https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Rajbhai7Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]2026-08-14T03:57:36ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.43.6https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sim_Bhullar&diff=431940Sim Bhullar2023-09-12T14:18:46Z<p>Rajbhai7: Sim Bhullar</p>
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<div>{{short description|Canadian basketball player}}<br />
{{Infobox basketball biography<br />
|name = Sim Bhullar<br />
|image = 2022年12月10日 Sim Bhullar 桃園市政府.jpg<br />
|caption = Sim Bhullar with the [[Hsinchu JKO Lioneers]] in 2022<br />
|position = [[Center (basketball)|Center]]<br />
|height_ft = 7<br />
|height_in = 5<br />
|weight_lb = 360<br />
|league = [[T1 League]]<br />
|team = Tainan TSG GhostHawks<br />
|number = 35<br />
|nationality = Canadian<!--DO NOT CHANGE. He is not Indian, he has Indian heritage. DO NOT CHANGE--><br />
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|mf=yes|1992|12|2}}<br />
|birth_place = [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]]<br />
|highschool = <br />
*[[The Kiski School]]<br />([[Saltsburg, Pennsylvania]])<br />
*[[Huntington Prep School]]<br />([[Huntington, West Virginia]])<br />
|college = [[New Mexico State Aggies men's basketball|New Mexico State]] (2012–2014)<br />
|draft_year = 2014<br />
|career_start = 2014<br />
|years1 = 2014–2015<br />
|team1 = [[Reno Bighorns]]<br />
|years2 = {{nbay|2014|end}}<br />
|team2 = [[Sacramento Kings]]<br />
|years3 = 2015–2016<br />
|team3 = [[Raptors 905]]<br />
|years4 = 2016–2017<br />
|team4 = [[Dacin Tigers]]<br />
|years5 = 2017<br />
|team5 = [[Guangxi Rhino]]<br />
|years6 = 2017–2018<br />
|team6 = [[Dacin Tigers]]<br />
|years7 = 2019<br />
|team7 = [[Taipei Fubon Braves]]<br />
|years8 = 2020<br />
|team8 = [[Yulon Luxgen Dinos]]<br />
|years9 = 2021–2022<br />
|team9 = [[Hsinchu JKO Lioneers]]<br />
|years10 = 2022–present<br />
|team10 = [[Tainan TSG GhostHawks]]<br />
|highlights =<br />
*[[Super Basketball League|SBL]] champion (2017)<br />
*SBL Best Foreign Player of the year (2017)<br />
*NBA D-League All-Rookie Third Team (2015)<br />
*NBA D-League All-Defensive Second Team (2015)<br />
*Third-team All-[[Western Athletic Conference|WAC]] (2013)<br />
*WAC All-Newcomer Team (2013)<br />
*WAC All-Defensive Team (2014)<br />
*WAC Freshman of the Year (2013)<br />
*[[WAC men's basketball tournament|WAC tournament]] MOP ([[2014 WAC men's basketball tournament|2014]])<br />
|medal_templates = <br />
{{MedalCountry|{{CAN}}}}<br />
{{MedalCompetition|[[Pan American Games]]}}<br />
{{MedalSilver|[[Basketball at the 2015 Pan American Games|2015 Toronto]]|[[Canada men's national basketball team|National team]]}}<br />
{{MedalCompetition|[[FIBA Americas Under-18 Championship|FIBA Americas U18 Championship]]}}<br />
{{MedalBronze|[[FIBA Americas Under-18 Championship|2010 San Antonio]]|[[Canada men's national basketball team|National team]]}}<br />
}}<br />
'''Gursimran Singh "Sim" Bhullar''' (born December 2, 1992) is a Canadian professional [[basketball]] player for the [[Tainan TSG GhostHawks]] of the [[T1 League]]. He played [[college basketball]] for [[New Mexico State University]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nmstatesports.com/roster.aspx?rp_id=3791|title=#2 Sim Bhullar|work=nmstatesports.com|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref><ref name="Atlantic2014-07-22">{{cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/07/how-basketball-is-scoring-in-india/374835/|title=India, the Next Great Basketball Superpower|author=Sharda Ugra|date=July 22, 2014|work=[[The Atlantic]]|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref> and is the first player of [[Indo-Canadians|Indian descent]] to play in the NBA.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/basketball/32214585|title=Sim Bhullar becomes NBA's first player of Indian descent|department=[[BBC Sport]]|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=April 8, 2015|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref> At 7'5", he also became the [[List of tallest players in National Basketball Association history|sixth-tallest player in NBA history]], being tied with [[Chuck Nevitt]], [[Victor Wembanyama]] and [[Pavel Podkolzin]] for that record.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2015/04/08/gigantic-sim-bhullar-becomes-the-first-player-of-indian-descent-to-appear-in-an-nba-game/|author=Des Bieler|title=Gigantic Sim Bhullar becomes the first player of Indian descent to appear in an NBA game|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=April 8, 2015|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
==High school career==<br />
Born in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], Bhullar grew up in [[Brampton]]<ref>{{cite news|last1=Brady|first1=Rachel|title=Towering Canadian brothers on track to make basketball history|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/basketball/towering-canadian-brothers-on-track-to-make-basketball-history/article17583897/|access-date=November 13, 2017|work=The Globe and Mail|date=March 19, 2014}}</ref> and attended [[Father Henry Carr Catholic Secondary School]] in [[Etobicoke]], Toronto before moving to [[Saltsburg, Pennsylvania]], to attend [[The Kiski School]] for the 2009–10 school year.<ref name=ppg>{{cite news|title=Lineup suddenly shrinks for Kiski School|author=Mike White|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/high-school-basketball/2010/12/02/Lineup-suddenly-shrinks-for-Kiski-School/stories/201012020384|newspaper=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|date=December 2, 2010|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref> That year, Bhullar averaged a near [[triple-double]] for the Kiski basketball team with 16 points, 14 rebounds, and eight blocks per game. At the FIBA Americas Under-18 tournament in the summer of 2010, Bhullar impressed with his size and performance. In a loss to the United States, Bhullar came off the bench to record 14 points, four rebounds and three blocks.<ref name=si>{{cite news|title=Behemoth Sim Bhullar a 7–4 showstopper at FIBA tourney|author=Luke Winn|url=https://www.si.com/more-sports/2010/07/01/sim-bhullar|work=Sports Illustrated|date=July 1, 2010|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
At the end of November 2010, in the middle of Kiski's basketball season, Bhullar withdrew from Kiski<ref name=ppg/> and transferred to [[Huntington Prep School]] in [[West Virginia]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Huntington Prep brings in 7–4 player|author=Grant Taylor|url=http://www.herald-dispatch.com/sports/high_school_sports/huntington-prep-brings-in---player/article_ccb684c0-3e69-5f57-9045-329f7d35a7a0.html|newspaper=The Herald-Dispatch|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref> At Huntington, Bhullar improved on his conditioning, dropping from {{convert|367|lb|0}} to {{convert|330|lb|0}}.<ref name=nyt>{{cite news |title=So Much Potential, So Far to Go for Young Basketball Prospect |author=Pete Thamel |author-link=Pete Thamel |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/17/sports/basketball/sim-bhullar-could-be-asias-next-basketball-superstar.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=July 16, 2011|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
==College career==<br />
Bhullar originally committed to playing for [[Xavier University]] in [[Cincinnati]], [[Ohio]], but decommitted in August 2011 to play for the [[New Mexico State Aggies men's basketball|New Mexico State Aggies]]. He turned down Xavier because he learned he was not qualified to immediately play and would have to pay the full $42,000-a-year tuition, which his family refused to do.<ref>{{cite news|title=7-foot-5 Sim Bhullar to enroll at NMSU|author=Diamond Leung|url=http://espn.go.com/blog/collegebasketballnation/post/_/id/34534/7-foot-5-sim-bhullar-to-enroll-at-nmsu|newspaper=ESPN.com|date=August 24, 2011|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref> Bhullar, however, was not able to play until the 2012–13 season because the [[NCAA]] denied him an eligibility waiver and rejected the school's appeal.<ref>{{cite news|title=Aggies working through growing pains|url=http://www.foxsportsarizona.com/12/15/11/Aggies-working-through-growing-pains/landing_nmsu.html?blockID=627306|newspaper=Fox Sports Arizona|publisher=[[archive.is]]|date=December 15, 2011|access-date=November 13, 2017|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120731025306/http://www.foxsportsarizona.com/12/15/11/Aggies-working-through-growing-pains/landing_nmsu.html?blockID=627306|archive-date=July 31, 2012}}</ref> His brother, Tanveer, joined the team for the [[2013–14 New Mexico State Aggies men's basketball team|2013–14 season]], although he [[Redshirt (college sports)|redshirted]] his freshman year.<br />
<br />
During his freshman season, Bhullar played 24.4 minutes per game, averaging 10.1 points, 6.7 rebounds, and 2.4 blocks per game. In his sophomore season, he improved to 26.3 minutes per game, with 10.4 points, 7.8 rebounds, and 3.4 blocks per game.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/mens-college-basketball/player/_/id/57794/sim-bhullar|title=Sim Bhullar Stats, News, Videos, Highlights, Pictures, Bio – New Mexico State Aggies|publisher=ESPN|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref> He is a two-time [[Western Athletic Conference|WAC]] tournament MVP, winning the award in 2013 and 2014, where he also helped New Mexico State reach the [[NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament|NCAA tournament]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bleacherreport.com/tb/dcTRY|title=Report: New Mexico State's Sim Bhullar to enter 2014 NBA Draft &#124; CollegeBasketballTalk|work=Bleacher Report|author=Raphielle Johnson|date=April 16, 2014|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
In April 2014, Bhullar declared for the NBA draft, forgoing his final two years of college eligibility.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://collegebasketballtalk.nbcsports.com/2014/04/16/report-new-mexico-states-sim-bhullar-to-enter-2014-nba-draft/|title=Report: New Mexico State's Sim Bhullar to enter 2014 NBA Draft &#124; CollegeBasketballTalk|author=Raphielle Johnson|publisher=NBC Sports|date=April 16, 2014|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Professional career==<br />
<br />
===Sacramento Kings / Reno Bighorns (2014–2015)===<br />
After going undrafted in the [[2014 NBA draft]], Bhullar joined the [[Sacramento Kings]] for the [[2014 NBA Summer League]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lcsun-news.com/las_cruces-sports/ci_26047505/nmsu-basketball-sim-bhullar-invited-play-kings-summer|title=NMSU Basketball: Sim Bhullar invited to play for Sacramento Kings Summer League team|work=Las Cruces Sun-News|publisher=Lcsun-news.com|date=June 27, 2014|access-date=July 31, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140731204702/http://www.lcsun-news.com/las_cruces-sports/ci_26047505/nmsu-basketball-sim-bhullar-invited-play-kings-summer|archive-date=July 31, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> On August 14, 2014, he signed with the Kings, becoming the first player of [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian]] descent to sign with an NBA team.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nba.com/kings/news/kings-sign-center-sim-bhullar|title=Kings Sign Center Sim Bhullar|work=NBA.com|date=August 14, 2014|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref> However, he was waived by the Kings on October 19 after appearing in two preseason games.<ref>[http://www.nba.com/kings/kings-waive-bhullar-burton-wear Kings Waive Bhullar, Burton, Wear]</ref> On November 2, 2014, he was acquired by the [[Reno Bighorns]] of the [[NBA Development League]] as an affiliate player of the Kings.<ref>[http://www.nba.com/dleague/reno/bighorns_finalize_training_cam_2014_11_02.html BIGHORNS FINALIZE TRAINING CAMP ROSTER AFTER D-LEAGUE DRAFT] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141106210413/http://www.nba.com/dleague/reno/bighorns_finalize_training_cam_2014_11_02.html |date=2014-11-06 }} Retrieved November 13, 2017.</ref> Bhullar made his D-League debut on December 6 and recorded four points, eight rebounds and six blocks in Reno's 141–140 loss to the [[Los Angeles D-Fenders]].<ref>[http://dleague.nba.com/games/20141206/RNOLAD/ Heslip, Bighorns Fall In L.A.] Retrieved November 13, 2017.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-3-uw-w5Mi0|title=Sim Bhullar blocks six shots in his Reno Bighorns debut!|publisher=[[YouTube]]|date=December 6, 2014|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref> On February 22, 2015, he recorded his first career triple-double with 26 points, 17 rebounds and 11 blocked shots against the D-Fenders.<ref>[http://dleague.nba.com/games/20150222/LADRNO/ Bhullar Shines, But Bighorns Fall To D-Fenders] Retrieved November 13, 2017.</ref><br />
<br />
On April 2, 2015, Bhullar signed a 10-day contract with the Sacramento Kings.<ref>{{cite news|title=Kings Sign Sim Bhullar to a 10-Day Contract|url=http://www.nba.com/kings/new/kings-sign-sim-bhullar-to-10-day-contract|access-date=November 13, 2017|work=NBA.com|date=April 2, 2015}}</ref> Five days later, he made history when he checked in the fourth quarter for the final 16.1 seconds of the Kings' 116–111 win over the [[Minnesota Timberwolves]], becoming the first player of Indian descent to play in an NBA game.<ref>{{cite news|title=Kings hold off Timberwolves behind Casspi|url=http://www.nba.com/games/20150407/MINSAC/gameinfo.html|access-date=November 13, 2017|work=NBA.com|date=April 7, 2015}}</ref> He scored his first two points on April 8 in a 103–91 loss to the [[Utah Jazz]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Jazz rally for 103–91 win over Kings, Favors scores 18|url=http://www.nba.com/games/20150408/SACUTA/gameinfo.html|access-date=November 13, 2017|work=NBA.com|date=April 8, 2015}}</ref> Bhullar was not retained by the Kings following the expiration of his 10-day contract.<br />
<br />
In July 2015, Bhullar re-joined the Kings for the [[2015 NBA Summer League]].<ref>[http://www.nba.com/kings/blog/get-to-know-kings-summer-league-team Get To Know: Kings Summer League Team]</ref> After appearing in just one game for the Kings, Bhullar left the team in order to join the Canadian national team for the [[2015 Pan American Games|Pan Am Games]].<ref>[http://www.kolotv.com/sports/headlines/Bighorns-Bhullar-to-Play-for-Team-Canada-312754671.html Bighorns' Bhullar to Play for Team Canada] Retrieved November 13, 2017.</ref><br />
<br />
===Raptors 905 (2015–2016)===<br />
On October 31, 2015, Bhullar was acquired by [[Raptors 905]] of the [[NBA Development League]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://raptors905.dleague.nba.com/news/raptors-905-announce-nba-d-league-drafts-results-training-camp-roster/|title=Raptors 905 Announce NBA D-League Drafts Results, Training Camp Roster|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref> In 39 games for Raptors 905 in 2015–16, he averaged 9.6 points, 6.9 rebounds, 1.1 assists and 1.3 blocks per game.<ref>[https://www.basketball-reference.com/dleague/players/b/bhullsi01d.html Sim Bhullar D-League Stats] Basketball Reference Retrieved November 13, 2017.</ref><br />
<br />
===Dacin Tigers (2016–2017)===<br />
On August 26, 2016, Bhullar signed with the [[Dacin Tigers]] of the Taiwanese [[Super Basketball League]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Sim Bhullar is a newcomer at Dacin Tigers|url=http://www.asia-basket.com/Taiwan/news/460398/Sim-Bhullar-is-a-newcomer-at-Dacin-Tigers|work=Asia-Basket.com|date=August 26, 2016|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Guangxi Rhino (2017)===<br />
On April 27, 2017, Bhullar signed with Guangxi Rhino of the [[National Basketball League (China)|National Basketball League]], the second-tier league of China.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sim Bhullar inks with Guangxi in Chinese NBL |url=https://sportando.basketball/en/world/asia/233130/sim-bhullar-inks-with-guangxi-in-chinese-nbl.html |publisher=Sportando |access-date=July 25, 2018 |date=April 27, 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Hsinchu JKO Lioneers (2021–2022)===<br />
On October 22, 2021, Bhullar joined [[Hsinchu JKO Lioneers]] of the Taiwanese [[P. League+]].<ref>{{cite news |author1=黃及人 |title=真正獅子王跳槽 布拉改名「辛巴」加盟攻城獅 |url=https://www.chinatimes.com/realtimenews/20211022003727-260403?chdtv |accessdate=2021-10-22 |work=中國時報 |date=2021-10-22}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Tainan TSG GhostHawks (2022–present)===<br />
On December 16, 2022, Bhullar signed with [[Tainan TSG GhostHawks]] of the [[T1 League]].<ref>{{cite news |title=才宣布離隊10分鐘 布拉加盟獵鷹今晚將出戰「魔獸」霍華德 |url=https://sports.ltn.com.tw/news/breakingnews/4156493 |accessdate=December 16, 2022 |work=Liberty Times Net |date=December 16, 2022}}</ref> On August 7, 2023, Bhullar re-signed with the [[Tainan TSG GhostHawks]].<ref>{{cite news |title=「台灣女婿」布拉回歸 台鋼獵鷹洋將三塔還缺一 |url=https://sports.ltn.com.tw/news/breakingnews/4388744 |accessdate=August 7, 2023 |work=Liberty Times Net |date=August 7, 2023}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Career statistics==<br />
<br />
=== NBA ===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable" <br />
|-<br />
! Season<br />
! Team<br />
! G<br />
! GS<br />
! MP<br />
! FG%<br />
! 3P%<br />
! FT%<br />
! TRB<br />
! AST<br />
! STL<br />
! BLK<br />
! PTS<br />
|-<br />
| {{nbay|2014|year=full}}<br />
| [[2014–15 Sacramento Kings season|Sacramento]]<br />
| 3<br />
| 0<br />
| 1.0<br />
| .500<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| 0.3<br />
| 0.3<br />
| 0.0<br />
| 0.3<br />
| 0.7<br />
|-<br />
| Career<br />
| <br />
| 3<br />
| 0<br />
| 1.0<br />
| .500<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| 0.3<br />
| 0.3<br />
| 0.0<br />
| 0.3<br />
| 0.7<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==National team career==<br />
Bhullar played for Canada in the [[FIBA Americas Under-18 Championship|2010 FIBA Americas U18 Championship]] where he averaged 6.0 points and 3.8 rebounds in five games.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150412234633/http://turkey2010.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/player/p/pid/84739/pid2/78755/sid/4729/tid/257/tid2/385/_/2010_FIBA_Americas_U18_Championship_for_Men/index.html Sim Bhullar's profile | 2010 FIBA Americas U18 Championship] Retrieved November 13, 2017.</ref> Canada won the bronze medal after finishing with a 3–2 record.<ref>[https://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/sid/4729/_/2010_FIBA_Americas_U18_Championship_for_Men/index.html 2010 FIBA Americas U18 Championship for Men] Retrieved November 13, 2017.</ref> Bhullar then played for Canada in the [[2011 FIBA Under-19 World Championship]]. In six games, he averaged 12.3 points and 6.3 rebounds per game.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150413000711/http://turkey2010.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/player/p/pid/84739/pid2/78755/sid/5194/tid/257/tid2/385/_/2011_FIBA_U19_World_Championship/index.html Sim Bhullar's profile | 2011 FIBA U19 World Championship] Retrieved November 13, 2017.</ref> Canada finished in 11th place with a 3–5 record.<ref>[http://latvia2011.fiba.com/en 2011 FIBA U19 World Championship In Latvia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412233726/http://latvia2011.fiba.com/en |date=2015-04-12 }} Retrieved November 13, 2017.</ref><br />
<br />
==Personal life==<br />
Bhullar's parents migrated to Canada from the [[States and union territories of India|state]] of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] in [[India]]. His father, Avtar, is {{convert|6|ft|4|in|cm}} and his mother, Varinder, is {{convert|5|ft|10|in|cm}}. Neither parent had exposure to basketball until enrolling their sons into local youth basketball programs. Avtar himself grew up only playing [[kabaddi]], a traditional Indian [[contact sport]].<ref name="si"/> Bhullar has an older sister, Avneet, and a younger brother, Tanveer, who stands at {{convert|7|ft|2|in|cm}} and played [[college basketball]] for both New Mexico State and, later, [[Missouri State Bears basketball|Missouri State]].<ref>[http://www.nmstatesports.com/roster.aspx?rp_id=4637 New Mexico State Sim also had a Job At Dunkin Donuts as a Teen.Athletics]</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of tallest players in National Basketball Association history]]<br />
*[[List of Canadians in the National Basketball Association]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{basketballstats|bbr=b/bhullsi01}}<br />
*[http://stats.nbadleague.com/player/#!/204021/ NBA D-League profile]<br />
*[http://www.nmstatesports.com/roster.aspx?rp_id=3791 New Mexico bio]<br />
<br />
{{Canada Men Basketball Squad 2015 Pan American Games}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhullar, Sim}}<br />
[[Category:1992 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:ASEAN Basketball League players]]<br />
[[Category:Basketball players at the 2015 Pan American Games]]<br />
[[Category:Basketball players from Punjab, India]]<br />
[[Category:Basketball players from Toronto]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian expatriate basketball people in Taiwan]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian expatriate basketball people in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian men's basketball players]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian people of Punjabi descent]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian Sikhs]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian sportspeople of Indian descent]]<br />
[[Category:Centers (basketball)]]<br />
[[Category:Medalists at the 2015 Pan American Games]]<br />
[[Category:New Mexico State Aggies men's basketball players]]<br />
[[Category:Pan American Games medalists in basketball]]<br />
[[Category:Pan American Games silver medalists for Canada]]<br />
[[Category:Raptors 905 players]]<br />
[[Category:Reno Bighorns players]]<br />
[[Category:Sacramento Kings players]]<br />
[[Category:Undrafted National Basketball Association players]]<br />
[[Category:Hsinchu JKO Lioneers players]]<br />
[[Category:Yulon Luxgen Dinos players]]<br />
[[Category:Dacin Tigers players]]<br />
[[Category:Super Basketball League imports]]<br />
[[Category:P. League+ imports]]<br />
[[Category:Tainan TSG GhostHawks players]]<br />
[[Category:T1 League imports]]</div>Rajbhai7https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sanchore_district&diff=426804Sanchore district2023-09-07T14:09:23Z<p>Rajbhai7: Just completed a fresh chapter.</p>
<hr />
<div>{{About|the district|its eponymous headquarters|Sanchore}}{{Short description|District of Rajasthan in India}}<br />
<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| name = Sanchore district<br />
| settlement_type = [[List of districts of Rajasthan|District]] of [[Rajasthan]]<br />
| map_caption = Location of Jalore district in Rajasthan<br />
| subdivision_type = Country<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = Division<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Rajasthan]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Pali division|Pali]]<br />
| established_title = Established<br />
| established_date = 7 August 2023<br />
| seat_type = Headquarters<br />
| seat = [[Sanchore]]<br />
| parts_type = [[Tehsils of India|Tehsils]]<br />
| parts_style = para<br />
| area_total_km2 = 2,996<br />
| population_total = 4,87,458<br />
| population_as_of = 2011<br />
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]<br />
| utc_offset1 = +05:30<br />
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]<br />
| postal_code = 343041<br />
| registration_plate = (RJ46)<br />
| website = {{URL|https://sanchore.rajasthan.gov.in/}}<br />
| image_skyline = Sanchore district map.png<br />
| image_caption = Sanchore district map<br />
}}<br />
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'''Sanchore district''' is a [[Districts in India|district]] of [[Rajasthan]] [[States and territories of India|state]] in western [[India]]. The city of [[Sanchore]] is the administrative headquarters of the district. Total area of sanchore tehsil is 2,996 km² including 2,980.41 km² rural area and 16.00 km² urban area and has population of 4,87,458 (2011 census).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Basic Population Figures of India, States, Districts, Sub-District and Village, 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx}}</ref>This district came into existence on August 7, 2023 by separating from [[Jalore district]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=जालोर: सांचोर जिले की विधिवत हुई स्थापना,हवन के साथ संत महात्माओं का हुआ संबोधन |url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/india/rajasthan/jalore/jalore-news-sanchore-district-was-duly-established-addressed-by-saints-with-havan/1815565 |access-date=2023-08-31 |website=Zee News |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=4 उपखंड और 4 तहसील के साथ बना सांचौर जिला:ओएसडी बनेंगे कलेक्टर, एसपी; जल्द खुलेंगे जिला लेवल के सभी ऑफिस |work=Bhaskar |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/rajasthan/jalore/sanchore/news/sanchore-district-formed-with-4-subdivisions-and-4-tehsils-131638051.html}}</ref><br />
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== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}{{Districts of Rajasthan}}{{Sanchore district}}<br />
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[[Category:Districts of Rajasthan]]<br />
[[Category:Thar Desert]]<br />
[[Category:Sanchore district]]<br />
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{{Improve categories}}</div>Rajbhai7https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Religious_pluralism&diff=388409Religious pluralism2023-02-22T00:38:38Z<p>Rajbhai7: Contributed a new entry to the website.</p>
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<div>{{use dmy dates}}<br />
{{Short description|Stance of supporting peaceful coexistence and diversity of spiritual belief}}<br />
{{About|religious pluralism|other uses of the term|Pluralism (disambiguation)}}<br />
{{Multiple issues|<br />
{{More citations needed}}<br />
{{Self-published}}<br />
}}{{Religious freedom}}[[File:Cross menorah Oxford 20051225.jpg|thumb|The [[Christian cross|cross]] of the war memorial ([[Church of England]]) and a [[Menorah (Hanukkah)|menorah]] ([[Judaism]]) coexist at the north end of St Giles' in Oxford, England.]]<br />
[[File:Bosanska Krupa Churches.JPG|thumb|[[Catholic church]], [[Mosque]] and [[Serbian Orthodox Church]] in [[Bosanska Krupa]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]]]<br />
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'''Religious pluralism''' is an attitude or policy regarding the diversity of [[religion|religious]] [[belief system]]s co-existing in society. It can indicate one or more of the following:<br />
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* Recognizing and [[Religious tolerance|tolerating]] the religious diversity of a society or country, promoting [[freedom of religion]], and defining [[secularism]] as [[neutrality (philosophy)|neutrality]] (of the [[State (polity)|state]] or [[Nonsectarian|non-sectarian]] institution) on issues of religion as opposed to opposition of religion in the [[public forum]] or [[Town square|public square]] that is open to [[Freedom of speech|public expression]], and promoting [[Separation of church and state#Friendly and hostile separation|friendly]] [[Separation of church and state|separation of religion and state]] as opposed to [[Separation of religion and state#Friendly and hostile separation|hostile separation]] or [[antitheism]] espoused by other forms of [[secularism]]. <br />
* Any of several forms of religious [[inclusivism]]. One such worldview holds that one's own religion is not the sole and exclusive source of truth, and thus acknowledges that at least some truths and true values exist in other religions. Another concept is that two or more religions with mutually exclusive truth claims are equally valid; this may be considered a form of either [[toleration]] (a concept that arose as a result of the [[European wars of religion]]) or [[moral relativism]]. ''Perennialism'' (based on the concept of ''[[Perennial philosophy|philosophia perennis]]'') or [[Traditionalist School|Traditionalism]] is the understanding that the exclusive claims of different religions turn out, upon closer examination, to be variations of universal truths that have been taught since time immemorial.<br />
* Sometimes as a synonym for [[ecumenism]], i.e., the promotion of some level of unity, co-operation, and improved understanding between different religions or different [[Religious denomination|denomination]]s within a single religion.<br />
* As a term for the condition of harmonious co-existence between adherents of different [[religion]]s or [[religious denomination]]s.<br />
*As a [[social norm]] and not merely a synonym for religious diversity.<ref name="Silk 64–81">{{Cite book |last=Silk |first=Mark |title=Defining Religious Pluralism in America: A Regional Analysis |volume=612 |pages=64–81 }}</ref><br />
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==Definition and scopes==<br />
{{Main|Religious tolerance}}<br />
[[File:Kazan church.jpg|thumb|[[Temple of All Religions]] in [[Kazan]], [[Russia]] ]]<br />
[[File:1893parliament.jpg|thumb|Congress of [[Parliament of the World's Religions]], [[Chicago]], 1893]]<br />
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Religious pluralism, to paraphrase the title of a recent academic work, goes beyond mere toleration. Chris Beneke, in ''Beyond Toleration: The Religious Origins of American Pluralism'', explains the difference between religious tolerance and religious pluralism by pointing to the situation in the late 18th century [[United States]]. By the 1730s, in most colonies religious minorities had obtained what contemporaries called [[religious tolerance|religious toleration]]:{{Sfn | Beneke | 2006 | p = 6}} "The policy of toleration relieved religious minorities of some physical punishments and some financial burdens, but it did not make them free from the indignities of prejudice and exclusion. Nor did it make them equal. Those 'tolerated' could still be barred from civil offices, military positions, and university posts."{{Sfn | Beneke | 2006 | p = 6}} In short, religious toleration is only the absence of [[religious persecution]], and does not necessarily preclude [[religious discrimination]]. However, in the following decades something extraordinary happened in the [[Thirteen Colonies]], at least if one views the events from "a late eighteenth-century perspective".{{Sfn | Beneke | 2006 | p = 5}} Gradually the colonial governments expanded the policy of religious toleration, but then, between the 1760s and the 1780s, they replaced it with "something that is usually called [[Freedom of religion|religious liberty]]".{{Sfn | Beneke | 2006 | p = 6}} Mark Silka, in "Defining Religious Pluralism in America: A Regional Analysis", states that religious pluralism "enables a country made up of people of different faiths to exist without sectarian warfare or the persecution of religious minorities. Understood differently in different times and places, it is a [[cultural construct]] that embodies some shared conception of how a country's various religious communities relate to each other and to the larger nation whole."<ref name="Silk 64–81"/><br />
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Religious pluralism can be defined as "respecting the otherness of others".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grimshaw |first=Mike |title=On Canaries, Icebergs and the public sphere: The pragmatic compromise of religious pluralism |url=https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/kt/article/view/20508 |journal=Khazanah Theologia |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=71–86 |doi=10.15575/kt.v5i1.20508 |s2cid=256164273 |issn=2715-9701}}</ref> Freedom of religion encompasses all religions acting within the law in a particular region. [[Exclusivist]] religions teach that theirs is the only way to [[salvation]] and to religious truth, and some of them would even argue that it is necessary to suppress the falsehoods taught by other religions. Some [[Protestant]] [[sect]]s argue fiercely against [[Roman Catholicism]], and [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist Christians]] of all kinds teach that religious practices like those of [[Paganism]] and [[witchcraft]] are pernicious. This was a common historical attitude prior to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], and has appeared as governmental policy into the present day under systems like [[Afghanistan]]'s [[Taliban]] regime, which destroyed the ancient [[Buddhas of Bamyan]]. Of course, many religious communities have long been engaged in building peace, justice, and development themselves, and the emergence of the secular peacemaking field has led religious communities to systematize and institutionalize their own peacebuilding and interfaith work. The Catholic Church has worked in development and poverty reduction, human rights, solidarity, and peace, and after [[World War II]], it began to develop specific tools and apply conflict transformation practices.<ref name="Kazemzadeh 2017">{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/43891542 |title=Pluralism and Democracy in Islam |journal=Internal Journal of Acpcs |last1=Kazemzadeh |first1=Hamed }}</ref><br />
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Giving one religion or denomination special rights that are denied to others can weaken religious pluralism. This situation was observed in Europe through the [[Lateran Treaty]] and [[Church of England]]. In the modern era, many Islamic countries have laws that criminalize the act of leaving Islam for someone born into a Muslim family, forbid entry to non-Muslims into mosques, and forbid construction of churches, synagogues or temples in their countries.<ref name="Meister 2010 p23-57">Chad Meister (2010), ''The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19534013-6}}, pp. 32–57</ref><br />
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[[Relativism]], the belief that all religions are equal in their value and that none of the religions give access to absolute truth, is an extreme form of [[inclusivism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://carm.org/what-relativism |title=What is relativism?|work=CARM – The Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry}}</ref> Likewise, [[syncretism]], the attempt to take over creeds of practices from other religions or even to blend practices or creeds from different religions into one new faith is an extreme form of inter-religious dialogue. Syncretism must not be confused with [[ecumenism]], the attempt to bring closer and eventually reunite different denominations of one religion that have a common origin but were separated by a [[Schism (religion)|schism]].<br />
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==History==<br />
{{Main|History of religious pluralism}}<br />
[[File:Druck Augsburger Reichsfrieden.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Front page of the 1555 [[Peace of Augsburg]], which recognized two different churches in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]]]<br />
[[Cultural pluralism|Cultural]] and religious pluralism has a long history and development that reaches from antiquity to contemporary trends in [[post-modernity]].<br />
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German philosophers of religion [[Ludwig Feuerbach]] and [[Ernst Troeltsch]] concluded that [[Eastern religions|Asian religious traditions]], in particular [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], were the earliest proponents of religious pluralism and granting of [[Freedom of religion|freedom to the individuals to choose their own faith]] and develop a personal religious construct within it<ref name="Meister 2010 p62-72" /><ref>Roof & McKinney (1985), "Denominational America and the new religious pluralism", ''The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'', 480(1), pp. 24–38</ref> (see also [[Buddhism and Hinduism|Relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism]]); [[Jainism]], another [[Indian religions|ancient Indian religion]], as well as [[Daoism]] have also always been inclusively flexible and have long favored religious pluralism for those who disagree with their religious viewpoints.<ref name="Meister 2010 p62-72">Chad Meister (2010), ''The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195340136}}, pp. 62–72</ref> The [[Age of Enlightenment]] in Europe triggered a sweeping transformation about religion after the [[French Revolution]] ([[liberalism]], [[democracy]], [[civil and political rights]], [[freedom of thought]], [[separation of Church and State]], [[secularization]]), with rising acceptance of religious pluralism and [[decline of Christianity]]. According to Chad Meister,<ref name="Meister 2010 p62-72" /> these pluralist trends in the Western thought, particularly since the 18th century, brought mainstream Christianity and Judaism closer to the Asian traditions of philosophical pluralism and religious tolerance.<br />
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==Baháʼí Faith==<br />
[[File:Religions 4x5.png|thumb|1st row: [[Baháʼí Faith]], [[Buddhism]], [[Cao Dai]], [[Christianity]]<br />2nd row: [[Druidism]], [[Eckankar]], [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]]<br />3rd row: [[Jainism]], [[Judaism]], [[Raëlism]], [[Satanism]]<br />4th row: [[Shinto]], [[Sikhism]], [[Taoism]], [[Tenrikyo]]<br />5th row: [[Thelema]], [[Unitarian Universalism]], [[Wicca]], [[Zoroastrianism]]]]<br />
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{{Main|Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion}}<br />
[[Bahá'u'lláh]], founder of [[Baháʼí Faith]], a religion that developed in Persia, having roots in Islam,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Religions – Bahai: Origins of Bahá'í history |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/bahai/history/origins_1.shtml |access-date=2020-11-04 |publisher=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref> urged the elimination of religious intolerance. He taught that God is one, and religion has been progressively revealed over time through [[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestations of God]], the founders of religion. Bahá'u'lláh taught that Baháʼís must associate with peoples of all religions, whether this is reciprocated or not.<br />
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Baháʼís refer to this concept as [[Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)|Progressive revelation]], meaning that each religion brings a more advanced understanding of divinity and updated social laws as mankind matures. In this view, God's word is revealed through a series of messengers: [[Abraham]], [[Krishna]], [[Moses]], [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]], [[Báb]] and Bahá'u'lláh (the founder of the [[Baháʼí Faith]]) among them. According to Baháʼí writings, there will not be another messenger for many hundreds of years.{{Citation needed}}<br />
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There is also a respect for the religious traditions of the native peoples of the planet who may have little other than oral traditions as a record of their religious figures.<br />
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==Buddhism==<br />
[[File:Buddhism dham jak.png|thumb | 220x124px | right | alt=The Buddhist dharm chakra. Which is like a chariot wheel is a popular symbol of Buddhism. | [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] dharma chakra. A popular symbol of [[Buddhism]].]]<br />
Buddhist doctrine, fundamentally based upon minimizing or negating the suffering which arises from attachment, like its sister Indic religions, opposes exclusivism and emphasizes pluralism. This is not only encapsulated in the life story of the Buddha, who sought many gurus himself before resolving to seek Enlightenment on his own, but also in Buddhist scripture.<br />
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{{Blockquote|text={{lang|pi-latn|Katunnam kilesasîmânam atîtattâ<br>Sîmâtigo bâhitapâpattâ ka brâhmano.}}<br />
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<p>What one person, abiding by the (philosophical) views, saying, 'This is the most excellent,' considers the highest in the world, everything different from that he says is wretched, therefore he has not overcome dispute.</p>|title=Sutta Nipata|source=796}}<br />
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The Buddha also himself stated that truth is compromised when an individual is not open to entertaining a wide array of teachings. Moreover, without a pluralist understanding, the Buddha stated that truth cannot be discovered or ascertained such that it is truly known:<br />
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{{Blockquote|text=If a person has faith, Bhāradvāja, he preserves truth when he says: 'My faith is thus'; but he does not yet come to the definite conclusion: 'Only this is true, anything else is wrong.' In this way, Bhāradvāja, there is the preservation of truth; in this way he preserves truth; in this way we describe the preservation of truth. But as yet there is no discovery of truth.|author=The Buddha|title=The Pali Canon|source=Bhikkhu Bodhi. "In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon"}}<br />
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In the Lankavatara Sutra, the Buddha gave a long treatise on the idea that various expressions of Truth may seem contradictory or boundless, yet they all speak of Truth itself – emphasizing that an Enlightened One both accepts pluralism in that there are many ways to referring to Truth, but rises above it through the understanding that Truth transcends all labels.<br />
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{{Quote | In a political sense, the earliest references to Buddhist views on religious pluralism are found in the [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edicts of Emperor Ashoka]]:<br />
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All religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of heart. Rock Edict Nb. 7 (S. Dhammika)<br />
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Contact (between religions) is good. One should listen to and respect the doctrines professed by others. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all should be well-learned in the good doctrines of other religions. Rock Edict Nb. 12 (S. Dhammika)}}<br />
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When asked, "Don't all religions teach the same thing? Is it possible to unify them?" the [[14th Dalai Lama|Dalai Lama]] said:<ref>[http://www.zenit.org/article-8376?l=english "Dalai Lama Asks West Not to Turn Buddhism Into a 'Fashion{{'"}}], ''Zenit'', 2003-10-08, retrieved 2009-06-18.</ref><br />
{{Quote | People from different traditions should keep their own, rather than change. However, some Tibetan may prefer Islam, so he can follow it. Some Spanish prefer Buddhism; so follow it. But think about it carefully. Don't do it for fashion. Some people start Christian, follow Islam, then Buddhism, then nothing.<br />
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In the United States I have seen people who embrace Buddhism and change their clothes! Like the New Age. They take something Hindu, something Buddhist, something, something.... That is not healthy.<br />
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For individual practitioners, having one truth, one religion, is very important. Several truths, several religions, is contradictory.<br />
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I am Buddhist. Therefore, Buddhism is the only truth for me, the only religion. To my Christian friend, Christianity is the only truth, the only religion. To my Muslim friend, [Islam] is the only truth, the only religion. In the meantime, I respect and admire my Christian friend and my Muslim friend. If by unifying you mean mixing, that is impossible; useless.}}<br />
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==Classical civilization: Greek and Roman religions==<br />
{{See also|Ancient Greek religion|Greco-Roman mysteries|Paganism|Pax deorum}}<br />
For the Romans, [[Religion in Ancient Rome|religion was part of the daily life]].<ref>[[Jörg Rüpke]], "Roman Religion – Religions of Rome", in ''A Companion to Roman Religion'' (Blackwell, 2007), p. 4.</ref> Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and [[libation]]s to the family's domestic deities were offered. Neighborhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. The [[Roman calendar]] was structured around religious observances; in the [[Roman Empire|Imperial Era]], as many as 135 days of the year were devoted to [[Roman festivals|religious festivals]] and games (''[[ludi]])''.<ref>Matthew Bunson, ''A Dictionary of the Roman Empire'' (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 246.</ref> [[Women in Ancient Rome|Women]], [[Slavery in ancient Rome|slaves]] and children all participated in a range of religious activities. Some public rituals could be conducted only by women, and women formed what is perhaps Rome's most famous priesthood, the state-supported [[Vestal Virgins]], who tended Rome's sacred hearth for centuries, until [[Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire|disbanded under Christian persecution and domination]].<br />
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The Romans are known for the [[List of Roman deities|great number of deities]] they honored. The presence of [[Magna Graecia|Greeks on the Italian peninsula]] from the beginning of the historical period influenced Roman culture, introducing some religious practices that became as fundamental as the cult of [[Apollo]]. The Romans looked for common ground between their major gods and those of the Greeks, adapting [[Greek mythology|Greek myths]] and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art. [[Etruscan religion]] was also a major influence, particularly on the practice of [[augury]], since Rome had once been ruled by Etruscan kings.<br />
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[[Mystery religions]] imported from the [[Near East]] ([[Ptolemaic Egypt]], [[Parthian Empire|Persia]] and [[Mesopotamia]]), which offered initiates [[Soteriology|salvation through a personal God]] and [[Afterlife|eternal life after the death]], were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on one's [[Sacra gentilicia|family rites]] and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "[[Magic in the Greco-Roman world|magic]]", conspiracy ({{Lang|la|coniuratio}}), and subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional Roman morality and unity, as with the [[Roman senate|Senate]]'s efforts to [[Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus|restrict the Bacchanals]] in 186 BC.<br />
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[[File:0 Relief représentant Mithra - Louvre-Lens (2).JPG|thumb|250px|right|Marble relief of [[Tauroctony|Mithras slaying the bull]] (2nd century, [[Louvre-Lens]]); [[Mithraism]] was among the most widespread [[mystery religions]] of the Roman Empire.<ref>G. W. Bromiley (ed.), ''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'', Vol. 4 (Eerdmans, 1988), p. 116. {{ISBN|0-8028-3784-0}}.</ref>]]<br />
As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to [[Interpretatio romana|absorb the deities and cults of other peoples]] rather than try to eradicate them,<ref>"This mentality", notes John T. Koch, "lay at the core of the genius of cultural assimilation which made the Roman Empire possible"; entry on "Interpretatio romana", in ''Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia'' (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 974.</ref> since they believed that preserving tradition promoted social stability.<ref>Rüpke, "Roman Religion – Religions of Rome", p. 4; Benjamin H. Isaac, ''The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity'' (Princeton University Press, 2004, 2006), p. 449; W.H.C. Frend, ''Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church: A Study of Conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus'' (Doubleday, 1967), p. 106.</ref><br />
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One way that Rome incorporated diverse peoples was by [[Freedom of religion|supporting their religious heritage]], building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local Gods.<ref>Janet Huskinson, ''Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire'' (Routledge, 2000), p. 261.</ref> By the height of the Empire, numerous [[Interpretatio graeca|international deities]] were cultivated at Rome and had been carried to even the most remote [[Roman provinces|provinces]] (among them [[Cybele]], [[Isis]], [[Osiris]], [[Serapis]], [[Epona]]), and Gods of [[Monism|solar monism]] such as [[Mithras]] and [[Sol Invictus]], found as far north as [[Roman Britain]]. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one deity or one cult only, [[religious tolerance]] was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing [[Monotheism|monotheistic religions]].<ref>A classic essay on this topic is [[Arnaldo Momigliano]], "The Disadvantages of Monotheism for a Universal State", in ''Classical Philology'', 81.4 (1986), pp. 285–297.</ref> The monotheistic rigor of [[Hellenistic Judaism|Judaism]] posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions, but sometimes to intractable conflict.<br />
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==Christianity==<br />
{{Main|Christianity and other religions}}<br />
{{See also|Ecumenism}}<br />
[[File:Christian cross.svg|thumb | 220x124px | right | alt=The [[Christian cross]] which is a very popular symbol of Christianity. |<br />
The [[Christian cross]]. A very popular symbol of [[Christianity]].]]<br />
Some Christians<ref>[http://www.christians.eu/why-jesus/ "Why Jesus?"], Christians EU. Article stating that Jesus is the saviour and not Mohammed or Buddha—see second part of this article.</ref> have argued that religious pluralism is an invalid or self-contradictory concept.<br />
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Maximal forms of religious pluralism claim that all religions are equally true, or that one religion can be true for some and another for others. Most Christians hold this idea to be [[logic]]ally impossible from the [[principle of contradiction]].<ref>Jason Carlson, [http://www.christianministriesintl.org/articles/12.html "Defending Salvation Through Christ Alone"], {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003214003/http://www.christianministriesintl.org/articles/12.html }}, Christian Ministries International</ref> The two largest Christian branches, the [[Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], both claim to be the "[[one true church]]" and that "[[Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus|outside the true Church there is no salvation]]"; Protestantism however, which has many different denominations, has no consistent doctrine in this regard, and has a variety of different positions regarding religious pluralism.<br />
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Other Christians have held that there can be truth value and salvific value in other faith traditions. [[John Macquarrie]], described in the ''Handbook of Anglican Theologians'' (1998) as "unquestionably [[Anglicanism]]'s most distinguished systematic theologian in the second half of the twentieth century",<ref>p. 168, Timothy Bradshaw (1998), "John Macquarrie", in: Alister E. McGrath (ed). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHzZAAAAMAAJ&q=macquarrie The SPCK Handbook of Anglican Theologians]'' (pp. 167–68). London: [[SPCK]]. {{ISBN|978-0-281-05145-8}}</ref> wrote that "there should be an end to proselytizing but that equally there should be no syncretism of the kind typified by the [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]] movement" (p.&nbsp;2).<ref name="Macquarrie 1996">John Macquarrie (1996). ''Mediators between human and divine: From Moses to Muhammad''. New York: Continuum. {{ISBN|0-8264-1170-3}}</ref> In discussing nine founders of major faith traditions (Moses, Zoroaster, Lao-zu, Buddha, Confucius, Socrates, Krishna, Jesus, and Muhammad), which he called "mediators between the human and the divine", Macquarrie wrote that:<br />
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{{Blockquote|I do not deny for a moment that the truth of God has reached others through other channels – indeed, I hope and pray that it has. So while I have a special attachment to one mediator, I have respect for them all. (p. 12)<ref name="Macquarrie 1996" />}}<br />
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[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] also teaches a form of religious pluralism, that there is at least some truth in almost all religions and philosophies.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1977/10/respect-for-other-peoples-beliefs?lang=eng |title=Respect for Other People's Beliefs |first=Gerald E. |last=Jones |publisher=[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] |magazine=[[Ensign (LDS magazine)|Ensign]] }}</ref><br />
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===Classical Christian views===<br />
Before the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]], mainstream Christianity confessed "one holy catholic and apostolic church", in the words of the [[Nicene Creed]]. [[Roman Catholic]]s, Orthodox Christians, [[Anglicanism|Episcopalian]]s and most Protestant Christian denominations still maintain this belief. Furthermore, the [[Catholic Church]] makes the claim that it alone is the [[one true church|one and only true Church]] founded by [[Jesus Christ]], but the [[Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodox]] Churches also make this claim in respect to themselves.{{Cn }}<br />
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Church unity for these groups, as in the past, is something very visible and tangible, and schism was just as serious an offense as heresy. Following the Great Schism, Roman Catholicism sees and recognizes the Orthodox Sacraments as valid but illicit and without canonical jurisdiction. Eastern Orthodoxy does not have the concept of "validity" when applied to Sacraments, but it considers the ''form'' of Roman Catholic Sacraments to be acceptable, and there is some recognition of Catholic sacraments among some, but not all, Orthodox. Both generally mutually regard each other as "[[heresy|heterodox]]" and "[[schism]]atic", while continuing to recognize each other as Christian, at least [[secundum quid]] (see [[ecumenicism]]).<br />
<br />
===Modern Christian views===<br />
Some other Protestants hold that only believers who believe in certain fundamental doctrines know the true pathway to salvation. The core of this doctrine is that Jesus Christ was a perfect man, is the Son of God and that he died and rose again for the wrongdoing of those who will accept the gift of salvation. They continue to believe in "one" church, an "invisible church" which encompasses different types of Christians in different sects and denominations, believing in certain issues they deem fundamental, while disunited on a variety of doctrines they deem non-fundamental. Some [[evangelical]] Protestants are doubtful if Roman Catholics or Eastern Orthodox can possibly be members of this "invisible church", and usually they reject religious (typically [[restorationist]]) movements rooted in 19th-century American Christianity, such as [[Mormonism]], [[Christian Science]], or [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] as not distinctly Christian.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://apologeticsindex.org/d01b.html#prot |title=The Protestant Principle |website=Apologetics index: Biblical Guide To Orthodoxy And Heresy |access-date=7 February 2016}}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Catholic Church]], unlike some Protestant denominations, affirms "developmental theology", understood to mean that the "[[Holy Spirit]], in and through the evolving and often confused circumstances of concrete history, is gradually bringing the Church to an ever more mature understanding of the [[deposit of faith]] (the saving truths entrusted by Jesus Christ to the Apostles—these as such cannot be changed or added to). The Church comes to recognize [[baptism of desire]] quite early in its history. Later, the Church realizes that Romans 2:14–16, for example, allows for the salvation of non-Christians who do not have unobstructed exposure to Christian teachings: "When Gentiles who have not the law do by nature what the law requires.... They show that what the law requires is written on their hearts....<ref>Robert Magliola, ''Facing Up to Real Doctrinal Difference: How Some Thought-Motifs from Derrida Can Nourish the Catholic-Buddhist Encounter'' (Angelico P., 2014), pp. 101–2.</ref> Various forms of "implicit faith" come to hold standing, until at [[Vatican Council II]], the Church declares: "Nor shall divine providence deny the assistance necessary for salvation to those who, without any fault of theirs, have not yet arrived at an explicit knowledge of God, and who, not without grace, strive to lead a good life" (#16). Vatican Council II in its Declaration [[Nostra aetate]] addresses the non-Christian religions with respect and appreciation, affirming the goodness found in them. Since Vatican Council II, Catholic dialogists in particular are working out the implications of [[John Paul II]]'s statement, in [[Redemptor hominis]] #6 that Christians should recognize "the Holy Spirit operating outside the visible confines of the [[Body of Christ#Catholicism|Mystical Body of Christ]]." Among these dialogists, [[Robert Magliola]], an affiliate of the Italian community Vangelo e Zen ("The Gospel and Zen"), Desio and Milano, Italy, who taught in predominantly Buddhist cultures for years, and practiced Buddhist-Catholic dialogue there and in the West, and who is widely published in this dialogue, argues the following:<br />
{{Quote | If God has willed that all persons be saved (see [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] #851, quoting 1 Tim. 2:4) but has not sent the opportunity of Christian conversion to all, how can we not conclude that God wills those good Buddhists in this latter category to live, flourish, and die as good Buddhists? That God in His providence—at least for now—wants Buddhism to be the setting for millions of good and noble people in the world? (This does not mean that Catholics should not witness to the Catholic faith or even—on the proper occasions and in a courteous way—consider it their duty to preach Catholicism to Buddhists, and to teach it mightily. But it does mean that Catholics would do well to remember that God alone sends the grace of conversion when and to whom He wills.)<ref>Robert Magliola, ''Facing Up to Real Doctrinal Difference: How Some Thought-Motifs from Derrida Can Nourish the Catholic-Buddhist Encounter'' (Angelico P., 2014), pp. 116, 142, where he applies the same reasoning to relations with other non-Christian religions.</ref>}}<br />
<br />
==Hinduism==<br />
<br />
[[File:Om symbol.svg|thumb | 220x124px | right | alt=OM is a popular symbol in Hinduism. It is a Sanskrit letter in the Devanagari script. |<br />
The [[Om]] (aum) is a [[Sanskrit]] Letter in the [[Devanagari|Devanagari script]] and a popular symbol of [[Hinduism]].]]<br />
{{See also|Hinduism and other religions}}<br />
[[Hinduism]] is naturally pluralistic<ref>{{Cite news|title=Hinduism|language=en|url=https://pluralism.org/hinduism|access-date=2021-08-21}}</ref> as it "acknowledges different forms and representations of the divine, all understood in their relation to the supreme being, Brahman." Historians argue that the differentiations between the various Indic religions of the subcontinent were blurred before their specific codification and separation during British efforts to catalog different Indic philosophies. {{citation needed}} . Moreover, Hinduism itself is the oldest major religion, explaining a relative lack of antipathy towards specifiable religious traditions – and so the Hindu religion has no theological difficulties in accepting degrees of truth in other religions.{{citation needed}} From a Vedantic perspective, Swami Bhaskarananda argues that Hinduism emphasizes that everyone actually worships the same God, whether one knows it or not.<ref>See Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' (Viveka Press 2002) {{ISBN|1-884852-04-1}}</ref> In the 8th sutra of the Pratyabhijñahrdyam, the Indian philosopher Ksemaraja says that all the siddhantas or theses of all the darsanas (schools of thought) are just the different aspects of the one Atman. It being all-pervading and all-inclusive, from matter to consciousness to nothingness, all are its aspects or its different roles. The [[Advaita Vedanta]] philosophy, a widely held view of many Hindus who follow [[Hinduism|Sanatana Dharma]], encompasses pluralism.{{clarify}}.<ref>{{cite book|title=An Occult Glossary:A Compendium of Oriental and Theosophical Terms|author=T. Depurucker|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|page=130|isbn=9780766129757|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eRztON94euYC&q=paramatman&pg=PA130}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=A Guide to Hindu Spirituality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYeAIM0d-KYC |year=2006|publisher=World Wisdom |isbn=978-1-933316-17-8|pages=38–43, 68–75}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Richard King|title=Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East" |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eOiDNx_co5wC |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-63234-3|pages=128–132}}</ref> Other, lesser-known philosophers have strived to encompass Indic philosophies under traditions other than Advaita, including the Indian philosopher Vijñabhikshu. Thus, the culture of open boundaries and continuous interaction and synthesis between all schools of thought is a very important aspect in understanding Hinduism and its fundamental nature of plurality.<br />
<br />
In several [[mantra]]s, [[sutra]]s, [[smriti]], and [[Śruti|shruti]], the idea that there are many ways to approach Truth or an underlying Reality is emphasized.<br />
<br />
For example, the [[Rigveda|Rig Veda]] states that the [[Satya|Truth]] can be known in different ways:<br />
<br />
{{Blockquote|text={{lang|sa|एकं सद्विप्रा बहुधा वदन्ति}}<br />
{{lang|sa-latn|ékam sat vipra bahudā vadanti}}<br />
<br />
Truth is One, though the sages know it variously|title=Rig Veda|source=1.164.46}}<br />
<br />
The Rig Veda also envisions an ideal world where a diverse collective speaks together to focus upon an idea that pervades all:<br />
<br />
{{Blockquote|text={{lang|sa-latn|saṃ ghachadhvaṃ saṃ vadadhvaṃ saṃ vo manāṃsi jānatām <br>devā bhāghaṃ yathā pūrve saṃjānānā upāsate <br>samāno mantraḥ samitiḥ samānī samānaṃ manaḥ saha cittameṣām<br>samānaṃ mantramabhi maṇtraye vaḥ samānena vohaviṣā juhomi <br>samānī va ākūtiḥ samānā hṛdayāni vaḥ <br>samānamastu vomano yathā vaḥ susahāsati}}<br />
<br />
Assemble, speak together: let your minds be all of one accord, as ancient Gods unanimous sit down to their appointed share.<br />
<br />
The place is common, common the assembly, common the mind, so be their thought united.<br />
<br />
A common purpose do I lay before you, and worship with your general oblation.<br />
<br />
One and the same be your resolve, and be your minds of one accord. United be the thoughts of all that all may happily agree.|title=Rig Veda|source=1.191.2-4}}<br />
<br />
The [[Uddhava Gita]] is explicit that those interested in spirituality should learn the perspectives of a diverse group of proficient practitioners rather than a singular one who espouses a specific doctrine:<br />
<br />
{{Blockquote|text=Though the Absolute Truth is One, various sages and scriptures have described Him in many different ways. For this reason, an aspiring spiritual practitioner would do well to learn the perspectives of numerous spiritual masters, rather than just hearing from one.|title=Uddhava Gita|source=3:21}}<br />
<br />
Conversely, the [[Bhagavad Gita]] warns against exclusivism:<br />
<br />
{{Blockquote|text={{lang|sa|यत्तु कृत्स्नवदेकस्मिन्कार्ये सक्तमहैतुकम्।<br>अतत्त्वार्थवदल्पं च तत्तामसमुदाहृतम्}}<br />
<br />
But that which clings blindly to one idea as if it were all, without logic, truth or insight, that has its origin in Darkness.|title=Bhagavad Gita|source=18:22}}<br />
<br />
It also affirms [[Satya|Truth]] in a variety of spiritual practices:<br />
<br />
{{Blockquote|text={{lang|sa|ये यथा मां प्रपद्यन्ते तांस्तथैव भजाम्यहम्।<br>मम वर्त्मानुवर्तन्ते मनुष्याः पार्थ सर्वशः}}<br />
<br />
{{lang|sa-latn|ye yathā māṃ prapadyante tāṃs tathāiva bhajāmyaham mama vartmānuvartante manuṣyāḥ pārtha sarvaśaḥ.}}<br />
<br />
As people approach me, so I receive them. All paths lead to Me.|title=Bhagavad Gita|source=4:11}}<br />
<br />
== Islam ==<br />
<br />
[[File:Golden_Crescent_Moon.jpg|thumb | 180px | right | alt=Crescent symbol. |<br />
The [[crescent]], the symbol most widely representative of the [[Islamic world]]]]<br />
{{Main|Islam and other religions}}<br />
The primary sources that guide Islam, namely [[Quran]] and [[hadith|Sunnah]]s, may be interpreted as promoting the fundamental right to practice an individual's belief.<ref>Cole & Hammond (1974), "Religious pluralism, legal development, and societal complexity: rudimentary forms of civil religion", ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'', vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 177–189</ref><ref name="Bonner 2008 p23-31">Michael Bonner (2008), ''Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691138381}}, pp. 23–31</ref> However, the acceptability of religious pluralism within Islam remains a topic of active debate, though the vast majority of Islamic scholars and historical evidences reveal Islam's commitment to no coercion in religion, supporting pluralism in the context of relative toleration. Hamed Kazemzadeh, a pluralist orientalist, argues that cultural absolutism of ours is, of course, today under heavy pressure, a double pressure of defining and semi-bankrupt imperialism and surprisingly strong counter assertive challenge that changed the mentality of Muslims to have a pluralist identity.<ref name="Kazemzadeh 2017" /> Then he highlights the policy method of Islam Messenger in the early Islamic civilization toward other religions.<br />
<br />
In several [[Sura]]h, Quran asks Muslims to remain steadfast with Islam, and not yield to the vain desires of other religions and unbelievers. These verses have been interpreted to imply pluralism in religions. For example, [[Al-Ma'ida|Surah Al-Ma'idah]] verses 47 through 49 state:<br />
{{blockquote<br />
|Let the people of the Gospel judge by what Allah hath revealed therein. If any do fail to judge by the light of what Allah hath revealed, they are no better than those who rebel. To thee We sent the Scripture in truth, confirming the scripture that came before it, and guarding it in safety: so judge between them by what Allah hath revealed, and follow not their vain desires, diverging from the Truth that hath come to thee. To each among you have we prescribed a law and an open way. '''If Allah had so willed, He would have made you a single people''', but His plan is to test you in what He hath given you: so strive as in a race in all virtues. The goal of you all is to Allah; it is He that will show you the truth of the matters in which ye dispute; And this (He commands): Judge thou between them by what Allah hath revealed, and follow not their vain desires, but beware of them lest they beguile thee from any of that (teaching) which Allah hath sent down to thee. And if they turn away, be assured that for some of their crime it is Allah's purpose to punish them. And truly most men are rebellious. ({{cite quran|5|47|end=49|style=nosup}}) }}<br />
<br />
Surah Al-Ankabut verse 45 through 47 state:<br />
{{blockquote<br />
|Recite what is sent of the Book by inspiration to thee, and establish regular Prayer: for Prayer restrains from shameful and unjust deeds; and remembrance of Allah is the greatest thing in life without doubt. And Allah knows the deeds that ye do. And dispute ye not with the People of the Book, except with means better than mere disputation, unless it be with those of them who inflict wrong (and injury): but say, "We believe in the revelation which has come down to us and in that which came down to you; '''Our Allah and your Allah is one'''; and it is to Him we bow in Islam." And thus it is that We have sent down the Book to thee. So the [[People of the Book]] believe therein, as also do some of these pagan Arabs: and none but Unbelievers reject our signs. ({{cite quran|29|45|end=47|style=nosup}}) }}<br />
<br />
Surah Al-E-Imran verses 62 through 66 state:<br />
{{blockquote<br />
