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Mahadev & Sons

2026-05-08T10:59:45Z

QuyenStobie2:

{{Short description|Indian family drama television series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Mahadev & Sons Poster.jpg
| genre = [[Family drama]]
| starring = [[Shakti Anand]] [[Sneha Wagh]] [[Manasi Salvi]] [[Neha Rana]] [[Aasim Khan]] Garvita Sadhwani
| creator = Saurabh Tewari
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 90
| story =
| screenplay =
| director =
| producer = Saurabh Tewari
| editor =
| cinematography =
| location =
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime = 40 minutes
| company = Parin Multimedia
| network = [[Colors TV]]
| first_aired = {{start date|df=y|2026|01|5}}
| last_aired = present
}}
'''''Mahadev & Sons''''' is an Indian [[Hindi]]-language television drama series that aired on 5 January 2026 on [[Colors TV]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=8 January 2026|title=‘Mahadev & Sons’ traces love, legacy and rebellion in a family bound by rules|url=https://www.indianbroadcastingworld.com/mahadev-sons-traces-love-legacy/|access-date=8 January 2026|work=Indian Broadcasting World|language=en}}</ref> It is digitally available on [[Disney+ Hotstar|JioHotstar]]. Produced by Saurabh Tewari under Parin Multimedia, it stars [[Shakti Anand]], [[Sneha Wagh]], and [[Manasi Salvi]]. The series is an official adaptation of [[Tamil language|Tamil]] series ''[[Pandian Stores 2]]''.<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=12 December 2025|title=Mahadev and Sons to replace Shiv Shakthi next month!|url=https://www.justshowbiz.net/mahadev-and-sons-to-replace-shiv-shakti-next-month|access-date=9 January 2026|work=Justshowbiz|language=en}}</ref>

== Cast ==
=== Main ===
* [[Shakti Anand]] as Mahadev: Vidya's husband; Kamakshi, Aashish, Ketan, Dheeraj and Priya's father(2026–present)
** Unknown as young Mahadev (2026)
* [[Sneha Wagh]] as Vidya Bajpai Mahadev: Omprakash and Radha's younger daughter; Bhanu, Yash and Satya's sister; Mahadev's wife; Kamakshi, Aashish, Ketan, Dheeraj and Priya's mother (2026–present)
** Nysa as young Vidya (2026)
* [[Manasi Salvi]] as Bhanu Bajpai: Omprakash and Radha's elder daughter, Baldev's love interest (2026–present)
** Khushi Bhanushali as young Bhanu (2026)
* Deepak Khati as Ashish "Ashu" Mahadev: Mahadev and Vidya's eldest son (2026–present)
* Mohit Joshi as Ketan "Ketu" Mahadev: Mahadev and Vidya's second son, Narmada's husband (2026–present)
* [[Aasim Khan]] as Dheeraj "Dhiru" Mahadev: Mahadev and Vidya's youngest son, Rajji's husband, Kamakshi, Ashish and Ketan's younger brother, Priya's older brother (2026–present)
* Garvita Sadhwani as Rajji Mahadev: Bhanu's foster daughter, Kiran's niece, Dheeraj's wife, Vishwa's younger sister (2026–present)
* [[Neha Rana]] as Narmada Saini Mahadev: Ramesh's daughter, Ketan's wife (2026–present)

