]]
**[[Siege of Gwalior (1196)|Gwalior (1196)]]
**Bayana (1196)
**[[Ghurid conquest of Khorasan|Khorasan (1200—1201)]]
**[[Muhammad of Ghor#Struggle in Central Asia|Gurganj (1203)]]
**[[Battle of Andkhud|Andkhud (1204)]]
**[[Battle of Jhelum (1206)|Jhelum (1206)]]
{{Tree list/end}}
}}
}}
| father = [[Baha al-Din Sam I]]
| mother =
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
| birth_date = 1144
| birth_place = [[Ghor]] (present-day Afghanistan)
| death_date = {{death date and age|1206|3|15|1144|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Dhamiak|Damyak]] (present-day Pakistan)
| burial_place = [[Ghazni]] (present-day Afghanistan)
}}
'''Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam''' ({{langx|fa|معز الدین محمد بن سام|translit=Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Sām}}; {{Circa|1144}}{{Snd}}15 March 1206), also known as '''Muhammad of Ghor''' or '''Muhammad Ghori''', was a ruler from the [[Ghurid dynasty]] based in the [[Ghor province|Ghor region]] of what is today central Afghanistan who ruled from 1173 to 1206. Muhammad and his elder brother [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]] ruled in a [[dyarchy]] until the latter's death in 1203. Ghiyath al-Din, the senior partner, governed the western Ghurid regions from his capital at [[Firozkoh]] whereas Muhammad extended Ghurid rule eastwards into South Asia, laying the foundation of [[Islamic rulers in India|Islamic rule]] in [[South Asia]], which lasted after him for nearly half a millennium under evolving Muslim dynasties.

During his early career as governor of the southern tract of [[Ghurid Empire]], Muhammad subjugated the [[Oghuz Turks]] after a series of forays and annexed [[Ghazni]] where he was installed by [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]] as an independent sovereign. Expanding the Ghurid dominion east of the [[Indus Delta]] from his base in Ghazni, Muhammad crossed the river [[Indus]] in 1175, approaching it through the [[Gomal Pass]] and captured [[Indian campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor#Conquest of Multan and Uch|Multan]] and [[Indian campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor#Uch|Uch]] from the [[Carmathians]] within a year. Afterwards, Muhammad took his army by the way of lower [[Sindh]], endeavouring to penetrate into present-day [[Gujarat]] through the [[Thar Desert]]. However, he was wounded and his forces were routed [[Battle of Kasahrada|near Mount Abu at Kasahrada]] by a coalition of Rajput chiefs led by the [[Chaulukya dynasty|Chaulukya]] king [[Mularaja II|Mularaja]]. This setback forced him to change his route for future inroads into the Indian Plains. Hence, Muhammad pressed his forces against the [[Ghaznavids]] and [[Siege of Lahore (1186)|uprooted them by 1186]], conquering the upper [[Indus Basin|Indus Plain]] along with most of the [[Punjab]]. After expelling the Ghaznavids from their last bastion, Muhammad secured the [[Khyber Pass]], the traditional route of entry for invading armies into [[northern India]].

Extending the Ghurid dominion further eastwards into the [[Gangetic Plain]], the Ghurid forces suffered a reverse and Muhammad was wounded in an engagement with the [[Rajput|Rajput Confederacy]] led by the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chahamana]] ruler [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] [[First Battle of Tarain|at Tarain]] in 1191. Muhammad returned to [[Khurasan]]. A year later he set off with a vast army of mounted archers into the [[Gangetic Plain]] and secured a decisive victory in the [[Second Battle of Tarain|return engagement on the same battleground]]. He executed Prithviraj shortly afterwards. He limited his presence in India thereafter, deputising the political and military operations in the region to a handful of elite slave commanders who [[Indian campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor|raided local Indian kingdoms]] and extended the Ghurid influence as far east as the [[Ganges Delta]] in [[Bengal]] and regions to the north in [[Bihar]].

After the death of Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad in 1203, Muhammad of Ghor ascended the throne of [[Firozkoh]] as well, becoming the supreme [[Sultan]] of the [[Ghurid Empire]]. Within a year or so, Muhammad suffered a devastating defeat [[Battle of Andkhud|at Andkhud]] against their Turkish rivals [[Khwarazmian Empire|Khwarazmians]] aided by timely reinforcements from the [[Qara Khitais]], which resulted in the loss of Ghurid power across most of the [[Khurasan]]. Muhammad quelled the widespread insurrection throughout his empire after the debacle and ordered the construction of a bridge over the [[Oxus River]] to launch a full-scale invasion of [[Transoxiana]] in order to avenge his defeat at Andkhud. However, a rebellion by the [[Hindu]] [[Khokhars]] forced him to move towards the [[Salt Range]], where he brutally [[Battle of Jhelum (1206)|crushed the Khokhar revolt]] during his last campaign.

On his way back, Muhammad of Ghor was assassinated, on the bank of [[Indus]] at [[Dhamiak|Damyak]] on 15 March 1206, by the [[Ismaili Muslim|Ismāīlī]] emissaries while offering evening prayers. Muhammad's assassination led to the rapid decline of the [[Ghurid]]s and enabled [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm|Shah Muhammad II]] to annex remaining Ghurid territories west of the [[Indus River]] by 1215. However, his conquests east of the Indus in the [[Indian subcontinent]], evolved into the formidable [[Delhi Sultanate]] under his slave commander [[Qutbuddin Aibak]].

==Early life==
===Birth===
Muhammad of Ghor was born in the [[Ghur]] region of present-day west-central Afghanistan to the Ghurid ruler [[Baha al-Din Sam I]] who ruled his ancestral realm briefly before he died in 1149, when Muhammad of Ghor was a child.{{sfn|Khan|2008|page=38-39}} His name is variously transliterated as Muizuddin Sam, Shihabuddin Ghuri, Muhammad Ghori and Muhammad of Ghor.{{sfn|Lal|1992|page=27}} According to the [[Tabaqat-i-Nasiri]], his birth name was "Muhammad" which is vernacularly spelt as "Hamad" by the Ghurids. During his childhood, his mother called him "Zangi" due to his [[Dark skin|dark skin tone]]. After his coronation in Ghazni, he styled himself as "Malik Shihabuddin" and after his occupation of Khurasan, he took the title of "Muizzuddin" or "Mu'izz al-Din".{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=155-156}}

Contemporaneous accounts do not provide any real insights as to Muhammad's exact birth date, although based on the writings of [[Minhaj-i-Siraj|Juzjani]], Muhammad was younger to Ghiyath al-Din by three years and few months, who was born in 1140. Therefore, Muhammad's birth year can be dated to 1144.{{sfn|Flood|2009|page=95}}

===Accession to the throne===
The early years of both Muhammad and his brother Ghiyath al-Din were spent in constant hardship. After his campaign in Ghazni, their uncle [[Ala al-Din Husayn]] initially installed them as governors of Sanjah.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=108}} However, their efficient administration of the province, made him doubtful of their loyalty and seeing a possible challenge to his own authority, he ordered his nephews to be imprisoned in the castle of [[Gharjistan]].{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=108}} They were released from captivity by his son [[Sayf al-Din Muhammad]] after the death of his father in 1161.{{sfn|Thomas|2018|page=59}}{{sfn|Nizami|1998|page=181}} Sayf al-Din died in 1163 in a battle against the nomadic [[Ghuzz Turks|Oghuzs of Balkh]].{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=138}}{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=109}}

‌After their release from the captivity, "[[Ferishta|Tarik-i-Firishtah]]" states that the Ghurid siblings were reinstated in Sanjah, although the earlier account of "[[Tabaqat-i-Nasiri]]" stated that the hardship continued due to their poor financial situation. Muhammad thus took shelter in the court of his uncle [[Fakhr al-Din Masud|Fakhruddin Masud]] who held the principality of [[Bamiyan]] as vassal of their uncle Alauddin Husayn.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=135}}

Later, [[Fakhr al-Din Masud]] announced his own claim for the succession after Sayf al-Din's death as the elder member of the Ghurid family. Muhammad helped his brother in suppressing the revolt of Fakhr al-Din Masud who garnered a sizeable army in alliance with the chiefs of [[Balkh]] and [[Herat]] who were both executed in the battle, although Fakhr al-Din Masud was reinstated in Bamiyan in 1163.{{sfn|Thomas|2018|page=47-48}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1968|page=163}} Afterwards, with the support of the remaining local Ghurid officers and "[[malik]]s", his brother succeeded Sayf al-Din to the throne in 1163 and initially placed Muhammad as a minor officer in his court, which result in him retiring (as he was unhappy with his position) to the court of [[Sistan]] where he spent a whole season. However, later Ghiyath al-Din sent an envoy to bring him back to Ghiyath al-Din who subsequently placed him in charge of the southern part of the Ghurid domains, which possibly included Istiyan and Kajuran.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=135-136}}{{sfn|Nizami|1998|page=182}}

During Muhammad's early campaigns as a prince, he was instructed to subdue the [[Ghuzz Turks|Oghuz]] tribes whose power and influence had begun to wane, although they were still controlling extensive territories.{{sfn|Habibullah|1957|page=21}} He used [[Kandahar]] as a base and raided the Oghuz territories multiple times, before he and Ghiyath al-Din defeated them decisively. They followed up their victory by conquering Ghazni in 1169 along with some other territories in what is present-day eastern Afghanistan.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=109}}{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=138}}{{sfn|Habibullah|1957|page=21-22}} Muhammad's coronation took place in Ghazni in 1173 and his brother returned to [[Firuzkuh]] to take on the westwards expansion into [[Transoxania]].{{sfn|Nizami|1998|page=182}} Muhammad used the city of Ghazni as a launch pad for a series of lucrative forays down to the [[Indus Delta]] and beyond. In 1174, Muhammad led an expedition against the [[Ghuzz]]s [[Sanjan (Khorasan)|of Sanquran]] in present-day Turkmenistan and subdued them.{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=143}}

In 1175, Muhammad marched from Ghazni and helped his brother with the annexation of the cities of [[Herat]] and [[Pushang]] after defeating a former general of the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1968|page=168-169}}{{sfn|Nizami|1998|page=182}} The Ghurid siblings advanced into the present-day Iran and brought [[Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)|Nasrid dynasty]] of [[Sistan]] under their sway. The Nasrid ruler [[Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)#Nasrid maliks|Taj al-Din III Harb ibn Muhammad ibn Nasr]] acknowledged Ghurid suzerainty and then sent his armies several times to assist the Ghurids in their wars.{{sfn|Bosworth|1968|page=163}} Afterwards, Ghiyath al-Din captured [[Balkh]] and territories adjoining [[Herat]] in Khurasan.{{sfn|Habibullah|1957|page=22}}

== Campaigns into India ==
{{Main|Indian campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor}}

===Initial campaigns===
{{South Asia in 1175|right|{{center|Main South Asian polities in 1175, on the eve of the [[Ghurid Empire]] invasion of the subcontinent (orange line: Ghurid territorial conquests under Muhammad of Ghor from 1175 to 1205).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=37, 147|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=074}}</ref>}}|{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=24.5|N |long=75|E |label=|position=|label_size=|mark=Ghurid invasions in India (map overlay).png|marksize=225}}{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=30.5|N |long=67.5|E |label=|position=|label_size=|mark=Chess drt45.svg|marksize=35}}}}

The Ghurid brothers ruled as a [[dyarchy]] with the senior partner, Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad, engaged in a protracted duel with the [[Khwarazmian Empire|Khwarazmians]] from his capital [[Firuzkuh]] situated in west-central [[Afghanistan]], while Muhammad expanded the Ghurid domains eastwards into the Indian plains from his capital at Ghazni.{{sfn|Flood|2009|page=89}} The expeditions into the Indian plains and the plunder extracted from the sacking of lucrative [[Hindu]] temples in the [[Gangetic Plain]], gave Muhammad access to a vast amount of treasure that was collected in Ghazni which, according to the chronicler [[Minhaj al-Siraj|Juzjani]] based on the authority of Muhammad's comptroller, included 60,000 kg (1500 [[Maund (unit)|mann]]) of jewels.{{sfn|Jackson|2000|page=210}}

During the course of his early invasions, Muhammad avoided [[Punjab]] and instead focused on lands bordering the middle and lower course of the [[Indus]]. Therefore, to outflank the Ghaznavids in Punjab and to open up an alternative route to [[Northern India]], Muhammad turned south towards [[Anhilwara]] in present-day [[Gujarat]].{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=142}} Before entering [[Anhilwara]], he laid siege to the fort of [[Nadol]] (around [[Marwar]]) and captured it from the [[Chahamanas of Naddula|Naddula Chahamana]] ruler [[Kelhanadeva]] after a short siege. He sacked the [[Shiva]] temple in [[Kiradu temples|Kiradu]]. After marching through the dry [[Thar Desert]] south of [[Marwar]], the Ghurid army were exhausted by the time they reached [[Mount Abu]] where they were routed [[Battle of Kasahrada|in the mountainous pass of Gadararaghatta]] by the [[Solanki (clan)|Solanki]] ruler [[Mularaja II]]. The Solanki ruler was aided by other Rajput chiefs, primarily [[Kelhanadeva]] (who had earlier been defeated by at [[Nadol]] by Muhammad), the [[Chahamanas of Jalor|Jalor Chahamana]] ruler [[Kirtipala]], and the [[Paramaras of Chandravati|Arbuda Paramara]] ruler Dharavarsha.{{sfn|Hooja|2006|p=262}} The Ghurid army suffered heavy casualties during the battle, and also in the retreat back across the desert to Ghazni.{{sfn|Wink|1991|p=143}} The defeat forced Muhammad to opt for the northern routes. He therefore concentrated on creating a suitable base in Punjab and northwest for further incursions into [[northern India]].{{sfn|Chandra|2007|page=68}}

===Conquest of Punjab===
{{Main|Siege of Lahore (1186)}}
Muhammad's [[Indian campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor|expeditions in the Indian subcontinent]] started against the [[Qarmatians]] ([[Sevener|sevener branch of Isma'ilis]]) who regained a foothold in [[Multan]], soon after the death of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] who installed a [[Sunni]] governor there.{{sfn|Khan|2008|page=116}} Muhammad defeated the Qarmatian ruler Khafif in 1175 and annexed Multan.{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=245}} The defeat turned to be a death blow for the Qarmatian power in Multan, with the Qarmatians never regaining their influence in the region.{{sfn|Hooja|2006|page=261}}

In 1179, Muhammad conquered [[Peshawar]] which at that time was possibly ruled by the Ghaznavids.{{sfn|Lal|1992|page=109}} The conquest of [[Uch]] in the southern Punjab followed soon after and according to [[Firishta]], Muhammed Ghuri had sent a private letter to the wife of the [[Bhati|Bhatti]] ruler for marriage in return for removing her husband, as he had foreseen the capture of the fort as being difficult. The wife replied stating she would give her daughter for marriage instead due to her age and proceeded to assassinate her husband, opening the gates of the [[Uch]] fort to the [[Ghorids]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=www.islamicebay.com |url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheRiseOfTheMahomedanPowerInIndiaVolume1/HistoryOfTheRiseOfTheMahomedanPowerInIndia-Volume-1/page/n155/mode/2up?view=theater |title=History Of The Rise Of The Mahomedan Power In India Volume 1, 2, 3 |year=1829 |page=95 |quote=...led an army towards Mooltan, and having subdued that province, martched to Oocha. The Raja was besieged in his fort; but Mahomed Ghoori, finding it would be difficult to reduce the place, sent a private message to the Raja's wife, promising to marry her if she would deliver up her husband.{{pb}}The base woman returned for answer, that she was rather too old herself to think of matrimony; but that she had a beautiful and young daughter, whom if he would promise to espouse, and leave her in free possession of her wealth, she would in a few days remove the Raja. Mahomed Ghoory accepted the proposal; and this Princess, in a few days, found means to assassinate her husband, and to open the gates to the enemy.}}{{source-attribution}}</ref> It was further noted that after this event [[Muhammed Ghuri]] had married the Bhatti princess however he had sent her mother to Ghazni to avoid entrusting her with the region in which she had soon after died of 'sorrow and disappointment', likewise the princess two years onwards had died from grief.<ref>{{Cite book |last=www.islamicebay.com |url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheRiseOfTheMahomedanPowerInIndiaVolume1/HistoryOfTheRiseOfTheMahomedanPowerInIndia-Volume-1/page/n155/mode/2up?view=theater |title=History Of The Rise Of The Mahomedan Power In India Volume 1, 2, 3 |year=1829 |page=95 |quote=Mahomed only partly performed his promise, by marrying the daughter, upon her embracing the true faith; but he made no scruple to depart from his engagements with the mother; for instead of trusting her with the country, he sent her to Ghazni, where she afterwards died of sorrow and disappointment. Nor did the daughter long survive, for in the space of two years she also fell a victim to grief.}}{{source-attribution}}</ref> Uch was placed under Malik Nasiurdin Aitam until his death in the Battle of Andkhud in 1204. Afterwards, it was placed under the control of Nasiruddin Qabacha.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|p=156}}

After the conquest of the Southern Punjab, [[Muhammed Ghuri]] began his final assaults on the remaining [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid]] strongholds, under the last ruler [[Khusrau Malik]] in 1181 CE. During this period the [[Khokhar]] tribe of [[Punjab]] were subject to the rulers of [[Jammu]], however Khusrau Malik had prompted them to halt paying tax in return for his support. An attempt to besiege the fort of [[Sialkot]] unsuccessfully followed soon after this alliance was formed in retaliation to a failed besiegement of [[Lahore]] by [[Muhammed Ghuri]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jūzjānī |first=Minhāj Sirāj |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_ixTEEz8ssC&dq=Bakan+and+Sarkah&pg=PA482 |title=Ṭabaḳāt-i Nāṣirī: A General History of the Muḥammadan Dynasties of Asia, Including Hindūstān, from A.H. 194 (810 A.D.) to A.H. 658 (1260 A.D.) and the Irruption of the Infidel Mughals Into Islām |date=1881 |publisher=Gilbert & Rivington |pages=453–454 |language=en}}</ref> In 1182, Muhammad followed a southerly arc to the port city of [[Debal]] on the [[Arabian]] Sea coast of [[Sindh]], subjugating the [[Soomra dynasty|Soomras]]. In Muhammed Ghuris second siege of Lahore [[Khusrau Malik]] was successfully taken prisoner and ended the [[Ghaznavids]] rule in 1186 CE. He imprisoned Khusrau Malik in the fort of [[Gharchistan]], breaching his own agreement of safe conduct in return for his surrender. Khusrau Malik was sent to [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]] in [[Firuzkuh]] where in c. 1192 he and all his kin were executed.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=158}}{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=112}}

After uprooting the Ghaznavids, Muhammad now established his sway over the strategic [[Indus Basin]] including most of the Punjab.{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=144}}{{sfn|Khan|2008|page=141-142}} He appointed Mulla Sirajuddin who had been a high-ranking [[Qadi|Qāḍi]] in his father court, as the head of judicature department in the newly conquered Ghaznavid territories along with being in charge of Multan. His son [[Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani|Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani]] (born 1193) later composed the [[Tabaqat-i-Nasiri]] in 1260 which is regarded as a monumental work from the medieval period about the [[Ghurid dynasty]] and the [[Delhi Sultanate]].{{sfn|Khan|2008|page=102}}{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=158}}

=== First Battle of Tarain ===
{{Main|First Battle of Tarain}}
In 1190, after consolidating in [[Sindh]] and western Punjab, the Ghurid generals began to raid the eastern Punjab region and captured the fortress of [[Bathinda]] in present-day [[Punjab, India|Punjab state]] on the northwestern frontier of [[Prithviraj Chauhan]]'s kingdom. After appointing a Qazi Zia-ud-Din of [[Tulak District|Tulak]] as governor of the fortress with 1200 horsemen, Muhammad received the news that Prithviraj's army, led by his vassal prince Govind Rai, were on their way to besiege the fortress. The two armies eventually met near the town of [[Tarain]], 24 km from [[Thanesar]] in present-day [[Haryana]]. The battle was marked by the initial attack of mounted Mamluk archers to which Prithviraj responded by counter-attacking from three sides and thus dominating the battle. Muhammad wounded Govind Rai in personal combat{{efn|Historian Kishori Saran Lal states Govind Rai was struck in the mouth, but does not mention any mortal wounds.{{sfn|Lal|1992|p=111}}}} and in the process was himself wounded, whereupon his army retreated{{sfn|Roy|2004|p=41}} and Prithvīrāj's army was deemed victorious.

According to Juzjani, the wounded Muhammad was carried away from the battleground by a Khalji horsemen.{{sfn|Ray|2019|page=42}} A quite different account from Za'inul Masir claimed that after being wounded in combat with Govindraja, Muhammad lost consciousness and his forces withdrew in disarray after assuming him to be dead. Later some of his soldiers arrived in the night and searched for his body at the battle site. Despite being badly wounded, Muhammad recognised his soldiers, who rejoiced after finding him alive and took him from the battlefield in a litter to Ghazni.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=113}} However, the version from Za'inul Masir is not corroborated by any other contemporary and later writers, which makes the authenticity of his version of events dubious and the version put forward by Juzjani more credible.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=158}}

The Ghurid garrison of Tabarhind under Ziauddin held out for thirteen months before capitulating. The Rajputs could not make quick progress during their siege due to absence of [[siege engines]], which enabled Muhammad to use this time to raise a formidable army.<ref>{{harvnb|Roy|2004|page=40–42}}: "Cavalry was not suited for laying siege to forts and Rajputs lacked both the siege machines and infantry to storm and destroy fortress walls. Tulaki was able to keep Prithviraj at bay for thirteen months. Within this time, Muhammad had raised 120,000 cavalry"</ref>

=== Second Battle of Tarain ===
{{Main|Second Battle of Tarain}}
[[File:The last stand of Rajputs against Muhammadans.jpg|thumb|290px|''The last stand of Rajputs'', depicting the [[Second Battle of Tarain]] in 1192]]

After the defeat in Tarain, Muhammad meted out severe punishments to the [[Ghurid]], [[Khalji]] and [[Afghan (ethnonym)|Afghan]] "emirs" who fled during the battle. Bags filled with grain were tied around their necks and they were then paraded through Ghazni. Those who refused were beheaded.{{sfn|Lal|1992|page=110}} The late medieval historian [[Ferishta]] further states that based on the testimony of folklore in Ghazni, Muhammad vowed not to visit his royal harem and not to heal his wounds sustained in the battle until he avenged the humiliation of his defeat.{{sfn|Lal|1992|page=110-111}} [[Husain ibn Kharmil|Husain Kharmil]], a prominent Iranian general of the Ghurids, was called from Ghazni with a large contingent along with other seasoned warlords such as Mukalba, Kharbak and Illah.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=162}} Muhammad made necessary arrangements to counter the elephant phalanx of the Rajput forces by having them attack mock elephants made of mud and wood.{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=145-146}} The near contemporary chroniclers Juzjani and [[Abdul Malik Isami|Isami]] stated that Muhammad brought 120,000-130,000 fully armoured men to the battle in 1192.{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=145}} Ferishta placed the strength of Rajput army in the decisive battle at 3,000 elephants, 300,000 cavalry and infantry (most likely a gross exaggeration).{{sfn|Chandra|2006|p=25}}

[[Prithviraj Chauhan]] had called his banners but hoped to buy time as his banners (other Rajputs under him or his allies) had not arrived.{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=109, 141}} Instead of engaging in direct confrontation as they did in the initial Battle of Tarain, the Ghurids adopted a strategy of deceit and diplomacy to overcome the [[Rajput]]s, as documented in Taj-ul Ma'asir by [[Hasan Nizami]]. Upon Muhammad's arrival on the battlefield, Prithviraj, the Rajput leader, purportedly sent a formal message suggesting a peaceful resolution, stating, "It would be wise for you to return to your homeland, and we have no intention of pursuing you." In response, Muhammad replied that he had come to face challenges on the directive of his ruling sibling and proposed the dispatch of an envoy to negotiate peace.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Singh|first=R. B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NeX0xX0_2rkC|title=History of the Chāhamānas|publisher=N. Kishore|year=1964|location=Varanasi|pages=199–202, 461|language=en}}</ref>

According to accounts from Hasan Nizami, Muhammad Ufi, and Firishta, it became evident that Muhammad was being deceptive, but Prithviraj, considering it a genuine truce, accepted the proposal. Early the following day, the Ghurids attacked the Rajput army. The assault occurred before sunrise, catching the Chahamana army off guard as they had spent the night not expecting an attack.{{sfn|Singh|1964|page=199-202}} Although they were able to quickly move into their formations, they suffered losses due to surprise attack. Juzjani attributed the success of the Ghurid army to the 10,000 elite mounted archers who Muhammad stationed at a small distance from the elephant phalanx of the Rajput forces and which ultimately scattered the "infidel host".{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=109, 141}} Prithviraj was captured during the battle on the bank of river Saraswati (present-day [[Sirsa]]) and summarily executed.{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=145}} After the victory, Muhammad took over much of the Chahamana kingdom and sacked their capital [[Ajmer]] during which several Hindu temples were desecrated by the Ghurids in Ajmer.<ref>{{harvnb|Eaton|2000|page=108}}: "From Ajmer in Rajasthan, the former capital of the defeated Cahamana Rajputs – also, significantly, the wellspring of Chishti piety the post-1192 pattern of temple desecration moved swiftly down the Gangetic Plain"</ref>

Muhammad captured and placed strong garrisons at the strategic military stations of [[Sirsa]], [[Hansi]], [[Samana, Punjab|Samana]] and [[Ghuram|Kohram]].{{sfn|Sharma|1959|page=87}} Muhammad later installed Prithviraja's minor son [[Govindaraja IV]] as his [[puppet ruler]] with the condition that he received heavy tribute.{{sfn|Sharma|1959|page=100}} However, after a revolt by his uncle [[Hariraja]], Govindraja was forced to move towards [[Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura|Ranthambore, where he established a new dynasty of the Chahamanas]]. Hariraja, briefly dislodged the Ghurid garrison from [[Ajmer]], but was later defeated by Qutb ud-Din Aibak. Subsequently, Hariraja immolated himself on a funeral pyre and the Ghurids reoccupied Ajmer and placed it under a Muslim governor.{{sfn|Chandra|2006|page=26-27}} [[Delhi]] was also captured by Muhammad and Qutb al-Din Aibak in 1193,{{sfn|Kumar|2002|page=9}} although in continuation with the policy adopted earlier in [[Ajmer]], a puppet Rajput scion was installed in Delhi in return for tribute (possibly the son of Govindraja who died in [[Second Battle of Tarain|Tarain]]). However, he was soon deposed on the account of treason.{{sfn|Chandra|2006|page=27}}{{sfn|Thomas|2018|page=63}}

Muhammad continued to carry out raids across the [[North India|north Indian plain]]. However, he later became preoccupied with the Ghurid expansion in [[Transoxiana]] against the [[Khwarezmian Empire]] as his brother Ghiyath al-Din began to have health problems. According to [[Fakhr-i Mudabbir]] and [[Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani]], Muhammad appointed Aibak as his administrator of the Ghurid domains in [[North India]] after the [[Second Battle of Tarain]].{{sfn|Kumar|2002|page=20}}{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=117}}{{sfn|Khan|2008|page=17,105}} His lieutenants, Qutb ud-Din Aibak, [[Bahauddin Tughril]], [[Bakhtiyar Khalji]] and [[Taj al-Din Yildiz|Yildiz]], raided the local kingdoms and expanded his empire in the [[Indian subcontinent]] up to [[Bengal|north-western parts of Bengal]] in east, Ajmer and [[Ranthambore Fort|Ranthambore]] ([[Rajasthan]]) in the north and the borders of [[Ujjain]] in the south.{{sfn|Chandra|2006|page=36}}

=== Further campaigns ===
[[File:Bengal. Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji. 1204-1206.Struck in the name of Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad bin Sam, Dated Samvat 1262 (1204 AD).jpg|thumb|300px|[[Bengal]] coinage of [[Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji]] (1204–1206). Struck in the name of Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad, dated [[Samvat]] 1262 (1204). ''Obverse'': Horseman with [[Nagari script|Nagari]] legend around: ''[[samvat]] 1262 [[Bhadra (Hindu calendar)|bhadrapada]]'' "August, year 1262". ''Reverse'': Nagari legend: ''srīma ha/ mīra mahama /da sāmaḥ'' "Lord Emir Mohammed [ibn] Sam".]]
After Aibak consolidated the Ghurid rule in and around the [[Delhi|Delhi doab]], Muhammad returned to India to further expand Ghurid rule down the [[Ganges Valley]]. Accordingly, in 1194, he crossed the [[Yamuna|Jamuna River]] with an army of 50,000 horsemen where he confronted the forces of the [[Rajput]] [[Gahadavala dynasty|Gahadavala]] king [[Jayachandra]] in the [[Battle of Chandawar]]. The Ghurid army was victorious, Jayachandra was killed in the battle, and much of his army was slaughtered. Following the battle, the Ghurids took the fort at Asni, where they plundered the royal treasure of the Gahadavalas, and went on to take the pilgrimage city of [[Varanasi]], which was looted and a large number of its temples destroyed.{{sfn|Chandra|2007|page=71}} The Gahadavala capital [[Kanauj]] was annexed in 1198.{{sfn|Chandra|2006|page=27}}{{sfn|Saran|2001|page=119}}<ref name="Asher11">{{cite book |last1=Asher |first1=Frederick M. |title=Sarnath: A Critical History of the Place Where Buddhism Began |date=25 February 2020 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-1-60606-616-4 |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |language=en|quote=And then, in 1193, Qutb-ud-din Aibek, the military commander of Muhammad of Ghor's army, marched towards Varanasi, where he is said to have destroyed idols in a thousand temples. Sarnath very likely was among the casualties of this invasion, one all too often seen as a Muslim invasion whose primary purpose was iconoclasm. It was of course, like any premodern military invasion, intended to acquire land and wealth}}</ref> During this campaign, the Buddhist city of [[Sarnath]] was also sacked.<ref name="Asher11"/><ref name="Asher74">{{cite book |last1=Asher |first1=Frederick M. |title=Sarnath: A Critical History of the Place Where Buddhism Began |date=25 February 2020 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-1-60606-616-4 |page=74 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 |language=en}}</ref>

===Conquest of Bayana===
{{Main|Siege of Gwalior (1196)}}
Muhammad returned to the Indian frontier again around 1196 to consolidate his hold in what is present-day [[Rajasthan]]. The territory of Bayana at the time was under the control of a sect of [[Jadaun Rajputs]]. Muhammad, along with [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]], advanced and besieged Thankar whose ruler Kumarpal was defeated. Muhammad placed the fort under his senior slave [[Bahauddin Tughril]], who later established Sultankot and used it as his stronghold.<ref>{{harvnb|Ray|2019|page=44}}:"Shihabuddin again came to India in 1195-1196. This time he attacked Biyana, Kumarpal king of Bayana was a Rajput of the Yaddo Bhatti sect. Once the attack of Shihabuddin started, the king went to Thankar and camped there. After some time, he was forced to submit. Bahauddin Turghil was given the charge of Thankar"</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hooja|2006|page=276}}:"Nizami's Taj-ul-Maasir informs us that in the year 592 of the Hijri calendar (i.e. AD 1196), Muhammad bin-Sam Ghori, and his lieutenant Qutb-ud-din Aibak marched towards Thangar [Tahangarh]. Thereafter, noted Nizami, that centre of idolatry became the abode of [God's] glory, following the taking of the hitherto impregnable fortress and the defeat of the local ruler, Kunwarpal (Kumarapal), whose life was spared. The administration of the fort and area around it was then conferred on Baha-ud-din Tughril by the Sultan. In a like manner, the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri records that Sultan Ghazi Muizzuddin conquered the fortress of Thankar [Tahangarh] in the country of Bayana, and after dealing with the Rai [i.e. Raja], gave the governance of it into the hands of Baha-ud-din Tughril. The latter improved the condition of the land so much that merchants and men of credit came to it from many parts of Hindustan and Khorasan. To encourage them to settle, they were given houses and goods in the area. Baha-ud-din Tughril later established Sultankot (near Bayana), and made that his military-base and reside"</ref> After the conquest of Thankar, Bahaurddin Turghil reduced the fort of [[Gwalior]], whose [[Parihar (clan)|Parihar]] chief Sallakhanapala surrendered after a long siege and accepted the Ghurid suzerainty.<ref>{{harvnb|Nizami|1970|page=171}}: "In 592/1195-96 Muizzuddin again carme to India. He attacked Bayana, which was under Kumarapala, a Jadon Bhatti Rajput. The ruler avoided a confrontation at Bayana, his capital, but
went to Thankar and entrenched himself there. He vas, howvever, compelled to surrender. Thankar and Vijayamandirgarh were occupied and put under Bahauddin Tughril. Mu'izzuddin - next marched towards Gwalior. Sallakhanapala of the Parihara dynasty, however, acknowledged the suzerainty of Muizzuddin"</ref> After the assassination of Muhammad, Tughril styled himself as the [[Sultan]] in [[Bayana]].{{sfn|Khan|2008|page=33}}

In 1197, Qutb ud-Din Aibak invaded [[Gujarat]] and [[Battle of Kasahrada (1197)|defeated]] [[Bhima II]] in [[Sirohi]] after a sudden attack and afterwards sacked his capital [[Anhilwara]]. Thus, Aibak avenged the rout of Muhammad at the same place in [[Battle of Kasahrada|1178]].{{sfn|Saran|2001|page=121}}

==Struggle in Central Asia==
Muhammad continued to aid his brother with his expansion west against the [[Khwarezmian Empire|Khwarezmian]]s in between his eastwards expansion. Meanwhile, in Khurasan, [[Sultan Shah of Khwarezm|Sultan Shah]] was defeated by his brother [[Ala al-Din Tekish]] in alliance with the [[Qara Khitai]] troops and the latter succeeded to the throne of Khwarezm in December 1172. Sultan Shah fled to the Ghurid brothers and asked for their assistance in order to expel his brother Tekish. While they received him well, they refused to give him military aid against Tekish, with whom the Ghurids were on good terms.{{sfn|Habib|1992|page=41-42}} Sultan Shah, carved out his independent principality in Khurasan and began plundering the regions of [[Ghor]] along with his governor Bahauddin Turghil. Thus, Ghiyath al-Din asked for aid from Muhammad, who was occupied with his [[Indian campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor|Indian expeditions]] at the time, and marched with his army from Ghazni. The Ghurid feudatories, Shamsuddin Muhammad of [[Bamiyan]] and Tajuddin of Herat, joined them with their respective contingents against the [[Khwarezmian Empire|Khwarezmians]].{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=117-118}}

The Ghurid forces decisively defeated [[Sultan Shah of Khwarezm|Sultan Shah]] on the banks of [[Marghab River|river Murgabh]] after months of campaigning and executed their governor of Herat Bahauddin Turghil while Sultan Shah fled to [[Merv]].{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=118}} The Ghurids followed their victory by recapturing Herat.{{sfn|Habibullah|1957|page=23}} Sultan Shah died in 1191 possibly due to a drug overdose.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=118}} According to historian [[Abu Mohammed Habibullah|A.B.M. Habibullah]], the Ghurids could not annex any territory in Khurasan outside Herat which remained under the sway of [[Ala al-Din Tekish|Tekesh]].{{sfn|Habibullah|1957|page=23}} By 1193 Tekesh captured much of Iran along with the [[Caspian Sea|Trans-Caspian belt]].{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=119}} Conversely, [[C. E. Bosworth]] stated that the Ghurids annexed part of Khurasan after their victory in [[Merv]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1968|page=163}}

=== Khurasan ===
{{Main|Battle of Andkhud}}
Tekish died in 1200, which led to a brief struggle for the succession between [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm|Alauddin Shah of Khwarezm]] and his nephew Hindu Khan. The Ghurid siblings seized the opportunity and amidst the turmoil in the Khwarezmian house for succession, Muhammad and Ghiyath al-Din invaded and captured the oasis cities of [[Nishapur]], [[Merv]] and [[Tus, Iran|Tus]] and reached as far as [[Gorgan]]. The Ghurids, thus, for a short span established their sway over most of the Khurasan for first time.{{sfn|Habibullah|1957|page=24}}{{sfn|Nizami|1998|page=185}} However, their success turned to be only short-term as Alauddin succeeded the throne in August 1200{{sfn|Habib|1992|page=43}} and by 1201 recaptured his lost territories.{{sfn|Habibullah|1957|page=25}} Despite his success against the Ghurids, Alauddin sent an envoy to negotiate a peace with Muhammad, probably so that he could focus on overcoming the [[Qara Khitai]]s. However, the attempt turned to be futile and Muhammad marched again with his forces on [[Nishapur]] which forced Alauddin to shut himself inside the city walls. Muhammad recaptured [[Tus, Iran|Tus]] along with Herat and sacked the surrounding country-side.{{sfn|Habib|1992|page=43-44}}

=== Sole rule ===
Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad died in Herat on 13 March 1203,<ref>{{harvnb|Habib|1992|page=44}}:"At this juncture Sultan Ghiyasuddin Ghuri died at Herat on 27 Jamadi I.A. H 599 (13 March A.D 1203)"</ref> after months of illness. After the death of the senior partner in the dyarchy, Muhammad assumed the title of "Al-Sultan Al-Azam" which meant the "Greatest Sultan".{{sfn|Flood|2009|page=94}} On one of the colonnades in the [[Qutb Minar]], along with some of his golden coins circulated in India, Muhammad is eulogised as the "Sikander Al-Thani" (the Second Alexander).{{sfn|Flood|2009|pages=106, 289}} Muhammad's courtiers treated him as the champion of [[Islam]], styling him as the "Sultan-i-Ghazi" (sultan of the holy warriors) and portraying his Indian expeditions as the engagement between the army of Islam (''Lashkar-i Islam'') and the army of infidels (''Lashkar-i Kuffar'').{{sfn|Flood|2009|page=106-107}}

Ghiyath al-Din's death briefly diverted Muhammad's attention from the existing state of affairs. Thus, taking advantage of his absence from Herat where he had appointed his nephew Alp Ghazi to be in charge, [[Khwarezmian Empire|Khwarezmian forces]] captured [[Merv]] and beheaded the Ghurid governor Karang.{{sfn|Habib|1992|page=45}} Muhammad of Ghor, possibly seeking to take over the entire [[Khwarezmian Empire]], laid siege to their capital [[Gurganj]], instead of Herat which was besieged by the [[Khwarezmian Empire|Khwarezmians]] after Ghiyath al-Din's death. Alauddin retreated following the Ghurid advance and desperately requested aid from the Qara Khitais, who sent a sizeable army to aid the Khwarezmians. Muhammad, because of the pressure from the Qara Khitai forces was forced to lift the siege and retreat. However, he was followed on his way back to [[Firuzkuh]] and was decisively defeated in the Battle of Andkhud in 1204 by the combined forces of the Qara Khitai and [[Kara-Khanid Khanate]] under Taniku and [[Uthman ibn Ibrahim]].{{sfn|Ray|2019|p=53-54}} He was allowed to return to his capital, after paying a heavy ransom to the [[Qara Khitai]] general Taniku (Tayangu) which included several elephants and much gold.{{sfn|Biran|2005|page=68}} According to [[Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani|Juzjani]], the negotiations between Muhammad and Taniku were arranged by [[Uthman ibn Ibrahim]] of [[Samarkand]] who did not want the "Sultan of Islam" to be captured by "the infidels".{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=132-133}} Following the defeat, the Ghurids lost the control over most of the Khurasan except Herat and [[Balkh]].{{sfn|Nizami|1998|page=184}} Thus, Muhammad of necessity agreed a peace with the [[Khwarezmian Empire|Khwarezmians]].{{sfn|Habib|1992|page=46}}

==Assassination==
{{Main|Battle of Jhelum (1206)}}
[[File:The murder of Muhammad Ghori, A.D. 1206.jpg|thumb|Artistic description of Muhammad's assassination while offering evening prayers.<ref>{{cite book |title=Hutchinson's story of the nations, containing the Egyptians, the Chinese, India, the Babylonian nation, the Hittites, the Assyrians, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians, the Phrygians, the Lydians, and other nations of Asia Minor |publisher=London, Hutchinson |page=166 |url=https://archive.org/details/hutchinsonsstory00londuoft/page/166/mode/1up}}</ref>]]

The '''Assassination of Muhammad of Ghor''' occurred at Dhamiak, Punjab on 15 March 1206. Of the numerous sources recounting the event multiple perpetrators for the killing have been named, including the Punjabi [[Khokhar]] tribe and the [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]] [[Shia Islam|Shias]], the cause of which has been stated to have been conflict arising after the [[Ghurid campaigns in India]]. Multiple [[Muslims|Muslim]] historians reference the killing such as [[Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani]], [[Firishta]] and [[Ibn al-Athir]], the aftermath of this event led to the disintegration of the [[Ghurid dynasty]].

=== Preceding ===
Muhammed Ghuri was defeated in [[Andkhud]] by the [[Khwarazmian Empire|Khwarazmian Turks]], 1204 CE, which dealt a huge blow to his military reputation. The word of this defeat spread throughout his empire, in which the Khokhars and other tribes of the Punjab between the [[Koh-i-Jud]] and Lahore hills had soon after began to revolt, led by Rae Sal, Bakan and Sarkha whom had completely shut the route between Ghazni and Lahore so that 'not a single soul could pass'. [[Ibn al-Athir]] further supports this and states that most of the Indians had followed them and 'cast off obedience' to the Ghorid emir of Lahore also plundering [[Lahore]].{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=178}} .<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/al-kamil-fil-tarikh-of-ibn-al-athir/Al-K%C4%81mil%20f%C4%AB%20al-t%C4%81r%C4%ABkh%20by%20Ibn%20Athir/The%20Chronicle%20of%20Ibn%20al-Ath%C4%ABr%20for%20the%20Crusading%20Period%20from%20al-K%C4%81mil%20f%C4%ABl-tar%C4%ABkh.%20Part%203/page/89/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Al-Kāmil fī al-tārīkh by Ibn Athir |page=90 |language=English}}</ref> It is also recounted that this rebellion had led to [[Lahore]]'s capture and the [[Ghorid]] governor of [[Multan]]'s defeat.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jūzjānī |first=Minhāj Sirāj |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_ixTEEz8ssC&dq=Bakan+and+Sarkah&pg=PA482 |title=Ṭabaḳāt-i Nāṣirī: A General History of the Muḥammadan Dynasties of Asia, Including Hindūstān, from A.H. 194 (810 A.D.) to A.H. 658 (1260 A.D.) and the Irruption of the Infidel Mughals Into Islām |date=1881 |publisher=Gilbert & Rivington |pages=481–482 |language=en}}</ref>

Muhammad successfully restored stability to his empire after suppressing the mutineers in other provinces . He then turned his attention towards [[Central Asia]] to avenge the rout at Andhkhud and to reclaim his holdings in Khurasan. Accordingly, by July 1205, Muhammad's governor of Balkh besieged [[Tirmidh]] in present-day [[Uzbekistan]] and captured the city following a short siege, destroying the Qara Khitai garrison stationed there and placed control of the city under his son.{{sfn|Biran|2005|page=69}}

Ghori then entered battle with the rebels near [[Jhelum]]. [[Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani]] notes that the fighting ensued for a full day and that the [[Ghorid]]s were almost forced to retreat until [[Iltutmish]] arrived with a reserve contingent, leading to their victory and the general massacre of the Khokhars.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jūzjānī |first=Minhāj Sirāj |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_ixTEEz8ssC&dq=Bakan+and+Sarkah&pg=PA482 |title=Ṭabaḳāt-i Nāṣirī: A General History of the Muḥammadan Dynasties of Asia, Including Hindūstān, from A.H. 194 (810 A.D.) to A.H. 658 (1260 A.D.) and the Irruption of the Infidel Mughals Into Islām |date=1881 |publisher=Gilbert & Rivington |page=483 |language=en}}</ref> [[Iltutmish]] was rewarded for his gallantry against the Khokhars with a presentation of special [[robe of honour]] from Muhammad. According to Juzjani, Muhammad also [[manumitted]] Iltutmish, despite the fact that his master Aibak, who had purchased him originally, was still a slave.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=212-213}}

=== Assassination ===
Numerous sources recount the assassination of Muhammed Ghuri in Dhamiak, [[Punjab]] with the [[Tarikh-i Alfi]], commissioned by the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal emperor]] [[Akbar]], noting it was a deed done by the Khokhars who had lost relatives in Ghoris quelling of their rebellion, this has also been stated by [[Firishta]]. Alfi recounts that one among the group of assassins had wounded a door keeper in which his cries began to draw attention, seizing this opportunity the rest of the group rushed to the sultan dealing many severe wounds to him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jūzjānī |first=Minhāj Sirāj |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_ixTEEz8ssC&dq=Bakan+and+Sarkah&pg=PA482 |title=Ṭabaḳāt-i Nāṣirī: A General History of the Muḥammadan Dynasties of Asia, Including Hindūstān, from A.H. 194 (810 A.D.) to A.H. 658 (1260 A.D.) and the Irruption of the Infidel Mughals Into Islām |date=1881 |publisher=Gilbert & Rivington |page=486 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Ibn al-Athir]] notes that the assassination was conducted by the Khokhars however two from among the group were Muslim men indicating a joint [[Khokhar]]-[[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]] attack. He describes the assassination in great detail and narrates that 'a body of infidel Khokhars dogged his army determined to slay him because of the killing and taking of prisoners and captives he had inflicted on them' and that they dealt twenty four wounds to the sultan.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/al-kamil-fil-tarikh-of-ibn-al-athir/Al-K%C4%81mil%20f%C4%AB%20al-t%C4%81r%C4%ABkh%20by%20Ibn%20Athir/The%20Chronicle%20of%20Ibn%20al-Ath%C4%ABr%20for%20the%20Crusading%20Period%20from%20al-K%C4%81mil%20f%C4%ABl-tar%C4%ABkh.%20Part%203/page/91/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Al-Kāmil fī al-tārīkh by Ibn Athir |pages=92–93 |language=English}}</ref> Furthermore, he had written that it occurred after he was returning from [[Lahore]] at the time of evening prayer, where he was encamped at Dhamiak. [[Ibn al-Athir]] expands on the [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]] involvement in the killings describing that their involvement was from their fear of him invading Khurasan in which [[Muhammad Ghori]] had an army already besieging one of their fortresses.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/al-kamil-fil-tarikh-of-ibn-al-athir/Al-K%C4%81mil%20f%C4%AB%20al-t%C4%81r%C4%ABkh%20by%20Ibn%20Athir/The%20Chronicle%20of%20Ibn%20al-Ath%C4%ABr%20for%20the%20Crusading%20Period%20from%20al-K%C4%81mil%20f%C4%ABl-tar%C4%ABkh.%20Part%203/page/93/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Al-Kāmil fī al-tārīkh by Ibn Athir |page=93 |language=English |quote=It is claimed that it was the Isma'ilis who killed him because they feared his expedition into Khurasan. He had an army that was besieging one of their fortresses, as we have related.}}</ref>

[[Jami' al-tawarikh]] also states that the perpetrators were Khokhars but then further expands on those involved, that it was brought about by Imam Fakhruddin whom used to accompany Muhammed Ghuri.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KygwAAAAYAAJ&dq=Jami+al+tawarikh+khokhar&pg=PA294 |title=Bibliotheca Indica |date=1881 |publisher=Asiatic Society. |page=485 |language=en}}</ref> [[Ibn al-Athir]] mentions this also, however he recounts that the accusations came from 'troublemakers of Ghazni' who accused the imam of sending the assassins instigated by the [[Khwarazmian Empire|Khwarazmian]] Shah in which Fakhruddin was then held in safety by the Ghorid vizier.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/al-kamil-fil-tarikh-of-ibn-al-athir/Al-K%C4%81mil%20f%C4%AB%20al-t%C4%81r%C4%ABkh%20by%20Ibn%20Athir/The%20Chronicle%20of%20Ibn%20al-Ath%C4%ABr%20for%20the%20Crusading%20Period%20from%20al-K%C4%81mil%20f%C4%ABl-tar%C4%ABkh.%20Part%203/page/93/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Al-Kāmil fī al-tārīkh by Ibn Athir |page=93 |language=English |quote=Some troublemakers, people of Ghazna, came and said to the mamlukes, 'Fakhr al-Din al-Razi killed your master, because he 1s the one who sent the assassins, instigated by Khwarazm Shah. They rose up against him, meaning to kill him, but he fled and sought Muayyad al-Mulk, the vizier. After he had told him of his situation, the vizier sent him secretly to a safe place.}}</ref>

== Succession ==
Muhammad's only offspring was his daughter who died while he was alive.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=145}} His assassination in Damyak led to a period of struggle among his slaves and other senior Ghurid elites over the succession. The Ghurid aristocrats of Ghazni and [[Firuzkuh|Fīrūzkūh]] supported the succession of [[Baha al-Din Sam II]] from the Bamiyan branch, although his Turkic slaves supported [[Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud]] who was his nephew and son of his brother Ghiyath al-Din.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=200}} However, Baha al-Din died on his march to Ghazni on 24 February 1206 due to illness.{{sfn|Thomas|2018|page=64}}{{sfn|Nizami|1998|page=184}}