|This is the true account: There is no god except Allah; and Allah-He is indeed the Exalted in Power, the Wise. But if they turn back, Allah hath full knowledge of those who do mischief. Say: "O People of the Book! '''come to common terms as between us and you: That we worship none but Allah'''; that we associate no partners with him; that we erect not, from among ourselves, Lords and patrons other than Allah." If then they turn back, say ye: "Bear witness that we at least are Muslims bowing to Allah's Will. Ye People of the Book! Why dispute ye about Abraham, when the Law and the Gospel Were not revealed Till after him? Have ye no understanding? Ah! Ye are those who fell to disputing even in matters of which ye had some knowledge! but why dispute ye in matters of which ye have no knowledge? It is Allah Who knows, and ye who know not! ({{cite quran|3|62|end=66|style=nosup}}) }}<br />
<br />
Surah Al-Kafiroon verse 1 through 6 state:<br />
{{blockquote<br />
|Say : O ye that reject Faith! I worship not that which ye worship, nor will ye worship that which I worship. And I will not worship that which ye have been wont to worship, nor will ye worship that which I worship. To you be your Way, and to me mine. ({{cite quran|109|1|end=6|style=nosup}}) }}<br />
<br />
Several verses of the [[Quran]] state that Islam rejects religious pluralism. For example, Surah Al-Tawba verse 1 through 5 seems to command the Muslim to slay the [[pagan]]s (with verse 9.5 called the 'sword verse'):<ref name="Bonner 2008 p23-31" /> <br />
{{blockquote|<br />
A (declaration) of immunity from Allah and His Messenger, to those of the Pagans with whom ye have contracted mutual alliances: Go ye, then, for four months, backwards and forwards, (as ye will), throughout the land, but know ye that ye cannot frustrate Allah (by your falsehood) but that Allah will cover with shame those who reject Him. And an announcement from Allah and His Messenger, to the people (assembled) on the day of the Great Pilgrimage, that Allah and His Messenger dissolve (treaty) obligations with the Pagans. If then, ye repent, it were best for you; but if ye turn away, know ye that ye cannot frustrate Allah. And proclaim a grievous penalty to those who reject Faith. But when the forbidden months are past, '''then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them''', seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem of war; but if they repent, and establish regular prayers and practise regular charity, then open the way for them: for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful. ({{cite quran|9|1|end=5|style=nosup}}) }}<br />
<br />
However, this verse has been explained.<ref>Hathout, ''Jihad vs. Terrorism''; US Multimedia Vera International, 2002, pp.52–53, emphasis added</ref><br />
{{blockquote|<br />
Hostilities were frozen for a three-month period during which the Arabs pledged not to wage war. Prophet Muhammad was inspired to use this period to encourage the combatants to join the Muslim ranks or, if they chose, to leave the area that was under Muslims rule; '''however, if they were to resume hostilities, then the Muslims would fight back until victorious.''' One is inspired to note that even in this context of war, the verse concludes by emphasizing the divine attributes of mercy and forgiveness. To minimize hostilities, the Qur'an ordered Muslims to grant asylum to anyone, even an enemy, who sought refuge. Asylum would be granted according to the customs of chivalry; the person would be told the message of the Qur'an but not coerced into accepting that message. Thereafter, he or she would be escorted to safety regardless of his or her religion. (9:6).}}<br />
<br />
Bernard Lewis presents some of his conclusions about [[Islamic culture]], [[Sharia]] law, [[jihad]], and the modern day phenomenon of terrorism in his text, ''Islam: The Religion and the People''.{{sfn|Lewis|Churchill|2008|pp=145–150}} He writes of jihad as a distinct "religious obligation", but suggests that "it is a pity" that people engaging in terrorist activities are not more aware of their own religion:<br />
{{blockquote|<br />
Muslim fighters are commanded not to kill women, children, or the aged unless they attack first; not to torture or otherwise ill-treat prisoners; to give fair warning of the opening of hostilities or their resumption after a truce; and to honor agreements.... At no time did the classical jurists offer any approval or legitimacy to what we nowadays call terrorism. Nor indeed is there any evidence of the use of terrorism as it is practiced nowadays."{{sfn|Lewis|Churchill|2008|p=151}}}}<br />
<br />
In Surah Al-Tawba, verse 29 demands Muslims to fight all those who do not believe in Islam, including Christians and Jews (People of the Book), until they pay the [[Jizya]], a tax, with willing submission.<br />
{{blockquote|<br />
Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, '''even if they are of the People of the Book''', until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued. ({{cite quran|9|29|style=nosup}}) }}<br />
<br />
Some people have concluded from verse 9:29, that Muslims are commanded to attack all non-Muslims until they pay money, but Shaykh Jalal Abualrub writes:<br />
{{blockquote|<br />
These Ayat (Quranic verses) stress the necessity of fighting against the People of the Scripture, but under what conditions? We previously established the fact that the Islamic State is not permitted to attack non-Muslims who are not hostile to Islam, who do not oppress Muslims, or try to convert Muslims by force from their religion, or expel them from their lands, or wage war against them, or prepare for attacks against them. If any of these offenses occurs, however, Muslims are permitted to defend themselves and protect their religion. Muslims are not permitted to attack non-Muslims who signed peace pacts with them, or non-Muslims who live under the protection of the Islamic State.|source=Abualrub, Holy Wars, Crusades, Jihad }}<br />
<br />
In Surah Al-Nisa, verse 89 has been misquoted to seem that it says to slay the [[Apostasy|apostates]]. In actuality, it only commands Muslims to fight those who practice oppression or persecution, or attack the Muslims.{{Citation needed}}<br />
{{blockquote|<br />
Why should ye be divided into two parties about the Hypocrites? Allah hath upset them for their (evil) deeds. Would ye guide those whom Allah hath thrown out of the Way? For those whom Allah hath thrown out of the Way, never shalt thou find the Way. They but wish that ye should reject Faith, as they do, and thus be on the same footing (as they): so take not friends from their ranks until they forsake the domain of evil in the way of God (from what is forbidden). But if they revert to [open] enmity, seize them and slay them wherever ye find them; and (in any case) take no friends or helpers from their ranks. Except those who join a group between whom and you there is a treaty (Of peace), or those who approach you with hearts restraining them from fighting you as well as fighting their own people. If God had pleased, He could have given them power over you, and they would have fought you: therefore if they withdraw from you but fight you not, and (instead) send you (guarantees of) peace, then God hath opened no way for you (to war against them). Others you will find that wish to gain your confidence as well as that of their people: every time they are sent back to temptation, they succumb thereto; if they withdraw not from you nor give you (guarantees) of peace besides restraining their hands, seize them and slay them wherever ye get them; in their case We have provided you with a clear argument against them ({{cite quran|4|88|end=91|style=nosup}}) }}<br />
<br />
<br /><br />
{{blockquote||sign=|source=}}<br />
<br />
===Sufism===<br />
The [[Sufi]]s were practitioners of the esoteric mystic traditions within an Islam at a certain point. Sufism is defined by the Sufi master or [[Pir (Sufism)]] or [[fakeer]] or [[Wali]] in the language of the people by dancing and singing and incorporating various philosophies, theologies, ideologies and religions together (e.g., Christianity, Judaism, Paganism, Platonism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism and so forth with time). Famous Sufi masters include [[Rumi]], [[Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili|Shadhili]], [[Sheikh Farid]], [[Bulleh Shah]], [[Shah Hussain]], [[Shams Tabrizi]], [[Waris Shah]], [[al-Ghazali]], [[Mian Mir]], [[Attar of Nishapur]], [[Amir Khusrow]], and [[Salim Chishti]]. The Sufis were considered by many to have divine revelations with messages of peace, tolerance, equality, pluralism, love for all and hate for no one, humanitarians, philosophers, psychologists and much more. Many taught that if one wants to change the world, one must change oneself and thereby change the whole world. The views of the Sufi poets, philosophers and theologians have inspired multiple forms of modern-day academia as well as philosophers of other religions. See also [[Blind men and an elephant]]. But undoubtedly, the most influential Sufi scholar to have embraced the world is Jalaluddin Muhammad Rumi. He was born in 1207 AD in a northern province of Afghanistan; however, he later had to seek refuge in Turkey following the invasion of Afghanistan by Mongols.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rumi the Alchemist of Interfaith Tolerance |url=http://registan.net/2007/11/12/rumi-the-alchemist-of-interfaith-tolerance/ |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=registan.net}}</ref> Rumi, through his poetry and teachings, propagated inter-faith harmony like none other. He served as a uniting figure for people of different faiths and his followers included Muslims, Christians and Jews. Even today, Rumi's popularity does not cease to exist within the Sufi Muslim community and his message of peace and harmony transcends religious and geographical boundaries.<br />
<br />
Rumi says:<br />
<blockquote><br />
I looked for God. I went to a temple, and I didn't find him there. Then I went to a church, and I didn't find him there. And then I went to a mosque, and I didn't find him there. And then finally I looked in my heart, and there he was. <br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
Rumi also says:<br />
<blockquote><br />
How many paths are there to God? There are as many paths to God as there are souls on the Earth.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
Rumi also says:<br />
<blockquote><br />
A true Lover doesn't follow any one religion,<br />
be sure of that.<br />
Since in the religion of Love,<br />
there is no irreverence or faith.<br />
When in Love,<br />
body, mind, heart and soul don't even exist.<br />
Become this,<br />
fall in Love,<br />
and you will not be separated again.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
===Ahmadiyya===<br />
{{See also|Prophethood (Ahmadiyya)}}<br />
Ahmadis recognize many founders of world religions to be from God, who all brought teaching and guidance from God to all peoples. According to the [[Ahmadiyya]] understanding of the [[Quran]], every nation in the history of mankind has been sent a prophet, as the Quran states: ''And there is a guide for every people''. Though the Quran mentions only 24 prophets, the founder of Islam, [[Muhammad]] states that the world has seen 124,000 prophets. Thus other than the prophets mentioned in the Quran, Ahmadis, with support from theological study also recognize [[Buddha]], [[Krishna]], founders of [[Religion in China|Chinese religions]] to be divinely appointed individuals.<br />
<br />
The Second [[Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad|Khalifatul Maish]] of the [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]] writes:<br />
"According to this teaching there has not been a single people at any time in history or anywhere in the world who have not had a warner from God, a teacher, a prophet. According to the Quran there have been prophets at all times and in all countries. India, China, Russia, Afghanistan, parts of Africa, Europe, America—all had prophets according to the theory of divine guidance taught by the Quran. When, therefore, Muslims hear about prophets of other peoples or other countries, they do not deny them. They do not brand them as liars. Muslims believe that other peoples have had their teachers. If other peoples have had prophets, books, and laws, these constitute no difficulty for Islam."<ref name="Intro to Quran">"Introduction to the Study of the Holy Qur’an" by Mirza Bashir-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad. Part 2, Argument 4 Section labeled "A Grand Conception"</ref><br />
<br />
[[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]], founder of the [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]] wrote in his book ''[[A Message of Peace]]'':<br />
"Our God has never discriminated between one people and another. This is illustrated by the fact that all the potentials and capabilities (Prophets) which have been granted to the Aryans (Hindus) have also been granted to the races inhabiting Arabia, Persia, Syria, China, Japan, Europe and America."<ref name="Mirza Ghulam Ahmad p. 6">"A Message of Peace" by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, p. 6</ref><br />
<br />
===In modern practice===<br />
Religious pluralism is a contested issue in modern Islamic countries. Twenty three (23) Islamic countries have laws, as of 2014, which make it a crime, punishable with death penalty or prison, for a Muslim, by birth or conversion, to [[Apostasy|leave Islam]] or convert to another religion.<ref name="LoC Apostasy">[https://www.loc.gov/law/help/apostasy/apostasy.pdf Laws Criminalizing Apostasy in Selected Jurisdictions] Library of Congress, US Government (May 2014)</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=About this Collection {{!}} Legal Reports (Publications of the Law Library of Congress) {{!}} Digital Collections {{!}} Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/publications-of-the-law-library-of-congress/about-this-collection/ |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref><ref>Doi, Abdur Rahman (1984), ''Shari`a: The Islamic Law''; Taha Publishers; London UK</ref> In Muslim countries such as [[Algeria]], it is illegal to preach, persuade or attempt to convert a Muslim to another religion.<ref>Law No. 02-06 (bis), al Jarida al Rasmiyya, vol.12, 1 March 2006</ref> [[Saudi Arabia]] and several Islamic nations have strict laws against the construction of Christian churches, Jewish synagogues, Hindu temples and Buddhist stupas anywhere inside the country, by anyone including minorities working there.<ref name="Meister 2010 p23-57"/> [[Brunei]] in southeast Asia adopted [[Sharia]] law in 2013 that prescribes a death penalty for any Muslim who converts from Islam to another religion.<ref name="LoC Apostasy" /> Other Islamic scholars state Sharia does not allow non-Muslim minorities to enjoy religious freedoms in a Muslim-majority nation, but other scholars disagree.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://islamnewsroom.com/news-we-need/329-yusuf-estes-correcting-quran-misquotes|title=Yusuf Estes Corrects QURAN Mis-Quotes|first=Ansar Al|last=Adl|website=Islam News Room|access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref><ref>Mawdudi, S. Abul `Ala (1982), ''The Rights of Non-Muslims in Islamic State'', Islamic Publications, Lahore, Pakistan.</ref><ref>Abdullah, Najih Ibrahim Bin (1988), "The Ordinances of the People of the Covenant and the Minorities in an Islamic State", ''Balagh Magazine'', Cairo, Vol. 944, 29 May 1988; Also see 5 June 1988 article by the same author.</ref><br />
<br />
==Jainism==<br />
{{Main|Anekantavada}}<br />
''Anekāntavāda'', the principle of relative pluralism, is one of the basic principles of [[Jainism]]. In this view, the truth or the reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and no single point of view is the complete truth.<ref>Dundas (2002) p. 231</ref><ref>Koller, John M. (July 2000) pp. 400–407</ref> Jain doctrine states that an object has infinite modes of existence and qualities and they cannot be completely perceived in all its aspects and manifestations, due to inherent limitations of the humans. Only the [[Kevala Jnana|Kevalins]]—the omniscient beings—can comprehend the object in all its aspects and manifestations, and all others are capable of knowing only a part of it.<ref>Jaini, Padmanabh (1998) p. 91</ref> Consequently, no one view can claim to represent the absolute truth—only relative truths. Jains compare all attempts to proclaim absolute truth with ''andhgajnyaya ''or the "[[Blind men and an elephant|maxim of the blind men and elephant]]", wherein all the blind men claimed to explain the true appearance of the elephant, but could only partly succeed due to their narrow perspective.<ref name="Hughes 2005 p590-1">Hughes, Marilynn (2005) pp. 590–591</ref> For Jains, the problem with the blind men is not that they claim to explain the true appearance of the elephant; the problem is doing so to the exclusion of all other claims. Since absolute truth is many-sided, embracing any truth to the exclusion of others is to commit the error of ''ekānta'' (one-sidedness).<ref name="The Metaphysics of Paradox">{{cite book |last1=Schwartz |first1=Wm. Andrew |title=The Metaphysics of Paradox: Jainism, Absolute Relativity, and Religious Pluralism |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-4985-6392-5 |url=https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781498563925/The-Metaphysics-of-Paradox-Jainism-Absolute-Relativity-and-Religious-Pluralism}}</ref> Openness to the truths of others is one way in which Jainism embodies religious pluralism.<br />
<br />
==Sikhism==<br />
{{See|Islam and Sikhism|Hinduism and Sikhism}}<br />
The [[Sikh gurus]] have propagated the message of "many paths" leading to the [[Ek Onkar|one God]] and ultimate [[salvation]] for all souls who treading on the path of [[righteousness]]. They have supported the view that proponents of all faiths, by doing good and virtuous deeds and by remembering the [[Lord]], can certainly achieve salvation. Sikhs are told to accept all leading faiths as possible vehicles for attaining spiritual enlightenment, provided the faithful study, ponder and practice the teachings of their prophets and leaders. Sikhism had many interactions with [[Sufism]] as well as [[Hinduism]], influenced them and was influenced by them.<br />
<br />
The [[Sri Guru Granth Sahib]], the holy book of the [[Sikh]]s, says:<br />
{{blockquote|Do not say that the Vedas, the Bible and the Koran are false. Those who do not contemplate them are false.| Guru Granth Sahib page 1350<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&Param=1350&english=t&id=57718|title=Sri Granth: Sri Guru Granth Sahib |page=1350 |publisher=Sri Granth}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
As well as:<br />
<blockquote><br />
Some call the Lord "Ram, Ram", and some "Khuda". Some serve Him as "Gusain", others as "Allah". He is the Cause of causes, and Generous. He showers His Grace and Mercy upon us. Some pilgrims bathe at sacred shrines, others go on Hajj to Mecca. Some do devotional worship, whilst others bow their heads in prayer. Some read the Vedas, and some the Koran. Some wear blue robes, and some wear white. Some call themselves Muslim, and some call themselves Hindu. Some yearn for paradise, and others long for heaven. Says Nanak, one who realizes the Hukam of God's Will, knows the secrets of his Lord Master. (Sri Guru Granth Sahib, page 885)<ref>{{cite web|title=sggs ram khudha people pray to there god|url=http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?ction=Page&g=1&h=1&r=1&t=1&p=0&k=0&Param=885|access-date=4 September 2011}}</ref> <br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
One who recognizes that all spiritual paths lead to the One shall be emancipated. One who speaks lies shall fall into hell and burn. In all the world, the most blessed and sanctified are those who remain absorbed in Truth. (SGGS Ang 142)<ref>{{cite web|title=pluarism in sggs|url=http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&g=1&h=1&r=1&t=1&p=0&k=0&Param=142|access-date=4 September 2011}}</ref> <br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
The seconds, minutes, and hours, days, weeks and months and various seasons originate from One Sun; O nanak, in just the same way, the many forms originate from the Creator. (Guru Granth Sahib page 12,13)<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
The Guru Granth Sahib also says that [[Bhagat Namdev]] and [[Kabir|Bhagat Kabir]], who were both believed to be [[Hindu]]s, both attained salvation though they were born before [[Sikhism]] took root and were clearly not Sikhs. This highlights and reinforces the Guru's saying that "peoples of other faiths" can join with God as true and also at the same time signify that Sikhism is not the exclusive path for liberation.<br />
<br />
Additionally the Guru Granth Sahib says:<br />
<blockquote><br />
First, Allah (God) created the Light; then, by His Creative Power, He made all mortal beings. From the One Light, the entire universe welled up. So who is good, and who is bad? ||1||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&Param=1349&english=t&id=57707|title=Sri Granth: Sri Guru Granth Sahib |page=1349 |publisher=Sri Granth}}</ref><br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
Again, the Guru Granth Sahib Ji provides this verse:<br />
<blockquote><br />
[[Bhagat Namdev|Naam Dayv]] the printer, and [[Kabir|Kabeer]] the weaver, obtained salvation through the Perfect Guru. Those who know God and recognize His [[Shabda|Shabad]] ("word") lose their ego and class consciousness. ([[Guru Granth Sahib]] page 67)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&Param=67&english=t&id=2722|title=Sri Granth: Sri Guru Granth Sahib |page=67 |publisher=Sri Granth}}</ref> <br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
Most of the 15 [[Sikh Bhagats]] who are mentioned in their holy book were non-Sikhs and belonged to Hindu and Muslim faiths, which were the most prevalent religions of this region.<br />
<br />
The pluralistic dialogue of Sikhism began with the founder of Sikhism Guru Nanak after becoming enlightened saying the words ''Na koi hindu na koi musalman'' – "There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim". He recognised that religious labels held no value and it is the deeds of human that will be judged in the hereafter what we call ourselves religiously holds no value.<br />
<br />
Sikhs have been considered eager exponents of [[interfaith dialogue]] and not only accept the right of others to practice their faith but have in the past fought and laid down their lives to protect this right for others; the [[Martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadar]], who on the pleas of a [[pandit]] of the [[Kashmiris]], agreed to fight against a tyrannic [[Moghul Empire]] (that was forcing them to convert to Islam) in order that they might gain the freedom to practice their religion, which differed from his own.<br />
<br />
==Religious pluralism and human service professions==<br />
The concept of religious pluralism is also relevant to human service professions, such as psychology and social work, as well as medicine and nursing, in which trained professionals may interact with clients from diverse faith traditions.<ref name="Pargament 1997" /><ref name="Zinnbauer Pargament 2000">Brian J. Zinnbauer & Kenneth I. Pargament (2000). [http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=2995869&site=ehost-live Working with the sacred: Four approaches to religious and spiritual issues in counseling]. ''Journal of Counseling & Development'', v. 78 n. 2, pp. 162–171. ISSN 0748-9633</ref><ref name="Friberg 2001 p177-90" /> For example, [[psychologist]] [[Kenneth Pargament]]<ref name="Pargament 1997">{{Cite book |last=Pargament |first=Kenneth I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vn5XObcpnd4C&q=pluralism |title=The Psychology of Religion and Coping: Theory, Research, Practice |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-57230-664-6 |language=en}}</ref> has described four possible stances toward client religious and spiritual beliefs, which he called ''rejectionist'', ''exclusivist'', ''constructivist'', and ''pluralist''. Unlike the constructivist stance, the pluralist stance:<br />
<br />
{{Quote | ... recognizes the existence of a religious or spiritual absolute reality but allows for multiple interpretations and paths toward it. In contrast to the exclusivist who maintains that there is a single path "up the mountain of God", the pluralist recognizes many paths as valid. Although both the exclusivist and the pluralist may agree on the existence of religious or spiritual reality, the pluralist recognizes that this reality is expressed in different cultures and by different people in different ways. Because humans are mortal and limited, a single human religious system cannot encompass all of the religious or spiritual absolute reality.... (p. 167)<ref name="Zinnbauer Pargament 2000" />|title=Zinnbauer Pargament 2000}}<br />
<br />
Importantly, "the pluralistic therapist can hold personal religious beliefs while appreciating those of a client with different religious beliefs. The pluralist recognizes that religious value differences can and will exist between counselors and clients without adversely affecting therapy" (p.&nbsp;168).<ref name="Zinnbauer Pargament 2000" /> The stances implied by these four helping orientations on several key issues, such as "should religious issues be discussed in counseling?", have also been presented in tabular form (p.&nbsp;362, Table 12.1).<ref name="Pargament 1997" /><br />
<br />
The profession of [[chaplain]]cy, a religious profession, must also deal with issues of pluralism and the relevance of a pluralistic stance. For example, Friberg argues: "With growing populations of immigrants and adherents of religions not previously seen in significant numbers in North America, spiritual care must take religion and diversity seriously. Utmost respect for the residents' spiritual and religious histories and orientations is imperative" (p.&nbsp;182).<ref name="Friberg 2001 p177-90">Nils Friberg (2001). [[iarchive:agingspiritualit00davi/page/177|The role of the chaplain in spiritual care]]. In [[David O. Moberg]], ''Aging and spirituality: spiritual dimensions of aging theory, research'' (pp. 177–190). Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-7890-0939-5}} (NB: The quotation is discussing residents in nursing homes).</ref><br />
<br />
==Skepticism==<br />
===Argument from inconsistent revelations===<br />
The argument from inconsistent revelations is an argument that aims to show that one cannot choose one religion over another since their revelations are inconsistent with each other and that any two religions cannot be true.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yq1xDpicghkC&pg=PP1 |title=The God Delusion |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-547-34866-7 |page=25 |language=en |author-link=Richard Dawkins |access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref> The argument appears, among other places, in [[Voltaire]]'s ''[[Candide]]'' and ''[[Philosophical Dictionary]]''. It is also manifested in [[Denis Diderot]]'s statement in response to [[Pascal's wager]] that, whatever proofs are offered for the existence of God in Christianity or any other religion, "an [[Imam]] can reason the same way".<ref name="Diderot 1746">{{Cite book |last=Diderot |first=Denis |title=Pensées philosophiques |number=LIX |volume=1 |year=1875–77 |editor-last=J. Assézar |page=167 |language=fr |author-link=Denis Diderot |orig-year=1746}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pascal-wager/#ObjePascWage|title=Objections to Pascal's Wager |chapter=Pascal's Wager |year=2018 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> Also in response to Pascal's wager, [[J. L. Mackie]] said "the church within which alone salvation is to be found is not necessarily the Church of Rome, but perhaps that of the Anabaptists or the Mormons or the Muslim Sunnis or the worshippers of Kali or of Odin".<ref>Mackie, J. L., 1982. ''The Miracle of Theism'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 203</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Religion}}<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
* [[:Category:Catholic ecumenical and interfaith relations]]<br />
* [[Comparative religion]]<br />
* [[Freedom of religion]]<br />
* [[Gamaliel's principle]]<br />
* [[Global Centre for Pluralism]]<br />
* [[Indifferentism]]<br />
* [[Interreligious organization]]<br />
* [[Institute for Interreligious Dialogue]]<br />
* [[Multiconfessionalism]]<br />
* [[Multifaith space]]<br />
* [[Perennial philosophy]]<br />
* [[Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue]]<br />
* [[Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity]]<br />
* [[Progressive Christianity]]<br />
* [[Projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs]]<br />
* [[Religious harmony in India]]<br />
* [[Religious liberalism]]<br />
* [[Unitarian Universalism]]<br />
* [[United Religions Initiative]]<br />
* [[Universalism]]<br />
* [[World Council of Churches]]<br />
* The [[New Message from God]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
===Works cited===<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Beneke |first=Chris |year=2006 |title=Beyond Toleration: The Religious Origins of American Pluralism |place=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press}}.<br />
* [[Ashk Dahlén]], 2006, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Mm4-G9aWWWEC&pg=PR9 ''Sirat al-mustaqim: One or Many? Religious Pluralism Among Muslim Intellectuals in Iran''] in ''The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought'', ed. Ibrahim Abu-Rabi, Oxford.<br />
* Eck, Diane (2001) ''A New Religious America: How a "Christian Country" Has Become the World's Most Religiously Diverse Nation'', San Francisco: Harper.<br />
* Robert Gordis, 1962, "Ground Rules for a Christian-Jewish Dialogue" in ''The Root and the Branch'', Univ. of Chicago Press.<br />
* [[Robert Gordis]] et al., 1988, ''Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism'', Jewish Theological Seminary and the [[Rabbinical Assembly]].<br />
* Kenneth Einar Himma (August 2002), "Finding a High Road: The Moral Case for Salvific Pluralism", ''International Journal for Philosophy of Religion'', vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 1–33.<br />
* Hutchison, William R. (2003) ''Religious Pluralism in America: The Contentious History of a Founding Ideal'', New Haven: Yale University Press.<br />
* Kalmin, Richard (1994), ''Christians and Heretics in Rabbinic Literature of Late Antiquity,'' Harvard Theological Review, Volume 87(2), pp.&nbsp;155–169.<br />
* {{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/43891542 |title=Pluralism and Democracy in Islam |journal=Internal Journal of Acpcs |last1=Kazemzadeh |first1=Hamed |issue=Winter |volume=5 |pages=62–77}}<br />
* Leon Klenicki ed., 1991, ''Toward a Theological Encounter: Jewish Understandings of Christiantiy'', Paulist Press / Stimulus.<br />
* {{cite book |first1=Bernard |last1=Lewis |first2=Buntzie Ellis |last2=Churchill <br />
|title=Islam: The Religion and the People |publisher=Wharton |isbn=9780137154944}}<br />
* Monecal, Maria Rosa (2002),''The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain'', Boston: Little, Brown, & Co.<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Momen |first=M. |year=1997 |title=A Short Introduction to the Bahá'í Faith |publisher=One World Publications |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=1-85168-209-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/bahaifaith00mooj}}<br />
* [[Hans Ucko]] ed., 1996, ''People of God, Peoples of God'', WCC Publications.<br />
* {{Cite journal |first1=Brian J. |last1=Zinnbauer |first2=Kenneth I. |last2=Pargament |year=2000 |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb02574.x |title=Working with the sacred: Four approaches to religious and spiritual issues in counseling |journal=Journal of Counseling & Development |volume=78 |number=2 |page=162–71 |doi=10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb02574.x }}.<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
* [[Francis Abdelmassieh|Abdelmassieh, Francis]] (2020). ''Egyptian-Islamic Views on the Comparison of Religions: Positions of Al-Azhar University Scholars on Muslim-Christian Relations.'' Münster: LIT. {{ISBN|978-3-643-91280-0}}<br />
*{{Cite book|last=Ankerl<br />
|first=Guy<br />
|title=Global communication without universal civilization<br />
|orig-year=2000<br />
|series=INU societal research<br />
|volume=1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western<br />
|publisher=INU Press<br />
|location=Geneva |isbn=2-88155-004-5 |year=2000}}<br />
*Albanese, Catherine, ''America: Religions and Religion''. Belmont: WADSWORTH PUBLISHING, 1998, {{ISBN|0-534-50457-4}}<br />
* [[Henning Wrogemann|Wrogemann, Henning]] (2019). ''A Theology of Interreligious Relations.'' Downer's Grove, Illinois: Intervarsity Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8308-5099-0}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=religious pluralism}}<br />
* [http://www.pluralism.ca Global Centre for Pluralism]<br />
* [http://www.cfr.org/religion Council on Foreign Relations Religion and Foreign Policy Initiative]<br />
* [http://www.pluralism.org The Pluralism Project: Researching Religious Diversity in the United States]<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071010012203/http://www.usembassymalaysia.org.my/eck.html A New Religious America: Managing Religious Diversity in a Democracy: Challenges and Prospects for the 21st Century ] by [[Diana Eck]], retrieved 2009-07-16.<br />
* [http://www.irdialogue.org The Journal of Inter-Religious Dialogue]<br />
* [http://www.elijah-interfaith.org Elijah Interfaith Institute: Inter Religious Dialogue]<br />
* {{IEP|rel-plur/}}<br />
<br />
===Buddhism===<br />
* [http://www.dharmaprotector.org/middleway.html Standing Up for the Middle Way: A Buddhist Perspective on Religious Freedom]<br />
<br />
===Christianity===<br />
* [https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html Nostra Aetate: Declaration on the Relation of the Catholic Church to Non-Christian Religions]<br />
* [http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/interreligious/publist.html World Council of Churches Bibliography of Works on Religious Pluralism]<br />
<br />
===Hinduism===<br />
* [http://www.bigpicture.tv/videos/watch/c16a5320f Big Picture TV] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016001505/http://www.bigpicture.tv/videos/watch/c16a5320f }} Video of Ela Gandhi, granddaughter of Mahatma Gandhi, talking about religious pluralism<br />
<br />
===Islam===<br />
* [http://www.al-islam.org/religiouspluralism/ Islam and Religious Pluralism by Ayatullah Murtadha Mutahhari]<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060831224020/http://www.spiritual-education.org/ Spiritual Education Lesson Plans for Children]<br />
<br />
===Judaism===<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030831133820/http://www.vbs.org/rabbi/rabrosen/whospea.htm The imperative of Religious Pluralism: A Conservative Jewish View]<br />
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/jud_chrr.htm Darbu Emet: A Jewish Statement About Christianity]<br />
<br />
{{Religious pluralism}}<br />
{{Religion topics}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Religious pluralism| ]]</div>Rajbhai7https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neoliberalism&diff=388267Neoliberalism2022-06-10T05:26:38Z<p>Rajbhai7: Wrote an insightful guide.</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Political philosophy supporting economic liberalization}}<br />
{{For|neoliberalism in international relations|Neoliberalism (international relations)}}<br />
{{Neoliberalism sidebar}}<br />
{{Capitalism}}<br />
{{Liberalism sidebar}}<br />
{{Conservatism US}}<br />
{{Libertarianism in the United States sidebar}}<br />
<br />
'''Neoliberalism''', also '''neo-liberalism''',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vincent |first1=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=igrwb3rsOOUC&pg=PA337 |title=Modern Political Ideologies |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1405154956 |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |page=337 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> is a term used to signify the late-20th century political reappearance of 19th-century ideas associated with [[free-market capitalism]] after it fell into decline following the [[Second World War]].{{sfnp|Haymes|Vidal de Haymes|Miller|2015|p=7}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Bloom |first=Peter |title=The Ethics of Neoliberalism: The Business of Making Capitalism Moral |publisher=[[Routledge]] |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Ethics-of-Neoliberalism-The-Business-of-Making-Capitalism-Moral/Bloom/p/book/9781138667242 |isbn=978-1138667242 |pages=3, 16}}</ref> A prominent factor in the rise of [[conservative]] and [[right-libertarian]] organizations, [[political parties]], and [[think tank]]s, and predominantly advocated by them,<ref>{{cite book |last=Haas |first=Eric |url=https://www.routledge.com/Global-Neoliberalism-and-Education-and-its-Consequences/Hill-Kumar/p/book/9780415507110 |title=Global Neoliberalism and Education and its Consequences |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0415507110 |editor1-last=Hill |editor1-first=Dave |pages=172–175 |chapter=The News Media and the Conservative Heritage Foundation |editor2-last=Kumar |editor2-first=Ravi}}</ref><ref name="Handbook144">{{cite book |last1=Hickel |first1=Jason |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Handbook-of-Neoliberalism/Springer-Birch-MacLeavy/p/book/9781138844001 |title=The Handbook of Neoliberalism |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1138844001 |editor1-last=Springer |editor1-first=Simon |page=144 |chapter=Neoliberalism and the End of Democracy |quote=The Reagan and Thatcher administrations eventually came to power on platforms that promised to enhance individual freedoms by liberating capitalism from the 'shackles' of the state – reducing taxes on the rich, cutting state spending, privatising utilities, deregulating financial markets, and curbing the power of unions. After Reagan and Thatcher, these policies were carried forward by putatively progressive "Third Way" administrations such as Clinton in the United States and Blair in the UK, thus sealing the new economic consensus across party lines. |author1-link=Jason Hickel |editor2-last=Birch |editor2-first=Kean |editor3-last=MacLeavy |editor3-first=Julie |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M5qkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> it is generally associated with policies of [[economic liberalization]], including [[privatization]], [[deregulation]], [[globalization]], [[free trade]], [[monetarism]], [[austerity]], and reductions in [[government spending]] in order to increase the role of the [[private sector]] in the [[economy]] and [[society]].<ref>{{harvp|Goldstein|2011|p=30}}; {{harvp|Springer|Birch|MacLeavy|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M5qkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}}; {{harvp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}}; {{harvp|Duménil|Lévy|2004|p={{pn}}}}; {{harvp|Arac|2013|pp=xvi–xvii}}.</ref><ref>Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Neo-Liberal Ideas |url=http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story067/en/ |website=[[World Health Organization]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040806144320/http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story067/en/ |archive-date=August 6, 2004 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="For Business Ethics">{{harvp|Jones|Parker|Bos|2005|p=100}}; "Neoliberalism represents a set of ideas that caught on from the mid to late 1970s, and are famously associated with the economic policies introduced by Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom and Ronald Reagan in the United States following their elections in 1979 and 1981. The 'neo' part of neoliberalism indicates that there is something new about it, suggesting that it is an updated version of older ideas about 'liberal economics' which has long argued that markets should be free from intervention by the state. In its simplest version, it reads: markets good, government bad."</ref> The defining features of neoliberalism in both thought and practice have been the subject of substantial scholarly debate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Neoliberalism |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |editor-last=Smith |editor-first=Nicola |access-date=March 30, 2019 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neoliberalism}}</ref>{{sfnp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}}<br />
<br />
As an [[economic philosophy]], neoliberalism emerged among European [[Liberalism|liberal]] scholars during the 1930s as they attempted to revive and renew central ideas from [[classical liberalism]] as they saw these ideas diminish in popularity, overtaken by a desire to control markets, following the [[Great Depression]] and manifested in policies designed with the intention to counter the volatility of [[free market]]s.{{sfnp|Mirowski|Plehwe|2009|pp=14–15}} One impetus for the formulation of policies to mitigate [[capitalist]] free-market volatility was a desire to avoid repeating the economic failures of the early 1930s, failures sometimes attributed principally to the [[economic policy]] of classical liberalism. In policymaking, neoliberalism often refers to what was part of a [[paradigm shift]] that followed the failure of the [[post-war consensus]] and [[neo-Keynesian economics]] to address the [[stagflation]] of the 1970s.<ref name="FPIF-20042">{{cite journal |last1=Palley |first1=Thomas I. |title=From Keynesianism to Neoliberalism: Shifting Paradigms in Economics |journal=Foreign Policy in Focus |url=http://fpif.org/from_keynesianism_to_neoliberalism_shifting_paradigms_in_economics/ |access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Vincent |first1=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=igrwb3rsOOUC&pg=PA339 |title=Modern Political Ideologies |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1405154956 |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |page=339 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> The collapse of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] and the end of the [[Cold War]] also made possible the triumph of neoliberalism in the United States and around the world.{{sfnp|Gerstle|2022|p=10}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Bartel |first=Fritz |title=The Triumph of Broken Promises: The End of the Cold War and the Rise of Neoliberalism |url=https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674976788 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=9780674976788 |pages=5–6}}</ref><br />
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The term has multiple, competing definitions, and is often used pejoratively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Babb |first1=Sarah |last2=Kentikelenis |first2=Alexander |title=Markets Everywhere: The Washington Consensus and the Sociology of Global Institutional Change |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-soc-090220-025543 |journal=[[Annual Review of Sociology]] |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=annurev–soc–090220-025543 |doi=10.1146/annurev-soc-090220-025543 |issn=0360-0572 |s2cid=235585418}}</ref> English speakers have used the term since the start of the 20th century with different meanings,<ref name="OxfordNeoliberalism2">{{Cite OED|Neoliberalism}}</ref> but it became more prevalent in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, used by scholars in a wide variety of [[social science]]s,<ref>{{harvp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}}: "Neoliberalism has rapidly become an academic catchphrase. From only a handful of mentions in the 1980s, use of the term has exploded during the past two decades, appearing in nearly 1,000 academic articles annually between 2002 and 2005. Neoliberalism is now a predominant concept in scholarly writing on development and political economy, far outpacing related terms such as monetarism, neoconservatism, the Washington Consensus, and even market reform."</ref><ref name="Handbookscholarship2">{{harvp|Springer|Birch|MacLeavy|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M5qkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}}: "Neoliberalism is easily one of the most powerful concepts to emerge within the social sciences in the last two decades, and the number of scholars who write about this dynamic and unfolding process of socio-spatial transformation is astonishing."</ref><ref name="Wilson20172">{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Julie |url=https://www.routledge.com/Neoliberalism/Wilson/p/book/9781138654631 |title=Neoliberalism |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1138654631 |page=6 |quote=In recent decades, neoliberalism has become an important area of study across the humanities and social sciences.}}</ref> as well as by critics,<ref>{{cite book |first=Noel |last=Castree |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eYWcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA339 |title=A Dictionary of Human Geography |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=9780199599868 |page=339 |quote='Neoliberalism' is very much a critics' term: it is virtually never used by those whom the critics describe as neoliberals. |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Stedman Jones|2014|p=13}}; "Friedman and Hayek are identified as the original thinkers and Thatcher and Reagan as the archetypal politicians of Western neoliberalism. Neoliberalism here has a pejorative connotation".</ref><ref name="Hartwich quote">{{harvp|Hartwich|2009|p={{pn}}}}; "People rarely call themselves 'neoliberal'." {{vn|reason=Did not find quote}}</ref><!--<ref> THIS IS THE CITE FOR THE DOCUMENT ON THE WEBPAGE IDENTIFIED IN THE "Hartwich quote" REF. {{cite journal |title=Contesting 'Actually Existing' Neoliberalism |last=Ryan |first=Matthew |journal=Journal of Australian Political Economy |volume=2015 |issue=76 |pages=79–102 |id={{Gale|A439805530}} |url=https://www.ppesydney.net/content/uploads/2020/05/Contesting-actually-existing-neoliberalism.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024033510/https://www.ppesydney.net/content/uploads/2020/05/Contesting-actually-existing-neoliberalism.pdf |archive-date=October 24, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>--> to describe the transformation of society in recent decades due to market-based reforms.{{sfnp|Springer|Birch|MacLeavy|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M5qkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} The term is rarely used by proponents of free-market policies.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Rowden |first=Rick |title=The IMF Confronts Its N-Word |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/07/06/the-imf-confronts-its-n-word-neoliberalism/ |access-date=August 25, 2016 |magazine=[[Foreign Policy]]}}</ref> Some scholars reject the idea that neoliberalism is a monolithic ideology and have described the term as meaning different things to different people as neoliberalism has mutated into multiple, geopolitically distinct hybrids as it propagated around the world.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Callison |editor1-first=William |editor2-last=Manfredi |editor2-first=Zachary |title=Mutant Neoliberalism: Market Rule and Political Rupture |url=https://www.fordhampress.com/9780823285723/mutant-neoliberalism/ |publisher=[[Fordham University Press]] |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JkiyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 3] |isbn=978-0823285709}}</ref><ref>{{harv|Springer|Birch|MacLeavy|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M5qkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}}: "Neoliberalism is a slippery concept, meaning different things to different people. Scholars have examined the relationships between neoliberalism and a vast array of conceptual categories."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Student heaps abuse on professor in 'neoliberalism' row |language=en |work=[[The Times]] |url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/student-heaps-abuse-on-professor-in-row-over-neoliberalism-27pvhbfnp |access-date=January 25, 2017 |quote=Colin Talbot, a professor at Manchester University, recently wrote it was such a broad term as to be meaningless and few people ever admitted to being neoliberals}}</ref> Neoliberalism shares many attributes with other concepts that have contested meanings, including [[representative democracy]].<ref>{{harvp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}}: "Neoliberalism shares many attributes with "essentially contested" concepts such as democracy, whose multidimensional nature, strong normative connotations, and openness to modification over time tend to generate substantial debate over their meaning and proper application."</ref><br />
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When the term entered into common use during the 1980s in association with [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s [[Neoliberal reforms in Chile|economic reforms]] in [[Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–1990)|Chile]], it quickly acquired negative connotations and was employed principally by critics of market reform and [[laissez-faire capitalism]]. Scholars tended to associate it with the theories of [[Mont Pelerin Society]] economists [[Friedrich Hayek]], [[Milton Friedman]], [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[James M. Buchanan]], along with politicians and policy-makers such as [[Margaret Thatcher]], [[Ronald Reagan]] and [[Alan Greenspan]].{{sfnp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}}{{sfnp|Springer|Birch|MacLeavy|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M5qkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3]}}{{sfnp|Gerstle|2022|p=73}} Once the new meaning of neoliberalism became established as a common usage among Spanish-speaking scholars, it diffused into the English-language study of [[political economy]].{{sfnp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}} By 1994, with the passage of [[NAFTA]] and with the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatistas]]' reaction to this development in [[Chiapas]], the term entered global circulation. Scholarship on the phenomenon of neoliberalism has grown over the last few decades.<ref name="Handbookscholarship2" /><ref name="Wilson20172" /><br />
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== Terminology ==<br />
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=== Origins ===<br />
An early use of the term in English was in 1898 by the French economist [[Charles Gide]] to describe the economic beliefs of the Italian economist [[Maffeo Pantaleoni]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gide |first=Charles |title=Has Co-operation Introduced a New Principle into Economics? |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1449661 |journal=[[The Economic Journal]] |volume=8 |issue=32 |pages=490–511 |doi=10.2307/2957091 |jstor=2957091}}</ref> with the term {{lang|fr|néo-libéralisme}} previously existing in French;<ref name="OxfordNeoliberalism2"/> the term was later used by others, including the classical liberal economist [[Milton Friedman]] in his 1951 essay "Neo-Liberalism and its Prospects".{{sfnp|Burgin|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BnZ1qKdXojoC&pg=PA170 170}} In 1938 at the [[Colloque Walter Lippmann]], the term ''neoliberalism'' was proposed, among other terms, and ultimately chosen to be used to describe a certain set of economic beliefs.{{sfnp|Mirowski|Plehwe|2009|pp=12–13}}{{sfnp|Hartwich|2009|p=19}} The colloquium defined the concept of neoliberalism as involving "the priority of the price mechanism, free enterprise, the system of competition, and a strong and impartial state".{{sfnp|Mirowski|Plehwe|2009|pp=13–14}} According to attendees [[Louis Rougier]] and [[Friedrich Hayek]], the competition of neoliberalism would establish an [[Elitism|elite structure]] of successful individuals that would assume power in society, with these elites replacing the existing [[representative democracy]] acting on the behalf of the majority.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rougier |first=Louis |title=Les Mystiques économiques |publisher=Librairie de Médicis |year=1949 |pages=18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hayek |first=Friedrich |title=[[Law, Legislation and Liberty]], Vol. 2: The Mirage of Social Justice |year=1976 |pages=113}}</ref> To be ''neoliberal'' meant advocating a modern economic policy with [[state intervention]].{{sfnp|Mirowski|Plehwe|2009|p=48}} Neoliberal state interventionism brought a clash with the opposing ''laissez-faire'' camp of classical liberals, like [[Ludwig von Mises]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Jörg Guido |last=Hülsmann |author-link=Jörg Guido Hülsmann |url=https://mises.org/daily/6022/ |title=Against the Neoliberals |website=[[Ludwig von Mises Institute]] }}</ref> Most scholars in the 1950s and 1960s understood neoliberalism as referring to the social market economy and its principal economic theorists such as [[Walter Eucken]], [[Wilhelm Röpke]], [[Alexander Rüstow]] and [[Alfred Müller-Armack]]. Although Hayek had intellectual ties to the German neoliberals, his name was only occasionally mentioned in conjunction with neoliberalism during this period due to his more pro-free market stance.{{sfnp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}}<br />
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During the [[Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–90)|military rule under Augusto Pinochet]] (1973–1990) in Chile, opposition scholars took up the expression to describe the [[Neoliberal reforms in Chile|economic reforms implemented there]] and its proponents (the [[Chicago Boys]]).{{sfnp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}} Once this new meaning was established among Spanish-speaking scholars, it diffused into the English-language study of political economy.{{sfnp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}} According to one study of 148 scholarly articles, neoliberalism is almost never defined but used in several senses to describe ideology, economic theory, development theory, or economic reform policy. It has become used largely as a [[term of abuse]] and/or to imply a ''laissez-faire'' [[market fundamentalism]] virtually identical to that of classical liberalism – rather than the ideas of those who attended the 1938 colloquium. As a result there is controversy as to the precise meaning of the term and its usefulness as a descriptor in the [[social science]]s, especially as the number of different kinds of market economies have proliferated in recent years.{{sfnp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}}<br />
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Unrelated to the economic philosophy described in this article, the term "neoliberalism" is also used to describe a center-left political movement from [[modern American liberalism]] in the 1970s. According to political commentator [[David Brooks (commentator)|David Brooks]], prominent neoliberal politicians included [[Al Gore]] and [[Bill Clinton]] of the Democratic Party of the United States.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Brooks |author-link=David Brooks (commentator) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/11/opinion/11brooks.html?_r=0 |title=The Vanishing Neoliberal |work=[[The New York Times]] }}</ref> The neoliberals coalesced around two magazines, ''[[The New Republic]]'' and the ''[[Washington Monthly]]'',<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.jacobinmag.com/2016/04/chait-neoliberal-new-inquiry-democrats-socialism/ |title=The First Neoliberals |last=Robin |first=Corey |magazine=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]] |access-date=April 23, 2017}}</ref> and often supported [[Third Way]] policies. The "godfather" of this version of neoliberalism was the journalist [[Charles Peters]],<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Matt |last=Welch |url=http://reason.com/archives/2013/03/25/the-death-of-contrarianism |title=The Death of Contrarianism. The New Republic returns to its Progressive roots as a cheerleader for state power |magazine=[[Reason Magazine]] }}</ref> who, in 1983, published "A Neoliberal's Manifesto".<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Charles |last=Peters |title=A Neoliberal's Manifesto |magazine=[[The Washington Monthly]] }}</ref><br />
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=== Current usage ===<br />
Historian Elizabeth Shermer argued that the term gained popularity largely among left-leaning academics in the 1970s to "describe and decry a late twentieth-century effort by policy makers, think-tank experts, and industrialists to condemn social-democratic reforms and unapologetically implement free-market policies";<ref>{{cite journal |first=Elizabeth Tandy |last=Shermer |title=Review |journal=[[Journal of Modern History]] |volume=86 |number=4 |pages=884–90|doi=10.1086/678713}}</ref> economic historian Phillip W. Magness notes its reemergence in academic literature in the mid-1980s, after French philosopher [[Michel Foucault]] brought attention to it.<ref name=hegemonic-neoliberalism>{{Cite news |url=https://www.aier.org/article/fairytale-hegemonic-neoliberalism |title=The Fairytale of Hegemonic Neoliberalism |last=Magness |first=Phillip W. |work=[[American Institute for Economic Research]] |access-date=July 6, 2019}}</ref><br />
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{{quote box|At a base level we can say that when we make reference to 'neoliberalism', we are generally referring to the new political, economic and social arrangements within society that emphasize market relations, re-tasking the role of the state, and [[individual responsibility]]. Most scholars tend to agree that neoliberalism is broadly defined as the extension of competitive [[market (economics)|markets]] into all areas of life, including the [[economy]], [[politics]] and [[society]].| source = ''The Handbook of Neoliberalism''{{sfnp|Springer|Birch|MacLeavy|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M5qkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} |width=35% |align=right |quoted=1 |salign=right}}<br />
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''Neoliberalism'' is contemporarily used to refer to market-oriented reform policies such as "eliminating [[price control]]s, [[deregulation|deregulating]] [[capital markets]], lowering [[trade barriers]]" and reducing, especially through [[privatization]] and [[austerity]], state influence in the economy.{{sfnp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}} It is also commonly associated with the economic policies introduced by [[Margaret Thatcher]] in the United Kingdom and [[Ronald Reagan]] in the United States.<ref name="For Business Ethics"/> Some scholars note it has a number of distinct usages in different spheres:{{sfnp|Steger|Roy|2010|p=50}}<br />
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* As a [[development model]], it refers to the rejection of [[structuralist economics]] in favor of the [[Washington Consensus]].<br />
* As an [[ideology]], it denotes a conception of freedom as an overarching [[Value (ethics)|social value]] associated with reducing state functions to those of a [[minimal state]].<br />
* As a [[public policy]], it involves the privatization of public economic sectors or services, the deregulation of private corporations, sharp decrease of [[government budget deficit]]s and reduction of spending on [[public works]].<br />
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There is debate over the meaning of the term. Sociologists [[Fred L. Block]] and [[Margaret Somers]] claim there is a dispute over what to call the influence of free-market ideas which have been used to justify the retrenchment of [[New Deal]] programs and policies since the 1980s: neoliberalism, ''[[laissez-faire]]'' or "free market ideology".<ref>{{cite book |first1=Fred L. |last1=Block |author1-link=Fred L. Block |first2=Margaret R. |last2=Somers |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674050716 |title=The Power of Market Fundamentalism: Karl Polanyi's Critique |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0674050716 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FSuAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3]}}</ref> Other academics such as Susan Braedley and Med Luxton assert that neoliberalism is a political philosophy which seeks to "liberate" the processes of [[capital accumulation]].<ref name="BraedleyLuxton">Susan Braedley and Meg Luxton, ''[http://www.mqup.ca/neoliberalism-and-everyday-life-products-9780773536739.php Neoliberalism and Everyday Life],'' ([[McGill-Queen's University Press]], 2010), {{ISBN|0773536922}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=CvD-6GQWr04C&pg=PA3 p. 3]</ref> In contrast, [[Frances Fox Piven]] sees neoliberalism as essentially hyper-[[capitalism]].<ref>Frances Goldin, Debby Smith, Michael Smith (2014). ''Imagine: Living in a Socialist USA.'' [[Harper Perennial]]. {{ISBN|0062305573}} p. 125</ref> [[Robert W. McChesney]], while defining neoliberalism similarly as "capitalism with the gloves off", goes on to assert that the term is largely unknown by the general public, particularly in the [[United States]].{{sfnp|Chomsky|McChesney|2011|pp=7–8}} [[Lester Spence]] uses the term to critique trends in Black politics, defining neoliberalism as "the general idea that society works best when the people and the institutions within it work or are shaped to work according to market principles".<ref>{{cite book |first=Lester |last=Spence |author-link=Lester Spence |title=Knocking the Hustle: Against the Neoliberal Term in Black Politics |publisher=[[Punctum Books]] |page=3}}</ref> According to [[Philip Mirowski]], neoliberalism views the market as the greatest information processor superior to any human being. It is hence considered as the arbiter of truth. [[Adam Kotsko]] describes neoliberalism as [[political theology]], as it goes beyond simply being a formula for economic policy agenda and instead infuses it with a moral ethos that "aspires to be a complete way of life and a holistic worldview, in a way that previous models of capitalism did not."{{sfnp|Kotsko|2018|p=6}}<br />
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Neoliberalism is distinct from liberalism insofar as it does not advocate ''laissez-faire'' economic policy but instead is highly constructivist and advocates a strong state to bring about market-like reforms in every aspect of society.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.the-utopian.org/post/53360513384/the-thirteen-commandments-of-neoliberalism |title=The Thirteen Commandments of Neoliberalism |last1=Mirowski |first1=Philip |website=The Utopian |access-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref> Anthropologist [[Jason Hickel]] also rejects the notion that neoliberalism necessitates the retreat of the state in favor of totally free markets, arguing that the spread of neoliberalism required substantial state intervention to establish a global 'free market'.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Divide: A Brief Guide to Global Inequality and its Solutions |last=Hickel |first=Jason |publisher=[[Windmill Books]] |isbn=978-1786090034 |page=218 |quote="People commonly think of neoliberalism as an ideology that promotes totally free markets, where the state retreats from the scene and abandons all interventionist policies. But if we step back a bit, it becomes clear that the extension of neoliberalism has entailed powerful new forms of state intervention. The creation of a global 'free market' required not only violent coups and dictatorships backed by Western governments, but also the invention of a totalizing global bureaucracy – the World Bank, the IMF, the WTO and bilateral free-trade agreements – with reams of new laws, backed up by the military power of the United States."}}</ref> [[Naomi Klein]] states that the three policy pillars of neoliberalism are "[[privatization]] of the public sphere, [[deregulation]] of the corporate sector, and the lowering of [[income]] and [[corporate taxes]], paid for with cuts to [[public spending]]".<ref>{{cite book |title=This Changes Everything: Capitalism vs the Climate |title-link=This Changes Everything (book) |last=Klein |first=Naomi |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=978-1451697391 |pages=72–73 |author-link=Naomi Klein}}</ref><br />
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{{quote box| Neoliberalism is essentially an intentionally imprecise stand-in term for [[free market economics]], for [[economics|economic sciences]] in general, for [[conservatism]], for [[libertarian]]s and [[anarchist]]s, for [[authoritarianism]] and [[militarism]], for advocates of the practice of [[commodification]], for [[center-left]] or market-oriented [[progressivism]], for [[globalism]] and [[welfare state]] [[social democracy|social democracies]], for being in favor of or against increased [[immigration]], for favoring [[trade]] and [[globalization]] or opposing the same, or for really any set of political beliefs that happen to be disliked by the person(s) using the term. |author=Phillip W. Magness<ref name=hegemonic-neoliberalism/> |width=35% |align=right |quoted=1 |salign=right}}<br />
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According to some scholars, neoliberalism is commonly used as a [[pejorative]] by critics, outpacing similar terms such as [[monetarism]], [[neoconservatism]], the [[Washington Consensus]] and "market reform" in much scholarly writing.{{sfnp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}} ''The Handbook of Neoliberalism'', for instance, posits that the term has "become a means of identifying a seemingly ubiquitous set of market-oriented policies as being largely responsible for a wide range of social, political, ecological and economic problems".{{sfnp|Springer|Birch|MacLeavy|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M5qkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} Its use in this manner has been criticized by those who advocate for policies characterized as neoliberal.{{sfnp|Kotz|2015|p=74}} The ''Handbook'', for example, further argues that "such lack of specificity [for the term] reduces its capacity as an analytic frame. If neoliberalism is to serve as a way of understanding the transformation of society over the last few decades then the concept is in need of unpacking".{{sfnp|Springer|Birch|MacLeavy|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M5qkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} Historian Daniel Stedman Jones has similarly said that the term "is too often used as a catch-all shorthand for the horrors associated with globalization and recurring financial crises".{{sfnp|Stedman Jones|2014|p=2}}<br />
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Several writers have criticized the term "neoliberal" as an insult or slur used by leftists against liberals and varieties of liberalism that leftists disagree with. British journalist [[Will Hutton]] called neoliberal "an unthinking leftist insult" that "stifle[s] debate."<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Iber |first=Patrick |title=Worlds Apart |magazine=The New Republic |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/147810/worlds-apart-neoliberalism-shapes-global-economy |access-date=2023-06-19 |issn=0028-6583}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Chait |first=Jonathan |title=How 'Neoliberalism' Became the Left's Favorite Insult of Liberals |url=https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2017/07/how-neoliberalism-became-the-lefts-favorite-insult.html |access-date=2023-06-19 |website=Intelligencer |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Hutton |first=Will |title='Neoliberal' is an unthinking leftist insult. All it does is stifle debate |language=en-GB |work=The Observer |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/dec/29/neoliberal-is-unthinking-leftist-insult-all-it-does-it-stifle-debate |access-date=2023-06-19 |issn=0029-7712}}</ref> Phillip W. Magness, writing for the right-wing [[Climate change denial|climate change-denying]] think tank [[American Institute for Economic Research]] (AIER),<ref>{{Cite web|author=Nafeez Ahmed|author-link=Nafeez Ahmed|title=Climate Science Denial Network Behind Great Barrington Declaration|url=https://bylinetimes.com/2020/10/09/climate-science-denial-network-behind-great-barrington-declaration/|access-date=2023-06-30|website=www.bylinetimes.com|language=en}}</ref> called neoliberalism "academia's favorite [[conspiracy theory]]" at fault for "a variety of progressive grievances about the world today: inequality, poverty, climate change, deregulation, globalization, and the proliferation of money in politics."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magness |first=Phillip W. |title=The Pejorative Origins of the Term "Neoliberalism" {{!}} AIER |url=https://www.aier.org/article/the-pejorative-origins-of-the-term-neoliberalism/ |access-date=2023-06-19 |website=American Institute for Economic Research |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