=== Recurring ===
* Khushi Bhanushali as Priya Mahadev: Mahadev and Vidya's younger daughter (2026–present)
* Sakshi Sinha as Kamakshi "Kammo" Mahadev: Mahadev and Vidya's elder daughter (2026–present)
* Abhay Bhargava as Omprakash Bajpai: Radha's husband (2026)
* [[Nishigandha Wad]] as Radharani Bajpai: Omprakash's widow (2026–present)
* Alaya Umar as Pinky: Kamakshi's daughter (2026–present)
* Bhavya Shinde as Vishwa: Bhanu's foster son (2026–present)
* Sham Mashalkar as Satya Bajpai: Omprakash and Radha's younger son (2026–present)
* Ashutosh Tiwari as Yash Bajpai: Omprakash and Radha's elder son (2026–present)
* Neelakshii Naithani as Kiran Bajpai: Yash's wife, Rajji and Vishwa's aunt(2026–present)
* Spandan Soni as Laksh (2026–present)
* Kareena Gulabani as Madhu: Ashish's former love interest (2026-present)
* Hari Singh as Dhruv (2026–present)
* Ajay Raju as Vendor (2026)
* Unknown as Ramesh Saini: Narmada's father (2026)
* [[Sudhanshu Pandey]] as Baldev Singh Chauhan from ''Do Duniya Ek Dil'', Bhanu's love interest
*Ansh Manuja as Kalyan: Rajji's ex boyfriend and a fraudster (2026- present)
* Saniya Khera as Mogra Rajvanshi: Raju and Lajwanti's daughter (2026-present)
*Agnihotrie Monika as Lajwanti Rajvanshi; Raju's wife; Mogra's mother (2026-present)
*Sagar Rambhia as Raju Rajvanshi; Lajwanti's husband; Mogra's father (2026-present)
* [[Uttar Kumar]] as Sikander: Mogra's ex husband (2026-present)

== Production ==
=== Release ===
In November 2025, Colors TV unveiled a teaser introducing the new show titled ''Mahadev & Sons''.<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=30 November 2025|title=Colors TV drops first promo of new series ‘Mahadev & Sons’|url=https://www.bizasialive.com/colors-tv-drops-first-promo-of-new-series-mahadev-sons/|access-date=8 January 2026|work=BizAsia|language=en}}</ref>

=== Casting ===
[[Shakti Anand]] was selected to portray Mahadev.<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=7 January 2026|title=Shakti Anand has fun day driving a tractor on Mahadev & Sons set'|url=https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/television-news/article/shakti-anand-has-fun-day-driving-a-tractor-on-mahadev-sons-set-23610956|access-date=8 January 2026|work=[[Mid-Day]]|language=en}}</ref> [[Sneha Wagh]] bagged the series as Vidya.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sehgal|first=Chirag|date=15 January 2026|title=Sneha Wagh On Her Role In Mahadev & Sons: ‘Vidya Is A Mixture Of All the Mothers’|url=https://www.news18.com/movies/television/sneha-wagh-on-her-role-in-mahadev-sons-vidya-is-a-mixture-of-all-the-mothers-aa-ws-l-9832538.html|access-date=16 January 2026|work=[[News18]]|language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|tt39305293|Mahadev & Sons}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2026 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Indian drama television series]]
[[Category:Colors TV original programming]]
[[Category:Hindi-language television shows]]

Indian Idol (Hindi TV series) season 16

2026-05-07T13:18:24Z

QuyenStobie2:

{{Short description|Indian TV series}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox television season
| italic_title =
| bg_colour = #DAA500
| season_number = 16
| image = Indian_Idol_16.jpg
| caption =
| module1 = {{Infobox reality competition season
| judges = {{Plainlist|
* [[Badshah (rapper)|Badshah]]
* [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
* [[Vishal Dadlani]]
}}
| host = {{Plainlist|
* [[Udit Narayan]] (Guest Host till Theatre and on-stage guide)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/indian-idol-16-shreya-ghoshal-vishal-dadlani-and-udit-narayan-bring-yesteryear-music-playlist-to-life/articleshow/124522185.cms|title=Indian Idol 16: Shreya Ghoshal, Vishal Dadlani and Udit Narayan bring yesteryear music playlist to life|date=13 October 2025|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
* [[Aditya Narayan]] (Host)
* [[Haarsh Limbachiyaa]] {{small|(guest)}}
}}
| num_contestants = 16
| winner =
| runner_up =
}}
| num_episodes = 60
| network = [[Sony Entertainment Television]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|2025|10|18|df=y}}
| last_aired = present
}}
The sixteenth season of ''[[Indian Idol (Hindi TV series)|Indian Idol]]'' premiered on 18 October 2025, on [[Sony Entertainment Television]]. [[Shreya Ghoshal]],<ref>{{cite web | title=Shreya Ghoshal on guiding reality show participants and nurturing young talent: Success doesn't come overnight | work=The Times of India | date=17 October 2025 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/shreya-ghoshal-on-guiding-reality-show-participants-and-nurturing-young-talent-success-doesnt-come-overnight/articleshow/124614668.cms }}</ref> [[Vishal Dadlani]] and [[Badshah (rapper)|Badshah]] returned from [[Indian Idol (Hindi TV series) season 15|season 15]] as judges. The theme of this season was "Yaadon Ki Playlist" (''Playlist of Memories'').<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-27 |title=Indian Idol Returns With 'Yaadon Ki Playlist' Theme; Vishal Dadlani, Shreya Ghoshal, Badshah To Judge Show |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/tv/indian-idol-returns-with-yaadon-ki-playlist-theme-vishal-dadlani-shreya-ghoshal-badshah-to-judge-show-article-152903021 |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=Times Now |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=Koimoi com |date=2025-09-27 |title=Indian Idol 16: First Promo Out! New Season Returns With Nostalgic Theme 'Yaadon Ki Playlist' |url=https://www.koimoi.com/television/indian-idol-16-first-promo-out-new-season-returns-with-nostalgic-theme-yaadon-ki-playlist/ |access-date=2025-10-18 |website=Koimoi |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Indian Idol returns with a new season with the theme 'Yaadon Ki Playlist'; watch promo | work=The Times of India | date=27 September 2025 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/indian-idol-returns-with-a-new-season-with-the-theme-yaadon-ki-playlist-watch-promo/articleshow/124178898.cms }}</ref>