Thus, Muhammad was succeeded by [[Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud]] in 1206, although most of his conquests in the [[Ganges|Ganga Valley]] were under the control of Muhammad's lieutenants, [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]], [[Taj al-Din Yildiz]], [[Bahauddin Tughril]], [[Nasir ad-Din Qabacha]] and [[Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji]] who barely consulted Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud about their affairs. Notwithstanding, they still paid him tribute.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=145-146}} During his reign, Mahmud officially granted "[[manumission]]" to Aibak and Yildiz.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=201}}{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=188}} Thus, freed from the slavery and with investment of a "chatr" from Mahmud, Yildiz established himself as the king of Ghazni in 1206{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=188}} while Aibak established himself in Lahore (and declared independence in 1208) establishing the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. Historian Iqtidar Alam Khan doubted that Aibak styled himself as the "Sultan" as it is not attested by numismatic evidence.{{sfn|Khan|2008|page=17}} Soon, Mahmud was forced to accept the suzerainty of [[Muhammad II of Khwarazm|Alauddin Shah of Khawarazm]] (as attested by the numismatic evidence in which he minted his name along with placing Alauddin's name in the "''khuṭbah''" until his assassination in 1212).<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=The Seljuk and the Khwarazm Shah|author=[[C. E. Bosworth]]|editor1=M. S. Asimov|editor2=C. E. Bossworth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lHDBzgEACAAJ |title=History of civilizations of central Asia: Volume IV The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century : (part one) The historical, social and economic setting |date=1998 |publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-103467-1|page=171|language=en}}</ref>

Afterwards, the [[Khwarazmian Empire|Khwarazmians]] established their puppet government in the Ghurid lands, although Yildiz drove them back in 1213{{sfn|Thomas|2018|page=65}} before Alauddin eradicated the Ghurids and annexed Fīrūzkūh from [[Zia al-Din Ali]] in 1215,<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Periphery as Centre: The Ghurids between the Persianate and Indic Worlds|author=Alka Patel|editor1-first = David |editor1-last = Morgan |editor2-first = Sarah |editor2-last = Stewart |title = The Coming of the Mongols |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gbqKDwAAQBAJ |year =2017 |publisher = Bloomsbury Publishing |page=22|isbn = 978-1788312851 }}</ref> who either died as his captive (burned in [[Iran]]) or retired to Delhi in exile.{{sfn|Thomas|2018|page=64}} Alauddin also defeated and executed the last Ghurid ruler [[Jalal al-Din Ali]] from the Bamiyan line in the same year. Thus, the [[Ghurid|Šansabānī house]] ceased to exist by 1215.{{sfn|Habib|1992|page=47}}{{sfn|Nizami|1998|page=184}} Yildiz was toppled from Ghazni around the same time. He then fled to Delhi and laid his own claim for succession to the Ghurid conquests of Muhammad of Ghor. However, he was defeated and executed in 1216 by [[Iltutmish]] in [[Tarain]].{{sfn|Khan|2008|page=77}}

===Relations with slaves===
According to Juzjani's [[Tabaqat-i-Nasiri]] (c.1260), Muhammad purchased several [[Slavery|slaves]] during his lifetime who, according to Juzjani, became renowned for their calibre in the "east". Muhammad purchased a young [[Nasir ad-Din Qabacha|Qabacha]] who was sold into slavery and was later bestowed with the domains of [[Kerman]] and [[Sanjan (Khorasan)|Sanjar]] for his [[Iqṭāʿ]] by the Ghurid Sultan. He raised his slaves with affection and treated them as his sons and successors, after his despondency with his own Ghurid household in his later days.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=198-199}} Another contemporary account by [[Fakhr-i Mudabbir]], who wrote under the patronage of [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]], also emphasized the importance of each of the Turkish slaves ("bandagan") to Muhammad. He complemented Aibak for keeping the trust of his master.{{sfn|Kumar|2006|page=83-84}} Muhammad's slaves played a key role in the expansion and consolidation of the [[Indian campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor#Further campaigns|Ghurid conquests in the Ganga-Jamuna doab]] when Muhammad was engaged in the affairs of [[Khurasan]] and they created their own authority in [[North India]] while still regarding Muhammad as their supreme master.{{sfn|Kumar|2006|page=86}}

Muhammad later organized matrimonial alliances among the families of his slaves in accordance with the practice of [[endogamy]]. Notable among these alliances, were the marriages of the daughters of [[Taj al-Din Yildiz]] to Qutb ud-Din Aibak and [[Nasir ad-Din Qabacha]]. Two daughters of Aibak were married to Qabacha.{{sfn|Kumar|2006|page=90-91}} This policy was continued by Aibak who married his daughter to his slave [[Illtutmish]].{{sfn|Kumar|2006|page=92}}

In popular traditions, when a courtier lamented that the Sultan (Muhammad) had no male heirs, he retorted:
{{Blockquote|"Other monarchs may have one son or two sons; I have thousands of sons, my Turkish slaves who will be the heirs of my dominions, and who, after me, will take care to preserve my name in the Khuṭbah (Friday sermon) throughout these territories"|author=Muhammad of Ghor on his succession<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Peter |title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-54329-3 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA31}}</ref>}}

== Legacy ==
[[File:Ghurid_Empire_according_to_Schwartzberg_Atlas,_p.147.png|thumb|The largest extent of the Ghurid empire in 1200 during the reign of Muhammad Ghori and Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]]

During the [[dyarchy]] of Muhammad and his elder brother [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]], the Ghurids emerged as one of the major powers in the eastern [[Islamic]] world.{{sfn|Jackson|2000|page=207}} During their rule, the Ghurids reached the greatest extent of their territorial expansion, when they briefly ruled over a territory which spanned over 3000 km from east to west. During these years, their empire stretched from [[Gorgan]] in eastern present-day Iran to [[Lakhnauti]] in present-day [[Bangladesh]] and from the foothills of the Himalayas south to [[Sindh]] (Pakistan).<ref>{{Cite book|author=David Thomas|chapter=Ghurid Sultanate|editor=John Mackenzie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W5SIjgEACAAJ|title=The Encyclopedia of Empire, 4 Volume Set |date=2016|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-118-44064-3|quote=At its peak, the Ghurid empire, or perhaps more accurately the region across which its armies campaigned, briefly stretched for over 3000 km from east to west – from Nishapur in eastern Iran to Benares and Bengal and from the foothills of the Himalaya south to Sind}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Sarkar |editor-first=Jadunath |editor-link=Jadunath Sarkar |year=1973 |orig-year=First published 1948 |title=The History of Bengal |volume=II |location=Patna |publisher=Academica Asiatica |page=8 |oclc=924890 |quote=Bakhtyār fairly completed his conquest of the Varendra tract with the ... city of Gaur before the year 599 A.H.}}</ref>{{sfn|Habibullah|1957|page=24}}{{sfn|Nizami|1998|page=185}}

[[Battle of Andkhud|The Catastrophe of Andkhud]] and the collapse of the [[Ghurids|Šansabānī dynasty]] within a decade of Muhammad's assassination, along with the [[rise of Genghis Khan]] who carved out the [[List of largest empires|largest contiguous empire in history]], made the Ghurids' short-lived successes in northern India and Pakistan, Khurasan and [[Persia]] seem less consequential in contrast to the [[List of Muslim states and dynasties|more substantial Islamic monarchs of Central Asia]].{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=144}} While, Muhammad was not particularly successful against his [[Khwarazmian Empire|Turkish adversaries]] in the [[Transoxiana]],{{sfn|Khan|2008|page=116-117}} his success in the [[Indian subcontinent]] had significant consequences. The 13th century chronicle ''[[Jawami ul-Hikayat]]'', by [[Muhammad Aufi]], mentioned that the Sultan's (Muhammad of Ghor) "[[khuṭbah]] was read in all the mosques from Herat to [[Assam]]".{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=132}} His decisive victory in the [[Second Battle of Tarain]] against the [[Rajput|Rajput forces]] of [[Prithviraja III]] led to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate by Qutb ud-Din Aibak which was further consolidated by his slave commander [[Illtutmish]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Hermann Kulke |author1-link=Hermann Kulke |author2=Dietmar Rothermund |author2-link=Dietmar Rothermund|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C|title=A History of India|date=2004|publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-32919-4 |page=167|quote=The first battle of Tarain was won by the Rajput confederacy led by Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer. But when Muhammad of Ghur returned the following year with 10,000 archers on horseback he vanquished Prithviraj and his army}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Sugata Bose|author1-link=Sugata Bose|author2=Ayesha Jalal|author2-link=Ayesha Jalal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ihNtzxy5GEC&q=Rajput|title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy|date=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-30786-4|page=21|quote=It was a similar combination of political and economic imperatives which led Muhmmad Ghuri, a Turk, to invade India a century and half later in 1192. His defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan, a Rajput chieftain, in the strategic battle of Tarain in northern India paved the way for the establishment of the first Muslim sultanate|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=73}}:"Muizzuddin Muhammad bin Sam has often been compared to Mahmud of Ghazni. As a warrior, Mahmud Ghazni was more successful than Muizzuddin, having never suffered a defeat in India or in Central Asia. He also ruled over a larger empire outside India. But it has to be kept in mind that Muizzuddin had to contend with larger and better organised states in India than Mahmud. Though less successful in Central Asia, his political achievements in India were greater"</ref> The Sultanate of Delhi turned out to be the only major Islamic state that survived amongst the [[Destruction under the Mongol Empire|carnage in the Central Asia caused by the Mongols]] during the thirteenth century.{{sfn|Ray|2019|page=48}}{{sfn|Chandra|2007|page=84}}

The Ghurids were similar to the Ghaznavids in being unpopular among their subjects of the [[Khurasan]]. According to Juzjani, Muhammad imposed heavy taxes, plundered and seized the property in [[Tus, Iran|Tus]] (which was committed for the protection of an Imam's shrine) which he used to cover the expenses of his army. These events eventually turned the people against the Ghurids who retaliated against Muhammad when he besieged Gurganj. They militarily supported the besieged Khwarezmian Shah who was then able to raise a huge army of 70,000 which eventually forced Muhammad to lift the siege and retreat before being cornered by the Qara Khitai forces.{{sfn|Chandra|2006|page=22}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1968|page=164}}{{sfn|Habib|1992|page=45}}

However, the Ghor region did prosper during Muhammad's reign and became a leading centre of learning and culture. He also gave grants to various theologians such as Maulana Fakharudin Razi who preached Islamic teachings in the backward regions of the Ghurid empire. Muhammad also briefly contributed in the architectural aspects of his empire, such as constructing buildings with a distinctive kind of Islamic glazed tiles in his capital Ghazni.{{sfn|Ray|2019|page=48}}<ref>{{harvnb|Nizami|1970|page=182}}:"Muizzuddin's contribution to the cultural development of Ghur was not negligible. In fact it was he and his brother, Ghiyasuddin, who brought about a transformation in the culture-pattern of Ghur. He provided facilities to scholars, like Maulana Fakhruddin Razi, to spread religious education in those backward areas and helped in the emergence of Ghur as a centre of culture and learning. He made some note-worthy contribution ín the sphere of architectural traditions also. U. Scretto ascribes a unique type of glazed tile found at Ghazni to the period of Mu'izzuddin"</ref>

===Memorials===
[[File:Shrine of Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad.JPG|thumb|Modern shrine to Muhammad, built by Pakistani scientist [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]] in 1994–1995, in Dhamiak, [[Sohawa Tehsil]], Pakistan, where Muhammad was assassinated.<ref name=Dawn>{{cite news |last1=Yasin|first1=Aamir|title=The tomb of the man who conquered Delhi|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1362383 |newspaper=Dawn newspaper|access-date=17 July 2025|language=en |date=8 October 2017|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250717220042/https://www.dawn.com/news/1362383|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 July 2025}}</ref> Muhammad was actually buried in Ghazni, according to contemporary sources.]]
* A shrine for Muhammad Ghori was built in Dhamiak by Pakistani scientist [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]] in 1994/5 and was later handed over to the Punjab archaeology department.<ref name=Dawn/> Following his assassination in [[Dhamiak]], the body of Muhammad was placed in the mausoleum of his daughter in Ghazni.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=134}}{{sfn|Saran|2001|page=125}}
* Pakistani military named three of its [[medium-range ballistic missile]] [[Ghauri (missile)|Ghauri-I]], [[Ghauri-II]] and [[Ghauri-III]], in memory of Muhammad.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GI03Df02.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061030030043/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GI03Df02.html |url-status=dead |author=Sudha Ramachandran|archive-date=2006-10-30 |title=Asia's missiles strike at the heart |work=Asia Times |date=3 September 2005|access-date=28 July 2021}}</ref>

==Coins==
<gallery class="center" widths="80px" heights="80px" perrow="3" mode="packed">
File:Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad. AH 599-602 AD 1171-1206.jpg|Traditional gold coins of Muhammad from Ghazni for circulation in [[Central Asia]] and Afghanistan
File:Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad bin Sam. AH 599-602 AD 1171-1206. Pagoda coin with. Lakshmi seated facing.jpg|Muhammad's coins based on the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Chahamana]]/[[Gahadavala dynasty|Gahadavala]] model
File:Ghor1.jpg|Bull-and-horseman [[jital coin]]s of Muhammad derived from the coinage of the [[Hindu Shahis]]
File:Leaded copper Jital of Muizz al-din Muhammad bin Sam, photographed by Yogabrata Chakraborty.jpg|Leaded copper Jital of Muizz al-din Muhammad bin Sam
</gallery>

The circulation of coins from Muhammad's court in Ghazni around 1199, conforming to the numismatic standards of the [[Islamic]] world, carried only [[Arabic]] calligraphy with the [[Six Kalimas|qalma]] and name of his sibling [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]] along with his title on the obverse side of coin, whereas the reverse side of coin featured Muhammad's name and his title along with the title of [[Caliphate]].{{sfn|Flood|2009|page=103}} The models of coins issued by Muhammad and Ghiyath al-Din changed from 1199 onwards to a more orthodox tradition with the Quranic verses on both sides. The change to orthodoxy in the coinage probably reflected their change of schools of [[Islamic jurisprudence]] from [[Karramiyya]] to the mainstream [[Hanafi]] and [[Shafi'i]] by Ghiyath al-Din and Muhammad in order to embed themselves within the wider Islamic world and shed their less worldly origins.{{sfn|Flood|2009|page=104}}

The coins issued by Muhammad in northern India followed the Indian standards of weights and metallic purity.{{sfn|Eaton|2000|page=49-50}} The Ghurid coins in India except [[Bengal]], continued on the same models as pre-conquest with the existing Hindu iconography juxtaposed with the name of Muhammad written in Nāgarī, the script of northern Indian literate elites and not in the Arabic.{{Sfn|Flood|2009|page=115-116}} Coins minted by Muhammad and his lieutenants in north India continued featuring the iconographic programme of the [[Hindu]] deity [[Lakshmi]] (based on the existing pattern of Chahamanas) on one side and Muhammad's name in the [[Nāgarī script]] on other side written in [[Sanskrit]].{{sfn|Kumar|2002|page=30}} Similarly in [[Delhi]], the Ghurid circulation continued on the pre-conquest model of the [[jital coin]] which had the iconography of [[Nandi (Hinduism)|Nandi Bull]] and a "Chahaman horsemen" juxtaposed with Muhammad's name written "Sri Muhamdada Same" around the bull, and on the reverse around the horseman "Shri Hammirah".{{sfn|Kumar|2002|page=29-30}} The use of the Indic honorific ''Sri'' (literally "radiant") and ''Hammirah'', a Sanskritized form of the Arabic title ''Amir'', all in Nāgarī script, are in keeping with the tradition of the [[jital coin]] as a fusion of Indic and Iranic motifs and linguistic elements throughout its history.

Finbarr Barry Flood commented on the notion of continuity of the pre-conquest arrangements in the numismatics as a pragmatic measure by the Ghurids to meet the economic realities in northern India.{{sfn|Flood|2009|page=116}} Sunil Kumar further elaborated on the basis of hoard evidence that the coins issued by Muhammad were accepted on the same scale by the local Indian financiers and bankers as the previous coins which were issued by the [[Rajputs]], despite a period of transition (regime change) in the political situation across [[northern India]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kumar|2002|page=30}}: "As the hoard evidence from north India confirms, Mu'izzi coins were valued as much as the earlier Rajput currencies and were fully assimilated within an economic world unimpressed with transitions in the political realm"</ref>

==Popular culture==
In the 2022 film ''[[Samrat Prithviraj]]'', [[Manav Vij]] portrayed Muhammad of Ghor.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Akshay Kumar starrer biopic on Prithviraj Chauhan to see Sanjay Dutt as Muhammad Ghori?|url=https://english.newsnationtv.com/entertainment/bollywood/akshay-kumars-biopic-on-prithviraj-chauhan-to-see-sanjay-dutt-as-muhammad-ghori-233386.html|access-date=17 July 2025|website=NewsNation.com TV website|archive-date=27 February 2021|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227115449/https://english.newsnationtv.com/entertainment/bollywood/akshay-kumars-biopic-on-prithviraj-chauhan-to-see-sanjay-dutt-as-muhammad-ghori-233386.html|author=Shriparna Saha}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
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* {{Cite book|chapter=The Ghurids|last=Nizami|first=K. A.|author-link=K. A. Nizami|editor1=M. S. Asimov|editor2=C. E. Bossworth|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000120455 |title=History of civilizations of central Asia: Volume IV The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century : (part one) The historical, social and economic setting |date=1998 |publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-103467-1 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nizami|first= K. A.|author-link=K. A. Nizami |chapter= Foundation of the Delhi Sultanat|editor1=Mohammad Habib |editor2=Khaliq Ahmad Nizami |title=A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206–1526) |volume=5 |edition=Second |year=1970|publisher=The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ |oclc=31870180}}
* {{Cite book|last=Ray|first=Aniruddha|author-link=Aniruddha Ray|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNSNDwAAQBAJ |title=The Sultanate of Delhi (1206–1526): Polity, Economy, Society and Culture |date=2019|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-00729-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Kaushik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jpXijlqeRpIC |title=India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil |date=2004 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-7824-109-8 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book|chapter=The Turkish Conquest of Northern India|last=Saran|first=Paramatma|editor=S. Ramakrishnan|url=http://archive.org/details/struggleforempir05bhar |title=History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 05, The Struggle For Empire |date=2001|orig-year=1957|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}}
* {{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Dasharatha |author-link=Dasharatha Sharma |title=Early Chauhān Dynasties |publisher=S. Chand / Motilal Banarsidass |year=1959 |isbn=9780842606189 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4gcAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{Cite book|last=Thomas|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6h2_DwAAQBAJ |title=The Ebb and Flow of the Ghūrid Empire|date=2018|publisher=Sydney University Press |isbn=978-1-74332-542-1|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wink|first=Andre|author-link=Andre Wink|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75FlxDhZWpwC |title=Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest: 11th–13th Centuries |date=1991 |publisher=BRILL| isbn=9004102361 |language=en}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Ghurid dynasty}}

* [https://www.worldhistory.org/Muhammad_Ghori/ Muhammad of Ghor] at the World History Encyclopædia

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muizz al-Din}}
[[Category:1140s births]]
[[Category:1206 deaths]]
[[Category:Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent]]
[[Category:12th-century Iranian people]]
[[Category:13th-century Iranian people]]
[[Category:Ghurid dynasty]]
[[Category:Muslim monarchs]]
[[Category:Murdered Persian monarchs]]
[[Category:Assassinated Iranian people]]
[[Category:13th-century murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:History of Ghor Province]]
[[Category:History of Khorasan]]
[[Category:Slave traders]]
[[Category:Slave owners]]

Geetanjali (actress)

2026-03-19T09:34:23Z

ReaganRiordan: add formatting also and corrected details

{{Short description|Indian actress (1947–2019)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| image =
| name = Geethanjali
| birth_name = Mani<ref name="andhrajyothy">{{cite web |last1=K |first1=Haranath |title=వాళ్ళందరూ హాస్యనటులే! |url=http://www.andhrajyothy.com/artical?SID=146902 |website=andhrajyothy.com |publisher=[[Andhra Jyothy]] |access-date=16 November 2016 |archive-date=8 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208073212/http://www.andhrajyothy.com/artical?SID=146902 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| birth_date = {{birth year|1947}}
| birth_place = [[Kakinada]], [[Madras Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|2019|10|31|1947}}
| death_place = [[Hyderabad]], [[Telangana]], India
| occupation = Actress
| yearsactive = 1960–2019
| father = Sri Rama Murthy<ref name="andhrajyothy"/>
| mother = Shyamalamba<ref name="andhrajyothy"/>
| spouse = [[Ramakrishna (Telugu actor)|Ramakrishna]]<ref name="andhrajyothy"/>
| children = 1
}}

'''Geethanjali''' (1947 – 31 October 2019) was an Indian actress who worked in [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]], [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]], [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]], and [[Bollywood|Hindi]] films.<ref name="thehindu">{{cite news |last1=Y |first1=Sunita Chowdhary |title=It's amazing, people remember me |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/its-amazing-people-remember-me/article3231603.ece |website=The Hindu |date=7 December 2006 |publisher=Kasturi and Sons |access-date=20 June 2016 |archive-date=31 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031072034/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/its-amazing-people-remember-me/article3231603.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> In a career spanning close to six decades, she featured in over 500 films across multiple languages. Her first film as a dancer is [[Rani Ratnaprabha]] in 1960. [[Nandamuri Taraka Ramarao|NTR]] introduced her to the silver screen as a heroine with his directorial debut film ''[[Sita Rama Kalyanam (1961 film)|Sita Rama Kalyanam]]'' in 1961. She was famous for her roles in ''[[Murali Krishna (film)|Murali Krishna]]'' (1964), ''[[Doctor Chakravarty|Doctor Chakravarthy]]'' (1964), ''Illalu'' (1965), ''[[Sambarala Rambabu]]'' (1970), ''[[Kalam Marindi|Kaalam Marindi]]'' (1972), and ''Abbayigaru Ammayigaru'' (1973). She was also a member of the Nandi Awards committee.

==Personal life==
Geethanjali worked in the Hindi film ''[[Parasmani]]'' (1963), a Lakshmikant-Pyarelal production. Since her name Mani was already present in the title, the film-maker re-christened her as Geetanjali.<ref name="thehindu"/>

Geethanjali worked with actor [[Ramakrishna (Telugu actor)|Rama Krishna]] in number of films like ''[[Thodu Needa]]'' (1965), ''Hantakulostunnaru Jagratta'' (1966), ''Rajayogam'' (1967), ''Ranabheri'' (1968), ''Nenu Naa Desam'' (1973) etc. before marrying him on 15 August 1974.

==Death==
Geethanjali died in the early hours of 31 October 2019 from cardiac arrest. She died while undergoing treatment at a private hospital near Film Nagar in Hyderabad.<ref>[https://www.news18.com/news/movies/actress-geetanjali-ramakrishna-passes-away-in-hyderabad-2368337.html Actress Geetanjali Ramakrishna Passes Away in Hyderabad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031121021/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/actress-geetanjali-ramakrishna-passes-away-in-hyderabad-2368337.html |date=31 October 2019 }}. [[News18.com]].</ref>

==Filmography==
===Telugu===
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
# ''[[Rani Ratnaprabha]]'' (1960) - debut as a [[Bharatanatyam]] dancer
# ''[[Seetarama Kalyanam]]'' (1961) as Goddess Sita
# ''[[Gulebakavali Katha]]'' (1962)
# ''[[Kalavari Kodallu]]'' (1964) as Hamsa
# ''[[Dr. Chakravarthy]]'' (1964) as Sudha
# ''Thotalo Pilla Kotalo Rani'' (1964) as Dancer
# ''[[Murali Krishna (film)|Murali Krishna]]'' (1964) as Poornima
# ''[[Bobbili Yuddham]]'' (1964)
# ''[[Babruvahana (1964 film)|Babruvahana]]'' (1964) as [[Rukmini]]
# ''[[Desa Drohulu]]'' (1964)
# ''[[Manchi Manishi]]'' (1964)
# ''[[Sabhash Suri]]'' (1964)
# ''[[Sri Satyanarayana Mahathyam]]'' (1964)
# ''[[Aada Brathuku]]'' (1965)
# ''[[Veerabhimanyu]]'' (1965)
# ''Illalu'' (1965) Heroine and double role
# ''[[Devata (1965 film)|Devata]]'' (1965) as Hema
# ''[[Thodu Needa]]'' (1965) - First movie with future husband, [[Ramakrishna (Telugu actor)]]
# ''[[Leta Manasulu (1966 film)|Leta Manasulu]]'' (1966) as Nirmala
# ''[[Potti Pleader]]'' (1966) paired with Padmanabham
# ''[[Gudachari 116]]'' (1966)
# ''Hantakulostunnaru Jagratta'' (1966)
# ''[[Navaratri (1966 film)|Navaratri]]'' (1966)
# ''[[Mangalasutram (film)|Mangalasutram]]'' (1966)
# ''Loguttu Perumaalakeruka'' (1966)
# ''[[ Sakunthala (1966 film)|Sakunthala]]'' (1966)
# ''[[Sri Krishna Pandaveeyam]]'' (1966)
# ''[[Aada Paduchu]]'' (1967)
# ''[[Poola Rangadu (1967 film)|Poola Rangadu]]'' (1967)
# ''[[Bhakta Prahlada (1967 film)|Bhakta Prahlada]]'' (1967)
# ''Chadarangam'' (1967)
# ''Upayamlo Apayam'' (1967)
# ''[[Stree Janma]]'' (1967)
# ''[[Sri Krishnavataram]]'' (1967)
# ''Pattukunte Padivelu''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pattukunte Padivelu (1967) |url=https://indiancine.ma/MPR |access-date=14 December 2023 |website=Indiancine.ma |archive-date=14 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214034842/https://indiancine.ma/MPR |url-status=live }}</ref> (1967) as Lakshmi
# ''Adrushtavanthulu'' (1967)
# ''[[Ave Kallu]]'' (1967) as Julie
# ''[[Sri Sri Sri Maryada Ramanna]]'' (1967)
# ''Prana Mitrulu'' (1967)
# ''[[Nirdoshi (1967 film)|Nirdoshi]]'' (1967)
# ''[[Rahasyam (1967 film)|Rahasyam]]'' (1967)
# ''Ranabheri'' (1968) as Devasena
# ''[[Adrushtavanthalu]]'' (1968) as Radha
# ''[[Bhagya Chakramu]]'' (1968)
# ''[[Bangaru Gaajulu]]'' (1968)
# ''[[Baghdad Gaja Donga]]'' (1968)
# ''Panthalu Pattimpulu'' (1968)
# ''[[Kalisochina Adrushtam]]'' (1968)
# ''[[Thalli Prema]]'' (1968)
# ''Pelliroju'' (1968)
# ''[[Nene Monaganni]]'' (1968)
# ''[[Manchi Kutumbam]]'' (1968)
# ''Raja Yogam'' (1968)
# ''[[Ramu (1968 film)|Ramu]]'' (1968)
# ''[[Sati Arundhati]]'' (1968)
# ''[[Sri Rama Katha]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sri Rama Katha (1969) |url=https://indiancine.ma/NQE |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref> (1969) as [[Rati]]
# ''Manchi Mitrulu'' (1969)
# ''[[Nindu Hrudayalu]]'' (1969)
# ''[[Aadarsa Kutumbam]]'' (1969)
# ''Raja Simha''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Raja Simha (1969) |url=https://indiancine.ma/NOX |access-date=10 October 2023 |website=Indiancine.ma |archive-date=20 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020172831/https://indiancine.ma/NOX |url-status=live }}</ref> (1969) as Vasavi
# ''[[Bhale Abbayilu]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhale Abbailu (1969) |url=https://indiancine.ma/NGY |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref> (1969) as Radha
# ''[[Adrushtavanthulu]]'' (1969)
# ''[[Karpura Harathi]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Karpura Harathi (1969) |url=https://indiancine.ma/NKP |access-date=2024-04-12 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref> (1969) as Pankajam
# ''Nirdoshi'' (1970)
# ''[[Kathanayika Molla]]'' (1970)
# ''[[Dharma Daata]]'' (1970)
# ''[[Chitti Chellelu]]'' (1970)
# ''[[Sambarala Rambabu]]'' (1970)
# ''[[Mattilo Manikyam]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mattilo Manikyam (1971) |url=https://indiancine.ma/ONG |access-date=2024-03-02 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref> (1971) as Subbulu
# ''Jatakaratna Midathambotlu'' (1971)
# ''[[Manasu Mangalyam]]'' (1971)
# ''[[Pavitra Bandham (1971 film)|Pavitra Bandham]]'' (1971)
# ''[[Kalam Marindi]]'' (1972)
# ''[[Raitu Kutumbam]]'' (1972)
# ''Adrushta Devatha'' (1972)
# ''Manchi Rojulu Vachayi''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manchirojulu Vachayi (1972) |url=https://indiancine.ma/PDB |access-date=18 December 2023 |website=Indiancine.ma |archive-date=18 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218083824/https://indiancine.ma/PDB |url-status=live }}</ref> (1972) as Radha
# ''Abbaigaru Ammaigaru'' (1973) - paired with Telugu Super Star [[Krishna (Telugu actor)|Krishna]]
# ''Ajanma Brahmachari'' (1973)
# ''Devudamma'' (1973) as Paidithalli
# ''Nenu Naa Desam'' (1973)
# ''[[Srivaru Maavaru]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Srivaru Maavaru (1973) |url=https://indiancine.ma/PZA |access-date=2024-03-28 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref> (1973) as Padma
# ''Kannavari Kalalu'' (1974)
# ''[[Premalu Pellillu]]'' (1974)
# ''Jeevithame Oka Cinema'' (1993)
# ''Pacha Thoranam'' (1994)
# ''[[Fools (2003 film)|Fools]]'' (2003)
# ''[[Mayajalam (2006 film)|Maayajaalam]]'' (2006)
# ''[[Pellaina Kothalo]]'' (2006) as Hari's Grandmother
# ''[[Neramu Siksha (2009 film)|Neramu Siksha]]'' (2009)
# ''[[Parama Veera Chakra]]'' (2011)
# ''[[Mogudu (film)|Mogudu]]'' (2011) as Grandmother
# ''[[Greeku Veerudu]]'' (2013)
# ''[[Bhai (2013 film)|Bhai]]'' (2013) as Vasu's Grandmother
# ''[[Vunnadhi Okate Zindagi]]'' (2017)
# ''Sree Ramudinta Sree Krishnudanta'' (2017)
{{div col end}}

===Tamil===
{{colbegin}}
# ''[[Sarada (1962 film)|Sarada]]'' (1962)
# ''[[Deivathin Deivam]]'' (1962)
# ''[[Thaayin Madiyil]]'' (1964)
# ''[[Parasmani|Maayamani]]'' (1964)
# ''[[Alli (film)|Alli]]'' (1964)
# ''[[Panam Padaithavan]]'' (1965)
# ''[[Vaazhkai Padagu]]'' (1965)
# ''[[Veera Abhimanyu (1965 film)|Veera Abhimanyu]]'' (1965)
# ''[[Aasai Mugam]]'' (1965) as Kamala
# ''[[Athey Kangal (1967 film)|Adhey Kangal]]'' (1967)
# ''[[Nenjirukkum Varai (1967 film)|Nenjirukkum Varai]]'' (1967)
# ''[[Anbalippu]]'' (1969)
# ''[[En Annan]]'' (1970)
# ''[[Annamitta Kai]]'' (1972)
# ''[[Ganga Gowri (1973 film)|Ganga Gowri]]'' (1973)
{{Colend}}

===Hindi===
# ''[[Paying Guest]]'' (1957) as Shanthi's sister
# ''[[Parasmani]]'' (1963) as Rajkumari
# ''[[Do Kaliyaan]]'' (1968) as Menaka
# ''Balram Shri Krishna'' (1968) as Rukmini
# ''[[Tulsi Vivah (film) |Tulsi Vivah]]'' (1971)
# '' [[Bandhu (1992 film)|Bandhu]]'' (1992)

===Malayalam===
# ''[[Kaattumallika]]'' (1966)
# ''[[Swapnangal]]'' (1970) as Rajamma
# ''[[Madhuvidhu]]'' (1970) as Sathi

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|0321161}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:1947 births]]
[[Category:2019 deaths]]
[[Category:Telugu actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Rajahmundry]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Andhra Pradesh]]

Indian eagle-owl

2026-03-18T03:04:24Z

ReaganRiordan: started new bio v1

{{Short description|Species of owl}}
{{Speciesbox
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |title=''Bubo bengalensis'' |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |article-number=e.T22688934A93211525 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22688934A93211525.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| status2 = CITES_A2
| status2_system = CITES
| status2_ref = <ref name=iucn/>
| image = Bengalese_Eagle_Owl.jpg
| image_caption =
| genus = Bubo
| species = bengalensis
| authority = ([[James Franklin (naturalist)|Franklin]], 1831)<ref name=Franklin1831>{{cite journal |author=Franklin, J. |year=1831 |title=Catalogue of Birds, collected on the Ganges between Calcutta and Benares, and in the Vindhya Hills between the latter place and Gurrah Mundela on the Nerbudda, with characters of the New Species |journal=Proceedings of the Committee of Science and Correspondence of the Zoological Society of London |volume=1 |issue=10 |pages=115–125 |url=https://archive.org/details/lietuvostsrmoksl30liet/page/n127/mode/2up}}</ref>
| range_map = Bubo_bengelensis_dis.png
| range_map_caption = Bounding distribution of Indian eagle-owl
| synonyms = ''Urrua bengalensis''<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jerdon, T.C. |author-link=Thomas C. Jerdon |year=1839 |title=Catalogue of the birds of the peninsula of India, arranged according to the modern system of classification; with brief notes on their habits and geographical distribution, and description of new, doubtful and imperfectly described specimens |journal=Madras Journal of Literature and Science |volume=10 |pages=60–91 |url=https://archive.org/details/madrasjournalli00esqgoog/page/87/mode/1up}}</ref>
}}
The '''Indian eagle-owl''' ('''''Bubo bengalensis'''''), or the '''Bengal eagle-owl''' or '''rock eagle-owl''', is a large [[horned owl]] species native to hilly and rocky scrub forests in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It is splashed with brown and grey, and has a white throat patch with black small stripes. It was earlier treated as a subspecies of the [[Eurasian eagle-owl]]. It is usually seen in pairs. It has a deep resonant booming call that may be heard at dawn and dusk.

== Taxonomy ==
''Bubo bengalensis'' was the [[scientific name]] used by [[James Franklin (naturalist)|James Franklin]] in 1831 for an eagle-owl, that was collected in [[northern India]].<ref name=Franklin1831/>

==Description==
[[File:Bubo bengalensis 2016 japan.jpg|thumb|Indian eagle-owl in a museum]]
This species is often considered a subspecies of the [[Eurasian eagle-owl]] ''Bubo bubo'' and is very similar in appearance. The facial disk is unmarked and has a black border, a feature that is much weaker in the Eurasian form. The base of the primaries is unbanded and rufous. The tail bands have the tawny bands wider than the black ones. Additionally, a large pale scapular patch is visible on the folded wing.<ref name=pcr>{{cite book |year=2005|title=Birds of South Asia: The Ripley Guide |publisher=Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Ediciones |volume=2 |pages=239–240 |author1=Rasmussen, P.C. |author2=Anderton, J.C. |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> The inner claws are the longest. The last joint of the toes are unfeathered.<ref>{{cite book|pages=285–286|title=The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma |volume=Birds. Volume 3 |year=1895 |author=Blanford, W.T. |author-link=William Thomas Blanford |publisher=Taylor & Francis |place=London |url=https://archive.org/stream/faunaofbritishin03oate#page/285/mode/1up/}}</ref>

The taxonomy of the group is complex due to a large amount of variation.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=''Bubo bengalensis'' |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/catalogueofbirds02brit#page/26/mode/2up |pages=25–27 |title=Catalogue of the birds in the British Museum |volume=2 |author=Bowdler Sharpe, R. |author-link=Richard Bowdler Sharpe |year=1875 |publisher=British Museum |place=London}}</ref> Dementiev was the first to consider the possibility of ''B. bengalensis'' being distinct within the ''Bubo bubo'' group. However, [[Charles Vaurie]] noted that this species as well as ''B. ascalaphus'' appeared to be distinct and not part of a clinal variation. There is a lot of colour variation with the ground colour being dark brown above while some are pale and yellowish. On dark birds the streaks coalesce on the hind crown and nape but are narrow in pale birds. However, Vaurie notes that despite the variation, they are distinct from neighbouring forms ''B. b. tibetanus'', ''B. b. hemachalana'' and ''B. b. nikolskii'', in being smaller and richly coloured.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Whistler, H. |author2=Kinnear, N.B. |name-list-style=amp |year=1935 |title=The Vernay scientific survey of the eastern ghats (ornithological section), Part 12 |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=38 |pages=232–240 |url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47560999}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Vaurie, C. |year=1960 |title=Systematic notes on Palearctic birds. No. 41, Strigidae, the genus ''Bubo'' |journal=American Museum Novitates |issue=2000 |hdl=2246/5372}}</ref> Stuart Baker noted that there were two plumage variants that were seen across their range, one plumage has the back and scapulars spotted in white while the other form has a reduced number of white spots on the feathers of the back and the dark streaking on the back, neck and scapulars being prominent.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma |chapter=''Bubo bubo turkomanus'' |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/BakerFbiBirds4/BakerFBI4#page/n446/mode/1up/ |pages=414–415 |volume=Birds. Volume 4 |edition=Second |author=Baker, E.C.S. |year=1927 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |place=London}}</ref>

Chicks are born with white fluff which is gradually replaced by speckled feathers during the pre-juvenile moult after about two weeks. After a month or so they go through a basic moult and a brownish juvenile plumage is assumed with the upperparts somewhat similar to adults but the underside is downy. The full adult plumage is assumed much later.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ramanujam, M.E. |author2=Murugavel, T. |name-list-style=amp |year=2009 |title=A preliminary report on the development of young Indian Eagle Owl ''Bubo bengalensis'' (Franklin, 1831) in and around Pondicherry, Tamilnadu and southern India |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=1 |issue=10 |pages=519–524 |doi=10.11609/jott.o1762.519-24 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Distribution==
[[File:Indian eagle owl wings spread.JPG|thumb|The underwing shows a dark carpal patch. The base of the primaries are unbarred.]]
They are seen in scrub and light to medium forests but are especially seen near rocky places within the mainland of the Indian Subcontinent south of the Himalayas and below {{cvt|1500|m}} elevation. Humid evergreen forest and extremely arid areas are avoided. Bush-covered rocky hillocks and ravines, and steep banks of rivers and streams are favourite haunts. It spends the day under the shelter of a bush or rocky projection, or in a large mango or similar thickly foliaged tree near villages.

==Behaviour and ecology==
The deep resonant two-note calls are characteristic and males deliver these "long calls" mainly at dusk during the breeding season. The peak calling intensity is noticed in February.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ramanujam, M.E. |year=2003 |title=On the "long call" of the Indian Great Horned or Eagle-Owl ''Bubo bengalensis'' (Franklin) |journal=Zoos' Print Journal |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=1131–1134 |url=http://www.zoosprint.org/ZooPrintJournal/2003/July/1131-1134.pdf |doi=10.11609/jott.zpj.18.7.1131-4 |archive-date=2018-06-01 |access-date=2008-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180601223432/http://www.zoosprint.org/ZooPrintJournal/2003/July/1131-1134.pdf }}</ref> Young birds produce clicks, hisses and open up their wings to appear larger than they are.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ramanujam, M.E. |year=2003 |title=Interspecific intimidatory behaviour in nestling Indian Eagle Owls ''Bubo bengalensis'' (Franklin) |journal=Zoos' Print Journal |volume=18 |issue=10|pages=1213–1216 |doi=10.11609/jott.zpj.18.10.1213-6|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Ramanujam, M.E. |year=2007|title=A catalogue of auditory and visual communicatory traits in the Indian Eagle Owl ''Bubo bengalensis'' (Franklin, 1831) |journal= Zoos' Print Journal |volume=22 |issue=8 |pages=2771–2776 |doi=10.11609/jott.zpj.1572.2771-6 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Nesting adults will fly in zig-zag patterns and mob any potential predators (including humans) who approach the nest.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ramanujam, M.E. |year=2004 |title=Inter-specific intimidatory behaviour of adult Indian Eagle Owls ''Bubo bengalensis'' (Franklin) in defence of their nestlings |journal=Zoos' Print Journal |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=1343–1345 |url=http://www.zoosprint.org/ZooPrintJournal/2004/February/1343-1345.pdf |doi=10.11609/jott.zpj.19.2.1343-5 |archive-date=2018-06-03 |access-date=2008-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603214704/http://www.zoosprint.org/ZooPrintJournal/2004/February/1343-1345.pdf }}</ref>

Its diet through much of the year consists of rodents, but birds seem to be mainly taken towards winter. Prey species of birds include [[Grey francolin|francolins]], [[doves]],<ref name="guj" /> [[Indian roller]],<ref name="sind" /> [[shikra]], [[black kite]], [[house crow]] and the [[spotted owlet]]. Birds the size of a [[peafowl]] are sometimes attacked.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Tehsin, R. |author2=Tehsin, F. |name-list-style=amp |year=1990|title= Indian Great Horned Owl ''Bubo bubo'' (Linn.) and Peafowl ''Pavo cristatus'' Linn. |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=87|issue=2|page=300 |url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48807014}}</ref> Rodents noted in a study in Pondicherry were ''[[Tatera indica]]'', ''[[Golunda ellioti]]'', ''[[Rattus]]'' sp., ''[[Mus booduga]]'' and ''[[Bandicota bengalensis]]''. [[Pteropus|Flying fox]] were also preyed on.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ramanujam, M.E. |year=2001 |title=A preliminary report of the prey of the Eurasian Eagle-Owl (''Bubo bubo'') in and around Pondicherry |journal=Zoos' Print Journal |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=487–488 |doi=10.11609/jott.zpj.16.5.487-8 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In Pakistan, ''[[Nesokia indica]]'' is an important prey item in their diet.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Fulk, G.W. |author2=Khokhar, A.R. |name-list-style=amp |year=1976 |title=Short-tailed Mole Rat (''N. indica'') prey of great-horned owl (''B. bubo'') |journal= Pakistan Journal of Zoology |volume=8|page=97}}</ref> Mammals the size of an [[Indian hare]] (''Lepus nigricollis'') may be taken.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kumar, S. |year=1995|title= Possible predation of Blacknaped Hare by Great Horned Owl ''Bubo bubo'' in the Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, Nanaj (Solapur), Maharashtra |journal=[[Newsletter for Birdwatchers]] |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=16–17}}</ref> In Pakistan, it has preyed on ''[[Lepus capensis]]'' and ''[[Eupetaurus cinereus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Zahler, P. |author2=Dietemann, C. |name-list-style=amp |year=1999 |title=A note on the food habits of Eurasian Eagle Owl ''Bubo bubo'' in northern Pakistan |journal=Forktail |volume=15 |pages=98–99 |url=http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/15pdfs/Zahler-EagleOwl.pdf|access-date=2009-06-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704121837/http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/15pdfs/Zahler-EagleOwl.pdf|archive-date=2008-07-04}}</ref>

When feeding on rodents, it tears up the prey rather than swallowing it whole.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ramanujam, M.E. |year=2004 |title=Methods of analysing rodent prey of the Indian Eagle Owl ''Bubo bengalensis'' (Franklin) in and around Pondicherry, India |journal= Zoos' Print Journal |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=1492–1494 |doi=10.11609/jott.zpj.1117a.1492-4 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Captives feed on about 61g of prey per day.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ramanujam, M.E. |year=2000 |title=Food consumption and pellet regurgitation rates in a captive Indian Eagle Owl (''Bubo bubo bengalensis'') |journal=Zoos' Print Journal |volume=15|issue=7|pages= 289–291 |doi=10.11609/jott.zpj.15.7.289-91 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The nesting season is November to April. The eggs number three or four and are creamy white, broad roundish ovals with a smooth texture. They are laid on bare soil in a natural recess in an earth bank, on the ledge of a cliff, or under the shelter of a bush on level ground.<ref name=guj>{{cite journal|author=Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. |author-link=Raol Shree Dharmakumarsinhji|year=1939 |title=The Indian Great Horned Owl [''Bubo bubo bengalensis'' (Frankl.)] |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=41|issue=1|pages=174–177|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47873533}}</ref><ref name=sind>{{cite journal|author=Eates, K.R. |year=1937 |title=The distribution and nidification of the Rock Horned Owl ''Bubo bubo bengalensis'' (Frankl.) in Sind |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=631–633 |url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47591114}}</ref> The nest site is reused each year.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Osmaston, B.B. |year=1926 |title=The Rock Horned Owl in Kashmir |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=31 |issue=2|pages=523–524}}</ref> The eggs hatch after about 33 days and the chicks are dependent on their parents for nearly six months.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Breeding Biology, Nesting Habitat, and Diet of the Rock Eagle-Owl (''Bubo bengalensis'') |author=Pande, S. |author2=Pawashe, A. |author3=Mahajan, M. |author4=Mahabal, A. |author5=Joglekar, C. |author6=Yosef, R. |name-list-style=amp |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |year=2011 |volume= 45| issue=3| pages=211–219 |doi=10.3356/JRR-10-53.1 |s2cid=84194153 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231183259|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==In culture==
This large owl with the distinctive face, large forward-facing eyes, horns and deep resonant call is associated with a number of superstitions. Like many other large owls, these are considered birds of ill omen. Their deep haunting calls if delivered from atop a house are considered to forebode the death of an occupant. A number of rituals involving the capture and killing of these birds have been recorded. [[Salim Ali (ornithologist)|Salim Ali]] notes a wide range of superstitions related to them but notes two as being particularly widespread. One is that if the bird is starved for a few days and beaten, it would speak like a human, predicting the future of the tormentor or bringing them wealth while the other involves the killing of the bird to find a lucky bone that moved against the current like a snake when dropped into a stream.<ref name=hbk>{{cite book |author1=Ali, S. |author2=Ripley, S.D. |name-list-style=amp | title=Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan|edition=Second |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=3 |year= 1981 |pages=273–275}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Other sources==
* {{cite journal | author = Perumal TNA | year = 1985 | title = The Indian Great Horned Owl | journal = Sanctuary Asia | volume = 5 | issue = 3| pages = 214–225 }}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.owlpages.com/owls.php?genus=Bubo&species=bengalensis Owl Pages]
* [http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/rock-eagle-owl-bubo-bengalensis IBC videos]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q817172}}

[[Category:Bubo (genus)|Indian eagle-owl]]
[[Category:Birds of South Asia]]
[[Category:Owls of Asia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1831|Indian eagle-owl]]
[[Category:Taxa named by James Franklin (naturalist)|Indian eagle-owl]]

Elisha Kriis

2026-03-16T23:40:18Z

ReaganRiordan: put up a info w/ sources

{{Short description|Indian film actress}}
{{MOS|date=June 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Elisha Kriis
| image = ElishaKriis2024.jpg
| caption = Kriis in 2024
| birth_place = [[Godhra, Panchmahal, Gujarat]], India
| alma_mater = The Maharaja Sayajirao University
| occupation = Actress
| yearsactive = 2014–present
| height = 167.64 cm
| height_ft =
| website = {{URL|http://elishakriis.com}}
| signature =
}}

'''Elisha Kriis''' aka '''Elisha Patel''' is an Indian and American film actress and television personality. She has appeared in American, Hindi and Telugu films. In the United States she has starred in, 2018 [[human trafficking]] drama ''BorderCross'', alongside [[Lorenzo Lamas]] and [[Danny Trejo]], was the main protagonist in the 2018 crime thriller ''Body of Sin'', played a [[cyborg]] in the 2018 [[Scifi film|SciFi action]] ''Ink and Rain, ''. She has appeared in supporting roles in films like ''[[The Recall (2017 film)|The Recall]]'' starring [[Wesley Snipes]] and in the [[trading card]] comedy feature titled ''Tournament'' 2019 starring [[Ricardo Chavira]].<ref>[http://mi.divyabhaskar.co.in/news/flicker/7455/NRG-USA-know-about-hollywood-gujarati-actress-elisha-kriis-patel-gujarati-news-5546262-PHO.html?1490986466 NRG USA know about Hollywood] divyabhaskar.co.in {{dead link|date=April 2024}}</ref> In India she has appeared in political drama ''[[Wake Up India]]''.<ref name="indiatimes1">{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/TV-isnt-my-cup-of-tea-says-Elisha/articleshow/16723266.cms |title=TV isn't my cup of tea, says Elisha - Times of India |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date=2012-10-08 |access-date=2017-06-26}}</ref> action thriller [[Zanjeer (2013 film)|''Zanjeer'']] starring [[Priyanka Chopra]], remake of Zanjeer in ''Telugu'' [[Toofan (2013 film)|''Toofan'']] and [[NDTV Good Times|NDTV Goodtimes]] adventure travel documentary titled ''Kingfisher Blue Mile''.