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On the other hand, many scholars believe it retains a meaningful definition. Writing in ''[[The Guardian]]'', Stephen Metcalf posits that the publication of the 2016 [[IMF]] paper "Neoliberalism: Oversold?"<ref name="Ostry2016">{{cite journal |last1=Ostry |first1=Jonathan D. |last2=Loungani |first2=Prakash |last3=Furceri |first3=Davide |year=2016 |title=Neoliberalism: Oversold? |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2016/06/pdf/ostry.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527151805/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2016/06/pdf/ostry.pdf |archive-date=May 27, 2016 |url-status=live |journal=[[International Monetary Fund|IMF Finance & Development]] |volume=53 |issue=2}}</ref> helps "put to rest the idea that the word is nothing more than a political slur, or a term without any analytic power".<ref>{{cite news |last=Metcalf |first=Stephen |title=Neoliberalism: the idea that swallowed the world |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2017/aug/18/neoliberalism-the-idea-that-changed-the-world |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=August 22, 2017}}</ref> [[Gary Gerstle]] argues that neoliberalism is a legitimate term,<ref>{{cite news |last=Steinmetz-Jenkins |first=Daniel |title=Has Neoliberalism Really Come to an End? |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/politics/neoliberalism-gary-gerstle/ |work=[[The Nation]] |access-date=July 1, 2022}}</ref> and describes it as "a creed that calls explicitly for unleashing capitalism's power."{{sfnp|Gerstle|2022|pp=4-5}} He distinguishes neoliberalism from traditional conservatism as the latter values respect for traditions and bolstering the institutions which reinforce them, whereas the former seeks to disrupt and overcome any institutions which stand in the way.{{sfnp|Gerstle|2022|pp=4-5}}<br />
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Radhika Desai, director of the Geopolitical Economy Research Group at the [[University of Manitoba]], argues that global capitalism reached its peak in 1914, just prior to the two great wars, anti-capitalist revolutions and Keynesian reforms, and the purpose of neoliberalism was to restore capitalism to the preeminence it once enjoyed. She argues that this process has failed as contemporary neoliberal capitalism has fostered a "slowly unfolding economic disaster" and bequeathed to the world increased inequalities, societal divisions, economic misery and a lack of meaningful politics.<ref>{{cite book |last=Desai |first=Radhika |year=2022 |chapter=Introduction |title=Capitalism, Coronavirus and War: A Geopolitical Economy |place=London |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781032059501 |doi=10.4324/9781003200000 |s2cid=254306409 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-mono/10.4324/9781003200000-1/ |pages=6–8}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Early history ==<br />
<br />
=== Walter Lippmann Colloquium ===<br />
{{Main|Colloque Walter Lippmann}}<br />
[[File:Graph charting income per capita throughout the Great Depression.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Per capita income during the [[Great Depression]]<ref>International data from {{cite web |first=Angus |last=Maddison |author-link=Angus Maddison |title=Historical Statistics for the World Economy: 1–2003 AD |url=http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/Maddison.htm}}. Gold dates culled from historical sources, principally {{Cite book |title=Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919–1939 |author-link=Barry Eichengreen |first=Barry |last=Eichengreen |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=New York |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-19-506431-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/goldenfettersgol00eich}}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
The [[Great Depression]] in the 1930s, which severely decreased [[economic output]] throughout the world and produced high [[unemployment]] and widespread [[poverty]], was widely regarded as a failure of [[economic liberalism]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=van Otten |first1=George |title=The End of Economic Liberalism |url=https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog597i_02/node/767 |website=GEOG 597i: Critical Geospatial Thinking and Applications |publisher=Penn State Department of Geography |access-date=July 6, 2019}}</ref> To renew the damaged ideology, a group of 25 liberal intellectuals, including a number of prominent academics and journalists like [[Walter Lippmann]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Wilhelm Röpke]], [[Alexander Rüstow]], and [[Louis Rougier]], organized the [[Colloque Walter Lippmann|Walter Lippmann Colloquium]], named in honor of Lippman to celebrate the publication of the French translation of Lippmann's pro-[[Market (economics)|market]] book ''An Inquiry into the Principles of the Good Society''.<ref name="NR-Colloqium">{{cite news |last1=Solow |first1=Robert M. |title=Hayek, Friedman, and the Illusions of Conservative Economics |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/110196/hayek-friedman-and-the-illusions-conservative-economics |access-date=August 14, 2019 |publisher=[[The New Republic]] }}</ref>{{sfnp|Burgin|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BnZ1qKdXojoC&pg=PA58 58–62]}} Meeting in Paris in August 1938, they called for a new liberal project, with "neoliberalism" one name floated for the fledgling movement.{{sfnp|Hartwich|2009|pp=18–19}} They further agreed to develop the Colloquium into a permanent think tank based in Paris called the Centre International d'Études pour la Rénovation du Libéralisme.{{sfnp|Burgin|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BnZ1qKdXojoC&pg=PA56 56]}}<br />
<br />
While most agreed that the ''[[status quo]]'' liberalism promoting ''laissez-faire'' economics had failed, deep disagreements arose around the proper role of the [[Government|state]]. A group of "true (third way) neoliberals" centered around Rüstow and Lippmann advocated for strong state supervision of the economy while a group of old school liberals centered around Mises and Hayek continued to insist that the only legitimate role for the state was to abolish barriers to market entry. Rüstow wrote that Hayek and Mises were relics of the liberalism that caused the Great Depression while Mises denounced the other faction, complaining that the [[ordoliberalism]] they advocated really meant "ordo-interventionism".{{sfnp|Hartwich|2009|pp=19–20}}<br />
<br />
Divided in opinion and short on funding, the Colloquium was mostly ineffectual; related attempts to further neoliberal ideas, such as the effort by Colloque-attendee [[Wilhelm Röpke]] to establish a journal of neoliberal ideas, mostly floundered.<ref name="NR-Colloqium"/> Fatefully, the efforts of the Colloquium would be overwhelmed by the outbreak of [[World War II]] and were largely forgotten.<ref name="JACKSON p=129">{{cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Ben |title=At the Origins of Neo-Liberalism: The Free Economy and the Strong State, 1930–1947 |journal=[[The Historical Journal]] |volume=53 |issue=1 |issn=0018-246X |doi=10.1017/s0018246x09990392 |pages=129–51 |s2cid=154994025}}</ref> Nonetheless, the Colloquium served as the first meeting of the nascent neoliberal movement and would serve as the precursor to the [[Mont Pelerin Society]], a far more successful effort created after the war by many of those who had been present at the Colloquium.{{sfnp|Stedman Jones|2014|p={{pn}}}}<br />
<br />
=== Mont Pelerin Society ===<br />
[[File:Friedrich Hayek portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Friedrich Hayek]]]]<br />
Neoliberalism began accelerating in importance with the establishment of the [[Mont Pelerin Society]] in 1947, whose founding members included [[Friedrich Hayek]], [[Milton Friedman]], [[Karl Popper]], [[George Stigler]] and [[Ludwig von Mises]]. Meeting annually, it became a "kind of international 'who's who' of the classical liberal and neo-liberal intellectuals."<ref>{{cite book |first=George H. |last=Nash |author-link=George H. Nash |title=The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America Since 1945 |publisher=Intercollegiate Studies Institute |isbn=978-1-882926-12-1 |pages=26–27}}</ref> While the first conference in 1947 was almost half American, the Europeans dominated by 1951. Europe would remain the epicenter of the community as Europeans dominated the leadership roles.{{sfnp|Mirowski|Plehwe|2009|pp=16–17}}<br />
<br />
Established during a time when [[central planning]] was in the ascendancy worldwide and there were few avenues for neoliberals to influence policymakers, the society became a "rallying point" for neoliberals, as Milton Friedman phrased it, bringing together isolated advocates of liberalism and [[capitalism]]. They were united in their belief that individual freedom in the developed world was under threat from collectivist trends,{{sfnp|Stedman Jones|2014|p={{pn}}}} which they outlined in their statement of aims:<br />
<blockquote>The central values of civilization are in danger. Over large stretches of the Earth's surface the essential conditions of human dignity and freedom have already disappeared. In others, they are under constant menace from the development of current tendencies of policy. The position of the individual and the voluntary group are progressively undermined by extensions of arbitrary power. Even that most precious possession of Western Man, freedom of thought and expression, is threatened by the spread of creeds which, claiming the privilege of tolerance when in the position of a minority, seek only to establish a position of power in which they can suppress and obliterate all views but their own...The group holds that these developments have been fostered by the growth of a view of history which denies all absolute moral standards and by the growth of theories which question the desirability of the rule of law. It holds further that they have been fostered by a decline of belief in private property and the competitive market...[This group's] object is solely, by facilitating the exchange of views among minds inspired by certain ideals and broad conceptions held in common, to contribute to the preservation and improvement of the free society.<ref>{{cite web |title=Statement of Aims |url=https://www.montpelerin.org/statement-of-aims/ |website=The Mont Pelerin Society |access-date=July 16, 2019 |archive-date=October 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211014133354/https://www.montpelerin.org/statement-of-aims/ |url-status=dead}}</ref></blockquote><br />
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The society set out to develop a neoliberal alternative to, on the one hand, the ''laissez-faire'' economic consensus that had collapsed with the [[Great Depression]] and, on the other, [[New Deal]] liberalism and British [[social democracy]], collectivist trends which they believed posed a threat to individual freedom.{{sfnp|Stedman Jones|2014|p={{pn}}}} They believed that classical liberalism had failed because of crippling conceptual flaws which could only be diagnosed and rectified by withdrawing into an intensive discussion group of similarly minded intellectuals;{{sfnp|Mirowski|Plehwe|2009|p=16}} however, they were determined that the liberal focus on [[individualism]] and [[economic freedom]] must not be abandoned to collectivism.<ref>{{cite news |title=The birth of neoliberalism |url=https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2012/10/13/new-brooms |access-date=July 25, 2019 |publisher=[[The Economist]] }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Post–World War II neoliberal currents ==<br />
For decades after the formation of the [[Mont Pelerin Society]], the ideas of the society would remain largely on the fringes of political policy, confined to a number of think-tanks and universities{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=40}} and achieving only measured success with the [[ordoliberal]]s in [[Germany]], who maintained the need for strong state influence in the economy. It would not be until a succession of economic downturns and crises in the 1970s that neoliberal policy proposals would be widely implemented. By this time, neoliberal thought had evolved. The early neoliberal ideas of the [[Mont Pelerin Society]] had sought to chart a middle way between the trend of increasing government intervention implemented after the [[Great Depression]] and the ''laissez-faire'' economics many in the society believed had produced the Great Depression. [[Milton Friedman]], wrote in his early essay "Neo-liberalism and Its Prospects" that "Neo-liberalism would accept the nineteenth-century liberal emphasis on the fundamental importance of the individual, but it would substitute for the nineteenth century goal of ''laissez-faire'' as a means to this end, the goal of the competitive order", which requires limited state intervention to "police the system, establish conditions favorable to competition and [[United States antitrust law|prevent monopoly]], provide a stable [[Central bank|monetary framework]], and relieve acute misery and distress."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Friedman |first1=Milton |title=Neo-Liberalism and Its Prospects |url=https://miltonfriedman.hoover.org/objects/57816/neoliberalism-and-its-prospects?ctx=b8c0f32e-f5a4-4e53-ba3d-cf017b993579&idx=0 |access-date=July 25, 2019 |publisher=Farmand }}</ref> By the 1970s, neoliberal thought—including Friedman's—focused almost exclusively on [[market liberalization]] and was adamant in its opposition to nearly all forms of state interference in the economy.{{sfnp|Stedman Jones|2014|p={{pn}}}}<br />
<br />
One of the earliest and most influential turns to neoliberal reform occurred in [[Chile]] after an economic crisis in the early 1970s. After several years of [[socialist]] economic policies under president [[Salvador Allende]], a [[1973 Chilean coup d'état|1973 coup d'état]], which established a [[military junta]] under dictator [[Augusto Pinochet]], led to the implementation of a number of sweeping neoliberal economic reforms that had been proposed by the [[Chicago Boys]], a group of Chilean economists educated under [[Milton Friedman]]. This "neoliberal project" served as "the first experiment with neoliberal state formation" and provided an example for neoliberal reforms elsewhere.{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=7}} Beginning in the early 1980s, the [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Reagan administration]] and [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher government]] implemented a series of neoliberal economic reforms to counter the chronic [[stagflation]] the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]] had each experienced throughout the 1970s. Neoliberal policies continued to dominate American and British politics until the [[Great Recession]].{{sfnp|Stedman Jones|2014|p={{pn}}}} Following British and American reform, neoliberal policies were exported abroad, with countries in [[Latin America]], the [[Asia-Pacific]], the [[Middle East]], and [[China]] implementing significant neoliberal reform. Additionally, the [[International Monetary Fund]] and [[World Bank]] encouraged neoliberal reforms in many [[developing countries]] by placing reform requirements on loans, in a process known as [[structural adjustment]].{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=29}}<br />
<br />
=== Germany ===<br />
[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F015320-0010, Ludwig Erhard.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ludwig Erhard]]]]<br />
<br />
Neoliberal ideas were first implemented in [[West Germany]]. The economists around [[Ludwig Erhard]] drew on the theories they had developed in the 1930s and 1940s and contributed to West Germany's reconstruction after the Second World War.{{sfnp|Hartwich|2009|p=22}} Erhard was a member of the Mont Pelerin Society and in constant contact with other neoliberals. He pointed out that he is commonly classified as neoliberal and that he accepted this classification.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ludwig |last=Erhard |author-link=Ludwig Erhard |chapter-url=http://www.franz-oppenheimer.de/le64a.htm |chapter=Franz Oppenheimer, dem Lehrer und Freund |language=de |trans-chapter=Franz Oppenheimer, the teacher and friend |editor-first=Ludwig |editor-last=Erhard |editor-link=Ludwig Erhard |title=Gedanken aus fünf Jahrzehnten, Reden und Schriften |trans-title=Thoughts from five decades, speeches and writings |publisher=Karl Hohmann |location=Düsseldorf |page=861 |quote=Rede zu Oppenheimers 100. Geburtstag, gehalten in der Freien Universität Berlin (1964). |trans-quote=Speech on Oppenheimer's 100th birthday, held at the Freie Universität Berlin (1964). |isbn=9783430125390}}</ref><br />
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The [[ordoliberal]] [[Freiburg School]] was more pragmatic. The German neoliberals accepted the classical liberal notion that competition drives economic prosperity, but they argued that a ''laissez-faire'' state policy stifles competition, as the strong devour the weak since monopolies and cartels could pose a threat to freedom of competition. They supported the creation of a well-developed legal system and capable regulatory apparatus. While still opposed to full-scale Keynesian employment policies or an extensive [[welfare state]], German neoliberal theory was marked by the willingness to place [[Humanistic capitalism|humanistic]] and social values on par with economic efficiency. [[Alfred Müller-Armack]] coined the phrase "social market economy" to emphasize the [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]] and humanistic bent of the idea.{{sfnp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}} According to Boas and Gans-Morse, [[Walter Eucken]] stated that "social security and social justice are the greatest concerns of our time".{{sfnp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}}<br />
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[[File:Marshallplanhilfe.gif|thumb|left|upright|Builders in [[West Berlin]], 1952]]<br />
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Erhard emphasized that the market was inherently social and did not need to be made so.{{sfnp|Hartwich|2009|p={{pn}} }} He hoped that growing prosperity would enable the population to manage much of their social security by self-reliance and end the necessity for a widespread welfare state. By the name of ''Volkskapitalismus'', there were some efforts to foster private savings. Although average contributions to the public old age insurance were quite small, it remained by far the most important old age income source for a majority of the German population, therefore despite liberal rhetoric the 1950s witnessed what has been called a "reluctant expansion of the welfare state". To end widespread poverty among the elderly the pension reform of 1957 brought a significant extension of the German welfare state which already had been established under [[Otto von Bismarck]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Werner |last=Abelshauser |title=Deutsche Wirtschaftsgeschichte seit 1945 |language=de |trans-title=German economic history since 1945 |publisher=C.H. Beck |isbn=978-3-406-510946 |page=192}}</ref> Rüstow, who had coined the label "neoliberalism", criticized that development tendency and pressed for a more limited welfare program.{{sfnp|Hartwich|2009|p={{pn}}}}<br />
<br />
Hayek did not like the expression "social market economy", but stated in 1976 that some of his friends in Germany had succeeded in implementing the sort of social order for which he was pleading while using that phrase. In Hayek's view, the social market economy's aiming for both a market economy and [[social justice]] was a muddle of inconsistent aims.<ref>{{cite book |first=Josef |last=Drexl |title=Die wirtschaftliche Selbstbestimmung des Verbrauchers |language=de |trans-title=The economic self-determination of the consumer |publisher=J.C.B. Mohr |isbn=3-16-146938-0 |chapter=Freiheitssicherung auch gegen den Sozialstaat |trans-chapter=Safeguarding freedom also against the welfare state |page=144}}</ref> Despite his controversies with the German neoliberals at the Mont Pelerin Society, [[Ludwig von Mises]] stated that Erhard and Müller-Armack accomplished a great act of liberalism to restore the German economy and called this "a lesson for the US".<ref>{{cite book |first=Ralf |last=Ptak |title=Vom Ordoliberalismus zur Sozialen Marktwirtschaft: Stationen des Neoliberalismus in Deutschland |language=de |trans-title=From Ordoliberalism to the Social Market economy: Stations of Neoliberalism in Germany |pages=18–19}}</ref> According to different research Mises believed that the ordoliberals were hardly better than socialists. As an answer to Hans Hellwig's complaints about the interventionist excesses of the Erhard ministry and the ordoliberals, Mises wrote: "I have no illusions about the true character of the politics and politicians of the social market economy". According to Mises, Erhard's teacher [[Franz Oppenheimer]] "taught more or less the [[New Frontier]] line of" [[John F Kennedy|President Kennedy's]] "Harvard consultants ([[Arthur M. Schlesinger|Schlesinger]], [[John Kenneth Galbraith|Galbraith]], etc.)".<ref>{{cite book |first=Jörg Guido |last=Hülsmann |author-link=Jörg Guido Hülsmann |title=Mises: The Last Knight of Liberalism |year=2007 |isbn=978-1933550183 |pages=1007–08}}</ref><br />
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In Germany, neoliberalism at first was synonymous with both ordoliberalism and social market economy. But over time the original term neoliberalism gradually disappeared since social market economy was a much more positive term and fit better into the {{lang|de|[[Wirtschaftswunder]]}} (economic miracle) mentality of the 1950s and 1960s.{{sfnp|Hartwich|2009|p={{pn}}}}<br />
<br />
=== Latin America ===<br />
In the 1980s, numerous governments in Latin America adopted neoliberal policies.<ref>{{cite book |first=Peter |last=Kingstone |title=The Rise and Fall (and Rise Again?) of Neoliberalism in Latin America |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] Ltd |isbn=}}</ref><ref name="Otero 2012 pp. 282–294">{{cite journal |last=Otero |first=Gerardo |title=The neoliberal food regime in Latin America: state, agribusiness transnational corporations and biotechnology |journal=Canadian Journal of Development Studies/Revue canadienne d'études du développement |publisher=Informa UK Limited |volume=33 |issue=3 |year=2012 |issn=0225-5189 |doi=10.1080/02255189.2012.711747 |pages=282–294 |s2cid=59042471 |oclc=4912306096}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Ben Ross |last=Schneider |chapter=The material bases of technocracy: Investor confidence and neoliberalism in Latin America |title=The politics of expertise in Latin America |editor1-first=Miguel A. |editor1-last=Centeno |editor2-first=Patricio |editor2-last=Silva |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |pages=77–95 |url=https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9780312210267 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102140153/https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9780312210267 |archive-date=November 2, 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Chile ====<br />
{{further|Crisis of 1982|Miracle of Chile|2019–2021 Chilean protests}}<br />
Chile was among the earliest nations to implement neoliberal reform. [[Marxism|Marxist]] economic geographer [[David Harvey]] has described the substantial neoliberal reforms in Chile beginning in the 1970s as "the first experiment with neoliberal state formation", which would provide "helpful evidence to support the subsequent turn to neoliberalism in both Britain... and the United States."{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=}} Similarly, [[Vincent Bevins]] says that Chile under [[Augusto Pinochet]] "became the world's first test case for 'neoliberal' economics."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bevins |first1=Vincent |author1-link=Vincent Bevins |title=[[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]] |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |page=207 |isbn=978-1541742406}}</ref><br />
<br />
The turn to neoliberal policies in Chile originated with the [[Chicago Boys]], a select group of Chilean students who, beginning in 1955, were invited to the [[University of Chicago]] to pursue postgraduate studies in economics. They studied directly under [[Milton Friedman]] and his disciple, [[Arnold Harberger]], and were exposed to [[Friedrich Hayek]]. Upon their return to Chile, their neoliberal policy proposals—which centered on widespread [[deregulation]], [[privatization]], reductions to government spending to counter high inflation, and other free-market policies<ref>{{cite news |last1=Opazo |first1=Tania |title=The Boys Who Got to Remake an Economy |url=https://slate.com/business/2016/01/in-chicago-boys-the-story-of-chilean-economists-who-studied-in-america-and-then-remade-their-country.html |access-date=July 6, 2019 |publisher=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] }}</ref>—would remain largely on the fringes of Chilean economic and political thought for a number of years, as the [[presidency of Salvador Allende]] (1970–1973) brought about a [[socialist]] reorientation of the economy.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,907929,00.html |title=CHILE: The Bloody End of a Marxist Dream |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925065855/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,907929,00.html |archive-date=September 25, 2008 |quote=....Allende's downfall had implications that reached far beyond the borders of Chile. His had been the first democratically elected Marxist government in Latin America...}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:Economic growth of Chile.PNG|thumb|Chilean (orange) and average Latin American (blue) rates of growth of [[GDP]] (1971–2007)]]<br />
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During the Allende presidency, Chile experienced a severe economic crisis, in which inflation peaked near 150%.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/63821.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |title=Pinochet's rule: Repression and economic success |access-date=May 12, 2010}}</ref> Following an extended period of social unrest and political tension, as well as diplomatic, economic, and covert pressure from the [[United States]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8i.htm |title=Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents Relating to the Military Coup, September 11, 1973 |first=Peter |last=Kornbluh}}</ref> the Chilean armed forces and national police overthrew the Allende government in a [[1973 Chilean coup d'état|coup d'état]].<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/1211/p00s01-woam.html |title=Controversial legacy of former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet |quote=...Gen. Augusto Pinochet, who overthrew Chile's democratically elected Communist government in a 1973 coup ... |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516194106/http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/1211/p00s01-woam.html |archive-date=May 16, 2008 |magazine=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] }}</ref> They established a repressive [[military junta|military ''junta'']], known for its violent [[Indictment and arrest of Augusto Pinochet|suppression of opposition]], and appointed army chief Augusto Pinochet Supreme Head of the nation.<ref>{{cite book |first=Genaro Arriagada |last=Herrera |title=Pinochet: The Politics of Power |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7F8VAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA36 |year=1988 |publisher=[[Allen & Unwin]] |isbn=978-0-04-497061-3 |page=36 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> His rule was later given legal legitimacy through a controversial [[1980 Chilean constitutional referendum|1980 plebiscite]], which approved a new [[Chilean Constitution of 1980|constitution]] drafted by a government-appointed commission that ensured Pinochet would remain as President for a further eight years—with increased powers—after which he would face a re-election referendum.<ref name=Brit-Pinochet-Regime>{{cite web |last1=Drake |first1=Paul W. |last2=Johnson |first2=John J. |last3=Caviedes |first3=César N. |last4=Carmagnani |first4=Marcello A. |title=The military dictatorship, from 1973 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Chile/The-military-dictatorship-from-1973 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=July 11, 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
The Chicago Boys were given significant political influence within the [[Military government of Chile (1973–1990)|military dictatorship]], and they implemented [[Economic history of Chile (1973-1990)#"Neoliberal" reforms (1973-1990)|sweeping economic reform]]. In contrast to the extensive [[nationalization]] and centrally planned economic programs supported by Allende, the Chicago Boys implemented rapid and extensive privatization of state enterprises, deregulation, and significant reductions in trade barriers during the latter half of the 1970s.<ref>{{cite news |title=Explainer: Chile's 'Chicago Boys,' a model for Brazil now? |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-politics-chicagoboys-explainer/explainer-chiles-chicago-boys-a-model-for-brazil-now-idUSKCN1OY1OU |access-date=July 6, 2019 |publisher=[[Reuters]] }}</ref> In 1978, policies that would further reduce the role of the state and infuse competition and individualism into areas such as labor relations, pensions, health and education were introduced.{{sfnp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}}> Additionally, the central bank raised interest rates from 49.9% to 178% to counter high inflation.<ref>{{cite book |first=Anil |last=Hira |title=Ideas and Economic Policy in Latin America |publisher=Praeger Publishers |isbn=0-275-96269-5 |page=81}}</ref><br />
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[[File:Panfleto Tercera Jornada Protesta Nacional.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|Pamphlet calling for [[Jornadas de Protesta Nacional|a protest]] of economic policy in 1983 following [[Crisis of 1982|the economic crisis]]<ref name=salazar2>{{cite book |title=Historia contemporánea de Chile III. La economía: mercados empresarios y trabajadores |language=es |trans-title=Contemporary history of Chile III. The economy: business and worker markets |first1=Gabriel |last1=Salazar |author1-link=Gabriel Salazar |first2=Julio |last2=Pinto |author2-link=Julio Pinto |pages=49–62}}</ref><ref name="kas.de">{{cite web |publisher=[[Konrad Adenauer Foundation]] |first1=Helmut |last1=Wittelsbürger |first2=Albrecht von |last2=Hoff |url=http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_4084-544-1-30.pdf?040415182627 |title=Chile's Way to the Social Market Economy}}</ref>]]<br />
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These policies amounted to a [[Shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]], which rapidly transformed Chile from an economy with a protected market and strong government intervention into a liberalized, world-integrated economy, where market forces were left free to guide most of the economy's decisions.<ref name="K. Remmer 1998 5-55">{{cite journal |first=K. |last=Remmer |year=1979 |title=Public Policy and Regime Consolidation: The First Five Years of the Chilean Junta |journal=Journal of the Developing Areas |pages=441–461}}</ref> Inflation was tempered, falling from over 600% in 1974, to below 50% by 1979, to below 10% right before the [[Crisis of 1982|economic crisis of 1982]];<ref name=":4">{{cite web |title=Inflation, GDP deflator (annual %) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.DEFL.KD.ZG?locations=CL |website=[[World Bank]] |access-date=July 8, 2019}}</ref> GDP growth spiked (see chart) to 10%.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=CL |title=GDP Growth (annual %) |website=[[World Bank]] |access-date=July 7, 2019}}</ref> however, inequality widened as wages and benefits to the working class were reduced.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |editor-first=Peter |editor-last=Winn |editor-link=Peter Winn |url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/Victims-of-the-Chilean-Miracle/ |title=Victims of the Chilean Miracle: Workers and Neoliberalism in the Pinochet Era, 1973–2002 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=082233321X}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Pamela |last1=Constable |first2=Arturo |last2=Valenzuela |title=A Nation of Enemies: Chile Under Pinochet |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=0393309851 |page=219}}</ref><br />
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In 1982, Chile again experienced a [[Crisis of 1982|severe economic recession]]. The cause of this is contested but most scholars believe the [[Latin American debt crisis]]—which swept nearly all of Latin America into financial crisis—was a primary cause.<ref name="salazar23">''Historia contemporánea de Chile III. La economía: mercados empresarios y trabajadores''. 2002. [[Gabriel Salazar]] and [[Julio Pinto]]. pp. 49–-62.</ref> Some scholars argue the neoliberal policies of the Chicago boys heightened the crisis (for instance, percent GDP decrease was higher than in any other Latin American country) or even caused it;<ref name="salazar23"/> for instance, some scholars criticize the high interest rates of the period which—while stabilizing inflation—hampered investment and contributed to widespread bankruptcy in the banking industry. Other scholars fault governmental departures from the neoliberal [[Political agenda|agenda]]; for instance, the government pegged the Chilean peso to the US dollar, against the wishes of the Chicago Boys, which economists believe led to an overvalued peso.<ref name="The Political Economy of Unilateral Trade Liberalization">{{cite journal |year=1990 |title=The Political Economy of Unilateral Trade Liberalization |url=http://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty/sebastian.edwards/W6510.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040730125426/http://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty/sebastian.edwards/W6510.pdf |archive-date=July 30, 2004 |url-status=live |journal=[[UCLA]] |access-date=December 6, 2010}}</ref><ref name="Two Lucky People2">{{cite book |year=1998 |title=Two Lucky People |url=https://archive.org/details/twoluckypeopleme00frie |url-access=registration |quote=sergio de castro. |access-date=April 8, 2011 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=9780226264158 |last1=Friedman |first1=Milton |author1-link=Milton Friedman |last2=Friedman |first2=Rose D.}}</ref><br />
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[[File:Unemployment Chile.png|thumb|Unemployment in Chile and South America (1980–1990)]]<br />
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After the recession, Chilean economic growth rose quickly, eventually hovering between 5% and 10% and significantly outpacing the Latin American average (see chart). Additionally, unemployment decreased<ref>{{cite web |title=Unemployment Rate: Aged 15 and Over: All Persons for Chile |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/LRUNTTTTCLA156N |website=FRED |publisher=Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development |access-date=July 8, 2019}}</ref> and the percent of the population below the poverty line declined from 50% in 1984 to 34% by 1989.<ref name=Hoover-ChicagoBoys>{{Cite news |url=https://www.hoover.org/research/what-pinochet-did-chile |title=What Pinochet Did for Chile |last1=Packenham |first1=Robert A. |work=[[Hoover Institution]] |access-date=July 7, 2019 |last2=Ratliff |first2=William}}</ref> This led [[Milton Friedman]] to call the period the "[[Miracle of Chile]]", and he attributed the successes to the neoliberal policies of the Chicago boys. Some scholars attribute the successes to the re-regulation of the banking industry and a number of targeted social programs designed to alleviate poverty.<ref name=Hoover-ChicagoBoys/> Others say that while the economy had stabilized and was growing by the late 1980s, inequality widened: nearly 45% of the population had fallen into poverty while the wealthiest 10% had seen their incomes rise by 83%.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Naomi Klein |last=Klein |first=Naomi |title=[[The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism]] |publisher=[[Picador (imprint)|Picador]] |isbn=978-0312427993 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PwHUAq5LPOQC&pg=PA105 105]}}</ref> According to Chilean economist [[Alejandro Foxley]], when Pinochet finished his 17-year term by 1990, around 44% of Chilean families were living below the poverty line<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hojman |first=David E. |title=Poverty and Inequality in Chile: Are Democratic Politics and Neoliberal Economics Good for You? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/166361 |journal=Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs |volume=38 |issue=2/3 |pages=73–96 |doi=10.2307/166361 |jstor=166361 |issn=0022-1937}}</ref>.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitext/int_alejandrofoxley.html#2 |title=PBS Interview with Alejandro Foxley conducted March 26, 2001 |work=[[The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy]] |access-date=December 4, 2014}}</ref>{{Primary source inline}}<br />
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Despite years of suppression by the Pinochet junta, in 1988 a presidential election was held, as dictated by the 1980 constitution (though not without Pinochet first holding another plebiscite in an attempt to amend the constitution).<ref name=Brit-Pinochet-Regime/> In 1990, [[Patricio Aylwin]] was democratically elected, bringing an end to the military dictatorship. The reasons cited for Pinochet's acceptance of democratic transition are numerous. Hayek, echoing arguments he had made years earlier in ''[[The Road to Serfdom]],''<ref name="Chicago Press 1944 p.95">{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Hayek |author-link=Friedrich Hayek |title=[[The Road to Serfdom]] |year=1944 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |edition=50th Anniversary edition (1944) |isbn=0-226-32061-8 |page=95}}</ref> argued that the increased economic freedom he believed the neoliberal reforms had brought had put pressure on the dictatorship over time, resulting in a gradual increase in political freedom and, ultimately, the restoration of democracy.{{citation needed}} The Chilean scholars Javier Martínez and Alvaro Díaz reject this argument, pointing to the long tradition of democracy in Chile. They assert that the defeat of the Pinochet regime and the return of democracy came primarily from large-scale mass rebellion that eventually forced party [[elite]]s to use existing institutional mechanisms to restore democracy.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Alvaro Díaz |last1=Eco |first2=Javier Martínez |last2=Bengoa |first3=Diaz |last3=Martinez |first4=Dharam |last4=Ghai |title=Chile: The Great Transformation |publisher=[[Brookings Institution Press]] |isbn=0-8157-5478-7 |pages=3–4}}</ref><br />
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[[File:GDP per capita LA-Chile-2.png|thumb|left |GDP per capita in Chile and Latin America 1950–2010 (time under Pinochet highlighted)]]<br />
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In the 1990s, neoliberal economic policies broadened and deepened, including unilateral tariff reductions and the adoption of free trade agreements with a number of Latin American countries and Canada.<ref name=Chile-IMF>{{cite journal |last1=Aninat |first1=Eduardo |title=Chile in the 1990s: Embracing Development Opportunities |journal=[[Finance & Development]] |volume=37 |issue=1 |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2000/03/aninat.htm |access-date=July 11, 2019}}</ref> At the same time, the decade brought increases in government expenditure on social programs to tackle poverty and poor quality housing.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dominguez |first1=Jorge |title=Constructing democratic governance in Latin America |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |isbn=1421409798}}</ref> Throughout the 1990s, Chile maintained high growth, averaging 7.3% from 1990 to 1998.<ref name=Chile-IMF/> Eduardo Aninat, writing for the IMF journal ''Finance & Development'', called the period from 1986 to 2000 "the longest, strongest, and most stable period of growth in [Chile's] history."<ref name=Chile-IMF/> In 1999 there was a brief recession brought about by the [[Asian financial crisis]], with growth resuming in 2000 and remaining near 5% until the [[Great Recession]].<ref>{{cite web |title=GDP growth (annual %) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=CL |website=The World Bank |access-date=July 11, 2019}}</ref><br />
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In sum, the neoliberal policies of the 1980s and 1990s—initiated by a repressive [[authoritarianism|authoritarian government]]—transformed the Chilean economy from a [[protectionism|protected market]] with high [[barriers to trade]] and hefty [[government intervention]] into one of the world's most [[open economy|open]] [[free-market]] economies.<ref>{{cite web |title=2019 |work=[[Index of Economic Freedom]] |url=https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]] |access-date=July 8, 2019}}</ref><ref name="K. Remmer 1998 5-55"/> Chile experienced the worst economic bust of any Latin American country during the [[Latin American debt crisis]] (several years into neoliberal reform), but also had one of the most robust recoveries,<ref name=Heritage-Chile/> rising from the poorest Latin American country in terms of [[GDP per capita]] in 1980 (along with Peru) to the richest in 2019.<ref name="VOX-CEPR">{{cite web |last1=Edwards |first1=Sebastian |title=Chile's insurgency and the end of neoliberalism |url=https://voxeu.org/article/chile-s-insurgency-and-end-neoliberalism |website=[[Vox (website)|VOX]] |publisher=Center for Economic and Policy Research }}</ref> Average annual economic growth from the mid-1980s to the Asian crisis in 1997 was 7.2%, 3.5% between 1998 and 2005, and growth in per capita real income from 1985 to 1996 averaged 5%—all outpacing Latin American averages.<ref name=Heritage-Chile>{{cite news |last1=Buc |first1=Hernán Büchi |title=How Chile Successfully Transformed Its Economy |url=https://www.heritage.org/international-economies/report/how-chile-successfully-transformed-its-economy |access-date=July 8, 2019 |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Becker |first=Gary S. |author-link=Gary Becker |year=1997 |editor1-last=Robinson |editor1-first=Peter |title=What Latin America Owes to the "Chicago Boys" |url=http://www.hoover.org/publications/hoover-digest/article/7743 |url-status=dead |journal=[[Hoover Institution#Publications|Hoover Digest]] |issue=4 |issn=1088-5161 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100724040917/http://www.hoover.org/publications/hoover-digest/article/7743 |archive-date=July 24, 2010 |access-date=October 3, 2010}}</ref> Inflation was brought under control.<ref name=":4" /> Between 1970 and 1985 the [[infant mortality]] rate in Chile fell from 76.1 per 1000 to 22.6 per 1000,<ref name="WDI2">{{cite web |website=[[World Bank]] |location=Washington, DC |access-date=October 1, 2010 |url=http://data.worldbank.org |title=World Development Indicators database}}</ref> the lowest in Latin America.<ref>{{cite book |title=Economic Reforms in Chile: From Dictatorship to Democracy |last=French-Davis |first=Ricardo |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |location=Ann Arbor, MI |page=188}}</ref> Unemployment from 1980 to 1990 decreased, but remained higher than the South American average (which was stagnant). And despite public perception among Chileans that economic inequality has increased, Chile's [[Gini coefficient]] has in fact dropped from 56.2 in 1987 to 46.6 in 2017.<ref name="VOX-CEPR"/><ref>{{cite web |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) - Chile |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=CL |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> While this is near the Latin American average, Chile still has one of the highest Gini coefficients in the [[OECD]], an organization of mostly [[developed countries]] that includes Chile but not most other Latin American countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Income inequality |url=https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |website=OECD Data |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] |access-date=January 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918094533/https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |archive-date=September 18, 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Furthermore, the Gini coefficient measures only [[income inequality]]; Chile has more mixed inequality ratings in the OECD's [[OECD Better Life Index|Better Life Index]], which includes indexes for more factors than only income, like [[housing]] and [[education]].<ref>{{cite web |title=OECD Better Life Index |url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/ |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]]}}</ref><ref name="VOX-CEPR"/> Additionally, the percentage of the Chilean population living in poverty rose from 17% in 1969 to 45% in 1985<ref>Ricardo Ffrench-Davis, ''Economic Reforms in Chile: From Dictatorship to Democracy'', [[University of Michigan Press]], 2002, {{ISBN|978-0472112326}}, p. 193</ref> at the same time government budgets for education, health and housing dropped by over 20% on average.<ref name="Petras and Vieux 1998 57-72">{{Cite journal |last1=Petras |first1=James |last2=Vieux |first2=Steve |title=The Chilean "economic miracle": an empirical critique |journal=[[Critical Sociology (journal)|Critical Sociology]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=57–72 |doi=10.1177/089692059001700203 |s2cid=143590493}}</ref> The era was also marked by economic instability.<ref name=Sen-Chile>{{Cite book |title=Hunger and Public Action |last=Sen |first=Amartya |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1991 |isbn=9780198283652}}</ref><br />
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Overall, scholars have mixed opinions on the effects of the neoliberal reforms. The [[CIA World Factbook]] states that Chile's "sound economic policies", maintained consistently since the 1980s, "have contributed to steady economic growth in Chile and have more than halved poverty rates,"<ref name="cia.gov">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/chile/ Chile]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].</ref> and some scholars have even called the period the "[[Miracle of Chile]]". Other scholars have called it a failure that led to extreme inequalities in the distribution of income and resulted in severe socioeconomic damage.<ref name="kas.de"/> It is also contested how much these changes were the result of neoliberal economic policies and how much they were the result of other factors;<ref name=Sen-Chile/> in particular, some scholars argue that after the [[Crisis of 1982]] the "pure" neoliberalism of the late 1970s was replaced by a focus on fostering a [[social market economy]] that mixed neoliberal and social welfare policies.{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=74}}<ref>{{cite journal |first=Silvia |last=Borzutzky |title=From Chicago to Santiago: Neoliberalism and social security privatization in Chile |journal=[[Governance (journal)|Governance]] |volume=18 |number=4 |pages=655–674 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0491.2005.00296.x |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229866806}}</ref><br />
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As a response to the [[2019–20 Chilean protests]], a [[2020 Chilean national plebiscite|national plebiscite]] was held on 25 October 2020 to decide whether the [[Chilean Constitution of 1980|Chilean constitution]] would be rewritten. The "approve" option for a new constitution to replace the Pinochet-era constitution, which entrenched certain neoliberal principles into the country's basic law, won with 78% of the vote.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Jubilation as Chile votes to rewrite constitution |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-54687090 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref><ref name="bonnefoy">{{Cite news |last=Bonnefoy |first=Pascale |title='An End to the Chapter of Dictatorship': Chileans Vote to Draft a New Constitution |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/25/world/americas/chile-constitution-plebiscite.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025171006/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/25/world/americas/chile-constitution-plebiscite.html |archive-date=October 25, 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=November 22, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> On 11 April 2021 another referendum will be held to decide the makeup of the convention that will rewrite the constitution. The new constitution is expected to shift away from the neoliberal economic structure laid out in the current constitution and to address the country's economic inequality.<ref name="bonnefoy" /><br />
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==== Peru ====<br />
{{Further|Plan Verde}}<br />
Peruvian economist [[Hernando de Soto (economist)|Hernando de Soto]], the founder of one of the first neoliberal organizations in Latin America, [[Institute for Liberty and Democracy]] (ILD), began to receive assistance from [[Ronald Reagan]]'s administration, with the [[National Endowment for Democracy]]'s Center for International Private Enterprise (CIPE) providing his ILD with funding.<ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Pee |first=Robert |title=The Reagan Administration, the Cold War, and the Transition to Democracy Promotion |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-3319963815 |pages=178–180}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Pee |first=Robert |title=The Reagan Administration, the Cold War, and the Transition to Democracy Promotion |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-3319963815 |pages=168–187}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Timothy |title=The work of economics: how a discipline makes its world |journal=[[European Journal of Sociology]] |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=299–310 |doi=10.1017/S000397560500010X |doi-access=free}}</ref> The economic policy of [[President of Peru|President]] [[Alan García]] distanced Peru from international markets, resulting in lower foreign investment in the country.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |title=Welcome, Mr. Peruvian President: Why Alan García is no hero to his people |url=http://www.coha.org/welcome-mr-peruvian-president-why-alan-garcia-is-no-hero-to-his-people/ |access-date=April 18, 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418150551/http://www.coha.org/welcome-mr-peruvian-president-why-alan-garcia-is-no-hero-to-his-people/ |archive-date=April 18, 2019 |website=[[Council on Hemispheric Affairs]]}}</ref> Under García, Peru experienced [[hyperinflation]] and increased confrontations with the guerrilla group [[Shining Path]], leading the country towards high levels of instability.<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal |last=Burt |first=Jo-Marie |title=Unsettled accounts: militarization and memory in postwar Peru |journal=[[NACLA|NACLA Report on the Americas]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=35–41 |doi=10.1080/10714839.1998.11725657 |quote=the military's growing frustration over the limitations placed upon its counterinsurgency operations by democratic institutions, coupled with the growing inability of civilian politicians to deal with the spiraling economic crisis and the expansion of the Shining Path, prompted a group of military officers to devise a coup plan in the late 1980s. The plan called for the dissolution of Peru's civilian government, military control over the state, and total elimination of armed opposition groups. The plan, developed in a series of documents known as the "Plan Verde," outlined a strategy for carrying out a military coup in which the armed forces would govern for 15 to 20 years and radically restructure state-society relations along neoliberal lines.}}</ref> The Peruvian armed forces grew frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises and began to draft an operation – [[Plan Verde]] – to overthrow his government.<ref name=":42" /><br />
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The military's Plan Verde involved the "[[Genocide|total extermination]]" of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians perceived as a drain on the economy, the control or [[censorship]] of media in the nation and the establishment of a [[neoliberal]] economy in Peru.<ref name="CANbio">{{cite journal |last1=Gaussens |first1=Pierre |title=The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Bioethics]] |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=180+ |doi=10.7202/1073797ar |s2cid=234586692 |quote=a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":42"/> During his campaigning for the [[1990 Peruvian general election]], [[Alberto Fujimori]] initially expressed concern against the proposed neoliberal policies of his opponent [[Mario Vargas Llosa]].<ref>{{cite web |title=La frugalidad de "Cambio 90" y el derroche de Fredemo |trans-title=The frugality of "Cambio 90" and the waste of Fredemo |publisher=El Proceso |url=http://www.proceso.com.mx/154825/la-frugalidad-de-cambio-90-y-el-derroche-de-fredemo |access-date=December 27, 2017 |archive-date=September 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920122715/https://www.proceso.com.mx/154825/la-frugalidad-de-cambio-90-y-el-derroche-de-fredemo |url-status=dead |language=es}}</ref> Peruvian magazine ''Oiga'' reported that, following the election, the armed forces were unsure of Fujimori's willingness to fulfill the plan's objectives, though they planned to convince Fujimori to agree to the operation prior to his inauguration.<ref name=":62">{{Cite magazine |title=El "Plan Verde" Historia de una traición |trans-title=The "Green Plan" Story of a betrayal |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/310286817/El-Plan-Verde |magazine=Oiga |volume=647 |language=es}}</ref> After taking office, Fujimori abandoned his campaign's economic platform, adopting more aggressive neoliberal policies than those espoused by his election competitor Vargas Llosa.<ref name="gouge32">{{Cite book |last=Gouge |first=Thomas |title=Exodus from Capitalism: The End of Inflation and Debt |page=363}}</ref> With Fujimori's compliance, plans for a coup as designed in Plan Verde were prepared for two years and finally executed during the [[1992 Peruvian coup d'état]], which ultimately established a civilian-military regime.<ref name="LAgolpe1">{{cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=Maxwell A. |title=Latin American Autogolpes: Dangerous Undertows in the Third Wave of Democratisation |journal=[[Third World Quarterly]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=228 |doi=10.1080/01436599814433 |quote=the outlines for Peru's presidential coup were first developed within the armed forces before the 1990 election. This Plan Verde was shown to President Fujimorti after the 1990 election before his inauguration. Thus, the president was able to prepare for an eventual self-coup during the first two years of his administration}}</ref><ref name=":62"/><br />
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Shortly after the inauguration of Fujimori, his government received a $715 million grant from [[United States Agency for International Development|United States Agency for International Development (USAID)]] on 29 September 1990 for the Policy Analysis, Planning and Implementation Project (PAPI) that was developed "to support economic policy reform in the country".<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=Evaluation of the Policy Analysis, Planning and Implementation (PAPI) Project USAID/Peru |url=https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PDABR060.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007061521/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PDABR060.pdf |archive-date=October 7, 2006 |url-status=live |website=[[United States Agency of International Development]]}}</ref> De Soto proved to be influential to Fujimori, who began to repeat de Soto's advocacy for deregulating the Peruvian economy.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Peru's Fujimori Weighs In On Behalf of Street Sellers Nation's informal economy is protected in president's economic plan |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]}}</ref> Under Fujimori, de Soto served as "the President's personal representative", with ''[[The New York Times]]'' describing de Soto as an "overseas salesman", while others dubbed de Soto as the "informal president" for Fujimori.<ref name=":13">{{Cite news |last1=Brooke |first1=James |title=A Peruvian Is Laying Out Another Path |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/11/27/world/a-peruvian-is-laying-out-another-path.html |access-date=September 26, 2020 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":21"/> In a recommendation to Fujimori, de Soto called for a "shock" to Peru's economy.<ref name=":21"/> The policies included a 300% tax increase, unregulated prices and privatizing two-hundred and fifty state-owned entities.<ref name=":21"/> The policies of de Soto led to the immediate suffering of poor Peruvians who saw unregulated prices increase rapidly.<ref name=":21" /> Those living in poverty saw prices increase so much that they could no longer afford food.<ref name=":21" /> ''The New York Times'' wrote that de Soto advocated for the collapse of Peru's society, with the economist saying that a civil crisis was necessary to support the policies of Fujimori.<ref name="NYTfeb">{{cite news |last1=Nash |first1=Nathaniel C. |title=The World; Fujimori In the Time Of Cholera |page=Section 4, Page 2 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/02/24/weekinreview/the-world-fujimori-in-the-time-of-cholera.html |access-date=August 5, 2021}}</ref> Fujimori and de Soto would ultimately break their ties after de Soto recommended increased involvement of citizens within the government, which was received with disapproval by Fujimori.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Robinson |first=Eugene |title=Peruvians Puzzle Over President; Popularity Plummets As 'Fujishock' Felt |page=a12 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |quote=But when de Soto announced a program of administrative reform to involve the public in government decisions, Fujimori's cabinet undercut him.}}</ref> USAID would go on to assist the Fujimori government with rewriting the 1993 Peruvian constitution, with the agency concluding in 1997 that it helped with the "preparation of legislative texts" and "contributed to the emergence of a private sector advisory role".<ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Rendón |first=Silvio |title=La intervención de los Estados Unidos en el Perú |language=es |trans-title=The intervention of the United States in Peru |publisher=Editorial Sur |year=2013 |isbn=9786124574139 |pages=150–152}}</ref><ref name=":22"/> The policies promoted by de Soto and implemented by Fujimori eventually caused macroeconomic stability and a reduction in the rate of [[inflation]], though Peru's poverty rate remained largely unchanged with over half of the population living in poverty in 1998.<ref name=":21"/><ref name=":222">{{cite journal |last1=Stokes |first1=Susan |title=Are Parties What's Wrong with Democracy in Latin America? |journal=XX International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Guadalajara, Mexico, April 17–19, 1997 |year=1997 |citeseerx=10.1.1.569.1490}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pee |first=Robert |title=The Reagan Administration, the Cold War, and the Transition to Democracy Promotion |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-3319963815 |pages=187–188}}</ref><br />
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According to the [[Foundation for Economic Education]], USAID, the [[United Nations Population Fund|United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)]] and the [[Nippon Foundation]] also supported the sterilization efforts of the Fujimori government.<ref name=":33">{{Cite web |last=McMaken |first=Ryan |title=How the U.S. Government Led a Program That Forcibly Sterilized Thousands of Poor Peruvian Women in the 1990s {{!}} Ryan McMaken |url=https://fee.org/articles/the-us-government-led-a-program-that-forcibly-sterilized-thousands-of-peruvian-women/ |access-date=August 4, 2021 |website=[[Foundation for Economic Education]] |language=en}}</ref> E. Liagin reported that from 1993 to 1998, USAID "basically took charge of the national health system of Peru" during the period of forced sterilizations.<ref name=":33"/> At least 300,000 Peruvians were victims of forced sterilization by the Fujimori government in the 1990s, with the majority being affected by the [[National Population Program|PNSRPF]].<ref name="CANbio"/> The policy of sterilizations resulted in a generational shift that included a smaller younger generation that could not provide economic stimulation to rural areas, making such regions more impoverished.<ref name=":72">{{Cite news |title=Mass sterilisation scandal shocks Peru |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2148793.stm |access-date=August 4, 2021}}</ref><br />
<br />
Though economic statistics show improved economic data in Peru in recent decades, the wealth earned between 1990 and 2020 was not distributed throughout the country; living standards showed disparities between the more-developed capital city of Lima and similar coastal regions while rural provinces remained impoverished.<ref name=":20">{{Cite web |title=Buenos Aires Times {{!}} Inequality fuels rural teacher's unlikely bid to upend Peru |url=https://batimes.com.ar/news/latin-america/inequality-fuels-a-rural-teachers-unlikely-bid-to-upend-peru.phtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604101055/https://batimes.com.ar/news/latin-america/inequality-fuels-a-rural-teachers-unlikely-bid-to-upend-peru.phtml |archive-date=June 4, 2021 |access-date=June 4, 2021 |website=[[Buenos Aires Times]] |publisher=[[Bloomberg.com|Bloomberg]]}}</ref><ref name=":173">{{cite magazine |last=Allen |first=Nicolas |title=Pedro Castillo Can Help End Neoliberalism in Peru |url=https://jacobinmag.com/2021/06/pedro-castillo-peru-libre-keiko-fujimori-runoff-election-june-6-neoliberalism |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618113630/https://www.jacobinmag.com/2021/06/pedro-castillo-peru-libre-keiko-fujimori-runoff-election-june-6-neoliberalism |archive-date=June 18, 2021 |access-date=June 3, 2021 |magazine=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]]}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite web |last=O'Boyle |first=Brendan |title=Pedro Castillo and the 500-Year-Old Lima vs Rural Divide |url=https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/pedro-castillo-and-the-500-year-old-lima-vs-rural-divide/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603100944/https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/pedro-castillo-and-the-500-year-old-lima-vs-rural-divide/ |archive-date=June 3, 2021 |access-date=June 3, 2021 |website=[[Americas Quarterly]] |language=en-US}}</ref> Sociologist Maritza Paredes of the [[Pontifical Catholic University of Peru]] stated, "People see that all the natural resources are in the countryside but all the benefits are concentrated in Lima."<ref name=":20"/> In 2020, the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Peru]] compounded these disparities,<ref name=":173"/><ref name=":18"/> with political scientist Professor Farid Kahhat of the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru stating that, "market reforms in Peru have yielded positive results in terms of reducing poverty ... But what the pandemic has laid bare, particularly in Peru, is that poverty was reduced while leaving the miserable state of public services unaltered{{snd}}most clearly in the case of health services."<ref name=":173"/> The candidacy of [[Pedro Castillo]] in the [[2021 Peruvian general election]] brought attention to the disparities between urban and rural Peruvians, with much of his support being earned in the exterior portions of the country.<ref name=":18"/> Castillo ultimately won the election, with ''The New York Times'' reporting his victory as the "clearest repudiation of the country's establishment".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tegel |first=Simeon |title=Presumed President-elect Pedro Castillo faces challenges in Peru |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/6/18/who-is-pedro-castillo-perus-presumed-president-elect |access-date=June 22, 2021 |work=[[Al Jazeera]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Taj |first1=Mitra |last2=Turkewitz |first2=Julie |title=Pedro Castillo, Leftist Political Outsider, Wins Peru Presidency |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/19/world/americas/peru-election-pedro-castillo.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/19/world/americas/peru-election-pedro-castillo.html |archive-date=December 28, 2021 |url-access=limited |access-date=July 20, 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Argentina ====<br />
{{further|José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz|Domingo Cavallo}}<br />
In the 1960s, [[Latin America]]n intellectuals began to notice the ideas of [[ordoliberalism]]; they often used the Spanish term "neoliberalismo" to refer to this school of thought. They were particularly impressed by the [[social market economy]] and the [[Wirtschaftswunder]] ("economic miracle") in Germany and speculated about the possibility of accomplishing similar policies in their own countries. Neoliberalism in 1960s Argentina meant a philosophy that was more moderate than entirely [[Laissez-faire]] [[free market|free-market]] [[capitalism]] and favored using state policy to temper [[social inequality]] and counter a tendency towards monopoly.{{sfnp|Boas|Gans-Morse|2009}}<br />
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In 1976, the [[National Reorganization Process|military dictatorship]]'s economic plan led by [[José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz]] was the first attempt at establishing a neoliberal program in Argentina. They implemented a fiscal [[austerity]] plan that reduced money printing in an attempt to counter inflation. In order to achieve this, salaries were frozen; however, they were unable to reduce inflation, which led to a drop in the real salary of the working class. They also liberalized trade policy so that foreign goods could freely enter the country. Argentina's industry, which had been on the rise for 20 years after the economic policies of former president [[Arturo Frondizi]], rapidly declined as it was not able to compete with foreign goods. The deregulation of the financial sector led to short-term economic growth, before rapid decline after capital fled to the United States.{{citation needed}} Following the measures, there was an increase in poverty from 9% in 1975 to 40% at the end of 1982.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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From 1989 to 2001, more neoliberal policies were implemented by [[Domingo Cavallo]]. This time, the privatization of public services was the main focus, although financial deregulation and free trade with foreign nations were also re-implemented. Along with an increased [[labour market flexibility]], the unemployment rate dropped to 18.3%.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Poster Child or Victim of Imperialist Globalization? Explaining Argentina's December 2001 Political Crisis and Economic Collapse |jstor=30040267 |journal=[[Latin American Perspectives]] |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=65–89 |last1=Carranza |first1=Mario E. |doi=10.1177/0094582X05281114 |s2cid=144975029}}</ref> Public perception of the policies was mixed; while some of the privatization was welcomed, much of it was criticized for not being in the people's best interests. Protests resulted in the death of 29<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Social Revolution or Political Takeover? The Argentine Collapse of 2001 Reassessed |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/60a9afa3edd4e351d9255c2004cdbbf35b734361 |journal=[[Latin American Perspectives]] |volume=42 |page=10 |doi=10.1177/0094582X13492710 |year=2015 |last1=Malamud |first1=Andrés |s2cid=153480464}}</ref> people at the hands of police, as well as the resignation of president [[Fernando de la Rúa]] two years before the full completion of his term.{{citation needed}}<br />
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==== Mexico ====<br />
Along with many other Latin American countries in the early 1980s, [[Mexico]] experienced a [[Latin American debt crisis|debt crisis]]. In 1983 the Mexican government ruled by the [[Institutional Revolutionary Party#:~:text=The Institutional Revolutionary Party (Spanish,, PNR), then as the|PRI]], the Institutional Revolutionary Party, [[Mexico and the International Monetary Fund|accepted loans from the IMF]].&nbsp;Among the conditions set by the IMF were requirements for Mexico to privatize state-run industries, [[Devaluation|devalue their currency]], decrease [[trade barrier]]s, and restrict governmental spending.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Musacchio |first=Aldo |title=Mexico's Financial Crisis of 1994-1995 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:9056792 |journal=[[Harvard Business School|Harvard Business School Working Paper]] |issue=12–101 |via=Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard}}</ref> These policies were aimed at stabilizing Mexico's economy in the short run. Later, Mexico tried to expand these policies to encourage growth and [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI).<br />