==Audition==
Remote auditions took place from 26 July to 24 August 2025, as well as a number of open-call auditions, and from these, the producers selected the contestants who were then invited to audition in front of the judges.<ref name=":0" />
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+''Indian Idol'' (season 16) – regional auditions<ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2025-08-01 |title=Indian Idol Audition 2025 {{!}} Dates, Cities & How to Apply |url=https://www.singingaudition.in/indian-idol-audition-2025-dates-cities-complete-guide/ |access-date=2025-10-17 |website=Auditions Updates |language=en-US}}</ref>
! scope="col" |City
! scope="col" |Audition date
! class="unsortable" scope="col" |Venue
|-
|[[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]]
|26 July 2025
|SPK Jain Futuristic Institute, New Town
|-
|[[New Delhi]]
|17 August 2025
|Central Academy School, Sector 10, Dwarka
|-
|[[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]]
|24 August 2025
|Pawar Public School
|}

==Theatre round==
The Theatre round featured the top 25 golden ticket holder contestants performing for the judges. This round was filmed on X, at the Lata Mangeshkar Auditorium, and aired on 1 and 2 November 2025.{{Citation needed|date=November 2025}} The judges then narrowed the number of contestants down to 16, including the platinum mic holders.

The contestants performed in batches, as picked by the judges according to genre.

The following is a list of the contestants and the song they performed. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

'''Color key:'''
{| class="toccolours" style="font-size: 90%; white-space: nowrap;"
|{{legend|#FDFC8F|This contestant advanced to top 16.}}
|-
|{{legend|#FF91A4|This contestant was eliminated.}}
|}

{|
|valign="top"|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Day 1–1 November 2025
!Order
! scope="col" |Contestant
!Batch
! scope="col" |Song
! Result
|-
| 1
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|1
|"Aao Na Gale Laga Lo Na"
| style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Top 16
|-
| 2
|Amritha Rajan
|2
| "Kay Sera Sera"
| style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Top 16
|-
|3
|Banashree Biswas
| rowspan="3" |3
| "Ab Ke Sajan Sawaan Mein"
| style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Top 16
|-
| 4
|Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Ay Hairathe"
| style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Top 16
|-
| 5
|Arfin Rana
| "Jaane Kya Jaane Mann"
| style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Top 16
|-
|6
|Tabish Ali
| rowspan="2" |4
|"Tumhe Dillagi Bhul Jani Padegi"
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
| 7
|Manav
|"Mast Kalandar"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Top 16
|-
|8
|Lakshya Mehta
|5
|"Bheege Hont Tere"
| style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|9
|Parinay Jain
| rowspan="3" |6
|Tumhe Jo Maine Dekha
| style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|10
|Kalyan Sahay
|Yeh Dil Tum Bin Kahin Lagta Nahi
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|11
|Anurag Bhattacharya
|Megha Re Megha Re
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|}
| valign="top" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+Day 2–2 November 2025
!Order
!Contestant
!Batch
!Song
!Result
|-
|1
|Sugandha Date
|7
|"Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Top 16
|-
|2
|Aaroh Shankar
|8
|"Kaun Hai Jo Sapnon Mein Aaya"
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|3
|Dharmesh Nayat
|9
|"Abhi Mujh Mein Kahin"
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|4
|Abhijit Sharma
| rowspan="2" |10
|"Tumne Mujhe Dekha Hokar Meherban"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Top 16
|-
|5
|Shreya Verma
|"Ni Mein Samajh Gayi"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Top 16
|-
|6
|Suhail
|11
|"Ye Tune Kya Kiya"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Top 16
|-
|7
|Tanishk Shukla
|12
|"Tum Jo Mil Gaye Ho"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"| Top 16
|-
|8
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|13
|"Saiyan Pakad Baiyan"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Top 16
|-
|9
|Vishal Mattu
| rowspan="2" |14
|"Ilahi"
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|10
|Jayanti Dutta
|"Bahut Pyar Karte Hain"
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|11
|Sankalp Yaduwanshi
|15
|"Ae Dil Hai Mushkil"
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|12
|Vishwanath Haveri
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" |''Not telecast''
| rowspan="3" style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|13
|Aakarshit Wadhwan
|-
|14
|Hrishikesh Karmarkar
|}
|}