==Early life==
Kriis was born and raised in [[Gujarat]], India. Her mother, Bhagwati Patel, and father, Jahangir Patel, served as former judges for the [[Gujarat government|State of Gujarat]].<ref name="amazonaws1">{{cite magazine|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/external_clips/255566/_ExoticFashionMag_proofing.pdf?1364953429 |title=Exotic Fashion - Spring/Summer |access-date=2017-06-26}}</ref>

Kriis graduated with a [[Bachelor of Business Administration]] degree from [[Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda|Maharajah Sayajirao University of Vadodara]]. Her graduation was followed by a studio training program in [[Mumbai]].<ref name="amazonaws1"/> In June 2014 Kriis was invited as a speaker by [[College of the Canyons]], [[California]], to address the Beyond Barriers women empowerment conference.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://womenpla.net/beyond-barriers-womens-conference/ |title=Beyond Barrier's Women's Conference - By Elisha Kriis |publisher=Womenpla.net |date=2014-06-20 |access-date=2017-06-26 |archive-date=1 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701033233/http://womenpla.net/beyond-barriers-womens-conference/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://virtualonlineeditions.com/publication/?i=211251&p=165 |title=The Magazine of Santa Clarita June 2014 Page 143 |publisher=Virtualonlineeditions.com |date=2014-05-24 |access-date=2017-06-26}}</ref> Her lecture at the conference referenced the power of education and empowering others to empower yourself.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hometownstation.com/santa-clarita-news/coc-to-host-womens-conference-tuesday-at-valencia-campus-42208 |title=COC To Host Women's Conference Tuesday At Valencia Campus — Hometown Station | KHTS AM 1220 |date=6 June 2014 |publisher=Hometownstation.com |access-date=2017-06-26}}</ref>

==Career==
Her first theater performance was in the fourth grade and later that year the drama was chosen to be aired by [[Doordarshan|DD1]], one of India's largest broadcasting networks. Growing up she had a huge passion for exploring different places and cultures which made an impact on her life from an early age.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://womenpla.net/read-emagazine/#p=56 |title= Women Plan2015et :: E-magazine|website=womenpla.net |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304224428/http://womenpla.net/read-emagazine/ |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> She eventually pursued her [[Bachelor of Business Administration]] degree at [[Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda|The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda]], [[Vadodara]], where she won a handful of fashion and beauty contests sponsored by well known brands such as [[MTV]], Cavin Kare, [[Westside Provisions|Westside]] and [[Pantaloon Retail India|Pantaloons]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/gujarati/Vadodara-has-contributed-immensely-in-my-journey-Elisha-Kriis/articleshow/35619276.cms |title=Vadodara has contributed immensely in my journey: Elisha Kriis - Times of India |newspaper=The Times of India |date=26 May 2014 |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |access-date=2017-06-26}}</ref> While in college she also worked as a host for several corporate award shows and women empowerment workshops. She graduated with a bachelor's degree from MSU and then eventually moved to [[Mumbai]] to pursue her career in the entertainment industry.<ref name="womenpla1"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dnasyndication.com/dna/dna_english_news_and_features/Vadodara-thi-Los-Angeles-sudhi/DNAHM91275 |title=Vadodara thi Los Angeles sudhi! - DNA - English News & Features - Cinema & Entertainment |publisher=dnasyndication.com |date=2015-09-26 |access-date=2017-06-26}}</ref>

=== Television ===
She started her career as a host for India's international travel channels such as, [[Travelxp]], Travel Trendz and [[NDTV Good Times]]. Her shows have been filmed and televised in multiple countries across Europe, Middle East and Southeast Asia in Hindi, English, [[Telugu language|Telugu]], and Arabic languages.<ref name="womenpla1">{{cite web |url=http://womenpla.net/interview/knowing-elisha-kriis-closely-exclusive-interview/ |title=Knowing Elisha Kriis more closely – An Exclusive Interview |publisher=Womenpla.net |date=2014-06-20 |access-date=2017-06-26 |archive-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810131550/http://womenpla.net/interview/knowing-elisha-kriis-closely-exclusive-interview/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Film ===
She made her [[Hindi]] film debut with ''[[Wake Up India]]''. In this film she plays the role of a fearless reporter that strives to expose the truth behind an alleged rape scandal involving the Chief Minister of the State.<ref name="indiatimes1"/> In 2013, she has appeared in the Hindi action movie [[Zanjeer (2013 film)|''Zanjeer'']], and the Telugu movie [[Toofan (2013 film)|''Toofan'']], also starring [[Priyanka Chopra]], [[Sanjay Dutt]] and [[Ram Charan]].

In 2014 Kriis started her own production company by the name of Tigress Pictures in [[Hollywood film industry|Hollywood]], [[Los Angeles]]. The company plans to focus on making inspirational films. Her first home production will be Barefoot Warriors, an original story and concept by Elisha Kriis, it is a feature film weaved around the passion and history of [[soccer]] (football) in India.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.smartindianwomen.com/an-interview-with-elisha-founder-of-tigress-picturess/ |title=An interview with Elisha, founder of "Tigress Picturess" |publisher=Smart Indian Women |access-date=2017-06-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Das |first=Soumitra |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/Vadodara-girls-rock-the-entertainment-industry/photostory/46405907.cms |title=Vadodara girls rock the entertainment industry! | The Times of India |newspaper=The Times of India |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |access-date=2017-06-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Elisha-Kriis-turns-producer/articleshow/33015063.cms |title=Elisha Kriis turns producer - Times of India |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date=2014-03-31 |access-date=2017-06-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/I-am-getting-trained-for-combat-scenes-Elisha-Kriis/articleshow/40114939.cms |title=Oscar award: I am getting trained for combat scenes: Elisha Kriis - Times of India |newspaper=The Times of India |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |access-date=2017-06-26}}</ref> In 2017 she appeared in a feature film titled ''BorderCross'', based on the subject of [[Human Trafficking]].,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.divyabhaskar.co.in/news/MGUJ-VAD-c-35-382992-NOR.html |title=વડોદરાની યુવતી પહોંચી લોસ એંજેલસ: હોલિવુડમાં બનાવ્યો દબદબો |publisher=Divyabhaskar.co.in |date=2015-08-19 |access-date=2017-06-26 |archive-date=15 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115011421/http://www.divyabhaskar.co.in/news/MGUJ-VAD-c-35-382992-NOR.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2018 she was seen in a starring role in the independent feature film ''Body of Sin, a crime'' thriller where she portrays the character of Erica Tate, an unapologetic con artist who uses her skills to steal from straying men<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.screendaily.com/news/premiere-boards-body-of-sin-exclusive/5123922.article|title=Premiere boards 'Body of Sin' (exclusive)|first=Jeremy|last=Kay |date=2017-11-03 |website=Screen}}</ref> and ''Ink and Rain'' where she plays a Cyborg fight handler in a comic fantasy fight arena. In 2019 she joined [[Ken Kragen|Ken Kragen's]] Hands Around the World [[Climate change in the United States|climate change]] campaign.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hands.world/media|title=Hands Around The World|website=www.hands.world}}</ref> In 2020 she was seen in a Gujarati Travel Short Havmore Passport<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sJskHvKOMTA|title=#HavmorPassport - Episode 5 FT. Malhar Thakar|via=www.youtube.com}}</ref> alongside [[Malhar Thakar]] and musician Arpit Gandhi.

In 2021 she hosted a pre Oscar show titled Hollywood Unlimited for [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney's]] [[Oscars|Oscar]] awards show partnering network [[Star World (Indian TV channel)|Star World]] India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mediabrief.com/star-movies-launches-hollywoodunlimited/|title=Star Movies launches Instagram campaign #HollywoodUnlimited featuring Elisha Kriis|author=The News Desk|date=23 April 2021}}</ref> directed and produced a short documentary titled The Fruit of Life, bringing light to the story of woman who claimed to have successfully beat breast cancer by consuming of the leaves of [[Graviola|Graviola Tree.]]

== Filmography ==
===Television===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Show
! Role
! Note
|-
|2011- 2016 ||''Best from the Rest'' || Host || Talk Show
|-
| 2012 || ''Nordic Quest'' || Host || Television Movie
|-
| 2014- 2017 || ''[[Travelxp]]'' ||Host ||<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bestmediainfo.com/2012/07/travelxp-hd-launches-new-show-xplore-belgium/ |title=travelxp HD launches new show Xplore Belgium |publisher=Bestmediainfo.com |date=2012-07-31 |access-date=2017-06-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://issuu.com/dimeoxide/docs/06-05-2011/16 |title=06-05-2011 by P.Pana Suwannawut |publisher=issuu |date=2011-05-05 |access-date=2017-06-26}}</ref>
|-
| 2014 ||''Kingfisher BlueMile'' ||Herself ||
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Undercover (2015 TV series)|Undercover]]'' || Melissa ||Television series
|-
| 2016 || ''Exotic Fashion TV '' || ||Television Special
|-
|}

===Film===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Film
! Role
! Language
! Note
|-
| 2011 || ''[[Ra.One]]'' || Party Girl
|rowspan=3| Hindi || Uncredited role
|-
|rowspan=3| 2013
|''[[Wake Up India]]'' || Supriya ||
|-
|''[[Zanjeer (2013 film)|Zanjeer]]''
|rowspan=2|Shital
|rowspan=2| Bilingual Film
|-
| ''[[Zanjeer (2013 film)|Toofan]]'' || Telugu
|-
|rowspan=2| 2015
|''The Better Half'' ||
|rowspan=4| English || Executive Producer
|-
| ''Hansel vs Gretel'' || Circe ||
|-
|2016 || ''BorderCross'' || Tara ||
|-
|rowspan=3| 2017
| ''[[The Recall]]'' || Eva Kapur ||
|-
|''Gudiya'' || Pooja Chopra || ||
|-
|''The Twisted Doll'' || Pooja Chopra || English || Short Film.
|-
|rowspan=2| 2018
| ''Ink and Rain'' || Lex
|rowspan=6|English ||
|-
|''Body of Sin'' || Erica Tate ||
|-
|rowspan=3| 2019
|''Tournament'' || Jasmine ||
|-
|'' Barefoot Warriors '' || Anjani || Original Concept and Story
|-
|'' Awake Alone'' || Trisha ||
|-
| 2020 || ''Skate God'' || Jade ||
|-
|2020
|''Havmore Passport (Short)''
|Self
|Gujarati
|Co-Host
|-
|2021
|''Hollywood Unlimited (Short)''
|Self
|English
|Host
|-
|2022
|''Fruit of Life (Doc)''
|Self
|English
|Host/ Director
|-
|2022
|''[[Highway Nights (2022 film)]]''
|Self
|Hindi
|Associate Producer
|}
<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twistarticle.com/star-movies-brings-alive-the-magic-of-hollywood-with-hollywoodunlimited/|title=Star Movies brings alive the magic of Hollywood with #HollywoodUnlimited|date=23 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm5988790/?ref_=fn_al_nm_1 | title=Elisha Kriis | Actress, Producer, Director | website=[[IMDb]] }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|name=Elisha Kriis|id=5988790}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kriis, Elisha}}
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda alumni]]
[[Category:People from Panchmahal district]]

M. B. Shetty

2026-03-16T21:24:57Z

ReaganRiordan: started basic stub needs work

{{short description|Indian stunt and action choreographer}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{more citations needed|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox person
| name = M. B. Shetty
| birth_name = Muddu Babu Shetty
| image = M.B. Shetty.jpeg
| birth_date = 1938
| birth_place = [[Mangalore]], [[Bombay Province]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1982|1|23|1938|df=y}}
| death_place =
| spouse = {{ubl|Vinodini|Ratna}}
| children = 5, including [[Hriday Shetty|Hriday]] and [[Rohit Shetty]]
| occupation = {{hlist|[[Character actor]]|stunt and action choreographer|stunt coordinator }}
| years_active = 1956–1981
}}

'''Muddu Babu Shetty''' (1938 – 23 January 1982)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sahgal |first1=Rahul |title=Fight Master Shetty – The 'Original' Singham |url=http://www.filmkailm.com/fight-master-shetty-the-original-singham/ |publisher=Film Ka Ilm |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150828114833/http://www.filmkailm.com/fight-master-shetty-the-original-singham/ |archive-date=28 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> simply known as, '''M. B. Shetty''', or '''Shetty''' was an Indian film stuntman, [[action choreographer]] and actor in [[Hindi cinema]] in 1970s.<ref>{{cite news |title=What a way to take the last bow |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000514/spectrum/main3.htm |work=The Tribune |date=14 May 2000 |access-date=26 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618072524/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000514/spectrum/main3.htm |archive-date=18 June 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=exp>{{cite news |title=All in a Night's Work |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/all-in-a-nights-work/889717/ |publisher=Indian Express |quote=..Shetty, filmmaker Uday Shetty's brother and son of stunt director of the '70s, MB Shetty. |date=20 December 2011 |access-date=26 January 2013 |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011163201/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/all-in-a-nights-work/889717 |url-status=live}}</ref> He had a towering personality with a bald head, often cast as the villain brought down by heroes half his size. He was the father of director [[Rohit Shetty]].

==Early life==
He was born in 1938 in [[Mangalore]], India. He arrived to [[Mumbai|Bombay]] from [[Udupi]]. His mother tongue was [[Tulu language|Tulu]]. He started as a waiter in [[Cotton Green]] after which he got into boxing and bodybuilding.<ref>{{cite web |title=I feel secure as I have Ajay and Shah Rukh: Rohit Shetty |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/I-feel-secure-as-I-have-Ajay-and-Shah-Rukh-Rohit-Shetty/articleshow/21366940.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |publisher=Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. |access-date=20 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903062455/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/I-feel-secure-as-I-have-Ajay-and-Shah-Rukh-Rohit-Shetty/articleshow/21366940.cms |archive-date=3 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Film career==
He started off as a Fight Instructor in the 1956 movie ''Heer''. He was cast as villain and composed stunts for numerous Hindi and [[Kannada cinema]] in the 1970s. He was an action director, doing over 700 films, including cult films like ''[[Don (1978 film)|Don]]'', ''[[The Great Gambler]]'', ''[[Trishul (film)|Trishul]]'', ''[[Deewaar]]'' and ''[[Shalimar (1978 film)|Shalimar]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Isn't it natural that Ajay & I make an action film?' - Rohit Shetty |url=https://www.filmibeat.com/bollywood/features/2010/rohit-ajay-action-film-120510.html |last=Hungama |first=Subhash K. Jha, Bollywood |date=12 May 2010 |language=en |access-date=30 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430215952/https://www.filmibeat.com/bollywood/features/2010/rohit-ajay-action-film-120510.html |url-status=live |archive-date=30 April 2020}}</ref> Shetty also starred with [[M.G. Ramachandran]] (MGR), in [[Navarathinam]] (1977) [[Tamil language|Tamil]] movie.

==Personal life==
His first wife was Vinodini, with whom he had two daughters and two sons. With his second wife, Ratna, he had another son, the film director [[Rohit Shetty]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Step-bro-disowns-Rohit-Shetty/articleshow/8435024.cms |title=Step-bro disowns Rohit Shetty - TOI Mobile | the Times of India Mobile Site |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=24 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815193534/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Step-bro-disowns-Rohit-Shetty/articleshow/8435024.cms |archive-date=15 August 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Filmography==
===Actor===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes
|-
| 1957 || ''[[Tumsa Nahin Dekha (1957 film)|Tumsa Nahin Dekha]]'' || Bhola || (as Shetty)
|-
| 1958 || ''Detective'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| 1959 || ''Qaidi No. 911'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1961 || ''Sapera'' ||
|-
| ''Tel Malish Boot Polish'' || Kallu || (as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1962 || ''Gangu'' || Train Thief ||
|-
| ''[[China Town (1962 film)|China Town]]'' || Ching Lee || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Neeli Aankhen'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1963 || ''Royal Mail'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Phir Wohi Dil Laya Hoon]]'' || Spectator || Uncredited
|-
| 1964 || ''[[April Fool (1964 film)|April Fool]]'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| 1965 || ''Tu Hi Meri Zindagi'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="5"| 1967 || ''[[Shagird (1967 film)|Shagird]]'' || Ruffian || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[An Evening in Paris]]'' || Jaggu || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Night in London]]'' || Bald Gangster || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[C.I.D. 909]]'' || Shetty || (as Master Shetty)
|-
| ''Duniya Nachegi'' || Carvalho ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1968 || ''[[Ankhen (1968 film)|Ankhen]]'' || The Guard who gets arrested with the Diamond Dealer ||
|-
| ''Haye Mera Dil'' || Man who gets slapped on the street || Uncredited
|-
| rowspan="5"| 1969 || ''[[Yakeen (1969 film)|Yakeen]]'' || Photographer || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Gunda'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Ustad 420'' || John || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Kismat (1968 film)|Kismat]]'' || Jai || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Pyar Ka Mausam]]'' || Samson || Uncredited
|-
| rowspan="11"| 1970 || ''Patni'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Kaurav Pandav'' || ||
|-
| ''Mangu Dada'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[The Train (1970 film)|The Train]]'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Kab? Kyoon? Aur Kahan?]]'' || Foreign Arm wrestler || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Bhai-Bhai (1970 film)|Bhai-Bhai]]'' || Train Robber ||
|-
| ''[[Aag Aur Daag]] ''|| Shetty || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Gunahon Ka Raaste'' || Lalu || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[The Evil Within (1970 film)|The Evil Within]]'' || Shetty ||
|-
| ''[[Insaan Aur Shaitan]]'' || Solanki ||
|-
| ''[[Inspector (1970 film)|Inspector]]'' || Pinto ||
|-
| rowspan="6"| 1971 || ''Murder in Circus'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Kahin Aar Kahin Paar'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Elaan (1971 film)|Elaan]]'' || Boss || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Nadaan (1971 film)|Nadaan]]'' || Gunga Pahelwan || Uncredited
|-
| ''[[Rakhwala (1971 film)|Rakhwala]]'' || Shamsher Singh || Uncredited
|-
| ''[[Buddha Mil Gaya (film)|Buddha Mil Gaya]]'' || Shetty || (as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="7"| 1972 || ''[[Apradh]]'' || Goon || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Lalkar|Lalkar (The Challenge)]]'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Seeta Aur Geeta]]'' || Kidnapper (Bald Guy) || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Victoria No. 203 (1972 film)|Victoria No. 203]]'' || Shetty || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Samadhi (1972 film)|Samadhi]]'' || Jr Artist || Uncredited
|-
| ''[[Babul Ki Galiyan]]'' || George ||
|-
| ''[[Sazaa (1972 film)|Sazaa]]'' || Raaka ||
|-
| rowspan="8"| 1973 || ''Gharibi Hatao'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Anhonee (1973 film)|Anhonee]]'' || Henchman || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Dhamkee]]'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Yaadon Ki Baaraat]]'' || Martin || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Anokhi Ada (1973 film)|Anokhi Ada]]'' || Birju || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Kahani Kismat Ki]]'' || Jagga || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Hum Sub Chor Hain (1973 film)|Hum Sab Chor Hain]]'' || Shankar || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Rani Aur Jaani'' || Saudagar Singh || (as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="9"| 1974 || ''[[Dost (1974 film)|Dost]]'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Patthar Aur Payal]]'' || Heera || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[International Crook]]'' || Jaggu ||
|-
| ''[[Pran Jaye Par Vachan Na Jaye]]'' || Mangal Singh's Henchman || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Jeevan Rekha'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Paise Ki Gudiya'' || Jaggu (Pimp) || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Duniya Ka Mela]]'' || Martin || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Badla'' || Pinto || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Goonj (1974 film)|Goonj]]'' || Man who meets Rajesh at the station ||
|-
| rowspan="6"| 1975 || ''[[Rafoo Chakkar]] ''|| Raka || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Warrant (film)|Warrant]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Chori Mera Kaam]]'' || Shetty || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Dhoti Lota Aur Chowpatty]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Jaggu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kalla Kulla]]'' || Tony ||
|-
| rowspan="9"| 1976 || ''[[Shankar Dada]]'' || Jaggu || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Fakira (film)|Fakira]]'' || Raja aka Baldy || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Ek Se Badhkar Ek (1976 film)|Ek Se Badhkar Ek]]'' || John – J.K.'s Henchman || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Aaj Ka Mahaatma]]'' || Shetty || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Do Khiladi]]'' || Shetty || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Sangram'' || Tiger ||
|-
| ''[[Santo Banto]]'' || Kaalu Smuggler || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Harfan Maulaa'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Kalicharan]]'' || Shetty || (as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="5"| 1977 || ''[[Immaan Dharam]]'' || Kargah || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Navarathinam]]'' || || Tamil film
|-
| ''[[Kasum Khoon Ki]]'' || Ganja Shetty ||
|-
| ''[[Ram Bharose]]'' || Jaggu || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Maha Badmaash]]'' || Alberto || (as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="14"| 1978 || ''[[Rahu Ketu (1978 film)|Rahu Ketu]]'' || Joginder || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Phaansi]]'' || Bheema || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Kasme Vaade]]'' || Bandit || Uncredited
|-
| ''[[Trishul (film)|Trishul]]'' || Madhav Singh || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Don (1978 film)|Don]]'' || Shakaal || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Do Musafir]]'' || Landlord || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Azaad (1978 film)|Azaad]]'' || Ajit Singh's Henchman || Uncredited
|-
| ''Anpadh'' || Mangal || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Chor Ke Ghar Chor]]'' || Shankar || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Shalimar (1978 film)|Shalimar]]'' || Tribal Chief ||
|-
| ''[[Khoon Ka Badla Khoon]]'' || Al fanzo's goon || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Kiladi Kittu]]'' || || Kannada film
|-
| ''Chor Ka Bhai Chor'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Operation Diamond Racket]]'' || || Kannada film
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1979 || ''Pehredaar'' || ||
|-
| ''[[The Great Gambler]]'' || Martin || Uncredited
|-
| ''[[Heera-Moti]]'' || Pratap's assistant || (as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="5"| 1980 || ''[[Be-Reham]]'' || Shetty ||
|-
| ''[[Gehrayee]]'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Kala Pani'' || Shetty || Uncredited
|-
| ''[[Garam Khoon]]'' || Swamy ||
|-
| ''[[Rusthum Jodi]]'' || Tony || Kannada film
|-
| rowspan="5"| 1981 || ''[[Chehre Pe Chehra]]'' || Bar bouncer ||
|-
| ''[[Jail Yatra (1981 film)|Jail Yatra]]'' || Kuldeep's Henchman || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''Ek Aur Ek Gyarah'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Maan Gaye Ustaad]]'' || Jaikishan's goon || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Simhada Mari Sainya]]'' || Dayaram || Kannada film{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}
|-
| rowspan="5"| 1982 || ''Prohari'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Vakil Babu]]'' || Man attacked Mr. Mathur || Uncredited
|-
| ''[[Heeron Ka Chor]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Kanya Dweep'' || || (as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Ustadi Ustad Se]]'' || Prem's associated || (as Shetty)
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Jurmana (1996 film)|Jurmana]]'' || || (as Shetty) (final film role)
|}

===Stunts===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role
|-
| 1956 || ''Heer'' || (fight instructor)
|-
| 1958 || ''Detective'' || (action coordinator – as Shetty)
|-
| 1959 || ''[[Ujala (film)|Ujala]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| 1960 || ''[[Singapore (1960 film)|Singapore]]'' || (stunt coordinator)
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1961 || ''Tel Malish Boot Polish'' || (stunt coordinator: fights – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Junglee (1961 film)|Junglee]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Jab Pyar Kisise Hota Hai]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| 1962 || ''[[China Town (1962 film)|China Town]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1963 || ''Pyar Ka Bandhan'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Phir Wohi Dil Laya Hoon]]'' || (action coordinator: fights – as Shetty)
|-
| ''Holiday in Bombay'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1964 || ''[[Kashmir Ki Kali]]'' || (fight composer – as Master Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Ishaara (1964 film)|Ishaara]]'' || (action coordinator)
|-
| ''[[April Fool (1964 film)|April Fool]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1965 || ''Mohabbat Isko Kahete Hain'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Janwar (1965 film)|Janwar]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1966 || ''[[Teesri Manzil]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Sawan Ki Ghata]]'' || (fight composer – as Master Shetty)
|-
| ''Dada'' || (stunt coordinator – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Amrapali (film)|Amrapali]]'' || (stunt director: fights – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1967 || ''Latt Saheb'' || (fight composer – as Shetty) naren
|-
| ''[[An Evening in Paris]]'' || (stunt coordinator: fights – as Master Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="5"| 1968 || ''[[Mere Hamdam Mere Dost]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Jhuk Gaya Aasman]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''Haye Mera Dil'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''Dil Aur Mohabbat'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Brahmachari (1968 Hindi film)|Brahmachari]]'' || (fighting instructor – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="8"| 1969 || ''[[Yakeen (1969 film)|Yakeen]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Talash (1969 film)|Talash]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Pyar Ka Mausam]]'' || (stunts: fight)
|-
| ''[[Pyar Hi Pyar]]'' || (fight composer – as Master Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Prince (1969 film)|Prince]]'' || (fight composer – as Master Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Jeene Ki Raah]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Ek Shrimaan Ek Shrimati]]'' || (stunt coordinator: fights – as Master Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Anjaana]]'' || (stunts – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="5"| 1970 || ''[[The Evil Within (1970 film)|The Evil Within]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[My Love (1970 film)|My Love]]'' || (fight composer – as Master Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Kati Patang]]'' || (fight composer – as Master Shetty)
|-
| ''Gunahon Ka Raaste'' || (stunt coordinator – as Master Shetty)
|-
| ''[[The Train (1970 film)|The Train]]'' || (fights)
|-
| rowspan="8"| 1971 || ''[[Paraya Dhan]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Jwala (1971 film)|Jwala]]'' || (stunts – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Caravan (1971 film)|Caravan]]'' || (fight composer – as Master Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Buddha Mil Gaya (film)|Buddha Mil Gaya]]'' || (fight composer)
|-
| ''[[Aap Aye Bahaar Ayee]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Jaane-Anjaane]]'' || (fight composer – as Master Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Kal Aaj Aur Kal]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Nadaan (1971 film)|Nadaan]]'' || (action coordinator: thrills – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1972 || ''[[Seeta Aur Geeta]]'' || (fighting instructor – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Be-Imaan]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Lalkaar|Lalkar (The Challenge)]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Victoria No. 203 (1972 film)|Victoria No. 203]]'' || (fights – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="6"| 1973 || ''[[Yaadon Ki Baaraat]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Bada Kabutar]]'' || (stunts – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Anokhi Ada (1973 film)|Anokhi Ada]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Anhonee (1973 film)|Anhonee]]'' || (fight composer – as Master Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Daag (1973 film)|Daag: A Poem of Love]]'' || (fight composer)
|-
| ''[[Joshila]]'' || (action coordinator: jail sequences – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1974 || ''[[Dost (1974 film)|Dost]]'' || (stunt director: fights – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Amir Garib]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Patthar Aur Payal]]'' || (fights – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Bidaai (1974 film)|Bidaai]]'' || (fights – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1975 || ''[[Sanyasi (film)|Sanyasi]]'' || (fights)
|-
| ''[[Deewaar]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Amanush (1975 film)|Amanush]]'' || (fight composer – as Master Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Chori Mera Kaam]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="6"| 1976 || ''[[Aaj Ka Mahaatma]]'' || (stunt coordinator: thrills – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Kabhie Kabhie (1976 film)|Kabhi Kabhie – Love Is Life]]'' ||(stunt coordinator: thrills – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Khaan Dost]]'' || (stunt director: thrills – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Mehbooba (1976 film)|Mehbooba]]'' || (stunt director: fights)
|-
| ''[[Shankar Dada]]'' || (action coordinator: fights – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Ek Se Badhkar Ek (1976 film)|Ek Se Badhkar Ek]]'' || (fights – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="4"| 1977 || ''[[Ram Bharose]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Immaan Dharam]]'' || (stunt director: fights – as Shetty)
|-
| ''Dhoop Chhaon'' || (action coordinator: fights – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Doosra Aadmi]]'' || (stunt coordinator: thrills – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1978 || ''[[Phaansi]]'' || (stunt coordinator: thrills – as Shetty)
|-
|''[[Don (1978 film)|Don]]'' || (fight composer – as Shetty, villain actor – as Shakaal)
|-
| ''[[Shalimar (1978 film)|Shalimar]]'' || (stunt master)
|-
| 1979 || ''[[The Great Gambler]]'' || (stunt coordinator: fights – as Shetty)
|-
| 1980 || ''[[Bombay 405 Miles]]'' || (stunt coordinator: fights – as Shetty)
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1981 || ''[[Barsaat Ki Ek Raat]]'' || (action coordinator – as Shetty)
|-
| ''[[Jail Yatra (1981 film)|Jail Yatra]]'' || (action coordinator – as Shetty)
|}

==See also==
* [[List of Indian film actors]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|0792901}}
* {{IMDb title|tt0357736|Heer}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shetty, M. B.}}
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:Place of death missing]]
[[Category:1982 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Indian action choreographers]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Indian stunt performers]]
[[Category:Male actors from Mangalore]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Mangaloreans]]
[[Category:People from Dakshina Kannada district]]
[[Category:Tulu people]]

Aryambika S. V.

2026-03-15T09:35:23Z

ReaganRiordan: Adding first post needs work!

{{short description|Indian Malayalam language poet}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Aryambika S. V.
| native_name =
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1981}}
| birth_place = Edanadu, [[Pala, Kerala|Pala]], [[Kottayam district]], [[Kerala]], India
| occupation = Poet, Assistant Professor
| nationality = Indian
| alma_mater = [[Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit]]
| genre = Poetry
| notableworks =
| spouse = Sreedas
| children = 2

| parents = K. N. Viswanathan Nair M. K. Savithriamma
| relatives =
| awards = [[Yuva Puraskar]] Kanakasree Award
| website =
}}
'''Aryambika S. V.''' (born 1981) is a [[Malayalam language]] poet from [[Kerala]], India. She received several awards including [[Yuva Puraskar]] by [[Sahithya Akademi]] and Kanakasree Award by [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]].

==Biography==
Aryambika was born on 1981 at Edanadu, [[Pala, Kerala|Pala]], [[Kottayam district]], Kerala to K. N. Viswanathan Nair and M. K. Savithriamma.<ref name="keralawomen">{{cite web |title=മലയാളത്തിലെ എഴുത്തുകാരികൾ |url=https://keralawomen.gov.in/index.php/ml/node/283 |website=Kerala Women |publisher=Department of Women and Child Development, Kerala state |language=ml |date=1 March 2020}}</ref> Her mother Savitriamma was a Sanskrit teacher.<ref name="Madhyamam">{{cite news |last1=ഡെസ്ക് |first1=വെബ് |title=കലയുടെ നൂപുര നാദമുണര്‍ത്തി ആര്യാംബിക {{!}} Madhyamam |url=https://www.madhyamam.com/news/2016/jan/20/172852 |work=www.madhyamam.com |date=20 January 2016 |language=ml}}</ref> Her father Viswanathan Nair, who was a teacher and exponet in [[Aksharaslokam]], discovered her ability to write and encouraged her to write poetry.<ref name="Madhyamam"/><ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> After completing primary education from Edanad Govt. L. P. School and Edanad Shakthivilasam N.S.S. High School, she done her graduation from [[Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit]] (Thiruvananthapuram Regional Center & Kalady).<ref name="Keralaliterature"/> Aryambika worked as a teacher at Poovarani Govt LP School near Pala.<ref name="Mathrubhumi">{{cite news |title=അക്ഷരശ്ലോകത്തിന്റെ ആചാര്യന് അശ്രു പൂജയായി ആര്യാംബികയ്ക്ക് അവാര്‍ഡ്‌ |url=https://archives.mathrubhumi.com/kottayam/news/--1.301194 |work=Mathrubhumi |language=en |access-date=23 February 2022 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223070647/https://archives.mathrubhumi.com/kottayam/news/--1.301194 |url-status=dead }}</ref> She currently works as Assistant Professor of [[Sanskrit]] at Sanskrit department, [[Mahathma Gandhi College]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]].<ref name="MGC">{{cite web |title=Poetry Award for Faculty – Mahatma Gandhi College |url=https://mgcollegetvm.ac.in/media/news/poetry-award-for-faculty/}}</ref>
===Personal life===
Aryambika and her husband Sreedas, a native of Panangad and an IT auditor have one son.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/>

==Literary career==
Aryambika has excelled in [[Aksharaslokam]] and poetry since childhood.<ref name="news18">{{cite news |title=ആര്യാംബികയ്ക്ക് കടവനാട് സ്മൃതി പുരസ്കാരം |url=https://malayalam.news18.com/news/life/women-aryambika-wins-kadavanad-smriti-awards-62131.html |work=News18 Malayalam |agency=News 18 |date=2 December 2018 |language=ml}}</ref> She also writes songs, and also wrote the lyrics for the musical documentary ''Amma Abhayam'' directed by Babu Gopalakrishnan.<ref name="Keralaliterature">{{cite web |title=ആര്യാംബിക എസ്.വി |url=http://keralaliterature.com/malayalam-writers-%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%B4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8D/aryambaika-s-v%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95-%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D-%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF-2/ |website=Keralaliterature.com |date=13 May 2020}}</ref> The opening song for the 2016 [[Kerala School Kalolsavam]] was written by Aryambika.<ref name="Madhyamam"/><ref>{{cite news |title=A different tune from a Hindustani exponent |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/A-different-tune-from-a-Hindustani-exponent/article13984366.ece |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=22 September 2016 |language=en-IN}}</ref> She had also wrote the song for the Kerala government's ''Sutharya Keralam'' program.<ref name="Madhyamam"/> She is also active in a [[shloka]] organization named ''Pala Kairaleeshlokarangam''.<ref name="Keralaliterature"/>

==Works==
*{{cite book |title=Rathriyude Niramulla Janala |date=2021 |publisher=DC books |location=Kottayam |isbn=9789354329807 |language=Malayalam}} Poetry collection.
*{{cite book |title=Thonniyapoloru Puzha |date=2010 |publisher=DC books |location=Kottayam |isbn=9788126428595 |language=Malayalam}} Poetry collection.
*{{cite book |title=Kattilodunna Theevandi |date=2017 |publisher=[[D. C. Books]] |location=Kottayam |isbn=9788126476442 |language=Malayalam}} Poetry collection.
*{{cite book |title=Mannamkattayum Kariyilayum |date=2006 |publisher=Kairalishlokarangam |location=Pala |url=http://kslc.in/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=81786 |language=Malayalam}} Poetry collection.
*{{cite book |title=Ankanam Kavithakal |date=2007 |publisher=Ankanam Books |location=Thrissur |language=Malayalam}} Anthology<ref name="keralawomen"/>

==Awards and honors==
*[[Yuva Puraskar]] 2015 by [[Sahithya Akademi]]<ref name="news18"/>
*Kanakasree Award 2012 by [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Aryambika- Speaker in Kerala literature Festival KLF –2022{{!}} Keralaliteraturefestival.com |url=https://www.keralaliteraturefestival.com/speakers_more.aspx?id=MjEyOQ== |website=www.keralaliteraturefestival.com |access-date=23 February 2022 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223070648/https://www.keralaliteraturefestival.com/speakers_more.aspx?id=MjEyOQ== |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*
*[[Edasseri Award]] for Poetry 2018<ref name="MGC"/>
*Second place in ''Kavyakeli'' (poetry) in [[Kerala School Kalolsavam]] held in Kottayam in 1996<ref name="Madhyamam"/>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aryambika, S. V.}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Malayali people]]
[[Category:Writers from Kottayam district]]
[[Category:Poets from Kerala]]
[[Category:Women writers from Kerala]]
[[Category:Malayalam poets]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:People from Pala, Kerala]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Yuva Puraskar]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women poets]]

V. V. Subrahmanyam

2026-03-09T08:11:30Z

ReaganRiordan: adding first article first draft

{{Short description|Indian violist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2023}}

{{Infobox person
| name = V. V. Subrahmanyam
| birth_name = Vadakkencheri Veeraraghava Subrahmanyam
| birth_date = 1944
| birth_place = [[Ernakulam]], [[Kerala]], India
| occupation = Violinist, composer, academic
| years_active = 1960s–present
| known_for = Carnatic violin performance
| awards = {{plainlist|
* [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] (2005)
* Sangeet Natak Akademi Award (2005)
* [[Kalaimamani]](1993)
* [[Kerala Sangeetha Nataka Akademi Award]] (1988)
}}
}}

'''V.V.Subrahmanyam''', commonly known as '''VVS''' (born 1944), is an Indian violist, [[composer]], and [[Academic staff|academic]]. Regarded as one of the best violinist in carnatic music.<ref name="de">{{Cite web|url=http://driveeast.org/vv-subrahmanyam-tv-gopalakrishnan--vvs-murari.html|title=VV Subramanyam, TV Gopalakrishnan & VVS Murari}}</ref><ref name="sangeetnatak">{{Cite web|url=https://sangeetnatak.gov.in/public/uploads/awardees/docs/V_V_Subrahmanyam.pdf|title=Awardees - V V Subrahmanyam}}</ref>

==Early life==
VVS was born as Vadakkencheri Veeraraghava Subrahmanyam in 1944 in [[Ernakulam]], [[Kerala]].<ref name="sangeetnatak"/>

VVS received his early education from his father.<ref name="de"/> He received further training from Carnatic music violinists such as Tripunithura Narayana Iyer, [[Chembai]], [[Musiri Subramania Iyer]], and [[Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer]].<ref name="de"/>

==Career==
In 1966, VVS performed on the violin at the [[United Nations General Assembly]] with [[T. K. Murthy]] and [[M. S. Subbulakshmi]].<ref name="de"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/remembering-a-guru-who-structured-the-art-of-mridangam-playing/article65236881.ece|title=Remembering a guru, who structured the art of mridangam playing|first=R.|last=Revathi|date=24 March 2022|website=The Hindu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/music/photo-exhibition-united-nations-m-s-subbulakshmi-classical-music-2983785/|title=On a Classical Note|date=19 August 2016|newspaper=[[Indian Express]]|first=Suanshu|last=Khurana|accessdate=12 April 2023}}</ref>

Between 1978 and 1982, VVS was a professor of violin at the Tamil Nadu Government Music College.<ref name="sangeetnatak"/> He has also taught at [[Wesleyan University]] in the United States and some universities in Europe.<ref name="sangeetnatak"/>

In 1993, he was awarded with [[Kalaimamani]] given by the Tamil Nadu Eyal lsai Nataka Manram.<ref name="sangeetnatak"/>

In 1988, he received the [[Kerala Sangeetha Nataka Akademi Award]] and in 2005, he received the [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]].<ref name="sangeetnatak"/>

==Awards and recognition==
* [[Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]] (2005)<ref name="sangeetnatak"/>
* [[Kalaimamani]] (1993)<ref name="sangeetnatak"/>
* [[Kerala Sangeetha Nataka Akademi Award]] (1988)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.keralaculture.org/classical-music-a-ksna/464 |title=Kerala Sangeetha Nataka Akademi Award: Classical Music |publisher=Department of Cultural Affairs, Government of Kerala |access-date=26 February 2023}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:1944 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Wesleyan University faculty]]
[[Category:Musicians from Kochi]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Kalaimamani Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Kerala Sangeetha Nataka Akademi Award]]

Abhinavagupta

2026-03-08T10:10:09Z

ReaganRiordan: Adding initial article from scratch!

{{Short description|Indian philosopher and writer (c.950–1016)}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox Hindu leader
| name = Abhinavagupta
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = c. 950 [[Common Era|CE]]
| birth_place = [[Kashmir Valley|Kashmir]]
| birth_name = Shankara
| death_date = c. 1016 [[Common Era|CE]]
| death_place = Mangam, Kashmir
| influences =
| influenced = [[Śambhunātha]], [[Lakṣmaṇagupta]], [[Bhūtirāja]]
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| school_tradition = [[Kashmir Shaivism]]
| known_for = [[Doctrine of Vibration]] (''spanda'')
| works = Tantrāloka etc
| image_upright = https://risingkashmir.blr1.digitaloceanspaces.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/19013701/1_pwskSBSzXWsyuwafpx3KNg.jpg
}}
{{Asian philosophy sidebar}}
{{Saivism}}

'''Abhinavagupta''' ([[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]] अभिनवगुप्तः; c. 950 – 1016 [[Common Era|CE]]<ref>Triadic Heart of Shiva, Paul E. Muller-Ortega, page 12</ref><ref name="Introduction">{{cite book|author=Rastogi|first=Navjivan|title=Introduction to the Tantraloka: A Study in Structure|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|year=1987|isbn=9788120801806|location=Delhi}}</ref>{{rp|27}}) was a [[Indian philosophy|philosopher]], [[Mysticism|mystic]] and [[Aesthetics|aesthetician]] from [[Kashmir Valley|Kashmir]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Abhinavagupta – the Philosopher |url=http://www.koausa.org/Glimpses/abhinava.html |access-date=30 May 2012 |archive-date=20 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170720194646/http://www.koausa.org/Glimpses/abhinava.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> He was also considered an influential [[Music of India|musician]], [[Indian poetry|poet]], [[Theatre in India|dramatist]], [[exegesis|exegete]], [[Theology|theologian]], and [[Indian logic|logician]]<ref name="Re-accessing Abhinavagupta page 4">Re-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, page 4</ref><ref>Key to the Vedas, Nathalia Mikhailova, page 169</ref> – a [[polymath]]ic personality who exercised strong influences on [[Indian culture]].<ref>The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare, page 12</ref><ref>Companion to Tantra, S.C. Banerji, page 89</ref>

Abhinavagupta was born in a [[Kanyakubja Brahmin|Kānyakubja Brāhmin]] family of scholars and mystics whose ancestors immigrated from [[Kannauj]] on invitation by the great king of Kashmir, [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7F6Sxu0-50QC |title=Proceedings and Transactions of the ... All-India Oriental Conference |page=48|date=1964 |publisher=Bihar and Orissa Research Society|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XUXFJnx7STUC|title=Journal asiatique, Volumes 244-245|page=238|date=1956 |publisher=Société asiatique}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| author= D.D. Kosambi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jSduAAAAMAAJ |title=Indian Society Historical Probings, in, Memory of D. D. Kosambi|page=185|date=1974 |publisher=People's Publishing House}}</ref> He studied all the schools of philosophy and art of his time under the guidance of as many as fifteen (or more) teachers and [[guru]]s.<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|35}} In his long life he completed over 35 works, the largest and most famous of which is ''[[Tantraloka|Tantrāloka]]'', an encyclopedic treatise on all the philosophical and practical aspects of [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]] and [[Trika]] (known today as [[Kashmir Shaivism]]). Another one of his very important contributions was in the field of philosophy of aesthetics with his famous ''[[Abhinavabharati|Abhinavabhāratī]]'' commentary of ''[[Natya Shastra|Nāṭyaśāstra]]'' of [[Bharata Muni]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Luce dei Tantra, Tantrāloka, Abhinavagupta, Raniero Gnoli, page LXXVII</ref>

==Life==
"Abhinavagupta" was not his real name, rather a title he earned from his Guru, meaning "competence and authoritativeness".<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|20}}<ref>The Krama Tantricism of Kashmir; Navjivan Rastogi, page 157</ref> In his analysis, Jayaratha (1150–1200 AD)<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|92}} – who was Abhinavagupta's most important commentator – also reveals three more meanings: "being ever vigilant", "being present everywhere" and "protected by praises".<ref name="The Kula Ritual">{{cite book|title=The Kula Ritual as Elaborated in Chapter 29 of the Tantrāloka of Abhinavagupta|author=John R. Dupuche}}</ref>{{rp|4}} Raniero Gnoli, the only [[Sanskrit]] scholar who completed a translation of [[Tantraloka|Tantrāloka]] in a European language, mentions that "Abhinava" also means "new",<ref>Luce dei Tantra, Tantrāloka, Abhinavagupta, Raniero Gnoli, 1999, page 3</ref> as a reference to the ever-new creative force of his mystical experience.

From Jayaratha, we learn that Abhinavagupta was in possession of all the six qualities required for the recipients of the tremendous level of [[Shaktipat|śaktipāta]], as described in the sacred texts (Śrīpūrvaśāstra):<ref name="Abhinavagupta, Ganesh Tryambak Deshpande page 19">Abhinavagupta, Ganesh Tryambak Deshpande, page 19</ref> an unflinching faith in God, realisation of [[mantra]]s, control over objective principles (referring to [[the 36 tattvas]]), successful conclusion of all the activities undertaken, poetic creativity and spontaneous knowledge of all disciplines.<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|21}}

Abhinavagupta's creation is well equilibrated between the branches of the triad ([[Trika]]): will (''icchā''), knowledge (''[[Jnana|jñāna]]''), action (''[[Kriya|kriyā]]''); his works also include devotional songs, academical/philosophical works<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|20}} and works describing ritual/yogic practices.<ref>Re-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, page 8</ref>

As an author, he is considered a systematiser of the philosophical thought. He reconstructed, rationalised and orchestrated the philosophical knowledge into a more coherent form,<ref>Re-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, page 10</ref> assessing all the available sources of his time.

Various contemporary scholars have characterised Abhinavagupta as a "brilliant scholar and saint",<ref name="Utpaladeva page XXXIII">Īśvara Pratyabhijñā Kārikā of Utpaladeva, Verses on the Recognition of the Lord; B. N. Pandit, page XXXIII</ref> "the pinnacle of the development of Kaśmir Śaivism"<ref name="Utpaladeva page XXXIII" /> and "in possession of yogic realization".<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|20}}

==Social background, family and disciples==

==="Magical" birth===
The term by which Abhinavagupta himself defines his origin is "yoginībhū", 'born of a [[Yogini|yoginī]]'.<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|20}}<ref>Luce dei Tantra, Tantrāloka, Abhinavagupta, Raniero Gnoli, page 3</ref> In Kashmir Shaivism and especially in Kaula it is considered that a progeny of parents "established in the divine essence of [[Bhairava]]",<ref>Re-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, page 2</ref> is endowed with exceptional spiritual and intellectual prowess. Such a child is supposed to be "the depository of knowledge", who "even as a child in the womb, has the form of [[Shiva]]",<ref name="The Kula Ritual" /> to enumerate but a few of the classical attributes of his kind.

===Parents===
Abhinavagupta was born in a [[Kanyakubja Brahmin]] family in Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7F6Sxu0-50QC |title=Proceedings and Transactions of the ... All-India Oriental Conference |page=48|date=1964 |publisher=Bihar and Orissa Research Society|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rdnrfuOJ6sC&pg=PA188|title=Living Liberation in Hindu Thought|page=188|author1=Andrew O. Fort|author2=Patricia Y. Mumme|publisher=SUNY Press|date=1 January 1996|isbn=9780791427057}}</ref> His mother, ''Vimalā'' (''Vimalakalā'') died when Abhinavagupta was just two years old;<ref name="Tantra, Tantrāloka page 4">Luce dei Tantra, Tantrāloka, Abhinavagupta, Raniero Gnoli, page 4</ref><ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|31}} as a consequence of losing his mother, to whom he was reportedly very attached,<ref name="Abhinavagupta, Ganesh Tryambak Deshpande page 19" /> he grew more distant from worldly life and focused all the more on spiritual endeavour.

The father, Narasiṃhgupt, after his wife's death favoured an ascetic lifestyle, while raising his three children. He had a cultivated mind and a heart "outstandingly adorned with devotion to Mahesvara (Shiva)"<ref name="Tantra, Tantrāloka page 4" /> (in Abhinavagupta's own words). He was Abhinavagupta's first teacher, instructing him in [[Sanskrit grammar|grammar]], [[Indian logic|logic]] and [[Sanskrit literature|literature]].<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|30}}

===Family===

Abhinavagupta had a brother and a sister. His brother, Manoratha, was a well-versed devotee of Shiva.<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|22}} His sister, Ambā (probable name, according to Navjivan Rastogi), devoted herself to worship after the death of her husband in late life.

His cousin Karṇa demonstrated even from his youth that he grasped the essence of Śaivism and was detached of the world. His wife was presumably Abhinavagupta's older sister Ambā,<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|24}} who looked with reverence upon her illustrious brother. Ambā and Karṇa had a son, Yogeśvaridatta, who was precociously talented in yoga<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|23}}

Abhinavagupta also mentions his disciple Rāmadeva as faithfully devoted to scriptural study and serving his master.<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|24}} Another cousin was Kṣema, possibly the same as Abhinavagupta's illustrious disciple Kṣemarāja. Mandra, a childhood friend of Karṇa, was their host in a suburban residence; he was not only rich and in possession of a pleasing personality, but also equally learned.<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|25}} And last but not least, Vatasikā, Mandra's aunt, who got a special mention from Abhinavagupta for caring for him with exceptional dedication and concern; to express his gratitude, Abhinavagupta declared that Vatasikā deserved the credit for the successful completion of his work.<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|26}}

The emerging picture here is that Abhinavagupta lived in a nurturing and protected environment, where his creative energies got all the support they required. Everyone around him was filled with spiritual fervor and had taken Abhinavagupta as their spiritual master. Such a supporting group of family and friends was equally necessary as his personal qualities of genius, to complete a work of the magnitude of [[Tantraloka|Tantrāloka]].