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The decision to accept the IMF's neoliberal reforms split the PRI between those on the right who wanted to implement neoliberal policies and those the left who did not.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Laurell |first=Asa Cristina |title=Three Decades of Neoliberalism in Mexico: The Destruction of Society |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0020731414568507 |journal=[[International Journal of Health Services]] |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=246–264 |doi=10.1177/0020731414568507 |pmid=25813500 |s2cid=35915954 |via=SAGE}}</ref> [[Carlos Salinas de Gortari]], who took power in 1988, doubled down on neoliberal reforms. His policies opened up the financial sector by deregulating the banking system and privatizing commercial banks.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> Though these policies did encourage a small amount of growth and FDI, the growth rate was below what it had been under previous governments in Mexico, and the increase in foreign investment was largely from existing investors.<ref name=":6" /> <br />
[[File:President Bush, Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and Mexican President Carlos Salinas participate in the... - NARA - 186460.jpg|thumb|U.S. President Bush, Canadian PM Mulroney, and Mexican President Salinas participate in the ceremonies to sign the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).]]<br />
On 1 January 1994 the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatista Army]] of National Liberation, named for [[Emiliano Zapata]], a leader in the Mexican revolution, launched an armed rebellion against the Mexican government in the Chiapas region.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Godelmann |first=Iker Reyes |title=The Zapatista Movement: The Fight for Indigenous Rights in Mexico |work=Australian Institute for International Affairs |url=http://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/news-item/the-zapatista-movement-the-fight-for-indigenous-rights-in-mexico/}}</ref> Among their demands were rights for indigenous Mexicans as well as opposition to the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA), which solidified a strategic alliance between state and business.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bensabat Kleinberg |first1=Remonda |year=1999 |title=Strategic Alliances: State‐Business Relations in Mexico Under Neo‐Liberalism and Crisis |journal=[[Bulletin of Latin American Research]] |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=71–87 |doi=10.1111/j.1470-9856.1999.tb00188.x}}</ref>&nbsp; NAFTA, a trade agreement between the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and Mexico, significantly aided in Mexico's efforts to liberalize trade.<br />
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In 1994, the same year of the Zapatista rebellion and the enactment of NAFTA, Mexico faced a [[Mexican peso crisis|financial crisis]]. The crisis, also known as the [[Mexican peso crisis|"Tequila Crisis"]] began in December 1994 with the devaluation of the peso.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Sachs |first=Jeffrey |title=The Mexican peso crisis: Sudden death or death foretold? |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w5563.pdf |journal=[[Journal of International Economics]] |volume=41 |issue=3–4 |pages=265–283 |doi=10.1016/S0022-1996(96)01437-7 |s2cid=154060545 |via=[[Science Direct]]}}</ref> When investors' doubts led to negative speculation they fled with their capital.&nbsp;The central bank was forced to raise [[interest rate]]s which in turn collapsed the banking system as borrowers could no longer pay back their loans.<ref name=":7" /><br />
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After Salinas, [[Ernesto Zedillo]] (1995–2000) maintained similar economic policies to his predecessor. Despite the crisis, Zedillo continued to enact neoliberal policies and signed new agreements with the [[World Bank]] and the IMF.<ref name=":6" /> As a result of these policies and the 1994 recession, Mexico's economy did gain stability. Neither the 2001 or [[Great Recession|2008]] recessions were caused by internal economic forces in Mexico. Trade increased dramatically, as well as FDI; however, as Mexico's [[business cycle]] synced with that of the United States, it was much more vulnerable to external economic pressures.<ref name=":5" /> FDI benefited the Northern and Central regions of Mexico while the Southern region was largely excluded from the influx of investment. The crisis also left the banks mainly in the hands of foreigners.<br />
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The PRI's 71 year rule ended when [[Vicente Fox]] of the PAN, the [[National Action Party (Mexico)|National Action Party]], won the election in 2000. Fox and his successor, [[Felipe Calderón]], did not significantly diverge from the economic policies of the PRI governments. They continued to privatize the financial system and encourage foreign investment.<ref name=":6" /> Despite significant opposition, [[Enrique Peña Nieto]], president from 2012 to 2018, pushed through legislation that would privatize the [[Petroleum industry in Mexico|oil]] and [[Electricity sector in Mexico|electricity industries]]. These reforms marked the conclusion to the neoliberal goals that had been envisioned in Mexico in the 1980s.<ref name=":6" /><br />
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==== Brazil ====<br />
{{Main|Economic history of Brazil}}<br />
Brazil adopted neoliberal policies in the late 1980s, with support from the worker's party on the left. For example, tariff rates were cut from 32% in 1990 to 14% in 1994. During this period, Brazil effectively ended its policy of maintaining a closed economy focused on [[import substitution industrialization]] in favor of a more open economic system with a much higher degree of privatization. The market reforms and trade reforms ultimately resulted in price stability and a faster inflow of capital, but had little effect on income inequality and poverty. Consequently, mass protests continued during the period.<ref>Edmund Amann, and Werner Baer, "Neoliberalism and its consequences in Brazil." ''Journal of Latin American Studies'' 34.4 (2002): 945-959. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Werner_Baer/publication/231930218_Neoliberalism_and_Its_Consequences_in_Brazil/links/5545351f0cf24107d397b0ad.pdf Online]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Saad-Filho |first1=Alfredo |year=2013 |title=Mass protests under 'left neoliberalism': Brazil, June-July 2013 |journal=[[Critical Sociology]] |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=657–669 |doi=10.1177/0896920513501906 |s2cid=144667014}}</ref><br />
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=== United Kingdom ===<br />
During her tenure as [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] Prime Minister, [[Margaret Thatcher]] oversaw a number of neoliberal reforms, including [[tax cut|tax reduction]], [[exchange rate]] reform, [[deregulation]], and [[privatisation]].{{sfnp|Steger|Roy|2010|p=50}} These reforms were continued and supported by her successor [[John Major]]. Although opposed by the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]], the reforms were, according to some scholars, largely accepted and left unaltered when Labour returned to power in 1997 under [[Tony Blair]].<ref name="Handbook144"/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gray |first=John |title=Blair's Project in Retrospect |journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]] |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=39–48 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2004.00364.x |jstor=3569292}}</ref><br />
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The [[Adam Smith Institute]], a United Kingdom–based free-market think tank and lobbying group formed in 1977 which was a major driver of the aforementioned neoliberal reforms,{{sfnp|Springer|Birch|MacLeavy|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M5qkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA374 374]}} officially changed its libertarian label to neoliberal in October 2016.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.adamsmith.org/blog/coming-out-as-neoliberals |title=Coming Out as Neoliberals |website=The [[Adam Smith Institute]] }}</ref><br />
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According to economists Denzau and Roy, the "shift from Keynesian ideas toward neoliberalism influenced the fiscal policy strategies of New Democrats and New Labour in both the White House and Whitehall.... Reagan, Thatcher, Clinton, and Blair all adopted broadly similar neoliberal beliefs."<ref>Denzau, Arthur T., and Ravi K. Roy, ''Fiscal Policy Convergence from Reagan to Blair: The Left Veers Right'' ([[Routledge]], 2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=MIR_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 p. xvi]. {{ISBN|978-0415324137}}.</ref><ref>Daniel Stedman Jones. Chapter 13: "The Neoliberal Origins of the Third Way: How Chicago, Virginia and Bloomington Shaped Clinton and Blair". In Damien Cahill et al. eds. ''The SAGE Handbook of Neoliberalism'' (2018): 167ff. {{doi|10.4135/9781526416001.n14}}</ref><br />
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=== United States ===<br />
{{see also|Reaganomics|Reagan Era|New Democrats}}<br />
While a number of recent histories of neoliberalism<ref>{{Cite web |last=themetropoleblog |title=Neoliberalism: Kim Phillips-Fein and Tracy Neumann Unpack the Knotty Realities and History of the Ubiquitous Term |website=The Metropole |language=en |url=https://themetropole.blog/2019/06/05/neoliberalism-kim-phillips-fein-and-tracy-neumann-unpack-the-knotty-realities-and-history-of-the-ubiquitous-term/ |access-date=September 4, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Diamond |first=Andrew |url=https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520286498/chicago-on-the-make |title=Chicago on the Make |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=9780520286498 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Remaking the Rust Belt {{!}} Tracy Neumann |url=https://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/15517.html |access-date=September 4, 2020 |website=www.upenn.edu}}</ref> in the United States have traced its origins back to the urban renewal policies of the 1950s, [[Marxism|Marxist]] economic geographer [[David Harvey]] argues the rise of neoliberal policies in the United States occurred during the [[1970s energy crisis]],<ref name=Harvey-Jacobin/> and traces the origin of its political rise to [[Lewis F. Powell Jr.#Powell Memorandum, 1971|Lewis Powell's 1971 confidential memorandum]] to the [[United States Chamber of Commerce|Chamber of Commerce]] in particular.{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=43}} A call to arms to the business community to counter criticism of the free enterprise system, it was a significant factor in the rise of conservative and libertarian organizations and think-tanks which advocated for neoliberal policies, such as the [[Business Roundtable]], [[The Heritage Foundation]], the [[Cato Institute]], [[Citizens for a Sound Economy]], [[Accuracy in Academia]] and the [[Manhattan Institute for Policy Research]].{{sfnp|Gerstle|2022|pp=108-110}} For Powell, universities were becoming an ideological battleground, and he recommended the establishment of an intellectual infrastructure to serve as a counterweight to the increasingly popular ideas of [[Ralph Nader]] and other opponents of big business.<ref>Kevin Doogan (2009). ''New Capitalism.'' [[Polity (publisher)|Polity]]. {{ISBN|0745633250}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=YTsXHSMMndIC&pg=PA34 p. 34].</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Powell |first=Lewis F. Jr. |title=Attack of American Free Enterprise System |website=[[PBS]] |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/personality/sources_document13.html |access-date=March 1, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104052451/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/personality/sources_document13.html |archive-date=January 4, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=Harvey-Jacobin/> The original neoliberals on the left included, among others, [[Michael Kinsley]], [[Charles Peters]], [[James Fallows]], [[Nicholas Lemann]], [[Bill Bradley]], [[Bruce Babbitt]], [[Gary Hart]], and [[Paul Tsongas]]. Sometimes called "[[Atari Democrat]]s", these were the men who helped to remake American liberalism into neoliberalism, culminating in the election of [[Bill Clinton]] in 1992. These new liberals disagreed with the policies and programs of mid-century liberals like [[Walter Reuther]] or [[John Kenneth Galbraith]] or even [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.|Arthur Schlesinger]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=The First Neoliberals |url=https://jacobinmag.com/2016/04/chait-neoliberal-new-inquiry-democrats-socialism/ |first=Corey |last=Robin |access-date=April 27, 2021 |magazine=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]] |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
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Early roots of neoliberalism were laid in the 1970s during the [[Presidency of Jimmy Carter|Carter administration]], with deregulation of the [[Motor Carrier Act of 1980|trucking]], banking and [[Airline Deregulation Act|airline industries]],<ref>{{cite web |first=William L. |last=Anderson |title=Rethinking Carter |url=https://mises.org/library/rethinking-carter}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Andrew |last=Leonard |title=No, Jimmy Carter did it |url=http://www.salon.com/2009/06/04/jimmy_carter_did_it/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Firey |first=Thomas A. |title=A salute to Carter, deregulation's hero |url=http://articles.herald-mail.com/2011-02-20/opinion/28614285_1_jimmy-carter-deregulation-peanut-farmer |access-date=January 20, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114225036/http://articles.herald-mail.com/2011-02-20/opinion/28614285_1_jimmy-carter-deregulation-peanut-farmer |archive-date=January 14, 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> as well as the appointment of [[Paul Volcker]] to chairman of the [[Federal Reserve]].{{sfnp|Stedman Jones|2014|p=5}} This trend continued into the 1980s under the [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Reagan administration]], which included [[Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981|tax cuts]], increased defense spending, financial deregulation and [[trade deficit]] expansion.<ref name="Karagiannis"/> Likewise, concepts of [[supply-side economics]], discussed by the Democrats in the 1970s, culminated in the 1980 [[Joint Economic Committee]] report "Plugging in the Supply Side". This was picked up and advanced by the Reagan administration, with Congress following Reagan's basic proposal and cutting federal income taxes across the board by 25% in 1981.<ref>{{cite book |first=Darrell M. |last=West |title=Congress and Economic Policy Making |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h64et3mOxH8C&pg=PA71 |year=1987 |page=71 |isbn=978-0822974352 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><br />
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The [[Presidency of Bill Clinton|Clinton administration]] embraced neoliberalism<ref name="Handbook144"/> by supporting the passage of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA), continuing the deregulation of the financial sector through passage of the [[Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000|Commodity Futures Modernization Act]] and the repeal of the [[Glass–Steagall Act]] and implementing cuts to the [[Welfare state#United States|welfare state]] through passage of the [[Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act]].<ref name="Karagiannis">{{cite book |editor1-first=Nikolaos |editor1-last=Karagiannis |editor2-first=Zagros |editor2-last=Madjd-Sadjadi |editor3-first=Swapan |editor3-last=Sen |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-US-Economy-and-Neoliberalism-Alternative-Strategies-and-Policies/Karagiannis-Madjd-Sadjadi-Sen/p/book/9780415645058 |title=The US Economy and Neoliberalism: Alternative Strategies and Policies |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1138904910 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aYKfai1RlPYC&pg=PA58 58]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.democracynow.org/1997/8/25/food_stamps |title=Food Stamps |work=[[Democracy Now]]! |access-date=August 16, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first=Alan S. |last=Blinder |title=Alan Blinder: Five Years Later, Financial Lessons Not Learned |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323623304579059070153371410?mod=WSJ_hps_sections_opinion |work=[[Wall Street Journal]] |quote=(Blinder summarizing causes of the "Great Recession": "Disgracefully bad mortgages created a problem. But wild and woolly customized derivatives—totally unregulated due to the odious Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000—blew the problem up into a catastrophe. Derivatives based on mortgages were a principal source of the reckless leverage that backfired so badly during the crisis, imposing huge losses on investors and many financial firms.")}}</ref> The American historian [[Gary Gerstle]] writes that while Reagan was the ideological architect of the neoliberal order which was formulated in the 1970s and 1980s, it was Clinton who was its key facilitator, and as such this order achieved dominance in the 1990s and early 2000s.{{sfnp|Gerstle|2022|p=1}} The neoliberalism of the Clinton administration differs from that of Reagan as the Clinton administration purged neoliberalism of [[neoconservative]] positions on [[militarism]], family values, opposition to [[multiculturalism]] and neglect of ecological issues.{{sfnp|Steger|Roy|2010|pp=50–51}}{{Disputed inline|Clinton does not neglect ecological issues?}} Writing in ''[[New York (magazine)|New York]]'', journalist [[Jonathan Chait]] disputed accusations that the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] had been hijacked by neoliberals, saying that its policies have largely stayed the same since the New Deal. Instead, Chait suggested these accusations arose from arguments that presented a [[false dichotomy]] between free-market economics and socialism, ignoring mixed economies.<ref>{{cite web |last=Chait |first=Jonathan |url=https://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2017/07/how-neoliberalism-became-the-lefts-favorite-insult.html |title=How 'Neoliberalism' Became the Left's Favorite Insult of Liberals |work=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] |access-date=January 18, 2018}}</ref> American feminist philosopher [[Nancy Fraser]] says the modern Democratic Party has embraced a "progressive neoliberalism", which she describes as a "progressive-neoliberal alliance of financialization plus emancipation".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dissentmagazine.org/online_articles/nancy-fraser-against-progressive-neoliberalism-progressive-populism |title=Against Progressive Neoliberalism, A New Progressive Populism |last=Fraser |first=Nancy |website=[[Dissent (American magazine)|Dissent]] |access-date=June 13, 2019}}</ref> Historian [[Walter Scheidel]] says that both parties shifted to promote free-market capitalism in the 1970s, with the Democratic Party being "instrumental in implementing financial deregulation in the 1990s".<ref>{{cite book |last=Scheidel |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Scheidel |title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0691165028 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NgZpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA416 416] |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10921.html |quote=In the United States, both of the dominant parties have shifted toward free-market capitalism. Even though analysis of roll call votes show that since the 1970s, Republicans have drifted farther to the right than Democrats have moved to the left, the latter were instrumental in implementing financial deregulation in the 1990s and focused increasingly on cultural issues such as gender, race, and sexual identity rather than traditional social welfare policies.}}</ref> Historians [[Andrew Diamond (professor)|Andrew Diamond]] and [[Thomas Sugrue]] argue that neoliberalism became a "'dominant rationality' precisely because it could not be confined to a single partisan identity."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neoliberal Cities |url=https://nyupress.org/9781479832378/neoliberal-cities |access-date=September 4, 2020 |website=[[NYU Press]] |language=en-US}}</ref> Economic and political inequalities in schools, universities, and libraries and an undermining of democratic and civil society institutions influenced by neoliberalism has been explored by Buschman.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Buschman |first=John |title=Education, the Public Sphere, and Neoliberalism: Libraries' Contexts. |journal=[[Library Quarterly]] |volume=90 |number=2 |pages=154–61 |doi=10.1086/707671 |s2cid=216334602}}</ref><br />
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=== Asia-Pacific ===<br />
Scholars who emphasized the key role of the developmental state in the early period of fast industrialization in East Asia in the late 19th century now argue that South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore have transformed from developmental to close-to-neoliberal states. Their arguments are matter of scholarly debate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wade |first1=Robert H. |year=2018 |title=The developmental state: dead or alive?. |url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/87356/ |journal=[[Development and Change]] |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=518–546 |doi=10.1111/dech.12381}}</ref><br />
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==== China ====<br />
{{See also|Chinese economic reform}}<br />
Following the death of [[Mao Zedong]] in 1976, [[Deng Xiaoping]] led the country through far ranging market-centered reforms, with the slogan of [[Moderately prosperous society|Xiǎokāng]], that combined neoliberalism with centralized [[authoritarianism]]. These focused on agriculture, industry, education and science/defense.{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=}}<br />
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Experts debate the extent to which traditional Maoist communist doctrines have been transformed to incorporate the new neoliberal ideas. In any case, the Chinese Communist Party remains a dominant force in setting economic and business policies.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Niv |last1=Horesh |first2=Kean Fan |last2=Lim |title=China: an East Asian alternative to neoliberalism? |journal=[[The Pacific Review|Pacific Review]] |volume=30 |number=4 |pages=425–442 |doi=10.1080/09512748.2016.1264459 |s2cid=157838428 |url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/25972/1/25972.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427115432/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/25972/1/25972.pdf |archive-date=2019-04-27 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Yu |last2=Lin |first2=George C.S. |last3=Zhang |first3=Jun |year=2019 |title=Urban China through the lens of neoliberalism: Is a conceptual twist enough?. |journal=[[Urban Studies (journal)|Urban Studies]] |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=33–43 |doi=10.1177/0042098018775367 |s2cid=158354394}}</ref> Throughout the 20th century, Hong Kong was the outstanding neoliberal exemplar inside China.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tang |first1=Gary |last2=Hau-yin Yuen |first2=Raymond |year=2016 |title=Hong Kong as the 'neoliberal exception'of China: Transformation of Hong Kong citizenship before and after the transfer of sovereignty |journal=[[Journal of Chinese Political Science]] |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=469–484 |doi=10.1007/s11366-016-9438-7 |s2cid=157215962}}</ref><br />
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==== Taiwan ====<br />
Taiwan exemplifies the impact of neoliberal ideas. The policies were pushed by the United States but were not implemented in response to a failure of the national economy, as in numerous other countries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsai |first1=Ming-Chang |year=2001 |title=Dependency, the state and class in the neoliberal transition of Taiwan |journal=[[Third World Quarterly]] |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=359–379 |doi=10.1080/01436590120061651 |s2cid=154037027}}</ref><br />
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==== Japan ====<br />
{{See also|Developmental state}}<br />
Neoliberal policies were at the core of the leading party in Japan, the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP), after 1980. These policies had the effect of abandoning the traditional rural base and emphasizing the central importance of the Tokyo industrial-economic region.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsukamoto |first1=Takashi |year=2012 |title=Neoliberalization of the developmental state: Tokyo's bottom‐up politics and state rescaling in Japan |journal=[[International Journal of Urban and Regional Research]] |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=71–89 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2427.2011.01057.x}}</ref> Neoliberal proposals for Japan's agricultural sector called for reducing state intervention, ending the protection of high prices for rice and other farm products, and exposing farmers to the global market. The 1993 [[Uruguay Round]] of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade negotiations opened up the rice market. Neoconservative leaders called for the enlargement, diversification, intensification, and corporatization of the farms receiving government subsidies. In 2006, the ruling LDP decided to no longer protect small farmers with subsidies. Small operators saw this as favoritism towards big corporate agriculture and reacted politically by supporting the [[Democratic Party of Japan]] (DPJ), helping to defeat the LDP in nationwide elections.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miyake |first1=Yoshitaka |year=2016 |title=Neoliberal Agricultural Policies and Farmers' Political Power in Japan |journal=Yearbook of the Association of Pacific Coast Geographers |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=216–239 |doi=10.1353/pcg.2016.0012 |s2cid=157682364}}</ref><br />
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==== South Korea ====<br />
In South Korea, neoliberalism had the effect of strengthening the national government's control over economic policies. These policies were popular to the extent that they weakened the historically very powerful [[chaebol]] family-owned conglomerates.<ref>{{cite journal |first=David |last=Hundt |title=Neoliberalism, the developmental state and civil society in Korea |journal=[[Asian Studies Review]] |volume=39 |number=3 |pages=466–482 |doi=10.1080/10357823.2015.1052339 |s2cid=153689882 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279860946}}</ref><br />
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==== India ====<br />
In India, Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] took office in 2014 with a commitment to implement neoliberal economic policies. This commitment would shape national politics and foreign affairs, and put India in a race with China and Japan for economic supremacy in East Asia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rej |first1=Abhijnan |year=2017 |title=Beyond India's Quest for a Neoliberal Order |journal=[[The Washington Quarterly]] |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=145–161 |doi=10.1080/0163660X.2017.1328930 |s2cid=157335443}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=N. S. |last=Sisodia |chapter=Economic Modernisation and the Growing Influence of Neoliberalism on India's Strategic Thought |title=Indian Grand Strategy: History, Theory, Cases |editor1-first=Kanti |editor1-last=Bajpai |editor2-first=Saira |editor2-last=Basit |editor3-first=V. |editor3-last=Krishnappa |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New Delhi |pages=176–199}}</ref><br />
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==== Australia ====<br />
In Australia, neoliberal economic policies (known at the time as "[[economic rationalism]]"<ref>{{cite book |last=Pusey |first=M. |title=Economic rationalism in Canberra: A nation-building state changes its mind |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}</ref> or "economic fundamentalism") have been embraced by governments of both the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]] and the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] since the 1980s. The Labor governments of [[Bob Hawke]] and [[Paul Keating]] from 1983 to 1996 pursued a program of economic reform focused on [[economic liberalisation]]. These governments privatised government corporations, deregulated factor markets, floated the [[Australian dollar]] and reduced trade protections.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cameron |first=Clyde R. |url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lab/86/cameron.html |title=How the Federal Parliamentary Labor Party Lost Its Way |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120803004406/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lab/86/cameron.html |archive-date=August 3, 2012}}</ref> Another key policy was [[Prices and Incomes Accord|the accords]] which was an agreement with unions to agree to a reduction in strikes, wage demands and a real wage cut in exchange for the implementation of social policies, such as [[Medicare (Australia)|Medicare]] and [[Superannuation in Australia|superannuation]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Forsyth |first1=Anthony |last2=Holbrook |first2=Carolyn |title=Australian politics explainer: the Prices and Incomes Accord |url=https://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-the-prices-and-incomes-accord-75622 |website=The Conversation |publisher=The Conversation Media Group |access-date=November 9, 2022}}</ref> The [[Howard government]] continued these policies, whilst also acting to reduce union power, cut welfare and reduce government spending.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Duncan |first1=Alan |last2=Cassells |first2=Rebecca |title=Government spending explained in 10 charts; from Howard to Turnbull |url=https://theconversation.com/government-spending-explained-in-10-charts-from-howard-to-turnbull-77158 |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |publisher=The Conversation Media Group |access-date=November 9, 2022}}</ref><br />
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Keating, building on policies he had introduced while federal treasurer, implemented a compulsory [[Superannuation in Australia|superannuation guarantee]] system in 1992 to increase [[national savings]] and reduce future government liability for old age pensions.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Neilson |first1=L. |last2=Harris |first2=B. |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/Library/pubs/BN/2008-09/Chron_Superannuation.htm |title=Chronology of superannuation and retirement income in Australia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110909175528/http://www.aph.gov.au/Library/pubs/BN/2008-09/Chron_Superannuation.htm |archive-date=September 9, 2011 |website=Parliamentary Library |location=Canberra }}</ref> The financing of universities was deregulated, requiring students to contribute to [[Tertiary education fees in Australia|university fees]] through a repayable loan system known as the [[Higher Education Contribution Scheme]] (HECS) and encouraging universities to increase income by admitting full-fee-paying students, including foreign students.<ref>[[Simon Marginson|Marginson S]] ''[http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=3310 Tertiary Education: A revolution to what end?]'' Online Opinion, 5 April 2005</ref> The admission of domestic full-fee-paying students to public universities was abolished in 2009 by the [[Rudd Government (2007–10)|Rudd Labor government]].<ref name="Ministers Media Centre, Australian Government 2008">{{cite web |title=Government Delivers on Promise to Phase Out Full Fee Degrees |website=Ministers' Media Centre, Australian Government |url=https://ministers.jobs.gov.au/gillard/government-delivers-promise-phase-out-full-fee-degrees |access-date=July 10, 2018 |archive-date=April 21, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421041353/https://ministers.jobs.gov.au/gillard/government-delivers-promise-phase-out-full-fee-degrees |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
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Immigration to the mainland capitals by refugees have seen capital flows follow soon after, such as from war-torn [[Lebanon]] and [[Vietnam]]. Later economic-migrants from mainland [[China]] also, up to recent restrictions, had invested significantly in the property markets.<ref>{{cite news |title=Diversity helped Australia weather the resources bust |url=https://www.economist.com/special-report/2018/10/25/diversity-helped-australia-weather-the-resources-bust |access-date=July 5, 2019 |publisher=[[The Economist]] |quote=Building work had reached a nadir in the first quarter of 2012, when construction firms completed projects worth A$20bn. In the last quarter of 2017, that reached A$29bn. Foreigners accounted for a good share of their custom: the Foreign Investment Review Board approved A$72bn-worth of residential-property purchases in 2016, up from A$20bn in 2011. At its peak, foreign buying accounted for a quarter of residential-property sales in the two big cities.}}</ref>{{citation needed|reason=Economist article only mentions foreign investment generally, and not Chinese investment specifically}}<br />
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Australia was one of few developed countries not to go through a recession during the [[Great Recession]]; Australia's last recession before the [[COVID-19 recession]] occurred in 1991.<ref name="Economist-Australia1">{{cite news |title=Australia's economy is still booming, but politics is a cause for concern |url=https://www.economist.com/special-report/2018/10/25/australias-economy-is-still-booming-but-politics-is-a-cause-for-concern |access-date=July 12, 2019 |publisher=[[The Economist]] }}</ref><br />
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==== New Zealand ====<br />
{{See also|Rogernomics}}<br />
In New Zealand, neoliberal economic policies were implemented under the [[Fourth Labour Government of New Zealand|Fourth Labour Government]] led by Prime Minister [[David Lange]]. These neoliberal policies are commonly referred to as [[Rogernomics]], a portmanteau of "Roger" and "economics", after Lange appointed [[Roger Douglas]] minister of finance in 1984.<ref>{{Cite book |title=My Life |last=Lange |first=David |author-link=David Lange |publisher=Viking |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-670-04556-3 |pages=143}}</ref><br />
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Lange's government had inherited a severe balance of payments crisis as a result of the deficits from the previously implemented two-year freeze on wages and prices by preceding Prime Minister [[Robert Muldoon]], who had also maintained an [[exchange rate]] many economists now believe was unsustainable.<ref>{{Cite book |title=When Schools Compete: A Cautionary Tale |last1=Fiske |first1=Edward B. |last2=Ladd |first2=Helen F. |publisher=[[Brookings Institution Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8157-2835-1 |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_5458999018950/page/27 27] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_5458999018950/page/27}}</ref> The inherited economic conditions lead Lange to remark "We ended up being run very similarly to a Polish shipyard."<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10340844 |title=David Lange, in his own words |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]]}}</ref> On 14 September 1984, Lange's government held an Economic Summit to discuss the underlying problems with [[Economy of New Zealand|New Zealand's economy]], which lead to calls for dramatic economic reforms previously proposed by the [[New Zealand Treasury|Treasury Department]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Revolution: New Zealand from Fortress to Free Market |last=Russell |first=Marcia |publisher=[[Hodder Moa Beckett]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-1869584283 |pages=75}}</ref><br />
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A reform program consisting of [[deregulation]] and the removal of [[tariffs]] and [[subsidies]] was put in place. This had an immediate effect on [[New Zealand's agricultural community]], who were hit hard by the loss of subsidies to farmers.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=Revolution: New Zealand from Fortress to Free Market |last=Russell |first=Marcia |publisher=[[Hodder Moa Beckett]] |year=1996|isbn=978-1869584283 |pages=80}}</ref> A superannuation surcharge was introduced, despite having promised not to reduce [[superannuation]], resulting in [[Labour Party (New Zealand)|Labour]] losing support from the elderly. The financial markets were also deregulated, removing restrictions on [[interest rate|interests rates]], lending and foreign exchange. In March 1985, the New Zealand dollar was [[Floating exchange rate|floated]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/cartoon/33456/floating-the-new-zealand-dollar |title=Reserve Bank – Reserve Bank, 1936 to 1984 |last=Singleton |first=John |website=Te Ara Encyclopedia}}</ref> Additionally, a number of government departments were converted into state-owned enterprises, which lead to significant job losses: 3,000 within the Electricity Corporation; 4,000 within the Coal Corporation; 5,000 within the Forestry Corporation; and 8,000 within the New Zealand Post.<ref name=":2" /><br />
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New Zealand became a part of the global economy. The focus in the economy shifted from the productive sector to finance as a result of zero restrictions on overseas money coming into the country. Finance capital outstripped industrial capital and the manufacturing industry suffered approximately 76,000 job losses.<ref>{{Cite book |title=I See Red |last=Bell |first=Judith |publisher=[[Awa Press]] |year=2006 |location=Wellington |pages=22–56}}</ref><br />
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=== Middle East ===<br />
Beginning in the late 1960s, a number of neoliberal reforms were implemented in the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Over-stating the Arab state : politics and society in the Middle East |last=Ayubi |first=Nazih N. |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |isbn=9781441681966 |location=London |pages=329–395 |oclc=703424952}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Arab State and Neo-liberal Globalization: the Restructuring of State Power in the Middle East |last=Laura |first=Guazzone |publisher=[[Garnet Publishing]] (UK) Ltd |isbn=9780863725104 |location=New York |oclc=887506789}}</ref> For instance, [[Egypt]] is frequently linked to the implementation of neoliberal policies, particularly with regard to the 'open-door' policies of President [[Anwar Sadat]] throughout the 1970s,<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat: the political economy of two regimes |url=https://archive.org/details/egyptofnassersad0000wate |url-access=registration |last=Waterbury |first=John |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=1983 |isbn=9781400857357 |location=Princeton, New Jersey |oclc=889252154}}</ref> and [[Hosni Mubarak]]'s successive economic reforms between 1981 and 2011.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The autumn of dictatorship: fiscal crisis and political change in Egypt under Mubarak |last1=Sulaymān |first1=Samīr |last2=Daniel |first2=Peter |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=9780804777735 |location=Stanford, California |oclc=891400543}}</ref> These measures, known as ''[[Infitah|al-Infitah]]'', were later diffused across the region. In Tunisia, neoliberal economic policies are associated with former president and ''de facto'' dictator<ref>{{cite news |last1=Foreign Staff of the Telegraph |title=Tunisia's Ben Ali: Soldier who turned into dictator |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/tunisia/8586165/Tunisias-Ben-Ali-Soldier-who-turned-into-dictator.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/tunisia/8586165/Tunisias-Ben-Ali-Soldier-who-turned-into-dictator.html |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=July 5, 2019 |publisher=[[The Daily Telegraph]] }}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Zine El Abidine Ben Ali]];<ref>{{Cite book |title=Economic and political change in Tunisia: from Bourguiba to Ben Ali |last=Murphy |first=Emma |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] in association with [[University of Durham]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0312221423 |location=New York, N.Y. |oclc=40125756}}</ref> his reign made it clear that economic neoliberalism can coexist and even be encouraged by [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] states.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tsourapas |first=Gerasimos |title=The Other Side of a Neoliberal Miracle: Economic Reform and Political De-Liberalization in Ben Ali's Tunisia |doi=10.1080/13629395.2012.761475 |journal=[[Mediterranean Politics]] |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=23–41 |s2cid=154822868}}</ref> Responses to globalisation and economic reforms in the [[Gulf Cooperation Council|Gulf]] have also been approached via a neoliberal analytical framework.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Capitalism and class in the Gulf Arab states |last=Hanieh |first=Adam |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2011 |isbn=9780230119604 |edition=1st |location=New York |oclc=743800844}}</ref><br />
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=== International organizations ===<br />
{{see also|Structural adjustment}}<br />
The adoption of neoliberal policies in the 1980s by international institutions such as the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the [[World Bank]] had a significant impact on the spread of neoliberal reform worldwide.{{sfnp|Stedman Jones|2014|p=8}} To obtain loans from these institutions, developing or crisis-wracked countries had to agree to institutional reforms, including [[privatization]], [[trade liberalization]], enforcement of strong [[private property]] rights, and reductions to [[government spending]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Williamson |first1=John |title=Latin American Adjustment: How Much Has Happened? |publisher=Peterson Institute for International Economics |isbn=978-0881321258 |url=https://www.piie.com/commentary/speeches-papers/what-washington-means-policy-reform |access-date=July 25, 2019 |chapter=Chapter 2}}</ref>{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=}} This process became known as [[structural adjustment]], and the principles underpinning it the [[Washington Consensus]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iie.com/content/?ID=1#topic3 |title=A Guide To John Williamson's Writing |last1=Williamson |first1=John |website=www.piie.com |publisher=[[Peterson Institute for International Economics]] |access-date=April 24, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705172400/http://www.iie.com/content/?ID=1#topic3 |archive-date=July 5, 2015}}</ref><br />
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=== European Union ===<br />
{{see also |History of the European Union}}<br />
The [[European Union]] (EU), created in 1992, is sometimes considered a neoliberal organization, as it facilitates [[free trade]] and [[freedom of movement]], erodes national [[protectionism]] and limits national [[subsidies]].<ref name="SPERI 2017">{{cite web |first=Keshia |last=Jacotine |title=The split in neoliberalism on Brexit and the EU |website=SPERI |url=http://speri.dept.shef.ac.uk/2017/06/22/the-split-in-neoliberalism-on-brexit-and-the-eu/ |access-date=June 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618175603/http://speri.dept.shef.ac.uk/2017/06/22/the-split-in-neoliberalism-on-brexit-and-the-eu/ |archive-date=June 18, 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Others underline that the EU is not completely neoliberal as it leaves the development of [[welfare |welfare policies]] to its constituent states.<ref name="Milward 2000 p.">{{cite book |last=Milward |first=Alan S. |author-link=Alan Milward |title=The European rescue of the nation-state |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, New York |year=2000 |isbn=9780203982150 |oclc=70767937}}{{page needed}}</ref><ref name="Warlouzet 2018 p.">{{cite book |last=Warlouzet |first=Laurent |title=Governing Europe in a globalizing world : neoliberalism and its alternatives following the 1973 oil crisis |publisher=[[Routledge]], [[Taylor & Francis]] Group |location=London, New York |year=2017 |isbn=9781138729421 |oclc=993980643}}{{page needed}}</ref><br />
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== Traditions ==<br />
=== Austrian School ===<br />
{{Austrian School sidebar}}<br />
The [[Austrian School]] is a school of economic thought originating in late-19th and early-20th century [[Vienna]] which bases its study of economic phenomena on the interpretation and analysis of [[methodological individualism|the purposeful actions of individuals]].<ref>Carl Menger, Principles of Economics, online at https://www.mises.org/etexts/menger/principles.asp</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Methodological Individualism |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/methodological-individualism/ |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |access-date=May 2, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Mises_Action">{{cite book |first=Ludwig von |last=Mises |author-link=Ludwig von Mises |title=[[Human Action]] |page=11 |quote=r. Purposeful Action and Animal Reaction}}</ref> In the 21st century, the term has increasingly been used to denote the free-market economics of Austrian economists [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[Friedrich Hayek]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.elgaronline.com/abstract/9781786433589/chapter02.xhtml? |title=A Research Agenda for Neoliberalism |last=Birch |first=Kean |publisher=Elgar Research Agendas |year=2017 |isbn=9781786433589 |pages=13–24}}</ref><ref name="Skousen">{{cite book |first=Mark |last=Skousen |author-link=Mark Skousen |title=Vienna and Chicago: Friends or Foes? A Tale of Two Schools of Free-Market Economics |publisher=[[Capital Press]] |isbn=0895260298}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Austrian-school-of-economics |title=Austrian school of economics |website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> including their criticisms of government intervention in the economy,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.progress.org/articles/austrian-economics-explained |title=Austrian Economics Explained |last=Fred |first=Foldvary |website=Progress}}</ref> which has tied the school to neoliberal thought.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Foucault |first1=Michel |author1-link=Michel Foucault |title=The Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1978-79 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |url=https://archive.org/details/birthbiopolitics00fouc_981 |url-access=limited |isbn=978-1-4039-8654-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/birthbiopolitics00fouc_981/page/n97 79] |quote=What is the nature of today's liberal, or, as one says, neo-liberal program? You know that it is identified in two main forms...a series of persons, theories, and books pass between these two forms of neo-liberalism, the main ones referring to the Austrian school broadly speaking, to Austrian neo-marginalism, at any rate, to those who came from there; like von Mises, Hayek, and so on.}}</ref>{{sfnp|Stedman Jones|2014|p=3}}<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://neweconomics.org/2018/09/markets-became-masters |title=How Markets Became Masters: The Neoliberal Roots of Deregulation |last1=Van Lerven |first1=Frank |work=[[New Economics Foundation]] |last2=Welsh |first2=Margaret}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.spiked-online.com/2019/03/22/the-truth-about-neoliberalism/ |title=The truth about neoliberalism |last=Mullan |first=Phil |magazine=[[Spiked (magazine)|Spiked]]}}</ref><br />
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Economists associated with the school, including [[Carl Menger]], [[Eugen Böhm von Bawerk]], [[Friedrich von Wieser]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], and [[Ludwig von Mises]], have been responsible for many notable contributions to economic theory, including the [[subjective theory of value]], [[marginalism]] in price theory, Friedrich von Wieser's theories on [[opportunity cost]], Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk's theories on time preference, the formulation of the [[economic calculation problem]], as well as a number of criticisms of [[Marxian economics]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Joseph A. |last=Schumpeter |title=History of economic analysis |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0195105599}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/hayekcoordinatio0000unse/page/94 |title=Hayek, Co-ordination and Evolution: His Legacy in Philosophy, Politics, Economics and the History of Ideas |last1=Birner |first1=Jack |last2=van Zijp |first2=Rudy |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-09397-2 |location=London, New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/hayekcoordinatio0000unse/page/94 94]}}</ref> Former [[Federal Reserve System|Federal Reserve]] Chairman [[Alan Greenspan]], speaking of the originators of the School, said in 2000 that "the Austrian School have reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and, in my judgment, probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in [the United States]".<ref>Greenspan, Alan. "Hearings before the U.S. House of Representatives' Committee on Financial Services." U.S. House of Representatives' Committee on Financial Services. Washington D.C.. 25 July 2000.</ref><br />
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=== Chicago School ===<br />
{{Chicago school sidebar|expanded=movements}}<br />
The [[Chicago school of economics]] is a [[Neoclassical economics|neoclassical]] school of thought within the academic community of economists, with a strong focus around the faculty of the [[University of Chicago]]. Chicago [[macroeconomic]] theory rejected [[Keynesianism]] in favor of [[monetarism]] until the mid-1970s, when it turned to new classical macroeconomics heavily based on the concept of [[rational expectations]].<ref name=ElgarComp>{{cite book |last=Emmet |first=Ross |title=The Elgar Companion to the Chicago School of Economics |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. |isbn=978-1840648744 |page=133 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> The school is strongly associated with University of Chicago economists such as [[Milton Friedman]], [[George Stigler]], [[Ronald Coase]] and [[Gary Becker]].{{sfnp|Mirowski|Plehwe|2009|p=37}} In the 21st century, economists such as [[Mark Skousen]] refer to [[Friedrich Hayek]] as a key economist who influenced this school in the 20th century having started his career in Vienna and the Austrian school of economics.<ref name="Skousen"/><br />
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The school emphasizes non-intervention from government and generally rejects regulation in markets as inefficient, with the exception of the regulation of the money supply by central banks (in the form of [[monetarism]]). Although the school's association with neoliberalism is sometimes resisted by its proponents,<ref name="ElgarComp" /> its emphasis on reduced government intervention in the economy and a ''[[laissez-faire]]'' ideology have brought about an affiliation between the Chicago school and neoliberal economics.<ref name="FPIF-20042"/><ref name=Biglaiser>{{cite journal |last=Biglaiser |first=Glen |title=The Internationalization of Chicago's Economics in Latin America |journal=[[Economic Development and Cultural Change]] |volume=50 |issue=2 |doi=10.1086/322875 |pages=269–86 |jstor=322875 |s2cid=144618482}}</ref><br />
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=== Washington Consensus ===<br />
{{Main |Washington Consensus}}<br />
{{See also |Structural adjustment}}<br />
The Washington Consensus is a set of standardized policy prescriptions often associated with neoliberalism that were developed by the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), the [[World Bank]], and the [[US Department of Treasury]] for crisis-wracked developing countries.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Serra |first1=Narcís |url=https://growthlab.cid.harvard.edu/files/growthlab/files/serra8.pdf |title=The Washington Consensus Reconsidered: Towards a New Global Governance |last2=Spiegal |first2=Shari |last3=Stiglitz |first3=Joseph E. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0199534098 |editor1-last=Serra |editor1-first=Narcis |location=Oxford |pages=3–30 |editor2-last=Stiglitz |editor2-first=Joseph E. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122122944/https://growthlab.cid.harvard.edu/files/growthlab/files/serra8.pdf |archive-date=November 22, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Birdsall |first1=Nancy |last2=Fukuyama |first2=Francis |title=The Post-Washington Consensus |work=[[Foreign Affairs]] |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2011-02-16/post-washington-consensus |url-status=live |access-date=July 23, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200705195642/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2011-02-16/post-washington-consensus |archive-date=July 5, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hurt |first1=Stephen R. |title=Washington Consensus |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Washington-consensus |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=July 8, 2019}}</ref> These prescriptions, often attached as conditions for loans from the IMF and World Bank, focus on market [[liberalization]], and in particular on lowering [[barriers to trade]], controlling [[inflation]], privatizing [[state-owned enterprise]]s, and reducing government budget deficits. Williamson has rejected any association with neoliberalism and has publicly stated his regret with the term itself, saying that the original 10 points were supposed to be a model for fiscal discipline and macroeconomic stabilization, not monetarism, supply-side economics, or a minimal state (which Williamson argues are the important elements of the Neoliberal model).<ref name=Williamson2002>Williamson J. (2002). [https://piie.com/commentary/speeches-papers/did-washington-consensus-fail ''Did the Washington Consensus Fail?'']</ref><br />
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== Political policy aspects ==<br />
Neoliberal policies center around [[economic liberalization]], including reductions to [[trade barriers]] and other policies meant to increase [[free trade]], [[deregulation]] of industry, [[privatization]] of state-owned enterprises, reductions in [[government spending]], and [[monetarism]].{{sfnp|Stedman Jones|2014|p={{pn}}}} Neoliberal theory contends that [[free market]]s encourage [[economic efficiency]], [[economic growth]], and [[technological innovation]]. [[State intervention]], even if aimed at encouraging these phenomena, is generally believed to worsen economic performance.{{sfnp|Kotz|2015|p=12}}<br />
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=== Economic and political freedom ===<br />
{{Main|Economic freedom|Political freedom}}<br />
{{quote box|Economic and political freedom are inextricably linked with each other. There cannot be any question of liberty and religious and intellectual tolerance where there is no economic freedom.{{sfnp|Burgin|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BnZ1qKdXojoC&pg=PA117 117}}|author=—[[Ludwig von Mises]] |width=35% |align=right |quoted=1 |salign=right}}<br />
Many neoliberal thinkers advance the view that economic and political freedom are inextricably linked. [[Milton Friedman]] argued in his book ''[[Capitalism and Freedom]]'' that [[economic freedom]], while itself an extremely important component of [[freedom|absolute freedom]], is also a necessary condition for [[political freedom]]. He claimed that [[centrally planned economy|centralized control of economic activities]] is always accompanied by [[political repression]]. In his view, the voluntary character of all transactions in an unregulated market economy and the wide diversity of choices that it permits pose fundamental threats to repressive political leaders by greatly diminishing their power to coerce people economically. Through the elimination of centralized control of economic activities, [[economic power]] is separated from political power and each can serve as a counterbalance to the other. Friedman feels that competitive capitalism is especially important to minority groups since impersonal market forces protect people from discrimination in their economic activities for reasons unrelated to their productivity.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |first=Milton |last=Friedman |author-link=Milton Friedman |title=Capitalism and freedom |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=0-226-26421-1 |pages=8–21}}</ref> In ''[[The Road to Serfdom]]'', [[Friedrich Hayek]] offered a similar argument: "Economic control is not merely control of a sector of human life which can be separated from the rest; it is the control of the means for all our ends".<ref name="Chicago Press 1944 p.95"/> Amplifying their arguments, it has often been pointed out that increasing economic freedoms tends to raise expectations on political freedoms, eventually leading to democracy.{{Citation needed}}<br />
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=== Free trade ===<br />
{{Main|Free trade}}<br />
A central feature of neoliberalism is the support of free trade,<ref name="Worstall">{{Cite news |last=Worstall |first=Tim |title=So What is this Neoliberal Globalisation Free Trade Thing About Anyway? |work=[[Forbes]] |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/timworstall/2012/03/01/so-what-is-this-neoliberal-globalisation-free-trade-thing-about-anyway/#44a75cc43ec4}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Nicola |title=Neoliberalism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/neoliberalism |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gertz |first1=Geoffrey |last2=Kharas |first2=Homi |title=Beyond neoliberalism: Insights from emerging markets |publisher=The Brookings Institution |url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/beyond-neoliberalism-final-05.01.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502040124/https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/beyond-neoliberalism-final-05.01.pdf |archive-date=May 2, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Dieter |first1=Plehwe |title=Neoliberalism |url=https://www.uni-bielefeld.de/cias/wiki/n_Neoliberalism.html |website=Center for InterAmerican Studies |publisher=Universität Bielefeld }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Cooper |first1=Ryan |title=The decline and fall of neoliberalism in the Democratic Party |url=https://theweek.com/articles/725419/decline-fall-neoliberalism-democratic-party |publisher=[[The Week]] |quote=[Neoliberalism's] fundamental economic bedrock is...deregulation, tax and spending cuts, union busting, and free trade.}}</ref> and policies that enable free trade, like the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]], are often associated with neoliberalism.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rodrik |first=Dani |title=The fatal flaw of neoliberalism: it's bad economics |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2017/nov/14/the-fatal-flaw-of-neoliberalism-its-bad-economics}}</ref> Neoliberals argue that free trade promotes [[economic growth]],<ref name="Political-Theology">{{Cite journal |last1=Moe-Lobeda |first1=Cynthia |last2=Spencer |first2=Daniel |title=Free Trade Agreements and the Neo-Liberal Economic Paradigm: Economic, Ecological, and Moral Consequences |journal=Political Theology |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=685–716 |doi=10.1558/poth.v10i4.685 |s2cid=154933948 |quote=The premise undergirding FTAs is that trade liberalization within the neo-liberal global economy produces economic growth and development among all parties, and reduces poverty in poor nations.}}</ref> reduces [[poverty]],<ref name="Political-Theology"/><ref name="Worstall"/> produces gains of trade like lower prices as a result of [[comparative advantage]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=DeLong |first=Brad |title=The Benefits of Free Trade: Time to Fly My Neoliberal Freak Flag High!: Hoisted from March 2016 |url=https://equitablegrowth.org/the-benefits-of-free-trade-time-to-fly-my-neoliberal-freak-flag-high-hoisted-from-march-2016/ |website=Washington Center for Equitable Growth}}</ref> maximizes [[consumer choice]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mishra |first=Pankaj |title=The Rise of China and the Fall of the Fall of the 'Free Trade' Myth |work=[[The New York Times]] Magazine |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/07/magazine/the-rise-of-china-and-the-fall-of-the-free-trade-myth.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180207114034/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/07/magazine/the-rise-of-china-and-the-fall-of-the-free-trade-myth.html |archive-date=February 7, 2018 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |quote=Free markets, the thinking went, not only generated wealth for all nations but also maximized consumer choice, reduced prices and optimized the use of scarce resources.}}</ref> and is essential to freedom,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Friedman |first1=Milton |last2=Friedman |first2=Rose D. |title=The Case for Free Trade |url=https://www.hoover.org/research/case-free-trade |website=[[The Hoover Institute]] |quote=Few measures that we could take would do more to promote the cause of freedom at home and abroad than complete free trade.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=North |first=Gary |title=Free Trade: The Litmus Test of Economics |url=https://mises.org/library/free-trade-litmus-test-economics |website=[[Mises Institute]] |quote=Free trade means free choice.}}</ref> as they believe voluntary trade between two parties should not be prohibited by government.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The Economist Explains: Why is free trade good? |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2018/03/14/why-is-free-trade-good}}</ref> Relatedly, neoliberals argue that [[protectionism]] is harmful to [[consumer]]s,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Friedman |first1=Milton |author1-link=Milton Friedman |last2=Friedman |first2=Rose D. |title=The Case for Free Trade |url=https://www.hoover.org/research/case-free-trade |website=[[The Hoover Institute]] |quote='Protection' really means exploiting the consumer.}}</ref> who will be forced to pay higher prices for goods;<ref>{{Cite news |last=Partington |first=Richard |title=Is free trade always the answer? |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/aug/13/is-free-trade-always-the-answer |quote=Economists mostly agree higher tariffs are counterproductive. While they can protect jobs, they also tend to raise the price of goods for consumers and stifle innovation that could benefit the economy.}}</ref> incentivizes individuals to misuse resources;<ref name="Friedman-Trade">{{Cite book |last=Friedman |first=Milton |url=https://archive.org/details/friedman-milton-capitalism-and-freedom/page/n1/mode/2up |title=Capitalism and Freedom |publisher=The [[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1962 |isbn=0-226-26401-7 |location=Chicago |publication-date=1982 |pages=39 |quote=Tariffs and other restrictions on international trade...give individuals an incentive to misuse and misdirect resources, and distort the investment of new savings.}}</ref> distorts investment;<ref name="Friedman-Trade"/> stifles innovation;<ref>{{Cite news |last=Partington |first=Richard |title=Is free trade always the answer? |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/aug/13/is-free-trade-always-the-answer |quote=Economists argue international competition stimulates greater innovation and productivity, while warning protectionism can hinder progress.}}</ref> and props up certain industries at the expense of consumers and other industries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lincicome |first=Scott |title=The Case for Free Trade |url=https://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/case-free-trade |website=[[The Cato Institute]] |quote=Protectionism invisibly propped up certain industries and workers at most Americans' expense and generated the aforementioned economic and geopolitical problems.}}</ref><br />
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=== Monetarism ===<br />
{{Main |Monetarism}}<br />
Monetarism is an economic theory commonly associated with neoliberalism.{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=}} Formulated by [[Milton Friedman]], it focuses on the macroeconomic aspects of the [[supply of money]], paying particular attention to the effects of [[central bank]]ing.<ref>{{cite web |last1=McCallum |first1=Bennett T. |title=Monetarism |url=https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Monetarism.html |website=The Library of Economics and Liberty |access-date=July 8, 2019}}</ref> It argues that excessive expansion of the money supply is inherently inflationary and that monetary authorities should focus primarily on maintaining [[price stability]], even at the cost of other macroeconomic factors like [[economic growth]].<br />
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Monetarism is often associated with the policies of the [[Federal Reserve System|US Federal Reserve]] under the [[Chair of the Federal Reserve|Chairmanship]] of economist [[Paul Volcker]],{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=}} which centered around high interest rates that are widely credited with ending the high levels of inflation seen in the United States during the 1970s and early 1980s<ref>{{cite news |last=Hutchinson |first=Martin |title=To Treat the Fed as Volcker Did |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=subscription |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/05/business/05views.html}}</ref> as well as contributing to the [[Early 1980s recession in the United States|1980–1982 recession]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Paul Volcker |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Adolph-Volcker |access-date=July 8, 2019}}</ref> Monetarism had particular force in Chile, whose central bank raised interest rates to counter inflation that had spiraled to over 600%.<ref name=":4"/> This helped to successfully reduce inflation to below 10%,<ref name=":4"/> but also resulted in job losses.<br />
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== Criticism ==<br />
[[File:Noam Chomsky portrait 2015.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Noam Chomsky]]'s 1999 book ''[[Profit over People|Profit Over People: Neoliberalism and Global Order]]'' is an open critique of neoliberalism and the American economic structure]]<br />