==Top 16 contestants==
The contestant who made past the theatre round or got the platinum mic in the auditions, are listed below as follows:<ref>{{cite web | title=Indian Idol: Yaadon Ki Playlist Gets Its Top 16 Contestants, A Celebration of Talent, Nostalgia, and 90s Magic | url=https://www.filmibeat.com/television/news/2025/indian-idol-yaadon-ki-playlist-gets-its-top-16-contestants-a-celebration-of-talent-nostalgia-and-486801.html#:~:text=The%20Top%2016%20contestants%20are,diversity%20and%20depth%20of%20India%27s }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
! Contestant
! Status
|-
| Abhishek Kumar
|Top 10
|-
| Ankita Mahua Giri
|Top 10
|-
| Anshika Chonkar
|Top 10
|-
| Diwakar Choubey
|Top 10
|-
| Jyotirmayee Nayak
|Top 10
|-
| Manraj Veer Singh
|Top 10
|-
| Suhail
|Top 10
|-
| Tanishk Shukla
|Top 10
|-
|Myscmme Bosu (Wildcard)
|Top 10
|-
|Chaitanya Devadhe (Mauli) (Wildcard)
|Top 10
|-
| Amritha Rajan
| style="background:#FF91A4"|Eliminated {{small|on 29 March 2026}}
|-
| Shreenidhi Shastry
| style="background:#FF91A4" |Eliminated {{small|on 8 March 2026}}
|-
| Sugandha Date
| style="background:#FF91A4" |Eliminated {{small|on 15 February 2026}}
|-
| Shreya Verma
| style="background:#FF91A4" |Eliminated {{small|on 1 February 2026}}
|-
| Abhijeet Sharma
| style="background:#FF91A4" |Eliminated {{small|on 18 January 2026}}
|-
| Banashree Biswas
| style="background:#FF91A4" |Eliminated {{small|on 21 December 2025}}
|-
| Manav
| style="background:#FF91A4" |Eliminated {{small|on 7 December 2025}}
|-
| Arfin Rana
| style="background:#FF91A4" |Eliminated {{small|on 23 November 2025}}
|-
|}

==Gala rounds==
After the theater round, every week all the contestants performing in the gala and are eliminated on a weekly basis.

The gala rounds were filmed at the Yash Raj Studios.