===Ancestors===
By Abhinavagupta's own account, his most remote known ancestor was called Atrigupta, born in antarved [[Kannauj|Kānyakubja]] in [[Madhyadesha]], i.e. the Middle Country. From Madhyadeśa he travelled to [[Kashmir]] at the request of king [[Lalitaditya Muktapida|Lalitāditya]],<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|28}}<ref name="The Kula Ritual" />{{rp|3}} around year 740 CE.<ref name="Triadic Mysticism page 12">Triadic Mysticism, Paul E. Murphy, page 12</ref>

==Masters==
Abhinavagupta is famous for his voracious thirst for knowledge. To study he took many teachers (as many as fifteen),<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|33}} both mystical philosophers and scholars. He approached [[Vaishnavism|Vaiṣṇavas]], [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], [[Shaiva Siddhanta|Śiddhānta Śaivists]], and the [[Trika]] scholars.

Among the most prominent of his teachers, he enumerates four, two of whom were Vāmanātha, who instructed him in dualistic Śaivism,<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|54}} and Bhūtirāja in the dualist/nondualist school. Besides being the teacher of the famous Abhinavagupta, Bhūtirāja was also the father of two eminent scholars.<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|34}}

Lakṣmaṇagupta, a direct disciple of [[Utpaladeva]], in the lineage of Trayambaka, was highly respected by Abhinavagupta and taught him all the schools of monistic thought: Krama, [[Trika]], and Pratyabhijña (except [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kula]]).<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|54}} Śambhunātha taught him the fourth school (Ardha-trayambaka). This school is in fact Kaula, and it was emanated from Trayambaka's daughter.

For Abhinavagupta, Śambhunātha was the most admired guru. Describing the greatness of his master, he compared Śambhunātha to the Sun, in his power to dispel ignorance from the heart, and, in another place, with "the Moon shining over the ocean of Trika knowledge."<ref name="The Kula Ritual" />{{rp|7}} Abhinavagupta received Kaula initiation through Śambhunātha's wife (acting as a dūtī or [[Conduit (spiritualism)|conduit]]). The energy of this initiation is transmitted and sublimated into the heart and finally into consciousness. Such a method is difficult but very rapid and is reserved for those who shed their mental limitations and are pure. It was Śambhunātha who requested he write [[Tantraloka|Tantrāloka]]. As guru, he had a profound influence in the structure of [[Tantraloka|Tantrāloka]]<ref>The Triadic Heart of Śiva, Kaula Tantricism of Abhinavagupta in the Non-Dual Shaivism of Kashmir; Paul Eduardo Muller-Ortega, page 1</ref> and in the life of its creator, Abhinavagupta.<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|44–54}}

As many as twelve more of his principal teachers are enumerated by name but without details.<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|35,54}} It is believed that Abhinavagupta had more secondary teachers. Moreover, during his life he had accumulated a large number of texts from which he quoted in his magnum opus, in his desire to create a syncretic, all-inclusive system, where the contrasts of different scriptures could be resolved by integration into a superior perspective.

==Lifestyle==
Abhinavagupta remained unmarried all his life,<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|32}} and as an adept of [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]], at least initially maintained [[brahmacharya]] and supposedly used the vital force of his energy (ojas) to deepen his understanding of the spiritual nervous system he outlined in his works—a system involving ritual union between Purusha (as Shiva) and Shakti. Such union is essentially non-physical and universal, and thus Abhinavagupta conceived himself as always in communion with Shiva-Shakti. In the context of his life and teachings, Abhinavagupta parallels Shiva as both ascetic and enjoyer.

Abhinavagupta studied assiduously at least until the age of thirty or thirty-five.<ref name="Triadic Mysticism page 12" /> To accomplish that he travelled, mostly inside Kashmir.<ref name="The Kula Ritual" />{{rp|6}} By his own testimony, he had attained spiritual liberation through his Kaula practice, under the guidance of his most admired master, Śambhunātha.<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|44–54}} He lived in his home (functioning as an [[ashram]]) with his family members and disciples,<ref>Īśvara Pratyabhijñā Kārikā of Utpaladeva, Verses on the Recognition of the Lord; B. N. Pandit, page XXXIV</ref> and he did not become a wandering monk, nor did he take on the regular duties of his family, but lived out his life as a writer and a teacher.<ref name="The Kula Ritual" />{{rp|7}} Abhinavagupta's personality was described as a living realisation of his vision.<ref name="Re-accessing Abhinavagupta page 4" />

In an epoch pen-painting, Abhinavagupta is depicted seated in Vīrāsana, surrounded by devoted disciples and family, performing a kind of trance-inducing music on a [[veena]] while dictating verses of [[Tantrāloka]] to one of his attendees--behind him two dūtī (female [[yogīs]]) waiting on him. A legend about the moment of his death (placed somewhere between 1015 and 1025, depending on the source), says that he took with him 1,200 disciples and marched off to a cave, today this cave is known by (Abhinavagupta Cave) located at hill called Bairam at [[Beerwah, Jammu and Kashmir | Beerwah]], reciting his poem ''Bhairava-stava'', a devotional work. They were never to be seen again, supposedly translating together into the spiritual world.<ref>Triadic Mysticism, Paul E. Murphy, page 13</ref>

==Works==
[[File:Trident Yantra of Parama Siva.jpg|thumb|The trident (''triśūlābja-maṇḍala''), symbol and yantra of Parama Shiva, representing the triadic energies of ''parā'', ''parā-aparā'' and ''aparā śakti'']]
{{Hinduism}}
Abhinavagupta's works fall into multiple sections: manuals of religious ritual, devotional songs, philosophical works and philosophy of aesthetics. Here are enumerated most of his works.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Bold type faced titles represent the most important ones.

===Religious works===

====Tantraloka====
{{main|Tantraloka}}
His most important work was ''Tantrāloka'' ("Elucidation of Tantra"), a synthesis of the entire Trika system.<ref name="Introduction" />{{rp|20}} The esoteric chapter 29 on the Kaula ritual was translated in English together with ''Jayaratha'''s commentary by John R. Dupuche.<ref name="The Kula Ritual" />{{rp|4}} A complex study on the context, authors, contents and references of ''Tantrāloka'' was published by Navjivan Rastogi, Prof. of the Lucknow University.<ref name="Introduction" /> The first complete English translation of ''Tantrāloka'' was published by the Indologist [[Mark S. G. Dyczkowski]] in 2023 after 45 years of work. The last recognized master of the oral tradition of Kashmir Shaivism, [[Swami Lakshman Joo]], gave a condensed version of the key philosophical chapters of ''Tantrāloka'' in his book, ''Kashmir Shaivism – The Secret Supreme''.<ref>Kashmir Shaivism – ''The Secret Supreme'', ed, John Hughes, SUNY press, 1985.</ref>

Another important text was the commentary on Parātrīśikā, ''Parātrīśikāvivaraṇa'', detailing the signification of the phonematic energies and their two sequential ordering systems, Mātṛkā and Mālinī. This was the last major translation project of [[Jaideva Singh]].<ref>Para-trisika-Vivarana, Jaideva Singh</ref>

====Tantrasara====
{{main|Tantrasara}}

Tantrasāra ("Essence of Tantra") is a summarised version, in prose, of ''Tantrāloka'', which was once more summarised in ''Tantroccaya'', and finally presented in a very short summary form under the name of ''Tantravaṭadhānikā'' – the "Seed of Tantra".

''Pūrvapañcikā'' was a commentary of ''Pūrvatantra'', alias Mālinīvijaya Tantra, lost to this day. ''Mālinīvijayā-varttika'' ("Commentary on Mālinīvijaya") is a versified commentary on ''Mālinīvijaya Tantra'''s first verse. ''Kramakeli'', "Krama's Play" was a commentary of ''Kramastotra'', now lost. ''Bhagavadgītārtha-saṃgraha'' which translates "Commentary on [[Bhagavad Gita]]" has now an English translation by Boris Marjanovic.<ref>Abhinavagupta's Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, Boris Marjanovic</ref>

Other religious works are: ''Parātrīśikā-laghuvṛtti'', "A Short Commentary on Parātrīśikā", ''Paryantapañcāśīkā'' ("Fifty Verses on the Ultimate Reality"), ''Rahasyapañcadaśikā'' ("Fifteen Verses on the Mystical Doctrine"), ''Laghvī prakriyā'' ("Short Ceremony"), ''Devīstotravivaraṇa'' ("Commentary on the Hymn to Devi") and ''Paramārthasāra'' ("Essence of the Supreme Reality").

=== Devotional hymns ===
Abhinavagupta has composed a number of devotional poems, most of which have been translated into French by [[Lilian Silburn]]:<ref>Hymnes de Abhinavagupta: Traduits et commentés, Lilian Silburn</ref>

* ''Bodhapañcadaśikā'' – "Fifteen Verses on Consciousness";
* ''Paramārthacarcā'' – "Discussion on the Supreme Reality";
* ''Anubhavanivedana'' – "Tribute of the Inner Experience";
* ''Anuttarāṣṭikā'' – "Eight Verses on Anuttara";
* ''Krama-stotra'' – an hymn, different from the fundamental text of the Krama school;
* ''Bhairava-stava'' – "Hymn to [[Bhairava]]";
* ''Dehasthadevatācakra-stotra'' – "Hymn to the Wheel of Divinities that Live in the Body";
* ''Paramārthadvādaśikā'' – "Twelve Verses on the Supreme Reality" and
* ''Mahopadeśa-viṃśatikā'' – "Twenty Verses on the Great Teaching".
* Another poem ''Śivaśaktyavinābhāva-stotra'' – "Hymn on the Inseparability of [[Shiva]] and [[Shakti]]" was lost.

===Philosophical works===
One of the most important works of Abhinavagupta is ''Īśvarapratyabhijñā-vimarśini'' ("Commentary to the Verses on the Recognition of the Lord") and ''Īśvarapratyabhijñā-vivṛti-vimarśini'' ("Commentary on the explanation of ''Īśvarapratyabhijñā''"). This treatise is fundamental in the transmission of the ''Pratyabhijña'' school (the branch of Kashmir Shaivism based on direct recognition of the Lord) to our days. Another commentary on a ''Pratyabhijña'' work – ''Śivadṛṣtyā-locana'' ("Light on Śivadṛṣṭi") – is now lost. Another lost commentary is ''Padārthapraveśa-nirṇaya-ṭīkā'' and ''Prakīrṇkavivaraṇa'' ("Comment on the Notebook") referring to the third chapter of ''Vākyapadīya'' of [[Bhartrihari]]. Two more philosophical texts of Abhinavagupta are ''Kathāmukha-tilaka'' ("Ornament of the Face of Discourses") and ''Bhedavāda-vidāraṇa'' ("Confrontation of the Dualist Thesis").

===Poetical and dramatic works===
{{main|Abhinavabharati}}

''Abhinavagupta''s most important work on the philosophy of art is ''Abhinavabhāratī'' – a long and complex commentary on [[Natya Shastra]] of [[Bharata Muni]]. This work has been one of the most important factors contributing to Abhinavagupta's fame up until present day. His most important contribution was that to the theory of [[Rasa (aesthetics)|rasa]] (aesthetic savour).

Other poetical works include: ''Ghaṭa-karpara-kulaka-vivṛti'', a commentary on "Ghaṭakarpara" of [[Kalidasa]]; ''Kāvyakauṭukavivaraṇa'', a "Commentary to the Wonder of Poetry" (a work of Bhaṭṭa Tauta), now lost; and ''Dhvanyālokalocana'', "Illustration of Dhvanyāloka", which is a famous work of [[Anandavardhana]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/ckeyt/txt3.htm Bibliography of Abhinavagupta's works, Item 582] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113104432/http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/ckeyt/txt3.htm |date=13 November 2021 }}, Karl Potter, University of Washington
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150702212450/http://muktalib5.org/digital_library.htm Muktabodha Online Library] – containing many of Abhinavagupta's works in [[Sanskrit]] including [[Tantraloka|Tantrāloka]]
* [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/#PhilSaiva GRETIL: a collection of Abhinavagupta's works in original], also containing other Kashmir Shaivism texts
* [http://www.ikashmir.net/abhinavagupta/index.html Four biographical articles on Abhinavagupta] by [[Swami Lakshman Joo]], Prof. K. N. Dhar, R. K. Jalali and Geetika Kaw Kher
* {{usurped|1=[https://archive.today/20121209034910/http://www.thenewyoga.org/guru_abhinavagupta.htm Another Bibliography of Abhinavagupta]}} by "The New Yoga"
* [http://them.polylog.org/4/fld-en.htm Aspects of Abhinavagupta's Theory of Scripture] by David Peter Lawrence
* [http://www.abhinavagupta.net/ Hymns of Abhinavagupta]

{{Aesthetics}}
{{Indian philosophy}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1020 deaths]]
[[Category:11th-century Indian philosophers]]
[[Category:11th-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophers and theologians]]
[[Category:Idealists]]
[[Category:Indian male writers]]
[[Category:Indian religious writers]]
[[Category:Kashmiri Shaivites]]
[[Category:Kashmir Shaivism]]
[[Category:Kashmiri writers]]
[[Category:Scholars from Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]

Bewafa Sanam

2026-03-04T00:04:07Z

ReaganRiordan: small update structure based on references and cleaned formatting

{{Distinguish|Sanam Bewafa}}
{{more citations needed|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Bewafa Sanam
| image = Bewafa Sanam.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Gulshan Kumar]]
| writer = '''Dialogues:''' Madan Joshi
| screenplay = [[Sachin Bhowmick]]
| story = Gulshan Kumar
| producer = Gulshan Kumar
| starring = [[Krishan Kumar Dua|Krishan Kumar]] [[Aruna Irani]] [[Beena Banerjee]] [[Shilpa Shirodkar]] [[Shakti Kapoor]] [[Kiran Kumar]]
| cinematography = Thomas Xavier
| editing = Omkar Bhakri
| music = [[Nikhil-Vinay]] Amar Utpal Milind Sagar [[Raju Singh]]
| distributor = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1995|5|12|}}
| runtime = 145 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR}} 1.25 crore<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=2985|title=Bewafa Sanam – Movie|publisher=[[Box Office India]]}}</ref>
| gross = {{INR}} 8.49 crore<ref name="auto"/>
}}
'''''Bewafa Sanam''''' ({{Translation|Disloyal Lover}}) is a 1995 [[Hindi]]-language [[musical film|musical]] [[thriller film|thriller]] film directed and produced by [[Gulshan Kumar]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/reel/961806/sonu-nigams-1990s-hit-achcha-sila-diya-tune-mere-pyaar-ka-will-be-remixed-by-b-praak|title=Sonu Nigam's 1990s hit 'Achcha Sila Diya Tune Mere Pyaar Ka' will be remixed by B Praak|author=Scroll Staff|website=Scroll.in|date=13 May 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=2985|title=Bewafa Sanam – Movie – Box Office India|publisher=Box Office India}}</ref> It stars his younger brother [[Krishan Kumar Dua|Krishan Kumar]], [[Shilpa Shirodkar]], [[Aruna Irani]], [[Beena Banerjee]], [[Shakti Kapoor]] and [[Kiran Kumar]]. The screenplay was written by Sachin Bhowmick, dialogues by Madan Joshi, and story by Gulshan Kumar.

== Plot ==
Sundar and Sheetal love each other and hope to get married soon. His mother approves of this alliance. Sundar makes his living by playing cricket and has become a very popular cricketer which has brought about many enemies in his life. Among them are Gautam, who conspires with Sheetal to bring about the downfall of Sundar, to which Sheetal agrees because Gautam has Sheetal's mother captive and threatens to kill her if Sheetal does not agree to all his schemes. Gautam sends goons after Sundar who thrashes them and is arrested.

In prison, Sundar finds out about Sheetal and Gautam's wedding. He manages to escape and gatecrashes the wedding and shoots Sheetal. He is charged for this crime and is given the death sentence. Later on, a journalist tries to help him and finds out everything that happened. It is revealed that the actual murderer was Gautam. Once Sundar realises that Sheetal was forced to do everything and she actually loved him, he requests the authorities to let him visit her grave one last time before he is hanged for his crime and they fulfill his request. Sundar kisses the grave and the police come with a letter saying that Sundar is free. Everyone is happy and rushes to tell Sundar, but he had died by the grave of his lover.

==Cast==
*[[Krishan Kumar (actor)|Krishan Kumar]] as Sundar
*[[Shilpa Shirodkar]] as Sheetal/Mamta
*[[Shakti Kapoor]] as Jailor Zalim Singh
*[[Kiran Kumar]] as Jailor Ramprasad Shukla, Mamta's father
*[[Asrani]] as Omkar, the college canteen owner
*[[Paintal (comedian)|Paintal]] as Ramu Kaka
*[[Aruna Irani]] as Sheetal's mother
*[[Beena Banerjee]] as Mamta's mother
*[[Reema Lagoo]] as Sunder's mother
*[[Rakesh Bedi]] as inmate No. 204
*Sagar as Gautam
*[[Sadashiv Amrapurkar]] as John

==Soundtrack==
The music was composed by [[Nikhil-Vinay]]
Amar Utpal, Milind Sagar and [[Raju Singh]].
[[Sonu Nigam]] was main male voice while [[Anuradha Paudwal]] and [[Sushma Shrestha]] were female voices.
[[Udit Narayan]] & [[Nitin Mukesh]] also rendered their voice for one song each.
The album became very popular.
The songs "Achha Sila Diya", by [[Sonu Nigam]] & "O Dil Tod Ke Hasti Ho Mera" by [[Udit Narayan]] are popular. According to the Indian trade website [[Box Office India]], with around 30,00,000 units sold the soundtrack became the fifth highest-selling album of the year. Several songs of the album such as "Wafa Na Raas Aayee Tujhe O Harjaee", "Achha Sila Diya Toone Mere Pyar Ka", "O Dil Tod Ke Hansti Ho Mera", "Yeh Dhoke Pyar Ke Dhoke" were originally created by [[Attaullah Khan Esakhelvi|Attaullah Khan]].

===Track listing===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!#
!'''Title(s)'''
!'''Singer(s)'''
!'''Lyricist(s)'''
!'''Music'''
|-
|1.
|"Ooyee Ooyee Meri Amma"
|[[Poornima (singer)|Poornima]]
| Yogesh
|Nikhil-Vinay
|-
|2.
|"Wafa Na Raas Aayee Tujhe O Harjaee"
|[[Nitin Mukesh]]
|Yogesh
|[[Nikhil-Vinay]]
|-
|3.
|"Achha Sila Diya Toone Mere Pyar Ka"
|[[Sonu Nigam]]
|Yogesh
|Nikhil-Vinay
|-
|4.
|"O Dil Tod Ke Hansti Ho Mera"
|[[Udit Narayan]]
|Yogesh
|Nikhil-Vinay
|-
|5.
|"Yeh Dhoke Pyar Ke Dhoke"
|Sonu Nigam
|S M Sadiq
|Nikhil-Vinay
|-
|6.
|"Zindadi Bas Sajna Da Pyar"
|[[Anuradha Paudwal]]
|Rani Malik
|Amar Utpal
|-
|7.
|"Zindagi Mein To Sabhi Pyar Kiya Karte Hain"
|Sonu Nigam
|Rani Malik
|Milind Sagar
|-
|8.
|"Teri Gali Vichchon Utthega Janaza Mera"
|Sonu Nigam
|Akram Rahi
|Nikhil-Vinay
|-
|9.
|"Nargisi Nargisi Aankhein Teri Nargisi"
|[[Jolly Mukherjee]]
|Tabish Romani
|[[Raju Singh]]
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt0439464}}

[[Category:1995 Indian films]]
[[Category:1995 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:T-Series (company) films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Nikhil-Vinay]]

{{1990s-Hindi-film-stub}}

Pittagoda

2026-03-03T17:52:06Z

ReaganRiordan: put up a data

{{Short description|Indian Telugu-language romantic drama film}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{No plot|date=January 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2023}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Pittagoda
| image = Pittagoda.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Official poster
| native_name = 
| director = [[Anudeep K. V.]]
| writer =
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on = 
| producer = [[Ram Mohan P.]]
| starring = [[Vishwadev Rachakonda]] [[Punarnavi Bhupalam]]
| narrator =
| cinematography = Udhay Thangavel
| editing = Venkata Krishna Chikkala
| music = Kamalakar
| studio = 
| distributor = 
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2016|12|24}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Pittagoda''''' is a 2016 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[romantic drama film]] directed by [[K. V. Anudeep|Anudeep K. V.]] in his directorial debut and starring newcomer [[Vishwadev Rachakonda]] and [[Punarnavi Bhupalam]]. The film uses the [[Karimnagar]] dialect from [[Telangana]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/director-anudeep-along-with-30-artistes-makes-his-debut-with-pitta-goda/article7986732.ece|title=Slice of innocent life|author=Y. Sunita Chowdary|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=14 December 2015|access-date=18 September 2022|archive-date=20 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920190921/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/director-anudeep-along-with-30-artistes-makes-his-debut-with-pitta-goda/article7986732.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/previews/pittagoda/articleshow/56097831.cms|title=Pittagoda|website=The Times of India|access-date=2022-09-18|archive-date=2022-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921074027/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/previews/pittagoda/articleshow/56097831.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/pittagoda-review-highlights/articleshow/56152492.cms|title=Pittagoda review highlights|website=The Times of India|access-date=2022-09-18|archive-date=2022-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920203457/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/pittagoda-review-highlights/articleshow/56152492.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Cast ==
* [[Vishwadev Rachakonda]] as Tippu
*[[Punarnavi Bhupalam]] as Divya

== Music ==
The music for the film was composed by Kamalakar.
{{Infobox album
| name = Pittagoda
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = Kamalakar
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2016
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 20:09
| language = Telugu
| label = [[Aditya Music]]
| producer =
| chronology =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
| misc = {{external media
| audio1 = {{YouTube|aJiG88-pR2E|Pittagoda – Jukebox}}}}
}}
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Welcome to Maa Lokam
| length1 = 3:54
| lyrics1 = [[Sri Mani]]
| extra1 = [[Ranjith (singer)|Ranjith]]
| title2 = Emaindo
| length2 = 3:57
| lyrics2 = Sri Mani
| extra2 = [[Mallikarjun]], Reeta
| title3 = Thiyya Thiyyani
| length3 = 4:04
| lyrics3 = Sri Mani
| extra3 = [[Haricharan]]
| title4 = Jarigene
| length4 = 4:13
| lyrics4 = Sri Mani
| extra4 = Haricharan
| title5 = Thiyya Thiyyani (Female)
| length5 = 4:01
| lyrics5 = Sri Mani
| extra5 = [[Anweshaa]]
| total_length = 20:09
}}

== Reception ==
Y. Sunitha Chowdhary of ''[[The Hindu]]'' opined that "The film is excruciatingly slow, the first scene where the kids climb a wall and put up posters is ambitious and interesting, but sadly the interest wanes very soon".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/reviews/Pittagoda-Yawn-inducing-drama/article16937572.ece|title=Pittagoda: Yawn inducing drama|date=24 December 2016|author=Y. Sunita Chowdary|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=18 September 2022|archive-date=20 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171718/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/reviews/Pittagoda-Yawn-inducing-drama/article16937572.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> Sridivya Palaparthi of ''[[The Times of India]]'' said that "Pittagoda is a no-frills story and an honest attempt to entertain. If you’re looking for a laid back watch for the weekend, this is it".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/pittagoda/movie-review/56155762.cms|title=Pittagoda Movie Review|author=Sridivya Palaparthi|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=24 December 2016|access-date=18 September 2022|archive-date=20 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920205007/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/pittagoda/movie-review/56155762.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
[[Category:2016 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:Films directed by K. V. Anudeep]]
[[Category:Films set in Telangana]]
[[Category:2016 films]]
[[Category:2016 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:2016 romantic drama films]]

Oru Thalai Ragam

2026-03-03T05:23:21Z

ReaganRiordan: put up info

{{Short description|1980 film by E. M. Ibrahim}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Oru Thalai Ragam poster.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = E. M. Ibrahim [[T. Rajendar|Rajendar]] (uncredited){{efn|Though E. M. Ibrahim is solely credited as the director, Rajendar shot the majority of the film.<ref name="dinamalar" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 May 2021 |title=TR mourns the demise of his debut film, Oru Thalai Raagam's producer, EM Ibrahim |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/tr-mourns-the-demise-of-his-debut-film-oru-thalai-raagams-producer-em-ibrahim/articleshow/82433080.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210509171822/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/tr-mourns-the-demise-of-his-debut-film-oru-thalai-raagams-producer-em-ibrahim/articleshow/82433080.cms |archive-date=9 May 2021 |access-date=9 May 2021 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Shiva Kumar |first=S. |date=20 March 1983 |title=Super-hit |url=https://twitter.com/sshivu/status/1282266252807790592 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712105800/https://twitter.com/sshivu/status/1282266252807790592 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |access-date=18 December 2022 |work=[[Mid-Day]] |pages=25 |via=[[Twitter]]}}</ref>}}
| screenplay = Team Mansoor Creations
| story = Rajendar
| producer = E. M. Ibrahim
| starring = [[Shankar (actor)|Shankar]] [[Roopa (actress)|Roopa]]
| cinematography = [[Robert–Rajasekar]]
| editing = D. Raj
| music = '''Songs:''' Rajendar '''Score:''' A. A. Raj
| studio = Mansoor Creations
| distributor = Mansoor Creations
| released = {{Film date|1980|05|02|df=y}}
| runtime = 122 minutes{{sfn|Dhananjayan|2011|p=38}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Oru Thalai Ragam''''' ({{Translation|One-Sided Love}}) is a 1980 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[romantic musical film]] written by [[T. Rajendar|Rajendar]] and produced by E. M. Ibrahim who is credited for direction. The film stars [[Shankar (actor)|Shankar]] and [[Roopa (actress)|Roopa]], with [[Raveendran (actor)|Raveendar]], [[Vagai Chandrasekhar|Chandrasekhar]], Kailashnath, Kumari Usha and [[Thyagu (actor)|Thyagu]] in supporting roles. It revolves around a college student falling in love with his classmate who, despite liking him, avoids returning his love.

''Oru Thalai Ragam'' is the career debut of Rajendar. The film was released on 2 May 1980, received critical acclaim and became a major box office success, running for over a year in theatres. It also won the [[Cinema Express Award for Best Film – Tamil|Cinema Express Award for Best Tamil Film]].{{Sfn|Dhananjayan|2011|p=39}} The film was remade in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''[[Panchadara Chilaka]]'' (1999).

== Plot ==
Raja is a college student who is popular among the other students. Subhadra, his sincere and quiet classmate, never speaks openly even with her closest friend Lavanya. Subhadra's father had deserted her mother and two daughters, suspecting that she had loved someone before marriage. As a result, people in their locality look down on Subhadra's mother, who supports her children by stitching clothes and is the subject of most gossip sessions. However, Subhadra concentrates only on studies without getting distracted by other issues as advised by her mother, and maintains a safe distance from other college boys.

Subhadra's male classmates Madhu, Kannan and Thambu tease her in class by narrating the rumours about her mother and gossip about her love for Raja. When she gets upset, Raja tries to protect her from Madhu's group many times. Raja and Subhadra develop fondness and miss each other if they do not see even for a day, though they never speak to each other about the good feeling they have for each other. Raja's classmate Moorthy notices Raja's interest in Subhadra. Lavanya also notices the same affinity in Subhadra towards Raja.

One day, when Raja expresses his love to Subhadra, she becomes angry and rejects his proposal. Though she actually likes him, due to her family situation and mother's instructions to avoid men, she shows no feelings for him. Upset, Raja declares he will never speak to her about his love again; he confidently states that she will come to express her love for him one day. Their silent love continues within themselves.

Raja eventually falls ill due to liver jaundice and does not attend college. When Lavanya visits him, she learns of his deep love for Subhadra and the suffering he is going through. Lavanya meets Subhadra and shouts at her cowardice to express her love to Raja. The academic year ends. Subhadra's mother learns about Subhadra's love and insults her. Subhadra now decides to meet Raja to express her love as she no longer wishes to hide it. Though his health has worsened, Raja comes with Moorthy by train to college to recollect their college days. Subhadra sees Raja seated in the train and expresses her love, but is devastated upon learning that he is already dead.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Shankar (actor)|Shankar]] as Raja<ref name="VikatanReview" />
* [[Roopa (actress)|Roopa]] as Subhadra<ref name="VikatanReview" />
*[[Raveendran (actor)|Raveendar]] as Madhu{{sfn|Dhananjayan|2011|p=38}}
* [[Vagai Chandrasekhar|Chandrasekhar]] as Moorthy<ref name="VikatanReview" />
* [[Kailas Nath]] as Thambu<ref name="Vikatan20years" />
* Kumari Usha as Lavanya{{sfn|Dhananjayan|2011|p=38}}
* [[Thyagu (actor)|Thyagu]] as Kannan{{sfn|Dhananjayan|2011|p=38}}
* [[T. Rajendar|Rajendar]] as a [[Hindi]]-singing student (cameo appearance)<ref name="Vikatan20years" />
}}

== Production ==

The film marked the debut of Rajendar in the film industry.{{Sfn|Rajadhyaksha|Willemen|1998|p=185}} It also marked the acting debuts of Shankar, Roopa, Thyagu and Ravindran.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pradeep |first=K. |date=3 April 2015 |title=In a brand new role |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/in-a-brand-new-role-actor-raveendran-in-ennum-eppozhum/article7065214.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509171758/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/in-a-brand-new-role-actor-raveendran-in-ennum-eppozhum/article7065214.ece |archive-date=9 May 2021 |access-date=22 June 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref name="circle" /> Though Kailashnath was not very fluent in Tamil, he dubbed in his own voice.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 September 2009 |title=Acting, his passion |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2009/sep/25/acting-his-passion-89219.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521055519/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2009/sep/25/acting-his-passion-89219.html |archive-date=21 May 2021 |access-date=21 May 2021 |work=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref> The producer E. M. Ibrahim of Mansoor Creations agreed to produce the film, reportedly on the basis of one condition that Ibrahim himself will be credited as director while Rajender would be credited as the screenwriter and music composer. During the shoot, since Ibrahim had no prior experience of film direction, Rajender shot the whole film.<ref name="dinamalar" /> Cinematography was handled by the duo [[Robert–Rajasekar]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=N. |date=22 May 1987 |title=A courageous comeback |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=uoJlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=up4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=951%2C2154723 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408075319/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=uoJlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=up4NAAAAIBAJ&pg=951,2154723 |archive-date=8 April 2023 |access-date=14 May 2021 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=12 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}</ref> The film was prominently shot at [[A. V. C. College]] in [[Mayiladuthurai]] where Rajendar was an alumnus.<ref name="Alma Mater" /> The filming was completed within two months.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=6 July 1980 |title=ஒரு கலை தாகம்! |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1980-07-06/page/n63/mode/2up? |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240411134948/https://archive.org/details/kalki1980-07-06/page/n63/mode/2up? |archive-date=11 April 2024 |access-date=11 April 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |pages=62–63 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

== Music ==
The music was composed by Rajendar, who also wrote the lyrics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oru Thalai ragam Mini LP vinyl record by T.Rajendar |url=https://mossymart.com/product/oru-thalai-ragam-mini-lp-vinyl-record-by-t-rajendar/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929153505/https://mossymart.com/product/oru-thalai-ragam-mini-lp-vinyl-record-by-t-rajendar/ |archive-date=29 September 2021 |access-date=29 September 2021 |website=Mossymart}}</ref> Since the lead characters hardly speak to each other throughout the film, Archana Nathan, writing for ''[[Scroll.in]]'', feels the songs are their way of communicating.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nathan |first=Archana |date=26 May 2018 |title=Picture the song: In 'Vaasamilla Malar Idhu', a tune is worth a thousand words |url=https://scroll.in/reel/879308/picture-the-song-in-vaasamilla-malar-idhu-a-tune-is-worth-a-thousand-words |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215080305/https://scroll.in/reel/879308/picture-the-song-in-vaasamilla-malar-idhu-a-tune-is-worth-a-thousand-words |archive-date=15 December 2021 |access-date=28 March 2022 |website=[[Scroll.in]]}}</ref> Rajender said he wrote the song "Idhu Kuzhandhai Paadum" with the intention of defying the rules of grammar and "mak[ing] a distinctive mark" in his debut film.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Anantharam |first=Chitra Deepa |date=27 March 2017 |title=I am the pioneer of kuthu: T Rajendherr |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/i-am-the-pioneer-of-kuthu-t-rajendar-or-tr/article17676587.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112035013/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/i-am-the-pioneer-of-kuthu-t-rajendar-or-tr/article17676587.ece |archive-date=12 November 2020 |access-date=18 December 2022 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> The songs became successful and made Rajendar popular as a composer.<ref name="Alma Mater" /> Rajender recalled that though he had composed the score, he was not credited for that; the score he composed was replaced with a different score composed by A. A. Raj. This made Rajendar swear not to watch the film again.<ref name="dinamalar" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gopalakrishna |first=P. S. |date=23 January 2014 |title=In reference to film music |url=http://www.thehindu.com/books/books-authors/in-reference-to-film-music/article5610087.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226081604/http://www.thehindu.com/books/books-authors/in-reference-to-film-music/article5610087.ece |archive-date=26 December 2017 |access-date=25 January 2016 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Vasamilla Malar Idhu
| extra1 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
| length1 = 4:49
| title2 = Kadavul Vazhum
| extra2 = [[P. Jayachandran]]
| length2 = 5:00
| title3 = Koodaiyile Karuvaadu
| extra3 = [[Malaysia Vasudevan]]
| length3 = 3:25
| title4 = En Kadhai Mudiyum
| extra4 = [[T. M. Soundararajan]]
| length4 = 3:25
| title5 = Idhu Kuzhandhai Paadum
| extra5 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
| length5 = 4:38
| title6 = Manmadhan
| extra6 = [[Jolly Abraham]]
| length6 = 4:13
| title7 = Naan Oru Raasiyilaa Raja
| extra7 = T. M. Soundararajan
| length7 = 4:24
| total_length = 29:54
}}

== Release and reception ==

''Oru Thalai Ragam'' was released on 2 May 1980.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramji |first=V. |date=2 May 2019 |title=ஒருதலை ராகம் - அப்பவே அப்படி கதை!: ரிலீசாகி இன்றுடன் 39 வருடங்கள்! |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/163688-39.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509120242/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/163688-39.html |archive-date=9 May 2021 |access-date=9 May 2021 |website=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta}}</ref> Ibrahim had to release the film himself after distributors refused due to the high price Ibrahim quoted for distribution territories.{{Sfn|Dhananjayan|2011|p=39}} ''[[Ananda Vikatan]]'' rated the film 50 out of 100, appreciating Robert–Rajasekar's cinematography, the songs by Rajendar and score by Raj.<ref name="VikatanReview" /> Kanthan of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' praised the performances of the cast and Robert–Rajasekar's cinematography and concluded calling the film a touchstone for the fandom of moviegoers.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=காந்தன் |date=1 June 1980 |title=ஒரு தலை ராகம் |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1980-06-01/page/n27/mode/2up? |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240215083251/https://archive.org/details/kalki1980-06-01/page/n27/mode/2up? |archive-date=15 February 2024 |access-date=15 February 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=26 |language=Ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> The film completed 365 days of run in several theatres.<ref name="circle" /><ref>{{Cite magazine |date=December 2012 |title=The lover boys of Indian cinema-100 years of Indian cinema |magazine=Galatta Cinema}}</ref> Initial days after the release saw low responses at the box office, but the film eventually picked up and became a success.{{sfn|Jacob|2008|p=65}}<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rao |first=Subha J. |date=30 July 2011 |title=The real reel deal |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/the-real-reel-deal/article2308412.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509172420/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/the-real-reel-deal/article2308412.ece |archive-date=9 May 2021 |access-date=6 February 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
''Oru Thalai Ragam''{{'}}s success led to more films in Tamil based on the theme of one-sided and unexpressed love.{{Sfn|Dhananjayan|2011|p=39}} Shankar, for a while, became popularly known as "Oru Thalai Ragam Shankar" after the film's release.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Subramanian |first=Anupama |date=16 December 2013 |title=Shankar directs Tamil film |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/131216/entertainment-kollywood/article/shankar-directs-tamil-film |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301171757/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/131216/entertainment-kollywood/article/shankar-directs-tamil-film |archive-date=1 March 2021 |access-date=28 March 2022 |work=[[Deccan Chronicle]]}}</ref> The film was remade in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''[[Panchadara Chilaka]]'' (1999).<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 May 2020 |title=மறக்க முடியுமா? ஒரு தலை ராகம் |url=https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-news/88410/cinema/Kollywood/marakamudiyuma.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907033235/https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-news/88410/cinema/Kollywood/marakamudiyuma.htm |archive-date=7 September 2022 |access-date=7 September 2022 |website=[[Dinamalar]] |language=ta}}</ref> Film historian [[S. Theodore Baskaran]] felt that ''Oru Thalai Ragam'' and ''[[Nammavar]]'' (1994) were the "two most representative Tamil films about students".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Joshi |first=Namrata |author-link=Namrata Joshi |date=27 February 2016 |title=Where is the student in Indian cinema? |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/where-is-the-student-in-indian-cinema/article8286171.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706192508/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/where-is-the-student-in-indian-cinema/article8286171.ece |archive-date=6 July 2018 |access-date=6 February 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
<references>

<ref name="Alma Mater">{{Cite news |last1=Saqaf |first1=Syed Muthahar |last2=Balaganessin |first2=M. |date=4 August 2014 |title=A film star visits his Alma Mater |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/a-film-star-visits-his-alma-mater/article6278790.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509172116/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/a-film-star-visits-his-alma-mater/article6278790.ece |archive-date=9 May 2021 |access-date=22 June 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
<ref name="circle">{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=P. K. Ajith |date=26 June 2010 |title=The circle of life |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/The-circle-of-life/article16269048.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126003619/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/The-circle-of-life/article16269048.ece |archive-date=26 January 2021 |access-date=22 June 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
<ref name="dinamalar">{{Cite news |date=27 June 2016 |title=பிளாஷ்ஃ பேக்: ''ஒருதலை ராகம்'' படத்தை பார்க்காத டி.ராஜேந்தர் |trans-title=Flashback: T Rajendar never saw the film ''Oru Thalai Ragam'' |url=https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-news/47922/cinema/Kollywood/T-Rajendar-never-seen-Oru-Thalai-Ragam.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924172656/https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-news/47922/cinema/Kollywood/T-Rajendar-never-seen-Oru-Thalai-Ragam.htm |archive-date=24 September 2019 |access-date=22 June 2019 |work=[[Dinamalar]] |language=Ta}}</ref>
<ref name="Vikatan20years">{{Cite web |last=கண்ணன் |first=சுரேஷ் |date=26 May 2020 |title='முதல் ரைமிங் பன்ச்; ஆனாலும் டி.ஆர் வெறுத்த படம் 'ஒரு தலை ராகம்'... ஏன்னா?!'- டென்ட் கொட்டாய் டைரீஸ் - 80s, 90s Cinemas for 2K kids |url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/tamil-cinema/oru-thalai-raagam-a-trend-setting-love-story-80s-90s-cinemas |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210513165634/https://cinema.vikatan.com/tamil-cinema/oru-thalai-raagam-a-trend-setting-love-story-80s-90s-cinemas |archive-date=13 May 2021 |access-date=13 May 2021 |website=[[Ananda Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref>
<ref name="VikatanReview">{{Cite web |date=25 May 1980 |title=சினிமா விமர்சனம்: ஒரு தலை ராகம் |url=https://www.vikatan.com/arts/nostalgia/43324--2 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210509121157/https://www.vikatan.com/arts/nostalgia/43324--2 |archive-date=9 May 2021 |access-date=9 May 2021 |website=[[Ananda Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref>

</references>

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |last=Dhananjayan |first=G. |author-link=G. Dhananjayan |title=The Best of Tamil Cinema, 1931 to 2010: 1977–2010 |publisher=Galatta Media |year=2011 |oclc=733724281}}
* {{Cite book |last=Jacob |first=Preminda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbQvTXudN60C&pg=PA65 |title=Celluloid Deities: The Visual Culture of Cinema and Politics in South India |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7391-3130-5}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Rajadhyaksha |first1=Ashish |author-link1=Ashish Rajadhyaksha |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema |last2=Willemen |first2=Paul |author-link2=Paul Willemen |publisher=[[British Film Institute]] and [[Oxford University Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-563579-5 |orig-date=1994}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}

{{T. Rajendar}}

[[Category:1980 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:1980 films]]
[[Category:1980 Indian films]]
[[Category:1980 musical films]]
[[Category:1980s romantic musical films]]
[[Category:1980 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Films directed by T. Rajendar]]
[[Category:Films scored by T. Rajendar]]
[[Category:Films set in universities and colleges]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by T. Rajendar]]
[[Category:Indian romantic musical films]]
[[Category:Tamil films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romantic musical films]]

Yaanum Theeyavan

2026-03-03T03:14:36Z

ReaganRiordan: clean up

{{Short description|2017 film by Prashanth G. Sekar}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Yaanum Theeyavan
| image = Yaanum Theeyavan Poster.jpg
| director = Prashanth G. Sekar
| producer = Sophia Jerome Pepitta Jerome
| writer = Prashanth G. Sekar
| starring = [[Ashwin Jerome]] [[Varsha Bollamma]] [[Raju Sundaram]]
| music = [[Achu Rajamani]]
| cinematography = Shreyaas Krishna
| editing = [[Prasanna GK]]
| studio = Peppy Cinemas
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2017|06|30|}}
| runtime = 106 Minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| gross =
}}
'''''Yaanum Theeyavan''''' ({{literal translation|I am bad, too}}) is a 2017 Indian Tamil [[Action film|action]] [[romantic film |romantic]] [[action thriller film]] written and directed by Prashanth G. Sekar in his directorial debut.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 August 2015 |title=Yaanum Theeyavan (aka) Yanum Theeyavan photos stills & images |url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/yaanum-theeyavan/yaanum-theeyavan-photos-pictures-stills.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306041014/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/yaanum-theeyavan/yaanum-theeyavan-photos-pictures-stills.html |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref> The film features newcomer [[Ashwin Jerome]] along with [[Varsha Bollamma]] and [[Raju Sundaram]] in the lead roles. The music was composed by [[Achu Rajamani]] with cinematography by Shreyaas Krishna and editing by [[Prasanna GK]]. The film released on 30 June 2017.

This movie claims to collectively represent a number of true events, put together under one shell with imaginative screenplay and characters.

==Plot==
The story revolves around three people: Michael ([[Ashwin Jerome]]), Soumya ([[Varsha Bollamma]]), and Pasupathy ([[Raju Sundaram]]). The plot forms around how the three characters meet and what happens after their meeting.

==Cast==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Ashwin Jerome]] as Michael (Mike)
* [[Varsha Bollamma]] as Soumya
* [[Raju Sundaram]] as Pasupathy
* [[Ponvannan]] as Jayaprakash
* [[VTV Ganesh]] as Sundaramurthi
* [[Santhana Bharathi]] as Sethuramalingam
* Shankar Guru Raja
* [[Jangiri Madhumitha]] as Madhu
* [[Arunraja Kamaraj]] as Arun
* [[Meera Krishnan]] as Soumya's mother
* Boys Rajan as Soumya's father
* [[L. Raja]] as Manimaran
* [[Kaajal Pasupathi]] as Prostitute
* Madhan Kodees as Sada
* Pari Elavazhagan as Pipe Prakash
* Hello Kandasamy as Sethuramalingam's assistant
* Abishek Raaja
* Shaan Kumar
* Rishikanth Rajendran
* Praveen Joseph
{{colend}}

==Production==
Prashanth G. Sekar worked as an assistant director to directors [[Vignesh Shivan]] and [[Hari (director)|Hari]] in ''[[Podaa Podi]]'' (2012) and ''[[Singam II]]'' (2013), respectively. After a lot of hunting for the roles of Pasupathy and Soumya, [[Raju Sundaram]] and [[Varsha Bollamma]] were respectively fixed. Sundaram was reported to playing as a serial killer in this flick.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-06-25 |title=Raju Sundaram is a serial killer in Yaanum Theeyavan |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/250617/raju-sundaram-is-a-serial-killer-in-yaanum-theeyavan.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625150000/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/250617/raju-sundaram-is-a-serial-killer-in-yaanum-theeyavan.html |archive-date=25 June 2017 |access-date=2017-06-25 |work=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |language=en}}</ref> Shreyaas Krishna, the cinematographer of the film, was also the cinematographer for ''[[Jil Jung Juk]]'' (2016).

The movie went on floors on 22 July 2015. It was shot extensively for two schedules from July through September 2015 in and around Chennai, most of it in and around Chromepet. The shooting was wrapped up on 14 September 2015.

==Soundtrack==
The music was composed by Achu Rajamani.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yaanum Theeyavan Songs: Yaanum Theeyavan MP3 Tamil Songs by Prashanth G Sekar Online Free on Gaana.com |url=https://gaana.com/album/yaanum-theeyavan |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619163710/https://gaana.com/album/yaanum-theeyavan |archive-date=19 June 2018 |access-date=11 November 2023 |via=gaana.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 August 2016 |title=Yaanum Theeyavan - All Songs - Download or Listen Free - JioSaavn |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/yaanum-theeyavan/GlXj9WwsPa8_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625053334/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/yaanum-theeyavan/GlXj9WwsPa8_ |archive-date=25 June 2020 |access-date=11 November 2023 |via=www.jiosaavn.com}}</ref> Lyricists [[Kabilan (lyricist)|Kabilan]] and Mani Amuthavan have penned two songs each, and Achu himself has written a song.