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Neoliberalism has faced criticism by academics, journalists, religious leaders, and activists from both the [[left-wing politics|political left]] and [[right-wing politics|right]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Higher Degree Research By Numbers: Beyond the Critiques of Neo-liberalism |first1=Timothy |last1=Laurie |first2=Liam |last2=Grealy |journal=[[Higher Education Research & Development]] |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=458–71 |year=2017 |url=https://www.academia.edu/31833744 |doi=10.1080/07294360.2017.1288710 |hdl=10453/63197 |s2cid=151552617 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Neoliberal Hegemony">{{cite book |last1=Plehwe |first1=Dieter |last2=Walpen |first2=Bernhard |last3=Neunhöffer |first3=Gisela |title=Neoliberal hegemony: a global critique |location=London & New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2006 |isbn=9780203099506 |oclc=646744326 |chapter=Introduction: Reconsidering neoliberal hegemony |chapter-url={{Google books|kiaxAx5l1QEC|page=1|plainurl=yes}} |access-date=July 7, 2018}}</ref> Notable critics of neoliberalism in theory or practice include economists [[Joseph Stiglitz]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/joseph-stiglitz-says-neoliberalism-is-dead-2016-8 |title=Nobel Prize-winning economist Stiglitz tells us why 'neoliberalism is dead' |last=Martin |first=Will |website=[[Business Insider]] |access-date=February 8, 2017}}</ref> [[Amartya Sen]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Couldry |first=Nick |title=Why Voice Matters: Culture And Politics After Neoliberalism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NUdlWiL7iCgC&pg=PA38 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] Ltd |page=38 |isbn=978-1848606623}}</ref> [[Michael Hudson (economist)|Michael Hudson]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hudson |first=Michael |title=Neoliberalism Will Soon Force Americans to Leave the United States |url=https://www.truthdig.com/videos/neoliberalism-will-soon-force-americans-to-leave-the-united-states/ |website=Truthdig}}</ref> [[Ha-Joon Chang]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chang |first=Ha-Joon |title=[[Bad Samaritans: The Myth of Free Trade and the Secret History of Capitalism]] |publisher=[[Random House]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1596915985 |location=New York |pages=229}}</ref> [[Robert Pollin]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Contours of Descent: U.S. Economic Fractures and the Landscape of Global Austerity |url=https://archive.org/details/contoursofdescen00poll |url-access=registration |last=Pollin |first=Robert |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-84467-534-0 |location=New York |publisher=[[Verso Books]]}}</ref> Julie Matthaei,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Matthaei |first=Julie |title=The time for a new economics is at hand |work=[[Al Jazeera]] |url=http://america.aljazeera.com/opinions/2015/3/the-time-for-a-new-economics-is-at-hand.html |access-date=March 9, 2015}}</ref> and [[Richard D. Wolff]];<ref name="RDWolff">{{cite book |author-link=Richard D. Wolff |last=Wolff |first=Richard D. |url=http://www.democracyatwork.info/ |title=Democracy at Work: A Cure for Capitalism |publisher=[[Haymarket Books]] |isbn=978-1608462476 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-QnzAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 37]}}</ref> linguist [[Noam Chomsky]];{{sfnp|Chomsky|McChesney|2011}} geographer and anthropologist [[David Harvey (geographer)|David Harvey]];{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=}} Slovenian continental philosopher [[Slavoj Žižek]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Žižek |first=Slavoj |author-link=Slavoj Žižek |title=The Courage of Hopelessness: A Year of Acting Dangerously |publisher=Melville House |page=59 |isbn=978-1612190037}}</ref> political activist and public intellectual [[Cornel West]];<ref>{{cite news |first=Cornell |last=West |author-link=Cornell West |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/nov/17/american-neoliberalism-cornel-west-2016-election |title=Goodbye, American neoliberalism. A new era is here |work=[[The Guardian]] }}</ref> Marxist feminist [[Gail Dines]];<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/kDcTt0emXhE Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20121003174506/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kDcTt0emXhE&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |last=Dines |first=Gail |title=From the Personal is Political to the Personal is Personal: Neoliberalism and the Defanging of Feminism |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kDcTt0emXhE |publisher=[[YouTube]] |access-date=August 5, 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref> British musician and political activist [[Billy Bragg]];<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bragg |first=Billy |title=The Three Dimensions of Freedom |publisher=[[Faber & Faber]] |year=2019 |isbn=9780571353217 |location=London |language=English}}</ref> author, activist and filmmaker [[Naomi Klein]];<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/nov/09/rise-of-the-davos-class-sealed-americas-fate |title=It was the Democrats' embrace of neoliberalism that won it for Trump |first=Naomi |last=Klein |author-link=Naomi Klein |work=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310213203/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/nov/09/rise-of-the-davos-class-sealed-americas-fate |archive-date=March 10, 2017}}</ref> head of the Catholic Church [[Pope Francis]];<ref>{{Cite news |title=Pope Francis Laments Failures Of Market Capitalism In Blueprint For Post-COVID World |url=https://www.npr.org/2020/10/04/920053203/pope-francis-laments-failures-of-market-capitalism-in-blueprint-for-post-covid-w |access-date=October 5, 2020 |newspaper=[[NPR]] |language=en |last1=Poggioli |first1=Sylvia}}</ref> journalist and environmental activist [[George Monbiot]];<ref>{{cite news |first=George |last=Monbiot |author-link=George Monbiot |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/apr/15/neoliberalism-ideology-problem-george-monbiot |title=Neoliberalism – the ideology at the root of all our problems |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=April 16, 2016}}</ref> Belgian psychologist [[Paul Verhaeghe]];<ref>{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Verhaeghe |author-link=Paul Verhaeghe |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/sep/29/neoliberalism-economic-system-ethics-personality-psychopathicsthic |title=Neoliberalism has brought out the worst in us |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=October 6, 2014}}</ref> journalist and activist [[Chris Hedges]];<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.truthdig.com/videos/video-chris-hedges-on-the-big-lie-of-neoliberalism-and-the-very-real-threat-of-a-president-trump/ |title=VIDEO: Chris Hedges on the Big Lie of Neoliberalism and the Very Real Threat of a President Trump |website=[[Truthdig]] }}</ref> conservative philosopher [[Roger Scruton]];<ref>{{Cite news |last=Scruton |first=Roger |title=Why it's so much harder to think like a Conservative |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/sep/10/why-its-harder-to-think-like-a-conservative}}</ref> and the [[alter-globalization]] movement, including groups such as [[ATTAC]].<br />
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The impact of the [[Great Recession]] in 2008 has given rise to a surge in new scholarship that criticizes neoliberalism.<ref><br />
{{cite book |last1=Pradella |first1=Lucia |last2=Marois |first2=Thomas |title=Polarising Development: Alternatives to Neoliberalism and the Crisis |url=https://www.academia.edu/9680429 |publisher=[[Pluto Press]] |location=United Kingdom |isbn=978-0745334691 |pages=1–11}}</ref><br />
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Some believe the [[Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign|Trump's 2016 presidential campaign]] succeeded by promising a revolt against neoliberal globalization, and pundits on the left have called for the Democratic party to similarly mobilize against it.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Murphy |first=Chris |title=The Wreckage of Neoliberalism |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/10/democrats-should-reject-neoliberalism/671850/ |access-date=February 22, 2023 |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |language=en |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Inside the New Right's Next Frontier: The American West |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2023/02/new-right-civil-war |access-date=February 22, 2023 |magazine=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] |language=en-US |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Market fundamentalism ===<br />
{{Main |Market fundamentalism}}<br />
{{quote box|The progress of the last 40 years has been mostly cultural, culminating, the last couple of years, in the broad legalization of same-sex marriage. But by many other measures, especially economic, things have gotten worse, thanks to the establishment of neo-liberal principles — anti-unionism, deregulation, market fundamentalism and intensified, unconscionable greed — that began with Richard Nixon and picked up steam under Ronald Reagan. Too many are suffering now because too few were fighting then.|author=—[[Mark Bittman]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Bittman |first=Mark |date=December 13, 2014 |title=Is It Bad Enough Yet? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/14/opinion/sunday/mark-bittman-is-it-bad-enough-yet.html?referrer&_r=1 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=August 12, 2020 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> |width=35% |align=right |quoted=1 |salign=right}}<br />
Neoliberal thought has been criticized for supposedly having an undeserved "faith" in the efficiency of [[Market (economics)|market]]s, in the superiority of markets over [[Economic planning|centralized economic planning]], in the ability of markets to self-correct, and in the market's ability to deliver economic and political freedom.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fahnbulleh |first1=Miatta |title=The Neoliberal Collapse: Markets Are Not The Answer |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-kingdom/2019-12-10/neoliberal-collapse |publisher=[[Foreign Affairs]] |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref>{{sfnp|Stedman Jones|2014|p={{pn}}}} Economist [[Paul Krugman]] has argued that the "[[laissez-faire]] absolutism" promoted by neoliberals "contributed to an intellectual climate in which faith in markets and disdain for government often trumps the evidence".{{sfnp|Stedman Jones|2014|p={{pn}}}} Political theorist [[Wendy Brown (political theorist)|Wendy Brown]] has gone even further and asserted that the overriding objective of neoliberalism is "the economization of all features of life".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Zamora |first1=Daniel |last2=Olsen |first2=Niklas |title=How Decades of Neoliberalism Led to the Era of Right-Wing Populism |url=https://jacobinmag.com/2019/09/in-the-ruins-of-neoliberalism-wendy-brown |publisher=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]] |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> A number of scholars have argued that, in practice, this "market fundamentalism" has led to a neglect of social goods not captured by [[economic indicators]], an erosion of [[democracy]], an unhealthy promotion of unbridled [[individualism]] and [[social Darwinism]], and economic inefficiency.<ref name=Longview1>{{Cite web |url=http://www.longviewinstitute.org/projects/marketfundamentalism/marketfundamentalism/ |title=Market Fundamentalism |website=[[Longview Institute]]}}</ref><br />
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Some critics contend neoliberal thinking prioritizes [[economic indicators]] like [[economic growth|GDP growth]] and [[inflation]] over social factors that might not be easy to quantify, like [[labor rights]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Evans |first=Peter |title=National Labor Movements and Transnational Connections: Global Labor's Evolving Architecture Under Neoliberalism |journal=IRLE Working Paper |volume=5 |issue=116–114 |doi=10.15173/glj.v5i3.2283 |url=https://mulpress.mcmaster.ca/globallabour/article/view/2283 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and access to higher education.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Levidow |first1=Les |title=The Virtual University?: Knowledge, Markets, and Management |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=0199257930 |pages=227–248}}</ref> This focus on [[economic efficiency]] can compromise other, perhaps more important, factors, or promote [[Exploitation of labour|exploitation]] and social injustice.{{sfnp|Springer|Birch|MacLeavy|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M5qkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA618 618]}} For example, anthropologist Mark Fleming argues that when the performance of a [[public transport|transit system]] is assessed purely in terms of economic efficiency, social goods such as strong [[labor rights|workers' rights]] are considered impediments to maximum performance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fleming |first1=Mark |title=Mass Transit Workers and Neoliberal Time Discipline in San Francisco |journal=[[American Anthropologist]] |volume=118 |issue=4 |pages=784–95 |doi=10.1111/aman.12683}}</ref> He supports this assertion with a case study of the [[San Francisco Municipal Railway]] (Muni), which is one of the slowest major urban transit systems in the US and has one of the worst [[on-time performance]] rates.<ref>{{cite report |title=Transportation Benchmarking |url=https://sfgov.org/scorecards/benchmarking/transportation |publisher=City and County of San Francisco |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Garfield |first1=Leanna |last2=Nudelman |first2=Mike |title=New York City's subway is falling apart — here's how it compares to other cities around the world |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/public-transit-ranking-cities-nyc-subway-2017-11 |access-date=June 27, 2019 |publisher=[[Business Insider]] |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> This poor performance, he contends, stems from structural problems including an aging fleet and maintenance issues. He argues that the neoliberal worldview singled out transit drivers and their [[trade union|labor unions]], blaming drivers for failing to meet impossible transit schedules and considering additional costs to drivers as lost funds that reduce system speed and performance. This produced vicious attacks on the drivers' union and brutal public [[smear campaign]]s, ultimately resulting in the passing of Proposition G, which severely undermined the powers of the Muni drivers' union.<br />
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American scholar and cultural critic [[Henry Giroux]] alleges that neoliberal market fundamentalism fosters a belief that market forces should organize every facet of society, including economic and social life, and promotes a [[social Darwinist]] ethic that elevates self-interest over social needs.<ref>{{cite web |first=Michael |last=Nevradakis |url=http://truth-out.org/opinion/item/26885-henry-giroux-on-the-rise-of-neoliberalism |title=Henry Giroux on the Rise of Neoliberalism |website=[[Truthout]] |access-date=October 19, 2014 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=C.J. |last=Polychroniou |url=http://www.truthdig.com/report/item/the_violence_of_neoliberalism_and_the_attack_on_higher_education_20130327 |title=The Violence of Neoliberalism and the Attack on Higher Education |website=[[Truthdig]] |access-date=February 23, 2014 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Ted |last=Asregadoo |url=http://www.truth-out.org/news/item/24367-truthout-interviews-henry-a-giroux-on-neoliberalism |title=Truthout Interviews Henry A. Giroux on Neoliberalism |website=[[Truthout]] |access-date=June 18, 2014 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> [[Marxist]] economic geographer [[David Harvey]] argues that neoliberalism promotes an unbridled individualism that is harmful to social solidarity.{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=82}}<br />
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While proponents of [[economic liberalization]] have often pointed out that increasing [[economic freedom]] tends to raise expectations on [[political freedom]],{{Citation needed}} some scholars see the existence of non-[[democracy|democratic]] yet [[free market|market-liberal]] regimes and the seeming undermining of democratic control by market processes as evidence that this characterization is ahistorical.<ref name="WBrown"/> Some scholars contend that neoliberal focuses may even undermine the basic elements of democracy.<ref name="WBrown">{{cite book |author-link=Wendy Brown (political scientist) |first=Wendy |last=Brown |title=Undoing the Demos: Neoliberalism's Stealth Revolution |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-1935408536 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_kXBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 |page=17 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hickel |first1=Jason |author1-link=Jason Hickel |chapter=Neoliberalism and the End of Democracy |editor1-last=Springer |editor1-first=Simon |editor2-last=Birch |editor2-first=Kean |editor3-last=MacLeavy |editor3-first=Julie |title=The Handbook of Neoliberalism |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Handbook-of-Neoliberalism/Springer-Birch-MacLeavy/p/book/9781138844001 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M5qkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 142] |isbn=978-1138844001}}</ref> [[Kristen Ghodsee]], ethnographer at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], asserts that the triumphalist attitudes of [[Western world|Western powers]] at the end of the [[Cold War]] and the fixation on linking all [[leftist]] political ideals with the excesses of [[Stalinism]], permitted neoliberal, free-market capitalism to fill the void, which undermined democratic institutions and reforms, leaving a trail of economic misery, [[unemployment]] and rising [[economic inequality]] throughout the former [[Eastern Bloc]] and much of the West that fueled a resurgence of extremist [[nationalism]].<ref name="Ghodsee2017">{{cite book |last=Ghodsee |first=Kristen |title=Red Hangover: Legacies of Twentieth-Century Communism |url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/red-hangover |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |pages=xix–xx, 134, 197–99 |isbn=978-0822369493 |author-link=Kristen Ghodsee}}</ref> Costas Panayotakis has argued that the economic inequality engendered by neoliberalism creates inequality of political power, undermining democracy and the citizen's ability to meaningfully participate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Panayotakis |first=Costas |title=Neoliberalism, the Left and the Rise of the Far Right: On the Political and Ideological Implications of Capitalism's Subordination of Democracy |journal=[[Democratic Theory]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=48–72 |doi=10.3167/dt.2020.070104 |s2cid=225838946 |issn=2332-8894 |url=https://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/democratic-theory/7/1/dt070104.xml}}</ref><br />
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Despite the focus on economic efficiency, some critics allege that neoliberal policies actually produce [[economic inefficiency|economic inefficiencies]]. The replacement of a government-owned [[monopoly]] with [[privately held company|privately owned companies]] might reduce the efficiencies associated with [[economies of scale]].<ref>Katter, Bob (2012) 'An incredible race of people: a passionate history of Australia', (page numbers to be provided)</ref> Structurally, some economists argue that neoliberalism is a system that [[social ownership|socializes]] costs and [[private property|privatizes]] [[profit (economics)|profits]].<ref name="Berger 2017">{{cite book |last=Berger |first=Sebastian |title=The social costs of neoliberalism : essays on the economics of K. William Kapp |publisher=Spokesman |location=Nottingham |year=2017 |isbn=9780851248646 |oclc=985214685}}</ref>{{Page needed}}<ref name="Kapp 2016">{{cite book |last=Kapp |first=K. William |title=The heterodox theory of social costs |editor-first=Sebastian |editor-last=Berger |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |year=2016 |isbn=9781138775473 |oclc=915343787}}</ref>{{Page needed}} They argue this results in an abdication of private responsibility for socially destructive economic choices and may result in regressive governmental controls on the economy to reduce damages by private individuals.<br />
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American political theologian [[Adam Kotsko]] argues that contemporary right-wing populism, exemplified by Brexit and the [[Trump Administration]], represent a "heretical" variant of neoliberalism, which accepts its core tenets but pushes them to new, almost "parodic" extremes.{{sfnp|Kotsko|2018|p=10}}<br />
<br />
=== Inequality ===<br />
{{See also |List of countries by income equality |Income inequality in the United States}}<br />
[[File:US Wealth Inequality - v2.png|thumb|[[Wealth inequality in the United States]] increased from 1989 to 2013.]]<br />
Critics have argued that neoliberal policies have increased [[economic inequality]]{{sfnp|Haymes|Vidal de Haymes|Miller|2015|p=7}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Dean |first=Jodi |title=The Communist Horizon |url=https://archive.org/details/communisthorizon00dean |url-access=limited |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/communisthorizon00dean/page/n128 123] |isbn=978-1844679546 |author-link=Jodi Dean |quote=Pursued through policies of privatization, deregulation, and financialization, and buttressed by an ideology of private property, free markets, and free trade, neoliberalism has entailed cuts in taxes for the rich and cuts in protections and benefits for workers and the poor, resulting in an exponential increase in inequality.}}</ref> and exacerbated global [[poverty]].{{sfnp|Haymes|Vidal de Haymes|Miller|2015|pp=1–2}}<ref>{{harvp|Jones|Parker|Bos|2005|p=101}}; "Critics of neoliberalism have therefore looked at the evidence that documents the results of this great experiment of the past 30 years, in which many markets have been set free. Looking at the evidence, we can see that the total amount of global trade has increased significantly, but that global poverty has increased, with more today living in abject poverty than before neoliberalism."</ref><ref>[[Jason Hickel]] (February 13, 2019). [https://jacobinmag.com/2019/02/steven-pinker-global-poverty-neoliberalism-progress An Open Letter to Steven Pinker (and Bill Gates)]. ''[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]].'' Retrieved February 13, 2019.</ref> The [[Center for Economic and Policy Research |Center for Economic and Policy Research's]] (CEPR) [[Dean Baker]] argued in 2006 that the driving force behind rising inequality in the United States has been a series of deliberate neoliberal policy choices, including anti-[[inflation]]ary bias, anti-[[Trade union|unionism]] and profiteering in the [[healthcare industry]].<ref>Baker, Dean. 2006. "[http://www.paecon.net/PAEReview/issue40/Baker40.pdf Increasing Inequality in the United States]." Post-autistic Economics Review 40.</ref> The economists David Howell and Mamadou Diallo contend that neoliberal policies have contributed to a [[Economy of the United States|United States economy]] in which 30% of workers earn low wages (less than two-thirds the median wage for full-time workers) and 35% of the [[labor force]] is [[underemployment|underemployed]] while only 40% of the working-age population in the country is adequately employed.<ref>Howell, David R. and Mamadou Diallo. 2007. "Charting U.S. Economic Performance with Alternative Labor Market Indicators: The Importance of Accounting for Job Quality." SCEPA Working Paper 2007-6.</ref> The globalization of neoliberalism has been blamed for the emergence of a "[[precariat]]", a new social class facing acute socio-economic insecurity and alienation.<ref name="Fox OMahony OMahony Hickey 2014 p.25">{{cite book |url={{google books|id=qyIcBQAAQBAJ|page=25|plainurl=yes}} |title=Moral rhetoric and the criminalisation of squatting: vulnerable demons? |last1=Fox O'Mahony |first1=Lorna |last2=O'Mahony |first2=David |last3=Hickey |first3=Robin |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2014 |isbn=9781317807940 |location=London |page=25 |oclc=1019606315 |access-date=July 7, 2018}}</ref> In the United States, the "neoliberal transformation" of industrial relations, which considerably diminished the power of [[trade union|unions]] and increased the power of employers, has been blamed by many for increasing [[precarity]], which could be responsible for as many as 120,000 excess deaths per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kinderman |first=Daniel |title=The Neoliberal Revolution in Industrial Relations |journal=Catalyst |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=117–118 |issn=2475-7365}}</ref> In [[Venezuela]], prior to the [[Crisis in Venezuela|Venezuelan crisis]], deregulation of the [[labor economics|labor market]] resulted in greater [[informal economy|informal employment]] and a considerable increase in [[work accident|industrial accidents]] and [[occupational disease]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Feo |first=Oscar |url=http://www.medicinasocial.info/index.php/socialmedicine/article/viewFile/272/516 |title=Venezuelan Health Reform, Neoliberal Policies and their Impact on Public Health Education: Observations on the Venezuelan Experience |journal=Social Medicine |volume=3 |number=4 |page=224 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> Even in [[Sweden]], in which only 6% of workers are beset with wages the [[OECD]] considers low,<ref>{{cite web |author=[[OECD]] |url=http://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/38749309.pdf |title=OECD Employment Outlook. Statistical Annex |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> some scholars argue that the adoption of neoliberal reforms—in particular the privatization of public services and the reduction of state benefits—is the reason it has become the nation with the fastest growing income inequality in the OECD.<ref>Olsson, Per (28 May 2013). [http://www.socialistworld.net/doc/6330 The reality of Swedish neo-liberalism]. ''[[Socialist Justice Party|CWI Sweden]].'' Retrieved 26 February 2014.</ref><ref>Higgens, Andrew (26 May 2013). [https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/27/world/europe/swedens-riots-put-its-identity-in-question.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 In Sweden, Riots Put an Identity in Question]. ''[[The New York Times]].'' Retrieved 26 February 2014.</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:IMF nations.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Member nations of the [[International Monetary Fund]]]]<br />
A 2016 report by researchers at the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) was critical of neoliberal policies for increasing economic inequality.<ref name="Ostry2016"/> While the report included praise for neoliberalism, saying "there is much to cheer in the neoliberal agenda," it noted that certain neoliberal policies, particularly freedom of capital and fiscal consolidation, resulted in "increasing [[economic inequality|inequality]]", which "in turn jeopardized durable [economic] expansion". The report contends that the implementation of neoliberal policies by economic and political [[elite]]s has led to "three disquieting conclusions":<br />
* The benefits in terms of increased [[economic growth|growth]] seem fairly difficult to establish when looking at a broad group of countries.<br />
* The costs in terms of increased inequality are prominent. Such costs epitomize the trade-off between the growth and [[equity (economics)|equity]] effects of some aspects of the neoliberal agenda.<br />
* Increased inequality in turn hurts the level and sustainability of growth. Even if growth is the sole or main purpose of the neoliberal agenda, advocates of that agenda still need to pay attention to the distributional effects.<ref>[http://www.businessinsider.com/imf-neoliberalism-warnings-2016-5 IMF: The last generation of economic policies may have been a complete failure]. ''Business Insider.'' May 2016.</ref><br />
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A number of scholars see increasing inequality arising out of neoliberal policies as a deliberate effort, rather than a consequence of ulterior motives like increasing [[economic growth]]. [[Marxism|Marxist]] economic geographer [[David Harvey (geographer)|David Harvey]] describes neoliberalism as a "[[social class|class]] project" "carried out by the corporate capitalist class", and argued in his book ''A Brief History of Neoliberalism'' that neoliberalism is designed to increase the class power of economic [[elite]]s.<ref name=Harvey-Jacobin>{{cite magazine |last1=Harvey |first1=David |last2=Risager |first2=Bjarke Skærlund |title=Neoliberalism Is a Political Project |url=https://www.jacobinmag.com/2016/07/david-harvey-neoliberalism-capitalism-labor-crisis-resistance/ |access-date=July 6, 2019 |magazine=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]] |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref><ref name="DavidHarvey">Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/PkWWMOzNNrQ Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20091029180337/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkWWMOzNNrQ Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkWWMOzNNrQ |title=A Brief History of Neoliberalism 1/5 |last=Harvey |first=David |author-link=David Harvey (geographer) |website=[[YouTube]] |series=A Brief History of Neoliberalism |access-date=July 7, 2018}}{{cbignore}} Also see {{YouTube|playlist=PLA27CFAD836E1638A|title=David Harvey : A Brief History of Neoliberalism}}.</ref>{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=}} Economists [[Gérard Duménil]] and Dominique Lévy posit that "the restoration and increase of the power, income, and wealth of the upper classes" are the primary objectives of the neoliberal agenda.<ref name="Duménil Lévy 2016 p. 551">{{cite book |first1=Gérard |last1=Duménil |author-link=Gérard Duménil |first2=Dominique |last2=Lévy |editor-last=Springer |editor-first=Simon |editor-last2=Birch |editor-first2=Kean |editor-last3=MacLeavy |editor-first3=Julie |title=The handbook of neoliberalism |publisher=[[Routledge]], Taylor & Francis Group |location=New York & London |year=2016 |isbn=978-1317549666 |oclc=953604193 |chapter=The crisis of neoliberalism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZmkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT645 |pages=551–557 |access-date=July 7, 2018 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Economist David M. Kotz contends that neoliberalism "is based on the thorough domination of [[working class|labor]] by [[Bourgeoisie|capital]]".{{sfnp|Kotz|2015|p=43}} Sociologist Thomas Volscho argues that the imposition of neoliberalism in the United States arose from a conscious political mobilization by capitalist [[elite]]s in the 1970s, who faced two self-described crises: the legitimacy of capitalism and a falling rate of [[profit (economics)|profitability]] in industry.<ref name="Volscho pp. 249–266">{{cite journal |last=Volscho |first=Thomas |title=The Revenge of the Capitalist Class: Crisis, the Legitimacy of Capitalism and the Restoration of Finance from the 1970s to Present |journal=[[Critical Sociology]] |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=249–266 |doi=10.1177/0896920515589003 |issn=0896-9205 |ssrn=2602893 |s2cid=220077253 |id={{OCLC|7374542920|6962223812}}}} SSRN Pre-publication is free access {{free access}}; SAGE Journals doi publication is closed access {{closed access}}.</ref> In ''The Global Gamble'', [[Peter Gowan]] argued that "neoliberalism" was not only a free-market ideology but "a social engineering project". Globally, it meant opening a state's political economy to products and financial flows from the core countries. Domestically, neoliberalism meant the remaking of social relations "in favour of creditor and rentier interests, with the subordination of the productive sector to financial sectors, and a drive to shift wealth, power and security away from the bulk of the working population."<ref name="Gowan">{{cite book |title=The Global Gamble: Washington's Faustian Bid for World Dominance |last=Gowan |first=Peter |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |year=1999 |isbn=9781859842713}}</ref><br />
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A 2022 study published in ''[[Perspectives on Psychological Science]]'' found that in countries where neoliberal institutions have significant influence over policy the psychology of those populations are molded not only to be more willing to tolerate large levels of income inequality, but actually prefer it over more egalitarian outcomes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nyu.edu/about/news-publications/news/2022/may/neoliberal-policies--institutions-have-prompted-preference-for-g.html|title=Neoliberal Policies, Institutions Have Prompted Preference for Greater Inequality, New Study Finds|author=<!--Not stated--> |website=nyu.edu |publisher= |access-date=June 19, 2023 |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goudarzi|first1=Shahrzad |last2=Badaan|first2=Vivienne |last3=Knowles|first3=Eric D. |title=Neoliberalism and the Ideological Construction of Equity Beliefs|url= https://psyarxiv.com/pc8zy/|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|volume=17 |issue=5 |pages= 1431–1451|doi=10.1177/17456916211053311|pmid=35536556 |s2cid=237727224 |access-date=}}</ref><br />
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==== Corporatocracy ====<br />
{{main|Corporatocracy}}<br />
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{{quote box|Instead of citizens, it produces consumers. Instead of communities, it produces shopping malls. The net result is an atomized society of disengaged individuals who feel demoralized and socially powerless.<br />
| source = —[[Robert W. McChesney]]{{sfnp|Chomsky|McChesney|2011|p=11}}<br />
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Some organizations and economists believe neoliberal policies increase the power of [[corporations]] and shift wealth to the [[upper class]]es.<ref name="RDWolff" /> For instance, Jamie Peck and Adam Tickell argue that urban citizens are increasingly deprived of the power to shape the basic conditions of daily life, which are instead shaped by companies involved in the competitive economy.<ref name="Adam Tickell 2002">{{cite journal |first1=Jamie |last1=Peck |first2=Adam |last2=Tickell |title=Neoliberalizing space |journal=Antipode |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=380–404|doi=10.1111/1467-8330.00247 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03142138/file/Bally_F.%20Transition%202020.pdf}}</ref><br />
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The [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and [[World Bank]], two major [[international organizations]] which often espouse neoliberal views,<ref>{{cite web |first=Rajesh |last=Makwana |title=Neoliberalism and Economic Globalization |website=STWR |url=http://www.stwr.org/globalization/neoliberalism-and-economic-globalization.html |access-date=February 29, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120627035959/http://www.stwr.org/globalization/neoliberalism-and-economic-globalization.html |archive-date=June 27, 2012}}</ref> have been criticized for advancing neoliberal policies around the world.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.salon.com/2016/05/31/wrong_all_along_neoliberal_imf_admits_neoliberalism_fuels_inequality_and_hurts_growth/ |title=Wrong all along: Neoliberal IMF admits neoliberalism fuels inequality and hurts growth |magazine=[[Salon (magazine)|Salon]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Aditya |last=Chakrabortty |title=You're witnessing the death of neoliberalism – from within |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/may/31/witnessing-death-neoliberalism-imf-economists}}</ref> Sheldon Richman, editor of the libertarian journal ''[[The Freeman]]'', argues that the IMF has imposed a "corporatist-flavored 'neoliberalism' on the troubled countries of the world."<ref>{{cite web |first=Sheldon |last=Richman |title=End the IMF: What Is It Good For? |website=The Freeman |access-date=February 29, 2012 |url=http://www.thefreemanonline.org/columns/tgif/end-imf/ |archive-date=2011-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523095258/http://www.thefreemanonline.org/columns/tgif/end-imf/}}</ref> He contends that IMF policies of spending cuts and tax increases, as well as subjection to paternalistic supranational bureaucrats, have fostered "long-term dependency, perpetual indebtedness, moral hazard, and politicization" in the developing world, which has undermined "real market reform" and "set back the cause of genuine liberalism." Ramaa Vasudevan, associate professor of economics at Colorado State University, states that trade policies and treaties fostered by the United States in the neoliberal era, along with bailouts brokered by the World Bank and the IMF, have allowed corporate capital to expand around the world unimpeded by trade protections or national borders, "sucking countries in different regions of the world into global corporations' logic of accumulation." This expansion of global corporate capital, Vasudevan says, has buttressed its ability to "orchestrate a global division of labor most conducive to the demands of profitability" which in turn has facilitated "a brutal, global [[race to the bottom]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vasudevan |first=Ramaa |title=The Global Class War |journal=Catalyst |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=113, 129 |issn=2475-7365}}</ref><br />
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Mark Arthur, a Senior Fellow at the Center for Global Development Research in Denmark, has written that the influence of neoliberalism has given rise to an "[[anti-corporatists|anti-corporatist]]" movement in opposition to it. This "anti-corporatist" movement is articulated around the need to reclaim the power that corporations and global institutions have stripped from governments. He says that [[Adam Smith]]'s "rules for mindful markets" served as a basis for the anti-corporate movement, "following government's failure to restrain corporations from hurting or disturbing the happiness of the neighbor [Smith]".<ref>{{cite book |title=Struggle and the Prospects for World Government |first=Mark |last=Arthur |publisher=[[Trafford Publishing]] |pages=70–71}}</ref><br />
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=== Mass incarceration ===<br />
{{quote box|The invisible hand of the market and the iron fist of the state combine and complement each other to make the lower classes accept desocialized wage labor and the social instability it brings in its wake. After a long eclipse, the prison thus returns to the frontline of institutions entrusted with maintaining the social order.|source=—[[Loïc Wacquant]]<ref>{{cite book |first=Loïc |last=Wacquant |author-link=Loïc Wacquant |editor-last=Roulleau-Berger |editor-first=Laurence |title=Youth and work in the post-industrial city of North America and Europe |location=Leiden; Boston |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2003 |orig-year=2001 |isbn=9789004125339 |oclc=896997072 |chapter=Labour market insecurity and the criminalization of poverty |chapter-url={{Google books|fFJh8wZlDIAC|page=411|plainurl=yes}} |page=411}}</ref> |width=35% |align=right |quoted=1 |salign=right}}<br />
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Several scholars have linked [[Incarceration in the United States|mass incarceration of the poor in the United States]] with the rise of neoliberalism.{{sfnp|Haymes|Vidal de Haymes|Miller|2015|pp=3, 346}}<ref>{{cite journal |first=Hadar |last=Aviram |title=Are Private Prisons to Blame for Mass Incarceration and its Evils? Prison Conditions, Neoliberalism, and Public Choice |url=https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/ulj/vol42/iss2/2/ |journal=[[Fordham Urban Law Journal]] |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |access-date=December 27, 2014 |ssrn=2492782}}</ref>{{sfnp|Gerstle|2022|pp=130-132}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Marie |last=Gottschalk |author-link=Marie Gottschalk |title=Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0691164052 |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10731.html |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CzDFCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10]}}</ref> Sociologist Loïc Wacquant and [[Marxist]] economic geographer [[David Harvey]] have argued that the criminalization of poverty and mass incarceration is a neoliberal policy for dealing with social instability among economically marginalized populations.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}}{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=}} According to Wacquant, this situation follows the implementation of other neoliberal policies, which have allowed for the retrenchment of the social [[welfare state]] and the rise of punitive [[workfare]], whilst increasing [[gentrification]] of urban areas, [[privatization]] of public functions, the shrinking of collective protections for the working class via economic [[deregulation]] and the rise of underpaid, [[precarity|precarious wage labor]].{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=53–54}}<ref>{{cite web |first=Devin Z. |last=Shaw |url=http://notes-taken.blogspot.com/2010/09/loic-wacquant-prisons-of-poverty.html |title=Loïc Wacquant: "Prisons of Poverty" |website=The Notes Taken }}</ref> By contrast, it is extremely lenient in dealing with those in the upper echelons of society, in particular when it comes to economic crimes of the [[upper class]] and corporations such as [[fraud]], [[embezzlement]], [[insider trading]], credit and [[insurance fraud]], [[money laundering]] and violation of commerce and labor codes.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Wacquant |first=Loïc |author-link=Loïc Wacquant |title=The punitive regulation of poverty in the neoliberal age |url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/lo%C3%AFc-wacquant/punitive-regulation-of-poverty-in-neoliberal-age |access-date=July 17, 2018 |website=[[openDemocracy]] |archive-date=September 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925115704/https://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/lo%c3%afc-wacquant/punitive-regulation-of-poverty-in-neoliberal-age |url-status=dead}}</ref> According to Wacquant, neoliberalism does not shrink government, but instead sets up a "centaur state" with little governmental oversight for those at the top and strict control of those at the bottom.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}}<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Richard |last1=Mora |first2=Mary |last2=Christianakis |title=Feeding the School-to-Prison Pipeline: The Convergence of Neoliberalism, Conservativism, and Penal Populism |journal=[[Journal of Educational Controversy]] |publisher=Woodring College of Education, [[Western Washington University]] |url=http://cedar.wwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1173&context=jec |access-date=February 23, 2014}}</ref><br />
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[[File:U.S. incarceration rates 1925 onwards.png|thumb |upright=1.15|left|[[United States incarceration rate]] per 100,000 population, 1925–2013<ref name=cpusa2010>{{cite report |id=[[National Criminal Justice Reference Service|NCJ]] [http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?iid=2237&ty=pbdetail 236319] |title=Correctional Populations in the United States, 2010 |first=Lauren E. |last=Glaze |publisher=[[US Bureau of Justice Statistics]] |url=http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/cpus10.pdf}} See page 2 for an explanation of the difference between the number of prisoners in custody and the number under jurisdiction. See appendix table 3 for "Estimated number of inmates held in custody in state or federal prisons or in local jails per 100,000 U.S. residents, by sex, race and Hispanic/Latino origin, and age, June 30, 2010". See appendix table 2 for "Inmates held in custody in state or federal prisons or in local jails, December 31, 2000, and 2009–2010."</ref><ref name=cpusa2013>{{cite report |id=[[National Criminal Justice Reference Service|NCJ]] [http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=5177 248479] |title=Correctional Populations in the United States, 2013 |publisher=[[U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics]] |first1=Lauren E. |last1=Glaze |first2=Danielle |last2=Kaeble |url=http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/cpus13.pdf}} See page 1 "HIGHLIGHTS" section for the "1 in ..." numbers. See table 1 on page 2 for adult numbers. See table 5 on page 6 for male and female numbers. See appendix table 5 on page 13, for "Estimated number of persons supervised by adult correctional systems, by correctional status, 2000–2013." See appendix table 2: "Inmates held in custody in state or federal prisons or in local jails, 2000 and 2012–2013".</ref>]]<br />
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In expanding upon Wacquant's thesis, sociologist and political economist John L. Campbell of [[Dartmouth College]] suggests that through [[Private prison|privatization]] the prison system exemplifies the centaur state. He states that "on the one hand, it punishes the lower class, which populates the prisons; on the other hand, it profits the upper class, which owns the prisons, and it employs the middle class, which runs them." In addition, he argues that the prison system benefits corporations through outsourcing, as inmates are "slowly becoming a source of low-wage labor for some US corporations". Both through privatization and outsourcing, Campbell argues, the penal state reflects neoliberalism.<ref name="campbell">{{cite journal |title=Neoliberalism's penal and debtor states |first=John L. |last=Campbell |journal=[[Theoretical Criminology]] |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=59–73 |doi=10.1177/1362480609352783 |s2cid=145694058}}</ref>{{rp|61}} Campbell also argues that while neoliberalism in the United States established a penal state for the poor, it also put into place a debtor state for the middle class and that "both have had perverse effects on their respective targets: increasing rates of incarceration among the lower class and increasing rates of indebtedness—and recently home foreclosure—among the middle class."<ref name="campbell"/>{{rp|68}}<br />
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[[David McNally (professor)|David McNally]], Professor of Political Science at [[York University]], argues that while expenditures on social [[welfare |welfare programs]] have been cut, expenditures on prison construction have increased significantly during the neoliberal era, with California having "the largest prison-building program in the history of the world".<ref name=McNally>{{cite book |last=McNally |first=David |title=Global Slump: The Economics and Politics of Crisis and Resistance |year=2011 |publisher=Spectre |isbn=978-1-60486-332-1 |url=http://secure.pmpress.org/index.php?l=product_detail&p=271 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_JiLYpjUlAIC&pg=PA119 119] |access-date=March 10, 2015 |archive-date=September 7, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907002629/https://secure.pmpress.org/index.php?l=product_detail&p=271 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The scholar [[Bernard Harcourt]] contends the neoliberal concept that the state is inept when it comes to [[economic regulation]], but efficient in policing and punishing "has facilitated the slide to mass incarceration".<ref>Scott Horton (September 8, 2011). [http://harpers.org/blog/2011/09/the-illusion-of-free-markets-six-questions-for-bernard-harcourt/ The Illusion of Free Markets: Six Questions for Bernard Harcourt]. ''[[Harper's Magazine]].'' Retrieved December 27, 2014.</ref> Both Wacquant and Harcourt refer to this phenomenon as "Neoliberal Penality".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Marginality, ethnicity and penality in the neo-liberal city: an analytic cartography |first=Loïc |author-link=Loïc Wacquant |last=Wacquant |journal=[[Ethnic and Racial Studies]] |volume=37 |issue=10 |pages=1687–711 |doi=10.1080/01419870.2014.931991 |url=http://www.loicwacquant.net/assets/Papers/MARGINALITYETHNICITYPENALITY-Article-ERS.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151010112131/http://www.loicwacquant.net/assets/Papers/MARGINALITYETHNICITYPENALITY-Article-ERS.pdf |archive-date=October 10, 2015 |citeseerx=10.1.1.694.6299 |s2cid=144879355}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.law.uchicago.edu/video/harcourt-neoliberal-penality |first=Bernard |last=Harcourt |title=Neoliberal Penality: A Genealogy of Excess |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231122651/http://www.law.uchicago.edu/video/harcourt-neoliberal-penality |archive-date=December 31, 2016 |website=[[University of Chicago Law School]] }}</ref><br />
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=== Financialization ===<br />
The implementation of neoliberal policies and the acceptance of neoliberal economic theories in the 1970s are seen by some academics as the root of [[financialization]], with the [[Great Recession]] as one of its results.<ref name="BraedleyLuxton"/><ref>{{harvp|Kotz|2015|p={{pn}}}}; {{harvp|Steger|Roy|2010|p=123}}; {{harvp|Lavoie|2012–2013|pp=215–233}}; {{harvp|Stein|2012|pp=421–440}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Gérard |last1=Duménil |author1-link=Gérard Duménil |first2=Dominique |last2=Lévy |author2-link=Dominique Lévy |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674072244 |title=The Crisis of Neoliberalism |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0674072244}}</ref> In particular, various neoliberal ideologies that had long been advocated by elites, such as [[monetarism]] and [[supply-side economics]], were translated into government policy by the [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Reagan administration]], which resulted in decreased government regulation and a shift from a tax-financed state to a debt-financed one. While the profitability of industry and the rate of economic growth never recovered to the heyday of the 1960s, the political and economic power of [[Wall Street]] and finance capital vastly increased due to debt-financing by the state.<ref name="Volscho pp. 249–266" /> A 2016 [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) report blames certain neoliberal policies for exacerbating financial crises around the world, causing them to grow bigger and more damaging.<ref name="Ostry2016"/><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Foroohar |first=Rana |title=Globalization's True Believers Are Having Second Thoughts |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=http://time.com/4356816/neoliberalism-imf-globalization/?xid=newsletter-brief}}</ref><br />
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=== Globalization ===<br />
{{see also|Criticisms of globalization}}<br />
{{expand section}}<br />
Neoliberalism is commonly viewed by scholars as encouraging of [[globalization]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fuchs |first1=Christian |title=Antiglobalization |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/antiglobalization#ref1180923 |publisher=Britannica |access-date=June 28, 2019}}</ref> which is the subject of much [[Anti-globalization movement|criticism]].<br />
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The emergence of the "[[precariat]]", a new class facing acute socio-economic insecurity and alienation due to [[offshoring]] and a global [[race to the bottom]], has been attributed to the globalization of neoliberalism.<ref name="Fox OMahony OMahony Hickey 2014 p.25"/><br />
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In a 2022 article for the journal ''[[Global Environmental Change]]'', [[Jason Hickel]] et. al. argued that [[unequal exchange]] between the [[Global North and Global South]] in the era of neoliberal globalization led to a quantified $242 trillion in net appropriation of raw materials, energy and labor from the latter to the former (constant 2010 USD) between 1990 and 2015.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hickel |first1=Jason |author1-link=Jason Hickel |last2=Dorninger |first2=Christian |last3=Wieland |first3=Hanspeter |last4=Suwandi |first4=Intan |title=Imperialist appropriation in the world economy: Drain from the global South through unequal exchange, 1990–2015 |url= |journal=[[Global Environmental Change]] |volume=73 |issue=102467 |page=102467 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102467 |s2cid=246855421 |access-date= |doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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=== Imperialism ===<br />
A number of scholars have alleged neoliberalism encourages or covers for [[imperialism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spector |first1=Alan J. |title=Globalization or Imperialism? Neoliberal Globalization in the Age of Capitalist Imperialism |journal=[[International Review of Modern Sociology]] |volume=33 |pages=7–26 |jstor=41421286}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hahn |first1=Niels S.C. |title=Neoliberal Imperialism and Pan-African Resistance |journal=[[Journal of World-Systems Research]] |volume=13 |issue=2 |url=https://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/354 |access-date=June 30, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Godfrey |first1=Richard |title=The private military industry and neoliberal imperialism: Mapping the terrain |journal=[[Organization (journal)|Organization]] |volume=21 |pages=106–125 |s2cid=145260433 |doi=10.1177/1350508412470731 |hdl=2381/27608 |url=http://oro.open.ac.uk/62351/1/62351.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107192548/http://oro.open.ac.uk/62351/1/62351.pdf |archive-date=2019-11-07 |url-status=live}}</ref> For instance, Ruth J Blakeley, Professor of Politics and International Relations at the [[University of Sheffield]], accuses the United States and its allies of fomenting [[state terrorism]] and mass killings during the [[Cold War]] as a means to buttress and promote the expansion of [[capitalism]] and neoliberalism in the developing world.<ref>{{cite book |last=Blakeley |first=Ruth |title=State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415462402/ |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4], [https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20–23], [https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 88] |isbn=978-0415686174}}</ref> As an example of this, Blakeley says the case of Indonesia demonstrates that the U.S. and the UK put the interests of capitalist [[elite]]s over the [[human rights]] of hundreds of thousands of Indonesians by supporting the [[Indonesian Army]] as it waged a [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|campaign of mass killings]], which resulted in the annihilation of the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] and its civilian supporters. Historian Bradley R. Simpson posits that this campaign of mass killings was "an essential building block of the neoliberal policies that the West would attempt to impose on Indonesia after Sukarno's ouster."<ref>{{cite book |last=Simpson |first=Bradley |title=Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.–Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968 |url=https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |page=193 |isbn=978-0804771825 |quote="Washington did everything in its power to encourage and facilitate the army-led massacre of alleged PKI members, and U.S. officials worried only that the killing of the party's unarmed supporters might not go far enough, permitting Sukarno to return to power and frustrate the [Johnson] Administration's emerging plans for a post-Sukarno Indonesia. This was efficacious terror, an essential building block of the neoliberal policies that the West would attempt to impose on Indonesia after Sukarno's ouster"}}</ref><br />
Geographer [[David Harvey]] argues neoliberalism encourages an indirect form of imperialism that focuses on the extraction of resources from developing countries via financial mechanisms.{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|pp=73–74}}<br />
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This is practiced through international institutions like the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and [[World Bank]] who negotiate debt relief with developing nations. He alleges that these institutions prioritize the financial institutions that grant the loans over the debtor countries and place requirements on loans that, in effect, act as financial flows from debtor countries to developed countries (for example, to receive a loan a state must have sufficient foreign exchange reserves—requiring the debtor state to buy US Treasury bonds, which have interest rates lower than those on the loan). Economist [[Joseph Stiglitz]] has said of this: "What a peculiar world in which poor countries are in effect subsidizing the richest."{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=74}}<br />
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=== Global health ===<br />
{{see also|Structural adjustment#Criticisms}}<br />
The neoliberal approach to global health advocates [[privatization]] of the [[healthcare industry]] and [[deregulation|reduced government interference]] in the market, and focuses on [[non-governmental organization]]s (NGOs) and international organizations like the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the [[World Bank]] rather than government.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=James |title='Blind Spot: How Neoliberalism Infiltrated Global Health' Book Review |url=https://academic.oup.com/jpubhealth/article-pdf/38/3/624/8518513/fdv082.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030193428/https://academic.oup.com/jpubhealth/article-pdf/38/3/624/8518513/fdv082.pdf |archive-date=2018-10-30 |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of Public Health]] |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=624 |doi=10.1093/pubmed/fdv082 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This approach has faced considerable criticism, such as the [[TRIPS Agreement]] hampering access to essential medicines in the [[Global South]] (i.e. during the [[AIDS]] and [[COVID-19]] pandemics).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baru |first1=Rama |last2=Mohan |first2=Malu |title=Globalisation and neoliberalism as structural drivers of health inequities |journal=[[Health Research Policy and Systems]] |volume=16 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=91 |doi=10.1186/s12961-018-0365-2 |pmid=30301457 |pmc=6178247}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |title=The Deadly Ideas of Neoliberalism: How the IMF has Undermined Public Health and the Fight Against AIDS |last=Rowden |first=Rick |publisher=[[Zed Books]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1848132856|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Blind Spot: How Neoliberalism Infiltrated Global Health |last=Keshavjee |first=Salmaan |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=9780520282841}}</ref> <br />
<br />
James Pfeiffer, Professor of Global Health at the [[University of Washington]], has criticised the use of [[Structural adjustment|Structural Adjustment Programs]] (SAPs) by the World Bank and IMF in [[Mozambique]], which resulted in reduced government health spending, leading international NGOs to fill service holes previously filled by government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pfeiffer |first1=J. |year=2003 |title=International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration |journal=[[Social Science & Medicine]] |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=725–38 |doi=10.1016/s0277-9536(02)00068-0 |pmid=12560007}}</ref> Rick Rowden, a Senior Economist at Global Financial Integrity, has criticised the IMF's [[monetarism|monetarist]] approach of prioritising [[price stability]] and fiscal restraint, which he alleges was unnecessarily restrictive and prevented developing countries from scaling up long-term [[investment]] in public health infrastructure.<ref name=":3" /><br />
<br />
Within the developed capitalist world, according to Dylan Sullivan and [[Jason Hickel]], neoliberal countries like the United States have inferior health outcomes and more poverty compared to [[Social democracy|social democracies]] with universalist [[welfare states]], in particular the [[Nordic model|Nordics]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sullivan |first1=Dylan |last2=Hickel |first2=Jason |author2-link=Jason Hickel |title=Capitalism and extreme poverty: A global analysis of real wages, human height, and mortality since the long 16th century |url= |journal=[[World Development (journal)|World Development]] |volume=161 |issue= |page=106026 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.106026 |s2cid=252315733 |access-date= |doi-access=free}}</ref> Some commentators have blamed neoliberalism for various social ills,<ref name="Berdayes">{{cite book |editor1-last=Berdayes |editor1-first=Vicente |editor2-last=Murphy |editor2-first=John W. |title=Neoliberalism, Economic Radicalism, and the Normalization of Violence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G64vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |publisher=Springer |page=2 |isbn=978-3-319-25169-1 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Victoria E. |last2=Rothe |first2=Dawn L. |title=The Violence of Neoliberalism: Crime, Harm and Inequality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=us2gDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT11 |page=11 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781138584778 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> including [[mass shootings]],<ref name="Berdayes"/><ref>{{cite news |last=McIntyre |first=Niamh |title=This Theorist Believes That Capitalism Creates Mass Murderers by Causing People to 'Malfunction' |url=https://www.vice.com/en_uk/article/wd7eyw/berardi-interview|work=Vice |access-date=August 11, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Wolff |first1=Richard D. |author1-link=Richard D. Wolff |last2=Fraad |first2=Harriet |author2-link=Harriet Fraad |title=American hyper-capitalism breeds the lonely, alienated men who become mass killers |work=[[Salon (magazine)|Salon]] |url=https://www.salon.com/2017/11/08/american-hyper-capitalism-breeds-the-lonely-alienated-men-who-become-mass-killers_partner/ |access-date=August 11, 2019}}</ref> and [[deaths of despair]] in the United States.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zeira |first=Anna |title=Mental Health Challenges Related to Neoliberal Capitalism in the United States |journal=[[Community Mental Health Journal]] |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=205–212 |pmid=34032963 |pmc=8145185 |doi=10.1007/s10597-021-00840-7}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Environmental impact ===<br />
{{expand section}}<br />
[[File:Press conference EU-Mercosul on June 26, 2019 (VII).jpg|thumb|The [[European Union–Mercosur free trade agreement]], which would form one of the world's largest [[free trade]] areas, has been denounced by environmental activists and indigenous rights campaigners.]]<br />
It has been argued that trade-led, unregulated economic activity and lax state [[regulation of pollution]] have led to [[environmental degradation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Peet |first=Richard |title=Neoliberalism and Nature: The Case of the WTO |journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=590 |pages=188–211|doi=10.1177/0002716203256721 |s2cid=154566692 }}</ref> Furthermore, modes of production encouraged under neoliberalism may reduce the availability of natural resources over the long term, and may therefore not be sustainable within the world's [[resource depletion|limited geographical space]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Moore |first=Jason W. |title=Transcending the metabolic rift: a theory of crises in the capitalist worldecology |journal=[[Journal of Peasant Studies]] |volume=38 |number=1 |pages=1–46 |doi=10.1080/03066150.2010.538579 |s2cid=55640067}}</ref><br />
<br />
In Robert Fletcher's 2010 piece, "Neoliberal Environmentality: Towards a Poststructuralist Political Ecology of the Conservation Debate"<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fletcher |first=Robert |title=Neoliberal environmentality: Towards a poststructuralist political ecology of the conservation debate |journal=[[Conservation and Society]] |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=171 |doi=10.4103/0972-4923.73806 |issn=0972-4923 |doi-access=free}}</ref> his premise is that there is a conflict of ideas in conservation; that on one side of things you have deep ecology and protectionist paradigms and on the other side you have community based conservation efforts. There are problems with both approaches, and on either side they frequently fail to do conservation work in a substantial way. In the middle, Fletcher sees a space where social sciences are able to critique both sides of and blend the approaches, forming not a triangle of ideologies, but a spectrum. The relationship between capitalism and conservation is one that has to be reckoned with due to an overarching neoliberal framework guiding most conservation efforts.<br />
<br />
According to ecologist [[William E. Rees]], the "neoliberal paradigm contributes significantly to planetary unraveling" by treating the economy and the ecosphere as totally separate systems, and by neglecting the latter.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rees|first1=William E.|author-link=William E. Rees|title=Ecological economics for humanity's plague phase|url=http://www.fraw.org.uk/data/limits/rees_2020.pdf|journal=[[Ecological Economics (journal)|Ecological Economics]]|volume=169 |issue= |pages=106519 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106519|s2cid=209502532 |access-date=}}</ref> [[Marxism|Marxist]] economic geographer [[David Harvey]] argues neoliberalism is to blame for [[Holocene extinction|increased rates of extinction]].{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=173}} Notably, he observes that "the era of neoliberalization also happens to be the era of the fastest mass extinction of species in the Earth's recent history." American philosopher and animal rights activist [[Steven Best]] argues that three decades of neoliberal policies have "marketized the entire world" and intensified "the assault on every ecosystem on the earth as a whole".<ref>{{cite book |last=Best |first=Steven |title=The Politics of Total Liberation: Revolution for the 21st Century |chapter=Conclusion: Reflections on Activism and Hope in a Dying World and Suicidal Culture |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |page=160 |isbn=978-1137471116 |doi=10.1057/9781137440723_7 |author-link=Steven Best}}</ref> Neoliberalism reduces the "[[tragedy of the commons]]" to an argument for private ownership.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Debunking the Tragedy of the Commons |url=https://news.cnrs.fr/opinions/debunking-the-tragedy-of-the-commons |access-date=December 11, 2020 |website=[[French National Centre for Scientific Research|CNRS News]] }}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Friedman doctrine]], which Nicolas Firzli has argued defined the neoliberal era,<ref name="Analyse Financière">{{cite news |first1=M. Nicolas J. |last1=Firzli |title=Beyond SDGs: Can Fiduciary Capitalism and Bolder, Better Boards Jumpstart Economic Growth? |url=https://www.academia.edu/28982570 |access-date=November 1, 2016 |work=Analyse Financière }}</ref> may lead companies to neglect concerns for the environment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Milton Friedman was right and wrong |website=[[Australian Financial Review]] |url=https://www.afr.com/policy/economy/business-real-social-responsibility-is-to-be-a-rule-taker-not-a-maker-20200913-p55v3x |access-date=December 12, 2020}}</ref> Firzli insists that prudent, [[fiduciary]]-driven long-term investors cannot ignore the [[environmental, social and corporate governance]] consequences of actions taken by the CEOs of the companies whose shares they hold as "the long-dominant Friedman stance is becoming culturally unacceptable and financially costly in the boardrooms of pension funds and industrial firms in Europe and North America".<ref name="Analyse Financière"/><br />
<br />
Critics like Noel Castree focus on the relationship between neoliberalism and the biophysical environment explain that critics of neoliberals see the free market as the best way to mediate the relationship between producers and consumers, as well as maximize freedom in a more general sense which they view as inherently good. Castree also asserts that the assumption that markets will allow for the maximization of individual freedom is incorrect.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Castree |first=Noel |title=Neoliberalism and the Biophysical Environment 1: What 'Neoliberalism' is, and What Difference Nature Makes to it |journal=[[Geography Compass]] |volume=4 |issue=12 |pages=1725–1733 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-8198.2010.00405.x |issn=1749-8198|url=https://pure.manchester.ac.uk/ws/files/25441023/POST-PEER-REVIEW-NON-PUBLISHERS.DOC }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Political opposition ===<br />
{{See also|Anti-neoliberalism}}<br />