'''Colour Key:'''
{| class="toccolours" style="font-size: 90%; white-space: nowrap;"
|-
|{{legend|#FDFC8F|This contestant was saved by the judges' scores.}}
|-
|{{legend|#e0f0ff|This contestant was in the bottom as per judges scores.}}
|-
|{{legend|#FF91A4|This contestant was eliminated.}}
|-
|{{legend|gold|This contestant won ''Indian Idol''.}}
|-
|{{legend|silver|This contestant was the runner-up.}}
|-
|{{legend|tan|This contestant finished in third place.}}
|-
|{{legend|#EAE4B6|This contestant finished in fourth place.}}
|-
|{{legend|#E4E2F9|This contestant finished in sixth place.}}
|}

=== Gala 1: Top 16 – Premiere Party ===
There was no public voting this week and the performance did not count in the competition. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 16 (8–9 November)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
|-
| Arfin Rana
| rowspan="8" |Night 1
|"Bas Ek Sanam Chahiye Aashiqui Ke Liye"
|-
| Anshika Chonkar
|"Rangeela Re"
|-
| Manraj Veer Singh
|"Ruk Ja O Dil Deewane"
|-
| Diwakar Choubey
|"Chaiyya Chaiyya"
|-
| Abhishek Kumar
|"Tadap Tadap Ke Is Dil"
|-
|Shreya Verma
|"Taare Hain Baraati"
|-
|Abhijit Sharma
|"Yeh Dil Deewana"
|-
|Sugandha Date
|"Morni Baga Ma Bole"
|-
| Jyotirmayee Nayak
| rowspan="8" |Night 2
|"Aisi Deewangi"
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"Kehna Hi Kya"
|-
|Manav
|"Ishq di galli vich dolna"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Deewana Tera"
|-
| Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Tum Dil Ki Dhadkan Mein"
|-
| Suhail
|"Mera Piya Ghar Aaya O Ramji"
|-
| Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Tu Shayyar Hai, Mai Teri Shaayari"
|-
| Banashree Biswas
|"Pardesi Pardesi Jaana Nahin"
|}

=== Gala 2: Top 16 – Two Themes special ===
This week was divided into two themes. This week was the first public voting week of the season. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 16 (15–16 November)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
|-
|Arfin Rana
| rowspan="9" |Night 1
|"Mere Naam Tu"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Zara Sa" and "Khuda Jaane" (With Shilpa Rao)
|-
| Anshika Chonkar
|"Desi Girl"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Tere Mast Mast Do Nain"
|-
|Banashree Biswas
|"Tujhe Yaad Na Meri Aayee"
|-
|Suhail
|"Mere Rashke Kamar"
|-
| Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Aaj Ki Raat"
|-
|Shreya Verma
|"Darling"
|-
| Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Moh Moh Ke Dhaage"
|-
| Shreenidhi Shastry
| rowspan="7" |Night 2
|"Lakshya"
|-
|Abhijit Sharma
|"[[Señorita (Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara song)|Señorita]]"
|-
| Tanishk Shukla
|"Tanhayee"
|-
| Sugandha Date
|"Sajana Ji Vaari Vaari"
|-
| Amritha Rajan
|"Tum Ho Toh" and "Socha Hai"
|-
| Abhishek Kumar
|"O Rangrez"
|-
|Manav
|"Slow Motion Angreza"
|}

=== Gala 3: Top 16 – Two Themes special ===
This week was the first judges' score week and the first elimination took place on basis of last week's votes and this week's scores. This week also was divided into two themes. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 16 (22-23 November)
! Contestant
!Performed On
!Song
!Result (Gala 1+2+3)
|-
| Arfin Rana
| rowspan="8" |Night 1
|"Is Tarah Aashiqui Ka"
| style="background:#FF91A4;"| Eliminated
|-
| Abhijit Sharma
|"Shehar Ki Ladki"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Ankhiyon Se Goli Maare"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom four
|-
| Manav
|"Jeeta Hoon Jiske Liye"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Manraj Veer Singh
|"Chalo Ishq Ladaaye"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Amritha Rajan
|"Hungama Ho Gaya"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Kabhi Tu Chhalia Lagta Hai"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Abhishek Kumar
|"Naina"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Tanishk Shukla
| rowspan="8" |Night 2
| "Jhanjharia"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom four
|-
| Sugandha Date
|"Main Albeli"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"What Is Mobile Number" and "Husn Hai Suhana"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Suhail
|"Kitna Pyaare Tujhe Rabne Banaya"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Diwakar Choubey
|"Main Toh Raste Se Ja Raha Tha"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Shreya Verma
|"Sona Kitna Sona Hai"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Banashree Biswas
| "Aaye Ho Meri Zindagi Mein"
| style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom four
|-
| Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Phoolon Sa Chehra Tera"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|}