*"Nenjukkulle" - Suchith Suresan
*"Nila Nila" - [[Jithin Raj (singer)|Jithin Raj]], [[Swetha Menon]]
*"Yaanum Theeyavan" - Achu
*"Aagaayame" - Yaamini

==Critical reception==
''The Hindu'' wrote, "We expect this remarkably bland love story to turn into a thriller. But no such luck."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Menon |first=Vishal |date=30 June 2017 |title='Yaanum Theeyavan' review: film suffers due to generic writing |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/yaanum-theeyavan-review-film-suffers-due-to-generic-writing/article19185026.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928231303/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/yaanum-theeyavan-review-film-suffers-due-to-generic-writing/article19185026.ece |archive-date=28 September 2022 |access-date=11 November 2023 |work=The Hindu |via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> ''Deccan Chronicle'' wrote "The problem with the script is an ordinary story with underdeveloped characters. The director could have infused more thrilling elements to hold the tension. The movie had all the potential to become an engaging thriller had the director concentrated more on a coherent screenplay with solid writing."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stallings |first=A. E. |author-link=A. E. Stallings |date=1 July 2017 |title=Yaanum Theeyavan review: Ordinary story with underdeveloped characters |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/010717/yaanum-theeyavan-review-ordinary-story-with-underdeveloped-characters.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316191430/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/010717/yaanum-theeyavan-review-ordinary-story-with-underdeveloped-characters.html |archive-date=16 March 2022 |access-date=11 November 2023 |website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref> Baradwaj Rangan of Film Companion wrote, "With better writing, Yaanum Theeyavan could have been something, but it’s still not dismissible, if only because the director believes in using the camera to tell his tale."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rangan |first=Baradwaj |date=30 June 2017 |title=Yaanum Theeyavan Movie Review |url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/reviews/tamil-review/yaanum-theeyavan-movie-review/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121102220/https://www.filmcompanion.in/reviews/tamil-review/yaanum-theeyavan-movie-review/ |archive-date=21 January 2022 |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:2017 films]]
[[Category:2017 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:2017 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2017 crime action films]]
[[Category:2017 action thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian crime action films]]
[[Category:Indian action thriller films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Achu Rajamani]]
[[Category:Films shot in Chennai]]

Assyria

2026-02-22T15:52:04Z

ReaganRiordan: refine information as per guidelines

{{Short description|Major Mesopotamian civilization}}
{{Confuse|Syria}}{{About|ancient Assyria|its geographic and cultural heartland|Assyrian homeland|other uses|Assyria (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Assyrian Empire|the most powerful stage of the ancient Assyrian state|Neo-Assyrian Empire}}
{{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox former country
| conventional_long_name = Assyria
| common_name = Assyria
| native_name = {{lang|akk|{{cuneiform|11|𒆳𒀭𒊹𒆠}}}}
| image_flag = Ashur symbol Nimrud.png
| flag_border = no
| flag_size = 150
| flag_type = Symbol of [[Ashur (god)|Ashur]], the ancient Assyrian national deity
| year_start = {{circa}} 2025 BC{{efn|This date refers to when [[Assur]] became an independent city-state, i.e., the beginning of the [[Old Assyrian period]]. The Old Assyrian period was preceded by the [[Early Assyrian period]], but Assur was not independent during this time, and distinct Assyrian cultural and religious practices had not yet fully formed.{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=39}}{{Sfn|Lambert|1983|pp=82–85}}{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=187}}}}
| year_end = 609 BC{{efn|This date refers to the end of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]], when Assyria ceased to be a state. It omits the later [[Post-imperial Assyria|post-imperial period]], when there was no longer an independent Assyrian kingdom.}}
| p1 = Third Dynasty of Ur
| s1 = Neo-Babylonian Empire
| s2 = Median Empire
| image_map = Assyrie general en.jpg
| image_map_caption = The ancient Assyrian heartland (red) and the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] in the 7th century BC (orange)
| capital = {{Plain list|
* [[Assur]] ({{circa}} 2025–1233 BC)
* {{nowrap|[[Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta]]}} ({{circa}} 1233–1207 BC)
* Assur ({{circa}} 1207–879 BC)
* [[Nimrud]] (879–706 BC)
* [[Dur-Sharrukin]] (706–705 BC)
* [[Nineveh]] (705–612 BC)
* [[Harran]] (612–609 BC)
}}
| official_languages = {{plain list|
* [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]
* [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]
* [[Aramaic]]}}
| religion = [[Ancient Mesopotamian religion]]
| government_type = [[Monarchy]]
| title_leader = [[List of Assyrian kings|Notable kings]] 
| year_leader1 = {{circa}} 2025 BC
| leader1 = [[Puzur-Ashur I]] (first) 
| year_leader2 = {{circa}} 1974–1935 BC
| leader2 = [[Erishum I]] 
| year_leader3 = {{circa}} 1808–1776 BC
| leader3 = [[Shamshi-Adad I]] 
| year_leader4 = {{circa}} 1700–1691 BC
| leader4 = [[Bel-bani]] 
| year_leader5 = {{circa}} 1363–1328 BC
| leader5 = [[Ashur-uballit I]] 
| year_leader6 = {{circa}} 1243–1207 BC
| leader6 = [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]] 
| year_leader7 = 1114–1076 BC
| leader7 = [[Tiglath-Pileser I]] 
| year_leader8 = 883–859 BC
| leader8 = [[Ashurnasirpal II]] 
| year_leader9 = 745–727 BC
| leader9 = [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] 
| year_leader10 = 705–681 BC
| leader10 = [[Sennacherib]] 
| year_leader11 = 681–669 BC
| leader11 = [[Esarhaddon]] 
| year_leader12 = 669–631 BC
| leader12 = [[Ashurbanipal]] 
| year_leader13 = 631–627 BC
| leader13 = [[Aššur-etil-ilāni]]
| year_leader14 = 627–612 BC
| leader14 = [[Sinsharishkun]]
| year_leader15 = 612–609 BC
| leader15 = [[Ashur-uballit II]] (last)
| era = [[Bronze Age]] to [[Iron Age]]
| event_pre = Foundation of Assur
| date_pre = {{circa}} 2600 BC
| event_start = Assur becomes an independent city-state
| event1 = [[Old Assyrian period]]
| date_event1 = {{circa}} 2025–1364 BC
| event2 = [[Middle Assyrian period]]
| date_event2 = {{circa}} 1363–912 BC
| event3 = [[Neo-Assyrian period]]
| date_event3 = 911–609 BC
| event_end = Conquest by the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo-Babylonian]] and [[Medes|Median]] empires
| event_post = Sack and destruction of Assur by the [[Sasanian Empire]]
| date_post = {{circa}} AD 240
}}
{{Assyrian periodization}}

'''Assyria'''{{efn|{{langx|akk-x-neoassyr|{{cuneiform|11|𒆳𒀭𒊹𒆠}}|translit=māt Aššur}}}} was a major ancient [[Mesopotamia]]n civilization that existed as a [[city-state]] from the 21st century BC to the 14th century BC and eventually expanded into an [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|empire]] from the 14th century BC to the 7th century BC.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-06 |title=Assyria {{!}} History, Map, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Assyria |access-date=2023-08-13 |website=Britannica}}</ref>

Spanning from the early [[Bronze Age]] to the late [[Iron Age]], modern historians typically divide ancient Assyrian history into the [[Early Assyrian period|Early Assyrian]] ({{Circa}} 2600–2025 BC), [[Old Assyrian period|Old Assyrian]] ({{Circa}} 2025–1364 BC), [[Middle Assyrian Empire|Middle Assyrian]] ({{Circa}} 1363–912 BC), [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]] (911–609 BC), and [[Post-imperial Assyria|post-imperial]] (609 BC–{{circa}} AD 240) periods, based on political events and gradual changes in language.{{sfn|Frahm|2017a|p=5}}{{sfn|Hauser|2017|p=229}} [[Assur]], the first Assyrian capital, was founded {{Circa}} 2600 BC, but there is no evidence that the city was independent until the collapse of the [[Third Dynasty of Ur]], in the 21st century BC,{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=187}} when a line of independent kings starting with [[Puzur-Ashur I]] began ruling the city. Centered in the [[Assyrian heartland]] in northern Mesopotamia, Assyrian power fluctuated over time. The city underwent several periods of foreign rule or domination before Assyria rose under [[Ashur-uballit I]] in the early 14th century BC as the Middle Assyrian Empire. In the Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods, Assyria was one of the two major Mesopotamian kingdoms, alongside [[Babylonia]] in the south, and at times became the dominant power in the [[ancient Near East]]. Assyria was at its strongest in the Neo-Assyrian period, when the Assyrian army was the strongest military power in the world{{Sfn|Aberbach|2003|p=4}} and the Assyrians ruled the [[largest empire]] then yet assembled in world history,{{Sfn|Aberbach|2003|p=4}}{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=133}}{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=161}} spanning from parts of modern-day Iran in the east to Egypt in the west.

The Neo-Assyrian Empire fell in the late 7th century BC, conquered by a coalition of the Babylonians, who had lived under Assyrian rule for about a century, and the [[Medes]]. Though the core urban territory of Assyria was extensively devastated in the [[Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire]] and the succeeding [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] invested few resources in rebuilding it, ancient Assyrian culture and traditions continued to survive for centuries throughout the post-imperial period. Assyria experienced a recovery under the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] and [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] empires, though it declined again under the [[Sasanian Empire]] centuries later, which sacked numerous cities and semi-independent Assyrian territories in the region, including Assur itself. The remaining [[Assyrian people]], who have survived in northern Mesopotamia to modern times, were gradually [[Christianized]] from the 1st century AD onward. [[Ancient Mesopotamian religion]] persisted at Assur until its final sack in the 3rd century AD, and at certain other holdouts for centuries thereafter.{{sfn|Parpola|2004|p=21}}

The triumph of ancient Assyria can be attributed not only to its vigorous warrior-monarchs but also to its adeptness in efficiently assimilating and governing conquered territories using inventive and advanced administrative mechanisms. The developments in warfare and governance introduced by ancient Assyria continued to be employed by subsequent empires and states for centuries.{{Sfn|Aberbach|2003|p=4}} Ancient Assyria also left a legacy of great cultural significance,{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=196}} particularly through the Neo-Assyrian Empire, making a prominent impression in later Assyrian, [[Greco-Roman culture|Greco-Roman]], and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] literary and religious tradition.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=|pp=195–196}}{{Sfn|Kalimi|Richardson|2014|p=5}}{{Efn|See [[Neo-Assyrian Empire#Legacy|Neo-Assyrian Empire § Legacy]]}}

== Nomenclature ==
In the [[Old Assyrian period]], when Assyria was merely a city-state centered on the city of [[Assur]], the state was typically referred to as ''ālu Aššur'' ("city of [[Ashur (god)|Ashur]]"). From the time of its rise as a territorial state in the 14th century BC and onward, Assyria was referred to in official documents as ''māt Aššur'' ("land of Ashur"), marking its shift to being a regional polity. The first attested use of the term ''māt Aššur'' is during the reign of [[Ashur-uballit I]] ({{Circa}} 1363–1328 BC), who was the first king of the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]].{{Sfn|Aissaoui|2018|p=22}} Both ''ālu Aššur'' and ''māt Aššur'' derive from the name of the Assyrian national deity Ashur.{{Sfn|Maul|2017|p=344}} Ashur probably originated in the Early Assyrian period as a deified personification of Assur itself.{{Sfn|Lambert|1983|pp=82–85}} In the Old Assyrian period the deity was considered the formal king of Assur; the actual rulers only used the style ''Išši'ak'' ("governor").{{Sfn|Lewy|1971|p=754}}{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=3}} From the time of Assyria's rise as a territorial state, Ashur began to be regarded as an embodiment of the entire land ruled by the Assyrian kings.{{Sfn|Maul|2017|p=344}}

The modern name "Assyria" is of Greek origin,{{Sfn|Tamari|2019|p=113}} derived from Ασσυρία (''Assuría''). The term's first attested use is during the time of the ancient Greek historian [[Herodotus]] (5th century BC). The Greeks called the Levant "[[Name of Syria|Syria]]" and Mesopotamia "Assyria", even though the local population, both at that time and well into the later Christian period, used both terms interchangeably to refer to the entire region.{{Sfn|Tamari|2019|p=113}} It is not known whether the Greeks began referring to Mesopotamia as "Assyria" because they equated the region with the Assyrian Empire, long fallen by the time the term is first attested, or because they named the region after the people who lived there, the Assyrians.{{Sfn|Rollinger|2006|p=284}} Because the term is so "[[Name of Syria|similar to Syria]]", scholars have been examining since the 17th century whether the two terms are connected. And because, in sources predating the Greek ones, the shortened form "Syria" is attested as a synonym for Assyria, notably in [[Luwian language|Luwian]] and [[Aramaic]] texts from the time of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, modern scholars overwhelmingly support the conclusion that the names are connected.{{Sfn|Rollinger|2006|pp=285–287}}

Both "Assyria" and the contraction, "Syria," are ultimately derived from the Akkadian ''Aššur''.{{Sfn|Rollinger|2006|pp=283–287}} Following the decline of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the subsequent empires that held dominion over the Assyrian lands adopted distinct appellations for the region, with a significant portion of these names also being rooted in ''Aššur''. The [[Achaemenid Empire]] referred to Assyria as ''Aθūrā'' ("Athura").{{sfn|Parpola|2004|p=18}} The [[Sasanian Empire]] inexplicably referred to [[Lower Mesopotamia]] as [[Asoristan]] ("land of the Assyrians"),{{sfn|Widengren|1986|pp=785–786}} though the northern province of [[Adiabene|Nōdšīragān]], which included much of the old Assyrian heartland, was also sometimes called ''Atūria'' or ''Āthōr''.{{sfn|Marciak|2017|p=416}} In Syriac, Assyria was and is referred to as ''ʾĀthor''.{{Sfn|Butts|2017|p=600}}

== History ==
{{main|History of the Assyrians}}
<timeline>
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id:time value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) #
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Period = from:-2600 till:300
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PlotData =
align:center textcolor:black fontsize:9 mark:(line,black) width:13 shift:(0,-4)
bar:Period color:era
from:-2600 till:-2025 text:[[Early Assyrian period|Early]]
from:-2024 till:-1364 text:[[Old Assyrian period|Old]]
from:-1363 till:-912 text:[[Middle Assyrian Empire|Middle]]
from:-911 till:-609 text:[[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo]]
from:-609 till:240 text:[[Post-imperial Assyria|Post-imperial]]
bar:State color:era
from:-2025 till:-1808 text:Assur city-state
from:-1735 till:-1364 text:Assur city-state
from:-1363 till:-609 text:Assyrian Empire
from:-100 till:240 text:Assur city-state?
</timeline>

=== Early history ===
{{main|Early Assyrian period|Old Assyrian period}}
[[File:Female head from Assur, Iraq, 2400-2100 BCE. Pergamon Museum.jpg|thumb|The head of a female statue, dating back to the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian period]] ({{Circa}} 2334–2154 BC). Found at [[Assur]], display at the [[Pergamon Museum]] in Berlin.]]
Agricultural villages in the region that would later become Assyria are known to have existed by the time of the [[Hassuna culture]],{{Sfn|Liverani|2014|p=208}} {{Circa}} 6300–5800 BC.{{Sfn|Liverani|2014|p=48}} Though the sites of some nearby cities that would later be incorporated into the Assyrian heartland, such as [[Nineveh]], are known to have been inhabited since the [[Neolithic]],{{Sfn|Garfinkle|2007|p=61}} the earliest archaeological evidence from [[Assur]] dates to the [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic Period]], {{Circa}} 2600 BC.{{Sfn|Lewy|1971|p=|pp=729–730}} During this time, the surrounding region was already relatively urbanized.{{Sfn|Liverani|2014|p=208}} There is no evidence that early Assur was an independent settlement,{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=187}} and it might not have been called Assur at all initially, but rather Baltil or Baltila, used in later times to refer to the city's oldest portion.{{Sfn|Lewy|1971|p=731}}

The name "Assur" is first attested for the site in documents of the [[Akkadian Period|Akkadian period]] in the 24th century BC.{{Sfn|Lewy|1971|p=745}} Through most of the [[Early Assyrian period]] ({{Circa}} 2600–2025 BC), Assur was dominated by states and polities from southern Mesopotamia.{{Sfn|Garfinkle|2007|p=63}} Early on, Assur for a time fell under the loose [[hegemony]] of the Sumerian city of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]]{{Sfn|Foster|2016|loc=chapter 3}} and it was later occupied by both the [[Akkadian Empire]] and then the [[Third Dynasty of Ur]].{{Sfn|Roux|1992|p=187}} In {{Circa}} 2025 BC, due to the collapse of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Assur became an independent [[city-state]] under [[Puzur-Ashur I]].{{Sfn|Lewy|1971|p=|pp=739–740}}

[[File:KültepeUnterstadt1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The ruins of the [[Old Assyrian period|Old Assyrian]] trading colony at [[Kültepe]]]]
Under the Puzur-Ashur dynasty, Assur was home to less than 10,000 people and likely held very limited military power; no military institutions at all are known from this time and no political influence was exerted on neighboring cities.{{sfn|Veenhof|2017|p=62}} The city was still influential in other ways; under [[Erishum I]] ({{Reign}}{{circa}} 1974–1934 BC), Assur experimented with [[free trade]], the earliest known such experiment in world history, which left the initiative for trade and large-scale foreign transactions entirely to the populace rather than the state.{{Sfn|Lewy|1971|pp=758–759}}

Royal encouragement of trade led to Assur quickly establishing itself as a prominent trading city in northern Mesopotamia{{sfn|Veenhof|2017|p=61}} and soon thereafter establishing an extensive long-distance trade network,{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=34}} the first notable impression Assyria left in the historical record.{{Sfn|Garfinkle|2007|p=63}} Among the evidence left from this trade network are large collections of Old Assyrian cuneiform tablets from Assyrian trade colonies, the most notable of which is a set of 22,000 clay tablets found at [[Kültepe]], near the modern city of [[Kayseri]] in Turkey.{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=34}}

As trade declined, perhaps due to increased warfare and conflict between the growing states of the Near East,{{Sfn|Garfinkle|2007|p=67}} Assur was frequently threatened by larger foreign states and kingdoms.{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=2}} The original Assur city-state, and the Puzur-Ashur dynasty, came to an end {{Circa}} 1808 BC when the city was conquered by the [[Amorites|Amorite]] ruler of [[Ekallatum]], [[Shamshi-Adad I]].{{sfn|Veenhof|2017|p=65}} Shamshi-Adad's extensive conquests in northern Mesopotamia eventually made him the ruler of the entire region,{{Sfn|Garfinkle|2007|p=67}} founding what some scholars have termed the "[[Old Assyrian period#Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia|Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia]]".{{Sfn|Van De Mieroop|2016|p=115}} The survival of this realm relied chiefly on Shamshi-Adad's own strength and charisma and thus collapsed shortly after his death {{Circa}} 1776 BC.{{Sfn|Garfinkle|2007|p=68}}

After Shamshi-Adad's death, the political situation in northern Mesopotamia was highly volatile, with Assur at times coming under the brief control of [[Eshnunna]],{{sfn|Veenhof|2017|p=66}} [[Elam]]{{sfn|Veenhof|Eidem|2008|p=30}}{{sfn|Veenhof|2017|p=68}} and the [[Old Babylonian Empire]].{{sfn|Veenhof|Eidem|2008|p=30}}{{sfn|Veenhof|2017|p=68}} At some point, the city returned to being an independent city-state,{{Sfn|Garfinkle|2007|p=69}} though the politics of Assur itself were volatile as well, with fighting between members of Shamshi-Adad's dynasty, native Assyrians and [[Hurrians]] for control.{{sfn|Yamada|2017|p=112}} The infighting came to an end after the rise of [[Bel-bani]] as king {{Circa}} 1700 BC.{{Sfn|Chen|2020|p=198}}{{Sfn|Bertman|2003|p=81}} Bel-bani founded the [[Adaside dynasty]], which after his reign ruled Assyria for about a thousand years.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=191}}

Assyria's rise as a territorial state in later times was in large part facilitated by two separate invasions of Mesopotamia by the [[Hittites]]. An invasion by the Hittite king [[Mursili I]] in {{Circa}} 1595 BC destroyed the dominant Old Babylonian Empire, allowing the smaller kingdoms of [[Mitanni]] and [[Kassite Babylonia]] to rise in the north and south, respectively.{{Sfn|Düring|2020|pp=41–42}} Around {{Circa}} 1430 BC, Assur was subjugated by Mitanni, an arrangement that lasted for about 70 years, until {{Circa}} 1360 BC.{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=42}} Another Hittite invasion by [[Šuppiluliuma I]] in the 14th century BC effectively crippled the Mitanni kingdom. After his invasion, Assyria succeeded in freeing itself from its suzerain, achieving independence once more under [[Ashur-uballit I]] ({{Reign}}{{Circa}} 1363–1328 BC) whose rise to power, independence, and conquests of neighboring territory traditionally marks the rise of the Middle Assyrian Empire ({{Circa}} 1363–912 BC).{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=43}}

=== Assyrian Empire ===
{{main|Middle Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian Empire}}{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| total_width = 580
| image1 = Médio-assyrien.png
| image2 = Map of Assyria.png
| footer = Maps of the borders of the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] (left) and the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (right) at their respective heights in the 13th and 7th centuries BC
}}Ashur-uballit I was the first native Assyrian ruler to claim the royal title ''šar'' ("king").{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=2}} Shortly after achieving independence, he further claimed the dignity of a great king on the level of the Egyptian [[pharaoh]]s and the [[Hittite kings]].{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=43}} Assyria's rise was intertwined with the decline and fall of the Mitanni kingdom, its former suzerain, which allowed the early Middle Assyrian kings to expand and consolidate territories in northern Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Jakob|2017a|p=117}} Under the warrior-kings [[Adad-nirari I]] ({{reign}}{{circa}} 1305–1274 BC), [[Shalmaneser I]] ({{reign}}{{circa}} 1273–1244 BC) and [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]] ({{reign}}{{circa}} 1243–1207 BC), Assyria began to realize its aspirations of becoming a significant regional power.{{sfn|Düring|2020|p=45}}

These kings campaigned in all directions and incorporated a significant amount of territory into the growing Assyrian Empire. Under Shalmaneser I, the last remnants of the Mitanni kingdom were formally annexed into Assyria.{{sfn|Düring|2020|p=45}} The most successful of the Middle Assyrian kings was Tukulti-Ninurta I, who brought the Middle Assyrian Empire to its greatest extent.{{sfn|Düring|2020|p=45}} His most notable military achievements were his victory at the [[Battle of Nihriya]] {{Circa}} 1237 BC, which marked the beginning of the end of Hittite influence in northern Mesopotamia,{{sfn|Jakob|2017a|p=122}} and his temporary conquest of Babylonia, which became an Assyrian vassal {{circa}} 1225–1216 BC.{{sfn|Jakob|2017a|pp=125, 129–130}}{{sfn|Chen|2020|pp=199, 203}} Tukulti-Ninurta was also the first Assyrian king to try to move the capital away from Assur, inaugurating the new city [[Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta]] as capital{{sfn|Düring|2020|p=57}} {{Circa}} 1233 BC.{{sfn|Gerster|2005|p=312}} The capital was returned to Assur after his death.{{sfn|Düring|2020|p=57}}

Tukulti-Ninurta I's assassination {{Circa}} 1207 BC was followed by inter-dynastic conflict and a significant drop in Assyrian power.{{sfn|Düring|2020|p=46}} Tukulti-Ninurta I's successors were unable to maintain Assyrian power and Assyria became increasingly restricted to just the Assyrian heartland,{{sfn|Düring|2020|p=46}} a period of decline broadly coinciding with the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]].{{sfn|Düring|2020|p=46}} Though some kings in this period of decline, such as [[Ashur-dan I]] ({{reign}}{{circa}} 1178–1133 BC), [[Ashur-resh-ishi I]] ({{reign}}1132–1115 BC) and [[Tiglath-Pileser I]] ({{reign}}1114–1076 BC) worked to reverse the decline and made significant conquests,{{sfn|Jakob|2017a|p=|pp=133–135}} their conquests were ephemeral and shaky, quickly lost again.{{sfn|Jakob|2017a|pp=136–138}} From the time of [[Eriba-Adad II]] ({{reign}}1056–1054 BC) onward, Assyrian decline intensified.{{sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=165}}

The Assyrian heartland remained safe due to its geographical remoteness.{{sfn|Frahm|2017b|pp=166–167}} Since Assyria was not the only state to undergo decline during these centuries, and the lands surrounding the Assyrian heartland were also significantly fragmented, it would ultimately be relatively easy for the reinvigorated Assyrian army to reconquer large parts of the empire. Under [[Ashur-dan II]] ({{reign}}934–912 BC), who campaigned in the northeast and northwest, Assyrian decline was at last reversed, paving the way for grander efforts under his successors. The end of his reign conventionally marks the beginning of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (911–609 BC).{{sfn|Frahm|2017b|pp=165–168}}

[[File:Tilglath pileser iii.jpg|thumb|A partial relief of [[Tiglath-Pileser III]], {{reign}}745–727 BC, under whom the Neo-Assyrian Empire was consolidated, centralized and significantly expanded]]
Through decades of conquests, the early Neo-Assyrian kings worked to retake the lands of the Middle Assyrian Empire.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=161}}{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=136}} Since this ''reconquista'' had to begin nearly from scratch, its eventual success was an extraordinary achievement.{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=144}} Under [[Ashurnasirpal II]] ({{reign}}883–859 BC), the Neo-Assyrian Empire became the dominant political power in the Near East.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|pp=167, 169}} In his ninth campaign, Ashurnasirpal II marched to the coast of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], collecting tribute from various kingdoms on the way.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=169}} A significant development during Ashurnasirpal II's reign was the second attempt to transfer the Assyrian capital away from Assur. Ashurnasirpal restored the ancient and ruined town of [[Nimrud]], also located in the Assyrian heartland, and in 879 BC designated that city as the new capital of the empire.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=169}} Though no longer the political capital, Assur remained the ceremonial and religious center of Assyria.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=170}}

Ashurnasirpal II's son [[Shalmaneser III]] ({{reign}}859–824 BC) also went on wide-ranging wars of conquest, expanding the empire in all directions.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=170}} After Shalmaneser III's death, the Neo-Assyrian Empire entered into a period of stagnation dubbed the "age of the magnates", when powerful officials and generals were the principal wielders of political power rather than the king.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=173}} This time of stagnation came to an end with the rise of [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] ({{reign}}745–727 BC), who reduced the power of the magnates,{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=177}} consolidated and centralized the holdings of the empire,{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=161}}{{Sfn|Elayi|2017|p=2}} and through his military campaigns and conquests more than doubled the extent of Assyrian territory. The most significant conquests were the vassalization of the [[Levant]] all the way to the Egyptian border and the 729 BC conquest of [[Babylonia]].{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=|pp=177–178}}

The Neo-Assyrian Empire reached the height of its extent and power under the [[Sargonid dynasty]],{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=187}} founded by [[Sargon II]] ({{reign}}722–705 BC). Under Sargon II and his son [[Sennacherib]] ({{reign}}705–681 BC), the empire was further expanded and the gains were consolidated. Both kings founded new capitals. In 706 BC, Sargon II relocated the capital to the newly constructed city of [[Dur-Sharrukin]].{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=183}} The following year, Sennacherib transferred the capital to [[Nineveh]], which he extensively expanded and renovated. He may even have been responsible for the construction of the [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon|Hanging Gardens]] there—one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|pp=183–184}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Dalley |first=Stephanie |title=The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: An Elusive World Wonder Traced |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> The 671 BC [[Assyrian conquest of Egypt|conquest of Egypt]] under [[Esarhaddon]] ({{reign}}681–669 BC) brought Assyria to its greatest ever extent.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=187}}

After the death of [[Ashurbanipal]] ({{reign}}669–631 BC), the Neo-Assyrian Empire swiftly collapsed. One of the primary reasons was the inability of the Neo-Assyrian kings to resolve the "Babylonian problem"; despite many attempts to appease Babylonia in the south, revolts were frequent all throughout the Sargonid period. The revolt of Babylon under [[Nabopolassar]] in 626 BC, in combination with an invasion by the [[Medes]] under [[Cyaxares]] in 615/614 BC, led to the [[Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire]].{{Sfn|Na'aman|1991|p=266}} [[Fall of Assur|Assur was sacked]] in 614 BC and [[Fall of Nineveh|Nineveh fell]] in 612 BC.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=192}} The last Assyrian ruler, [[Ashur-uballit II]], tried to rally the Assyrian army at [[Harran]] in the west but he was defeated in 609 BC, marking the end of the ancient line of Assyrian kings and of Assyria as a state.{{Sfn|Radner|2019|p=141}}{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=193}}

=== Later history ===
{{main|Post-imperial Assyria}}
[[File:Detail._Parthian_stele_from_Ashur,_Iraq._1st_century_BCE_to_1st_century_CE._Museum_of_Archaeology,_Istanbul,_Turkey.jpg|thumb|Detail of a stele in the style of the Neo-Assyrian royal steles, erected in Assur in the 2nd century AD under [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] rule, by the local ruler [[Rʻuth-Assor]]{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=20}}]]

Despite the violent downfall of the Assyrian Empire, Assyrian culture continued to survive through the subsequent [[Post-imperial Assyria|post-imperial period]] (609 BC – {{Circa}} AD 240) and beyond.{{sfn|Hauser|2017|p=229}} The Assyrian heartland experienced a dramatic decrease in the size and number of inhabited settlements during the rule of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] founded by Nabopolassar; the former Assyrian capital cities Assur, Nimrud and Nineveh were nearly completely abandoned.{{sfn|Hauser|2017|p=232}} Throughout the time of the Neo-Babylonian and later [[Achaemenid Empire]], Assyria remained a marginal and sparsely populated region.{{sfn|Hauser|2017|p=236}} Toward the end of the 6th century BC, the Assyrian dialect of the [[Akkadian language]] went extinct, having toward the end of the Neo-Assyrian Empire already largely been replaced by Aramaic as a [[vernacular]] language.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=314}}

Under the empires succeeding the Neo-Babylonians, from the late 6th century BC onward, Assyria began to experience a recovery. Under the Achaemenids, most of the territory was organized into the province{{efn|Though often referred to as a [[satrapy]] by modern historians,{{sfn|Parpola|2004|p=18}} Assyria appears in Achaemenid royal inscriptions as a ''dahyu''; a term of uncertain implications used to refer to both peoples and geographical locations (not necessarily synonymous with the formal satrapies of the empire).{{sfn|Waters|2014|p=97}}}} [[Achaemenid Assyria|Athura]] (''Aθūrā'').{{sfn|Parpola|2004|p=18}} The organization into a single large province,{{sfn|Parpola|2004|p=19}} the lack of interference of the Achaemenid rulers in local affairs,{{sfn|Parpola|2004|p=18}} and the return of the cult statue of Ashur to Assur soon after the Achaemenids conquered Babylon facilitated the survival of Assyrian culture.{{sfn|Hauser|2017|p=230}} Under the [[Seleucid Empire]], which controlled Mesopotamia from the late 4th to mid-2nd century BC, Assyrian sites such as Assur, Nimrud and Nineveh were resettled, and a large number of villages were rebuilt and expanded.{{sfn|Hauser|2017|p=238}}

After the [[Parthian Empire]] conquered the region in the 2nd century BC, the recovery of Assyria continued, culminating in an unprecedented return to prosperity and revival in the 1st to 3rd centuries AD. The region was resettled and restored so intensely that the population and settlement density reached heights not seen since the Neo-Assyrian Empire.{{sfn|Hauser|2017|p=238}} The region was under the Parthians primarily ruled by a group of vassal kingdoms, including [[Osroene]], [[Adiabene]] and [[Hatra]]. Though in some aspects influenced by Assyrian culture, these states were for the most part not ruled by Assyrian rulers.{{Sfn|Parpola|2004|p=20}}{{sfn|Drower|Gray|Sherwin-White|2012}}

Assur itself flourished under Parthian rule.{{Sfn|Parpola|2004|p=20}}{{Sfn|Harper|Klengel-Brandt|Aruz|Benzel|1995|p=18}} From around or shortly after the end of the 2nd century BC,{{Sfn|Schippmann|2012|pp=816–817}} the city may have become the capital of its own small semi-autonomous Assyrian realm,{{Sfn|Parpola|2004|p=20}} either under the suzerainty of Hatra,{{sfn|Radner|2015|p=19}} or under direct Parthian suzerainty.{{Sfn|Harper|Klengel-Brandt|Aruz|Benzel|1995|p=18}} On account of the resemblance between the stelae by the local rulers and those of the ancient Assyrian kings,{{Sfn|Parpola|2004|p=20}} they may have seen themselves as the restorers and continuators of the old royal line.{{Sfn|Radner|2015|pp=19–20}} The ancient Ashur temple was restored in the 2nd century AD.{{Sfn|Parpola|2004|p=20}}{{Sfn|Harper|Klengel-Brandt|Aruz|Benzel|1995|p=18}} This last cultural golden age came to an end with the sack of Assur by the [[Sasanian Empire]] {{circa}} 240.{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=7}} During the sack, the Ashur temple was destroyed again and the city's population was dispersed.{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=19}}

Starting from the 1st century AD onward, many of the Assyrians became [[Christianized]],{{Sfn|Donabed|2019|p=118}} though holdouts of the old [[ancient Mesopotamian religion]] continued to survive for centuries.{{sfn|Parpola|2004|p=21}} Despite the loss of political power, the Assyrians continued to constitute a significant portion of the population in northern Mesopotamia until religiously motivated suppression and massacres under the [[Ilkhanate]] and the [[Timurid Empire]] in the 14th century, which relegated them to a local ethnic and religious minority.{{sfn|Jacobsen|2021|p=141}} The Assyrians lived largely in peace under the rule of the [[Ottoman Empire]], which gained control of Assyria in the 16th century.{{sfn|Murre-van den Berg|2021|pp=27–28}}{{sfn|Yapp|1988|p=139}}{{sfn|Mack|2017|loc=From the Millet to the Sword}}

In the late 19th and early 20th century, when the Ottomans grew increasingly nationalistic, further persecutions and massacres were enacted against the Assyrians, most notably the ''[[Sayfo]]'' (Assyrian genocide),{{Sfn|Donabed|2019|p=119}} which resulted in the deaths of as many as 250,000 Assyrians.{{sfn|Gaunt|Atto|Barthoma|2017|p=10}}{{efn|The precise number is far from certain since the massacres were poorly documented by the Ottoman government. The Assyrian population prior to the genocide amounted to about 500,000–600,000 people and the generally accepted estimate is that about 50 % of the Assyrian people were killed.{{sfn|Gaunt|Atto|Barthoma|2017|p=10}}|name=gen}} Throughout the 20th century, many unsuccessful [[Proposals for Assyrian autonomy in Iraq|proposals]] have been made by the Assyrians for autonomy or independence.{{Sfn|Donabed|2019|pp=119–120}} Further massacres and persecutions, enacted both by governments and by terrorist groups such as the [[Islamic State]], have resulted in most of the Assyrian people living in [[Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora|diaspora]].{{sfn|Parpola|2004|p=22}}

== Government and military ==

=== Kingship ===
{{See also|List of Assyrian kings}}
[[File:Erishum I of Assyria.png|thumb|upright=1.35|A line-drawing of a royal seal of the Old Assyrian king [[Erishum I]], {{Reign}}{{circa}} 1974–1934 BC. The seated ruler is thought to represent the god [[Ashur (god)|Ashur]], with Erishum being the bald figure being led toward him.{{sfn|Eppihimer|2013|p=43}}]]
In the Assur city-state of the Old Assyrian period, the government was in many respects an [[oligarchy]], where the king was a permanent, albeit not the only prominent, actor.{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=38}} The Old Assyrian kings were not [[Autocracy|autocrats]], with sole power, but rather acted as stewards on behalf of the god Ashur and presided over the meetings of the city assembly,{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=3}}{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=37}} the main Assyrian administrative body during this time.{{sfn|Veenhof|2017|p=70}} The composition of the city assembly is not known, but it is generally believed to have been made up of members of the most powerful families of the city,{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=38}} many of whom were merchants.{{sfn|Veenhof|2017|p=61}}

The king acted as the main executive officer and chairman of this group of influential individuals and also contributed with legal knowledge and expertise.{{sfn|Veenhof|2017|p=70}} The Old Assyrian kings were styled as ''iššiak Aššur'' ("governor [on behalf] of [[Ashur (god)|Ashur]]"), with Ashur being considered the city's formal king.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=143}} That the populace of Assur in the Old Assyrian period often referred to the king as ''rubā’um'' ("great one") clearly indicates that the kings, despite their limited executive power, were seen as royal figures and as being ''[[primus inter pares]]'' (first among equals) among the powerful individuals of the city.{{sfn|Veenhof|2017|p=71}}

Assur first experienced a more autocratic form of kingship under the Amorite conqueror Shamshi-Adad I,{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=38}} the earliest ruler of Assur to use the style ''šarrum'' (king){{Sfn|Chavalas|1994|p=117}} and the title '[[king of the Universe]]'.{{Sfn|Bertman|2003|p=103}} Shamshi-Adad I appears to have based his more absolute form of kingship on the rulers of the Old Babylonian Empire.{{sfn|Eppihimer|2013|p=49}} Under Shamshi-Adad I, Assyrians also swore their oaths by the king, not just by the god. This practice did not survive beyond his death.{{sfn|Veenhof|2017|p=74}} The influence of the city assembly had disappeared by the beginning of the Middle Assyrian period. Though the traditional ''iššiak Aššur'' continued to be used at times, the Middle Assyrian kings were autocrats, in terms of power having little in common with the rulers of the Old Assyrian period.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=143}}

As the Assyrian Empire grew, the kings began to employ an increasingly sophisticated array of royal titles. Ashur-uballit I was the first to assume the style ''šar māt Aššur'' ("king of the land of Ashur") and his grandson [[Arik-den-ili]] ({{reign}}{{circa}} 1317–1306 BC) introduced the style ''šarru dannu'' ("strong king"). Adad-nirari I's inscriptions required 32 lines to be devoted just to his titles. This development peaked under Tukulti-Ninurta I, who assumed, among other titles, the styles "king of Assyria and [[Karduniaš|Karduniash]]", "[[king of Sumer and Akkad]]", "king of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Upper]] and the [[Persian Gulf|Lower]] Seas" and "[[King of All Peoples|king of all peoples]]". Royal titles and epithets were often highly reflective of current political developments and the achievements of individual kings; during periods of decline, the royal titles used typically grew more simple again, only to grow grander once more as Assyrian power experienced resurgences.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=144}}

[[File:Alabaster_Stela_of_the_Asirian_King_Ashurnasirpal_II_(884-859_BC)_-_British_Museum.jpg|thumb|A [[stele]] of the Neo-Assyrian king [[Ashurnasirpal II]], {{reign}}883–859 BC]]
The kings of the Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods continued to present themselves, and be viewed by their subjects, as the intermediaries between Ashur and mankind.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=145}} This position and role was used to justify imperial expansion: the Assyrians saw their empire as being the part of the world overseen and administered by Ashur through his human agents. In their ideology, the outer realm outside of Assyria was characterized by chaos and the people there were uncivilized, with unfamiliar cultural practices and strange languages. The mere existence of the "outer realm" was regarded as a threat to the cosmic order within Assyria and as such, it was the king's duty to expand the realm of Ashur and incorporate these strange lands, converting chaos to civilization.{{Sfn|Parker|2011|pp=363–365}}

Texts describing the coronation of Middle and Neo-Assyrian kings at times include Ashur commanding the king to "broaden the land of Ashur" or "extend the land at his feet". As such, expansion was cast as a moral and necessary duty.{{Sfn|Parker|2011|pp=363–365}} Because the rule and actions of the Assyrian king were seen as divinely sanctioned,{{Sfn|Parker|2011|p=365}} resistance to Assyrian sovereignty in times of war was regarded to be resistance against divine will, which deserved punishment.{{Sfn|Bedford|2009|p=22}} Peoples and polities who revolted against Assyria were seen as criminals against the divine world order.{{Sfn|Bedford|2009|p=29}} Since Ashur was the king of the gods, all other gods were subjected to him and thus the people who followed those gods should be subjected to the representative of Ashur, the Assyrian king.{{Sfn|Bain|2017}}

The kings also had religious and judicial duties. Kings were responsible for performing various rituals in support of the cult of Ashur and the Assyrian priesthood.{{Sfn|Parker|2011|p=367}} They were expected, together with the Assyrian people, to provide offerings to not only Ashur but also all the other gods. From the time of Ashur-resh-ishi I onward, the religious and cultic duties of the king were pushed somewhat into the background, though they were still prominently mentioned in accounts of building and restoring temples. Assyrian titles and epithets in inscriptions from then on generally emphasized the kings as powerful warriors.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=145}} Developing from their role in the Old Assyrian period, the Middle and Neo-Assyrian kings were the supreme judicial authority in the empire, though they generally appear to have been less concerned with their role as judges than their predecessors in the Old Assyrian period were.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=146}} The kings were expected to ensure the welfare and prosperity of the Assyria and its people, indicated by multiple inscriptions referring to the kings as "shepherds" (''re’û'').{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=145}}

=== Capital cities ===
[[File:Iraq; Nimrud - Assyria, Lamassu's Guarding Palace Entrance.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Ruins of one of the entrances of the [[Northwest Palace]] at [[Nimrud]], the Assyrian capital 879–706 BC, destroyed by the [[Islamic State]] in 2015|alt=View of a grey stone wall and archway, with the statues of three lamassu (protective deities with wings, the head of a human and the body of a lion or bull).]]
No word for the idea of a capital city existed in Akkadian, the nearest being the idea of a "city of kingship", i.e. an administrative center used by the king, but there are several examples of kingdoms having multiple "cities of kingship". Due to Assyria growing out of the Assur city-state of the Old Assyrian period, and due to the city's religious importance, Assur was the administrative center of Assyria through most of its history. Though the royal administration at times moved elsewhere, the ideological status of Assur was never fully superseded{{Sfn|Reade|2011|p=109}} and it remained a ceremonial center in the empire even when it was governed from elsewhere.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=170}} The transfer of the royal seat of power to other cities was ideologically possible since the king was Ashur's representative on Earth. The king, like the deity embodied Assyria itself, and so the capital of Assyria was in a sense wherever the king happened to have his residence.{{Sfn|Reade|2011|p=109}}

The first transfer of administrative power away from Assur occurred under Tukulti-Ninurta I,{{sfn|Düring|2020|p=57}} who {{Circa}} 1233 BC{{sfn|Gerster|2005|p=312}} inaugurated Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta as capital.{{sfn|Düring|2020|p=57}} Tukulti-Ninurta I's foundation of a new capital was perhaps inspired by developments in Babylonia in the south, where the [[Kassite dynasty]] had transferred the administration from the long-established city of Babylon to the newly constructed city of [[Dur-Kurigalzu]], also named after a king. It seems that Tukulti-Ninurta I intended to go further than the Kassites and also establish Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta as the new Assyrian cult center. The city was however not maintained as capital after Tukulti-Ninurta I's death, with subsequent kings once more ruling from Assur.{{sfn|Düring|2020|p=57}}
{{Location map many
| Iraq
| relief = yes
| width = 300px
| border = no
| caption = A map of the capital cities of ancient Assyria
| label2 = [[Assur]]
| coordinates2 = {{coord|35|27|24|N|43|15|45|E}}
| pos2 = left
| label1 = [[Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta]]
| coordinates1 = {{coord|35.494685|N|43.270008|E}}
| label3 = [[Nimrud]]
| coordinates3 = {{coord|36|05|53|N|43|19|44|E}}
| label4 = [[Dur-Sharrukin]]
| coordinates4 = {{coord|36|30|34|N|43|13|46|E}}
| pos4 = top
| label5 = [[Nineveh]]
| coordinates5 = {{coord|36|21|34|N|43|09|10|E}}
| pos5 = left
| label6 = [[Harran]]
| coordinates6 = {{coord|36|52|39|N|39|02|02|E}}
}}
The Neo-Assyrian Empire underwent several different capitals. There is some evidence that [[Tukulti-Ninurta II]] ({{reign}}890–884 BC), perhaps inspired by his predecessor of the same name, made unfulfilled plans to transfer the capital to a city called [[Nemid Tukulti-Ninurta]], either a completely new city or a new name applied to Nineveh, which by this point already rivalled Assur in scale and political importance.{{Sfn|Reade|2011|p=112}} The capital was transferred under Tukulti-Ninurta II's son Ashurnasirpal II to Nimrud in 879 BC.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=169}} An architectural detail separating Nimrud and the other Neo-Assyrian capitals from Assur is that they were designed in a way that emphasized royal power: the royal palaces in Assur were smaller than the temples but the situation was reversed in the new capitals.{{Sfn|Reade|2011|p=114}}

In 706 BC, Sargon II transferred the capital to the city of Dur-Sharrukin, which he built himself.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=183}} Since the location of Dur-Sharrukin had no obvious practical or political merit, this move was probably an ideological statement.{{Sfn|Reade|2011|p=118}} Immediately after Sargon II's death in 705 BC, his son Sennacherib transferred the capital to Nineveh,{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|pp=183–184}}{{Sfn|Reade|2011|p=120}} a far more natural seat of power.{{Sfn|Reade|2011|p=120}} Though it was not meant as a permanent royal residence,{{Sfn|Radner|2019|p=|pp=140–141}} Ashur-uballit II chose Harran as his seat of power after the fall of Nineveh in 612 BC. Harran is typically seen as the short-lived final Assyrian capital. No building projects were conducted during this time, but Harran had been long-established as a major religious center, dedicated to the god [[Sin (mythology)|Sîn]].{{Sfn|Reade|2011|p=123}}

=== Aristocracy and elite ===
[[File:Stele of Bel-harran-beli-usur, from Tell Abda, 8th century BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul, Turkey.jpg|thumb|Stele of [[Bel-harran-beli-usur]], a palace herald, made in the reign of the Neo-Assyrian king [[Shalmaneser IV]] ({{reign}}783–773 BC)]]
Because of the nature of source preservation, more information about the upper classes of ancient Assyria survives than for the lower ones.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=155}} At the top of Middle and Neo-Assyrian society were members of long-established and large families called "houses". Members of this aristocracy tended to occupy the most important offices within the government{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=155}} and they were likely descendants of the most prominent families of the Old Assyrian period.{{Sfn|Fales|2017|p=402}}

One of the most influential offices in the Assyrian administration was the position of [[vizier]] (''sukkallu''). From at least the time of Shalmaneser I onward, there were grand viziers (''sukkallu rabi’u''), superior to the ordinary viziers, who at times governed their own lands as appointees of the kings. At least in the Middle Assyrian period, the grand viziers were typically members of the royal family and the position was at this time, as were many other offices, hereditary.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|pp=146–147}}

The elite of the Neo-Assyrian Empire was expanded and included several different offices. The Neo-Assyrian inner elite is typically divided by modern scholars into the "magnates", a set of high-ranking offices, and the "scholars" (''ummânī''), tasked with advising and guiding the kings through interpreting omens. The magnates included the offices ''masennu'' (treasurer), ''nāgir ekalli'' (palace herald), ''[[Rabshakeh|rab šāqê]]'' (chief cupbearer), ''rab ša-rēši'' (chief officer/eunuch), ''sartinnu'' (chief judge), ''sukkallu'' (grand vizier) and ''[[turtanu]]'' (commander-in-chief), which at times continued to be occupied by royal family members.{{Sfn|Parker|2011|pp=368–370, 377–378}}

Some of the magnates acted as governors of important provinces and all of them were deeply involved with the Assyrian military, controlling significant forces. They owned large tax-free estates, scattered throughout the empire.{{Sfn|Parker|2011|pp=368–370, 377–378}} In the late Neo-Assyrian Empire, there was a growing disconnect between the traditional Assyrian elite and the kings due to eunuchs growing unprecedently powerful.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=190}} The highest offices both in the civil administration and the army began to be occupied by eunuchs with deliberately obscure and lowly origins, since this ensured that they would be loyal to the king.{{Sfn|Radner|2017|p=213}} Eunuchs were trusted, since they were believed incapable of having any dynastic aspirations of their own.''{{Sfn|Oates|1992|p=172}}''

From the time of Erishum I in the early Old Assyrian period onward,{{Sfn|Veenhof|2017|p=58}} a yearly office-holder, a ''[[limmu]]'' official, was elected from the influential men of Assyria. The ''limmu'' official gave their name to the year, meaning that their name appeared in all administrative documents signed that year. Kings were typically the ''limmu'' officials in their first regnal years. In the Old Assyrian period, the ''limmu'' officials also held substantial executive power, though this aspect of the office had disappeared by the time of the rise of the Middle Assyrian Empire.{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=38}}

=== Administration ===
{{See also|Middle Assyrian Empire#Government|Neo-Assyrian Empire#Government}}
[[File:Stele of Ili-ittija governor of Libbi-ali, Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta, Ekallatum, Itu, and Ruqahu. From Assur, Iraq. 804 BCE. Pergamon Museum.jpg|thumb|A stele of [[Ili-ittija]], governor of [[Libbi-ali]], [[Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta]], [[Ekallatum]], [[Itu (Mesopotamia)|Itu]], and [[Ruqahu]], {{Circa}} 804 BC]]
The success of Assyria was not only due to energetic kings who expanded its borders but more importantly due to its ability to efficiently incorporate and govern conquered lands.{{Sfn|Parker|2011|p=359}} From the rise of Assyria as a territorial state at the beginning of the Middle Assyrian period onward, Assyrian territory was divided into a set of provinces or districts (''pāḫutu'').{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|pp=149–150}} The total number and size of these provinces varied and changed as Assyria expanded and contracted.{{Sfn|Llop|2012|p=107}} Every province was headed by a provincial governor (''bel pāḫete'',''{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|pp=149–150}} bēl pīhāti{{Sfn|Yamada|2000|p=300}}'' or ''šaknu''){{Sfn|Yamada|2000|p=300}} who was responsible for handling local order, public safety and economy.