In political science, disillusionment with neoliberalism is seen as a cause of de-[[politicization]] and the growth of anti-political sentiment, which can in turn encourage [[populist]] politics and re-politicization.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Fawcett |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Flinders |editor2-first=Matthew |editor3-last=Hay |editor3-first=Colin |editor4-last=Wood |editor4-first=Matthew |title=Anti-Politics, Depoliticization, and Governance |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |pages=3–9 |isbn=978-0-19-874897-7 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198748977.001.0001}}</ref><br />
<br />
Instances of political opposition to neoliberalism from the late 1990s onward include:<br />
* Research by [[Kristen Ghodsee]], ethnographer and Professor of Russian and East European Studies at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], argues that widespread discontent with neoliberal capitalism has led to a "[[Communist nostalgia|red nostalgia]]" in much of the former Communist bloc. She argues that "the political freedoms that came with democracy were packaged with the worst type of unregulated, free-market capitalism, which completely destabilized the rhythms of everyday life and brought crime, corruption and chaos where there had once been comfortable predictability",<ref>{{cite web |title=Dr. Kristen Ghodsee, Bowdoin College – Nostalgia for Communism |url=http://wamc.org/post/dr-kristen-ghodsee-bowdoin-college-nostalgia-communism |access-date=July 26, 2018 |publisher=Wamc.org |archive-date=November 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111205821/https://www.wamc.org/post/dr-kristen-ghodsee-bowdoin-college-nostalgia-communism |url-status=dead}}</ref> which ultimately fueled a resurgence of extremist [[nationalism]].<ref name="Ghodsee2017"/><br />
* In Latin America, the "[[pink tide]]" that swept leftist governments into power at the turn of the millennium can be seen as a reaction against neoliberal hegemony and the notion that "[[there is no alternative]]" (TINA) to the [[Washington Consensus]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Neoliberal Hegemony and the Pink Tide in Latin America: Breaking Up With TINA? (International Political Economy Series) |last=Chodor |first=Tom |year=2014 |isbn=978-1137444677 |url=http://www.palgrave.com/page/detail/neoliberal-hegemony-and-the-pink-tide-in-latin-america-tom-chodor/?K=9781137444677 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |access-date=November 23, 2014 |archive-date=September 30, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930102542/http://www.palgrave.com/page/detail/neoliberal-hegemony-and-the-pink-tide-in-latin-america-tom-chodor/?K=9781137444677 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
* In protest against neoliberal globalization, South Korean farmer and former president of the Korean Advanced Farmers Federation [[Lee Kyung-hae]] committed suicide by stabbing himself in the heart during a meeting of the [[World Trade Organization]] in Cancun, Mexico, in 2003.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IR9woMrfFs4C&pg=PA147 |title=The Rhetoric of Food: Discourse, Materiality, and Power |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0415727563 |editor1-last=Frye |editor1-first=Joshua |page=147 |editor2-last=Bruner |editor2-first=Michael |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> He was protesting against the decision of the South Korean government to reduce subsidies to farmers.{{sfnp|Jones|Parker|Bos|2005|p=96}}<br />
*The rise of anti-austerity parties in Europe and [[SYRIZA]]'s victory in the [[Greek legislative election, January 2015|Greek legislative elections of January 2015]] have some proclaiming "the end of neoliberalism".<ref>{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Mason |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jan/25/greece-shows-what-can-happen-when-young-revolt-against-corrupt-elites |title=Greece shows what can happen when the young revolt against corrupt elites |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=25 January 2015}}</ref><br />
*In 2018, the [[Yellow vests movement]] in France and the [[2019–2021 Chilean protests]], have emerged in direct opposition to neoliberal governments and policies including [[privatization]] and [[austerity]], which are blamed for the rising [[cost of living]], surging personal debts, and increased [[economic inequality]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Haskins<br />
|first=Caroline|title=The Paris 'Yellow Vest' Protests Show the Flaws of Capitalism |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/nepkpw/the-paris-yellow-vest-protests-show-the-flaws-of-capitalism |work=[[Vice Media|Vice]] |access-date=November 3, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/10/21/chile-protests-santiago-dead-state-emergency/ |title='We are at war': 8 dead in Chile's violent protests over social inequality |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=November 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024130721/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/10/21/chile-protests-santiago-dead-state-emergency/ |archive-date=October 24, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019, protests against neoliberal reforms, policies and governments have taken place in scores of countries on 5 continents, with opposition to austerity, privatization and tax hikes on the working classes being a common theme among many of them.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ehrenreich |first=Ben |title=Welcome to the Global Rebellion Against Neoliberalism |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/global-rebellions-inequality/ |work=[[The Nation]] |access-date=November 29, 2019 |author-link=Ben Ehrenreich}}</ref> <br />
* During the [[2021 Chilean general election]], president-elect [[Gabriel Boric]] promised to end the country's neoliberal economic model, stating that "if Chile was the cradle of neoliberalism, it will also be its grave."<ref>{{cite news |last=Cambero |first=Fabian |title=Student protest leader to president-elect: Gabriel Boric caps rise of Chile's left |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/student-protest-leader-president-elect-gabriel-boric-caps-rise-chiles-left-2021-12-20/ |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=December 21, 2021}}</ref><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
{{Portal|Liberalism|Politics|Economics}}<br />
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}<br />
* [[Anarcho-capitalism]]<br />
* [[Beltway libertarianism]]<br />
* [[Capitalism]]<br />
* [[Capitalist realism]]<br />
* [[Classical liberalism]]<br />
* [[Conservatism in the United States]]<br />
* [[Conservative liberalism]]<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=David |editor-last=Cayla |title=Populism and Neoliberalism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pDAXEAAAQBAJ&dq=Neoliberalism+%22conservative+liberalism%22&pg=PA62 |quote=He demonstrates that the concept of “neoliberalism” did not emerge in the American context and that it was thereby not invented to distinguish Paul Krugman's left-wing liberalism from Milton Friedman's conservative liberalism. |page=62 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781000366709 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><br />
* [[Cultural globalization]]<br />
* [[Economic globalization]]<br />
* [[Economic liberalism]]<br />
* [[Elite theory]]<br />
* [[Free market]]<br />
* [[Globalism]]<br />
* [[Globalization]]<br />
* [[History of macroeconomic thought]]<br />
* [[Inverted totalitarianism]]<br />
* [[Late capitalism]]<br />
* [[Neoclassical economics]]<br />
* [[Neoclassical liberalism]]<br />
* [[Neoconservatism]]<br />
* [[Neo-libertarianism]]<br />
* [[Objectivism]]<br />
* [[Political Economy]]<br />
* [[Reagan Democrat]]<br />
* [[Reaganomics]]<br />
* [[Reason magazine]]<br />
* [[Right libertarianism]]<br />
* [[Shock therapy (economics)]]<br />
* [[Thatcherism]]<br />
* [[Triangulation (politics)|Triangulation]]<br />
* [[Trickle-down economics]]<br />
{{div col end}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
=== Bibliography ===<br />
{{refbegin|30em}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Arac |first=Jonathan |editor1-first=Peter A. |editor1-last=Hall |editor2-first=Michèle |editor2-last=Lamont |title=Social Resilience in the Neoliberal Era |pages=xvi–xvii |quote=The term is generally used by those who oppose it. People do not call themselves neoliberal; instead, they tag their enemies with the term.}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Boas |first1=Taylor C. |last2=Gans-Morse |first2=Jordan |title=Neoliberalism: From New Liberal Philosophy to Anti-Liberal Slogan |journal=[[Studies in Comparative International Development]] |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=137–161 |doi=10.1007/s12116-009-9040-5 |doi-access=free |s2cid=4811996}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Burgin |first=Angus |title=The Great Persuasion: Reinventing Free Markets since the Depression |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BnZ1qKdXojoC |isbn=978-0-674-06743-1 |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Chomsky |first1=Noam |author1-link=Noam Chomsky |last2=McChesney |first2=Robert W. |author2-link=Robert W. McChesney |chapter=Introduction |title=Profit over People: Neoliberalism and Global Order |publisher=[[Seven Stories Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-1888363821 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrLv4surz7UC}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Duménil |first1=Gérard |last2=Lévy |first2=Dominique |title=Capital Resurgent: Roots of the Neoliberal Revolution |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=0674011589}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Gerstle |first=Gary |author-link=Gary Gerstle |title=The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal Order: America and the World in the Free Market Era |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-neoliberal-order-9780197519646?cc=us&lang=en& |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0197519646}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Natalie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bkotGqoG0u0C&pg=PA30 |title=Globalization and Free Trade |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-8160-8365-7 |page=30 |via=[[Google Books]]}}<br />
* {{cite web |last=Hartwich |first=Oliver Marc |author-link=Oliver Marc Hartwich |title=Neoliberalism: The Genesis of a Political Swearword |publisher=[[Centre for Independent Studies]] |id=CIS Occasional Paper 114 |url=http://www.ort.edu.uy/facs/boletininternacionales/contenidos/68/neoliberalism68.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724120736/http://www.ort.edu.uy/facs/boletininternacionales/contenidos/68/neoliberalism68.pdf |archive-date=2014-07-24}}<br />
** Book version: {{cite book |last=Hartwich |first=Oliver Marc |author-link=Oliver Marc Hartwich |year=2009b |title=Neoliberalism: The Genesis of a Political Swearword |publisher=[[Centre for Independent Studies]] |isbn=978-1-86432-185-2}}<br />
* {{Cite book |last=Harvey |first=David |author-link=David Harvey (geographer) |year=2005 |title=A Brief History of Neoliberalism |isbn=978-0-19-928326-2 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/a-brief-history-of-neoliberalism-9780199283279?cc=us&lang=en& |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}<br />
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Haymes |editor1-first=Stephen |editor2-last=Vidal de Haymes |editor2-first=Maria |editor3-last=Miller |editor3-first=Reuben |title=The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0415673440 |location=London |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415673440}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Campbell |last2=Parker |first2=Martin |last3=Bos |first3=Rene Ten |title=For Business Ethics |publisher=[[Routledge]] |url=https://archive.org/details/forbusinessethic00jone |url-access=limited |isbn=978-0415311359}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Kotsko |first=Adam |author-link=Adam Kotsko |title=Neoliberalism's Demons: On the Political Theology of Late Capital |url=https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=29538 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-1503607125}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Kotz |first=David M. |year=2015 |title=The Rise and Fall of Neoliberal Capitalism |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0674725652 |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674980013}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Lavoie |first=Marc |author-link=Marc Lavoie |title=Financialization, neo-liberalism, and securitization |journal=Journal of Post Keynesian Economics |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=215–33 |doi=10.2753/pke0160-3477350203 |jstor=23469991 |s2cid=153927517}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Mirowski |first1=Philip |author1-link=Philip Mirowski |last2=Plehwe |first2=Dieter |year=2009 |title=The road from Mont Pèlerin: the making of the neoliberal thought collective |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-03318-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/roadfrommontpele00miro_950}}<br />
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Springer |editor1-first=Simon |editor2-last=Birch |editor2-first=Kean |editor3-last=MacLeavy |editor3-first=Julie |title=The Handbook of Neoliberalism |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Handbook-of-Neoliberalism/Springer-Birch-MacLeavy/p/book/9781138844001 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1138844001 |oclc=1020671216}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Stedman Jones |first=Daniel |title-link=Masters of the Universe (book) |title=Masters of the Universe: Hayek, Friedman, and the Birth of Neoliberal Politics |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-1-4008-5183-6}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Steger |first1=Manfred B. |author1-link=Manfred B. Steger |last2=Roy |first2=Ravi K. |year=2010 |title=Neoliberalism: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0199560516 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/705?login=false |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pkMFxvXvukwC&pg=PA50 50–51], [https://books.google.com/books?id=pkMFxvXvukwC&pg=PA123 123]}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Stein |first=Howard |title=The Neoliberal Policy Paradigm and the Great Recession |journal=Panoeconomicus |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=421–40 |doi=10.2298/PAN1204421S |quote="The role of deregulation and related neoliberal policies as a both a source of massive financialization of the economy and cause of the Great Recession is widely recognized in the literature (David M. Kotz 2009; Bill Lucarelli 2009; Joseph Stiglitz 2010; William Tabb 2012). Some authors aptly call it the "crisis of neoliberal capitalism" (Kotz 2010)." |doi-access=free |s2cid=26437908}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Wacquant |first=Loïc |author-link=Loïc Wacquant |year=2009 |title=Punishing the poor: the neoliberal government of social insecurity |publisher=Duke University Press |location=Durham NC |isbn=9780822392255 |oclc=404091956 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NkyFsGi2erEC}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
=== Summaries and histories ===<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* Albo, Gregory. "Neoliberalism from Reagan to Clinton." ''Monthly Review'' 52.11 (2001): 81-89, in USA [http://cf.linnbenton.edu/artcom/social_science/clarkd/upload/neo.pdf online]<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Appel |first1=Hilary |last2=Orenstein |first2=Mitchell A. |title=From Triumph to Crisis: Neoliberal Economic Reform in Postcommunist Countries |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1108435055}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Baccaro |first1=Lucio |last2=Howell |first2=Chris |title=Trajectories of Neoliberal Transformation: European Industrial Relations Since the 1970s |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/trajectories-of-neoliberal-transformation/23D812E2CC6DD50EC043285A9C6576C7#fndtn-information |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1107603691}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Bartel |first=Fritz |title=The Triumph of Broken Promises: The End of the Cold War and the Rise of Neoliberalism |url=https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674976788 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=9780674976788}}<br />
* Budd, John M. and Bart M. Harloe."Higher Learning and the American Academic Library in the Twilight Era of Neoliberalism." ''Progressive Librarian'' 46 Winter 2017/2018: 159-178.<br />
* Cahill, Damien, et al., eds. ''The SAGE handbook of neoliberalism'' (Sage, 2018).<br />
* Cahill, Damien and Konings, Martijn. ''Neoliberalism''. John Wiley & Sons. 2017. {{ISBN|9780745695563}}<br />
* Campbell, John L., and Ove K. Pedersen, eds. ''The Rise of Neoliberalism and Institutional Analysis'' Princeton University Press, 2001. 288 pp.<br />
* {{cite book |last=Eagleton-Pierce |first=Matthew |year=2015 |title=Neoliberalism: The Key Concepts |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415837545 |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415837545/}}<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Harvey |first1=David |title=A Brief History of Neoliberalism |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0199283279}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Kingstone |first=Peter |title=The Rise and Fall (and Rise Again?) of Neoliberalism in Latin America |publisher=SAGE Publications Ltd |year=2018}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Mirowski |first=Philip |title=Never Let a Serious Crisis Go to Waste: How Neoliberalism Survived the Financial Meltdown |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |isbn=978-1781683026 |author-link=Philip Mirowski}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Plant |first=Raymond |title=The Neo-liberal State |year=2009 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-neo-liberal-state-9780199650576?cc=us&lang=en&# |isbn=978-0-19-928175-6}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Prasad |first=Monica |title=The popular origins of neoliberalism in the Reagan tax cut of 1981 |journal=Journal of Policy History |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=351–383|doi=10.1017/S0898030612000103 |s2cid=154910974 }}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Springer |first=Simon |url=http://www.rowmaninternational.com/books/the-discourse-of-neoliberalism |title=The Discourse of Neoliberalism: An Anatomy of a Powerful Idea |series=Discourse, Power and Society |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108185959/http://www.rowmaninternational.com/books/the-discourse-of-neoliberalism |archive-date=January 8, 2017 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] International |isbn=978-1783486526}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Iain |year=2020 |title=On Recent Developments in the New Historiography of (Neo) Liberalism |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10099007/1/Stewart%20-%20On%20Recent%20Developments%20in%20the%20New%20Historiography%20of%20Liberalism%20-%20final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107131133/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10099007/1/Stewart%20-%20On%20Recent%20Developments%20in%20the%20New%20Historiography%20of%20Liberalism%20-%20final.pdf |archive-date=2020-11-07 |url-status=live |journal=[[Contemporary European History]] |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=116–124 |doi=10.1017/S0960777319000158 |s2cid=210501346}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Thorsen |first1=Dag Einer |title=The Neoliberal Challenge: What is Neoliberalism? |journal=Addleton Academic Publishers |url=http://folk.uio.no/daget/neoliberalism2.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607060521/http://folk.uio.no/daget/neoliberalism2.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-07}}<br />
* Wang, Hui, and Karl, Rebecca E. "1989 and the Historical Roots of Neoliberalism in China," ''positions: east Asia cultures critique'', Volume 12, Number 1, Spring 2004, pp.&nbsp;7–70<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
=== Criticisms ===<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* {{cite news |last1=Bourdieu |first1=Pierre |title=The essence of neoliberalism |url=https://mondediplo.com/1998/12/08bourdieu |publisher=Le Monde diplomatique }}<br />
* Brady, David. 2008. ''Rich Democracies, Poor People: How Politics Explain Poverty''. New York: Oxford University Press.<br />
* [[Wendy Brown (political scientist)|Brown, Wendy]] (2005). "Neoliberalism and the End of Liberal Democracy" in ''Edgework: critical essays on knowledge and politics'' Princeton University Press, ch 3. [http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385878.001.0001/acprof-9780195385878 Abstract]<br />
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Wendy |title=In the Ruins of Neoliberalism: The Rise of Antidemocratic Politics in the West |url=https://cup.columbia.edu/book/in-the-ruins-of-neoliberalism/9780231193856 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=9780231193856 |author-link=Wendy Brown (political scientist)}}<br />
* Buschman, John. ''Libraries, Classrooms, and the Interests of Democracy: Marking the Limits of Neoliberalism''. The Scarecrow Press. Rowman & Littlefield. 2012. 239 pp. notes. bibliog. index. {{ISBN|9780810885288}}.<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Victoria E. |last2=Rothe |first2=Dawn L. |title=The Violence of Neoliberalism: Crime, Harm and Inequality |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Violence-of-Neoliberalism-Crime-Harm-and-Inequality-1st-Edition/Collins-Rothe/p/book/9781138584778 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781138584778}}<br />
* Crouch, Colin. ''[https://archive.today/20130421053539/https://www.polity.co.uk/book.asp?ref=9780745651200 The Strange Non-death of Neo-liberalism]'', Polity Press, 2011. {{ISBN|0-7456-5221-2}} (Reviewed in ''[http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/The-Strange-Non-Death-of-Neoliberalism-by-Colin-Crouch.php The Montreal Review]'')<br />
* Davies, William. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20151223044125/https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/the-limits-of-neoliberalism/book240650 The Limits of Neoliberalism: Authority, Sovereignty and the Logic of Competition.]'' [[SAGE Publications]], 2014. {{ISBN|1446270688}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Dean |first=Jodi |title=Democracy and Other Neoliberal Fantasies: Communicative Capitalism and Left Politics |url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/democracy-and-other-neoliberal-fantasies |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0822345053 |author-link=Jodi Dean}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Desai|first=Radhika |title=Capitalism, Coronavirus and War: A Geopolitical Economy |location=London |url=https://www.routledge.com/Capitalism-Coronavirus-and-War-A-Geopolitical-Economy/Desai/p/book/9781032059501 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781032059501 |doi=10.4324/9781003200000 |s2cid=254306409}}<br />
* {{cite web |last=Diaz Molaro |first=Lucas |title=End Neoliberalism, Tax & Regulate The One Percent |year=2012 |url=http://www.endneoliberalism.org/books/}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Fekete |first1=Liz |title=Flying the flag for neoliberalism |journal=[[Race & Class]] |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=3–22 |doi=10.1177/0306396816670088 |s2cid=151385881}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Ferragina |first1=E. |last2=Arrigoni |first2=A. |year=2016 |title=The Rise and Fall of Social Capital: Requiem for a Theory |journal=[[Political Studies Review]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=355–367 |doi=10.1177/1478929915623968 |s2cid=156138810}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Gandesha |first1=Samir |title=The Brazilian Matrix: Between Fascism and Neo-Liberalism |journal=[[Krisis (journal)|Krisis]] |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=215–233 |doi=10.21827/krisis.40.1.37054|s2cid=230563556 |doi-access=free}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Gill |first=Rosalind |author-link=Rosalind Gill |contribution=Breaking the silence: the hidden injuries of the neoliberal university. |editor-last=Gill |editor-first=Rosalind |editor2-last=Ryan-Flood |editor2-first=Róisín |title=Secrecy and silence in the research process: feminist reflections |pages=228–244 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |year=2010 |isbn=9780415605175 |ref=none}}<br />
* [[Henry Giroux|Giroux, Henry]] (2008). ''Against the Terror of Neoliberalism: Politics Beyond the Age of Greed (Cultural Politics and the Promise of Democracy).'' [[Paradigm Publishers]]. {{ISBN|1594515212}}<br />
* Giroux, Henry (2013). [https://web.archive.org/web/20180813111445/https://philosophersforchange.org/2013/11/12/public-intellectuals-against-the-neoliberal-university/ ''Public Intellectuals Against the Neoliberal University'']. ''philosophersforchange.org''.<br />
* Giroux, Henry (2014). ''Neoliberalism's War on Higher Education.'' [[Haymarket Books]]. {{ISBN|1608463346}}<br />
* [[Bernard Harcourt|Harcourt, Bernard]] (2012). ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674066168 The Illusion of Free Markets: Punishment and the Myth of Natural Order].'' Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|0674066162}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Lazzarato |first1=Maurizio |year=2009 |title=Neoliberalism in Action: Inequality, Insecurity and the Reconstitution of the Social |journal=[[Theory, Culture & Society]] |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=109–33 |doi=10.1177/0263276409350283 |s2cid=145758386}}<br />
* {{cite news |last1=Lehmann |first1=Chris |title=Neoliberalism, the Revolution in Reverse |url=https://thebaffler.com/salvos/neoliberalism-the-revolution-in-reverse |issue=24 |publisher=The Baffler }}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Lyon-Callo |first=Vincent |url=https://utorontopress.com/ca/inequality-poverty-and-neoliberal-governance-3 |title=Inequality, Poverty, and Neoliberal Governance: Activist Ethnography in the Homeless Sheltering Industry |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180805112805/https://utorontopress.com/ca/inequality-poverty-and-neoliberal-governance-3 |archive-date=August 5, 2018 |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |isbn=1442600861}}<br />
* {{cite news |last1=Mishra |first1=Pankaj |title=The Rise of Jeremy Corbyn and the Death Throes of Neoliberalism |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/20/magazine/the-rise-of-jeremy-corbyn-and-the-death-throes-of-neoliberalism.html |work=[[The New York Times]] }}<br />
* {{cite news |last1=Monbiot |first1=George |title=Neoliberalism is creating loneliness. That's what's wrenching society apart |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/oct/12/neoliberalism-creating-loneliness-wrenching-society-apart|work=[[The Guardian]] }}<br />
* {{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Chris |author-link=Chris Murphy |title=The Wreckage of Neoliberalism |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/10/democrats-should-reject-neoliberalism/671850/ |work=[[The Atlantic]]}}<br />
* [[Vicenç Navarro|Navarro, Vicenç]], ed. ''Neoliberalism, Globalization, and Inequalities: Consequences for Health and Quality of Life (Policy, Politics, Health, and Medicine Series).'' Baywood Publishing Company, 2007. {{ISBN|0895033380}}<br />
* Overbeek, Henk and Bastiaan van Apeldoorn (2012). ''[http://www.palgrave.com/page/detail/neoliberalism-in-crisis-henk-overbeek/?K=9780230301634 Neoliberalism in Crisis].'' Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|0230301630}}<br />
* {{Cite journal |last=Pavón-Cuellar |first=David |year=2020 |title=Turning from Neoliberalism to Neo-Fascism: Universalization and Segregation in the Capitalist System |journal=Desde el Jardín de Freud |publisher=[[National University of Colombia]] |volume=20 |pages=19–38 |doi=10.15446/djf.n20.90161 |s2cid=226731094 |doi-access=free}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Poruthiyil |first1=Prabhir Vishnu |title=Big Business and Fascism: A Dangerous Collusion |journal=[[Journal of Business Ethics]] |volume=168 |issue=1 |pages=121–135 |doi=10.1007/s10551-019-04259-9 |s2cid=201323963}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Schram |first=Sanford F. |title=The Return of Ordinary Capitalism: Neoliberalism, Precarity, Occupy |year=2015 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-return-of-ordinary-capitalism-9780190253011?cc=us&lang=en& |isbn=978-0190253028}}<br />
* Springer, Simon (2015). ''[http://www.palgrave.com/la/book/9781137485328 Violent Neoliberalism: Development, Discourse, and Dispossession in Cambodia].'' Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|978-1137485328}}<br />
* Stiglitz, Joseph (13 May 2019). [https://www.marketwatch.com/story/three-decades-of-neoliberal-policies-have-decimated-the-middle-class-our-economy-and-our-democracy-2019-05-13 "Three decades of neoliberal policies have decimated the middle class, our economy, and our democracy"]. Market Watch.<br />
* {{cite book |last=Vallelly |first=Neil |title=Futilitarianism: Neoliberalism and the Production of Uselessness |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/futilitarianism |publisher=[[Goldsmiths Press]] |isbn=978-1912685905}}<br />
* [[Paul Verhaeghe|Verhaeghe, Paul]] (2014). ''What About Me? The Struggle for Identity in a Market-Based Society.'' Scribe Publications. {{ISBN|1922247375}}<br />
* [[Loïc Wacquant|Wacquant, Loïc]] (2009). ''[https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/prisons-of-poverty Prisons of Poverty].'' [[University of Minnesota Press]]. {{ISBN|0816639019}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Whyte |first=Jessica |title=The Morals of the Market: Human Rights and the Rise of Neoliberalism |url=https://www.versobooks.com/books/3087-the-morals-of-the-market |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |isbn=978-1786633118}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
=== Other academic articles ===<br />
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Bowles |first1=Samuel |last2=Gordon |first2=David M. |last3=Weisskopf |first3=Thomas E. |year=1989 |title=Business Ascendancy and economic Impasse: A Structural Retrospective on Conservative Economics, 1979–87 |journal=[[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=107–34 |jstor=1942967 |doi=10.1257/jep.3.1.107 |doi-access=free}}<br />
* Cahill, Damien. "The End of Laissez-Faire?: On the Durability of Embedded Neoliberalism". Edward Elgar Publishing. 2014. {{ISBN|9781785366437}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Clavé |first=Francis |year=2015 |title=Comparative Study of Lippmann's and Hayek's Liberalisms (or neo-liberalisms) |journal=[[The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought]] |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=978–99 |doi=10.1080/09672567.2015.1093522 |s2cid=146137987}}<br />
* Cooper, Melinda (2017). ''Family Values: Between Neoliberalism and the New Social Conservatism.'' Zone Books. {{ISBN|978-1935408840}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Ferragina |first1=Emanuele |year=2019 |title=The Political Economy of Family Policy Expansion. Fostering neoliberal capitalism or promoting gender equality supporting social reproduction? |journal=[[Review of International Political Economy]] |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=1238–1265 |doi=10.1080/09692290.2019.1627568 |s2cid=198659118}}<br />
* Ferris, Timothy. ''The Science of Liberty'' (2010) HarperCollins 384 pages<br />
* Foucault, Michel. ''The Birth of Biopolitics'' Lectures at the College de France, 1978–1979. London: Palgrave, 2008.<br />
* Griffiths, Simon, and Kevin Hickson, eds. ''British Party Politics and Ideology after New Labour'' (2009) Palgrave Macmillan 256 pp.<br />
* {{cite book |last=Hackworth |first=Jason |title=The Neoliberal City: Governance, Ideology, and Development in American Urbanism |isbn=978-0801473036 |url=http://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/?GCOI=80140100771590 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |year=2006}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Larner |first1=Wendy |year=2000 |title=Neo-liberalism: policy, ideology, governmentality |url=http://spe.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/spe/article/view/6724 |journal=[[Studies in Political Economy]] |volume=63 |pages=5–25 |doi=10.1080/19187033.2000.11675231 |hdl=1983/1011 |s2cid=218621238 |hdl-access=free}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last=Rottenberg |first=Catherine |title=The Rise of Neoliberal Feminism |url=http://www.bgu.ac.il/~rottenbe/The%20rise%20of%20neoliberal%20feminism.pdf |journal=[[Cultural Studies (journal)|Cultural Studies]] |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=418–37 |doi=10.1080/09502386.2013.857361 |year=2013 |s2cid=144882102 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008175615/http://www.bgu.ac.il/~rottenbe/The%20rise%20of%20neoliberal%20feminism.pdf |archive-date=October 8, 2016 |url-status=dead}}<br />
* [[Ingar Solty|Solty, Ingar]] (2012). "After Neoliberalism: Left versus right projects of leadership in the global crisis," in [[Stephen Gill (political scientist)|Stephen Gill]] (Ed) (2012). ''Global Crises and the Crisis of Global Leadership'' (Cambridge University Press), pp.&nbsp;199–214.<br />
* Stahl, Garth; "Identity, Neoliberalism and Aspiration: Educating White Working-Class Boys" (London, Routledge, 2015).<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
== External links == <br />
{{external media<br />
| align = right<br />
| width = 220px<br />
| video1 = {{YouTube|DLtxUiwY6j8|Neoliberalism: The story of a big economic bust up, A-Z of ISMs Episode 14 - BBC Ideas}}}}<br />
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/neoliberalism Neoliberalism] — entry at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' <br />
* [https://www.cato.org/multimedia/cato-daily-podcast/neoliberalism-101 "Neoliberalism 101"] — podcast by [[The Cato Institute]]<br />
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7kL4p3llmHk "What is Neoliberalism?"] — video by the [[Barnard Center for Research on Women]]<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070821085549/http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/schools/monetar.htm "Monetarism"] — The New School's Economics Department's History of Economic Thought website<br />
* [https://socialistproject.ca/leftstreamed-video/ls1/ "Neoliberalism and the State"] — discussion between [[Toronto Metropolitan University|Ryerson University]] professors John Shields and Bryan Evans<br />
* [https://www.democracynow.org/2010/11/12/a_look_at_argentinas_economic_rebellion "A Look at Argentina's 2001 Economic Rebellion"] – video report by ''[[Democracy Now!]]''<br />
* [https://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/scorecard-2011-04.pdf "The Scorecard on Development, 1960–2010: Closing the Gap?"] — report by the [[Center for Economic and Policy Research]], April 2011<br />
* [https://therealnews.com/stories/gdumenilneolib0216pt1 "The crisis of neoliberalism"] – 2010 interview with economist Gérard Duménil on ''[[The Real News]]''<br />
* [https://billmoyers.com/2014/02/21/henry-giroux-on-resisting-the-neoliberal-revolution/ "Henry Giroux on Resisting the Neoliberal Revolution"] — interview with Henry Giroux by Bill Moyers, February 21, 2014.<br />
* [https://bostonreview.net/science-nature/duncan-kelly-politics-anthropocene-world-after-neoliberalism The Politics of the Anthropocene in a World After Neoliberalism]. ''[[Boston Review]]''. March 10, 2021.<br />
* [https://www.npr.org/2021/06/28/1011062075/capitalism-what-makes-us-free Capitalism: What Makes Us Free?] [[NPR]]. July 1, 2021.<br />
* [https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/sep/02/covid-and-the-crisis-of-neoliberalism Has Covid ended the neoliberal era?] ''The Guardian''. September 2, 2021<br />
* [https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2021/10/neoliberalism-died-of-covid-long-live-neoliberalism.html Neoliberalism Died of COVID. Long Live Neoliberalism! How the predominant ideology of our time survived the pandemic.]. ''[[New York (magazine)|New York]]''. October 14, 2021.<br />
<br />
=== Online lectures ===<br />
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rfd5kHb-Hc8 "The Neoliberal City"]. [[David Harvey]]. [[University Channel]]. October 4, 2010.<br />
* [https://www.democracynow.org/2008/10/6/naomi_klein "Wall St. Crisis Should Be for Neoliberalism What Fall of Berlin Wall Was for Communism"]. [[Naomi Klein]]. [[University of Chicago]]. ''[[Democracy Now!]]''. October 2008.<br />
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7EyfO0TRm4 "Neo-Liberalism: An Accounting"]. [[Noam Chomsky]]. [[University of Massachusetts Amherst]]. April 19, 2017.<br />
<br />
{{Neoliberalism}}<br />
{{Aspects of capitalism}}<br />
{{Economics}}<br />
{{Liberalism}}<br />
{{Schools of economic thought}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Neoliberalism| ]]<br />
[[Category:Classical liberalism]]<br />
[[Category:Conservative liberalism]]<br />
[[Category:Economic globalization]]<br />
[[Category:Economic liberalism]]<br />
[[Category:Ideologies of capitalism]]<br />
[[Category:Imperialism studies]]<br />
[[Category:Liberalism]]<br />
[[Category:Political terminology]]<br />
[[Category:Political theories]]</div>Rajbhai7https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kadamba_dynasty&diff=388074Kadamba dynasty2022-05-20T09:46:19Z<p>Rajbhai7: Created an inspiring write-up.</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|4th-6th century Indian dynasty}}<br />
{{other uses}}<br />
{{Use British English}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates}}<br />
<br />
{{Infobox country<br />
| native_name = Banavasi Kadambaru<br />
| conventional_long_name = Kadambas of Banavasi<br />
| common_name = Kadambas of Banavasi<br />
| status = Empire<br />
| status_text = Empire<br/><small>(Subordinate to [[Pallava]] until 345)</small><br />
| government_type = Monarchy<br />
| year_start = 345 CE<br />
| year_end = 540 CE<br />
| event_pre = Earliest Kadamba records<br />
| date_pre = 450 CE<br />
| p1 = Chutu dynasty<br />
| s1 = Chalukya dynasty<br />
| flag_s1 = Badami-chalukya-empire-map.svg<br />
| image_map = Indian Kadamba Empire map.svg<br />
| image_map_caption = {{legend|#FF9F80|Extent of Kadamba Empire, 500 CE}}<br />
| capital = [[Banavasi]]<br />
| common_languages = [[Sanskrit]]<br/>[[Kannada]]<br />
| religion = [[Hinduism]]<br/> [[Jainism]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Jainism in Early Medieval Karnataka C. A.D. 500-1200|author=Ram Bhushan Prasad Singh|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|page=25}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient India|author=Vidya Dhar Mahajan|publisher=S. Chand|page=438}}</ref><br />
| leader1 = [[Mayurasharma]]<br />
| leader2 = Krishna Varma II<br />
| year_leader1 = 345–365<br />
| year_leader2 = 516-540<br />
| title_leader = [[Maharaja]]<br />
| today = [[India]]<br />
| demonym = <br />
| area_km2 = <br />
| area_rank = <br />
| GDP_PPP = <br />
| GDP_PPP_year = <br />
| HDI = <br />
| HDI_year = <br />
| p2 = Pallava dynasty<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Banavasi Kadamba Kings Infobox}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Talagunda Pillar inscription (455-460 AD) at Talagunda.JPG|200px|right|thumb|The Talagunda pillar Sanskrit Inscription of crown prince Santivarma ({{Circa|450}})]]<br />
[[File:Halmidi OldKannada inscription.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Halmidi inscription]] at [[Halmidi]] village, usually dated 450 CE. is the earliest Kannada inscription issued by the Kadamba Dynasty]]<br />
The '''Kadambas''' (345–540 CE) were an ancient royal family of [[Karnataka]], [[India]], that ruled northern Karnataka and the [[Konkan]] from [[Banavasi]] in present-day [[Uttara Kannada|Uttara Kannada district]]. The kingdom was founded by [[Mayurasharma]] in {{Circa|345}}, and at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions. An indication of their imperial ambitions is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers, and the marital relations they kept with other kingdoms and empires, such as the [[Vakataka dynasty|Vakatakas]] and [[Gupta Dynasty|Guptas]] of [[North India|northern India]]. Mayurasharma defeated the armies of the [[Pallavas of Kanchi]] possibly with the help of some native tribes and claimed sovereignty. The Kadamba power reached its peak during the rule of [[Kakusthavarma]].<br />
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The Kadambas were contemporaries of the [[Western Ganga Dynasty]] and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with autonomy. From the mid-6th century the dynasty continued to rule as a vassal of larger Kannada empires, the [[Badami Chalukya Empire|Chalukya]] and the [[Rashtrakuta]] empires for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties. Notable among these are the [[Kadambas of Goa]], the [[Kadambas of Halasi]] and the [[Kadambas of Hangal]]. During the pre-Kadamba era the ruling families that controlled the Karnataka region, the [[Mauryas]] and later the [[Satavahanas]], were not natives of the region and therefore the nucleus of power resided outside present-day Karnataka. The Kadambas were the first indigenous dynasty to use [[Kannada]], the language of the soil, at an administrative level. In the [[History of Karnataka]], this era serves as a broad-based historical starting point in the study of the development of the region as an enduring geo-political entity and [[Kannada]] as an important regional language.<br />
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==History==<br />
===Origin===<br />
[[File:Old Kannada inscriptions of Kadamba king Kamadeva (c.1180) and Hoysala king Veera Ballala II (c.1196) in the open mantapa of the Tarakeshwara temple at Hangal.JPG|thumb|right|Old Kannada inscriptions of Kadamba king Kamadeva of the Hangal branch ({{Circa|1180}}) and Hoysala king Veera Ballala II ({{Circa|1196}}) in the open mantapa of the Tarakeshwara temple at Hangal]]<br />
There are several legends regarding the origin of the Kadambas. According to one such legend the originator of this dynasty was a three-eyed four-armed warrior called Trilochana Kadamba (the father of Mayurasharma) who emerged from the sweat of the god [[Shiva]] under a Kadamba tree. Another legend tries to simplify it by claiming Mayurasharma himself was born to Shiva and [[Bhudevi]] (goddess of the earth). Other legends tie them without any substance to the [[Naga Kingdom|Nagas]], and the [[Nanda Empire|Nandas]] of northern India.<ref name="naga">{{cite web|title=History of Karnataka-The Shatavahanas-10, section:Origin of the Kadambas|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907040452/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|access-date=2006-11-28|archive-date=7 September 2006}}</ref> An inscription of {{Circa|1189}} claims that Kadamba Rudra, the founder of the kingdom, was born in a forest of Kadamba trees. As he had "peacock feather"-like reflections on his limbs, he was called Mayuravarman.<ref name="maju">Majumdar (1986), p.237</ref> From the Talagunda inscription, one more legend informs that the founding king of the dynasty, Mayurasharma was anointed by "the six-faced god of war [[Kartikeya|Skanda]]".<ref name="man">Mann (2011), p. 227</ref><br />
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Historians are divided on the issue of the geographical origin of the Kadambas, whether they were of local origin or earlier immigrants from northern India.<ref name="local">Chaurasia (2002), p.252</ref> The social order ([[caste]]) of the Kadamba family is also an issue of debate, whether the founders of the kingdom belonged to the [[Brahmin]] caste as described by the [[Talagunda]] inscription, or of local tribal origin. Historians Chopra et al. claim the Kadambas were none other than the Kadambu tribe who were in conflict with the [[Chera Dynasty|Chera]] kingdom (of modern Kerala) during the Sangam era. The Kadambus find mention in the [[Sangam literature]] as totemic worshipers of the Kadambu tree and the Hindu god [[Murugan|Subramanya]]. According to R.N. Nandi, since the inscription states the family got its name by tending to the totem tree that bore the beautiful Kadamba flowers, it is an indication of their tribal origin.<ref name="sub">Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), p. 161</ref><ref name="totem">R.N. Nandi in Adiga (2006), p. 93</ref> However the historians Sastri and Kamath claim the family belonged to the Brahmin caste, believed in the Vedas and performed Vedic sacrifices. According to the Talagunda and the Gudnapur inscriptions, they belonged to the ''Manavya Gotra'' and were ''Haritiputrās'' ("descendants of ''Hariti'' lineage"), which connected them to the native [[Chutu dynasty|Chutus of Banavasi]], a vassal of the [[Satavahana]] empire and the [[Chalukya]]s who succeeded them.<ref name="light"/><ref name="hariti">Sastri (1955), p.99</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=South Indian Coins|author=T. Desikachari|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1991|pages=39–40}}</ref> According to Rao and Minahan, being native Kannadigas, the Kadambas promptly gave administrative and political importance to their language Kannada after coming to power.<ref name="hal">Rao, Seshagiri in Amaresh Datta (1988), p. 1717</ref><ref name="domain">Minahan (2012), p. 124</ref><br />
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===Birth of Kingdom===<br />
One of their earliest inscriptions, the Talagunda inscription of crown prince Santivarma ({{Circa|450}}) gives what may be the most possible cause for the emergence of the Kadamba kingdom. It states that Mayurasharma was a native of Talagunda, (in present-day [[Shimoga district]] of Karnataka state) and his family got its name from the Kadamba tree that grew near his home.<ref name="origin">Kamath, S.U. (1980), p.30</ref> The inscription narrates how [[Mayurasharma]] proceeded to [[Kanchi]] in {{Circa|345}} along with his guru and grandfather Veerasharma to pursue his [[Vedas|Vedic]] studies at a ''Ghatika'' ("school"). There, owing to some misunderstanding between him and a Pallava guard or at an ''Ashvasanstha'' ("horse sacrifice"), a quarrel arose in which Mayurasharma was humiliated. Enraged, the Brahmin discontinued his studies, left Kanchi swearing vengeance on the Pallavas and took to arms. He collected a faithful group of followers, routed the Pallava armies and ''Antarapalas'' (frontier guards) and firmly rooted himself in the dense forests of the modern [[Srisailam]] (Sriparvata) region. After a prolonged period of low intensity warfare against the Pallavas and other smaller kings such as the [[Bana Kingdom|Brihad-Banas]] of [[Kolar]] region, he was able to levy tributes from the Banas and other kingdoms and finally proclaimed independence. According to Indologist [[Lorenz Franz Kielhorn]] who deciphered the [[Talagunda pillar inscription|Talagunda inscription]], unable to contain [[Mayurasharma]] the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] under king Skandavarman had to accept his sovereignty between the [[Arabian Sea]] (known as ''Amara'' or ''Amarawa'') to ''Premara'' or ''Prehara'' which could be interpreted as either ancient [[Malwa]] in central India or the [[Tungabhadra River|Tungabhadra]] or [[Malaprabha River|Malaprabha]] region in central Karnataka. According to the historian and epigraphist [[M. H. Krishna|M. H. Krishna Iyengar]] a fragmentary inscription of Mayurasharma at [[Chandravalli]] which pertains to a water reservoir contained the names of [[Abhira dynasty|Abhiras]] and Punnatas, two contemporary kingdoms who ruled as the northern and southern neighbors of Mayurasharma's Kadamba kingdom.<ref name="grass">Kamath, S.U. (1980), pp. 30–31</ref><ref name="change">Sen (1999), p. 468</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moraes |first=George M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RUX8-PzWohgC |title=The Kadamba Kula: A History of Ancient and Mediaeval Karnataka |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1990 |isbn=978-81-206-0595-4 |pages=15–17, 30–49, 322–323 |language=en}}</ref> The Talagunda inscription also confirms Mayurasharma was the progenitor of the kingdom.<ref name="grass1">Ramesh, K.V. (1984), p. 6</ref><ref name="grass2">Sastri (1955), pp. 99–100</ref><ref name="ashva">Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), pp.26, 161–162</ref> The inscription gives a graphic description of the happenings after the Kanchi incident:<br />
{{cquote|That the hand dexterous in grasping the ''Kusha'' grass, <br>fuel and stones, ladle, melted butter and the oblation vessel, <br>unsheathed a flaming sword, eager to conquer the earth<ref name="grass"/>}}Thus, according to Ramesh, in an act of righteous indignation was born the first native kingdom of Karnataka, and the Pallava King Skandavarman condescended to recognize the growing might of the Kadambas south of the [[Malaprabha]] river as a sovereign power.<ref name="malaprabha">Ramesh, K.V. (1984), p. 3</ref><ref name="change"/> Majumdar however feels even an inscription as important as the [[Talagunda pillar inscription]] leaves many a detail unanswered.<ref name="prehara">Majumdar (1986), pp. 235–237</ref> Scholars such as [[George M. Moraes|Moraes]] and Sastri opine that Mayurasharma may have availed himself of the confusion in the south that was created by the invasion of Samudragupta who in his Allahabad inscription claims to have defeated Pallava King Vishnugopa of Kanchi. Taking advantage of the weakening of the Pallava power, Mayurasharma appears to have succeeded in establishing a new kingdom.<ref name="maju"/> According to epigraphist M.H. Krishna, Mayurasharma further subdued minor rulers such as the Traikutas, the [[Abhira Kingdom|Abhiras]], the Pariyathrakas, the Shakasthanas, the Maukharis, the Punnatas and the Sendrakas.<ref name="weak">Kamath, S.U. (1980), p.31.</ref> The fact that Mayurasharma had to travel to distant [[Kanchi]] for Vedic studies gives an indication that Vedic lore was quite rudimentary in the Banavasi region at that time. The Gudnapur inscription which was discovered by epigraphist B.R. Gopal states that Mauryasharma, whose grandfather and preceptor was Veerasharma and his father was Bandhushena, developed the character of a [[Kshatriya]] (warrior caste).<ref name="gudnapur">{{cite web|title=History of Karnataka-The Shatavahanas-10, section:Mayuravarma|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907040452/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|access-date=2006-11-28|archive-date=7 September 2006}}</ref><ref name="weak"/><ref name="ashva"/> Sen feels the successor of Mayurasharma, Kangavarma changed his surname from "Sharma" to "Varma".<ref name="change">Sen (1999), p. 468</ref><br />
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===Expansion===<br />
Mayurasharma was succeeded by his son Kangavarma in {{Circa|365}}. He had to fight the [[Vakataka]] might to protect his kingdom (also known as [[Kuntala country]]). According to Jouveau-Dubreuil he was defeated by the King Prithvisena but managed to maintain his freedom. Majumdar feels Kangavarma battled with King Vidyasena of the Basin branch of the Vakataka kingdom with no permanent results.<ref name="vakataka">Kamath, S.U. (1980), p. 32</ref><ref name="kuntala1">Sastri (1955), p. 100</ref><ref name="basin">Majumdar (1986), p. 239</ref> His son Bhageerath who came to power in {{Circa|390}} is said to have retrieved his fathers losses. According to Kamath, the Talagunda inscription describes Bhageerath as the sole "lord of the Kadamba land" and the "great Sagara" (''lit'', "great Ocean") himself indicating he may have retrieved their losses against the Vakatakas. But contemporary though Vakataka inscriptions do not confirm this.<ref name="vakataka"/><ref name="change"/><ref name="ashva"/> His son Raghu died fighting the [[Pallavas]] in {{Circa|435}} though some inscriptions claim he secured the kingdom for his family. He was succeeded by his younger brother Kakusthavarma in {{Circa|435}}. Kakusthavarma was the most powerful ruler of the dynasty. According to Sastri and [[George M. Moraes|Moraes]], under the rule of Kakusthavarma, the kingdom reached its pinnacle of success and the Talagunda record calls him the "ornament of the family". The Halasi and Halmidi inscriptions also hold him in high esteem.<ref name="vakataka"/><ref name="Kakusthavarma1">Sastri (1955), p. 101</ref><ref name="ashva"/><ref name="ajji">Majumdar (1986), p.240</ref><br />
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From the Talagunda inscription it is known that he maintained marital relations with even such powerful ruling families as the imperial Guptas of the northern India. One of his daughters was married to King Madhava of the Ganga dynasty. According to the Desai one of his daughters was married to Kumara Gupta's son Skanda Gupta (of the Gupta dynasty), and from Balaghat inscription of Vakataka king Prithvisena we know another daughter called Ajitabhattarika was married to the Vakataka prince Narendrasena.<ref name="daughter">Kamath, S.U. (1980), p. 33</ref><ref name="Kakusthavarma1"/><ref name="change"/><ref name="bhat">Sen (1999), p. 244</ref><ref name="ajji"/> He maintained similar relations with the Bhatari vassal and the [[Alupas]] of [[South Canara]]. According to Desai and Panchamukhi evidence from Sanskrit literature indicates that during this time the notable Sanskrit poet [[Kalidasa]] visited the Kadamba court. [[George M. Moraes|Moraes]] and Sen feel the visit happened during the reign of Bhageerath. According to Sen, Kalidasa was sent by Chandragupta II Virakmaditya to conclude a marriage alliance with the Kadambas.<ref name="daughter"/><ref name="kali">Majumdar (1986), p.239</ref><ref name="change"/><br />
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His successor Santivarma ({{Circa|455}}) was known for his personal charm and beauty. According to an inscription he wore three crowns (''pattatraya'') to display his prosperity, thus "attracting the attention of his enemies", the Pallavas. When the Pallava threat loomed, He divided his kingdom in {{Circa|455}} and let his younger brother Krishnavarma rule over the southern portion and deal with the Pallavas. The branch is called the Triparvata branch and ruled from either Devagiri in the modern [[Dharwad district]] or [[Halebidu]]. Majumdar considers Krishnavarma's rule as somewhat obscure due to lack of his inscriptions though the records issued by his sons credit him with efficient administration and an ''[[ashvamedha]]'' (horse sacrifice). It is known that he possibly lost his life in battle with the Pallavas. According to the Hebbatta record his successor and son Vishnuvarma had to accept the suzerainty of the Pallavas despite showing initial allegiance to his uncle Santivarma ruling from Banavasi whom he described in an earlier record as "lord of the entire Karnata country".<ref name="ashvamedha">Majumdar (1986), pp. 241–242</ref><ref name="Kakusthavarma1">Sastri (1955), p. 101</ref><ref name="kamathdates">Kamath, S.U. (1980), pp. 34, 53</ref> In {{Circa|485}}, his son Simhavarma came to power but maintained a low profile relationship with Banavasi. In the northern part of the kingdom (the Banavasi branch), Santivarma's brother Shiva Mandhatri ruled from {{Circa|460}} for more than a decade. In {{Circa|475}} Santivarma's son Mrigeshavarma came to the throne and faced the Pallavas and Gangas with considerable success. The Halasi plates describes him the "destroyer of the eminent family of the Gangas" and the "destructive fire" (''pralayaanala'') to the Pallavas. His queen Prabhavati of the [[Kekaya]] family bore him a son called Ravivarma. Mrigeshavarma was known to be a scholar and an expert in riding horses and elephants.<ref name="Kakusthavarma1"/><ref name="kamathdates"/><ref name="pralaya">Majumdar (1986), p.243</ref><br />
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After Kakusthavarma only Ravivarma ({{Circa|485}}) was able to build the kingdom back to its original might during a long rule lasting up to {{Circa|519}}.<ref name="Kakusthavarma1"/><ref name="ashva"/> Numerous inscriptions from his rule, starting from fifth up to the thirty-fifth regnal years give a vivid picture of his successes which was marked by a series of clashes within the family, and also against the Pallavas and the Gangas. He is credited with a victory against the [[Vakatakas]] as well. Historian [[Dineshchandra Sircar|D. C. Sircar]] interprets Ravivarma's [[Davanagere]] record dated {{Circa|519}} (king's last regnal year) and claims that the king's suzerainty extended over the whole of South India as far as the [[Narmada River|Narmada river]] in the north and that the people of these lands sought his protection. Ravivarma donated land to a Buddhist Sangha (temple) in his 34th regnal year in {{Circa|519}} to the south of the [[Asandi]] Bund (''Setu'') which showed his tolerance and encouragement of all faiths and religions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Visaria |first=Anish |title=Search, Seek, and Discover Jain Literature. |url=https://jainqq.org/ |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=JaineLibrary-jainqq.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gokhale |first=Shobhana |year=1973 |title=Researches in Epigraphy |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42936410 |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute |volume=33 |issue=1/4 |pages=77–100 |jstor=42936410 |issn=0045-9801}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sircar |first=Dinesh Chandra |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56617 |title=Epigraphia Indica Vol.33 |publisher=THE DIRECTOR GENERAL, archaeological survey of INDIA |year=1987 |pages=86–90}}</ref> A Mahadeva temple constructed during his rule finds mention in a Greek writing of the period. According to the Gudnapur inscription, lesser rulers such as the Punnatas, the [[Alupas]], the Kongalvas and the Pandyas of Uchangi were dealt with successfully. The crux of the kingdom essentially consisted of significant areas of the [[deccan]] including large parts of modern [[Karnataka]]. King Ravivarma of the Banavasi branch killed king Vishnuvarma of the Triparvata branch according to [[George M. Moraes|Moraes]] and successfully dealt with a rebelling successors of Shiva Mandhatri at Ucchangi. The Pallava king Chandadanda (another name for Pallava king Santivarman) also met the same fate according to Sathianathaier. Ravivarma left two of his brothers, Bhanuvarma and Shivaratha to govern from Halasi and [[Uchangidurga|Ucchangi]].<ref name="bhanu">Kamath, S.U. (1980), p. 34</ref><ref name="crux">Majumdar (1986), p.245</ref><br />
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===Decline===<br />
After Ravivarma's death, he was succeeded by his peaceful son Harivarma in {{Circa|519}} according to the Sangolli inscription. According to the Bannahalli plates, Harivarma was killed by a resurgent Krishnavarma II (son of Simhavarma) of the Triparvata branch around {{Circa|530}} when he raided Banavasi, thus uniting the two branches of the kingdom.<ref name="crux"/> Around {{Circa|540}} the Chalukyas who were vassals of the Kadambas and governed from Badami conquered the entire kingdom. The Kadambas thereafter became vassals of the Badami Chalukyas.<ref name="triparvata">Kamath, S.U. (1980), p. 35</ref><ref name="Kakusthavarma1"/><ref name="ashva"/><ref name="ajavarma">Majumdar (1986), p. 246</ref> In later centuries, the family fragmented into numerous minor branches and ruled from Goa, Halasi, Hangal, Vainad, Belur, Bankapura, Bandalike, Chandavar and Jayantipura (in Odisha).<ref name="odisha">Kamath, S.U. (1980), p.38</ref> That the Kadambas of Banavasi were a prosperous kingdom is attested to by the famous [[Aihole inscription]] of the Chalukyas which describes Banavasi in these terms:<br />
{{cquote|Resembling the city of gods and a girdle of swans <br/>playing on the high waves of the river Varada<ref name="lotus">Dikshit (2008), pp. 74–75</ref>}}<br />
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==Administration==<br />
[[File:Old Kannada inscription (1200 AD) of King Kamadeva of the Kadamba dynasty of the Hangal branch.jpg|right|thumb|Old Kannada inscription (1200 AD) of King Kamadeva of the Kadamba dynasty of the Hangal branch]]<br />
The Kadamba kings, like their predecessors the [[Satavahanas]], called themselves ''Dharmamaharajas'' (''lit'', "Virtuous kings") and followed them closely in their administrative procedures. The kings were well read and some were even scholars and men of letters. Inscriptions describe the founding king Mayurasharma as "Vedangavaidya Sharada" ("master of the Vedas"), Vishnuvarma was known for his proficiency in grammar and logic, and Simhavarma was called "skilled in the art of learning".<ref name="learn">Kamath, S.U. (1980), p.35</ref><ref name="chaduranga">{{cite web|title=History of Karnataka-The Shatavahanas-10, section:Administration|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907040452/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|access-date=2006-11-28|archive-date=7 September 2006}}</ref><br />
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This wisdom and knowledge from the ancient Hindu texts called (the ''[[Smriti]]s'') provided guidance in governance. Mores identified several important positions in the government: the prime minister (''Pradhana''), steward of household (''Manevergade''), secretary of council (''Tantrapala'' or ''Sabhakarya Sachiva''), scholarly elders (''Vidyavriddhas''), physician (''Deshamatya''), private secretary (''Rahasyadhikritha''), chief secretary (''Sarvakaryakarta''), chief justice (''Dharmadhyaksha'') above whom was the king himself, other officials (''Bhojaka'' and ''Ayukta''), revenue officers (''Rajjukas'') and the writers and scribes (''Lekhakas''). The Gavundas formed the elite land owners who were the intermediaries between the king and the farmers collecting taxes, maintaining revenue records and providing military support to the royal family.<ref name="militia">Adiga (2006), p. 168</ref> The army consisted of officers such as ''Jagadala'', ''Dandanayaka'' and ''Senapathi''. The organization was based on the strategy called "Chaurangabala". Guerrilla warfare was not unknown and may have been used often to gain tactical advantage.<ref name="danda">Kamath, S.U. (1980), pp. 35–36</ref><ref name="chaduranga"/><br />
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A crown prince (''Yuvaraja'') from the royal family often helped the king in central administration at the royal capital. Some governed in the far off provinces. This experience not only provided future security and know-how for the king to be, but also kept administration controls within trusted family members. This is seen in the case of kings Shantivarma, Kakusthavarma and Krishnavarma. King Kakusthavarma had appointed his son Krishnavarma as viceroy of Triparvatha region. King Ravivarma's brothers Bhanu and Shivaratha governed over Halasi and Uchangi provinces respectively. Some regions continued to be under hereditary ruling families such as the Alupas, the Sendrakas, the Kekeyas and the Bhataris. While Banavasi was the nerve center of power, Halasi, Triparvata and Uchangi were important regional capitals.<ref name="vishaya"/><ref name="chaduranga"/> The kingdom was divided into provinces (''Mandalas'' or ''Desha''). Under a province was a district (''[[Vishaya]]s''), nine of which have been identified by Panchamukhi. Under a district was a [[Taluk]] (''Mahagramas'') comprising numerous villages under which were the villages in groups of ten (''Dashagrama''). The smallest unit was the village (''Grama'') which appears to have enjoyed particular freedoms under the authority of headman (''Gramika'').<ref name="vishaya">Kamath, S.U. (1980), p. 35)</ref><ref name="chaduranga"/><br />
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Apart from the various divisions and sub-divisions of the kingdom, there was a concept of urban settlement. The fifth-century Birur copper plate inscription of king Vishnuvarma describes Banavasi as "the ornament of ''Karnata desa'', adorned with eighteen ''mandapikas''" (toll collection centers) indicating it was a major trade center at that time. Numerous inscriptions make reference to the rulers at Banavasi as "excellent lords of the city" (''puravaresvara''). Excavations have revealed that Banavasi was a settlement even during the [[Satavahana]] period. By the fifth century, it was a fortified settlement and the Kadamba capital (''Kataka''). A later inscriptions of {{Circa|692}} of the Chalukyas refer to Banavasi and its corporate body (''Nagara'') as a witness to the granting of a village to a Brahmin by the monarch. A reference to the mercantile class (''Setti'') further indicates the commercial importance of Banavasi.<ref name="nagara">Adiga (2006), pp. 74, 85</ref><br />
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One sixth of land produce was collected as tax. Other taxes mentioned in inscriptions were the levy on land (''Perjunka''), social security tax paid to the royal family (''Vaddaravula''), sales tax (''Bilkoda''), land tax (''Kirukula''), betel tax (''Pannaya'') and professional taxes on traders such as oilmen, barbers and carpenters.<ref name="vishaya"/><ref name="chaduranga"/> Inscriptions mention many more taxes such as internal taxes (''Kara'' and ''anthakara''), tax on eleemosynary holdings (''panaga''), presents to kings (''Utkota'') and cash payments (''Hiranya''). The capital Banavasi had eighteen custom houses (''mandapika'') that levied taxes on incoming goods.<ref name="manda">Adiga (2006), p. 216</ref> In recognition of military or protective service provided by deceased warriors, the state made social service grants (''Kalnad'' or ''Balgacu'') that supported their family. In addition to erecting a [[hero stone]] which usually included an inscription extolling the virtues of the hero, the grant would be in the form of land. Such land grant could be as small as a plot, as large as several villages, or even a large geographical unit depending on the heroes status.<ref name="hero">Adiga (2006), p. 177</ref><br />
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==Economy==<br />
{{South Asia in 350 CE}}<br />
Inscriptions and literature are the main source of information about the economy and the factors that influenced it. According to Adiga, from studies conducted by historians and epigraphists such as [[M. H. Krishna|Krishna]], [[M M Kalburgi|Kalburgi]], [[Ferdinand Kittel|Kittel]], [[B. Lewis Rice|Rice]], B.R. Gopal and [[Shadakshari Settar|Settar]], it is clear the kingdom depended on revenues from both agricultural and pastoral elements.<ref name="belvola"/> Numerous inscriptions, mainly from the modern [[Shimoga]], [[Bijapur]], [[Belgaum]], [[Dharwad]] and [[Uttara Kannada]] regions (the ancient divisions of Belvola-300, Puligere-300, Banavasi-12,000) mention cattle raids, cowherds and shepherds. The numerous hero stones to those who fought in cattle raids was an indication of not only lawlessness but also of the importance of herding. The mention of the terms ''gosai'' (female ''goyiti''), ''gosasa'', ''gosasi'' and ''[[gosahasra]]'' in the adjective, the imposition of taxes on milk and milk products, the existence of large cattle herds and the gifting of a thousand cows as a mark of the donors affluence (''gosahasram pradarum'') indicate cow herding was an important part of the economy.<ref name="belvola">Adiga (2006), pp. 55–67</ref> There are records that mention the shepherd settlements (''kuripatti''), cowherd settlements (''turpatti'') and numerous references to small hamlets (''palli'').<ref name="palli">Adiga (2006), pp. 36–87</ref><br />
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Mixed farming, a combination of grazing and cultivation, mostly controlled by the wealthy Gavunda peasantry (today's [[Gowda (surname)|Gowda]]s), seems to be the thing to do, for both the quantum of grain produced and number of cattle head determined opulence. There are several records that mention the donation of both gracing and cultivable land in units of ''kolagas'' or ''khandugas'' to either those who fought cattle thieves or to their families. A nomadic way of life is not prevalent in most communities, with the exception of hill tribes called Bedas. A semi-nomadic community, according to [[J Duncan M Derrett|Durrett]], they frequently depended on cattle thieving from outlying farms and the abduction of women. The Bedas subsisted by selling to merchants stolen cattle and such produce from the forest as meat, sandalwood and timber, and crops from disorganized agriculture.<ref name="draught">Adiga (2006), pp. 65–67</ref><br />
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From inscriptions three types of land are evident; wet or cultivable land (''nansey'', ''bede'', ''gadde'' or ''nir mannu'') usually used to cultivate paddy (called ''akki gadde'',''akki galdege'' or ''bhatta mannu'') or a tall stout grain yielding grass called ''sejje''; dry land (''punsey'', rarely mentioned) and garden land (''totta''). A sixth-century grant refers to garden land that grew sugarcane (''iksu''). Other crops that were also cultivated were barley (''yava''), areca nut (''kramuka''), fallow millet (''joladakey''), wheat (''godhuma''), pulses (''radaka''), flowers were mostly for temple use and such lands called ''pundota'', fruits such as plantains (''kadali'') and coconuts are also mentioned.<ref name="areca">Adiga (2008), pp. 47–55</ref><br />