=== Gala 4: Top 15 – Two Themes special ===

This week was the second public voting week of the season. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.
{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 15 (29–30 November)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
|-
| Sugandha Date
| rowspan="7" |Night 1
|"Chunari Chunari"
|-
| Abhijit Sharma
|"Suno Na Suno Na"
|-
| Tanishk Shukla
|"Ole Ole"
|-
| Anshika Chonkar
|"Dhoom Taana"
|-
|Shreya Verma
|"Zara Sa Jhoom Loon Main"
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"Raat Ka Nasha"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Main Khiladi Tu Anari"
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
| rowspan="8" |Night 2
|"Mere Rang Mein"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Saat Samundar"
|-
| Manraj Veer Singh
|"Pehla Nasha"
|-
| Suhail
|"Chaap Tilak"
|-
|Jyotimayee Nayak
|"Dil Deewana"
|-
| Abhishek Kumar
|"Main Koi Aisa Geet Gaoon"
|-
|Banashree Biswas
|"Wada Raha Sanam"
|-
| Manav
|"Oopar Khuda Neeche Aasman"
|}

=== Gala 5: Top 15 – Two Themes special ===
This week was the second judges' score week and the second elimination took place on basis of last week's votes and this week's scores. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 15 (6–7 December)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
!Result (Gala 4+5)
|-
|Banashree Biswas
| rowspan="7" |Night 1
|"Maar Diya Jaaye and Parde Mein Rehne Do"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom three
|-
| Abhijit Sharma
|"Dream Girl and Na Jaa"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom three
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Mein Tere Ishq Mein and Khathuba"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Rahe Na Rahe Hum and Jab Tak Hai Jaan"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Yeh Dil Tum Bin and Rafta Rafta"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"Aap Ki Nazron Ne Samjha and Bangle Ke Peeche"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Manav
|"Bagon Ke Har Phool"
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|Sugandha Date
| rowspan="8" |Night 2
|"Piya Tu Ab To Aaja"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Suhail
|"Aaya Tere Dar Par Deewana"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Afghan Jalebi"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Kya Mujhe Pyaar Hai"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Na Jaane Koi Kaisi Hai Yeh Zindagaani"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Aaj Mausam Bada Beimaan Hai"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Chanda Re Chanda Re Kabhi Toh Zameen Par"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Shreya Verma
|"Billo Rani"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|}

=== Gala 6: Top 14 – Super Hit Jodi ===

This week was the third public voting week of the season. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.
{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 14 (13–14 December)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
|-
| Ankita Mahua Giri, Abhishek Kumar
| rowspan="7" |Night 1
|"Rim Jhim Rim Jhim"
|-
| Shreya Verma, Suhail
|"Sajda"
|-
| Jyotirmayee Nayak, Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Bole Chudiyaan"
|-
| Amritha Rajan, Tanishk Shukla
|"Bin Tere Sanam"
|-
| Manraj Veer Singh, Diwakar Choubey
|"Mujhse Shaadi Karogi", "Do You Wanna Partner"
|-
| Anshika Chonkar, Diwakar Choubey
|"Dhak Dhak Karne Laga"
|-
| Shreya Verma, Abhijeet Sharma
|"Tamma Tamma", "Chumma Chumma"
|-
| Banashree Biswas, Suhail
| rowspan="8" |Night 2
|"Ladki Badi Anjaani"
|-
| Sugandha Date, Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Woh Ladki Hai Kahan"
|-
| Anshika Chonkar, Manraj Veer Singh
|"Koi Mil Gaya", "Koi Mil Gaya"
|-
| Amritha Rajan, Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Dola Re Dola"
|-
| Jyotirmayee Nayak, Tanishk Shukla
|"Kaho Naa Pyaar Hai"
|-
| Sugandha Date, Abhishek Kumar
|"Chaand Chupa Badal Mein"
|-
| Banashree Biswas, Abhijeet Sharma
|"Dil To Pagal Hai"
|}