Governors stored and distributed the goods produced in their province, which were inspected and collected by royal representatives once a year. Through these inspections, the central government could keep track of current stocks and production throughout the country. Governors had to pay both taxes and offer gifts to the god Ashur, though such gifts were usually small and mainly symbolic.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|pp=149–150}} The channeling of taxes and gifts were a method of collecting profit and served to connect the elite of the entire empire to the Assyrian heartland.{{Sfn|Parker|2011|p=369}}

In the Neo-Assyrian period, an extensive hierarchy within the provincial administration is attested. At the bottom of this hierarchy were lower officials, such as village managers (''rab ālāni'') who oversaw one or more villages, collecting taxes in the form of labor and goods and keeping the administration informed of the conditions of their settlements,{{Sfn|Parker|2011|pp=360, 370–371}} and [[corvée]] officers (''ša bēt-kūdini'') who kept tallies on the labor performed by forced laborers and the remaining time owed.{{Sfn|Parker|2011|p=360}} Individual cities had their own administrations, headed by mayors (''ḫazi’ānu''), responsible for the local economy and production.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|pp=149–151}}

Some regions of the Assyrian Empire were not incorporated into the provincial system but were still subjected to the rule of the Assyrian kings. Such vassal states could be ruled indirectly through allowing established local lines of kings to continue ruling in exchange for tribute or through the Assyrian kings appointing their own vassal rulers.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|pp=149–151}} Through the [[Ilkum|''ilku'' system]], the Assyrian kings could also grant arable lands to individuals in exchange for goods and military service.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=154}}

To overcome the challenges of governing a large empire, the Neo-Assyrian Empire developed a sophisticated [[State communications in the Neo-Assyrian Empire|state communication system]],{{sfn|Radner|2012|loc=Road stations across the empire}} which included various innovative techniques and [[Stage station|relay stations]].{{sfn|Radner|2015b|p=64}} Per estimates by [[Karen Radner]], an official message sent in the Neo-Assyrian period from the western border province [[Quwê]] to the Assyrian heartland, a distance of 700 kilometers (430 miles) over a stretch of lands featuring many rivers without any bridges, could take less than five days to arrive. Such communication speed was unprecedented before the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and was not surpassed in the Middle East until the [[telegraph]] was introduced by the Ottoman Empire in 1865, nearly two and a half thousand years after the Neo-Assyrian Empire's fall.{{sfn|Radner|2012|loc=Making speed}}{{sfn|Radner|2015b|p=64}}

=== Military ===
{{See also|Middle Assyrian Empire#Military|Neo-Assyrian Empire#Military|Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire}}
[[File:Assyrian spearman · HHWI469.svg|thumb|A 20th-century illustration of a Neo-Assyrian spearman]]
The Assyrian army was throughout its history mostly composed of levies, mobilized only when they were needed (such as in the time of campaigns). Through regulations, obligations and sophisticated government systems, large amounts of soldiers could be recruited and mobilized already in the early Middle Assyrian period.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=152}} A small central standing army unit was established in the Neo-Assyrian Empire, dubbed the ''kiṣir šarri'' ("king's unit").{{Sfn|Dalley|2017|pp=526, 528}} Some professional, though not standing, troops are also attested in the Middle Assyrian period, dubbed ''ḫurādu'' or ''ṣābū ḫurādātu'', though what their role was is not clear due to the scarcity of sources. Perhaps this category included archers and [[chariot]]eers, who needed more extensive training than normal [[foot soldiers]].{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=152}}

The Assyrian army developed and evolved over time. In the Middle Assyrian period, foot soldiers were divided into the ''sạ bū ša kakkē'' ("weapon troops") and the ''sạ bū ša arâtē'' ("shield-bearing troops") but surviving records are not detailed enough to determine what the differences were. It is possible that the ''sạ bū ša kakkē'' included ranged troops, such as slingers (''ṣābū ša ušpe'') and archers (''ṣābū ša qalte''). The chariots in the army composed a unit of their own. Based on surviving depictions, chariots were crewed by two soldiers: an archer who commanded the chariot (''māru damqu'') and a driver (''ša mugerre'').{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=152}} Chariots first entered extensive military use under Tiglath-Pileser I in the 12th–11th centuries BC{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=152}} and were in the later Neo-Assyrian period gradually phased out in favor of cavalry{{Sfn|Dalley|2017|p=|pp=526–527}} (''ša petḫalle'').{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=152}} In the Middle Assyrian period, cavalry was mainly used for escorting or message deliveries.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=153}}

Under the Neo-Assyrian Empire, important new developments in the military were the large-scale introduction of cavalry, the adoption of [[iron]] for armor and weapons,{{Sfn|Dalley|2017|p=|pp=523, 525, 529–531}} and the development of new and innovative [[siege warfare]] techniques.{{Sfn|Aberbach|2003|p=4}} At the height of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Assyrian army was the strongest army yet assembled in world history.{{Sfn|Aberbach|2003|p=4}} The number of soldiers in the Neo-Assyrian army was likely several hundred thousand.{{Sfn|Dalley|2017|p=531}} The Neo-Assyrian army was subdivided into ''kiṣru'', composed of perhaps 1,000 soldiers, most of whom would have been infantry soldiers (''zūk'', ''zukkû'' or ''raksūte''). The infantry was divided into three types: light, medium and heavy, with varying weapons, level of armor and responsibilities.{{Sfn|Dalley|2017|pp=526, 528}} While on campaign, the Assyrian army made heavy use of both interpreters/translators (''targumannu'') and guides (''rādi kibsi''), both probably being drawn from foreigners resettled in Assyra.{{Sfn|Dalley|2017|p=|pp=528, 531}}

== Population and society ==

=== Population and social standing ===
{{See also|Assyrian culture}}

==== Populace ====
[[File:Denis Bourez - British Museum, London (8748213226).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A neo-Assyrian relief of Assyrians in a procession]]
The majority of the population of ancient Assyria were farmers who worked land owned by their families.{{Sfn|Bedford|2009|p=36}} Old Assyrian society was divided into two main groups: slaves (''subrum'') and free citizens, referred to as ''awīlum'' ("men") or DUMU ''Aššur'' ("sons of Ashur"). Among the free citizens there was also a division into ''rabi'' ("big") and ''ṣaher'' ("small") members of the city assembly.{{sfn|Michel|2017|pp=81, 83}} Assyrian society grew more complex and hierarchical over time. In the Middle Assyrian Empire, there were several groups among the lower classes, the highest of which were the free men (''a’ılū''), who like the upper classes could receive land in exchange for performing duties for the government, but who could not live on these lands since they were comparably small.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=156}}

Below the free men were the unfree men{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=101}} (''šiluhlu̮'').{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=156}} The unfree men had given up their freedom and entered the services of others on their own accord, and were provided with clothes and rations. Many of them probably originated as foreigners. Though similar to slavery, it was possible for an unfree person to regain their freedom by providing a replacement. During their service they were considered the property of the government rather than their employers.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=156}} Other lower classes of the Middle Assyrian period included the ''ālāyû'' ("village residents"), ''ālik ilke'' (people recruited through the ''ilku'' system) and the ''hupšu'', though what these designations meant in terms of social standing and living standards is not known.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|pp=156–157}}

The Middle Assyrian structure of society by and large endured through the subsequent Neo-Assyrian period. Below the higher classes of Neo-Assyrian society were free citizens, semi-free laborers and slaves. It was possible through steady service to the Assyrian state bureaucracy for a family to move up the social ladder. In some cases, stellar work conducted by a single individual enhanced the status of their family for generations to come. In many cases, Assyrian family groups, or "clans", formed large population groups within the empire, referred to as tribes. Such tribes lived together in villages and other settlements near or adjacent to their agricultural lands.{{Sfn|Bedford|2009|p=36}}

Slavery was an intrinsic part of nearly every society in the ancient Near East.{{sfn|de Ridder|2017|p=49}} There were two main types of slaves in ancient Assyria: [[chattel slaves]], primarily foreigners who were kidnapped or who were spoils of war, and [[Debt-slave|debt slaves]], formerly free men and women who had been unable to pay off their debts.{{sfn|de Ridder|2017|p=56}} In some cases, Assyrian children were seized by authorities due to the debts of their parents and sold off into slavery when their parents were unable to pay.{{sfn|Michel|2017|p=84}} Children born to slave women automatically became slaves themselves,{{sfn|de Ridder|2017|p=57}} unless some other arrangement had been agreed to.{{sfn|Michel|2017|p=83}} Though Old Babylonian texts frequently mention the geographical and ethnic origin of slaves, there is only a single known such reference in Old Assyrian texts (whereas there are many describing slaves in a general sense), a slave girl explicitly being referred to as [[Subartu|Subaraean]], indicating that ethnicity was not seen as very important in terms of slavery.{{sfn|de Ridder|2017|p=51}}

The surviving evidence suggests that the number of slaves in Assyria never reached a large share of the population.{{Sfn|Bedford|2009|p=36}} In the [[Akkadian language]], several terms were used for slaves, commonly ''wardum'', though this term could confusingly also be used for (free) official servants, retainers and followers, soldiers and subjects of the king. Because many individuals designated as ''wardum'' in Assyrian texts are described as handling property and carrying out administrative tasks on behalf of their masters, many may have in actuality been free servants and not slaves in the common meaning of the term.{{sfn|de Ridder|2017|p=49}} A number of ''wardum'' are also recorded as being bought and sold.{{sfn|de Ridder|2017|p=50}}

==== Status of women ====
[[File:Naqi'a crop.png|thumb|[[Naqi'a]], [[Sennacherib]]'s wife, 8th-7th centuries BC, the most documented woman in Assyrian history.{{sfn|Fink|2020}}]]
The main evidence concerning the lives of ordinary women in ancient Assyria is in administrative documents and law codes.{{Sfn|Bain|2017}} There was no legal distinction between men and women in the Old Assyrian period and they had more or less the same rights in society.{{sfn|Michel|2017|p=81}} Since several letters written by women are known from the Old Assyrian period, it is evident that women were free to learn how to read and write.{{sfn|Michel|2017|p=100}} Both men and women paid the same fines, could inherit property, participated in trade, bought, owned, and sold houses and slaves, made their own last wills, and were allowed to divorce their partners.{{sfn|Michel|2017|p=84}}

Records of Old Assyrian marriages confirm that the [[dowry]] to the bride belonged to her, not the husband, and it was inherited by her children after her death.{{sfn|Michel|2017|p=85}} Although they were equal legally, men and women in the Old Assyrian period were raised and socialized differently and had different social expectations and obligations. Typically, girls were raised by their mothers, taught to spin, weave, and help with daily tasks. Boys were taught trades by masters, later often following their fathers on trade expeditions. Sometimes the eldest daughter of a family was consecrated as a priestess. She was not allowed to marry and became economically independent.{{sfn|Michel|2017|pp=88–89}}

Wives were expected to provide their husbands with garments and food. Although marriages were typically [[monogamous]], husbands were allowed to buy a female slave in order to produce an heir if his wife was [[Infertility|infertile]]. The wife was allowed to choose that slave and the slave never gained the status of a second wife.{{sfn|Michel|2017|p=85}} Husbands who were away on long trading journeys were allowed to take a second wife in one of the trading colonies, although with strict rules that must be followed: the second wife was not allowed to accompany him back to Assur and both wives had to be provided with a home to live in, food, and wood.{{sfn|Michel|2017|p=85}}

The status of women decreased in the Middle Assyrian period, as can be gathered from laws concerning them among the [[Middle Assyrian Laws]]. Among these laws were punishments for various crimes, often sexual or marital ones.{{Sfn|Bain|2017}}{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=157}} Although they did not deprive women of all their rights and they were not significantly different from other ancient Near Eastern laws of their time, the Middle Assyrian Laws effectively made women second-class citizens.{{Sfn|Bain|2017}} It is not clear how strongly these laws were enforced.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=157}}

These laws gave men the right to punish their wives as they wished. Among the harshest punishments written into these laws, for a crime not even committed by the woman, was that a raped woman would be forcibly married to her rapist.{{Sfn|Bain|2017}} These laws also specified that certain women were obliged to wear veils while out on the street, marital status being the determining factor. Some women, such as slave women and ''ḫarımtū'' women, were prohibited from wearing veils and others, such as certain priestesses, were only allowed to wear veils if they were married.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=157}}

Not all laws were suppressive against women. Women whose husbands died or were taken prisoner in war, and who did not have any sons or relatives to support them, were guaranteed support from the government.{{Sfn|Jakob|2017b|p=158}} The ''ḫarımtū'' women have historically been believed to have been prostitutes, but today, are interpreted as women with an independent social existence, i.e. not tied to a husband, father, or institution. Although most ''ḫarımtū'' appear to have been poor, there were noteworthy exceptions. The term appears with negative connotations in several texts. Their mere existence makes it clear that it was possible for women to live independent lives, despite their lesser social standing during that period.{{Sfn|Bain|2017}}

During the Neo-Assyrian period that followed, royal and upper-class women experienced increased influence.{{Sfn|Svärd|2015|pp=163–166}} Women attached to the Neo-Assyrian royal court sent and received letters, were independently wealthy, and could buy and own lands of their own.{{Sfn|Bain|2017}} The [[queens of the Neo-Assyrian Empire]] are better attested historically than queens of preceding periods of the culture. Under the Sargonid dynasty, they were granted their own military units. Sometimes they are known to have partaken in military campaigns alongside other units.{{Sfn|Svärd|2015|pp=163–166}}

Among the most influential women of the Neo-Assyrian period were [[Shammuramat]], queen of [[Shamshi-Adad V]] ({{reign}}824–811 BC), who in the reign of her son [[Adad-nirari III]] ({{reign}}811–783 BC) might have been regent and participated in military campaigns.{{Sfn|Kertai|2013|p=113}}{{Sfn|Svärd|2015|p=167}} Another is [[Naqi'a]], who influenced politics in the reigns of Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal.{{Sfn|Fink|2020}}

=== Economy ===
[[File:Cuneiform tablet case impressed with four cylinder seals Old Assyrian.png|thumb|upright=1.35|An old Assyrian cuneiform tablet from Kültepe recording the repayment of a loan, impressed with four different [[cylinder seal]]s]]
In the Old Assyrian period, a major portion of Assur's population was involved in the city's international trade.{{sfn|Michel|2017|p=80}} As can be gathered from hiring contracts and other records, the trade involved people of many different occupations, including porters, guides, donkey drivers, agents, traders, bakers and bankers.{{sfn|Michel|2017|p=83}} Because of the extensive cuneiform records known from the period, details of the trade are relatively well-known. It has been estimated that just in the period {{Circa}} 1950–1836 BC, twenty-five tons of Anatolian silver was transported to Assur, and that approximately one hundred tons of tin and 100,000 textiles were transported to Anatolia in return.{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=34}} The Assyrians also sold livestock, processed goods and reed products.{{Sfn|Garfinkle|2007|p=64}} In many cases, the materials sold by Assyrian colonists came from far-away places; the textiles sold by Assyrians in Anatolia were imported from southern Mesopotamia and the tin came from the east in the [[Zagros Mountains]].{{Sfn|Garfinkle|2007|p=66}}

After international trade declined in the 19th century BC,{{Sfn|Garfinkle|2007|p=67}} the Assyrian economy became increasingly oriented toward the state. In the Neo-Assyrian period, the wealth generated through private investments was dwarfed by the wealth of the state, which was by far the largest employer in the empire and had a [[monopoly]] on agriculture, manufacturing and exploitation of minerals. The imperial economy advantaged mainly the elite, since it was structured in a way that ensured that surplus wealth flowed to the government and was then used for the maintenance of the state throughout the empire. Though all [[means of production]] were owned by the state, there continued to be a vibrant private economic sector within the empire, with property rights of individuals ensured by the government.{{Sfn|Bedford|2009|pp=36, 38}}

=== Personal identity and continuity ===
{{Main|Assyrian people|Assyrian continuity}}
[[File:Ashurbanipal wall relief, 7th century BC, from Nineveh, the British Museum.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35 |A 7th-century BC relief depicting [[Ashurbanipal]] ({{reign}}669–631 BC) and two royal attendants]]
[[Ethnicity]] and [[culture]] are largely based in self-perception and self-designation.{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}} A distinct Assyrian identity seems to have formed already in the Old Assyrian period, when distinctly Assyrian burial practices, foods and dress codes are attested{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=39}} and Assyrian documents appear to consider the inhabitants of Assur to be a distinct cultural group.{{sfn|Michel|2017|p=81}} A wider Assyrian identity appears to have spread across northern Mesopotamia under the Middle Assyrian Empire, since later writings concerning the reconquests of the early Neo-Assyrian kings refer to some of their wars as liberating the Assyrian people of the cities they reconquered.{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=145}}

Surviving evidence suggests that the ancient Assyrians had a relatively open definition of what it meant to be Assyrian. Modern ideas such as a person's ethnic background, or the Roman idea of legal citizenship, do not appear to have been reflected in ancient Assyria.{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}} Although Assyrian accounts and artwork of warfare frequently describe and depict foreign enemies, they are not depicted with different physical features,{{Efn|The only example of ancient Assyrian art depicting foreigners with different physical features than the Assyrians themselves is the reliefs made in the reign of Ashurbanipal. Possibly influenced by Egyptian art, which did depict foreigners differently, Ashurbanipal's reliefs show Elamites and Urartians as stockier, Urartians with larger noses, and Arabs with long straight hair (in contrast to the curly hair of the Assyrians). Inscriptions and annals from Ashurbanipal's time however offer no evidence that foreigners were seen as racially or ethnically different in terms of biology or [[physiognomy]].{{sfn|Bahrani|2006|p=57}}}} but rather with different clothing and equipment. Assyrian accounts describe enemies as [[Barbarian|barbaric]] only in terms of their behavior, as lacking correct religious practices, and as doing wrongdoings against Assyria.{{Sfn|Bahrani|2006|pp=56–57}}

All things considered, there does not appear to have been any well-developed concepts of ethnicity or [[Race (human categorization)|race]] in ancient Assyria.{{Sfn|Bahrani|2006|pp=56–57}} What mattered for a person to be seen by others as Assyrian was mainly fulfillment of obligations, such as military service, being affiliated with the Assyrian Empire politically, and maintaining loyalty to the Assyrian king. One of the inscriptions that attest to this view, as well as royal Assyrian policies enacted to encourage assimilation and cultural mixture, is Sargon II's account of the construction of Dur-Sharrukin.{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}} One of the passages of the inscription reads:{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}}

{{Blockquote| quote = Subjects of (all) four (parts of the world), of foreign tongues, with different languages without similarity, people from mountainous regions and plains, so many (different people) as the light of the gods,{{efn|Referring to the sun god [[Shamash]].{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}}}} lord above all, supervises, I let dwell inside [my new city] on the command of Ashur my lord [...]. Born Assyrians, experienced in all professions, I set above them as supervisors and guides to teach them how to work properly and respect the gods and the king.{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}}}}

Although the text clearly differentiates the new settlers from those that had been "born Assyrians", the aim of Sargon's policy was also clearly to transform the new settlers into Assyrians through appointing supervisors and guides to teach them.{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}} Though the expansion of the Assyrian Empire, in combination with resettlements and deportations, changed the ethno-cultural make-up of the Assyrian heartland, there is no evidence to suggest that the more ancient Assyrian inhabitants of the land ever disappeared or became restricted to a small elite, nor that the ethnic and cultural identity of the new settlers was anything other than "Assyrian" after one or two generations.{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}}

{{Multiple image
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| image1 = Assyrian New Year Parade, 2008 (6758).jpg
| image2 = An Assyrian girl celebrating Akitu DSF8475.jpg
| footer = The [[Akitu]] festival being celebrated in [[Duhok]] in 2008, and an Assyrian woman celebrating Akitu in 2019
| width = 250
}}

Although the use of the term "Assyrian" by the modern [[Assyrian people]] has historically been the target of misunderstanding and controversy, both politically and academically,{{Sfn|Butts|2017|p=599}} Assyrian continuity is generally scholarly accepted{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}}{{sfn|Benjamen|2022|p=2}}{{Sfn|Parpola|2004|pp=16–17}}{{sfn|Saggs|1984|p=290}}{{sfn|Biggs|2005|p=10}}{{sfn|Travis|2010|p=149}}{{sfn|Jupp|2001|p=175}}{{sfn|Odisho|1988|p=10}} based on both historical{{sfn|Hauser|2017|p=241}} and genetic evidence{{sfn|Travis|2010|p=149}} in the sense that the modern Assyrians are regarded to be descendants of the population of the ancient Assyrian Empire.{{sfn|Benjamen|2022|p=2}} Though the ancient Akkadian language and cuneiform script did not survive for long in Assyria after the empire was destroyed in 609 BC, Assyrian culture clearly did.{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}} The old Assyrian religion continued to be practised at Assur until the 3rd century AD, and at other sites for centuries thereafter, gradually losing ground to [[Christianity]]. At [[Mardin]], believers in the old religion are known from as late as the 18th century.{{sfn|Parpola|2004|p=21}}

Individuals with names harkening back to ancient Mesopotamia are also attested at Assur until it was sacked for the last time in AD 240{{Sfn|Livingstone|2009|p=154}} and at other sites as late as the 13th century.{{sfn|Jackson|2020|loc=Chapter 1}} Though many foreign states ruled over Assyria in the millennia following the empire's fall, there is no evidence of any large scale influx of immigrants that replaced the original population,{{sfn|Novák|2016|p=132}} which instead continued to make up a significant portion of the region's people until the Mongol and Timurid massacres in the late 14th century.{{sfn|Filoni|2017|p=37}}

In pre-modern Syriac-language (the type of Aramaic used in Christian Mesopotamian writings) sources, the typical self-designations used are ''ʾārāmāyā'' ("Aramean") and ''suryāyā'', with the term ''ʾāthorāyā'' ("Assyrian") rarely being used as a self-designation. The terms Assyria (''ʾāthor'') and Assyrian (''ʾāthorāyā'') were however used in several senses in pre-modern times; most notably being used for the ancient Assyrians and for the land surrounding Nineveh, and for the city of [[Mosul]], built next to Nineveh's ruins. In Syriac translations of the Bible, the term ''ʾāthor'' is also used to refer to the ancient Assyrian Empire. In the sense of a citizen of Mosul, the designation ''ʾāthorāyā'' were used for some individuals in the pre-modern period.{{Sfn|Butts|2017|p=600}}

The reluctance of Christians to use ''ʾāthorāyā'' as a self-designation could perhaps be explained by the Assyrians described in the Bible being prominent enemies of Israel;{{Efn|This phenomenon does not only apply to the Assyrians; the Christian Greek populace of the [[Byzantine Empire]] in the Middle Ages overwhelmingly self-identified as Romans (''Rhōmaîoi'') rather than Greeks since the term "Greek" was associated with the ancient Pagan Greeks.{{sfn|Cameron|2009|p=7}}}} the term ''ʾāthorāyā'' was sometimes employed in Syriac writings as a term for enemies of Christians.{{Sfn|Butts|2017|p=600}} In this context, the term was sometimes applied to the Persians of the Sasanian Empire. The 4th-century Syriac writer [[Ephrem the Syrian]] for instance referred to the Sasanian Empire as "filthy ''ʾāthor'', mother of corruption". In a similar fashion, the term was sometimes applied to the later Muslim rulers.{{Sfn|Butts|2017|p=601}}

The self-designation ''suryāyā'', ''suryāyē'' or ''sūrōyē'',{{sfn|Benjamen|2022|p=2}} sometimes translated as "Syrian",{{Sfn|Butts|2017|p=601}} is believed to be derived from the Akkadian term ''assūrāyu'' ("Assyrian"), which was sometimes even in ancient times rendered in the shorter form ''sūrāyu''.{{sfn|Benjamen|2022|p=2}}{{Sfn|Parpola|2004|pp=16–17}} Some medieval Syriac Christian documents used ''āsūrāyē'' and ''sūrāyē'', rather than ''āthōrāyē'', also for the ancient Assyrians.{{Sfn|acsya.org|}} Medieval and modern [[Armenian language|Armenian]] sources also connected ''assūrāyu'' and ''suryāyā'', consistently referring to the Aramaic-speaking Christians of Mesopotamia and Syria as ''Asori''.{{sfn|Becker|2015|p=328}}{{Sfn|Butts|2017|p=602}}

Despite the complex issue of self-designations, pre-modern Syriac-language sources at times identified positively with the ancient Assyrians{{sfn|Hauser|2017|p=241}} and drew connections between the ancient empire and themselves.{{Sfn|Butts|2017|p=601}} Most prominently, ancient Assyrian kings and figures long appeared in local folklore and literary tradition{{Sfn|Kalimi|Richardson|2014|p=5}} and claims of descent from ancient Assyrian royalty were forwarded both for figures in folklore and by actual living high-ranking members of society in northern Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Payne|2012|p=|pp=205, 217}} Visits by missionaries from western churches to the Assyrian heartland in the 18th century likely contributed to the Assyrian people more strongly relating their self-designation and identity to ancient Assyria.{{Sfn|Butts|2017|p=602}}

In the context of interactions with westerners who connected them to the ancient Assyrians, and due to an increasing number of atrocities and massacres directed against them, the Assyrian people experienced a cultural "awakening" or "renaissance" toward the end of the 19th century, which led to the development of a national ideology more strongly rooted in their descent from ancient Assyria and a re-adoption of self-designations such as ''ʾāthorāyā'' and ''ʾāsurāyā''.{{Sfn|Butts|2017|p=603}} Today, ''sūryōyō'' or ''sūrāyā'' are the predominant self-designations used by Assyrians in their native language, though they are typically translated as "Assyrian" rather than "Syrian".{{Sfn|Parpola|2004|p=11}}{{Efn|For alternate names and the name debate in the Syriac Christian community, see [[terms for Syriac Christians]]}}

== Culture ==

=== Languages ===

==== Akkadian ====
{{main|Akkadian language}}
[[File:Cuneiform tablet- caravan account MET DP-13441-005.jpg|thumb|An [[Old Assyrian period|Old Assyrian]] [[cuneiform]] tablet, containing an account of a caravan journey]]
The ancient Assyrians primarily spoke and wrote the Assyrian language, a [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]] (i.e. related to modern [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Arabic]]) closely related to [[Babylonian language|Babylonian]], spoken in southern Mesopotamia.{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=2}} Both Assyrian and Babylonian are generally regarded by modern scholars to be dialects of the Akkadian language.{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=39}}{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=2}}{{Sfn|Garfinkle|2007|p=54}}{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=313}} This is a modern convention since contemporary ancient authors considered Assyrian and Babylonian to be two separate languages.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=313}} Only Babylonian was referred to as ''akkadûm'', with Assyrian being referred to as ''aššurû'' or ''aššurāyu''.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=314}} Though both were written with cuneiform script, the signs look quite different and can be distinguished relatively easily.{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=2}}

Given the vast timespan covered by ancient Assyria, the Assyrian language developed and evolved over time. Modern scholars broadly categorize it into three different periods, roughly (though far from precisely) corresponding to the periods used to divide Assyrian history: the Old Assyrian language (2000–1500 BC), Middle Assyrian language (1500–1000 BC) and Neo-Assyrian language (1000–500 BC).{{Sfn|Deutscher|2009|p=20}} Because the record of Assyrian tablets and documents is still somewhat spotty, many of the stages of the language remain poorly known and documented.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=315}}

The signs used in Old Assyrian texts are for the most part less complex than those used during the succeeding Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods and they were fewer in number, amounting to no more than 150–200 unique signs,{{sfn|Michel|2017|p=100}} most of which were syllabic signs (representing syllables).{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=315}} Due to the limited number of signs used, Old Assyrian is relatively easier to decipher for modern researchers than later forms of the language, though the limited number of signs also means that there are in cases several possible alternative phonetic values and readings.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=315}}{{sfn|Veenhof|Eidem|2008|p=111}} This means that while it is easy to decipher the signs, many researchers remain uncomfortable with the language itself.{{sfn|Veenhof|Eidem|2008|p=111}} Though it was a more archaic variant of the later Assyrian language,{{sfn|Veenhof|Eidem|2008|p=111}} Old Assyrian also contains several words that are not attested in later periods, some being peculiar early forms of words and others being names for commercial terms or various textile and food products from Anatolia.{{sfn|Veenhof|Eidem|2008|p=112}}

In the Middle and Neo-Assyrian empires, the later versions of the Assyrian language were not the only versions of Akkadian used. Though Assyrian was typically used in letters, legal documents, administrative documents,{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=315}} and as a vernacular,{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=149}} Standard Babylonian was also used in an official capacity.{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=149}}{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=316}} Standard Babylonian was a highly codified version of ancient Babylonian, as used around 1500 BC, and was used as a language of high culture, for nearly all scholarly documents, literature, poetry{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=149}}{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=162}} and royal inscriptions.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=315}} The culture of the Assyrian elite was strongly influenced by Babylonia in the south; in a vein similar to how [[Ancient Greece|Greek civilization]] was respected in, and influenced, [[ancient Rome]], the Assyrians had much respect for Babylon and its ancient culture.{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=149}}

Because of the multilingual nature of the vast empire, many loan words are attested as entering the Assyrian language during the Neo-Assyrian period.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=321}} The number of surviving documents written in cuneiform grow considerably fewer in the late reign of Ashurbanipal, which suggests that the language was declining since it is probably attributable to an increased use of Aramaic, often written on perishable materials such as leather scrolls or papyrus.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=318}} The ancient Assyrian language did not disappear completely until around the end of the 6th century BC, well into the subsequent post-imperial period.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=314}}

==== Aramaic and other languages ====
[[File:Syriac papyri.jpg|thumb|A 9th-century AD piece of [[papyrus]], with [[Syriac language]] writing]]
Because the Assyrians never imposed their language on foreign peoples whose lands they conquered outside of the Assyrian heartland, there were no mechanisms in place to stop the spread of languages other than Akkadian. Beginning with the migrations of Arameans into Assyrian territory during the Middle Assyrian period, this lack of linguistic policies facilitated the spread of the Aramaic language.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=318}} As the most widely spoken and mutually understandable of the Semitic languages (the language group containing many of the languages spoken through the empire),{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=147}} Aramaic grew in importance throughout the Neo-Assyrian period and increasingly replaced the Neo-Assyrian language even within the Assyrian heartland itself.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=180}} From the 9th century BC onward, Aramaic became the ''[[de facto]]'' lingua franca of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, with Neo-Assyrian and other forms of Akkadian becoming relegated to a language of the political elite.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=318}}

From the time of Shalmaneser III, in the 9th century BC, Aramaic was used in state-related contexts alongside Akkadian and by the time of Tiglath-Pileser III, the kings employed both Akkadian and Aramaic-language royal scribes, confirming the rise of Aramaic to a position of an official language used by the imperial administration.{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=149}}{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=319}} During the time after the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the old Assyrian language was completely abandoned in Mesopotamia in favor of Aramaic.{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=314}} By 500 BC, Akkadian was probably no longer a spoken language.{{Sfn|Deutscher|2009|p=20}}

Modern Assyrian people refer to their language as "[[Suret language|Assyrian]]" (''Sūrayt'' or ''Sūreth'').{{sfn|Donabed|2019|p=117}} Though it has little in common with the Assyrian dialect of the Akkadian language,{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=314}} it is a modern version of the ancient Mesopotamian Aramaic. The language retains some influence of ancient Akkadian,{{sfn|Donabed|2019|pp=117–118}} particularly in the form of loanwords.{{sfn|Kaufman|1974|p=164}} Modern Assyrian varieties of Aramaic are often referred to by scholars as [[Neo-Aramaic]] or Neo-Syriac. As a [[liturgical language]], many Assyrians also speak [[Syriac language|Syriac]], a codified version of classical Aramaic as spoken at Edessa during the Christianization of Assyria.{{sfn|Donabed|2019|pp=117–118}}

Another language sometimes used in ancient Assyria as a language of scholarship and culture, though only in written form, was the ancient [[Sumerian language]].{{Sfn|Wagensonner|2018|p=228}}{{sfn|Luukko|Van Buylaere|2017|p=321}} At the height of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, various other local languages were also spoken within the imperial borders, though none achieved the same level of official recognition as Aramaic.{{Sfn|Radner|2021|p=147}}

=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Architecture of Mesopotamia}}
[[File:Artist’s impression of Assyrian palaces from The Monuments of Nineveh by Sir Austen Henry Layard, 1853.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A 19th-century reconstruction of [[Nineveh]], the Assyrian capital 705–612 BC]]
There are three surviving forms of primary evidence for the architecture of ancient Assyria. The most important form is the surviving buildings themselves, found through archaeological excavations, but important evidence can also be gathered from both contemporary documentation, such as letters and administrative documents that describe buildings that might not have been preserved, as well as documentation by later kings concerning the building works of previous kings. Assyrian buildings and construction works were almost always constructed out of [[mudbrick]]. [[Limestone]] was also used, though primarily only in works such as aqueducts and river walls, exposed to running water, and defensive fortifications.{{Sfn|Russell|2017a|pp=423–424}}

In order to support large buildings, they were often built on top of foundation platforms or on mud brick foundations. Floors were typically made of [[rammed earth]], covered in important rooms with carpets or [[Reed mat (craft)|reed mats]]. Floors in locations that were exposed to the elements, such as outside on terraces or in courtyards, were paved with stone slabs or backed bricks. Roofs, particularly in larger rooms, were supported through the use of wooden beams.{{Sfn|Russell|2017a|pp=423–424}}

The ancient Assyrians accomplished several technologically complex construction projects, including constructions of whole new capital cities, which indicates sophisticated technical knowledge.{{Sfn|Bagg|2017|p=511}} Though in large part following previous Mesopotamian architecture, there are several characteristic features of ancient Assyrian architecture. Some examples of features of ancient Assyrian architecture include stepped [[merlon]]s,{{Sfn|Albenda|2018|p=110}} vaulted roofs,{{Sfn|Kletter|Zwickel|2006|p=154}} and palaces to a large degree often being made up of sets of self-contained suites.{{Sfn|Kertai|2019|p=44}}

=== Art ===
{{Main|Art of Mesopotamia}}
[[File:Ancient Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian costumes and decorations (1920) (14741970056).jpg|thumb|A 20th-century illustration of decorative patterns found in ancient Assyrian reliefs and garments]]
A relatively large number of statues and figurines have been recovered from the ruins of temples in Assur dating to the Early Assyrian period. Most of the surviving artwork from this time was clearly influenced by the artwork of foreign powers. For instance, a set of 87 [[alabaster]] figures of male and female worshippers from Assur before the rise of the Akkadian Empire greatly resembles [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic]] Sumerian figures.{{Sfn|Mallowan|1971|p=|pp=299–300}}{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|p=453}} Because of variation in artwork elsewhere, the artwork of early Assur was also highly variable depending on the time period, ranging from highly stylized to highly naturalistic.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|p=454}}

Among the most unique finds from the Early period is the head of a woman of which her eyes, eyebrows, and elaborate hair covering were originally [[Inlay|inlaid]]. This head is typical of the art style of the Akkadian period, with an overall naturalistic style, smooth and soft curves and a full mouth.{{Sfn|Mallowan|1971|p=|pp=299–300}}{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|p=455}} Another unique art piece from the early period is an [[ivory]] figurine of a nude woman, and fragments of at least five additional similar figurines. The ivory used might have come from [[Indian elephant]]s, which would indicate trade between early Assur and the early tribes and states of Iran.{{Sfn|Mallowan|1971|p=|pp=299–300}} Among other artwork known from the early period are a handful of large stone statues of rulers (governors and foreign kings),{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|p=455}} figures of animals, and stone statues of naked women.{{Sfn|Düring|2020|p=32}}

The artwork known from the Old Assyrian period, other than a few objects such as a partial stone statue perhaps depicting Erishum I, is largely limited to seals and impressions of seals on cuneiform documents.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|p=458}} Royal seals from the Puzur-Ashur dynasty of kings, prior to the rise of Shamshi-Adad I, are very similar to the seals of the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur.{{sfn|Eppihimer|2013|p=37}} In the Middle Assyrian period, from Ashur-uballit I onward, seals looked quite different and appear to emphasize royal power, rather than the theological and cosmic sources of the king's right to rule. Among non-royal seals of the Middle Assyrian period a wide assortment of different motifs are known, including both religious scenes and peaceful scenes of animals and trees. From the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I onward, seals also sometimes featured contests and struggles between humans, various animals, and mythological creatures.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|pp=463–465}}

Several other new artistic innovations were also made in the Middle Assyrian period. In the temple dedicated to [[Ishtar]] in Assur, four cult pedestals (or "altars") from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I have been discovered. These altars were decorated with various motifs, common inclusions being the king (sometimes multiple times) and protective divine figures and standards. One of the pedestals preserves along the lower step of its base a relief image which is the earliest known narrative image in Assyrian art history. This relief, which is not very well-preserved, appears to depict rows of prisoners before the Assyrian king.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|pp=465–469}}

The earliest known Assyrian wall paintings are also from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta I, from his palace in Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta. Motifs included plant-based patterns (rosettes and palmettes), trees and bird-headed genies. The colors used to paint the walls included black, red, blue, and white. An unusual limestone statue of a nude woman is known from Nineveh from the time of [[Ashur-bel-kala]] ({{reign}}1074–1056 BC). An entirely new type of monument introduced in the 11th century BC were [[obelisk]]s; four-sided stone stelae decorated all around with both images and text. Obelisks saw continued use until at least the 9th century BC.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|pp=465–469}}

Compared to other periods, a larger amount of artwork survives from the Neo-Assyrian period, particularly monumental art made under the patronage of the kings. The most well-known form of Neo-Assyrian monumental art are wall reliefs, carved stone artwork that lined the internal and external walls of temples and palaces. Another well-known form of Neo-Assyrian art are colossi, often human-headed lions or bulls (''[[lamassu]]''), that were placed at the gates of temples, palaces and cities. The earliest known examples of both wall reliefs and colossi are from the reign of Ashurnasirpal II, who might have been inspired by the Hittite monumental art that he saw on his campaigns to the Mediterranean.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|pp=471–472}}

Wall paintings such as those made under Tukulti-Ninurta I in the Middle Assyrian period also continued to be used, sometimes to supplement wall reliefs and sometimes instead of them. Interior walls could be decorated by covering the mudbrick used in construction with painted mud plaster and exterior walls were at times decorated with glazed and painted tiles or bricks.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|pp=471–472}} The most extensive known surviving sets of wall reliefs are from the reign of Sennacherib.{{Sfn|Russell|2017b|p=487}} In terms of Neo-Assyrian artwork, modern scholars have paid particular attention to the reliefs produced under Ashurbanipal, which have been described as possessing a distinct "epic quality" unlike the art under his predecessors.{{Sfn|Encyclopaedia Britannica|p=}}

<gallery widths="170" heights="170">
File:Statue of a praying woman from the Archaic Ishtar Temple of Assur, Iraq. 2400 BCE. Pergamon Museum.jpg|A statue of a praying woman, 25th century BC
File:Cult wall relief from Assur. A deity, probably god Assur, is flanked by 2 water deities and 2 goats. 2000-1500 BCE. Pergamon Museum, Berlin.jpg|A wall relief probably depicting [[Ashur (god)|Ashur]], 21st–16th century BC
File:Middle Assyrian winged horse cylinder seal.png|A cylinder seal and impression, 14th–13th century BC
File:Temple altar offered by Tukulti-Ninurta I. 1243-1207 BCE. From Assur, Iraq. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul.jpg|Temple altar of [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]], 13th century BC
File:The only known Assyrian statue of a naked woman, erected at the temple of Ishtar in Nineveh, during the reign of Ashur-bel-kala, 1073-1056 BCE. Currently housed in the British Museum, London.jpg|A statue of a nude woman, 11th century BC
File:2018 Ashurbanipal - Tile.jpg|A glazed tile depicting a king and attendants, 9th century BC
File:The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, 9th century BC, from Nimrud, Iraq. The British Museum.jpg|The [[Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III]], 9th century BC
File:Shalmaneser III statue from Nimrud, Iraq. 9th century BCE. Iraq Museum in Baghdad.jpg|A statue of [[Shalmaneser III]], 9th century BC
File:Openwork furniture plaque with a grazing oryx in a forest of fronds MET DP110622.jpg|Furniture ornament, 9th–8th century BC
File:Neo-Assyrian, Nimrud, Queens’ Tombs, Tomb III, Golden Crown.png|A crown of Queen [[Hama (queen)|Hama]], 8th century BC
File:LammasuChicago.jpg|A giant ''[[lamassu]]'', 8th century BC
File:Exhibition I am Ashurbanipal king of the world, king of Assyria, British Museum (45972455081).jpg|A portion of the [[Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal]], 7th century BC
File:Head of a male figure Assyrian ca. 8th–7th century BCE.jpg|The ivory tusks that provided the raw material for these objects were almost certainly from African elephants, imported from lands south of Egypt, although elephants inhabited several river valleys in Syria until they were hunted to extinction by the end of the eighth century B.C. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
</gallery>

=== Scholarship and literature ===
[[File:Library of Ashurbanipal The Flood Tablet.jpg|thumb|A tablet from the [[Library of Ashurbanipal]], containing a portion of the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'']]

Ancient Assyrian literature drew heavily on Babylonian literary traditions. Both the Old and Middle Assyrian periods are limited in terms of surviving literary texts. The most important surviving Old Assyrian literary work is ''[[Sargon, Lord of Lies]]'', a text found in a well-preserved version on a cuneiform tablet from Kültepe. Once thought to have been a parody, the tale is a [[first-person narrative]] of the reign of [[Sargon of Akkad]], the founder of the Akkadian Empire. The text follows Sargon as he gains strength from the god [[Adad]], swears by Ishtar, the "lady of combat", and speaks with the gods. Surviving Middle Assyrian literature is only slightly more diverse.{{Sfn|Livingstone|2017|p=|pp=359–360}}

A distinct Assyrian scholarship tradition, though still drawing on Babylonian tradition, is conventionally placed as beginning around the time of the beginning of the Middle Assyrian period. The rising status of scholarship at this time might be connected to the kings beginning to regard amassing knowledge as a way to strengthen their power.{{Sfn|Heeßel|2017|p=368}} Known Middle Assyrian works include the ''[[Tukulti-Ninurta Epic]]'' (a narrative of the reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I and his exploits), fragments of other royal epics, ''[[The Hunter (Assyrian poem)|The Hunter]]'' (a short martial poem) and some royal hymns.{{Sfn|Livingstone|2017|p=|pp=359–360}}

The clear majority of surviving ancient Assyrian literature is from the Neo-Assyrian period.{{Sfn|Livingstone|2017|p=359}} The kings of the Neo-Assyrian Empire began to see preserving knowledge as one of their responsibilities, and not, as previous kings had, a responsibility of private individuals and temples.{{Sfn|Fincke|2017|p=378}} This development might have originated with the kings no longer viewing the [[divination]] performed by their diviners as enough and wished to have access to the relevant texts themselves.{{Sfn|Fincke|2017|p=379}} The office of chief scholar is first attested in the reign of the Neo-Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta II.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=169}}

Most of the surviving ancient Assyrian literature comes from the Neo-Assyrian [[Library of Ashurbanipal]],{{Sfn|Livingstone|2017|p=359}} which included more than 30,000 documents.{{Sfn|Fincke|2017|pp=383–385}} Libraries were built in the Neo-Assyrian period to preserve knowledge of the past and maintain scribal culture. Neo-Assyrian texts fall into a wide array of genres, including divinatory texts, divination reports, treatments for the sick (either medical or magical), ritual texts, incantations, prayers and hymns, school texts and literary texts.{{Sfn|Fincke|2017|pp=379–380}} An innovation of the Neo-Assyrian period were the [[annals]], a genre of texts recording the events of the reigns of a king, particularly military exploits. Annals were disseminated throughout the empire and probably served propagandistic purposes, supporting the legitimacy of the king's rule.{{Sfn|Parker|2011|pp=365–367}}

Various purely literary works, previously aligned by scholars with propaganda, are known from the Neo-Assyrian period. Such works include, among others, the ''[[Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Crown Prince]]'', the ''[[Sin of Sargon]]'' and the ''[[Marduk Ordeal]]''.{{Sfn|Livingstone|2017|p=364}} In addition to their own works, the Assyrians copied and preserved earlier Mesopotamian literature. The inclusion of texts such as the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the ''[[Enûma Eliš]]'' (the Babylonian creation myth), ''[[Erra (god)|Erra]]'', the ''[[Etana|Myth of Etana]]'' and the ''[[Anzû|Epic of Anzu]]'' in the Library of Ashurbanipal is the primary reason for how such texts have survived to the present day.{{Sfn|Encyclopaedia Britannica|p=}}

== Religion ==

=== Ancient Assyrian religion ===
{{main|Ancient Mesopotamian religion|Ashur (god)}}
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Nimrud - emblem of the god Ashur.png
| image2 = Nimrud - emblem of the god Ashur2.png
| footer = Three symbols of the god [[Ashur (god)|Ashur]], from reliefs at [[Nimrud]]
| width = 230
| image3 = Nimrud - emblem of the god Ashur3.png
}}Knowledge of the ancient [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] Assyrian religion, referred to as "Ashurism" by some modern Assyrians,{{sfn|BetGivargis-McDaniel|2007|p=7}} is mostly limited to state cults given that little can be ascertained of the personal religious beliefs and practices of the common people of ancient Assyria.{{Sfn|Bedford|2009|p=35}} The Assyrians worshipped the same pantheon of gods as the Babylonians in southern Mesopotamia.{{Sfn|Garfinkle|2007|p=54}} The chief Assyrian deity was the national deity Ashur.{{Sfn|Lambert|1983|p=83}}{{Sfn|Lewy|1971|p=763}} Though the deity and the ancient capital city are commonly distinguished by modern historians through calling the god Ashur and the city Assur, both were inscribed in the exact same way in ancient times (''Aššur''). In documents from the preceding Old Assyrian period, the city and god are often not clearly differentiated, which suggests that Ashur originated sometime in the Early Assyrian period as a deified personification of the city itself.{{Sfn|Lambert|1983|pp=82–85}}

Below Ashur, the other Mesopotamian deities were organized in a hierarchy, with each having their own assigned roles (the sun-god [[Shamash]] was for instance regarded as a god of justice and Ishtar was seen as a goddess of love and war) and their own primary seats of worship ([[Ninurta]] was for instance primarily worshipped at Nimrud and Ishtar primarily at Arbela). Quintessentially Babylonian deities such as [[Enlil]], [[Marduk]], and [[Nabu]] were worshipped in Assyria just as much as in Babylonia, and several traditionally Babylonian rituals, such as the ''[[akitu]]'' festival, were borrowed in the north.{{Sfn|Bedford|2009|p=35}}

Ashur's role as the chief deity was flexible and changed with the changing culture and politics of the Assyrians themselves. In the Old Assyrian period, Ashur was mainly regarded as a god of death and revival, related to agriculture.{{sfn|Breasted|1926|p=164}}{{Sfn|James|1966|p=42}} Under the Middle and Neo-Assyrian Empire, Ashur's role was expanded and thoroughly altered. Possibly originating as a reaction to the period of suzerainty under the Mittani kingdom, Middle Assyrian theology presented Ashur as a god of war, who bestowed the Assyrian kings not only with divine legitimacy, something retained from the Old Assyrian period, but also commanded the kings to enlarge Assyria ("the land of Ashur") with Ashur's "just scepter", i.e. expand the Assyrian Empire through military conquest.{{Sfn|Fales|2017|p=402}}

This militarization of Ashur might also have derived from the Amorite conqueror Shamshi-Adad I equating Ashur with the southern Enlil during his rule over northern Mesopotamia in the 18th and 17th centuries BC. In the Middle Assyrian period, Ashur is attested with the title "king of the gods", a role previous civilizations in both northern and southern Mesopotamia ascribed to Enlil.{{Sfn|Maul|2017|p=342}} The development of equating Ashur with Enlil, or at least transferring Enlil's role to Ashur, was paralleled in Babylon, where the previously unimportant local god [[Marduk]] was elevated in the reign of [[Hammurabi]] (18th century BC) to the head of the pantheon, modelled after Enlil.{{Sfn|Maul|2017|pp=343–344}}

Assyrian religion was centered in temples, monumental structures that included a central shrine which housed the cult statue of the temple's god, and several subordinate chapels with space for statues of other deities. Temples were typically self-contained communities; they had their own economic resources, chiefly in the form of land holdings, and their own hierarchically organized personnel. In later times, temples became increasingly dependent on royal benefits, in the shape of specific taxes, offerings and donations of booty and tribute. The head of a temple was titled as the "chief administrator" and was responsible to the Assyrian king since the king was regarded to be Ashur's representative in the mortal world. Records from temples showcase that divination in the form of astrology and [[extispicy]] (studying the entrails of dead animals) were important parts of the Assyrian religion since they were believed to be means through which deities communicated with the mortal world.{{Sfn|Bedford|2009|p=35}}

Unlike many other ancient empires, the Neo-Assyrian Empire did at its height not impose its culture and religion on conquered regions; there were no significant temples built for Ashur outside of northern Mesopotamia.{{Sfn|Frahm|2017b|p=180}} In the post-imperial period, after the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the Assyrians continued to venerate Ashur and the rest of the pantheon,{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=19}} though without the Assyrian state, religious beliefs in many parts of the Assyrian heartland diverged and developed in different directions.{{Sfn|Haider|2008|p=200}} From the time of Seleucid rule over the region (4th to 2nd century BC) onward, there was a strong influence of the [[ancient Greek religion]], with many Greek deities becoming syncretized with Mesopotamian deities.{{Sfn|Haider|2008|p=202}} There was also some influence of [[Judaism]], given that the kings of [[Adiabene]], a vassal kingdom covering much of the old Assyrian heartland, converted to Judaism in the 1st century AD.{{sfn|Marciak|Wójcikowski|2016|p=80}}

In the 1st century BC onward, as a frontier region between the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] empires, Assyria was likely highly religiously complex and diverse.{{sfn|Hauser|2017|p=238}} Under Parthian rule, both old and new gods were worshipped at Assur.{{Sfn|Haider|2008|p=194}} As late as the time of the city's second destruction in the 3rd century AD, the most important deity was still Ashur, known during this time as ''Assor''{{Sfn|Radner|2015|p=19}} or ''Asor''.{{Sfn|Hauser|2017|p=240}} Worship of Ashur during this time was carried out in the same way as it had been in ancient times, per a cultic calendar effectively identical to that used under the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] 800 years prior.{{Sfn|Parpola|2004|p=20}} The ancient Mesopotamian religion persisted in some places for centuries after the end of the post-imperial period, such as at Harran until at least the 10th century (the [[Sabians#Sabians of Harran|"Sabians" of Harran]]) and at [[Mardin]] until as late as the 18th century (the ''[[Shamsīyah]]'').{{sfn|Parpola|2004|p=21}}