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Village (''palli'') descriptions in lithic and copper plate records, such as the Hiresakuna 6th-century copper plates from [[Soraba]], included its natural (or man made) bounding landmarks, layout of agricultural fields, repairs to existing and newly constructed water tanks, irrigation channels and streams, soil type and the crops grown.<ref name="layout">Adiga (2006), pp. 21–22</ref> Repairs to tanks and construction of new ones was a preoccupation of elite, from kings to the ''Mahajanas'', who claimed partial land ownership or a percentage of produce irrigated from the tank or both. Taxes were levied on newly irrigated lands, an indication the rulers actively encourage the conversion of dry land to cultivable wet land.<ref name="tank">Adiga (2006), p. 45</ref> An important distinction is made between types of landholdings: ''Brahmadeya'' (individual) and ''non-Brahmadeya'' (collective) and this is seen in inscriptions as early as the third-fourth century in South India. Records such as the [[Shikaripura]] Taluk inscription indicate occasionally women were village headmen and counselors, and held land (''gavundi'').<ref name="gavundi">Singh, Upendra (2008), p. 593</ref><br />
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Functioning purely on the excess produce of the rural hinterland were the urban centers, the cities and towns (''mahanagara'', ''pura'', and ''Polal'') that often find mention in Kannada classics such as ''[[Vaddaradhane]]'' (c. 900) and ''[[Pampa Bharata]]'' (c. 940). References to townships with specialized classes of people such as the diamond and cloth merchants and their shops, merchant guilds (corporate bodies), important temples of worship and religious hubs, palaces of the royalty, vassals and merchants (''setti''), fortifications, courtesan streets, and grain merchants and their markets are a clear indication that these urban entities were the centers of administrative, religious and economic activity.<ref name="sule">Adiga (2006), pp. 71–86</ref><br />
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==Culture==<br />
===Religion===<br />
The end of the [[Satavahana]] rule in the third century coincided with the advent of two religious phenomena in the Deccan and South India: the spread of [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]] and Buddhism. This was a direct result of the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta dynasties]] ardent patronage to Hinduism in northern India and their aversion to other religions.<ref name="phenomena">Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian ((2003), p.188</ref> According to Sastri, till about the fifth century, South India witnessed a harmonious growth of these religions and the sects related to them without hindrance.<br />
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Appeasement of local deities and local practices which included offerings of sacrifices often went alongside popular Vedic gods such as [[Muruga]], [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]] and [[Krishna]].<ref name="muruga">Sastri (1955), pp. 381–382</ref> However, from the seventh century onward, the growing popularity of Jainism and Buddhism became a cause for concern to the Hindu saints who saw the growth of these new faiths as heretic to mainstream Hinduism. This new found Hindu resurgence, especially in Tamil country, was characterized by public debates and enthusiastic rebuttals by itinerant saints. Their main purpose was to energize and revive Hindu Bhakti among the masses and bring back followers of sects considered primitive, such as the Kalamukhas, Kapalikas and Pasupatas, into mainstream Hinduism.<ref name="kapalika">Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian (2003), p. 189</ref><ref name="kalamukha">Sastri (1955), p. 382</ref><br />
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The Kadambas were followers of [[Hinduism]] as evidenced by their inscriptions. The situation was the same with their immediate neighbors, the Gangas and the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]]. According to Adiga, their patronage to Brahmins well versed in the [[Vedas]] is all too evident. Inscriptions narrate various land grants to Brahmins that specify their lineage (''gotra'') as well as Vedic specialization.<ref name="special">Adiga (2006), pp.280-281</ref> According to Sircar, the early rulers called themselves ''Brahmanya'' or ''Parama-brahmanya'', an indication of their propensity toward [[Vaishnavism]] (a branch of Hinduism).<ref name="param">Sircar (1971), p.54</ref> The founding king [[Mayurasharma]] was, according to the Talagunda inscription, a Brahmin by birth though his successors may have assumed the surname''Varma'' to indicate their change to [[Kshatriya]] (warrior) status. An inscription of Vishnuvarma describes him as the "protector of the excellent Brahmana faith". His father Krishnavarma-I performed the Vedic ''ashvamedha'' ("Horse sacrifice"). There are numerous records that record grants made to Brahmins. According to Sircar, some fifth and sixth century inscriptions have an invocation of ''Hari-Hara-Hiranyagarbha'' and ''Hara-Narayana Brahman'' (Hari and Hara are another name of the Hindu gods [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]]).<ref name="Buddha">Kamath, S.U. (1980), pp. 36–37</ref><ref name="hari">Sircar (1971), p.53</ref><ref name="vedas">{{cite web|title=History of Karnataka-The Shatavahanas-10, section: Education and Religion|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907040452/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|access-date=2006-11-28|archive-date=7 September 2006}}</ref><br />
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The Talagunda inscription starts with an invocation of the Hindu god Shiva while the Halmidi and Banavasi inscriptions start with an invocation of the god Vishnu. Madhukeshvara (a form of Shiva) was their family deity and numerous donations were made to the notable Madhukeshvara temple in Banavasi. Inscriptions mention various Shaiva sects (worshipers of the god Shiva) such as Goravas, Kapalikas, Pasupatas and Kalamukhas. Famous residential schools of learning existed in [[Balligavi]] and Talagunda. Vedic education was imparted in places of learning called ''[[Agrahara]]'' and ''Ghatika''. However, they were tolerant to other faiths. The Kadamba kings appear to have encouraged Jainism as well. Some records of King Mrigeshavarma indicate describe donations to Jain temples and that King Ravivarma held a Jain scholar in high esteem. Names of such noted Jain preceptors as [[Pujyapada]], Niravadya Pandita and Kumaradatta find mention in their inscriptions. Jainas occupied commanding posts of importance in their armies.<ref name="Buddha"/><ref name="vedas"/> According to Adiga, image worship, which was originally prohibited, was now popularized among the common man and the monks. This helped raise funds for the construction of Jain temples (''Chaitya''). Installation of images of Jain monks (''Jaina'') in temples and a steady move toward ritualistic worship among the laymen undermined the concept of "quest for salvation" and the ascetic vigor of the religion.<ref name="ascetic">Adiga 92006), pp. 249–252</ref><br />
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Grants were made to Buddhist centers as well. According to Kamath, the royal capital Banavasi had long been a place of Buddhist learning. In the seventh century, the Chinese embassy [[Xuanzang]] described Banavasi as a place of one hundred ''Sangharamas'' where ten thousand scholars of both the [[Mahayana]] and [[Hinayana]] Buddhism lived.<ref name="vedas"/><ref name="Buddha"/> However, according to Ray, while there is evidence to prove that certain pre-Kadamba royal families, such as the [[Mauryas]] and Chutus may have patronized Buddhism, there is not much to say regarding the ruling Kadamba family, vast majority of whose inscriptions are Brahminical grants. In fact, according to Ray, the traces of Buddhist [[stupa]] sites that have been discovered in Banavasi are located outside the town.<ref name="hima">Ray (2019), Chapter-Introduction, Section-Perception: Buddhist Banavasi, Past and Present</ref><br />
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===Society===<br />
The caste system was prevalent in the organized Hindu society with the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas at the top. This had a deep impact on such socially important events as marriage. Even Jainism and Buddhism which initially found popularity by avoiding social hierarchy began to develop the trappings of a caste-based society. This particular feature was, according to Singh, a unique feature of Jainism in what is modern-day Karnataka during the early medieval period. Both the sects of Jainism, the [[Digambara]] and the [[Svetambara]] followed a strict qualification process for persons worthy of initiation. [[Jinasena]]'s classic ''Adipurana'' counts purity of ancestry, physical health and soundness of mind as the main attributes that made a person worthy of such initiation. Both Jinasena and [[Ravisena]] (author of ''Padmapurana'') discuss the existence of a ''[[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]]'' (distinction or caste) based society and the responsibilities of each ''varna''.<ref name="varna">Singh, R.B.P. (2008), pp. 72–73</ref><br />
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Majumdar notes that the Buddhist and Jain literature of the period accounts for the four ''varna'' by placing the Kshatriya above the Brahmin. While the Brahminical literature points to a tradition that permitted a Brahmin man to marry a woman of Kshatriya caste, a Brahmin woman was not allowed to marry a non-Brahmin man. Just the contrary seems to be the case with Buddhist and Jain literature which deema the marriage of a Brahmin man to Kshatriya woman as unacceptable but that of a Kshatriya man to a Brahmin woman as acceptable. Thus a caste system was in play with all the three main religions of the times.<ref name="marriage">Majumdar (1977), pp. 201–202</ref> However, Majumdar does point out the highly assimilate nature of the Hindu society where all the early invaders into India, such as the [[Kushan]]s, the [[Greeks]], the [[Sakas]] and the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] were all absorbed into the Hindu society without a trace of their earlier practices.<ref name="saka">Majumdar (1977), pp. 202–203</ref><br />
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A unique feature of medieval Indian society was the commemoration of the deceased hero by the erection of memorial stones ("[[hero stone]]"). These stones, the inscriptions and relief sculptures on them were meant to deify the fallen hero. According to Upendra Singh, The largest concentration of such stones, numbering about 2650 and dated to between the fifth and thirteenth centuries, are found in the modern Karnataka region of India. While most were dedicated to men, a few interesting ones are dedicated to women and pets. The Siddhenahalli, the Kembalu and the Shikaripura hero stones extol the qualities of women who died fighting cattle rustlers or enemies. The Gollarahatti and the [[Atakur inscription]] are in memory of a dog that died fighting wild boar, and the Tambur inscription of a Kadamba king of the Goa branch describes his death from sorrow of losing his pet parrot to a cat,<ref name="parrot">Singh, Upendra, (2008), p. 48</ref> and the Kuppatur stone was in memory of a bonded servant who was given the honorific "slayer of the enemy" (''ripu-mari'') for bravely fighting and killing a man-eater Tiger with his club before succumbing to his injuries.<ref name="kuppatur">Kamat, J.K. (1980), p. 79</ref><br />
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According to Altekar, the practice of ''[[Sati (practice)|sati]]'' appears to have been adopted well after the [[Vedic period]], because there was no sanction for the practice in the funeral hymns of the [[Rig Veda]]. According to him, even in the [[Atharva Veda]], there is only a passing reference of widow being required to lie by the side of her husband's corpse on the funeral pyre, then alight from it before it was lit, for the chanting of hymns to commence that blessed her with future wealth and children. This was an indication that window remarriage was in vogue.<ref name="sati">Altekar (1956), pp. 117–118</ref> Altekar points out that even the authors of the ''[[Dharmasutra]]s'' (400 BCE – {{Circa|100}})and the ''[[Manusmriti|Smriti]]s'' ({{Circa|100|300}}), such as Manu and [[Yagnavalkya]], do not make any mention of any ritual resembling ''sati'' in their description of the duties of women and widows in society, but rather prescribed the path of worldly renunciation as worthy.<ref name="manu">Altekar (1956), p.119</ref> It is from about {{Circa|400}} that the practice of ''sati'' begins to appear in the literature of [[Vatsyayana]], [[Bhasa]] (''Dutagatotkacha'' and ''Urubhanga''), [[Kalidasa]] (''Kumarasambhava'') and [[Shudraka]] (''Mirchchhakatika''), with a real case in {{Circa|510}} when deceased general Goparaja's wife immolated herself on her husband's pyre. Then around 606, the mother of King [[Harshavardhana]] decided to predecease her terminally ill husband.<ref name="harsha">Altekar (1956), p. 123</ref><br />
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This however did not find immediate support with noted poets such as Bana ({{Circa|625}}) and other [[tantra]] writers who considered ''sati'' inhuman and immoral.<ref name="chaste">Altekar (1956), pp. 124–125</ref> However around {{Circa|700}}, the tide began to turn in northern India, especially in Kashmir, but found a later stronghold in Rajasthan. The belief in ''sati'' began to appeal, especially to the warrior classes, and the theory that performing ''sati'' cleansed the deceased husband of earthly sins and assured the couple a place in heaven caught on.<ref name="heaven">Altekar (1956), p. 127</ref> Occasionally concubines, mothers, sisters, sisters-in-law and even ministers, servants and nurses joined in the act.<ref name="heaven"/> This took its time to reach the Deccan (Kadamba territory) and the deep south (Tamil country) where the earliest cases, voluntary as they were, are seen by about {{Circa|1000}}.<ref name="nurse">Altekar (1956), p. 128</ref> What was once a Kshatriya only practice came to be adopted by the Brahmins and even some Jains from around {{Circa|1000}}.<ref name="popular">Altekar (1956), pp. 128–129</ref> In the modern Karnataka region (Kadamba territory), there are only eleven cases between {{Circa|1000|1400}} and forty-one cases between {{Circa|1400|1600}}, mostly in the warrior communities indicating an overall lack of appeal.<ref name="appeal">Altekar (1956), pp. 130–131</ref><br />
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Physical education was very popular with men. The book ''Agnipurana'' encouraged men to avoid [[calisthenics]] with either partially digested food in their body or on a full stomach. Bathing with cold water after exercises was considered unhealthy. Medieval sculptures depict youth in physical combat training, doing gymnastics such as lifting the weight of the body with both hands, and doing muscular exercises such as bending a crowbar.<ref name="gym">Kamat, J.K. (1980), p. 68</ref> The terms ''malla'' and ''jatti'' occur often in literature indicating wrestling was a popular sport with the royalty and the commoners. Wrestlers of both genders existed, the woman fighters meant purely for the entertainment to a male audience. Several kings had titles such as ''ahavamalla'' ("warrior-wrestler"), ''tribhuvanamalla'' ("wrestler of the three worlds"). The book ''Akhyanakamanikosa'' refers to two types of combative sports, the ''mushtiyuddha'' ("fist-fight") and ''mallayuddha'' (or ''mallakalaga'', "wrestling fight"). Wrestlers were distinguished based on their body weight, age, skill, proficiency and stamina. Those who exemplified themselves were recognized and maintained on specific diets.<ref name="wrestle">Kamat, J.K. (1980), p. 69</ref><br />
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Much of the information we get about activities such as archery and hunting is from classics such as the ''[[Agni Purana]]'' (post 7th century) and others. The ''Agni Purana'' says "one who has made the vision of both of his mental and physical eyes steady can conquer even the god of death".<ref name="agni">Kamat, J.K. (1980), p.74</ref> An archers proficiency, which depended as much on his footwork as on his fingers and keen eyesight, was proven if he could hit bullseye by just looking down at the target's reflection (''Chhaya-Lakshya'' in ''[[Adipurana]]'' of {{Circa|941}}, or ''Matsya-vedha'' in ''[[Manasollasa]]'' of {{Circa|1129}}). Additional information is available in medieval sculptures which depict various archery scenes including one where a lady is taking aim from a chariot.<ref name="archer">Kamat, J.K. (1980), p. 75</ref> Hunting was a favorite pass time of royalty in forest preserves. It served as entertainment, physical exercise and a test of endurance (''mrigiyavinoda'' and ''mrigiyavilasa''). The medieval sculptors spared no effort in depicting hunting scenes. The ''Manasollasa'' describes twenty one types of hunt including ambushing deer at waterholes with the hunting party dressed in green and concealed in the hollows of trees. It mentions a special breed of hunting dogs chosen from places such as the modern [[Jalandhar]], Karnataka, [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Vidarbha]] which were preferred for their stamina in chasing and cornering the prey. According to the ''Vikramankadevacharita'' queens and courtesans accompanied the king on horseback.<ref name="waterhole">Kamat, J.K. (1980), pp. 75–77</ref><br />
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===Architecture===<br />
[[File:Praneshwara Temple Talagunda.JPG|right|thumb|The Praneshvara temple at Talagunda, dates from the late fourth century Kadamba rule.<ref name="satkarni"/>]]<br />
[[File:Halasi 10.jpg|thumb|right|Bhuvaraha Narasimha temple Halasi, Karnataka]]<br />
{{main|Kadamba architecture}}<br />
According to Kamath, the Kadambas are the originators of the Karnataka architecture. According to [[George M. Moraes|Moraes]] their architectural style had a few things in common with the Pallava style. Kamath points out that their ''[[Vimana (architectural feature)|Vimana]]'' style (sanctum with its superstructure) is a Kadamba invention. A good example of this construction is seen in the Shankaradeva temple at Kadarolli in the modern Belgaum district. The structures themselves were simplistic with a square ''[[garbhagriha]]'' (sanctum) with an attached larger hall called ''[[mantapa]]''. The superstructure (''[[Shikhara]]'') over the sanctum is pyramidal with horizontal non-decorative stepped stages tipped at the a pinnacle with a ''[[Mandir Kalasha|Kalasha]]'' (or ''Stupika'').<ref name="stepped">Kamath, S.U. (1980), pp37-38</ref><ref name="capital">Kapur (2010), p. 540</ref><br />
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The beginnings of Kadamba architecture can be traced to the fourth century based on evidence in the Talagunda pillar inscription of {{Circa|450}}. The inscription makes mention of a Mahadeva temple of the Sthanagundur ''Agrahara'' which Adiga identifies with the protected monument, the Praneshvara temple at Talagunda. The Praneshvara temple bares inscriptions of Queen Prabhavati (of King Mrigeshavarma) from the late fifth century and of their son King Ravivarma. From these inscriptions, Adiga concludes the temple existed in the late fourth century. Further, according to Adiga, the pillar inscription supports the claim that the earliest structure existed there as early as the third century and was under the patronage of the Chutu Satakarnis of Banavasi.<ref name="satkarni">Adiga (2006), p.287</ref><br />
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Most of their extant constructions are seen in Halasi and surrounding areas with the oldest one ascribed to King Mrigeshavarma. Other notable temples in Halasi include the Hattikesavara temple with perforated screens by the doors, the Kallesvara temple with octagonal pillars, the Bhuvaraha Narasimha temple and the Ramesvara temple which shows a ''Sukhanasa'' projection (small tower) over the vestibule (''Ardhamantapa'') that connects the sanctum to the hall. All temples at Halasi have pillars with decorative capitals. The Kadamba style of tower was popular several centuries later and are seen in the [[Lakshmi Devi Temple, Doddagaddavalli|Lakshmi Devi Temple at Doddagaddavalli]] (built by the [[Hoysalas]] in the 12th century) and the Hemakuta group of temples in [[Hampi]] built in the 14th century.<ref name="architecture">Kamath, S.U. (1980), p. 38</ref><ref name="halasi">Chugh (2017), chapter 2.1, section: Vishnu</ref><ref name="capital">Kapur (2010), p. 540</ref> In addition to temples, according to the art historian K.V. Soudara Rajan, the Kadambas created three rock-cut Vedic cave temples cut out of [[laterite]] at Arvalem in [[Goa]]. Like their temples, the caves too have an ''Ardhamantapa'' ("half mantapa") with plain pillars and a sanctum which contain images of [[Surya]] (the sun god), Shiva and [[Kartikeya|Skanda]].<ref name="architecture"/><ref name="capital"/><br />
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In later centuries, Kadamba architecture was influenced by the ornate architectural style of their overlords, the [[Kalyani Chalukyas]] (Later Chalukyas). The best representations of this style are seen in the Mahadeva temple at Tambdi Surla in modern [[Goa]] built with an open ''mantapa'' in the late 12th-13th century by the Kadambas of Goa;<ref name="surla">Hardy (1995), p.347</ref> the single shrined (''ekakuta'') Tarakeshvara temple (modeled after the [[Mahadeva Temple, Itagi]]) built prior to {{Circa|1180}} with an open ''mantapa'' (and an ornate domical ceiling), a closed ''mantapa'', a linked gateway and a [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]] ''mantapa'' (hall with the sculpture of the Nandi the bull);<ref name="taraka">Hardy (1995), p.330</ref> the Madhukeshwara temple at Banavasi which shows several Later Chalukyas style additions over a pre-existing Early Chalukya surroundings;<ref name="madhu">Hardy (1995), p. 323</ref> and the 12th century, three shrined (''Trikutachala'') Kadambeshvara temple with open and closed ''mantapa'' at Rattihalli.<ref name="ratti">Hardy (1995), p. 342</ref><br />
<gallery><br />
File:Profile of vimana (shrine and tower) in the Tarakeshwara temple at Hangal.JPG|Tarakeshwara temple at Hangal, built by the Kadambas of Hangal<br />
File:Madhukeshwara Temple.JPG|Madhukeshwara temple at Banavasi, built by the later Kadambas of Banavasi<br />
File:Mahadev Temple at Tambdi Surla.jpg|The Mahadeva temple at Tambdi Surla, Goa, built by the Kadambas of Goa<br />
</gallery><br />
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===Language===<br />
According to the epigraphist D. C. Sircar, inscriptions have played a vital role in the re-construction of history of literature in India as well as the political history of the kingdoms during the early centuries of the first millennium. Some inscriptions mention names of noted contemporary and earlier poets (Aihole inscription of Ravikirti which mentions the Sanskrit poets Kalidasa and Bharavi). The development of versification and the ''Kavya'' style ("epic") of poetry appears first in inscriptions before making their appearance in literature. Further some ''Kavya'' poets were the authors of inscriptions too (Trivikramabhatta composed the Bagumra copper plates and the Sanskrit classic ''Nalachampu'').<ref name="kavya">Satyanath T.S. in Knauth & Dasgupta (2018), p.123</ref> In the early centuries of the first millennium, inscriptions in the Deccan were predominantly in the Prakrit language. Then came a slow change with records appearing in bilingual Sanskrit-Prakrit languages around the middle of the fourth century, where the genealogy information is in Sanskrit while the functional portion was in Prakrit.<ref name="prakrit">Saloman (1998), pp.90-92</ref> From around the fifth century, Prakrit fell out of use entirely and was replaced by the Dravidian languages. In the Kannada speaking regions in particular, the trend was to inscribe in Sanskrit entirely or in Sanskrit-Kannada.<ref name="cojunct">Saloman (1998), p. 92</ref><br />
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The credit of the development of Kannada as a language of inscriptions between the fourth and sixth centuries goes to the Kadambas, the Gangas and the Badami Chalukyas. Among the early ones are the Halmidi stone inscription and the Tagare copper plates which are ascribed to the Kadambas. While the main content of the inscriptions were in Sanskrit, the boundary specifications of the land grant were in Kannada. In subsequent two centuries, not only do inscriptions become more numerous and longer in size, these inscriptions show a significant increase in the usage of Kannada, though the invocatory, the implicatory and the panegyric verses are in Sanskrit.<ref name="tagare">Satyanath T.S. in Knauth & Dasgupta (2018), pp.125-126</ref> Settar points out that there are inscriptions where the implicatory verses have been translated verbatim into Kannada also. In fact Kannada composed in verse meters start making their appearance in inscriptions even before being committed to literature.<ref name="metre">Satyanath T.S. in Knauth & Dasgupta (2018), p. 125</ref><br />
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Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are the main sources of the Kadamba history. The Talagunda, Gudnapur, Birur, Shimoga, Muttur, Hebbatta, [[Chandravalli]], [[Halasi]] and [[Halmidi inscription]] are some of the important inscriptions that throw light on this ancient ruling family of Karnataka.<ref name="light">Kamath, S.U. (1980), pp. 30-39</ref> Inscriptions of the Kadambas in Sanskrit and Kannada ascribed to Kadamba branches have been published by epigraphists Sircar, Desai, Gai and Rao of the Archaeological Survey of India.<ref name="inscriptions">{{cite web|title=Indian Inscriptions-South Indian Inscriptions, vol 15,18<br />
|url=http://inscriptions.whatisindia.com/|author=Dr. D.C. Sircar, Dr. P.B.Desai, Dr. G.S. Gai, N. Lakshminarayana Rao|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|work=What Is India News Service, Friday, 28 April 2006 |access-date=2006-11-28}}</ref> The Kadambas minted coins, some of which have Kannada legends which provide additional numismatic evidence of their history.<ref name="coins1">Kamath, S.U. (1980), p. 12</ref> The Kadambas (along with their contemporary Ganga dynasty of Talakad) were the first rulers to use Kannada as an additional official administrative language, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription of {{Circa|450}}. The historian Kamath claims Kannada was the common language of the region during this time. While most of their inscriptions are in Sanskrit, three important Kannada inscriptions from the rule of the early Kadambas of Banavasi have been discovered.<ref name="Oldest inscription">A report on Halmidi inscription, {{cite news|title=Halmidi village finally on the road to recognition |url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/11/03/stories/2003110304550500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031124063238/http://www.hindu.com/2003/11/03/stories/2003110304550500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 November 2003|author=Muralidhara Khajane |access-date=2006-11-28 |location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref><ref name="oldest1">Ramesh, K.V. (1984), p.10</ref><ref name="oldest2">Kamath, S.U. (1980), p. 37</ref><br />
<br />
Recent reports claim that the discovery of a 5th-century Kadamba copper coin in Banavasi with [[Kannada script]] inscription ''Srimanaragi'' indicating that a mint may have existed in Banavsi that produced coins with Kannada legends at that time.<ref name="banavasi">{{cite web|title=5th century copper coin discovered at Banavasi |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/feb72006/state171017200626.asp|author=DH News Service Mysore|work=Deccan Herald|access-date=2006-11-28 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061006041816/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/feb72006/state171017200626.asp <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 6 October 2006}}.</ref> The discovery of the Talagunda Lion balustrade inscription at the Praneshvara temple during excavations in 2013, and its publication by the [[Archeological Survey of India|ASI]] in 2016, has shed more light on the politics of language during the early Kadamba era. The bilingual inscription dated to 370 CE written in Sanskrit and Kannada is now thought to be the oldest inscription in the Kannada language.<ref name="balustrade">{{cite web|title=Kannada inscription at Talagunda may replace Halmidi as oldest|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/591046/kannada-inscription-talagunda-may-replace.html|newspaper=Deccan Herald|access-date=13 February 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
==In modern times==<br />
''Kadambotsava'' ("The festival of Kadamba") is a festival that is celebrated every year by the Government of Karnataka in honor of this kingdom.<ref name="kadambotsava">''Kadambotsava'' is held at Banavasi as it is here that the Kadamba kings organized the spring festival every year. {{cite news|title=Kadambotsava in Banavasi from today |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/01/20/stories/2006012003990300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001090446/http://www.hindu.com/2006/01/20/stories/2006012003990300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 October 2007|author=Staff Correspondent|access-date=2006-11-28|location=Chennai, India|work=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref> The creation of the first native Kannada kingdom is celebrated by a popular Kannada film, ''[[Mayura (film)|Mayura]]'' starring [[Dr. Rajkumar|Raj Kumar]]. It is based on a popular novel written in 1933 with the same name by [[Devudu Narasimha Sastri]].<ref name="deva">Das (2005), p.647</ref> On 31 May 2005 Defence minister of India [[Pranab Mukherjee]] commissioned India's most advanced and first dedicated military naval base named INS Kadamba in [[Karwar]].<ref name="INS">Defense Minister Pranab Mukherjee opened the first phase of India's giant western naval base INS Kadamba in [[Karwar]], Karnataka state, on 31 May. {{cite web|title=India Opens Major Naval Base at Karwar|url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/india-opens-major-naval-base-at-karwar-0647/|work=Defence Industry Daily|access-date=2013-01-30}}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Government of Goa|Indian state government of Goa]] owned bus service is named after the Kadambas Dynasty and is known as [[Kadamba Transport Corporation]] (KTCL).The royal lion emblem of the Kadambas is used a logo on its buses. The lion emblem logo became an integral part of KTCL since its inception in 1980 when the corporation was set up to provide better public transport service.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/kadamba-dynasty-logo-to-be-reinstaed-on-goa-govt-buses/articleshow/2978077.cms|title=Kadamba dynasty logo to be reinstaed on Goa govt buses|website=The Economic times}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Kadambas of Goa]]<br />
*[[History of India]]<br />
*[[History of South India]]<br />
*[[History of Goa]]<br />
*[[Kadamba architecture]]<br />
*[[List of Hindu Empires and Dynasties]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
<br />
===Book===<br />
* {{cite book |last= Adiga|first= Malini|title= The Making of Southern Karnataka: Society, Polity and Culture in the early medieval period, AD 400–1030|orig-year=2006|year= 2006|publisher= Orient Longman|location= Chennai|isbn= 81-250-2912-5}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Altekar|first= Ananth Sadashiv|title= The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, from Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|orig-year=1956|year= 1956|publisher= Motilal Banarsidass|location= Delhi|isbn= 81-208-0325-6}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian|first= Nilakanta K.A.|title=History of South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern), Part 1|orig-year=2003|year=2003|publisher= Chand Publications|location= New Delhi|isbn=81-219-0153-7}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Chaurasia|first= Radhey Shyam |title= History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D |orig-year=2002|year=2002|publisher=Atlantic Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-269-00275}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Chugh|first=Lalit|title=Karnataka's Rich Heritage – Temple Sculptures & Dancing Apsaras: An Amalgam of Hindu Mythology, Natyasastra and Silpasastra|orig-year=2017|year=2017|publisher=Notion Press|location=Chennai|isbn=978-1-947137-36-3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Das|first= Sisir Kumar |title= History of Indian Literature: 1911-1956, struggle for freedom : triumph and tragedy |orig-year=2005|year=2005|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-7201-798-7}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Dikshit|first= Durga Prasad |title= Political History of the Chālukyas of Badami |orig-year=1980|year=1980|publisher=Abhinav Publications|location=New Delhi}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Hardy|first=Adam |title=Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation-The Karnata Dravida Tradition 7th to 13th Centuries|orig-year=1995|year=1995|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn= 81-7017-312-4}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Kamath|first= Suryanath U.|title= A Concise history of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present|orig-year=1980|year=2001|publisher= Jupiter Books|location= Bangalore|oclc=7796041}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Kamat|first=Jyothsna K.|title= Social Life in Medieval Karnataka|orig-year=1980|year=1980|publisher= Abhinav Publications|location= Bangalore|oclc=7173416}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Kapur|first= Kamalesh |title= Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India: History |orig-year=2010|year=2010|publisher=Sterling Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-207-52122}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Ramesh|first= K.V.|title= Chalukyas of Vatapi|orig-year=1984|year=1984|publisher=Agam Kala Prakashan|location=Delhi|oclc=13869730}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Majumdar|first= Ramesh Chandra|title=Ancient India |orig-year=1977|year=1977|publisher= Motilal Banarasidass Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-208-0436-8}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Majumdar & Altekar|first= Ramesh Chandra & Ananth Sadashiv |title=Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D.|orig-year=1986|year=1986|publisher= Motilal Banarasidass Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-208-0026-5}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Mann|first=Richard|title=The Rise of Mahāsena: The Transformation of Skanda-Kārttikeya in North India from the Kuṣāṇa to Gupta Empires|orig-year=2011|year=2011|publisher= Brill|location=Boston|isbn=978-90-04-21754 6}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Minahan|first=James B.|title=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia, section:Kannadigas|orig-year=2012|year=2012|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, California|isbn=978-1-59884-659-1}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Rao|first= Seshagiri L.S.|title= Encyclopaedia of Indian literature vol. 2|orig-year=1988|year=1988|editor=Amaresh Datta|publisher= Sahitya Akademi|location= New Delhi|isbn= 81-260-1194-7}}<br />
* {{cite book |title=Decolonising Heritage in South Asia: The Global, the National and the Transnationa|editor=Ray, Himanshu Prabha|orig-year=2019|year=2019|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=978-1-138-50559-9}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Sastri|first= Nilakanta K.A.|title= A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|orig-year=1955|year=2002|publisher= Indian Branch, Oxford University Press|location= New Delhi|isbn= 0-19-560686-8}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Saloman|first= Richard|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages|orig-year=1998|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn=0-19-509984-2}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Satyanath|first=T.S.|title=Figures of Transcontinental Multilingualism|orig-year=2018|year=2018|editor=K. Alfons Knauth, Subha Chakraborty Dasgupta|publisher=LIT Verlag GambH & Co.|location=Zurich|isbn=978-3-643-90953-4}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Sen|first= Sailendra Nath |title= Ancient Indian History and Civilization |orig-year=1999|year=1999|publisher= New Age Publishers|isbn=81-224-1198-3}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Singh|first=R.B.P|title=Jainism in Early Medieval Karnataka|orig-year=2008|year=2008|publisher=Motilal Banarasidass|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-3323-4}}<br />
*{{cite book |last= Singh|first= Upinder |title= A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India:From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|orig-year=2008|year=2008|publisher= Pearsons Education|location= India|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0}}<br />
* {{cite book |last= Sircar|first=Dineshchandra|title=Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India|orig-year=1971|year=1971|publisher=Motilal Banarasidass|location=Delhi|isbn=978-8120827905}}<br />
===Web===<br />
* {{cite web |url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|title=History of Karnataka – The Shatavahanas-10, Arthikaje|access-date=2006-11-28|publisher=OurKarnataka.Com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907040452/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|archive-date=7 September 2006}}<br />
* {{cite web |url=http://inscriptions.whatisindia.com|title=Indian Inscriptions|access-date=2006-11-28|work=Archaeological Survey of India}}<br />
* {{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/feb72006/state171017200626.asp |title=5th century copper coin discovered at Banavasi|access-date=2006-11-28|work=Deccan Herald |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061006041816/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/feb72006/state171017200626.asp <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 6 October 2006}}<br />
* {{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/11/03/stories/2003110304550500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031124063238/http://www.hindu.com/2003/11/03/stories/2003110304550500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 November 2003 |title=Halmidi village finally on the road to recognition|access-date=2006-11-28 |location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] }}<br />
* {{cite web |url=http://prabhu.50g.com/southind/kadamba/south_kadambagcat.html |title=Indian Coins, Dynasties of South India, Govindayara Prabhu |access-date=2006-11-13 |work=G.S Prabhu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040106121800/http://prabhu.50g.com/southind/kadamba/south_kadambagcat.html |archive-date=6 January 2004}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
{{Karnataka History}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://coinindia.com/galleries-kadambas-banavasi.html Coins of the Kadambas of Banavasi]<br />
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}<br />
{{Karnataka topics}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:States and territories established in the 340s]]<br />
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 540s]]<br />
[[Category:Empires and kingdoms of India]]<br />
[[Category:345 establishments]]<br />
[[Category:4th-century establishments in India]]<br />
[[Category:525 disestablishments]]<br />
[[Category:6th-century disestablishments in India]]<br />
[[Category:Hindu dynasties]]<br />
[[Category:Kadambas]]<br />
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]<br />
[[Category:Former countries in South Asia]]</div>Rajbhai7https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kakatiya_dynasty&diff=388075Kakatiya dynasty2022-04-29T23:38:57Z<p>Rajbhai7: Just published a comprehensive article.</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{Short description|12th–14th century Indian dynasty}}<br />
{{EngvarB}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates}}<br />
{{Infobox country<br />
| conventional_long_name = Kakatiya dynasty<br />
| common_name = Kakatiya dynasty<br />
| image_flag =<br />
|image_map = Map of the Kakatiyas.png<br />
|image_map_alt = Map of the Kakatiyas.<br />
|image_map_caption = Map of the Kakatiyas, circa 1150–1300 CE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=147, map XIV.3 (b)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=185}}</ref><br />
| today = India<br />
| status = Empire<br />
| status_text = Empire<br /><small>(Subordinate to [[Western Chalukyas]] until 1163)</small><br />
| government_type = Monarchy<br />
| year_start = 1163{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=26}}<br />
| year_end = 1323<br />
| event_pre = Earliest rulers<br />
| date_pre = {{circa}} 800<br />
| p1 = Eastern Chalukyas<br />
| p2 = Western Chalukya Empire<br />
| s1 = Reddi Kingdom<br />
| s2 = Musunuri Nayakas<br />
| s3 = Delhi Sultanate<br />
| s4 = Bahmani Sultanate<br />
| s5 = Vijayanagara Empire<br />
| flag =<br />
| capital = Orugallu ([[Warangal]])<br />
| common_languages = [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Kannada language|Kannada]]{{sfn|Rao|1993|p=22}}<br />
| religion = [[Hinduism]] (Converted from [[Jainism]]){{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=25}}<br />
| title_leader = [[Monarch|King]]<br />
| demonym =<br />
| area_km2 =<br />
| area_rank =<br />
| GDP_PPP =<br />
| GDP_PPP_year =<br />
| HDI =<br />
| HDI_year =<br />
}}<br />
{{APhistory}}<br />
<br />
The '''Kakatiya dynasty''' ([[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]: Kākatīya){{efn|Sanskrit: काकतीय; <small>romanised</small>: ''kākatīya''; [[Telugu language|Telugu]]: కాకతీయులు; [[Kannada]]: ಕಾಕತೀಯ}} was a [[Telugu language|Telugu]] dynasty that ruled most of eastern [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region in present-day India between 12th and 14th centuries. Their territory comprised much of the present day [[Telangana]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]], and parts of eastern [[Karnataka]], northern [[Tamil Nadu]], and southern [[Odisha]].{{sfn|Ventakaramanayya|1942|pp=1–2}}<ref>For a map of their territory see: {{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=147, map XIV.3 (b)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=185}}</ref> Their capital was Orugallu, now known as [[Warangal]].<br />
<br />
Early Kakatiya rulers served as feudatories to [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] and [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukyas]] for more than two centuries. They assumed sovereignty under Prataparudra I in 1163 CE by suppressing other Chalukya subordinates in the Telangana region.<ref name=":0" /> [[Ganapati (Kakatiya dynasty)|Ganapati Deva]] (r. 1199–1262) significantly expanded Kakatiya lands during the 1230s and brought under Kakatiya control the Telugu-speaking lowland delta areas around the [[Godavari River|Godavari]] and [[Krishna River|Krishna]] rivers. Ganapati Deva was succeeded by [[Rudrama Devi]] (r. 1262–1289) who is one of the few queens in Indian history. [[Marco Polo]], who visited India around 1289–1293, made note of Rudrama Devi's rule and nature in flattering terms. She successfully repelled the attacks of [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Yadavas]] (Seuna) of Devagiri into the Kakatiyan territory.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
In 1303, [[Alauddin Khalji]], the emperor of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] invaded the Kakatiya territory which ended up as a disaster for the Turks.{{efn|{{harvtxt|Sharma|1957|p=234}}: "Vennama, the son of Dāma, led his troops in a defeat of the Turks very probably during Ala-ud-din Khalji's first invasion of Telangana in 1303. This success against the Turkish arms took place in the battle of Upparapalli, where Potuganti Maili is said to have put the enemies to flight."}} But after the successful [[Siege of Warangal (1310)|siege]] of Warangal in 1310, Prataparudra II was forced to pay annual [[tribute]] to Delhi. Another attack by [[Muhammad bin Tughluq|Ulugh Khan]] in 1323 saw stiff resistance by the Kakatiyan army, but they were finally defeated. The demise of Kakatiya dynasty resulted in confusion and anarchy under alien rulers for sometime, before [[Musunuri Nayaks]] united the various Telugu clans and recovered [[Warangal]] from the [[Delhi Sultanate]].<ref>{{harvnb|Talbot|2001|p=178}}; {{harvnb|Eaton|2005|pp=26–27}}; {{harvnb|Chattopadhyaya|1998|pp=57–59}}</ref><br />
<br />
Kakatiyas unified the distinct upland and lowland cultures of Telugu lands, which brought into being a feeling of cultural affinity between those who spoke the [[Telugu language]]. Kakatiya period also saw the construction of reservoirs for irrigation in the uplands called "tanks" many of which are still used today. They were egalitarian in nature and anyone, regardless of birth, could acquire the ''[[Nayak (title)|nayaka]]'' title that denoted the warrior status. They recruited peasants into the military which resulted in a new warrior class and provided social mobility. Kakatiya era also saw the development of a distinct style of architecture which improved and innovated upon the existing modes.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Singh|first=B. Satyanarayana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SujVAAAAMAAJ|title=The Art and Architecture of the Kākatīyas|publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan|isbn=978-81-86050-34-7|pages=33, 65|language=en}}</ref> Most notable examples are the [[Thousand Pillar Temple]] in [[Hanamkonda]], [[Ramappa Temple]] in Palampet, [[Warangal Fort]], [[Golconda Fort]] and [[Kota Gullu]] in [[Ghanpur, Mulugu district|Ghanpur]].<br />
<br />
== Etymology and names ==<br />
<br />
Studies of the inscriptions and coinage by the historian [[Dineshchandra Sircar]] reveal that there was no contemporary standard spelling of the family name. Variants include ''Kakatiya'', ''Kakatiyya'', ''Kakita'', ''Kakati'' and ''Kakatya''. The family name was often prefixed to the name of the monarch, giving constructs such as ''Kakatiya-Prataparudra''. Some of the monarchs also had alternate names; for example, ''Venkata'' and ''Venkataraya'' may have been alternate names of Prataparuda I, with the former appearing on a coin in the form ''Venkata-Kakatiya''.{{sfn|Sircar|2008|p=241}}{{efn|Kakatiya coins bore the [[Nandinagari]] script.({{harvnb|Prasad|1988|p=9}})}}<br />
<br />
According to Kakatiya inscriptions, the family's name derives from the name of a place called Kakati. However, Kumarasvami Somapithin, in his 15th century commentary on Vidynatha's ''Prataparudra-Yashobhushanam'' or ''Prataparudriya'' states that the family was named after their tutelary goddess Kakati, a form of [[Durga]].{{sfn|Sharma|1957|p=196}}{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=24-25}} It is possible that the early Kakatiya chiefs resided at a place called Kakati, which had a shrine of their tutelary goddess.{{sfn|Sharma|1957|p=197}}{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=22-23}}<br />
<br />
Although the Hindu mythological texts do not mention any such form of Durga, the worship of a goddess named Kakati is attested by several other sources. For example, Vallabharaya's ''Krida-bhiramamu'' mentions an image of Kakatamma ("Mother Kakati") in the Kakatiya capital Orugallu. The 16th century [[Shitab Khan|Shitap Khan]] inscription mentions the reinstallation of the image of goddess Jaganmatruka (mother of the universe) and the lotus seat of the Kakatirajya, which had been destroyed by the [[Turkic peoples|Turushka]]s (Turkic people).{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=22}} According to one theory, Kakati was originally a [[Jainism|Jain]] goddess (possibly [[Padmavati (Jainism)|Padmavati]]), and later came to be regarded as a form of Durga.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=24-25}}<br />
<br />
The [[Bayyaram]] tank inscription from the reign of Ganapati-deva states that the Kakatiya chief Venna (c. 9th century) resided at Kakati, because of which his descendants came to be known as Kakatishas ("lords of Kakati").{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=22, 37}} Ganapati-deva's Garavapadu charter traces the family's ancestry to [[Durjaya (Andhra chieftain)|Durjaya]], and states that his descendant Karikala Chola arrived at a town called Kakati during a hunting expedition, and set up his camp there.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=22-23}} The modern identity of Kakati is uncertain: different historians have variously attempted to identify it with modern Kakati village in [[Karnataka]] and [[Kanker, Chhattisgarh|Kanker]] in [[Chhattisgarh]]. ''Siddheshvara-Charitra'', a later literary work, states that the ancestors of the Kakatiya family lived at Kandarapura (identified with modern [[Kandhar]] in [[Maharashtra]]). However, no other evidence supports this tradition.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=23}} Later, the Kakatiya capital Orugallu (present-day Warangal) was also called "Kakati-pura" ("Kakati town"), as attested by some inscriptions of the dynasty.{{sfn|Sharma|1957|p=197}}<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
[[File:Vishnu with His Mount, Garuda, His Consort, Lakshmi, and Attendants, 12-13th century, Kakatiya period. Andhra Pradesh, Kalyani region, India.jpg|thumb|Vishnu with his mount, Garuda, his consort, Lakshmi, and attendants, 12-13th century, Kakatiya period. Kalyani region, [[Andhra Pradesh]], India]]<br />
Much of the information about the Kakatiya period comes from inscriptions, including around 1,000 stone inscriptions, and 12 copper-plate inscriptions.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=3-6}} Most of these inscriptions document matters relating to religion, such as donations to [[Hindu]] temples. They are particularly abundant for the period 1175–1324 CE, which is the period when the dynasty most flourished and are a reflection of that. The probability is that many inscriptions have been lost due to buildings falling into disuse and also the ravages of subsequent rulers, most notably the Muslim [[Mughal Empire]] in the [[Telangana]] region. Inscriptions are still being discovered today but governmental agencies tend to concentrate on recording those that are already known rather than searching for new examples.{{sfn|Talbot|2001|pp=11, 17, 19}} A 1978 book written by [[P. V. Parabrahma Sastry|P.V.P. Sastry]] on the history of the Kakatiyas, published by the Government of Andhra Pradesh also constitutes as one of the sources.<br />
<br />
Information about the Kakatiya period also comes from [[Sanskrit]] and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] literary works written during Kakatiya and post-Kakatiya period. The most notable among these works include ''Prataparudriyam'', ''Krida-bhiramamu'', ''Panditaradhya-charitamu'', ''Sivayogasaramu'', ''Nitisara'', ''Niti-sastra-muktavali'', ''Nrutya-ratnavali'', ''Pratapa-charita'', ''Siddhesvara-charitra'', ''Somadeva-rajiyamu'', ''Palnativira-charitra'', ''Velugotivari-vamsavali'', and ''Velugotivari-vamsacharitra''.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=8-12}} Chronicles by Muslim authors such as [[Isami (historian)|Isami]] and [[Firishta]] describe Prataparudra's defeats against the Muslim armies. The [[Kannada language|Kannada]] text ''Kumara-Ramana-charita'' also provides information about Prataparudra's relations with the [[Kampili kingdom]].{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=12}}<br />
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Besides epigraphs and literature, the forts, temples and tanks constructed during the Kakatiya period are an important source of information about the contemporary society, art and architecture.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=12-13}}<br />
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== Origin ==<br />
<br />
The Kakatiya rulers traced their ancestry to a legendary chief or ruler named [[Durjaya (Andhra chieftain)|Durjaya]]. Many other ruling dynasties of Andhra also claimed descent from Durjaya. Nothing further is known about this chief.{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=53}}<br />
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Most of the Kakatiya records do not mention the [[Varna (Hinduism)|Varna]] (social class) of the family, but the majority of the ones that do, proudly describe them as [[Shudra]].{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=51}} Examples include the Bothpur and Vaddamanu inscriptions of Ganapati's general Malyala Gunda ''senani''. The Kakatiyas also maintained marital relations with other Shudra families, such as the [[Kota Vamsa|Kotas]] and the [[Natavadi]] chiefs. All these evidences indicate that the Kakatiyas were of Shudra origin.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=29}}<br />
<br />
A few copper-plate inscriptions of the Kakatiya family describe them as belonging to the [[Kshatriya]] (warrior) varna. These inscriptions primarily document grants to [[brahmin|Brahmans]], and appear to be inspired by the genealogies of the imperial [[Cholas]].{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=51}} For example, the Motupalli inscription of Ganapati counts legendary [[solar dynasty]] kings such as [[Rama]] among the ancestors of Durjaya, the progenitor of the Kakatiya family. The Malkapuram inscription of Visvesvara Sivacharya, the preceptor of Kakatiya rulers Ganapati-deva and Rudrama-devi, also connects the Kakatiyas to the solar dynasty (Sūryavaṃsa). {{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=27}} The term "Kshatriya" in these panegyric records appears to signify the family's warrior-like qualities rather than their actual varna.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=27-29}}<br />
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=== Relationship to the Rashtrakutas ===<br />
[[File:Periodo hoysala-kakatiya, kubera, prov. sconosciuta, 1100-1350 dc ca.jpg|thumb|Kubera, Hoysala-Kakatiya period, 1100-1350 CE.]]<br />
<br />
According to an interpretation of the Mangallu and the [[Bayyaram]] inscriptions, the Kakatiyas were not just [[Rashtrakuta]] vassals, but also a branch of the Rashtrakuta family.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x1zt3Uv9rF8C&dq=rashtrakuta+gundyana&pg=PA3 |title=Arch. Series |publisher=Government of Andhra Pradesh, Department of Archaeology |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
The 956 CE Mangallu inscription was issued by the [[Chalukyas of Vengi|Vengi Chalukya]] prince Dānārnava, at the request of the Kakatiya chief [[Gunda IV]].{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=2, 39-40}} The inscription names Gundyana's ancestors as Gundiya-Rashtrakuta ([[Gunda III]]) and Eriya-Rashtrakuta ([[Erra (Kakatiya dynasty)|Erra]]).{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=16}} This suggests that Gunda IV was a Rashtrakuta general, and not a Vengi Chalukya subordinate, as assumed by some earlier historians.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=16}}<br />
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The [[Bayyaram]] tank inscription, which records the construction of ''Dharma-kirti-samudra'' tank by Ganapati's sister Mailama (or Mailamba), provides another genealogical list.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=30}} The similarities of names mentioned in the Mangallu and Bayyaram inscriptions lists suggest that both of these refer to the same family:{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=17-18}}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Genealogical list of early Kakatiyas{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=17}}<br />
! Mangallu grant inscription !! Bayyaram tank inscription<br />
|-<br />
| Kakatiya family || Durjaya family<br />
|-<br />
| || Venna-''nripa''<br />
|-<br />
| Gundiya Rashtrakuta || Gunda I<br />
|-<br />
| || Gunda II<br />
|-<br />
| || Gunda III<br />
|-<br />
| Eriya Rashtrakuta || Erra<br />
|-<br />
| Betiya (married Vandyanamba) ||<br />
|-<br />
| Kakartya Gundyana || Pindi-Gunda (Gunda IV)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The significance of the suffix "Rashtrakuta" in the names of the early Kakatiya chiefs is debated. According to one theory, the suffix only implies that these chiefs were Rashtrakuta subordinates. This theory is based on the fact that the phrase ''Rashtrakuta-kutumbinah'' appears in several Rashtrakuta-era copper-plate inscriptions, and refers to the officers and subjects of the Rashtrakuta kingdom.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=18-19}}<br />
<br />
According to another theory, the suffix implies that the Kakatiyas were a branch of the Rashtrakuta family, because the term ''Rashtrakuta-kutumbinah'' was used for officers employed by the Rashtrakuta administration, not feudatory chiefs: the early records of the Kakatiya chiefs describe them as ''[[samanta]]s'' (feudatory chiefs).{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=19}} The [[Kazipet]] Darga inscription of [[Durgaraja]] states that his father [[Beta II]] was born in the family of [[Samanta]] Viṣṭi.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=20}} Historian P.V.P. Sastry theorises that "Viṣṭi" is a corruption of [[Vrishni]], the name of a clan from which some Rashtrakutas claimed descent. He notes that some chiefs of Rashtrakuta origin adopted the title "Viṭṭi-narayana", which means "as great as Narayana ([[Krishna]]) of the Vitti (Vrishni) family.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=20-21}} Sastry further proposes that the term "Voddi", which appears in the phrase ''Voddi-kula'' ("Voddi family") in the Mangallu inscription may be same as "Viṣṭi".{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=21}} Sastry also believes that the early Kakatiya chiefs followed [[Jainism]], which was also patronized by the Rashtrakutas, thus strengthening the view that the two dynasties were connected (see [[#Religion|Religion]] section below).{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=24-25}}<br />
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The Kakatiyas seemed to have adopted the mythical bird [[Garuda]] as their royal insignia, as attested by the Ekamranatha temple inscription of Ganapati-deva, the [[Ramappa Temple|Palampet]] inscription of the Kakatiya general [[Recharla Rudra]], and Vidyanatha's ''Prataparudriya''.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=20}} The Bayyaram tank inscription calls the Kakatiya chief Beta I (son of Gunda IV) ''Garudamka''-Beta, and "Garuda" here appears to refer to the family's emblem.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=19, 25}} In Hindu mythology, Garuda is the [[vahana]] of god [[Vishnu]]. The Rashtrakutas and some other dynsaties of Deccan claimed descent from the [[Vrishni]] clan (associated with Vishnu's [[avatar]] [[Krishna]]), and had adopted Garuda as their royal insignia.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=19}} According to Sastry, this corroborates the theory that the Kakatiyas were associated with the Rashtrakuta family.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=25}} Sastry further speculates that the Kakatiyas may have adopted the Garuda symbol because of Jain influence: the [[yaksha]] of the Jain [[tirthankara]] [[Shantinatha]] is represented by the Garuda symbol.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=25}} However, when the Kakatiyas switched their allegiance to the [[Chalukyas of Kalyani]], they also adopted the [[varaha]] symbol used by the Chalukyas.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=45}}<br />
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Based on Ganapati-deva's Garavapadu inscription, which names [[Karikala Chola]] among the family's ancestors, epigraphist C.R.K. Charlu theorised that the Kakatiyas were a branch of the [[Telugu Cholas]]. However, no other Kakatiya record mentions Karikala, and unlike the Telugu Cholas, the Kakatiyas did not claim to belong to the [[Kashyapa]]-[[gotra]]. Therefore, Sastry dismisses Charlu's theory as untenable.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=21}}<br />
<br />
== Early feudatory chiefs ==<br />
<br />
The regnal years of the early members of the Kakatiya family are not certain. The earliest known Kakatiya chief is Venna or Vanna (r. c. 800-815), who was born in the family of [[Durjaya (Andhra chieftain)|Durjaya]], and ruled from Kakati. According to Kakatiya inscriptions, he ruled from a town called Kakati, because of which his family was called Kakatishas ("lords of Kakati"). Not much is known about his successors Gunda I and Gunda II, who ruled during c. 815-865 CE.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=37}} The Bayyaram tank inscription compares his successors - Gunda I, Gunda II, and Gunda III - to the three Ramas ([[Parashurama]], [[Rama|Dasharatha-Rama]], and [[Balarama]]).<br />
<br />
The c. 956 CE Mangallu inscription suggests that the Kakatiyas came to the [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-speaking region as commanders of the Rashtrakuta armies.{{sfn|Sharma|1957|p=197}} The earliest of these was Venna's son [[Gunda III]], who died during [[Krishna II]]'s invasion of the [[Chalukyas of Vengi|Vengi Chalukya]] kingdom around 895 CE.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=37-39}} Krishna II captured the Kurravadi (possibly present-day [[Kuravi]]) region from the Vengi Chalukyas, and probably appointed Gunda III's son [[Erra (Kakatiya dynasty)|Erra]] as a governor there. Not much is known about Erra's son Betiya.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=39}}<br />
<br />
As a Rashtrakuta vassal, Betiya's son [[Gunda IV]] (r. c. 955-995) helped the Vengi Chalukya prince Danarnava ascend the throne after a succession dispute. In 973 CE, after the collapse of the Rashtrakuta empire and the murder of Danarnava, he attempted to carve out an independent principality at [[Kuravi]]. The Mudugonda Chalukyas, whom he had displaced from Kuravi, sought help from the [[Chalukyas of Kalyani|Kalyani Chalukyas]], who had usurped the power from the Rashtrakutas. The Kalyani Chalukya forces probably defeated and killed Gunda IV.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=39-42}} His son [[Beta I]] (r. c. 1000-1052 CE) accepted the Kalyani Chalukya suzerainty and received from them the fief of Anumakonda (modern Hanamakonda), which later became the Kakatiya capital. He distinguished himself in the Chalukya campaigns against the Cholas, during the reign of [[Someshvara I]].{{sfn|Sharma|1957|p=199}}<br />
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[[Prola I]] (r. {{circa}} 1052-1076), the son of Beta I, participated in various Chalukya military campaigns, consolidated the Kakatiya control around Anumakonda by defeating local chiefs, and obtained Anumakonda as a hereditary fief.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=46}}{{sfn|Yazdani|1960|p=578}} The Chalukya king granted his son [[Beta II]] (r. {{circa}} 996-1051) the Sabbi-1000 province (the historical Sabbi-nadu region with 1000 villages, centered around [[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulavada]]).{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=48-49}} He was succeeded by his sons, first Durga-raja and then Prola II (r. c. 1116–1157).{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=36}}<br />
<br />
After the decline of the Rashtrakuta power, the Kakatiyas served as vassals of the [[Chalukyas of Kalyani|Kalyani Chalukyas]]. After the decline of the Chalukya power in the 12th century, they assumed sovereignty by suppressing other Chalukya subordinates in the Telangana region.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=6}}<br />
<br />
== As sovereigns ==<br />
<br />
=== Prataparudra I ===<br />
{{South Asia in 1175|right|Location of the Kakatiyas and neighbouring South Asian polities in 1175, on the eve of the [[Ghurid Empire]] invasion of the subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=37, 147|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=074}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-196655-7 |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP31 |language=en}}</ref>|{{Annotation|139|169|[[File:Long Fine Rectangle (plain).png|42px]]}}}}<br />
The 1149 Sanigaram inscription of Prola II is the last known record of the Kakatiyas as vassals. The 1163 Anumakonda inscription of [[Rudradeva]] alias Prataparudra I is the earliest known record that describes the Kakatiyas as a sovereign power.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=2}}<br />
<br />
According to Sastry, Prataparudra I reigned between around 1158&nbsp;– 1195,{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=36}} while Sircar gives the dates 1163–1195. He was also known as Rudra Deva, Kakatiya Rudradeva, Venkata, and Venkataraya{{sfn|Sircar|2008|p=241}}{{sfn|Sircar|1979|p=130}} He was the son of Prola II, who had made efforts to assert greater Kakatiya influence on territories in the eastern parts of the declining Western Chalukyan empire and who died in a battle fought against the [[Velanati Chodas|Velanati Choda]] ruler [[Gonka II]] around 1157/1158 while doing so.{{sfn|Prasad|1988|pp=119, 124}}{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=184}} It was during Prataparudra's reign, in 1163, that the Kakatiyas declared an end to their status as [[feudatory]] chiefs of the Chalukyas.{{efn|{{harvtxt|Talbot|2001|p=128}}: "Soon after he came to power, Rudradeva had the Thousand Pillared temple built in [[Hanamkonda]], then the Kakatiya capital. The Sanskrit inscription recording its foundation in 1163 contains an elaborate genealogy of Rudradeva's ancestry... Since it was the earliest of Rudradeva's inscriptions to omit any mention of the Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani, we can assume that the construction of the temple was meant to mark Rudradeva's new status as an overlord in his own right."}} It is notable that inscriptions were henceforth written using the Kakatiya chiefs' vernacular Telugu rather than the [[Kannada language]] that had prevailed until that point.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=13}}<br />
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Mahadeva succeeded Prataparudra I as king, reigning probably from 1195 to 1199.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=36}}<br />
<br />
=== Ganapati ===<br />
Just as the Yadava and Hoysala dynasties took control of linguistically related areas during the 13th century, so too did the Kakatiyas under the rule of Ganapati.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=13}} He is also known as Ganapathi Deva and, according to Sastry, reigned between 1199 and 1262; Sircar gives regnal dates of 1199–1260.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=36}}{{sfn|Sircar|1979|p=130}} He significantly expanded Kakatiya lands during the 1230s when he launched a series of attacks outside the dynasty's traditional Telangana region and thus brought under Kakatiya control the Telugu-speaking lowland delta areas around the Godavari and Krishna rivers. The outcome in the case of all three dynasties, says historian Richard Eaton, was that they "catalysed processes of supralocal identity formation and community building".{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=13}}<br />
<br />
The Kakatiya capital at Orugallu, established in 1195, was not forgotten while Ganapati expanded his territory. He organised the building of a massive [[granite]] wall around the city, complete with ramps designed for ease of access to its [[rampart (fortification)|rampart]]s from within. A moat and numerous [[bastion]]s were also constructed.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=17}}<br />
<br />
Ganapati was keen to bolster the dynasty's economy. He encouraged merchants to trade abroad, abolishing all taxes except for a fixed duty and supporting those who risked their lives to travel afar.{{sfn|Desai|1962}} He created the man-made [[Pakhal Lake]].<br />
<br />
=== Rudrama Devi ===<br />
[[File:Rudramadevi.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Rudrama Devi]].]]<br />
[[Rudrama Devi]], also known as Rudramadevi, reigned around 1262–1289 CE (alternative dates: 1261–1295 CE) and is one of the few queens in Indian history.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=36}}{{sfn|Kalia|1994|p=21}}<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=56–58}}</ref> Sources disagree regarding whether she was the widow of Ganapati or his daughter.{{sfn|Rubiés|2000|p=73}}<br />