=== Gala 7: Top 14 – Celebrating The Lady Dons ===
This week was the third judges's score week and the third elimination took place on basis of last week's votes and this week's scores. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 14 (20–21 December)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
!Result (Gala 6+7)
|-
|Banashree Biswas
| rowspan="7" |Night 1
|"Panna Ki Tamanna"
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Ke Pag Ghungroo"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Aap Jaisa Koi and Laila O Laila"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"Ye Mera Dil Yaar Ka Deewana"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Meri Sohni Meri Tamanna"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"O Meri Mehbooba" and "Janu Meri Jaan" (on request)
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Sugandha Date
|"Aa Jaane Jaan and Aaj Ki Raat Koi Aane Ko"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Abhijeet Sharma
| rowspan="8" |Night 2
|"Ek Ajnabee Haseena Se"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom three
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Dum Maro Dum and Bhool Bhulaiyaa"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Apni to Jaise Taise"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom three
|-
|Shreya Verma
|"Mera Naam Chin Chin Chu and O Haseena Zulfon Wali"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Mehbooba O Mehbooba"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Chura Liya Hai Tumne Jo Dil Ko and Karle Pyaar Karle"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Suhail
|"Der Na Hojaye"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|}

=== Gala 8: Top 13 - An Evening of Melody ===
This week was the fourth public voting week of the season. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 13 (27–28 December)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
| rowspan="7" |Night 1
|"Ek Do Teen"
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"Aaj Ki Raat Maza Husn Ka"
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Jhoom Barabar Jhoom"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Om Shanti Om"
|-
|Shreya Verma
|"Main Aayi Hoon U.P. Bihar Lootne"
|-
|Suhail
|"Dangal"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Gali Gali Mein Phirta Hai and Hari Om Hari"
|-
|Abhijeet Sharma
| rowspan="6" |Night 2
|"Bachna Ae Haseeno and Na Na Na Na Re"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Badtameez Dil and Ho Jayegi Balle Balle"
|-
|Sugandha Date
|"Raat Baki and Rambha Ho Ho Ho"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Jiya Tu"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Badan Pe Sitaare"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Jaan-E-Jaan, O Meri Jaan-E-Jaan, Nisha Nisha Nisha"
|}

=== Gala 9: Top 13 – New Year Celebrations ===
This week was the fourth public voting week of the season. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 13 (3–4 January)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
|-
|Abhijeet Sharma
| rowspan="7" |Night 1
|"Hoga Tumse Pyara Kaun"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Dil Lena Khel Hai Dildar Ka"
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Sohni Meri Sohni (Rab Mujhe Maaf Kare)"
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Chhod Aaye Hum"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Tu Tu Hai Wahi (Yeh Vaada Raha)"
|-
|Sugandha Date
|"Yeh Galiyan Yeh Chaubara"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Poochho Na Yaar Kya Hua"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
| rowspan="6" |Night 2
|"Ae Zindagi Gale Laga Le"
|-
|Suhail
|"Chappa Chappa"
|-
|Shreya Verma
|"Zindagi Pyar Ka Geet Hai"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Meri Kismat Mein Tu Nahi Shayad and Sapne Mein Milti Hai"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"O Priya Priya"
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"Gapoochi Gapoochi Gam Gam"
|}

=== Gala 10: Top 13 – Filmy And Fabulous ===
This week was the fifth public voting week of the season. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.
{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 13 (10–11 January)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
|-
|Abhijeet Sharma
| rowspan="6" |Night 1
|"Mast Baharon Ka Main Aashiq"
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Sheesha Ho Ya Dil Ho"
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Pyar Ka Tohfa Tera Bana Hai Jeevan Mera"
|-
|Suhail
|"Haal Kya Hai Dilon Ka"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Inteha Ho Gayi Intezar Ki"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Kitne Bhi Tu Kar Le Sitam"
|-
|Sugandha Date
| rowspan="7" |Night 2
|"Dafliwale Dafli Baja"
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"Disco Station"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Lo Sahib Phir Bhool Gayi Mein"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Mujhe Naulakha Manga De"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Chhalka Yeh Jaam"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"De De Pyaar De"
|-
|Shreya Verma
|"Ja Re Ja O Harjaee"
|}