=== Christianity ===
{{main|Church of the East}}[[File:Nestorian archbishop and servants.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|An early 20th-century [[archbishop]] of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], with entourage]]
The Church of the East developed early in Christian history.{{sfn|Cassidy|2005|p=49}} Though tradition holds that Christianity was first spread to Mesopotamia by [[Thomas the Apostle]],{{sfn|Filoni|2017|p=6}} the exact timespan when the Assyrians were first Christianized is unknown. The city of [[Erbil|Arbela]] was an important early Christian center; according to the later ''[[Chronicle of Arbela]]'', Arbela became the seat of a bishop already in AD 100, but the reliability of this document is questioned among scholars. It is however known that both Arbela and Kirkuk later served as important Christian centers in the Sasanian and later Islamic periods.{{Sfn|Hauser|2017|p=239}}

According to some traditions, Christianity took hold in Assyria when Saint [[Thaddeus of Edessa]] converted King [[Abgar V]] of Osroene in the mid-1st century AD.{{Sfn|Donabed|2019|p=118}} From the 3rd century AD onward, it is clear that Christianity was becoming the major religion of the region,{{sfn|Parpola|2004|p=21}} with Christ replacing the old Mesopotamian deities.{{Sfn|Hauser|2017|p=241}} Assyrians had by this time already intellectually contributed to Christian thought; in the 1st century AD, the Christian Assyrian writer [[Tatian]] composed the influential '' [[Diatessaron]]'', a synoptic rendition of the gospels.{{Sfn|Donabed|2019|p=118}}

Though Christianity is today an intrinsic part of Assyrian identity,{{sfn|Parpola|2004|p=21}} Assyrian Christians have over the centuries splintered into a number of different [[Christian denomination]]s. Though the prominent [[Assyrian Church of the East]], the followers of which have often been termed "[[Nestorians]]", continues to exist, other prominent eastern churches include the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], which split off in the 16th century, the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], the [[Syriac Catholic Church]],{{Sfn|Donabed|2019|p=118}} and the [[Ancient Church of the East]], which branched off from the Assyrian Church of the East in 1968.{{sfn|Akopian|2017|p=409}}

Though these churches have been distinct for centuries, they still follow much of the same liturgical, spiritual and theological foundation.{{sfn|Cassidy|2005|p=49}} There are also Assyrian followers of various denominations of [[Protestantism]], chiefly due to missions by American missionaries of the [[Presbyterian Church (USA)|Presbyterian Church]].{{Sfn|Donabed|2019|p=118}}

Because the Assyrian Church of the East remains dismissed as "Nestorian" and heretical by many other branches of Christianity, it has not been admitted into the [[Middle East Council of Churches]] and it does not take part in the [[Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church]]. This does not mean that efforts to approach [[ecumenism]] have not been undertaken. In 1994, [[Pope John Paul II]] and Patriarch [[Dinkha IV]] signed the [[Common Christological Declaration Between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East]], with some further efforts also having been made in the years since.{{sfn|Cassidy|2005|p=49}}

Historically, the main obstacle in the way of ecumenism has been the ancient text ''[[Liturgy of Addai and Mari]]'', used in the Assyrian churches, wherein the [[anaphora (liturgy)|anaphora]] does not contain the [[Words of Institution]], seen as indispensable by the Catholic Church. This obstacle was removed in 2001, when the Catholic [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]] determined that the text could be considered valid in Catholicism as well, despite the absence of the words.{{sfn|Cassidy|2005|pp=50–51}} Some efforts have also been made to approach reunification of the Assyrian and Chaldean churches. In 1996, Dinkha IV and Patriarch [[Raphael I Bidawid]] of the Chaldean Church signed a list of common proposals to move toward unity, approved by synods of both churches in 1997.{{sfn|Cassidy|2005|p=50}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Asia|History}}
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Beth Nahrain]]
* [[Beth Garmai]]
* [[Assyrian nationalism]]
* [[List of Assyrian settlements]]
* [[List of Assyrian tribes]]
* [[Assyrian cuisine]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
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*{{cite book|last=Payne|first=Richard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KteqCwAAQBAJ|title=Visions of Community in the Post-Roman World: The West, Byzantium and the Islamic World, 300–1100|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|year=2012|isbn=978-1409427094|editor-last=Pohl|editor-first=Walter|location=Farnham|chapter=Avoiding Ethnicity: Uses of the Ancient Past in Late Sasanian Northern Mesopotamia|editor-last2=Gantner|editor-first2=Clemens|editor-last3=Payne|editor-first3=Richard}}
*{{Cite book|last=Radner|first=Karen|title=Ancient Assyria: A Very Short Introduction|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-0198715900}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|year=2015b|title=Royal pen pals: the kings of Assyria in correspondence with officials, clients and total strangers (8th and 7th centuries BC)|encyclopedia=Official Epistolography and the Language(s) of Power |publisher=Austrian Academy of Sciences Press|last=Radner|first=Karen|editor1=S. Prochazka|editor2=L. Reinfandt|editor3=S. Tost |url=https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/27226/1/Radner_Official_Epistolography_2015_Royal_Pen_Pals.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/27226/1/Radner_Official_Epistolography_2015_Royal_Pen_Pals.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}
*{{harvc|last=Radner|first=Karen|year=2017|in=Frahm|c=Economy, Society, and Daily Life in the Neo‐Assyrian Period}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Radner|first=Karen|date=2019|title=Last Emperor or Crown Prince Forever? Aššur-uballiṭ II of Assyria according to Archival Sources|url=https://www.academia.edu/39300596|journal=State Archives of Assyria Studies|volume=28|pages=135–142}}
*{{Cite book|last=Radner|first=Karen|title=Multilingualism in Ancient Contexts: Perspectives from Ancient Near Eastern and Early Christian Contexts|publisher=African Sun Media|year=2021|isbn=978-1991201164|editor-last=Jonker |editor-first=Louis C.|location=Stellenbosch|chapter=Diglossia and the Neo-Assyrian Empire's Akkadian and Aramaic Text Production|editor-last2=Berlejung|editor-first2=Angelika|editor-last3=Cornelius |editor-first3=Izak|name-list-style=amp}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Reade|first=Julian|date=2011|title=The Evolution of Assyrian Imperial Architecture: Political Implications and Uncertainties|journal=Mesopotamia|volume=XLVI|pages=109–125|issn=0076-6615}}
*{{cite book|last=de Ridder|first=Jacob Jan|title=Subartu XXXIX: Kültepe International Meetings, Vol. II: Movement, Resources, Interaction|publisher=Brepols Publishers|year=2017|isbn=978-2503575223|editor-last1=Kulakoğlu|editor-first1=Fikri|location=Turnhout|chapter=Slavery in Old Assyrian Documents|editor-last2=Barjamovic|editor-first2=Gojko}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Rollinger|first=Robert|date=2006|title=The Terms "Assyria" and "Syria" Again |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies|volume=65|issue=4|pages=283–287|doi=10.1086/511103 |jstor=10.1086/511103 |s2cid=162760021}}
*{{Cite book|last=Roux|first=Georges|title=Ancient Iraq|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1992|isbn=978-0140125238}}
*{{harvc|last=Russell|first=John M.|anchor-year=2017a|year=2017|in=Frahm|c=Assyrian Cities and Architecture}}
*{{harvc|last=Russell|first=John M.|anchor-year=2017b|year=2017|in=Frahm|c=Assyrian Art}}
*{{Cite book|last=Saggs|first=Henry W. F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MNJGwAACAAJ|title=The Might That Was Assyria|publisher=Sidgwick & Jackson|year=1984|isbn=9780312035112|location=London}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|year=2012|title=Parthian Assur|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 8|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/assyria-iii|last=Schippmann|first=K.|pages=816–817}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Svärd|first=Saana|year=2015|title=Changes in Neo-Assyrian Queenship|journal=State Archives of Assyria Bulletin|volume=XXI|pages=157–171}}
*{{Cite book|last=Tamari|first=Steve|title=Grounded Identities: Territory and Belonging in the Medieval and Early Modern Middle East and Mediterranean|publisher=BRILL|year=2019|isbn=978-9004385337|editor-last=Tamari|editor-first=Steve|location=Leiden|chapter=The Land of Syria in the Late Seventeenth Century: ʿAbd al-Ghani al-Nabulusi and Linking City and Countryside through Study, Travel, and Worship|chapter-url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004385337/BP000006.xml}}
*{{cite book|last=Travis|first=Hannibal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kd8lAQAAMAAJ|title=Genocide in the Middle East: The Ottoman Empire, Iraq, and Sudan|publisher=Carolina Academic Press|year=2010|isbn=978-1594604362|location=Durham}}
*{{cite book|last1=Van De Mieroop|first1=Marc|title=A History of the Ancient Near East|date=2016|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|edition=3rd|location=Oxford}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Veenhof|first1=Klaas R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vYMmrenUywQC|title=Mesopotamia: The Old Assyrian Period|last2=Eidem|first2=Jesper|publisher=Academic Press Fribourg|year=2008|isbn=978-3727816239|series=Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis|location=Göttingen}}
*{{harvc|last=Veenhof|first=Klaas R.|year=2017|in=Frahm|c=The Old Assyrian Period (20th–18th century BCE)}}
*{{Cite book|last=Wagensonner|first=Klaus|title=Multilingualism, Lingua Franca and Lingua Sacra |url=https://www.mprl-series.mpg.de/studies/10/|publisher=Max Planck Institute for the History of Science |year=2018|isbn=978-3945561133|editor-last=Braarvig|editor-first=Jens|location=Berlin|chapter=Sumerian in the Middle Assyrian Period|editor-last2=Geller|editor-first2=Markham J.|chapter-url=https://www.mprl-series.mpg.de/media/studies/10/11/Studies10Chap8.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.mprl-series.mpg.de/media/studies/10/11/Studies10Chap8.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last=Waters|first=Matt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__xGAgAAQBAJ|title=Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire 550–330 BCE|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014|isbn=978-1107009608|location=Cambridge}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|year=1986|title=Āsōristān|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]] |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/asoristan|last=Widengren|first=G.|volume=II/8|pages=785–786}}
*{{Cite book|last=Yamada|first=Shiego|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xovifEBCsAgC|title=The Construction of the Assyrian Empire: A Historical Study of the Inscriptions of Shalmanesar III (859–824 B.C.) Relating to His Campaigns to the West|publisher=BRILL|year=2000|isbn=90-04-11772-5|location=Leiden}}
*{{harvc|last=Yamada|first=Shiego|year=2017|in=Frahm|c=The Transition Period (17th to 15th century BCE)}}
*{{cite book|last=Yapp|first=Malcolm|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1IkcBgAAQBAJ|title=The Making of the Modern Near East 1792–1923|publisher=Routledge|year=1988|isbn=978-0582493803|location=London}}
{{refend}}

=== Web sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite web|title=Ashurbanipal|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ashurbanipal|access-date=28 November 2019|website=Encyclopaedia Britannica|ref=CITEREFEncyclopaedia_Britannica}}
* {{Cite web|last=Bain|first=Robert|date=2017|title=Women, Fundamentalism and Terror: Echoes of Ancient Assyria|url=https://lb.boell.org/en/2017/02/09/women-fundamentalism-and-terror-echoes-ancient-assyria|access-date=29 January 2022|website=Heinrich Böll Stiftung}}
* {{Cite web|last=|date=23 January 2022|title=Newly Digitised Manuscript Sheds Valuable Light on Assyrian Identity|url=https://acsya.org/post/23012022.html|access-date=25 January 2022|website=Assyrian Cultural & Social Youth Association|language=en|ref=CITEREFacsya.org|archive-date=12 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012160051/https://acsya.org/post/23012022.html|url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite web|title=Head of a male figure Assyrian|date=22 March 2019|website=MET|access-date=20 April 2023|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/324201|archive-date=11 May 2023|archive-url=https://archive.today/20230511103607/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/324201|url-status=bot: unknown}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|year=2012|title=The King's Road – the imperial communication network|encyclopedia=Assyrian empire builders|publisher=[[University College London]]|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/governors/thekingsroad/|last=Radner|first=Karen|access-date=7 February 2022|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819111900/https://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/governors/thekingsroad/|url-status=dead}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline|Assyria}}

{{Ancient Mesopotamia}}
{{Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia}}
{{Ancient Near East}}
{{Assyrian topics}}
{{Iraq topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Assyria| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Levant]]
[[Category:Ancient Mesopotamia]]
[[Category:Ancient Near East]]
[[Category:Bronze Age countries in Asia]]
[[Category:Iron Age countries in Asia]]
[[Category:9th century BC]]
[[Category:8th century BC]]
[[Category:7th century BC]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 7th century BC]]
[[Category:7th-century BC disestablishments]]
[[Category:Eastern Mediterranean]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of West Asia]]

Kamla (TV series)

2026-02-15T00:03:22Z

ReaganRiordan: created redirect

#Redirect [[Colors Marathi]]

Monica Das

2026-02-08T17:51:43Z

ReaganRiordan: fix content after review and improved wording

{{Short description|Indian economist}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{BLP sources|date = January 2015}}
{{BLP primary sources|date=November 2014}}
}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2014}}
{{Infobox economist
| name = Monica Das
| native_name =
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| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1950}}
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| institution = [[Gargi College]]
| field = [[Feminist economics]]
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Dr. '''Monica Das''' is Associate Professor in Economics at [[Gargi College]] and a fellow at the Developing Countries Research Centre, [[University of Delhi]], India. Her field of interest is [[feminist economics]]. She is a member of [[International Association for Feminist Economics|IAFFE (International Association for Feminist Economics)]], based in Washington DC. She is the author of ''Her Story So Far: Tales of the Girl Child in India''<ref name=Story>{{cite book | last = Das | first = Monica | title = Her story so far: tales of the girl child in India | publisher = Penguin Books | location = New Delhi New York, NY | year = 2003 | isbn = 9780143030423 }}</ref> and ''The Other Woman'',<ref name=Other>{{cite book | last = Das | first = Monica | title = The other woman: 16 tales of love and deception | publisher = HarperCollins | location = India | year = 2014 | isbn = 9789351160557 }}</ref> an edited volume which draws attention to the issue of the socio-economic impact of underage marriage, bigamy and polygamy on the [[Human Development Index]] and [[Gender-related Development Index]]. She is the great-granddaughter of Oriya writer [[Fakir Mohan Senapati]].

She has recently been a commissioned author for IDEA (International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance) which is an Inter-governmental Organisation of the European Union, Sweden. Her analytical paper is on "The EU’s Contribution to Women’s Rights and Women’s Inclusion: Aspects of Democracy Building in South Asia, with special reference to India".<ref name=Inclusion>{{Citation | first = Monica | last = Das | contribution = The EU’s contribution to women’s rights and women’s inclusion: Aspects of democracy building in South Asia, with special reference to India | place = Sweden | publisher = International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance - IDEA | date = 15 November 2009 | url = http://www.idea.int/resources/analysis/contribut_womens_rights.cfm | title = The EU's Contribution to Women's Rights and Women's Inclusion: Aspects of Democracy Building in South Asia, with special reference to India | Analysis and Policy | International IDEA | access-date = 7 June 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230050/http://www.idea.int/resources/analysis/contribut_womens_rights.cfm | archive-date = 3 March 2016 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

She has produced and directed a film on [[Fakir Mohan Senapati]] a leading literary light of Indian literature and considered a pioneer in fiction writing on social realism. This film ‘Anwesan’ was sponsored by [[Prasar Bharati|Prasar Bharti]] and is now available in DVD form with the [[Doordarshan|Doordarshan Archives]]. She has also written numerous articles on Indian art, culture and heritage published in various magazines.

== Filmography ==
*''Anwesan'' (film on [[Fakir Mohan Senapati]])

== Selected bibliography ==
=== Books ===
* {{cite book | last = Das | first = Monica | title = Her story so far: tales of the girl child in India | publisher = Penguin Books | location = New Delhi New York, NY | year = 2003 | isbn = 9780143030423 }}
* {{cite book | last = Das | first = Monica | title = The other woman: 16 tales of love and deception | publisher = HarperCollins | location = India | year = 2014 | isbn = 9789351160557 }}

=== Papers ===
* {{Citation | first = Monica | last = Das | contribution = The EU’s contribution to women’s rights and women’s inclusion: Aspects of democracy building in South Asia, with special reference to India | place = Sweden | publisher = International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance - IDEA | date = 15 November 2009 | url = http://www.idea.int/resources/analysis/contribut_womens_rights.cfm | title = The EU's Contribution to Women's Rights and Women's Inclusion: Aspects of Democracy Building in South Asia, with special reference to India | Analysis and Policy | International IDEA | access-date = 7 June 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230050/http://www.idea.int/resources/analysis/contribut_womens_rights.cfm | archive-date = 3 March 2016 | url-status = dead }}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
*{{Cite web|url=http://www.fakirmohanfoundation.com/about.html|title=Fakir Mohan Foundation|website=www.fakirmohanfoundation.com|access-date=2019-03-13}}

== External links ==
* [https://archive.today/20130218000019/http://www.dcrcduac.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=200&Itemid=146 Bio]
*[http://www.fakirmohanfoundation.com/about.html Fakir Mohan Foundation]: Fakir Mohan Foundation page
* [https://sites.google.com/site/dasmonica/ Monica Das] Personal page

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Das, Monica}}
[[Category:20th-century Indian economists]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian economists]]
[[Category:Indian development economists]]
[[Category:Indian women economists]]
[[Category:Feminist economists]]
[[Category:Indian feminist writers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women writers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Delhi University]]
[[Category:Indian women activists]]
[[Category:Activists from Odisha]]
[[Category:English-language Indian writers]]
[[Category:Women writers from Odisha]]
[[Category:Bengali writers]]
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Nisha Dahiya

2026-02-08T05:29:18Z

ReaganRiordan:

{{Short description|Indian freestyle wrestler (born 1998)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2026}}
{{Infobox sportsperson
| name = Nisha Dahiya
| employer = [[Indian Railways]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1998|10|18}}
| birth_place = [[Panipat district|Adiyana]], [[Haryana]], India
| sport = [[Wrestling]]
| weight_class = 68 kg
| event = [[Freestyle wrestling|Freestyle]]
| club = [[Inspire Institute of Sport]]
| medaltemplates =
{{Medal|Sport|Women's [[freestyle wrestling]]}}
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}
{{Medal|Competition|[[Asian Wrestling Championships|Asian Championships]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2023 Asian Wrestling Championships|2023 Astana]]|[[2023 Asian Wrestling Championships – Results#68 kg |68 kg]]}}
{{Medal|Competition|Grand Prix}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2026 Grand Prix Zagreb Open|2026 Zagreb]]|[[2026 Grand Prix Zagreb Open – Women's freestyle#Women's freestyle 68 kg|68 kg]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[U23 World Wrestling Championships|World U23 Championships]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2021 U23 World Wrestling Championships|2021 Belgrade]]|[[2021 U23 World Wrestling Championships – Women's freestyle 65 kg|65 kg]]}}
}}
'''Nisha Dahiya''' (born 18 October 1998) is an Indian [[freestyle wrestler]]. She has won silver medals at the [[2023 Asian Wrestling Championships|2023 Asian Championships]] and the [[2021 U23 World Wrestling Championships|2021 U23 World Championships]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

== Early life ==
Nisha Dahiya was born in Adiyana village in [[Panipat district]], [[Haryana]]. Raised in a modest household, she grew up in a region where wrestling was widely practised. Her father, Ramesh Dahiya, encouraged her from a young age to be physically strong and confident. Though she briefly tried basketball, she was drawn to wrestling after visiting an akhada in Jind and watching local dangals.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 May 2024 |title=Nisha Dahiya Wrestling At Paris Olympics 2024 Through Doubts - Journey From Almost Quitting To The Games |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/sports/others/nisha-dahiya-wrestling-through-doubts-journey-from-almost-quitting-to-securing-paris-olympic-berth |access-date=4 August 2025 |website=Outlook India |language=en}}</ref>

At age 12, she began formal training and soon joined a sports hostel, balancing academics with a rigorous training schedule. Life at the hostel was demanding; early mornings, rough tracks and sparring with older boys, but it shaped her into a tough and determined wrestler. Later she began winning at school and junior national levels, laying the groundwork for her future in elite wrestling.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bose |first=Shuvaditya |date=4 August 2024 |title=Wrestler Nisha Dahiya Wanted To Be the Son Dad Never Had. She's at Olympics Now. |url=https://www.thequint.com/sports/wrestling/paris-olympics-2024-wrestler-nisha-dahiya-wanted-to-be-son-her-father-never-had-now-at-olympics |access-date=4 August 2025 |website=TheQuint |language=en}}</ref>

== Career ==

*'''2021:''' The year marked as a major turning point in Dahiya’s wrestling career. She made her mark internationally by clinching the silver medal at the [[2021 U23 World Wrestling Championships|U23 World Championships]], in the [[2021 U23 World Wrestling Championships – Women's freestyle 65 kg|65 kg category]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=World Championships Results: Weight Category (Results WW 65) |url=https://uww.org/event/world-championships-57?section=results&tab&weight-category=f76a0e2b-3be8-11ec-803a-06b1e9be04dc |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914221337/https://uww.org/event/world-championships-57?section=results&tab&weight-category=f76a0e2b-3be8-11ec-803a-06b1e9be04dc |archive-date=14 September 2022 |access-date=14 September 2022 |work=[[World Wrestling Championships]]}}</ref> Her performances in domestic tournaments also showed consistency, and she became a regular face in India’s national camps.
*'''2022''': Dahiya had a strong showing at the [[2022 World Wrestling Championships|World Championships]], reaching the semifinals. In the bronze medal match against [[Linda Morais]], Nisha was leading 4–0 before suffering a relapse of a previous ACL injury, which caused her to collapse mid-bout. Unable to continue, she lost by fall and finished fourth. The injury, which had troubled her earlier in the year, was later treated back in India. Despite the setback, her performance solidified her reputation at the global level.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 September 2022 |title=World Wrestling Championships 2022: Nisha Dahiya suffers injury relapse during bronze match; to be treated in Delhi |url=https://www.firstpost.com/sports/world-wrestling-championships-2022-nisha-dahiya-suffers-injury-relapse-during-bronze-match-to-be-treated-in-delhi-11263341.html |access-date=4 August 2025 |website=Firstpost |language=en-us}}</ref>
*'''2023''': Nisha repeated her silver medal performance at the [[2023 Asian Wrestling Championships|Asian Championships]] and excelled in UWW Ranking Series events.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=11 April 2023 |title=Asian Wrestling Championships: Nisha wins silver, bronze for Priya |url=https://www.espn.in/wrestling/story/_/id/36158117/asian-wrestling-championships-nisha-dahiya-silver-priya-malik-bronze-sarita-mor-indian-wrestling-news |access-date=4 August 2025 |website=ESPN |language=en}}</ref> Her biggest achievement was securing an Olympic quota for India at the World Olympic Qualifiers at Istanbul in May, confirming her spot for [[2024 Paris Olympics]]. She defeated Romania's [[Alexandra Anghel]] in the 68 kg semi-finals to book her Olympic berth.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=PTI |date=10 May 2024 |title=Paris 2024: Nisha Dahiya secures India's fifth Paris Olympic Games quota in women's wrestling |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/other-sports/nisha-dahiya-secures-fifth-indian-wrestling-quota-paris-2024-olympic-games-news-updates/article68162792.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240726070741/https://sportstar.thehindu.com/other-sports/nisha-dahiya-secures-fifth-indian-wrestling-quota-paris-2024-olympic-games-news-updates/article68162792.ece |archive-date=26 July 2024 |access-date=26 July 2024 |website=Sportstar |language=en}}</ref>
*'''2024''': 2024 was the most anticipated year of Dahiya’s career as she represented India at the [[2024 Paris Olympics|Paris Olympics]] in the [[Wrestling at the 2024 Summer Olympics – Women's freestyle 68 kg|women’s 68 kg freestyle category]]. She started strongly, winning her opening bout and entering the quarterfinals, where she was leading 8–1 in a dominating performance. However, during that crucial quarterfinal, she suffered a dislocated finger and a shoulder injury mid-bout, which severely limited her ability to continue. Despite her valiant effort, she lost the match due to injury and narrowly missed the medal round. She finished seventh overall.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Paris Olympics 2024: Here's how wrestler Nisha Dahiya missed a medal |url=https://www.business-standard.com/sports/olympics/paris-olympics-2024-here-s-how-wrestler-nisha-dahiya-missed-a-medal-124080501327_1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208064516/https://www.business-standard.com/sports/olympics/paris-olympics-2024-here-s-how-wrestler-nisha-dahiya-missed-a-medal-124080501327_1.html |archive-date=8 December 2024 |access-date=4 August 2025 |website=www.business-standard.com |language=en-US |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Controversy ==
In 2021, Dahiya was briefly at the center of a media controversy when several news outlets falsely reported her death, confusing her with another wrestler of the same name who was shot in Haryana. She later released a video statement confirming she was alive and competing at the Senior National Championships in Uttar Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/haryana/wrestler-nisha-dahiya-calls-reports-of-her-being-shot-dead-fake-namesake-killed-in-sonepat-336452 |title=Wrestler Nisha Dahiya calls reports of her being shot dead fake; namesake killed in Sonepat |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |date=11 November 2021 |access-date=14 September 2022 |archive-date=14 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914221343/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/haryana/wrestler-nisha-dahiya-calls-reports-of-her-being-shot-dead-fake-namesake-killed-in-sonepat-336452 |url-status=live}}</ref>
== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{UWW|nisha-nisha|Nisha Nisha}}
* {{IWD|4775AFBE91A64CA790D176D52BEEB0CA|Nisha Nisha}}
* {{Olympics.com|nisha-nisha|Nisha Dahiya}}
* {{Instagram|name=Nisha Dahiya}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dahiya, Nisha}}
[[Category:1998 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian female sport wrestlers]]
[[Category:Olympic wrestlers for India]]
[[Category:Wrestlers at the 2024 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Female sport wrestlers from Haryana]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Haryana]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportswomen]]

Edward Moore (bishop of Travancore and Cochin)

2026-02-05T06:23:15Z

ReaganRiordan: put up basic post from scratch

{{Short description|English bishop}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2015}}
{{use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
'''Edward Alfred Livingstone Moore''' (13 November 1870{{snd}}22 September 1944) was [[Anglican Bishop of Travancore and Cochin|Bishop of Travancore and Cochin]] from 1925 to 1937.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/indiaofficeselect/EMSEnqFull.asp?EUMID=2435&RecNo=1&intSearchNo=1234343|title=Explore Archives and Manuscripts}}</ref>

Moore was born in [[Oxford]] into an ecclesiastical family.<ref>His father was Edward Moore, sometime [[Principal (academia)|Principal]] of St Edmund Hall, Oxford, and Canon of Canterbury > "Who was Who" 1897-1990 London, A & C Black, 1991 {{ISBN|0-7136-3457-X}}.</ref> He was educated at [[Marlborough College|Marlborough]] and [[Oriel College, Oxford]]<ref>University Intelligence [[The Times]] (London, England), Monday, 21 January 1889; pg. 7; Issue 32601</ref> and was [[ordained]] in 1895.<ref>'' Ordinations Worcester'' [[The Times]] (London, England), Tuesday, 24 September 1895; pg. 4; Issue 34690</ref>

Moore began his career as a [[curate]] in [[Aston]], became a [[Church Mission Society|CMS]] [[Missionary]] in southern [[India]], [[Principal (academia)|Principal]] of the [[Church Mission Society|society's]] Divinity School in [[Madras]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mundus.ac.uk/cats/13/1028.htm |title=Moore, Edward Alfred Livingstone |access-date=1 January 2012 |archive-date=14 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414233456/http://www.mundus.ac.uk/cats/13/1028.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> and progressed to become [[Chairman]] of its [[Tinnevelly]] operations until his elevation to the [[episcopate]]. Returning to [[England]] he was [[Vicar]] of [[Horspath]] from 1938 until his death on 22 September 1944.

[[Bishop Moore Vidyapith (disambiguation)|Several schools]] in [[India]] are named after Moore<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bishopmoorecollege.in/index.html |title=School web site |access-date=1 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210062015/http://www.bishopmoorecollege.in/index.html |archive-date=10 February 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> including the [[Bishop Moore Vidyapith, Mavelikkara]].

== Early life ==
Edward Alfred Livingstone Moore was the eldest son of Dr [[Edward Moore (scholar)|Edward Moore]], the Principal of [[St Edmund Hall, Oxford]]. He was born in England in 1870.

Bishop Moore received his MA from the University of Oxford, and shortly after became a Missionary of the [[Church Missionary Society]] in India.

== Career==
When he was 32 years old, he became the Principal of the CMS College, [[Kottayam]]. After a few years at Kottayam, he left the principal position. For the following 8 years, he was a Missionary in [[Tamil Nadu]] — he learned to speak [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Malayalam]]. On 24 February 1925, he was consecrated a bishop by [[Randall Davidson]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], at [[Lambeth Palace Chapel]], to serve as the fourth Bishop of Travancore & Cochin;<ref>{{Church Times | title = The Bishop of Travancore and Cochin at Lambeth Palace | archive = 1925_02_27_239 | issue = 3240 | date = 27 February 1925 | page = 239 | accessed = 20 September 2019 }}</ref> he took charge of the Diocese at Kottayam in the same year. He was determined to end the [[caste]] system that was prevalent everywhere. He created history by ordaining two clergymen from the "backward classes". He established many community schools in different parts of the Diocese. The community school at Ranny was established as early as 1928 where the inmates trained in self-employment schemes.

Although he was a Missionary Bishop, when the poor approached him ''en masse'' to convert to Christianity to escape discrimination, he discouraged them. He was of the opinion that a person should be converted to Christian faith only from conviction. [[Mahatma Gandhi]] personally congratulated him for not allowing mass conversion.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

At a time when medical facilities were not available to poor people in the coastal area, he introduced "mobile dispensaries" on boats so that medical help could be taken to the poor.

The concept of "ecumenism" among the Christian churches in Kerala traces to the common retreats and [[Eucharist]] arranged by him in 1932 for the Priests of both CMS (after Independence C.S.I) and Marthoma Churches.

Bishop Moore served the Diocese without salary or remuneration. Throughout his time in Kerala, he subsisted on help from his sister in England. He deposited the salary due to him into a special fund to support future Bishops.

He retired from service in 1937 and returned to England. Moore died on 22 September 1944.

==Notes==
{{Portal|Christianity}}
{{Reflist}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-rel|en}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Charles Hope Gill]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Anglican Bishop of Travancore and Cochin|Bishop of Travancore and Cochin]]|years=1925–1937}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Bernard Conyngham Corfield]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Bishops of Travancore and Cochin}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Moore, Edward}}
[[Category:1870 births]]
[[Category:1944 deaths]]
[[Category:Alumni of Oriel College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Anglican bishops of Travancore and Cochin]]
[[Category:People educated at Marlborough College]]
[[Category:Clergy from Oxford]]

Bakht-un-Nissa Begum

2026-01-31T09:11:30Z

ReaganRiordan: Adding first post and citations

{{Infobox royalty
| consort =
| name = Bakht-un-Nissa Begum
| image =
| caption =
| title =[[Princess|Shahzadi]] of [[Mughal Empire]]
| reign =
| spouse = {{unbulletedlist|Shah Abdul Ma'ali|Khawaja Hasan Naqshbandi|}}
| issue = {{unbulletedlist|Mirza Badi-uz-Zaman|Mirza Wali|}}
| house = [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]]
| father = [[Humayun]]
| mother= [[Mah Chuchak Begum]]
|religion=[[Sunni Islam]]| birth_date = {{circa}} 1547
| birth_place = [[Badakhshan]]
| death_date = 2 June {{death year and age|1608|1547}}
| death_place = Akbarabad (present day [[Agra]]), [[Mughal Empire]]
| burial_place =
| full name =
}}

'''Bakht-un-Nissa Begum'''{{Cref2|a}} ({{circa}} 1547 – 2 June 1608) was a [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] princess and a daughter of the Mughal emperor [[Humayun]].

==Birth==
Bakht-un-Nissa Begum was born in 1547 in [[Badakhshan]]. Her mother was [[Mah Chuchak Begum]]. On the night of her birth Humayun had a dream, and it occurred to him that she be named ''Bakht-un-Nissa'' ({{langx|fa|{{nq|بخت النساء}}|lit=fortunate among women}}). Her siblings included [[Mirza Muhammad Hakim]], Farrukh Fal Mirza, [[Sakina Banu Begum]], and Amina Banu Begum.<ref>{{cite book|author =[[Gulbadan Begum|Begum, Gulbadan]]|title=The History of Humayun (Humayun-Nama)|publisher=Royal Asiatic Society|year=1902|pages=185–186}}</ref>

==Marriages==
===Shah Abdul Ma'ali===
[[File:6 Dust Muhammad. Portrait of Shah Abu'l Ma‘ali. ca. 1556 Aga Khan Collection.jpg|thumb|A [[Persia]]n miniature of [[Shah Abu'l Ma‘ali]], as a scholar, by [[Dust Muhammad]], 1556–64.{{sfn|Branfoot|2018|pp=54-56}} He wears the ''[[Tāj-i 'Izzat]]'' headdress of [[Humayun]].<ref name="BRAN52">{{harvnb|Branfoot|2018|p=52}} "He is here shown writing an inscription, which identifies him as Shah Abu’l Ma‘ali ‘kashgarı’, states he was once close to the late emperor (referred to by his posthumous name, Jannat Ashiyani, or He who Dwells in Paradise), and attributes the work to Master Dust the Painter (Ustad Dust-i Musawwir). The dating of this small, exquisite work is far from established but, despite
the appearance of a Taj-i ‘Izzat, Humayun’s posthumous name points to after the emperor’s death"</ref>]]
During Mah Chuchak Begum's rule at Kabul, [[Shah Abu'l Ma'ali]], who belonged to the family of the great [[Sayyid]]s of [[Termez]], who had escaped from the prison at [[Lahore]], arrived at Kabul and approached her for refuge. Mah Chuchak welcomed him, was generous to him and gave her daughter Bakht-un-Nissa Begum's hand in marriage to him.<ref name="harbans">{{cite book|first=Harbans|last=Mukhia|title=The Mughals of India|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|date=April 15, 2018|pages=142|isbn=978-0-470-75815-1}}</ref> However, soon Abdul Ma'ali grew tired of the dominating and interfering ways of Mah Chuchak. He wanted Kabul for himself. So he killed Mah Chuchak in 1564.<ref>{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2004|isbn=978-1-861-89185-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne}}</ref> Hakim Mirza was rescued by Sulaiman Mirza of Badakshan, who defeated and killed Abdul Ma'ali and helped Mirza Hakim to keep his hold over Kabul.<ref>{{cite book|title=Akbarnama of Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak - Volume II|first=Henry|last=Beveridge|year=1907|publisher=Asiatic Society, Calcutta|pages=320–21}}</ref>

===Khawaja Hasan===
After Abdul Ma'ali's death, Hakim Mirza married her to Khawaja Hasan Naqshbandi of Badakshan.<ref>{{cite book|title=Akbarnama of Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak - Volume II|first=Henry|last=Beveridge|year=1907|publisher=Asiatic Society, Calcutta|pages=364}}</ref><ref name="harbans"/> With Hasan, she had two sons, Mirza Badi-uz-Zaman and Mirza Wali. After Hakim Mirza's death, Mirza Badi-uz-Zaman fled to [[Transoxania]], where he died in exile. Bakht-un-Nissa Begum, and her son Mirza Wali joined the court, and Akbar did much to please her.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Emperor |last1=Jahangir|first2=Wheeler McIntosh|last2=Thackston|title=The Jahangirnama : memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India|url=https://archive.org/details/jahangirnamamemo00jaha |publisher=Washington, D. C.: Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution; New York: Oxford University Press|year=1999|pages=[https://archive.org/details/jahangirnamamemo00jaha/page/303 303–4]|isbn=978-0-19-512718-8 }}</ref> In 1619, [[Jahangir]] married Mirza Wali to Bulaqi Begum, the daughter of Prince [[Daniyal Mirza]], the son of Akbar.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|publisher=Indian History Congress|year=2004|pages=599}}</ref>

==Governorship of Kabul==
Her brother, Hakim Mirza was the governor of Kabul. In 1581, he rebelled in Kabul, and advanced to [[Lahore]] invading [[Punjab]] on the way. Here he was checked by Man Singh, who was the governor of Punjab at that time. Akbar declared war on him and himself went to Kabul. Mirza Hakim went to the hills. Akbar pardoned him, but the governorship of Kabul was now given to Bakht-un-Nissa Begum. Akbar also promised not to show any kindness to Hakim if he misbehaved in future. After Akbar's return from Kabul, Hakim got his old position, but all the official orders were issued in Bakht-un-Nissa's name.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Margaret R.|last1=Greer|first2=Wapter D.|last2=Mignolo|first3=Maureen|last3=Quilligan|title=Rereading the Black Legend: The Discourses of Religious and Racial Difference in the Renaissance Empires|date=September 15, 2008|pages=62|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-30724-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Anne|last=Walthall|title=Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History|url=https://archive.org/details/servantsdynastyp00walt|url-access=limited|publisher=University of California Press|year=2008|pages=[https://archive.org/details/servantsdynastyp00walt/page/n121 107]|isbn=978-0-520-25444-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Rukhsana|last=Iftikhar|title=Indian Feminism: Class, Gender & Identity in Medieval Ages|publisher=Notion Press|date=June 6, 2016|isbn=978-9-386-07373-0}}</ref>

==Death==
Bakht-un-Nissa Begum died of consumption and hectic fever on 2 June 1608.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Emperor|last1=Jahangir|first2=Alexander|last2=Rogers|first3=Henry|last3=Beveridge|title=The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri; or, Memoirs of Jahangir. Translated by Alexander Rogers. Edited by Henry Beveridge|url=https://archive.org/details/b29352423_0001|publisher=London Royal Asiatic Society|year=1909|pages=[https://archive.org/details/b29352423_0001/page/144 144]}}</ref>

==Annotations==
{{Cnote2 Begin|liststyle=upper-alpha}}
{{Cnote2|a|She is also called by two other names, Najib-un-Nissa, and Fakhr-un-Nissa.<ref>{{cite book|first=Ruby|last=Lal|title=Domesticity and Power in the Early Mughal India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=September 22, 2005|page=207|isbn=978-0-521-85022-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Monserrate (Padre)|title=The Commentary of Father Monserrate, S.J. on His Journey to the Court of Akbar|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1992|page=135 n. 207|isbn=978-8-120-60807-8}}</ref>}}
{{Cnote2 End}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |last1=Branfoot |first1=Crispin |title=Portraiture in South Asia since the Mughals: Art, Representation and History |date=30 June 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-83860-897-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eyaODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 |language=en}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bakht-un-Nissa Begum}}
[[Category:Mughal princesses]]
[[Category:1540s births]]
[[Category:1608 deaths]]
[[Category:16th-century Indian women]]
[[Category:16th-century Mughal Empire people]]
[[Category:17th-century Indian women]]
[[Category:17th-century Mughal Empire people]]
[[Category:Daughters of emperors]]

Sahaja Yamalapalli

2026-01-05T22:14:52Z

ReaganRiordan: adding basic info first draft...

{{short description|Indian tennis player (born 2000)}}
{{use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox tennis biography
|name = Sahaja Yamalapalli
|image =
|caption =
|fullname = Sahaja Yamalapalli
|country = {{IND}}
|residence =
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|2000|10|29}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sahaja Yamalapalli: Profile |url=https://www.wtatennis.com/players/331152/- |access-date=22 October 2024 |website=Women's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
|birth_place = [[Hyderabad]], India
|height =
|turnedpro = 2021
|plays = Right (two-handed backhand)
|college = [[Sam Houston State University]]
|coach = Prahlad Kumar Jain
|careerprizemoney = $93,804
|singlesrecord = 124–105
|singlestitles = 4 [[International Tennis Federation|ITF]]
|highestsinglesranking = 284 (21 October 2024)
|currentsinglesranking = 344 (27 October 2025)
|AustralianOpenresult =
|FrenchOpenresult =
|Wimbledonresult =
|USOpenresult =
|doublesrecord = 41–75
|doublestitles = 1 ITF
|highestdoublesranking = 408 (7 October 2024)
|currentdoublesranking = 507 (27 October 2025)
|Team = yes
|FedCupresult = 0–5
|updated = 27 October 2025
}}

'''Sahaja Yamalapalli''' (born 29 October 2000) is an Indian tennis player.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Focusing on mental side gave Sahaja her first top-200 scalp |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/sahaja-yamalapalli-mental-approach-for-first-top-200-win/articleshow/106364554.cms |access-date=13 September 2024 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> She is India's number one in women's tennis.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Subrahmanyam |first=V. V. |date=9 September 2024 |title=Following footsteps of Sania Mirza, Sahaja becomes No. 1 in women's tennis in India |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/tennis/sahaja-yamalapalli-becomes-india-no-1-follows-sania-mirza-footsteps-womens-tennis-rankings/article68622404.ece/ |access-date=13 September 2024 |website=sportstar.thehindu.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life==
Yamalapalli was born on 29 October 2000 in [[Hyderabad]], [[India]]. Her mother is Supriya while her father Bhavaniprasad Yamalapalli works at an engineering college.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Daughter's coach by day, engg prof by evening |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/daughters-coach-by-day-engg-prof-by-evening/articleshow/89932211.cms |access-date=22 October 2024 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

She started playing tennis at the age of ten. Yamalapalli graduated from [[Sam Houston State University]] in 2017 where she majored in Food Science and Nutrition. She has won the Player of the Year Award for collegiate tennis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who is Sahaja Yamalapalli? Profile, style and scouting report of India's latest tennis sensation |url=https://khelnow.com/tennis/2024-02-sahaja-yamalapalli-profile-scouting-report |access-date=14 September 2024 |website=Khel Now |language=en-us}}</ref> She was the second tennis player in the university's history to be honored with the award, the first being Irina Sotnikova.

She was also the first women's tennis player who earned ITA national ranking 110 in the university's history while also becoming the first player to ever crack the ITA NCAA national ranking. Yamalapalli was [[Southland Conference]] women's tennis student-athlete of the year 2018, 2019 and 2021 for being top in studies and sports. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Today |first=Telangana |date=23 March 2024 |title=Telangana's tennis ace Sahaja looking for sponsors |url=https://telanganatoday.com/telanganas-tennis-ace-sahaja-looking-for-sponsors |access-date=14 September 2024 |website=Telangana Today |language=en}}</ref>

==Career==
Yamalapalli made her debut on the ITF tour in 2021. She won her first main draw match in a WTA 125 event at the Mumbai Open in February 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WTA Mumbai Open: Sahaja Yamalapalli's hard-won progress fills her with belief |date=9 February 2024 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/sports/tennis/wta-mumbai-open-sahaja-yamalapalli-hard-won-progress-fills-her-with-belief-101707497072637-amp.html}}</ref> She won the SoCal Pro Series and became the third Indian women's tennis player to win an ITF pro title.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Subrahmanyam |first=V. V. |date=5 July 2024 |title=Sahaja Yamalapalli becomes third Indian women's tennis player to win an ITF pro title |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/tennis/sahaja-yamalapalli-becomes-third-indian-womens-tennis-player-to-win-an-itf-pro-title-socal-pro-series/article68369874.ece/ |access-date=13 September 2024 |website=sportstar.thehindu.com |language=en}}</ref> She also won the ECT ITF women’s singles title.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Subrahmanyam |first=V. V. |date=7 July 2022 |title=Yamalapalli Sahaja: 'Glad to have won ITF title, didn't have any expectations' |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/tennis/yamalapalli-sahaja-itf-title-gurugram-padukone-dravid-prahlad-jain/article38509369.ece |access-date=14 September 2024 |website=Sportstar |language=en}}</ref> She mainly plays tournaments on the [[ITF Women's World Tennis Tour]], where she has won four titles in the singles and one in the doubles.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}

In October 2025, Yamalapalli made her [[WTA Tour]] main-draw debut as a wildcard entrant at the [[2025 Chennai Open – Singles|Chennai Open]] and defeated lucky loser [[Priska Nugroho]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wtatennis.com/videos/4393096/on-wta-debut-indian-wild-card-yamalapalli-tops-nugroho-in-chennai|title=On WTA debut, Indian wild card Yamalapalli tops Nugroho in Chennai|publisher=Women's Tennis Association|accessdate=30 October 2025}}</ref> before losing to third seed [[Donna Vekić]] in the second round.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wtatennis.com/videos/4393596/vekic-quells-yamalapalli-in-chennai-into-first-quarterfinal-of-2025|title=Vekic quells Yamalapalli in Chennai; into first quarterfinal of 2025|publisher=Women's Tennis Association|accessdate=30 October 2025}}</ref>

==ITF Circuit finals==
===Singles: 5 (4 titles, 1 runner–up)===
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:85%"
!Legend
|- style="background:lightblue"
|W25 tournaments
|- style="background:#f0f8ff;"
|W15 tournaments
|}
{|class="sortable wikitable"
!Result
!class="unsortable"|W–L
!{{ns}}Date{{ns}}
!Tournament
!Tier
!Surface
!Opponent
!class="unsortable" |Score
|-
| style="background:#98fb98;"|Win
| 1–0
| Mar 2022
| style="background:#f0f8ff"|ITF Nagpur, India
| style="background:#f0f8ff"|W15
| Clay
| {{flagicon|DEU}} [[Emily Seibold]]
| 6–5 ret.
|-
| style="background:#98fb98;"|Win
| 2–0
| Jul 2022
| style="background:lightblue" |ITF Gurugram, India
| style="background:lightblue" |W25
| Hard
| {{flagicon|SVK}} [[Viktória Morvayová]]
| 6–3, 7–6(5)
|-
| style="background:#ffa07a;"|Loss
| 2–1
| Jul 2023
| style="background:lightblue"|ITF Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| style="background:lightblue"|W25
| Hard
| {{flagicon|THA}} [[Mananchaya Sawangkaew]]
| 4–6, 0–6
|-
| style="background:#98fb98;"|Win
| 3–1
| Dec 2023
| style="background:lightblue"|ITF Solapur, India
| style="background:lightblue"|W25
| Hard
| {{flagicon|}} [[Ekaterina Makarova (tennis player, born 1996)|Ekaterina Makarova]]
| 6–4, 6–3
|-
| style="background:#98fb98;"|Win
| 4–1
| Jun 2024
| style="background:#f0f8ff"|ITF Los Angeles, USA
| style="background:#f0f8ff"|W15
| Hard
| {{flagicon|USA}} [[Amy Zhu]]
| 6–4, 7–6(4)
|}

===Doubles: 3 (1 title, 2 runner-ups)===
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:85%"
!Legend
|- style="background:#addfad;"
|W60/75 tournaments
|- style="background:lightblue;"
|W25/W35 tournaments
|}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!Result
!class="unsortable" |W–L
!Date
!Tournament
!Tier
!Surface
!Partner
!Opponents
!class="unsortable" |Score
|-
| style="background:#ffa07a;"|Loss
| 0–1
| [[2024 The Women's Hospital Classic – Doubles|Jul 2024]]
| style="background:#addfad;"|[[The Women's Hospital Classic|Evansville Classic]], United States
| style="background:#addfad;"|W75
| Hard
| {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Hiroko Kuwata]]
| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Alicia Herrero Liñana]] {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Melany Krywoj]]
| 2–6, 0–6
|-
| style="background:#ffa07a;"|Loss
| 0–2
| Sep 2024
| style="background:lightblue;"|ITF Punta Cana, Dominican Republic
| style="background:lightblue;"|W35
| Clay
| {{flagicon|KAZ}} [[Zhibek Kulambayeva]]
| {{flagicon|CAN}} [[Ariana Arseneault]] {{flagicon|CAN}} [[Kayla Cross]]
| 1–6, 7–5, [8–10]
|-
| style="background:#98fb98;"|Win
| 1–2
| Jun 2025
| style="background:lightblue;"|ITF Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
| style="background:lightblue;"|W35
| Hard
| {{flagicon|JPN}} Hiroko Kuwata
| {{flagicon|GBR}} [[Esther Adeshina]] {{flagicon|VEN}} [[Sofía Elena Cabezas Domínguez]]
| 6–3, 6–2
|}

==See also==
* [[Tennis in India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{WTA}}
* {{ITF}}
* {{Billie Jean King Cup player|new_id=beba9cf2-28fd-4086-8ac2-901a433c25eb}}

{{Top Indian female tennis players}}
{{Top Indian female doubles tennis players}}

{{Authority control|qid=Q116983920}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yamalapalli, Sahaja}}
[[Category:2000 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian female tennis players]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Telangana]]
[[Category:Sam Houston State University alumni]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportswomen]]

Maharashtra State Film Award for Best Child Artist

2026-01-04T12:13:03Z

ReaganRiordan:

{{Short description|Indian film award}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox award
| name = Maharashtra State Film Award for Best Child Artist
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| awarded_for = Best performance by child actor in a Marathi film
| sponsor =
| firstawarded = 1963
| lastawarded = 2024
| reward =
| former name =
| holder_label = Most recent winner
| holder = [[Treesha Thosar]]
| most_awards =
| award1_type = Total awarded
| award1_winner = 61
| award2_type = First winner
| award2_winner = [[Sachin Pilgaonkar]]
| award3_type = Last winner
| award3_winner =
| website =
}}
'''Maharashtra State Film Award for Best Child Artist''' is an award, begun in 1963, presented annually at the [[Maharashtra State Film Awards]] of India to the child artist for best performance in a [[Marathi cinema]]. The awardees are decided by a jury constituted every year. The inaugural award was named as "Gajanan Jahagirdar Award for Best Supporting Actor" and was awarded to [[Sachin Pilgaonkar]] for the film ''Ha Maza Marg Ekala''.