<br />
[[Marco Polo]], who visited India probably some time around 1289–1293, made note of Rudrama Devi's rule and nature in flattering terms.{{sfn|Rubiés|2000|pp=50, 73}}{{efn|[[Marco Polo]] referred to the kingdom as Mutfili, which was the name for the area around a major port of the dynasty, now known as [[Masulipatnam]].({{harvnb|Chakravarti|1991}})}} She continued the planned fortification of the capital, raising the height of Ganapati's wall as well as adding a second earthen [[curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]] {{convert|1.5|mi|km}} in diameter and with an additional {{convert|150|ft|m}}-wide moat.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=17}}<br />
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A fragmentary [[Kannada]] language inscription also states that the Kakatiya general Bhairava defeated the Yadava army probably in or after 1263 CE, which may be a reference to his repulsion of [[Mahadeva of Devagiri|Mahadeva]]'s invasion. A coin of Mahadeva bears the Kakatiya emblem [[varaha]] with the Yadava symbols; this varaha may have been stuck on Mahadeva's coins to mark the Kakatiya victory.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459498/2015.459498.A-Comprehensive_djvu.txt|title=Seuna-Kakatiya|last=T. V.|first=Mahalingam|year=1957|pages=150}}</ref><br />
<br />
Rudrama was married to Virabhadra, an [[Eastern Chalukya]]n prince of [[Nidadavolu]] who had been selected for that purpose by her father.{{sfn|Suryanarayana|1986|p=163}} Having no son as an heir,{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=17}} Rudrama abdicated in favour of her grandson when it became apparent that the expansionist [[sultan]] [[Alauddin Khalji]] was encroaching on the Deccan and might in due course attack the Kakatiyas.{{sfn|Rubiés|2000|p=73}}<br />
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=== Prataparudra II ===<br />
The earliest biography of Rudrama Devi's successor, [[Prataparudra II]], is the ''Prataparudra Caritramu'', dating from the 16th century.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=16}} His reign began in 1289 (alternative date: 1295) and ended with the demise of the dynasty in 1323.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=36}}<ref name="sen2"/> It is described by Eaton as the "first chapter in a larger story" that saw the style of polity in the Deccan change from being regional kingdoms to transregional [[sultan]]ates that survived until the arrival of the [[British East India Company]] in the 18th century.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=9-11}}<br />
<br />
== Decline ==<br />
[[File:Replica_of_the_Koh-i-Noor_(cropped).jpg|thumb|A replica of the [[Koh-i-Noor]] diamond. The diamond was originally owned by the Kakatiya dynasty.]]<br />
<br />
The Kakatiya kingdom attracted the attention of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] ruler [[Alauddin Khalji]] because of the possibility for plunder.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=40}} The first foray into the Kakatiya kingdom was made in 1303 by Malik Chajju, the nephew of the Indian Muslim Wazir [[Nusrat Khan Jalesari]] of Delhi, and [[Muhammad bin Tughluq|Fakhruddin Jauna]],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=grhhAAAAIAAJ&q=led+by+two+generals+,+Malik+Fakr+-+ud+-+Din+Juna+and+Malik+Chhajju+,+penetrated+into+the+heart+of+Telangana+and+reached+the+vicinity+of+Warangal |title= Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteers:Volume 19 |publisher=Andhra Pradesh (India)|author= M. v Rajagopal }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SG8uAQAAIAAJ&q=malik+chajju+nusrat+khan |title= Islamic Culture:Volumes 55-56 |author= Marmaduke Pickthall, Muhammad Asad }}</ref> which was a disaster due to the resistance of the Kakatiya army in the battle at [[Upparapalli]].{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=160&nbsp;"An earlier attack on Warangal in 1304 had been unsuccessful."}}{{efn|{{harvtxt|Sharma|1957|p=234}}: "Vennama, the son of Dāma, led his troops in a defeat of the Turks very probably during Ala-ud-din Khalji's first invasion of Telangana in 1303. This success against the Turkish arms took place in the battle of Upparapalli, where Potuganti Maili is said to have put the enemies to flight."}} In 1309 the [[Gujaratis|Gujarati]] general, [[Malik Kafur]],<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Qdc3NKpQ5jEC&dq=malik+kafur+gujarati&pg=PA60 |title= By Sweat and Sword |page=63 |author=K. K. Nair |isbn= 9788173049736 }}</ref> in an attempt to force Prataparudra into acceptance of a position subordinate to the sultanate at Delhi. Kafur organised a month-long [[Siege of Warangal, 1310|siege of Orugallu]] that ended with success in February 1310. Prataparudra was forced to make various symbolic acts of obeisance designed to demonstrate his new position as a subordinate but, as was Alauddin's plan, he was not removed as ruler of the area but rather forced thereafter to pay annual [[tribute]] to Delhi.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=17–18}} It was probably at this time that the [[Koh-i-Noor]] diamond passed from Kakatiya ownership to that of Alauddin, along with 20,000 horses and 100 elephants.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=40}}<br />
<br />
In 1311, Prataparudra formed a part of the sultanate forces that attacked the [[Pandyan Dynasty|Pandyan empire]] in the south, and he took advantage of that situation to quell some of his vassals in [[Nellore]] who had seen his reduced status as an opportunity for independence. Later, though, in 1318, he failed to provide the annual tribute to Delhi, claiming that the potential for being attacked on the journey made it impossible. The succeeding Sultan Mubarak Shah responded by sending another of his Gujarati generals, [[Khusrau Khan]],<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-qHiAAAAMAAJ&q=khusrau+khan+gujarati |title= Gujarat State Gazetteer:Part 1 |page=164 }}</ref> to Orugallu with a force that bristled with technology previously unknown in the area, including [[trebuchet]]-like machines. Prataparudra had to [[Siege of Warangal, 1318|submit once more]], with his obeisance on this occasion being arranged by the sultanate to include a very public display whereby he bowed towards Delhi from the ramparts of Orugallu. The amount of his annual tribute was changed, becoming 100 elephants and 12,000 horses.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=18–19}}<br />
<br />
The new arrangements did not last long. Taking advantage of a revolution in Delhi that saw the Khalji dynasty removed and the Punjab-born [[Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq]] installed as sultan,<ref>{{cite book|title=Proceedings - Punjab History Conference Volume 1|publisher=Punjabi University. Dept. of Punjab Historical Studies|page=152|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhFDAAAAYAAJ&q=Ghiyasuddin+Tughluq+is+supposed+to+have+been+born+from+a+Jat+woman+of+Punjab+,+whom+his+Turkish+father+is}}</ref> Prataparudra again asserted his independence in 1320. Tughlaq sent his son, [[Muhammad bin Tughluq|Jauna Khan]], to defeat the defiant Kakatiya king in 1321. Khan's army was riven with internal dissension due to rumours of the king's death, which caused many officers to leave the army.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&dq=ulugh+khan+warangal&pg=PA95 |title= Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526) - Part One |author= Satish Chandra |page=95 |isbn= 9788124110645 }}</ref> This caused the siege on this occasion to last much longer&nbsp;— six months, rather than the few weeks that had previously been the case. The attackers were initially repulsed and Khan's forces retreated to regroup in Devagiri. Prataparudra celebrated the apparent victory by opening up his grain stores for public feasting. Khan returned in 1323 with his revitalised and reinforced army and, with few supplies left, Prataparudra was [[Siege of Warangal, 1323|forced into submission]] after a five-month siege. The unprepared and battle-weary army of Orugallu was finally defeated, and Orugallu was renamed as Sultanpur. It seems probable, from combining various contemporary and near-contemporary accounts, that Prataparudra committed suicide near to the [[Narmada River]] while being taken as a prisoner to Delhi.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=20-21}}{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=176}}<br />
<br />
==Characterization==<br />
<br />
=== Geography ===<br />
The Kakatiya base was the city of Orugallu{{sfn|Rao|Shulman|2012|p=17}} in the dry uplands of northern Telangana on the [[Deccan Plateau]]. From there they expanded their influence into [[Coastal Andhra]], the [[river basin|delta]] between the [[Godavari River|Godavari]] and [[Krishna River|Krishna]] rivers that feed into the [[Bay of Bengal]]. According to Rao and Shulman, the latter contained a high proportion of [[Brahmin]]s while the former was the haunt of "peasants, artisans and warriors".{{sfn|Rao|Shulman|2002|p=4}} Under the Kakatiyas, cultural innovation often began in the uplands, was refined in the lowlands and then recycled back into the Deccan. This bi-directional flow of cultural influences brought into being a feeling of cultural affinity between those who spoke the [[Telugu language]] where nothing of that nature had previously existed.{{efn|The term ''andhra bhasa'', meaning ''language of Andhra'', appeared as a synonym for the [[Telugu language]] at least as early as 1053 and suggests an emerging correlation of linguistics and geography. ({{harvnb|Eaton|2005|p=13}}) The linguistic mapping of regions of India continues to the present day and formed a part of the [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956]].}} The unification of the distinct upland and lowland cultures was their most significant political achievement, achieved through a process of binding many locally powerful figures in allegiance to the empire.{{sfn|Rao|Shulman|2012|p=17}}<br />
<br />
The area of land under Kakatiya control reached its zenith around the 13th century CE during the rule of Ganapati Deva. By this time, [[South India]] and the Deccan was essentially under the aegis of four Hindu monarchies, of which the Kakatiyas were one.{{efn|Aside from the Kakatiyas, the dominant Hindu monarchies in [[South India]] and the Deccan around the 13th century CE were the [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Yadavas]], the [[Hoysala Empire|Hoysalas]] and the [[Pandya Empire|Pandyas]]. The Yadavas, Hoysalas and Kakatiyas had carved up what had been the area controlled by the [[Western Chalukya Empire]], while the Pandyas controlled lands formerly under the [[Chola Empire]].({{harvnb|Ventakaramanayya|1942|p=1}})}} The four dynasties were in a constant state of warfare with each other, with the Kakatiyas eventually exercising control from close to Anagondi in the west to [[Basavakalyan|Kalyani]] in the north-east, and down to Kanei and [[Ganjam district]] in southern [[Orissa, India|Orissa]].{{sfn|Ventakaramanayya|1942|pp=1–2}}<br />
<br />
=== Architecture ===<br />
{{main|Kakatiya architecture|Thousand Pillar Temple|Ramappa Temple|Warangal Fort|Kota Gullu}}<br />
[[File:Master piece of ramappa temple.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|13th century [[Ramappa Temple]] in [[Telangana]].]]<br />
A notable trend during the dynastic period was the construction of reservoirs for irrigation in the uplands, around 5000 of which were built by warrior families subordinate to the Kakatiyas. The dramatically altered the possibilities for development in the sparsely populated dry areas. Many of these edifices, often called "tanks", including the large examples at Pakala and Ramappa, are still used today.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=14}}<br />
<br />
Another notable architectural feature of the dynasty relates to temples. Even before the arrival of the dynasty, there were large, well-established and well-endowed Hindu places of worship in the relatively populous delta areas; however, the temples of the uplands, which were smaller and less cosmopolitan in origin and funding, did not exist until the Kakatiya period. In the lowlands, where Brahmins were numerous, the temples had long benefited from a desire to build social networks for the purposes of domestic and foreign trade, as well as for obtaining grazing rights in the face of competition; in the uplands, the endowment of the buildings was often associated with the construction and continued maintenance of reservoirs and enabled a different type of networking based on political hierarchies. The strengthening of those hierarchies, which was achieved in part by donating land for the temples and then attending worship, was necessary as the inland agrarian society grew rapidly in number and location.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=14–15}}<br />
<br />
=== Society ===<br />
There is a disparity between analysis of inscriptions, of which the work of Cynthia Talbot has been in the vanguard, and the traditional works of [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic Hinduism]] that described pre-colonial India in terms of a reverent and static society that was subject to the strictures of the [[Caste system in India|caste system]]. Colonial British administrators found much that appealed to them in the latter works but the Kakatiya inscriptions of Andhra Pradesh, which depict a far wider range of society and events, suggest that the reality was far more fluid and very different from the idealised image.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=12}}<br />
<br />
Caste itself seems to have been of low importance as a social identifier.{{sfn|Subrahmanyam|1998}} There was a lack in consistency regarding the varna rank of Kakatiyas. In most of their inscriptions, no varna affiliation was specified. In the case of a few where it was specified, they were mostly recorded to have been sudras. A handful of the inscriptions however tried to portray them as kshatriyas.{{efn|{{harvtxt|Talbot|2001|p=51}}: "An inscription reads: `The Kakatiya dynasty, praised by the entire world and belonging to the fourth ''varna'', then came into existence. In it was born the king named Prola, who was renowned for being exceedingly judicious.'... [In a handful of inscriptions], the Kakatiyas are linked with the solar dynasty of the ancient ''kshatriyas'', stemming from Ikshvaku through Dasharatha and Rama... The lack of consistency regarding the ''varna'' rank of the Kakatiya dynasty is noteworthy, as is the fact that their ''kshatriya'' claims were put forth primarily in documents associated with gifts to ''brahmans''."}} Anyone, regardless of birth, could acquire the ''[[Nayak (title)|nayaka]]'' title to denote warrior status, and this they did. There is also little evidence that Kakatiya society paid much regard to caste identities, in the sense of ''[[jāti]]''. Although occupation does appear to have been an important designator of social position, the inscriptions suggest that people were not bound to an occupation by birth.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=15–16}}{{sfn|Talbot|2001|pp=50-52}}<br />
<br />
The population became more settled in geographic terms. The growth of an agricultural peasant class subsumed many tribal people who previously had been nomadic. The nexus of politics and military was a significant feature of the era, and the Kakatiya recruitment of peasants into the military did much to create a new warrior class, to develop social mobility and to extend the influence of the dynasty into areas of its kingdom that previously would have been untouched.{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=174}} The Kakatiya kings, and in particular the last two, encouraged an egalitarian ethos. The entrenched landed nobility that had existed prior to the dynasty found its power to be on the wane; the royal gifting of lands formerly in the possession of nobles to people of lesser status did much to effect this dilution.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=16}}<br />
<br />
== Religion ==<br />
<br />
Historian P.V.P. Sastry theorises that the early Kakatiya chiefs were followers of [[Jainism]]. A story in the ''Siddhesvara-charita'' states that Madhavavarman, an ancestor of the Kakatiyas, obtained military strength by the grace of goddess [[Padmakshi Temple|Padmakshi]]. The 1123 Govindapuram Jain inscription of Polavasa, another family of feudatory chiefs, contains a similar account of how their ancestor Madhavavarman obtained military strength by the grace of the Jain goddess Yakshesvari.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=24}}<br />
<br />
According to tradition, Prola II was initiated into [[Shaivism]] by the [[Kalamukha]] preceptor Ramesvara Pandita, and established Shaivism as his family's religion. The Shaivism-affiliated personal names of the later Kakatiya kings (such as Rudra, Mahadeva, Harihara, and Ganapati) also indicate a shift towards Shaivism. This, according to Sastry, strengthens the theory that the early Kakatiya chiefs were Jains.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|p=25}}<br />
<br />
== Genealogy ==<br />
<br />
The following members of the Kakatiya family are known from epigraphic evidence. The rulers are children of their predecessors, unless otherwise specified.{{sfn|Sastry|1978|pp=30-36}}<br />
<br />
=== Feudatory chiefs ===<br />
<br />
* ''Nripa'' Venna, born in the family of Durjaya (r. c. 800-815)<br />
* Gunda I (r. c. 815-?)<br />
* Gunda II (r. c. ?-865)<br />
* [[Gunda III]] (died before 900)<br />
* ''Nripati'' [[Erra (Kakatiya dynasty)|Erra]]<br />
* Betiya<br />
* ''Nripati'' [[Gunda IV]] alias Pindi-Gunda (r. c. 955-995)<br />
* ''Nripati'' [[Beta I]] alias Garuda Beta (r. c. 996-1051)<br />
* [[Prola I]] (r. c. 1052-1076)<br />
* [[Beta II]] alias Tribhuvanamalla (r. c. 1076-1108)<br />
* [[Durgaraja]] alias Tribhuvanamalla (r. c. 1108-1116), son of Beta II<br />
* [[Prola II]] (r. c. 1116-1157), son of Beta II, married Muppama<br />
** His children included Rudra, Mahadeva, Harihara, Ganapati and Repolla Durga<br />
<br />
=== Sovereign rulers ===<br />
<br />
* [[Rudradeva|Rudra]] (r. c. 1158-1195), son of Prola II, became a sovereign 1163<br />
* [[Mahadeva (Kakatiya dynasty)|Mahadeva]] (r. c. 1196-1199), son of Prola II, married Bayyama<br />
** Had three children, including Ganapati-deva, Mailamba, and Kundamba<br />
* [[Ganapati (Kakatiya dynasty)|Ganapati-deva]] (r. c. 1199-1262), married Somala-devi<br />
** Had two children, including Ganapamba (married Kota Beta) and Rudrama-devi<br />
* [[Rudrama Devi|Rudrama-devi]] (r. c. 1262-1289), married Chalukya Virabhadra<br />
** Had three children, including Mummadamba (married Kakati Mahadeva), Rudrama (married Yadava prince Ellana-deva), and Ruyyama (married Induluri Annaya-mantri)<br />
* [[Prataparudra|Prataparudra-deva]] (r. c. 1289-1323), son of Mummadamba, tributary to the Delhi Sultanate at times<br />
<br />
== Legacy ==<br />
[[File:Kakatiya Kala Thoranam (Warangal Gate) and Ruins.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the [[Kakatiya Kala Thoranam]] (Warangal Gate).]]<br />
<br />
Tughlaq control of the area lasted only for around a decade.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=43}} The fall of the Kakatiya dynasty resulted in both political and cultural disarray because of both disparate resistance to the sultanate and dissension within it.{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=176}} The structure of the Kakatiya polity disintegrated and their lands soon fell under the control of numerous families from communities such as the [[Reddy|Reddies]] and [[Velama (caste)|Velama]]s.{{sfn|Rao|Shulman|2012|p=16}} As early as 1330,{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=177}} [[Musunuri Nayaks]] who served as army chiefs for Kakatiya kingdom united the various Telugu clans and recovered [[Warangal]] from the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and ruled for half a century.{{sfn|Talbot|2001|pp=177-182}} Surrounded by more significant states,{{sfn|Rao|Shulman|2012|p=16}} by the 15th century these new entities had ceded to the [[Bahamani Sultanate]] and the [[Sangama dynasty]], the latter of which evolved to become the [[Vijayanagara empire]].{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=22}}<br />
<br />
A brother of Prataparudra II, Annamaraja, has been associated with ruling what eventually became the [[princely state]] of [[Bastar state|Bastar]] during the [[British Raj]] period. This appears likely to be historical revisionism, dating from a genealogy published by the ruling family in 1703, because it records only eight generations spanning almost four centuries of rule. Such revisionism and tenuous claims of connection to the Kakatiyas was not uncommon because it was perceived as legitimising the right to rule and a warrior status. Talbot notes that there is a record of a brother called Annamadeva and that:<br />
{{quote|He is said to have left [Orugallu] for the northeast after anointing Prataparudra's son as king. Thus, the founder of the family fortunes in Bastar may very well have been a Telugu warrior from Telangana who was familiar with the prevalent legends about the Kakatiyas.{{sfn|Talbot|2001|pp=192–193}}}}<br />
<br />
According to Talbot and Eaton, a revisionist interpretation of Prataparudra II himself appeared much sooner, within a few years of his death, and for broadly similar reasons. A stone inscription dated 1330 mentions a Prolaya Nayaka, who was said to have restored order, as in Prataparudra days. He presented himself as a legitimate successor to Prataparudra, by portraying both of them as righteous monarchs, meanwhile reconstructing Prataparudra's life and career in a favourable way.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=26-27}}{{efn|{{harvtxt|Chattopadhyaya|1998|pp=57–58}} quotes from the Vilasa grant of Prolaya Nayaka: "[W]hen Prataparudra of the Kakati family ruled, even such celebrated rulers of the past as<br />
''Yayati'', ''Nabhaga'' and ''Bhagiratha'' were completely forgotten."... "[W]hen the Sun, ''viz''., Prataparudra set, the world was enveloped in the ''Turuska'' darkness. The evil (''adharma''), which he had up to that time kept under check, flourished under them, as the conditions were very favourable for its growth."}} By 1420, Muslim rulers had become accommodated to the Deccan society, and strong dichotomies between Hindus and Muslims were no longer useful. Muslim rulers were no longer conceived as diametrically opposed to the figure of Prataparudra, but rather as rulers of equal status.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=27-28}}<br />
<br />
This type of revisionism, which Talbot describes as "social memories" and which persist to the present day,{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=175}} reappeared in the 16th century with the ''Prataparudra Caritramu'' hagiography, which claimed him to be the founder of the ''Padmanayaka'' class of Telugu warriors and provided the elite of the Vijayanagara empire with what Talbot has described as a "charter of legitimacy". This work claimed, contrary to all reasonable evidence, that he did not die after being taken prisoner but instead met with the sultan, was recognised as being an [[avatar]] of [[Shiva]], and allowed to return to Orugallu. Once back home, the ''Prataparudra Caritamu'' says, he released the ''Padmanayakas'' from their allegiance to him and told them to become independent kings. The work also claims Vijayanagara to be an ally of Prataparudra, which is clearly anachronistic but served the purpose of elevating the role of the ''Paadmanayakas'', whom it claimed to be ultimately subordinate to Vijayanagara during his time.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=28-29}}<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
*[[Ramappa Temple]]<br />
*[[Kakatiya Kala Thoranam]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
*{{citation |editor1-last=Asher |editor1-first=Catherine B. |editor2-last=Talbot |editor2-first=Cynthia |title=India before Europe |isbn=978-0-52180-904-7 |chapter=The expansion of Turkic power, 1180–1350 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC}}<br />
*{{citation |title=Horse Trade and Piracy at Tana (Thana, Maharashtra, India): Gleanings from Marco Polo |first=Ranabir |last=Chakravarti |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=34 |issue=3 |year=1991 |pages=159–182 |jstor=3632243 |doi=10.2307/3632243}}<br />
*{{citation |last=Chattopadhyaya |first=B. D. |title=Representing the Other? Sanskrit Sources and the Muslims |location=New Delhi |publisher=Manohar |year=1998 |isbn=978-8173042522}}<br />
*{{citation |title=Savings in Ancient Hindu Polity |first=V. R. M. |last=Desai |journal=The Indian Journal of Political Science |volume=23 |issue=1/4 |year=1962 |pages=268–276 |jstor=41853935}}<br />
*{{citation |title=A Social History of the Deccan: 1300–1761 |first=Richard M. |last=Eaton |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-52125-484-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNNgdBWoYKoC}}<br />
*{{citation |title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |first=Peter |last=Jackson |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |edition=Reprinted |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-52154-329-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC}}<br />
*{{citation |first=Ravi |last=Kalia |title=Bhubaneswar: From a Temple Town to a Capital City |publisher=Southern Illinois University Press |year=1994 }}<br />
*{{citation |title=A History of India |editor1-first=Hermann |editor1-last=Kulke |editor1-link=Hermann Kulke |editor2-first=Dietmar |editor2-last=Rothermund |editor2-link=Dietmar Rothermund |year=2004 |orig-year=1986 |edition=4th |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-41532-920-0}}<br />
*{{citation |first=G. Durga |last=Prasad |title=History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D. |publisher=P. G. Publishers |location=Guntur |year=1988 |url=http://www.katragadda.com/articles/HistoryOfTheAndhras.pdf}}<br />
*{{cite book |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=S. Nagabhushan |title=Cultural Heritage of the Kakatiyas: A Medieval Kingdom of South India |year=1993 |publisher=District Council for Cultural Affairs |location=Warangal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KG8wAQAAIAAJ }}<br />
*{{citation |last=Rao|first=P. |title=History and Culture of Andhra Pradesh |year=1994 |publisher=Sterling}}<br />
*{{citation |first=Velcheru Narayana |last=Rao |chapter=Court, Temple, and Public |title=Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia |editor-first=Sheldon |editor-last=Pollock |publisher=University of California Press |year=2003}}<br />
*{{citation |editor1-first=Velcheru Narayana |editor1-last=Rao |editor2-first=David |editor2-last=Shulman |title=Classical Telugu Poetry: An Anthology |publisher=University of California Press |year=2002}}<br />
*{{citation |first1=Velcheru Narayana |last1=Rao |first2=David |last2=Shulman |title=Srinatha: The Poet Who Made Gods and Kings |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012}}<br />
*{{citation |first=Joan-Pau |last=Rubiés |title=Travel and Ethnology in the Renaissance: South India through European Eyes, 1250–1625 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000}}<br />
* {{cite book |last=Sastry |first=P. V. Parabhrama|author-link=P. V. Parabrahma Sastry |editor=N. Ramesan |title=The Kākatiyas of Warangal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FiRuAAAAMAAJ |year=1978 |publisher=Government of Andhra Pradesh |location=Hyderabad |oclc=252341228 }}<br />
* {{cite book |editor-last=Sharma |editor-first=R.S. |author1=N. Venkataramanayya |author2=P. V. P. Sastry |chapter=The Kākatīyas |title=A Comprehensive history of India: A.D. 985-1206 |volume=4 (Part 1) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ahFuAAAAMAAJ |year=1957 |edition=1987 reprint |publisher=Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House | isbn=978-81-7007-121-1 |ref={{harvid|Sharma|1957}} }}<br />
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*{{citation |title=Hearing Voices: Vignettes of Early Modernity in South Asia, 1400–1750 |first=Sanjay |last=Subrahmanyam |journal=Daedalus |volume=127 |issue=3 |pages=75–104 |jstor=20027508}}<br />
*{{citation |first=Kolluru |last=Suryanarayana |title=History of the Minor Chaḷukya Families in Medieval Andhradesa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f6seAAAAMAAJ |year=1986 |publisher=B. R. Publishing |isbn=978-8-17018-330-3}}<br />
*{{citation |title=Pre-colonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra |first=Austin Cynthia |last=Talbot |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19803-123-9 |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pfAKljlCJq0C}}<br />
*{{citation |last=Ventakaramanayya |first=N. |title=The Early Muslim Expansion in South India |year=1942 |publisher=University of Madras}}<br />
*{{cite book |editor-last=Yazdani |editor-first=Ghulam |last1=Venkataramanayya |first1=N. |last2=Sarma |first2=M. Somasekhara |chapter=The Kakatiyas of Warangal |title=The Early History of the Deccan Parts VII - XI |volume=VIII: Yādavas of Seuṇadeśa |year=1960 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0D5RAAACAAJ |oclc=59001459 |isbn=9788170691259 |ref={{harvid|Yazdani|1960}}}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
*{{cite journal |title=Temples, Donors, and Gifts: Patterns of Patronage in Thirteenth-Century South India |first=Cynthia |last=Talbot |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=308–340 |jstor=2057210 |doi=10.2307/2057210|s2cid=161557646 }}<br />
*{{EI3|last=Talbot|first=Cynthia|title=Kākatīya dynasty|year=2018|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_32934}}<br />
<br />
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}<br />
<br />
{{Telangana}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kakatiya Dynasty}}<br />
[[Category:States and territories established in 1163]]<br />
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1323]]<br />
[[Category:Kakatiya dynasty| ]]<br />
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]<br />
[[Category:Telugu people]]<br />
[[Category:History of Telangana]]<br />
[[Category:Empires and kingdoms of India]]</div>Rajbhai7https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariyan_Mehedi&diff=82831Ariyan Mehedi2021-05-25T08:19:46Z<p>Rajbhai7: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{AfC submission|||ts=20210525134810|u=Rajbhai7|ns=118}}<br />
{{Infobox musical artist<br />
|name = Ariyan Mehedi<br />
|background = solo_singer<br />
| nationality = Bangladeshi<br />
| image =Ariyan Mehedi Dure Keno Chole Jas Album Pic.jpg <br />
| image_size =220px <br />
| landscape = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| occupation = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[Singer]]<br />
* [[Composer]]<br />
}}<br />
| genre = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[Pop music|Pop]]<br />
* [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]]<br />
* [[Soul music|Soul]]<br />
}}<br />
| years_active = 2017–present<br />
|associated_acts = Dristy Anam, Alvee, Sheikh Sadi, Muhin, Imran Mahmudul, Kazi Shuvo, DJ Rahat, Samz Vai, Gogon Sakib<br />
|Birth_name=Md. Mahady Hasan Jewell|Label=DSR Music|birth_date=27 July 2001}}<br />
'''Md. Mahady Hasan Jewell''' better known as '''Ariyan Mehedi''' is a [[Bangladesh]]i singer, Musician and Actor <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.openpr.com/news/2264646/success-and-dream-of-young-singer-ariyan-mehedi|title=Success and dream of young singer Ariyan Mehedi|work=openPR}}</ref>Who has already verified as (Ariyan Mehedi) YouTube official artist channel & largest music platform on Spotify as official artist and many others. He received the official artist channel on YouTube in 27 Decembar, 2020 and also. He started his music career in 2017 with his own small studio. He has makes many tracks and cover songs.<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
He started his musical Journey<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.issuewire.com/ariyan-mehedis-successful-3-years-in-music-1695716705469313|title=Ariyan Mehedi's successful 3 years in music|work=The Daily Issue Wire}}</ref> since 2017 as [[Disc jockey]] started remixing official tracks and he released his many songs worldwide<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.yolodaily.com/ariyan-mehedi-interview/|title=Ariyan Mehedi interview|work=Yolo Daily}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Early Life==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi was born and raised in Lalmonirhat, where he learned music, studying the harmonium<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://doinikastha.com/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B2/|title=আরিয়ান মেহেদী’র সপ্ন ও সফলতা|work=Doinik Astha}}</ref>. None of his family members liked music, so he had to practiced his singing secretly.<br />
<br />
==Discography==<br />
<br />
*''Broken Heart Vibes'' -2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/broken-heart-vibes-instrumental-single/1548086652|title=Broken Heart Vibes - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Apple Music|website=iTunes|access-date=2021-01-04}}</ref><br />
*"Dure Keno Chole Jas" -2019<br />
*''Boomerang Vibes - Ariyan Mehedi feat Mahesh Chalaune'' -2021<br />
<br />
===Album Mix & Mastered===<br />
<br />
*Dure Keno Chole Jas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iheart.com/artist/id-35565599/albums/id-123501457|title=Dure Keno Chole Jas - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on iHeartRadio|website=iheart|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><br />
*Abeg<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/4TcLB9K6fyOAyBohTqhkuN?nd=1|title=Abeg - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Spotify|website=spotify|access-date=2021-01-06}}</ref><br />
*Mix Albums : Boomerang Vibes - Mahesh Chalaune<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ariyan, Mehedi}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Bangladeshi male musicians]]<br />
[[Category:composers]]<br />
[[Category:singers]]<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi started his musical Journey<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.issuewire.com/ariyan-mehedis-successful-3-years-in-music-1695716705469313|title=Ariyan Mehedi's successful 3 years in music|work=The Daily Issue Wire}}</ref> since 2017 as Disc jockey & Record Producer. Mehedi began his career at the early age, by Producing Tracks and performing in clubs, and later he started remixing official tracks and he released his many songs worldwide<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.yolodaily.com/ariyan-mehedi-interview/|title=Ariyan Mehedi interview|work=Yolo Daily}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi was born and raised in Lalmonirhat, where he learned music, studying the harmonium<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://doinikastha.com/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B2/|title=আরিয়ান মেহেদী’র সপ্ন ও সফলতা|work=Doinik Astha}}</ref>. None of his family members liked music, so he had to practiced his singing secretly.<br />
<br />
==Discography==<br />
*''Broken Heart Vibes'' -2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/broken-heart-vibes-instrumental-single/1548086652|title=Broken Heart Vibes - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Apple Music|website=iTunes|access-date=2021-01-04}}</ref><br />
*"Dure Keno Chole Jas" -2019<br />
*''Boomerang Vibes - Ariyan Mehedi feat Mahesh Chalaune'' -2021<br />
<br />
===Album Mix & Mastered===<br />
* Dure Keno Chole Jas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iheart.com/artist/id-35565599/albums/id-123501457|title=Dure Keno Chole Jas - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on iHeartRadio|website=iheart|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><br />
* Abeg<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/4TcLB9K6fyOAyBohTqhkuN?nd=1|title=Abeg - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Spotify|website=spotify|access-date=2021-01-06}}</ref><br />
* Mix Albums : Boomerang Vibes - Mahesh Chalaune<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ariyan, Mehedi}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Male musicians]]<br />
[[Category:composers]]<br />
[[Category:singers]]</div>Rajbhai7https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariyan_Mehedi&diff=82830Ariyan Mehedi2021-05-25T08:18:28Z<p>Rajbhai7: {{subst:submit}}</p>
<hr />
<div>{{AfC submission|||ts=20210525134810|u=Rajbhai7|ns=118}}<br />
{{Infobox musical artist<br />
|name = Ariyan Mehedi<br />
|background = solo_singer<br />
| nationality = Bangladeshi<br />
| image =Ariyan Mehedi Dure Keno Chole Jas Album Pic.jpg <br />
| image_size =220px <br />
| landscape = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| occupation = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[Singer]]<br />
* [[Composer]]<br />
}}<br />
| genre = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[Pop music|Pop]]<br />
* [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]]<br />
* [[Soul music|Soul]]<br />
}}<br />
| years_active = 2017–present<br />
|associated_acts = Dristy Anam, Alvee, Sheikh Sadi, Muhin, Imran Mahmudul, Kazi Shuvo, DJ Rahat, Samz Vai, Gogon Sakib<br />
|Birth_name=Md. Mahady Hasan Jewell|Label=DSR Music|birth_date=27 July 2001}}<br />
'''Md. Mahady Hasan Jewell''' better known as '''Ariyan Mehedi''' is a [[Bangladesh]]i singer, Musician and Actor <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.openpr.com/news/2264646/success-and-dream-of-young-singer-ariyan-mehedi|title=Success and dream of young singer Ariyan Mehedi|work=openPR}}</ref>Who has already verified as (Ariyan Mehedi) YouTube official artist channel & largest music platform on Spotify as official artist and many others. He received the official artist channel on YouTube in 27 Decembar, 2020 and also. He started his music career in 2017 with his own small studio. He has makes many tracks and cover songs.<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
He started his musical Journey<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.issuewire.com/ariyan-mehedis-successful-3-years-in-music-1695716705469313|title=Ariyan Mehedi's successful 3 years in music|work=The Daily Issue Wire}}</ref> since 2017 as [[Disc jockey]] started remixing official tracks and he released his many songs worldwide<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.yolodaily.com/ariyan-mehedi-interview/|title=Ariyan Mehedi interview|work=Yolo Daily}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Early Life==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi was born and raised in Lalmonirhat, where he learned music, studying the harmonium<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://doinikastha.com/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B2/|title=আরিয়ান মেহেদী’র সপ্ন ও সফলতা|work=Doinik Astha}}</ref>. None of his family members liked music, so he had to practiced his singing secretly.<br />
<br />
==Discography==<br />
<br />
*''Broken Heart Vibes'' -2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/broken-heart-vibes-instrumental-single/1548086652|title=Broken Heart Vibes - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Apple Music|website=iTunes|access-date=2021-01-04}}</ref><br />
*"Dure Keno Chole Jas" -2019<br />
*''Boomerang Vibes - Ariyan Mehedi feat Mahesh Chalaune'' -2021<br />
<br />
===Album Mix & Mastered===<br />
<br />
*Dure Keno Chole Jas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iheart.com/artist/id-35565599/albums/id-123501457|title=Dure Keno Chole Jas - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on iHeartRadio|website=iheart|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><br />
*Abeg<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/4TcLB9K6fyOAyBohTqhkuN?nd=1|title=Abeg - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Spotify|website=spotify|access-date=2021-01-06}}</ref><br />
*Mix Albums : Boomerang Vibes - Mahesh Chalaune<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ariyan, Mehedi}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Bangladeshi male musicians]]<br />
[[Category:composers]]<br />
[[Category:singers]]<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi started his musical Journey<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.issuewire.com/ariyan-mehedis-successful-3-years-in-music-1695716705469313|title=Ariyan Mehedi's successful 3 years in music|work=The Daily Issue Wire}}</ref> since 2017 as Disc jockey & Record Producer. Mehedi began his career at the early age, by Producing Tracks and performing in clubs, and later he started remixing official tracks and he released his many songs worldwide<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.yolodaily.com/ariyan-mehedi-interview/|title=Ariyan Mehedi interview|work=Yolo Daily}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi was born and raised in Lalmonirhat, where he learned music, studying the harmonium<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://doinikastha.com/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B2/|title=আরিয়ান মেহেদী’র সপ্ন ও সফলতা|work=Doinik Astha}}</ref>. None of his family members liked music, so he had to practiced his singing secretly.<br />
<br />
==Discography==<br />
*''Broken Heart Vibes'' -2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/broken-heart-vibes-instrumental-single/1548086652|title=Broken Heart Vibes - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Apple Music|website=iTunes|access-date=2021-01-04}}</ref><br />
*"Dure Keno Chole Jas" -2019<br />
*''Boomerang Vibes - Ariyan Mehedi feat Mahesh Chalaune'' -2021<br />
<br />
===Album Mix & Mastered===<br />
* Dure Keno Chole Jas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iheart.com/artist/id-35565599/albums/id-123501457|title=Dure Keno Chole Jas - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on iHeartRadio|website=iheart|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><br />
* Abeg<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/4TcLB9K6fyOAyBohTqhkuN?nd=1|title=Abeg - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Spotify|website=spotify|access-date=2021-01-06}}</ref><br />
* Mix Albums : Boomerang Vibes - Mahesh Chalaune<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mehedi, Ariyan}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Male musicians]]<br />
[[Category:composers]]<br />
[[Category:singers]]</div>Rajbhai7https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariyan_Mehedi&diff=82829Ariyan Mehedi2021-05-25T08:10:02Z<p>Rajbhai7: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox musical artist<br />
|name = Ariyan Mehedi<br />
|background = solo_singer<br />
| nationality = Bangladeshi<br />
| image =Ariyan Mehedi Dure Keno Chole Jas Album Pic.jpg <br />
| image_size =220px <br />
| landscape = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| occupation = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[Singer]]<br />
* [[Composer]]<br />
}}<br />
| genre = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[Pop music|Pop]]<br />
* [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]]<br />
* [[Soul music|Soul]]<br />
}}<br />
| years_active = 2017–present<br />
|associated_acts = Dristy Anam, Alvee, Sheikh Sadi, Muhin, Imran Mahmudul, Kazi Shuvo, DJ Rahat, Samz Vai, Gogon Sakib<br />
|Birth_name=Md. Mahady Hasan Jewell|Label=DSR Music|birth_date=27 July 2001}}<br />
'''Md. Mahady Hasan Jewell''' better known as '''Ariyan Mehedi''' is a [[Bangladesh]]i singer, Musician and Actor <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.openpr.com/news/2264646/success-and-dream-of-young-singer-ariyan-mehedi|title=Success and dream of young singer Ariyan Mehedi|work=openPR}}</ref>Who has already verified as (Ariyan Mehedi) YouTube official artist channel & largest music platform on Spotify as official artist and many others. He received the official artist channel on YouTube in 27 Decembar, 2020 and also. He started his music career in 2017 with his own small studio. He has makes many tracks and cover songs.<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
He started his musical Journey<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.issuewire.com/ariyan-mehedis-successful-3-years-in-music-1695716705469313|title=Ariyan Mehedi's successful 3 years in music|work=The Daily Issue Wire}}</ref> since 2017 as [[Disc jockey]] started remixing official tracks and he released his many songs worldwide<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.yolodaily.com/ariyan-mehedi-interview/|title=Ariyan Mehedi interview|work=Yolo Daily}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Early Life==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi was born and raised in Lalmonirhat, where he learned music, studying the harmonium<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://doinikastha.com/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B2/|title=আরিয়ান মেহেদী’র সপ্ন ও সফলতা|work=Doinik Astha}}</ref>. None of his family members liked music, so he had to practiced his singing secretly.<br />
<br />
==Discography==<br />
<br />
*''Broken Heart Vibes'' -2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/broken-heart-vibes-instrumental-single/1548086652|title=Broken Heart Vibes - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Apple Music|website=iTunes|access-date=2021-01-04}}</ref><br />
*"Dure Keno Chole Jas" -2019<br />
*''Boomerang Vibes - Ariyan Mehedi feat Mahesh Chalaune'' -2021<br />
<br />
===Album Mix & Mastered===<br />
<br />
*Dure Keno Chole Jas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iheart.com/artist/id-35565599/albums/id-123501457|title=Dure Keno Chole Jas - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on iHeartRadio|website=iheart|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><br />
*Abeg<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/4TcLB9K6fyOAyBohTqhkuN?nd=1|title=Abeg - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Spotify|website=spotify|access-date=2021-01-06}}</ref><br />
*Mix Albums : Boomerang Vibes - Mahesh Chalaune<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ariyan, Mehedi}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Bangladeshi male musicians]]<br />
[[Category:composers]]<br />
[[Category:singers]]<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi started his musical Journey<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.issuewire.com/ariyan-mehedis-successful-3-years-in-music-1695716705469313|title=Ariyan Mehedi's successful 3 years in music|work=The Daily Issue Wire}}</ref> since 2017 as Disc jockey & Record Producer. Mehedi began his career at the early age, by Producing Tracks and performing in clubs, and later he started remixing official tracks and he released his many songs worldwide<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.yolodaily.com/ariyan-mehedi-interview/|title=Ariyan Mehedi interview|work=Yolo Daily}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi was born and raised in Lalmonirhat, where he learned music, studying the harmonium<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://doinikastha.com/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B2/|title=আরিয়ান মেহেদী’র সপ্ন ও সফলতা|work=Doinik Astha}}</ref>. None of his family members liked music, so he had to practiced his singing secretly.<br />
<br />
==Discography==<br />
*''Broken Heart Vibes'' -2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/broken-heart-vibes-instrumental-single/1548086652|title=Broken Heart Vibes - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Apple Music|website=iTunes|access-date=2021-01-04}}</ref><br />
*"Dure Keno Chole Jas" -2019<br />
*''Boomerang Vibes - Ariyan Mehedi feat Mahesh Chalaune'' -2021<br />
<br />
===Album Mix & Mastered===<br />
* Dure Keno Chole Jas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iheart.com/artist/id-35565599/albums/id-123501457|title=Dure Keno Chole Jas - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on iHeartRadio|website=iheart|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><br />
* Abeg<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/4TcLB9K6fyOAyBohTqhkuN?nd=1|title=Abeg - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Spotify|website=spotify|access-date=2021-01-06}}</ref><br />
* Mix Albums : Boomerang Vibes - Mahesh Chalaune<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mehedi, Ariyan}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Male musicians]]<br />
[[Category:composers]]<br />
[[Category:singers]]</div>Rajbhai7https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariyan_Mehedi&diff=82701Ariyan Mehedi2021-05-23T02:41:04Z<p>Rajbhai7: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{AfC submission|||ts=20210523081054|u=Rajbhai7|ns=118}}<br />
{{Infobox musical artist<br />
|name = Ariyan Mehedi<br />
|birth name = Md. Mahady Hasan Jewell<br />
|background = solo_singer<br />
| image = <br />
| image_size = <br />
| landscape = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| occupation = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[Singer]]<br />
* Composer<br />
}}<br />
| genre = {{flatlist|<br />
* Pop<br />
* R&B<br />
* Soul<br />
}}<br />
| years_active = 2017–present<br />
|associated_acts = Sabrina Porshi, Muhin, Imran Mahmudul, Kazi Shuvo, DJ Rahat<br />
}}<br />
Md. Mahady Hasan Jewell, best known by his stage name '''Ariyan Mehedi''' is a [[Bangladesh|Bangaldeshi]] singer and [[lyricist|Lyricist]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.openpr.com/news/2264646/success-and-dream-of-young-singer-ariyan-mehedi|title=Success and dream of young singer Ariyan Mehedi|work=openPR}}</ref>. He also known as '''Ariyan Mehedi''' and Composed Amay Bujhli Na and released many songs and He already been verified as the official artist from the international music platforms YouTube and Spotify.<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi started his musical Journey<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.issuewire.com/ariyan-mehedis-successful-3-years-in-music-1695716705469313|title=Ariyan Mehedi's successful 3 years in music|work=The Daily Issue Wire}}</ref> since 2017 as Disc jockey & Record Producer. Mehedi began his career at the early age, by Producing Tracks and performing in clubs, and later he started remixing official tracks and he released his many songs worldwide<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.yolodaily.com/ariyan-mehedi-interview/|title=Ariyan Mehedi interview|work=Yolo Daily}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi was born and raised in Lalmonirhat, where he learned music, studying the harmonium<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://doinikastha.com/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B2/|title=আরিয়ান মেহেদী’র সপ্ন ও সফলতা|work=Doinik Astha}}</ref>. None of his family members liked music, so he had to practiced his singing secretly.<br />
<br />
==Discography==<br />
*''Broken Heart Vibes'' -2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/broken-heart-vibes-instrumental-single/1548086652|title=Broken Heart Vibes - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Apple Music|website=iTunes|access-date=2021-01-04}}</ref><br />
*"Dure Keno Chole Jas" -2019<br />
*''Boomerang Vibes - Ariyan Mehedi feat Mahesh Chalaune'' -2021<br />
<br />
===Album Mix & Mastered===<br />
* Dure Keno Chole Jas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iheart.com/artist/id-35565599/albums/id-123501457|title=Dure Keno Chole Jas - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on iHeartRadio|website=iheart|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><br />
* Abeg<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/4TcLB9K6fyOAyBohTqhkuN?nd=1|title=Abeg - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Spotify|website=spotify|access-date=2021-01-06}}</ref><br />
* Mix Albums : Boomerang Vibes - Mahesh Chalaune<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mehedi, Ariyan}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Male musicians]]<br />
[[Category:composers]]<br />
[[Category:singers]]</div>Rajbhai7https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariyan_Mehedi&diff=82700Ariyan Mehedi2021-05-23T02:38:56Z<p>Rajbhai7: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{Infobox musical artist<br />
|name = Ariyan Mehedi<br />
|birth name = Md. Mahady Hasan Jewell<br />
|background = solo_singer<br />
| image = <br />
| image_size = <br />
| landscape = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| occupation = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[Singer]]<br />
* Composer<br />
}}<br />
| genre = {{flatlist|<br />
* Pop<br />
* R&B<br />
* Soul<br />
}}<br />
| years_active = 2017–present<br />
|associated_acts = Sabrina Porshi, Muhin, Imran Mahmudul, Kazi Shuvo, DJ Rahat<br />
}}<br />
Md. Mahady Hasan Jewell, best known by his stage name '''Ariyan Mehedi''' is a [[Bangladesh|Bangaldeshi]] singer and [[lyricist|Lyricist]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.openpr.com/news/2264646/success-and-dream-of-young-singer-ariyan-mehedi|title=Success and dream of young singer Ariyan Mehedi|work=openPR}}</ref>. He also known as '''Ariyan Mehedi''' and Composed Amay Bujhli Na and released many songs and He already been verified as the official artist from the international music platforms YouTube and Spotify.<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi started his musical Journey<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.issuewire.com/ariyan-mehedis-successful-3-years-in-music-1695716705469313|title=Ariyan Mehedi's successful 3 years in music|work=The Daily Issue Wire}}</ref> since 2017 as Disc jockey & Record Producer. Mehedi began his career at the early age, by Producing Tracks and performing in clubs, and later he started remixing official tracks and he released his many songs worldwide<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.yolodaily.com/ariyan-mehedi-interview/|title=Ariyan Mehedi interview|work=Yolo Daily}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi was born and raised in Lalmonirhat, where he learned music, studying the harmonium<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://doinikastha.com/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B2/|title=আরিয়ান মেহেদী’র সপ্ন ও সফলতা|work=Doinik Astha}}</ref>. None of his family members liked music, so he had to practiced his singing secretly.<br />
<br />
==Discography==<br />
*''Broken Heart Vibes'' -2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/broken-heart-vibes-instrumental-single/1548086652|title=Broken Heart Vibes - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Apple Music|website=iTunes|access-date=2021-01-04}}</ref><br />
*"Dure Keno Chole Jas" -2019<br />
*''Boomerang Vibes - Ariyan Mehedi feat Mahesh Chalaune'' -2021<br />
<br />
===Album Mix & Mastered===<br />
* Dure Keno Chole Jas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iheart.com/artist/id-35565599/albums/id-123501457|title=Dure Keno Chole Jas - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on iHeartRadio|website=iheart|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><br />
* Abeg<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/4TcLB9K6fyOAyBohTqhkuN?nd=1|title=Abeg - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Spotify|website=spotify|access-date=2021-01-06}}</ref><br />
* Mix Albums : Boomerang Vibes - Mahesh Chalaune<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mehedi, Ariyan}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Male musicians]]<br />
[[Category:composers]]<br />
[[Category:singers]]</div>Rajbhai7https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariyan_Mehedi&diff=82699Ariyan Mehedi2021-05-23T02:38:22Z<p>Rajbhai7: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{Infobox musical artist<br />
|name = Ariyan Mehedi<br />
|full name = Md. Mahady Hasan Jewell<br />
|background = solo_singer<br />
| image = <br />
| image_size = <br />
| landscape = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| occupation = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[Singer]]<br />
* Composer<br />
}}<br />
| genre = {{flatlist|<br />
* Pop<br />
* R&B<br />
* Soul<br />
}}<br />
| years_active = 2017–present<br />
|associated_acts = Sabrina Porshi, Muhin, Imran Mahmudul, Kazi Shuvo, DJ Rahat<br />
}}<br />
Md. Mahady Hasan Jewell, best known by his stage name '''Ariyan Mehedi''' is a [[Bangladesh|Bangaldeshi]] singer and [[lyricist|Lyricist]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.openpr.com/news/2264646/success-and-dream-of-young-singer-ariyan-mehedi|title=Success and dream of young singer Ariyan Mehedi|work=openPR}}</ref>. He also known as '''Ariyan Mehedi''' and Composed Amay Bujhli Na and released many songs and He already been verified as the official artist from the international music platforms YouTube and Spotify.<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi started his musical Journey<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.issuewire.com/ariyan-mehedis-successful-3-years-in-music-1695716705469313|title=Ariyan Mehedi's successful 3 years in music|work=The Daily Issue Wire}}</ref> since 2017 as Disc jockey & Record Producer. Mehedi began his career at the early age, by Producing Tracks and performing in clubs, and later he started remixing official tracks and he released his many songs worldwide<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.yolodaily.com/ariyan-mehedi-interview/|title=Ariyan Mehedi interview|work=Yolo Daily}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi was born and raised in Lalmonirhat, where he learned music, studying the harmonium<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://doinikastha.com/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B2/|title=আরিয়ান মেহেদী’র সপ্ন ও সফলতা|work=Doinik Astha}}</ref>. None of his family members liked music, so he had to practiced his singing secretly.<br />
<br />
==Discography==<br />
*''Broken Heart Vibes'' -2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/broken-heart-vibes-instrumental-single/1548086652|title=Broken Heart Vibes - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Apple Music|website=iTunes|access-date=2021-01-04}}</ref><br />
*"Dure Keno Chole Jas" -2019<br />
*''Boomerang Vibes - Ariyan Mehedi feat Mahesh Chalaune'' -2021<br />
<br />
===Album Mix & Mastered===<br />
* Dure Keno Chole Jas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iheart.com/artist/id-35565599/albums/id-123501457|title=Dure Keno Chole Jas - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on iHeartRadio|website=iheart|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><br />
* Abeg<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/4TcLB9K6fyOAyBohTqhkuN?nd=1|title=Abeg - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Spotify|website=spotify|access-date=2021-01-06}}</ref><br />
* Mix Albums : Boomerang Vibes - Mahesh Chalaune<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mehedi, Ariyan}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Male musicians]]<br />
[[Category:composers]]<br />
[[Category:singers]]</div>Rajbhai7https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ariyan_Mehedi&diff=82698Ariyan Mehedi2021-05-23T02:36:59Z<p>Rajbhai7: Created page with " {{Infobox musical artist |name = Ariyan Mehedi |background = solo_singer | image = Ariyan_Mehedi.jpeg | image_size = 220px | landscape = | alt..."</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{Infobox musical artist<br />
|name = Ariyan Mehedi<br />
|background = solo_singer<br />
| image = Ariyan_Mehedi.jpeg<br />
| image_size = 220px<br />
| landscape = <br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = Ariyan Mehedi at Lalmonirhat 2020<br />
| occupation = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[Singer]]<br />
* Composer<br />
}}<br />
| genre = {{flatlist|<br />
* Pop<br />
* R&B<br />
* Soul<br />
}}<br />
| years_active = 2017–present<br />
|associated_acts = Sabrina Porshi, Muhin, Imran Mahmudul, Kazi Shuvo, DJ Rahat<br />
}}<br />
Md. Mahady Hasan Jewell, best known by his stage name '''Ariyan Mehedi''' is a [[Bangladesh|Bangaldeshi]] singer and [[lyricist|Lyricist]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.openpr.com/news/2264646/success-and-dream-of-young-singer-ariyan-mehedi|title=Success and dream of young singer Ariyan Mehedi|work=openPR}}</ref>. He also known as '''Ariyan Mehedi''' and Composed Amay Bujhli Na and released many songs and He already been verified as the official artist from the international music platforms YouTube and Spotify.<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi started his musical Journey<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.issuewire.com/ariyan-mehedis-successful-3-years-in-music-1695716705469313|title=Ariyan Mehedi's successful 3 years in music|work=The Daily Issue Wire}}</ref> since 2017 as Disc jockey & Record Producer. Mehedi began his career at the early age, by Producing Tracks and performing in clubs, and later he started remixing official tracks and he released his many songs worldwide<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.yolodaily.com/ariyan-mehedi-interview/|title=Ariyan Mehedi interview|work=Yolo Daily}}</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
Ariyan Mehedi was born and raised in Lalmonirhat, where he learned music, studying the harmonium<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://doinikastha.com/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B2/|title=আরিয়ান মেহেদী’র সপ্ন ও সফলতা|work=Doinik Astha}}</ref>. None of his family members liked music, so he had to practiced his singing secretly.<br />
<br />
==Discography==<br />
*''Broken Heart Vibes'' -2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/broken-heart-vibes-instrumental-single/1548086652|title=Broken Heart Vibes - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Apple Music|website=iTunes|access-date=2021-01-04}}</ref><br />
*"Dure Keno Chole Jas" -2019<br />
*''Boomerang Vibes - Ariyan Mehedi feat Mahesh Chalaune'' -2021<br />
<br />
===Album Mix & Mastered===<br />
* Dure Keno Chole Jas<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iheart.com/artist/id-35565599/albums/id-123501457|title=Dure Keno Chole Jas - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on iHeartRadio|website=iheart|access-date=2021-01-17}}</ref><br />
* Abeg<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/album/4TcLB9K6fyOAyBohTqhkuN?nd=1|title=Abeg - Single by Ariyan Mehedi on Spotify|website=spotify|access-date=2021-01-06}}</ref><br />
* Mix Albums : Boomerang Vibes - Mahesh Chalaune<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mehedi, Ariyan}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Male musicians]]<br />
[[Category:composers]]<br />
[[Category:singers]]</div>Rajbhai7https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bharatpedia:Requested_articles/requests&diff=82697Bharatpedia:Requested articles/requests2021-05-23T02:34:48Z<p>Rajbhai7: </p>
<hr />
<div><!-- Please add your request below this line --><br />
==Import==<br />
Please import the following articles from simple English wikipedia:<br />
*[[Zeus]]<br />
*[[Ariyan Mehedi]]<br />
*[[Aditya Belnekar]]<br />
*[[Hercules]]<br />
*[[Meitei philosophy]]<br />
*[[Apokpa Marup]]<br />
*[[Classes of deities in Meitei religion]]<br />
*[[Hera]]<br />
*[[Umang Lai]]<br />
*[[Apokpa]]<br />
*[[Imung Lai]]<br />
*[[Incarnations of Nongthang Leima]]<br />
*[[List of rulers of Moirang kingdom]]<br />
*[[Siren]]<br />
*[[Nymph]]<br />
*[[Shija Laioibi]]<br />
*[[Cheitharol Kumbaba]]<br />
*[[Rulers of Ancient Manipur before Nongta Lailen Pakhangpa]]<br />
*[[Potloi (costume)]]<br />
*[[Potloi]]<br />
*[[Meitei wedding]]<br />
*[[Manipuri Vaishnavism]]<br />
*[[Dionysus]]<br />
*[[Hephaestus]]<br />
*[[Dances of Manipur]]<br />
*[[Imphal 1944]]<br />
*[[Japan Landa Imphal]]<br />
*[[Classical Meitei]]<br />
*[[Manipuri dance]]<br />
*[[Names of the Sun God in Meitei religion]]<br />
*[[Names of the Supreme God in Meitei religion]]<br />
*[[Thangjing Hill]]<br />
*[[Nongmaiching Hill]]<br />
*[[Khamnung]]<br />
*[[Lai Lamlen]]<br />
*[[Mount Koubru]]<br />
*[[Pakhangpa Laihui]]<br />
*[[Achilles]]<br />
*[[Meitei scriptures]]<br />
*[[Nongshapa Laihui]]<br />
*[[Sanamahi Laihui]]<br />
*[[Eyek Leima]]<br />
*[[Marjing]]<br />
*[[Panthoibi]]<br />
*[[Mangang Luwang Khuman]]<br />
*[[Khuman Khamba]]<br />
*[[Moirang Thoibi]]<br />
*[[Khamba Thoibi]]<br />
*[[Nongthang Leima]]<br />
*[[Kuranganayani]]<br />
*[[Vishnu]]<br />
*[[Durga]]<br />
* [[Athena]]<br />
* [[Heracles]]<br />
* [[Ngaleima]]<br />
* [[Thumleima]]<br />
* [[Phouoibi]]<br />
* [[Akongjamba]]<br />
* [[Khamnu]]<br />
* [[Nongban]]<br />
* [[Kadeng Thangjahanba]]<br />
* [[Tonu Laijinglembi]]<br />
* [[Khuyol Haoba]]<br />
* [[Moirang Shayon]]<br />
* [[Henjunaha]]<br />
* [[Moirang Kangleirol]]<br />
* [[Panthoibi Khongul]]<br />
* [[Khongjomnubi Nongarol]]<br />
* [[Konthoujam Nongarol]]<br />
* [[Poireiton Khunthok]]<br />
* [[Poireiton]]<br />
* [[Prometheus]]<br />
* [[Leithak Leikharol]]<br />
* [[Korouhanba]]<br />
* [[Kronus]]<br />
* [[Taoroinai]]<br />
* [[Hydra]]<br />
* [[Yumjao Leima]]<br />
* [[Laikhurembi]]<br />
* [[Lainaotabi]]<br />
* [[Nongban Pombi Luwaoba]]<br />
* [[Tharon]]<br />
* [[Ancient Moirang]]<br />
* [[Ancient Greece]]<br />
* [[Khwairakpa Erel]]<br />
* [[Puya Mei Thaba]]<br />
* [[Khamba Thoibi Jagoi]]<br />
* [[Samadon Ayangba]]<br />
* [[Leima Jagoi]]<br />
* [[Maibi Jagoi]]<br />
* [[Panthoibi Jagoi]]<br />
* [[Thougal Jagoi]]<br />
* [[Laiching Jagoi]]<br />
* [[Leisem Jagoi]]<br />
* [[Laihou Jagoi]]<br />
* [[Chukpharon Jagoi]]<br />
* [[Haoreima]]<br />
* [[Harmonia]]<br />
* [[Hiyang Tannaba]]<br />
* [[Hiyang Hiren]]<br />
* [[Oinam family]]<br />
* [[Meitei people]]<br />
* [[Khamlangba]]<br />
* [[Loyalakpa]]<br />
* [[Khuman Kangleirol]]<br />
* [[Khumanlol]]<br />
* [[Ningthourol Lambuba]]<br />
* [[Helloi]]<br />
* [[Helios]]<br />
* [[Khuman Leipaak]]<br />
* [[Khuman Pokpa]]<br />
* [[Moirang Ningthourol Lambuba]]<br />
* [[Khoriphaba]]<br />
* [[Nongda Lairen Pakhangba]]<br />
* [[Phouoibi Waron]]<br />
* [[Chada Laihui]]<br />
* [[Toreirol Lambuba]]<br />
* [[Tutenglon]]<br />
* [[Tutankhamen]]<br />
* [[Hijan Hirao]]<br />
* [[Konthoujam Tampha Lairembi]]<br />
* [[Pureiromba]]<br />
* [[Panam Ningthou]]<br />
* [[Leishemlon]]<br />
* [[Sanamahi Kachin]]<br />
* [[Imoinu]]<br />
* [[Incarnations of Leimarel Sidabi]]<br />
* [[Mongba Hanba]]<br />
* [[Lamabam Kamal]]<br />
* [[Sandrembi Chaisra]]<br />
* [[Uchek Langmeidong]]<br />
* [[Thongalel]]<br />
* [[Sanamahi]]<br />
* [[Nongpok Ningthou]]<br />
* [[Wangbren]]<br />
* [[Thangjing]]<br />
* [[Lainingthou Koubru]]<br />
* [[Koiren Leima]]<br />
* [[Kao Phaba]]<br />
* [[Khoirentak tiger]]<br />
* [[Puya (Meitei texts)]]<br />
* [[Ancient Meitei language]]<br />
* [[Meitei script]]<br />
* [[Pisatao]]<br />
* [[Khamba (disambiguation)]]<br />
* [[Khuman]]<br />
* [[Moirang]]<br />
* [[Moirang (disambiguation)]]<br />
* [[Meitei]]<br />
* [[Meetei]]<br />
* [[Manipuri]]<br />
* [[Greek]]<br />
* [[Lainingthou]]<br />
* [[Lairembi]]<br />
* [[Thongak Lairembi]]<br />
* [[Hades]]<br />
* [[Persephone]]<br />
* [[Waikhomia hira]]<br />
* [[Thangjam Asteroid]]<br />
* [[Asteroid]]<br />
* [[Umang Lai sacred groves]]<br />
* [[Kounu]]<br />
* [[Lai Haraoba]]<br />
* [[Numit Kappa]]<br />
* [[Lam Lai]]<br />
* [[Hingchabi]]<br />
* [[List of creatures in Meitei folklore]]<br />
* [[List of figures in Greek mythology]]<br />
* [[Greek mythology]]<br />
* [[List of Meitei folktales]]<br />
* [[New Folktales of Manipur]]<br />
* [[James Oinam]]<br />
* [[The Tales of Kanglei Throne]]<br />
* [[The Coils of Pakhangba: A Cultural History of Meeteis]]<br />
* [[Meitei temples]]<br />
* [[Meitei architecture]]<br />
* [[Nottingham Castle]]<br />
* [[Prehistory of Manipur]]<br />
* [[Maibam Lokpa Ching]]<br />
* [[Khongjom War Memorial Complex]]<br />
* [[Singju festival]]<br />
* [[Chakhao]]<br />
* [[Bora (Meitei dish)]]<br />
* [[Kangshubi]]<br />
* [[Kabok]]<br />
* [[Battle of Imphal]]<br />
* [[Manipur Horse Riding and Polo Association]]<br />
* [[Manipur International Polo]]<br />
* [[Khuman dynasty]]<br />
* [[Wounded Land: Politics and Identity in Modern Manipur]]<br />
* [[My Three Years in Manipur and Escape from the Recent Mutiny]]<br />
* [[Stonehenge of Manipur]]<br />
* [[Manipur of the Mahabharata]]<br />
* [[Sanamahists]]<br />
* [[Keibu Keioiba]]<br />
* [[Stories from the Funga Wari (Naharol Khorjei Thaugallup Jaribon)]]<br />
* [[Stories from Fungawari Singbul]]<br />
* [[Chothe Thangwai Pakhangba]]<br />
* [[Heinu Leima]]<br />
* [[Phou-oibi, the rice goddess]]<br />
* [[Symbols of Sanamahism]]<br />
* [[Konthoujam Lairembi gi Khubam]]<br />
* [[Emblem of Manipur]]<br />
* [[Flag of Kangleipak]]<br />
* [[Coat of arms of Manipur]]<br />
* [[Flag of Manipur]]<br />
* [[Karang Island]]<br />
* [[Ancient Meitei Science and Technology]]<br />
* [[Khamnung Kikoi Louonbi]]<br />
* [[The Pleasing of the Gods: Meitei Lai Haraoba]]<br />
* [[The Meitheis]]<br />
* [[Origin of Polo]]<br />
* [[Polo]]<br />
* [[Ebudhou Thangjing Temple]]<br />
* [[Sanamahi Temple]]<br />
* [[Sanamahi Kiyong Temple]]<br />
* [[Meitei literature]]<br />
==New request==<br />
Please import:<br />
* From simple English Wikipedia<br />
** [[The Coils of Pakhangba: A Culture History of Meeteis]]<br />
* From general English Wikipedia<br />
** [[Meitei inscriptions]]<br />
** [[History of Manipur]]</div>Rajbhai7