==Winners ==
{| class="wikitable" style="width:"
|- bgcolor="#bebebe"
! width="2%" | Year
! width="18%" | Recipient(s)
! width="48%" | Film
! width="2%" | {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
|'''1963'''
|[[Sachin Pilgaonkar]]
|''Ha Maza Marg Ekala''
|style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-11-13 |title=Sachin Pilgaonkar on 60 years in cinema:‘I have reached the interval stage’ |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/sachin-pilgaonkar-on-60-years-in-cinemai-have-reached-the-interval-stage/articleshow/115252266.cms |access-date= |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|'''1964'''
|[[Mahesh Kothare]]
|''Chhota Jawan''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" |<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Mujawar |first=Isak |title=Gatha Marathi Cinemachi |publisher=Pratik Prakashan |year=2014 |edition=1st |location=Pune |language=Marathi}}</ref>
|-
|'''1965'''
|Manika Mane
|''[[Sawaal Majha Aika!]]''
|-
|'''1984'''
|Baby Kalpana
|''Bahurupi''
| rowspan="5" style="text-align: center;" |<ref name=":0" />
|-
|'''1985'''
|Milind Holankar
|''Streedhan''
|-
|'''1986'''
|Baby Neela
|''Pudhcha Paool''
|-
|'''1987'''
|Master Ninad
|''Prem Karuya Khullam Khulla''
|-
|'''1988'''
|Master Ninad
|''Nashibwan''
|-
|'''1989'''
|Mrunmayee Chandorkar
|''[[Kalat Nakalat]]''
|style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=नाकावरच्या रागाला औषध काय.. 'कळत नकळत'मधील बालकलाकार आठवतात? सध्या काय करतात बच्चू आणि छकुली? |url=https://marathi.indiatimes.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/bollywood-news/where-are-nakavarchya-ragala-aushadh-kay-fame-child-actors-omey-aambre-and-mrunmayee-chandorkar/articleshow/104702162.cms |access-date= |website=Maharashtra Times |language=mr}}</ref>
|-
|'''1990'''
|Aradhita
|''Kuldeepak''
|
|-
|'''1991'''
|Rajasi Behere
|''[[Chaukat Raja]]''
|style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2019-06-17 |title=Chaukat Raja: Accepting Children with Developmental Delay |url=https://medium.com/@worthittsocial/chaukat-raja-accepting-children-with-developmental-delay-fb2d728b0d95 |access-date= |website=Medium |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| '''1992'''
|Aseem Deshpande
|''[[Ek Hota Vidushak]]''
| style="text-align:center;" |
|-
| '''1993'''
|[[Sai Deodhar]]
|''[[Lapandav]]''
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prashant Damle- Official Site |url=https://www.prashantdamle.com/ |access-date= |website=www.prashantdamle.com}}</ref>
|-
|'''1994'''
|[[Adinath Kothare]]
|''[[Majha Chakula]]''
|style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-05-06 |title=Adinath Kothare acted as a child artist in Maza Chakula |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/did-you-know/adinath-kothare-mahesh-kothare-maza-chakula-ved-lavi-jeeva-satrangee-re-dubhang-zapatlela-2-laxmikant-berde-ashok-saraf-prashant-damle/articleshow/34734419.cms |access-date= |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| '''1995'''
|Supriya Nimkar
|''Oti Khana Narlachi''
| style="text-align:center;" |
|-
| '''1996'''
|Kalpak Joshi
|''[[Putravati]]''
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" |<ref name=":0" />
|-
|'''1997'''
| Rui Jadhav
|''Navsacha Por''
|-
|'''1998'''
|Manasi Bhatawdekar
|''Hasari''
|-
|'''1999'''
|Nimish Kadhare
|''Lekroo''
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="2KIE">{{cite news |url=http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/news/ie/daily/20000502/ien02018.html |title=Bindhaast sweeps state Marathi film awards |newspaper=[[Indian Express]] |date=2 May 2000 |accessdate=7 March 2014}}</ref>
|-
| '''2000'''
|[[Pushkar Jog]]
|''Raju''
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maharashtra State Film Awards 2000 |url=http://www.rrtd.nic.in/Film%20Bulletin-May03.htm}}</ref>
|-
|'''2001'''
|Anurag Worlikar
|''[[Devki]]''
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref name=":0" />
|-
| '''2002'''
|Apurva Koregave
|''[[Bhet]]''
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |title=Atul Kulkarni |url=https://www.atulkulkarni.com/ |access-date= |website=www.atulkulkarni.com}}</ref>
|-
|'''2003'''
|[[Ashwin Chitale]]
|''[[Shwaas]]''
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Sunday Tribune - Spectrum |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20041114/spectrum/main5.htm |access-date=2025-08-27 |website=www.tribuneindia.com}}</ref>
|-
|'''2004'''
| colspan="2" bgcolor="#F5A9A9" align="center" | Not awarded
|-
|'''2005'''
|[[Saksham Kulkarni]]
|''[[Pak Pak Pakaak]]''
|-
|'''2006'''
|Anurag Worlikar
|''Mission Champion''
|
|-
|'''2007'''
|Sharad Goekar
|''[[Tingya]]''
|style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |title=A gem of a Marathi movie Tingya shines a spotlight on the plight of farmers- Atlanta Dunia - |url=https://atlantadunia.com/dunia/Features/F136.htm |access-date=2025-08-27 |website=}}</ref>
|-
| '''2008'''
|Kaumudi Walekar
|''Tujhya Majhyat''
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maharashtra State Film Awards 2009 |url=http://maharashtratimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/4376855.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415204406/http://maharashtratimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/4376855.cms |archive-date=2009-04-15 |access-date=2025-08-27 |website=maharashtratimes}}</ref>
|-
| '''2009'''
|Chinmay Kambli
|''[[Jhing Chik Jhing]]''
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mishra |first=Garima |date=2010-05-01 |title=Jhing Chik Jhing bags 7 state awards |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/jhing-chik-jhing-bags-7-state-awards/ |access-date= |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''2010'''
|Machindra Gadkar
|''Champions''
| rowspan="4" style="text-align: center;" |<ref name=":0" />
|-
|Vivek Chabukswar
|''[[Baboo Band Baaja]]''
|-
| '''2011'''
|Ishan Tambe
|''[[Taryanche Bait]]''
|-
|'''2012'''
|Hansraj Jagtap
|''[[Dhag]]''
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''2013'''
|Rohit Utekar
|''[[Tapaal]]''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-08-14 |title=Winners at the 51st Maharashtra State Awards |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/photofeatures/winners-at-the-51st-maharashtra-state-awards/photostory/40284194.cms |access-date= |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|Tejashree Walawalkar
|''[[Maat (film)|Maat]]''
|-
| '''2014'''
|Ashutosh Gaikwad
|''[[Kaakan]]''
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |last=MMW |first=Team |date=2015-04-08 |title=Nominations of Marathi films declared for 52nd State Awards |url=https://marathimovieworld.com/news/nominations-of-marathi-films-declared-for-52nd-state-awards.php |access-date= |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" | '''2015'''
|[[Rinku Rajguru]]
|''[[Sairat]]''
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |title=53rd Maharashtra State Film Awards |url=https://divyamarathi.bhaskar.com/news-np/bol-mb-53rd-maharashtra-state-film-awards-halal-and-ringan-shine-out-5313287-pho.html |website=Divya Marathi}}</ref>
|-
|Sahil Joshi
|''[[Ringan (film)|Ringan]]''
|-
|Vedashree Mahajan
|''[[The Silence (2015 film)|The Silence]]''
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''2016'''
|Aarya Jadhav
|''[[Dashakriya]]''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |title=54th Maharashtra State Film Awards |url=https://www.maharashtratoday.co.in/the-54th-maharashtra-state-film-awards-film-festival-concludes/?amp_gsa=1&amp_js_v=a9&usqp=mq331AQIUAKwASCAAgM%3D#amp_tf=From%20%251%24s&aoh=17077248029594&referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com&ampshare=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.maharashtratoday.co.in%2Fthe-54th-maharashtra-state-film-awards-film-festival-concludes%2F}}</ref>
|-
|Onkar Ghadi
|''[[Kaasav]]''
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''2017'''
|Sahil Joshi
|''[[Aa Bb Kk]]''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-05 |title=राज्य पुरस्कारा मध्ये ‘मंत्र’ चा सर्वोत्कृष्ट सामाजिक चित्रपट पुरस्काराने गौरव |url=https://www.lokmat.com/filmy/marathi-cinema/gaurav-best-social-film-award-mantra-state-prize/ |access-date=2025-08-24 |website=LOKMAT |language=mr}}</ref>
|-
|Maithili Patwardhan
|''Pipsi''
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''2018'''
|[[Shrinivas Pokale]]
|''[[Naal (film)|Naal]]''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=My Mahanagar |date=2019-05-27 |title=‘भोंगा’ने पटकावला उत्कृष्ट चित्रपट पुरस्कार {{!}} 56th maharashtra state film awards |url=https://www.mymahanagar.com/maharashtra/56th-maharashtra-state-film-awards/95297/ |access-date= |language=mr-IN}}</ref>
|-
|Aman Kamble
|''[[Tendlya]]''
|-
| '''2019'''
|Aryan Menghaji
|''Baba''
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |last=डेस्क |first=एबीपी माझा एंटरटेनमेंट |title=57 व्या राज्य मराठी चित्रपट पुरस्काराचे वितरण, 'वाय' ठरला सर्वोत्कृष्ट चित्रपट |url=https://marathi.abplive.com/entertainment/57th-state-marathi-film-awards-y-adjudged-the-best-film-maharashtra-entertainment-news-1258896 |access-date= |website=ABP Marathi |date=23 February 2024 |language=mr}}</ref>
|-
|'''2020'''
|Anish Gosavi
|''Tak Tak''
| rowspan="2" |<ref>{{Cite web |title=महाराष्‍ट्र राज्‍य फिल्‍म पुरस्‍कार: आशा पारेख, अनुराधा पौडवाल और श‍िवाजी साटम को मिला अवॉर्ड |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/entertainment/news-from-bollywood/maharashtra-state-film-awards-2024-full-winners-list-asha-parekh-shivaji-satam-anuradha-paudwal-honoured/articleshow/112711788.cms |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Navbharat Times |language=hi}}</ref>
|-
|'''2021'''
|Aryan Menghaji
|''[[Baalbhaarti]]''
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''2022'''
|[[Shrinivas Pokale]]
|''Chhumantar''
| rowspan="4" |<ref>{{Cite web |last=जगताप |first=नामदेव |title=राज्य चित्रपट पुरस्कार सोहळा; हिंदी, मराठी सिनेसृष्टीतील कलाकारांचा सन्मान; पाहा संपूर्ण यादी |url=https://marathi.abplive.com/entertainment/maharashtra-state-film-awards-diamond-jubilee-held-in-mumbai-see-all-winners-list-kajol-bhimrao-panchale-anupam-kher-mukta-barve-bollywood-news-1375148 |access-date=2025-08-06 |website=ABP Majha |language=mr}}</ref>
|-
|Arnav Deshpande
|''Amhi Butterfly''
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''2023'''
|[[Treesha Thosar]]
|''[[Naal 2]]''
|-
|Kabir Khandare
|''Gypsy''
|}

==Multiple wins ==

Individuals with two or more Best child artist awards:

{| class="wikitable"
! scope="col" | Wins
! scope="col" | Recipients
|-
| 2
| {{cslist|[[Shrinivas Pokale]]|Anurag Worlikar|Sahil Joshi |Aryan Menghaji|Master Ninad}}
|-
|}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== See also ==
* [[Maharashtra State Film Awards]]
* [[Maharashtra State Film Award for Best Director]]

==External links==
* {{IMDb event|0015478|Maharashtra State Film Awards}}

[[Category:Maharashtra State Film Awards|Child Artist]]
[[Category:1963 establishments in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Awards established in 1963]]

Tharai

2025-12-25T06:53:22Z

ReaganRiordan: adding a pg w/ infobox

{{Short description|Wind instrument from South India}}
{{Infobox Instrument
| name = Tharai
| image = Thaarai Thappattai.jpeg
| image_capt = A traditional Tharai made of metal (along with [[Parai|Thappattai]])
| background =
| names = Thaarai
| classification = [[Wind instruments]]
}}

'''Tharai''' or '''Thaarai''' is a [[wind instrument]] from [[South India]]. It is a traditional instrument played during [[festival]]s, [[folk dance]]s, [[weddings]] and [[Party|functions]]. The instrument in played predominantly in [[Tamil Nadu]] and in some parts of [[Kerala]]. There are many variants of the instrument, including longer and shorter versions, curved or straight and the outer pipe may be made of [[metal]] or [[wood]]. The instrument might be played along with [[Parai|thappattai]], a [[percussion instrument]] in folk dances and festivities or accompanied by traditional [[thavil]] and [[nadaswaram]] in rituals and functions.

== History ==
The exact origin of the instrument is not clear. The instrument was one of the [[Ancient Tamil music|ancient native music instruments]] developed and used by the [[Tamil people]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Harihara the Legacy of the Scroll|first=Nithyau|last=Ramkumar|year=2016|isbn=978-9-352-01769-0|publisher=Frog in well|quote=..Thaarai and thappattai, native instruments of Tamil people..}}</ref><ref name="Kurinji">{{cite book|title=When the Kurinji Blooms|first=Rājam|last=Kiruṣṇan̲|year=2002|page=124|isbn=978-8-125-01619-9|publisher=Orient BlackSwan}}</ref> The ''[[Tirumurai]]'', a twelve-volume compendium of [[hymn]]s dated from 6th to the 11th century CE, mentions the instrument.<ref name="Shaiva">{{cite web|url=https://shaivam.org/information-to-know/tharai-thirumurai-musical-instruments/#gsc.tab=0|title=Tharai:Ancient music instruments mentioned in thirumurai|publisher=Shaivam.org|access-date=1 December 2023|language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A history of Indian literature, 500-1399: from courtly to the popular|last=Das|first=Sisir Kumar|year=2005|publisher=Sāhitya Akādemī|isbn=978-81-260-2171-0}}</ref>

{{Quote box|width=48%|align=left|quoted=1|quote=சங்கொடு '''தாரை''' காளந் தழங்கொலி முழங்கு பேரி வெங்குரற் பம்பை கண்டை வியன்றுடி திமிலைதட்டி பொங்கொலிச் சின்ன மெல்லாம்பொருபடை மிடைந்தபொற்பின் மங்குல்வான் கிளர்ச்சி நாண மருங்கெழுந் தியம்பி மல்க|salign=|source=''[[Thirumurai]]'' verse 581<ref name="Verse">{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilvu.org/slet/l41C2/l41C2per.jsp?sno=581|title=Thirumurai|publisher=Tamil Virtual University|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref>
}}

{{Quote box|width=48%|align=right|quoted=1|quote={{IPA|ta|əŋgoɖʉ '''t̪ɑːɾəj''' kɑːɭən t̪əɻəŋgolɪˑ mʊɻəŋgʉ peːɾɪ ʋɛŋgʉɾər pəmbəj kəɳɖəj ʋɪjənd̺ʳʉɖɪˑ t̪ɪmɪləjd̪əʈʈɪ poŋgolɪtʃ tʃɪnnə mɛllɑːmboɾʉbəɖəj mɪɖəjn̪d̪əborpɪn məŋgʉlʋɑːn kɪɭərtʃtʃɪˑ nɑːɳə məɾʉŋgɛɻʉn t̪ɪjəmbɪˑ məlgə}}|salign=|source=''[[Thirumurai]]'' verse 581<ref name="Verse"/>
}}

{{clear}}

When sage [[Agastya]] propagated the details of [[Siddha medicine]] to the other sages, he was welcomed by a procession with music including the traditional tharai.<ref>{{cite book|title=History of Medical and Spiritual Sciences of Siddhas of Tamil Nadu|first=P|last=Karthigayan|year=2016|isbn=978-9-352-06552-3|publisher=Notion Press|quote=procession of Siddhas around South Podhigai playing musical instruments like nagarimelam, thuthari, thaarai..}}</ref>

== Construction and variants ==
[[File:Pipe organ Thaarai at a Tamil wedding.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A pair of ''Nedunthaarai''s played during a [[Tamil people|Tamil]] [[wedding]]]]
The instrument may be curved or straight. The curved version like a "s" is generally made of a [[metal]] or [[alloy]] like [[brass]] similar to the [[Kombu (instrument)|kombu]].<ref name="Brass">{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/heres-whats-new-with-the-annual-sahodaran-calendar/article37960941.ece|title=Sahodaran’s calendar now features unusual Indian musical instruments|first=Priyadarshini|last=Paitandy|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=15 December 2021|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="Horn">{{cite book|title=Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life|volume=4|year=2009|page=949|publisher=Gale|via=[[Pennsylvania State University]]|editor1=Jeneen Hobby|editor2=Timothy L. Gall|quote=music played on instruments such as the tharai, an S shaped horn}}</ref> The name is derived from ''Kombu'' in [[Tamil language]] meaning [[Horn (anatomy)|cow's horn]].<ref name="Brass"/><ref>{{cite video|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5DjDDlgEKn8|title=Kombu Thaarai|publisher=Kailaya Vathyam|lang=ta|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="Horn"/> ''Araivatta kombu tharai'', is a variant of the same, which is a [[crescent]]-shaped brass instrument with ''araivatta'' meaning "crescent" in Tamil.<ref name="Brass"/>

It may also be a longitudinal thin [[cylinder]] like a pole with up to {{cvt|12|ft|abbr=on}} length, made up of [[wood]], which produces a continuous sound if wind pressure is applied.<ref name="Shaiva"/><ref name="Salangai">{{cite news|title=In Tamil Nadu's Erode, Men Wear 2-kg Ghungroo To Perform Local Dance Salangai Attam|url=https://www.news18.com/india/in-tamil-nadus-erode-men-wear-2-kg-ghungroo-to-perform-local-dance-salangai-attam-8678700.html|work=News18|date=27 November 2023|access-date=1 December 2023|quote=including tharai (ancient 12-feet trump), tappatti (drum), matthalam (dholak)}}</ref> There are two variants of the same: a shorter version known as ''Kuttathaarai'' with ''kutta'' meaning short in Tamil and a longer version known as ''Nedunthaarai'' with ''nedu'' meaning long or far in Tamil.<ref>{{cite video|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rJpr_fg7wkU|title=Kutta Thaarai|publisher=Kailaya Vathyam|lang=ta|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite video|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FpIYZgAdg0g|title=Nedun Thaarai|publisher=Tamilnadu Music instruments|lang=ta|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref>

== Occasions ==
It is a traditional instrument played in [[South India]], majorly by the [[Tamil people]] in [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Folk"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Global Encyclopaedia of the South Indian Dalit's Ethnography|year=2006|publisher=Global Vision Publishing House|page=720|quote=Some of their musical instruments are moolam, nayanam, kulal, tharai, ...}}</ref> It is commonly played during [[festival]]s, [[folk dance]]s, [[weddings]] and [[Party|functions]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Communication as Mission|publisher= Indian Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge|year=2007|first1=Jose|last1=Joseph|first2=L.|last2=Stanislaus|page=124|isbn=978-8-184-58006-8}}</ref><ref name="Folk">{{cite book|title=People of India: Tamil Nadu|first=K. S.|last=Singh|year=2001|publisher=Anthropological Survey of India|quote=tharai, thappattai and kaithalam. They perform folk dances.}}</ref> The instrument is played in [[Hindu temple]] [[processions]] accompanying [[Hinduism|Hindu]] gods and goddesses.<ref name="Temple">{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/ekkalam-trumpet-for-that-folksy-touch/article26202914.ece|title=Ekkalam: Trumpet for that folksy touch|quote=...play instruments such as tiruchinnam, ekkalam, tharai and come in a procession...|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=7 February 2009|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="Gaz">{{cite book|title=Madras District Gazetteers: Tiruchirappalli|first=B.S.|last=Baliga|year=1998|publisher=Superintendent, Government Press|page=234|quote=..taken to the temple in a big procession with mela dhalam, tharai thappatai and crackers.}}</ref> It is used in the worship of traditional Tamil deities like [[Muneeswarar]].<ref name="Muni">{{cite web|url=https://www.shastras.com/shiva-stotras/muneeswarar-stotram/|title=Muneeswarar Stotram|publisher=Shastras.com|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref>

{{Quote box|width=30%|align=right|quoted=1|quote=Sangu ndha sekhandi '''tharai''' parai vathiyam Mangalamai muzhangida mahimayodu varugiraar Thongum meesai kathiyaam, thudikkum kannil sakthiyaam Ingithamai nethiyil olirum neeru venmayai|salign=|source=''Muneeswarar Stotram'' verse 3<ref name="Muni"/>}}

The instrument is generally played with [[Parai|Thappattai]], a traditional [[percussion instrument]] in Tamil festivals and folk arts and might be accompanied sometimes by other traditional instruments such as [[Urumi (drum)|Urumi melam]] in Kerala and Naiyandi melam.<ref name="Gaz"/><ref name="Kurinji"/><ref name="Accompany"/> It is also played with [[Thavil]], a percussion instrument and [[Nadaswaram]], a [[double reed]] wind instrument, commonly played in Tamil weddings, functions and rituals.<ref name="Accompany">{{cite book|title=The Indian Factories Journal|volume=99|year=2002|publisher=[[Cornell University]]|page=217|quote=such as Melam, Nathaswaram, Thavil, Parai, Thaarai, Thappattai, Urimi Melam, Naiyandi Melam and Band etc.}}</ref> The instrument is played in the background for the performance of [[Dance forms of Tamil Nadu|Tamil folk dances]] such as [[:ta:சலங்கையாட்டம்|Salangai attam]].<ref name="Salangai"/><ref name="Folk"/>

The instrument has also been played and showcased in urban festivals like the ''[[Chennai Sangamam]]'' in [[Chennai]] and ''Tamil Thiruvizha'' in [[Coimbatore]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/coimbatore/pongal-takes-a-different-flavour-at-tamizhar-tiruvilla/articleshow/67564448.cms|title=Pongal takes a different flavour at Tamizhar Tiruvilla|date=17 January 2019|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=1 December 2023|quote=performances like silambam, oyilattam, poi kaal attam, parai and tharai thappattai, among others.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2009/Dec/29/dance-forms-galore-to-enthrall-chenaiites-117082.html|title=Dance forms galore to enthrall Chenaiites|date=16 May 2012|newspaper=[[The New Indian Express]]|access-date=1 December 2023|quote=Traditional dance forms include ..., Tharai..}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
''[[Tharai Thappattai]]'' was a [[Tamil film|Tamil language film]], directed by [[Bala (director)|Bala]] and released in 2016.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.news18.com/movies/when-director-bala-called-varalakshmi-her-favourite-actress-for-this-reason-8713939.html|date=22 December 2023|title=When Director Bala Called Varalakshmi Her Favourite Actress For This Reason|work=News18|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref> [[Music director]] [[Ilaiyaraaja]] is known to use traditional instruments including tharai in the compositions.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://thewire.in/the-arts/an-artiste-of-the-millennium-ilaiyaraaja-at-75|title=An Artiste of the Millennium: Ilaiyaraaja at 75|work=The Wire|access-date=1 December 2023|quote=He used authentic instruments like tharai and thappattai (Parai drums)..}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Kombu (instrument)|Kombu]], a similar wind instrument
* [[Parai]], a percussion instrument often accompanying Tharai

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Indian musical instruments}}

[[Category:Indian musical instruments]]
[[Category:Tamil culture]]
[[Category:Tamil music]]
[[Category:Natural horns and trumpets]]

Boarijore

2025-11-09T18:03:39Z

ReaganRiordan: put up new stub w/ refs

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Boarijore
| other_name = Boarijor
| nickname =
| image_map = Boarijor in Godda (Jharkhand).svg
| settlement_type = Community development block
| coordinates = {{coord|25|3|41.8|N|87|28|32.6|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Jharkhand]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[districts of Jharkhand|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Godda district|Godda]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Federalism in India|Federal democracy]]
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 396.98
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 38
| population_total = 138,330
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| leader_title1 =
| leader_name1 =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Urdu language|Urdu]]
| demographics_type2 = Literacy (2011)
| demographics2_title2 = Total literates
| demographics2_info2 = 51,609 (45.68%)
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 814147 (Pathergama) 814165 (Lalmatia Colliery)
| area_code_type = Telephone/STD code
| area_code = 06437
| registration_plate = JH 17
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Godda (Lok Sabha constituency)|Godda]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Mahagama (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Mahagama]]
| website = {{URL|godda.nic.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Boarijore''' (also spelled Boarijor) is a [[Community development block in India|CD block]] that forms an administrative division in the Godda subdivision of the [[Godda district]], [[Jharkhand]] [[States and territories of India|state]], [[India]].

==Geography==
[[Bara Boarijore]], the CD Block headquarters, is located at {{coord|25|3|41.8|N|87|28|32.6|E}}.

Boarijore is located {{convert|43|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} from [[Godda]], the district headquarters.

Godda district is a plateau region with undulating uplands, long ridges and depressions. The western portion of the [[Rajmahal hills]] passes through the district. The plain areas have lost their once-rich forests but the hills still retain some. The Kajhia, Sunder and Sakri rivers flow through the district.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://agri.jharkhand.gov.in/resources/Soil_Inventory/Godda_Soil_Analysis.pdf| title = Godda district| publisher = National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning| accessdate = 16 November 2020| archive-date = 27 November 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201127015707/https://agri.jharkhand.gov.in/resources/Soil_Inventory/Godda_Soil_Analysis.pdf| url-status = dead}}</ref>

The Rajmahal hills cover most of the Boarijore and Sunderpahari CD blocks in Godda district.<ref name=admin>{{cite web| url = http://godda.nic.in/profile.html| title = Godda District Official website| work = Profile| publisher = Godda district administration| accessdate = 24 January 2016| url-status = dead| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304085923/http://godda.nic.in/profile.html| archivedate = 4 March 2016}}</ref>

Boarijore CD block is bounded by [[Meharama]] and [[Thakurgangti]] CD blocks on the north, [[Mandro]], [[Borio (community development block)|Borio]] and [[Barhait (community development block)|Barhait]] CD blocks in Sahibganj district on the east, [[Sunderpahari]] CD block on the south, and [[Pathargama]], [[Mahagama (community development block)|Mahagama]] and [[Meharama]] CD blocks on the west.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/jharkhand/tehsil/godda.html | title = CD block/ tehsil map of Godda | publisher = Maps of India | accessdate = 17 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/jharkhand/tehsil/sahibganj.html | title = CD block/ tehsil map of Sahibganj | publisher = Maps of India | accessdate = 17 November 2020}}</ref>

Boarijore CD block has an area of {{convert|396.98|km2|sqmi|2|abbr=on}}.<ref name=census2011>{{cite web| url = https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2006_PART_B_DCHB_GODDA.pdf |title = District Census Handbook, godda, Series 21, Part XII B| work= Page 25: District primary census abstract, 2011 census |publisher= Directorate of Census Operations Jharkhand | accessdate = 14 November 2020}}</ref>[[Bara Boarijore|Boarijore]] and [[Lalmatia, Godda|Lalmatia]] police stations serve this block.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://jhpolice.gov.in/godda| title = District Police Profile - Godda| publisher = Jharkhand Police| accessdate = 17 November 2020| archive-date = 20 November 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201120085643/https://www.jhpolice.gov.in/godda| url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://godda.nic.in/police/# | title = Police | publisher = Government of Jharkhand | accessdate = 17 November 2020}}</ref> Headquarters of this CD block is at [[Bara Boarijore|Boarijore]] village.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/20/2006_PART_A_DCHB_GODDA.pdf |title = District Census Handbook, Godda, Series 21, Part XII A| work= Map of Godda on the third page|publisher= Directorate of Census Operations Jharkhand | accessdate = 17 November 2020}}</ref>

==Demographics==

===Population===
According to the [[2011 Census of India]], Boarijore CD block had a total population of 138,330, all of it rural. There were 70,106 (51%) males and 68,224 (49%) females. Population in the age range 0–6 years was 25,352. [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Castes]] numbered 4,409 (3.19%) and [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Tribes]] numbered 76,935 (55.62%).<ref name=census2011/>

In 2011 census, Bara Boarijor (village) had a population of 2,423 and Chota Boarijor (village) had 295 persons.<ref name=census2>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/Houselisting-housing-JK.html |title = 2011 Census C.D. Block Wise Primary Census Abstract Data(PCA) | work= Jharkhand – District-wise CD Blocks|publisher= Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India | accessdate = 24 January 2016}}</ref>

===Literacy===
According to the 2011 census, the total number of literates in Boarijor CD block was 51,609 (45.68% of the population over 6 years) out of which 32,949 (64%) were males and 18,660 (36%) were females. The [[Literacy#Gender disparities|gender disparity]] (the difference between female and male literacy rates) was 28%.<ref name=census2/>

See also – [[List of Jharkhand districts ranked by literacy rate]]
{{Literacy in CD Blocks of Godda district|collapsible=y}}

===Language and religion===
{{bar box
|title=Religions in Boarijor block (2011)<ref name="Religion">{{cite web |title=Table C-01 Population By Religion - Jharkhand|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11377/download/14490/DDW20C-01%20MDDS.XLS|website=census.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|darkorange|58.94}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|green|17.48}}
{{bar percent|[[Sarnaism|Sarna]]|maroon|16.81}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in Jharkhand|Christianity]]|dodgerblue|6.42}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.35}}
}}

{{Pie chart
|caption = Languages of Boarijor block (2011)<ref name="language"/>
|label1 = [[Santali language|Santali]] |value1 = 45.28 |color1 = darkturquoise
|label2 = [[Khortha language|Khortha]] |value2 = 12.64 |color2 = red
|label3 = [[Malto language|Malto]] |value3 = 8.31 |color3 = mediumaquamarine
|label4 = 'Other' Hindi |value4 = 7.77 |color4 = deeppink
|label5 = [[Urdu]] |value5 = 7.71 |color5 = green
|label6 = [[Kurmali language|Kurmali]] |value6 = 6.11 |color6 = indianred
|label7 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]] |value7 = 5.64 |color7 = orchid
|label8 = [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] |value8 = 3.81 |color8 = gold
|label9 = [[Hindi]] |value9 = 1.63 |color9 = orange
|other = y |other-label = Others |other-color = grey
}}

At the time of the 2011 census, 45.28% of the population spoke [[Santali language|Santali]], 12.64% [[Khortha language|Khortha]], 8.31% [[Malto language|Malto]], 7.71% [[Urdu]], 6.11% [[Kurmali language|Kurmali]], 5.64% [[Bengali language|Bengali]], 3.81% [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] and 1.63% [[Hindi]] as their first language. 7.77% of the population recorded their language as 'Others' under Hindi as their first language.<ref name="language">{{Cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10207/download/13319/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-2000.XLSX|title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Jharkhand|website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

==Rural poverty==
40-50% of the population of Godda district were in the [[Below Poverty Line|BPL]] category in 2004–2005, being in the same category as Giridih, Koderma and Hazaribagh districts.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/45258/1/MPRA_paper_45258.pdf | title = Rural Poverty in Jharkhad, India| work = Table I: Spatial Distribution of Poverty in Jharkhand | publisher = Munich Personal RePEc Archive | accessdate = 17 November 2020}}</ref> Rural poverty in Jharkhand declined from 66% in 1993–94 to 46% in 2004–05. In 2011, it has come down to 39.1%.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/Jharkhand%20presentation.pdf | title = Eliminating poverty | publisher = Jharkhand government | accessdate = 17 November 2020}}</ref>

==Economy==
===Livelihood===
{{Pie chart
| caption = '''Livelihood in Boarijore CD block'''
| value1 = 28.54
| label1 = Cultivators
| value2 = 56.16
| label2 = Agricultural labourers
| value3 = 2.71
| label3 = Household industries
| value4 = 12.60
| label4 = Other Workers
}}

In Boarijore CD block in 2011, amongst the class of total workers, cultivators numbered 18,675 and formed 28.54%, agricultural labourers numbered 36,753 and formed 56.16%, household industry workers numbered 1,771 and formed 2.71% and other workers numbered 8,244 and formed 12.60%. Total workers numbered 65,443 and formed 47.31% of the total population. Non-workers numbered 72,887 and formed 52.69% of total population.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/20/2006_PART_A_DCHB_GODDA.pdf | title = District Census Handbook, Godda | work = Tables 34, 30 Series 21, Part XII A, 2011 census| publisher = Directorate of Census Operations, Jharkhand | accessdate = 17 November 2020 }}</ref>

Note: In the census records a person is considered a cultivator, if the person is engaged in cultivation/ supervision of land owned. When a person who works on another person's land for wages in cash or kind or share, is regarded as an agricultural labourer. Household industry is defined as an industry conducted by one or more members of the family within the household or village, and one that does not qualify for registration as a factory under the Factories Act. Other workers are persons engaged in some economic activity other than cultivators, agricultural labourers and household workers. It includes factory, mining, plantation, transport and office workers, those engaged in business and commerce, teachers and entertainment artistes.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/20/2006_PART_A_DCHB_GODDA.pdf | title= District Census Handbook 2011 Godda, Series 21 Part XII A | work= Page 10: Census Concepts |publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, Jharkhand| accessdate = 26 October 2020}}</ref>

===Infrastructure===
There are 309 inhabited villages in Boarijore CD block. In 2011, 25 villages had power supply. 8 villages had tap water (treated/ untreated), 268 villages had well water (covered/ uncovered), 190 villages had hand pumps, and 22 villages did not have drinking water facility. 15 villages had post offices, 18 villages had sub post offices, 10 villages had telephones (land lines), 13 villages had public call offices and 140 villages had mobile phone coverage. 253 villages had pucca (paved) village roads, 31 villages had bus service (public/ private), 8 villages had autos/ modified autos, 14 villages had taxis/ vans, 65 villages had tractors, 7 villages had navigable waterways. 8 villages had bank branches, 2 villages had [[Automated teller machine|ATMs]], 4 villages had agricultural credit societies, 48 villages had cinema/ video halls, 46 villages had public libraries, public reading room. 105 villages had [[public distribution system]], 76 villages had weekly haat (market) and 134 villages had [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] [[Polling place|polling stations]].<ref name=directory>{{cite web | url = https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/20/2006_PART_A_DCHB_GODDA.pdf | title = District Census Handbook, Godda, 2011, Series 21, Part XII A | work = Pages 984-988 Appendix I: Village Directory | publisher = Directorate of Census Operations, Jharkhand. | accessdate = 17 November 2020}}</ref>

===Coal mining===
Godda district is rich in coal. A major [[coal mining]] project of [[Eastern Coalfields Limited]] (Rajmahal open cast project, a part of [[Rajmahal coalfield]]) is going on in Boarijore, [[Mahagama (community development block)|Mahagama]] and [[Sunderpahari]] CD blocks.<ref name=admin/>

The Rajmahal Opencast project came up in the early 1980s with an annual cpapcity of 5 million tonnes. The capacity was raised to 10.5 million tonnes with Canadian collaboration in 1994. The capacity is being expanded to 17 million tonnes.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://godda.nic.in/economy/ | title = Godda - About District | work = Economy | publisher = Government of Jharkhand | accessdate = 19 November 2020}}</ref>

EMIL the mining arm of the [[Aditya Birla Group]] has been involved in the functioning of Rajmahal Opencast Mines of [[Eastern Coalfields]]. Mining operations started in July 2013. It is expected to produce 200 million tonnes of coal over 12.5 years.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.esselmining.com/division/coal-mining/overview.html | title = Coal mining | publisher = Aditya Birla EMIL | accessdate = 19 November 2020 | archive-date = 16 January 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200116075917/http://www.esselmining.com/division/coal-mining/overview.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> With the involvement of the Essel Mining and Industries Limited (EMIL) in the Rajmahal Opencast project, supplies to the 2,340 MW [[Kahalgaon Super Thermal Power Station]] and the 2,100 MW [[Farakka Super Thermal Power Station]] of [[National Thermal Power Corporation|NTPC]] were expected to improve.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/essel-steps-into-rajmahal/cid/431301 | title = Essel steps into Rajmahal | publisher = The Telegraph, 26 April 2012 | accessdate = 17 November 2020}}</ref> In the Boarijore CD block, major activity is going on near [[Lalmata, Godda|Lalmatia]] village. Please see satellite view of the Google map.

===Agriculture===
Around 80% of the population depends on agriculture, the main economic activity of the district but lack of irrigation facilities is a major constraint in raising the existing low levels of productivity. A sizable population is also engaged in animal husbandry and cottage industries.<ref name=admin2>{{cite web| url = http://godda.nic.in/profile.html| title = Godda District Official website| work = Profile| publisher = Godda district administration| accessdate = 24 January 2016| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304085923/http://godda.nic.in/profile.html| archive-date = 4 March 2016| url-status = dead}}</ref>
The livelihood scenario presented above indicates that a large population depends on agriculture. In Boarijore CD block 49.32% of the total area is cultivable area and 8.71% of the cultivable area is irrigated area.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/20/2006_PART_A_DCHB_GODDA.pdf | title = District Census Handbook, Sahibganj, 2011, Series 21, Part XII A | work = Table 41: Distribution of villages according to land use, 2011 | publisher = Directorate of Census Operations, Jharkhand. | accessdate = 14 November 2020}}</ref>

===Backward Regions Grant Fund===
Godda district is listed as a backward region and receives financial support from the [[Backward Regions Grant Fund]]. The fund created by the Government of India is designed to redress regional imbalances in development. As of 2012, 272 districts across the country were listed under this scheme. The list includes 21 districts of Jharkhand.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.panchayat.gov.in/documents/10198/0/BRGFFINALGUIDELINES.pdf | title = Backward Regions Grant Funds: Programme Guidelines | publisher = Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Government of India | accessdate = 1 November 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171030225317/http://www.panchayat.gov.in/documents/10198/0/BRGFFINALGUIDELINES.pdf | archive-date = 30 October 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=84879 | title= Backward Regions Grant Fund| work= Press Release, 14 June 2012 |publisher= Press Information Bureau, Government of India | accessdate = 17 November 2020}}</ref>

==Education==
Boarijore CD block had 20 villages with pre-primary schools, 183 villages with primary schools, 79 villages with middle schools, 12 villages with secondary schools, 2 villages with senior secondary schools, 2 vocational training schools/ ITI, 1 village with non-formal training centre, 125 villages with no educational facility.<ref name=directory/>
 .*Senior secondary schools are also known as Inter colleges in Jharkhand

==Healthcare==
Boarijore CD block had 8 villages with [[Primary Health Centre (India)|primary health centres]], 16 villages with primary health subcentres, 10 village with maternity and child welfare centre, 3 villages with allopathic hospitals, 4 villages with dispensaries, 1 village with family welfare centre, 18 villages with medicine shops.<ref name=directory/>
 .*Private medical practitioners, alternative medicine etc. not included

==References==
{{Reflist|3}}

{{Santhal Pargana Division topics}}

[[Category:Community development blocks in Godda district]]

Homo sapiens

2025-10-12T03:12:30Z

ReaganRiordan: enhanced references per sources and improved wording

#REDIRECT [[Human]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from scientific name|mammal}}
{{R from move}}
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{{Italic title}}

Ahmad Ali Saayein

2025-10-07T21:21:56Z

ReaganRiordan:

{{Short description|Hindko Sufi poet (1842–1937)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ahmed Ali Saayein
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Ahmed Ali
| birth_date = 1842
| birth_place = [[Peshawar]], [[Sikh Empire]]
| death_date = {{Death year and age|1937|1842}}
| death_place = Peshawar, [[North-West Frontier Province]], [[British India]]
| occupation = Sufi poet
| known_for = [[Hindko]] poetry
}}

'''Ahmad Ali Saayein''' (1842 – 1937) was a [[Sufi]] and a [[Hindko]] poet. He is regarded as a major literary figure of Hindko. He was a contemporary of the [[Urdu]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] poet [[Muhammad Iqbal]].

==Early life and education==
Born into a middle-class family in [[Peshawar]] in 1842, Saayein never had an opportunity for any formal school education. Facing financial hardships, he spent part of his life in [[Rawalpindi]] where he was accommodated by a friend.<ref name="gandhara hinko academy">{{cite web |title=Ahmad Ali Saaien |url=https://gandharahindko.com/2019/05/ahmad-ali-saaien/ |website=Gandhara Hindko Academy Peshawar |access-date=10 January 2023}}</ref>

==Career==
Saayein used to recite his poetry orally and none of his works was published during his lifetime. He was illiterate but possibly familiar with the poetry of great Persian poets like [[Hafez|Hafiz Sheerazi]] and [[Saadi Shirazi|Sheikh Saadi]], as one can see their influences on his poetic themes. He participated in numerous poetry circles, including the renowned literary event "''Bazm-e-Sukhan''", which brought together poets, writers, and critics in the early 20th century Peshawar. Besides Peshawar city, he also had a fan following in the [[Pothohari]] region owing to his stay in Rawalpindi. His oral poetry was compiled in book form titled "Ganjeena Saayien" by the ''Gandhara Hindko Board'' in 2018.<ref name="the news">{{cite news |title=Rich tribute paid to poet Saeen Ahmad Ali |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/305038-rich-tribute-paid-to-poet-saeen-ahmad-ali |work=The News International |date=April 16, 2018}}</ref><ref name="daily pakistan 2018" /><ref name="daily 92">{{cite news |last1=Dhareeja |first1=Zahoor |title=صوفی احمد علی سائیں کا کلام |url=https://www.roznama92news.com/11231231-%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%81%DB%8C-%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF-%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C-%D8%B3%D8%A7%DA%BA-%DA%A9%D8%A7-%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85 |work=Daily 92 News |date=8 June 2019 |language=ur}}</ref><ref name="nlpd.gov.pk">{{cite web |last1=Manzar Ali Naqvi |first1=Syed |title=ہندکو زبان و ادب |url=https://nlpd.gov.pk/uakhbareurdu/marchapril2013/M,%20A_i.html |website=National Language Promotion Department Pakistan |language=ur}}</ref>

==Poetic style==
Saayein creates poetry primarily in the Hindko language, yet he can employ metaphors that had been used by Persian poets. He makes extensive use of Persian poets' common vocabulary, adjectives, ideas, metaphors, and allegories. His poetry reflects themes of [[Islamic mysticism]] and human values. Belief in classical [[monotheism]] is central to his poetic approach.<ref name="daily pakistan 2018">{{cite news |title=کراچی ،سائیں احمد علی کی یاد میں’’ مذاکرہ و مشاعرہ‘‘ کا انعقاد |url=https://dailypakistan.com.pk/04-Oct-2018/858706 |work=Daily Pakistan |date=October 4, 2018}}</ref>

==Works==
* ''Ganjeena Saayein'' — Collected poetry

==Death==
Saayein died in 1937 in Peshawar. His burial place is located outside the ''Kohati Gate''.<ref name="the news" /><ref name="daily pakistan">{{cite news |title=ہندکو زبان کے عظیم صوفی شاعر احمد علی سائیں کی82 ویں برسی کے حوالے سیتقریب |url=https://dailypakistan.com.pk/15-Apr-2019/952604 |work=Daily Pakistan |date=April 15, 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1842 births]]
[[Category:1937 deaths]]
[[Category:Writers from Peshawar]]
[[Category:Hindkowan people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]

Kamta Prasad (politician)

2025-10-01T00:23:13Z

ReaganRiordan: put up info

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{more citations needed|date=October 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Kamta Prasad
| image =
| caption =
| birth_place =[[Bundelkhand]], [[India]]
| death_place =
| office = 1st Chief Minister of [[Bundelkhand]] Division
| term_start = 12 march 1948
| term_end = 28 May 1948
| predecessor = Established
| successor = [[Vindhya Pradesh]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
}}
'''Kamta Prasad''' Saxena was an Indian politician from the state of the [[Madhya Pradesh]].
He represented [[Jatara (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Jatara Vidhan Sabha constituency]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]] Legislative Assembly by winning [[General election]] of 1957.[[Awadhesh Pratap Singh]] became the first Chief Minister of the [[Baghelkhand]] Division and '''Kamta Prasad''' Saxena was appointed as the Chief Minister of the [[Bundelkhand]] Division. Later Awadhesh Pratap Singh became the Chief Minister of the entire state of [[Vindhya Pradesh]].
<ref name="General Elections of MP 1957">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_MP_1957.pdf|title=General Elections of MP 1957|publisher=Election Commission Of India|year=2004}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Prasad, Kamta}}
[[Category:Madhya Pradesh MLAs 1957–1962]]
[[Category:People from Tikamgarh district]]
[[Category:Date of birth missing]]
[[Category:Date of death missing]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Madhya Pradesh]]

{{MadhyaPradesh-INC-politician-stub}}

Sathupalli mandal

2025-09-21T15:04:40Z

ReaganRiordan: adding the pg w/ infobox

{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Sathupalli mandal
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = te
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Mandal]]
| image_skyline = Sathupalli mandal.png
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Sathupalli mandal highlighted in blue
| pushpin_map = India Telangana#India
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Telangana, India
| coordinates = {{coord|17|12|30|N|80|50|10|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Telangana]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Khammam district|Khammam]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body = Municipality
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 77,043
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/subdistrict/4751-sathupalle-khammam-andhra-pradesh.html|title=Villages & Towns in Sathupalle Mandal of Khammam, Andhra Pradesh|website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| timezone = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code =
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code =
| registration_plate = TS-04
| blank1_name_sec1 =
| blank1_info_sec1 =
| blank2_name_sec1 =
| blank2_info_sec1 =
| website =
| footnotes =
| official_name =
}}

'''Sathupalli mandal''' is an administrative division located in the [[Khammam district]] of the Indian state of Telangana. It is situated in the [[Kalluru revenue division]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=RDO /Muncipal Commisioners/Tehsildars {{!}} Khammam District {{!}} India |url=https://khammam.telangana.gov.in/tehsil/ |access-date=8 June 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Sathupalli]] town serves as the headquarters of this mandal.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Government of Telanga |url=https://mines.telangana.gov.in/MinesAndGeology/Documents/GO's/New%20District%20Gos/Khammam.pdf}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
Sathupalli mandal has a total population of 77,043, with 38,394 males and 38,649 females. The child population in the Mandal is 7,646, with an almost equal distribution between males (3,843) and females (3,803). There are 14,465 individuals belonging to Scheduled Castes and 12,344 individuals belonging to Scheduled Tribes. The sex ratio in Sathupalli mandal is approximately 993 males per 1,000 females.

Out of the total population, 49,704 individuals are literate, with 26,693 males and 23,011 females with a literacy rate of approximately 64.5%. On the other hand, there are 27,339 individuals who are illiterate, including 11,701 males and 15,638 females

The mandal has a workforce of 35,554 individuals, with 22,524 males and 13,030 females engaged in various occupations. The non-working population in Sathupalli mandal is 41,489, comprising 15,870 males and 25,619 females.

== Villages ==
List of villages in Sathupalli mandal<ref>{{Cite web |title=Villages & Panchayats {{!}} Khammam District {{!}} India |url=https://khammam.telangana.gov.in/villages-panchayats/ |access-date=8 June 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref> and their population according to [[2011 Census of India|2011 Census]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Villages & Towns in Sathupalle Mandal of Khammam, Andhra Pradesh |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/subdistrict/4751-sathupalle-khammam-andhra-pradesh.html |access-date=8 June 2023 |website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!#
!Villages
!Population
|-
|1
|Ayyagaripeta
| -
|-
|2
|Bethupalle
|14,149
|-
|3
|Cherukupalle
|948
|-
|4
|Jagannadhapuram
|295
|-
|5
|Dacharam
| -
|-
|6
|Kakarlapalle
|4,165
|-
|7
|Kistaram
|3,666
|-
|8
|Kommepalle
|354
|-
|9
|Regallapadu
|554
|-
|10
|Rejerla
|4,388
|-
|11
|Rudrakshapalle
|5,531
|-
|12
|Sadasivunipalem
|1,610
|-
|13
|[[Sathupalli]]
|31,857
|-
|14
|Siddaram
|3,924
|-
|15
|Thumbur
|4,634
|-
|16
|Yatalakunta
|968
|}

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Mandals in Khammam district]]
[[Category:Mandals in Telangana]]