=== Gala 11: Top 13 – 75 Years Of Disco King ===
This week was the fourth judges's score week and the fourth elimination took place on basis of last three week's votes and this week's scores. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 13 (17–18 January)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
!Result (Gala 8–11)
|-
|Abhijeet Sharma
| rowspan="6" |Night 1
|"Yaar Bina Chain Kahan Re"
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Julie Julie Johnny Ka Dil Tumpe Aaya"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Zeehale Muskin Makun ba-Ranjish"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Jhoom Jhoom Jhoom Baba"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Jimmy Jimmy Aaja"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"Koi Yahan Nache Nache"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom three
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
| rowspan="7" |Night 2
|"Jawani Jan-E-Man"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Suhail
|"Kisi Nazar Ko Tera Intezar Aaj Bhi Hai"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Tumse Milkar Na Jane Kyun"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom three
|-
|Sugandha Date
|"Zooby Zooby" and "Sochna Kya"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Yaad Aa Raha Hai"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"I Am A Disco Dancer"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Shreya Verma
|"Hari Om Hari"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|}

=== Gala 12: Top 12 – Three Themes Special ===
This week was the sixth public voting week of the season. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 12 (23–25 January)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
|-
|Shreya Verma
| rowspan="6" |Night 1
|"Akhiyaan Milaoon Kabhi"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Tere Liye Hum Hai Jiye"
|-
|Suhail
|"Tujh Mein Rab Dikhta Hai"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"[[Chamma Chamma]]"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"[[Sandese Aate Hai]]"
|-
|Sugandha Date
|"Luka Chuppi"
|-
|Amritha Rajan
| rowspan="6" |Night 2
|"Roobaroo"
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"I Love My India"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"[[Chak De! India (song)|Chak De! India]]"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Sultan"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Agar Tum Mil Jao"
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
|"O Saiyyan"
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
| rowspan="12" |Night 3
|"Aye Watan Tere Liye"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Rang De Basanti"
|-
|Sugandha Date
|"Suno Gaur Se Duniyawalo (Sabse Aage Hindustani)"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Ab Tumhare Hawale Watan Sathiyo"
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Maa Tujhe Salaam"
|-
|Suhail
|"Maula Mere Le Le Meri Jaan"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"It's the Time to Disco"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Mera Rang De Basanti Chola"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"[[Ae Watan]]"
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"Aashayein"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Chunar"
|-
|Shreya Verma
|"Jiya Re"
|}

=== Gala 13: Top 12 – Season of Love with Neelam ===
This week was the fifth judges's score week and the fifth elimination took place on basis of last two week's votes and this week's scores. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 12 (31 January – 1 February)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
!Result (Gala 12–13)
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
| rowspan="8" |Night 1
|"Kabhi Neem Neem"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Suhail
|"Koi Jaane Koi Na Jaane"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Suraj Hua Maddham"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak and Diwakar Choubey
|"Ek Main Aur Ekk Tu"
|
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Yeh Kaali Kaali Aankhein"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Sugandha Date
|"Duniya Mein Logon Ko"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom three
|-
|Tanishk Shukla and Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Teri Bindiya Re"
|
|-
|Shreya Verma
|"Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha"
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry and Sugandha Date
| rowspan="8" |Night 2
|"Mera Dil Bhi Kitna Pagal Hai"
|
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Bahon Ke Darmiyan"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Aap Ke Aa Jaane Se"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom three
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Hawa Hawai"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Ramta Jogi"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"Gajar Ne Kiya Hai Ishara (Oye Oye)"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Aaj Ibaadat (Raga Yaman Kalyan)"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Manraj Veer and Anshika Chonkar
|"Khullam Khulla Pyar Karenge Hum Dono"
|
|}

=== Gala 14: Top 11 – Remembering Lata Ji ===
This week was the seventh public voting week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 11 (7–8 February)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
|-
|Amritha Rajan
| rowspan="7" |Night 1
|"Itna Na Mujhse Tu Pyar Badha"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Muqaddar Ka Sikandar"
|-
|Sugandha Date
|"Hothon Mein Aisi Baat"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla and Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Dekha Ek Khwab"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Jiska Mujhe Tha Intezaar"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri and Abhishek Kumar
| "Bekhudi Mein Sanam"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Akele Hain Chale Aao"
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
| rowspan="7" |Night 2
|"Tere Chehre Mein Woh Jaadu Hai"
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Solah Baras Ki Bali Umar Ko Salaam"
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry and Sugandha Date
|"Yeh Raat Bheegi Bheegi"
|-
|Suhail
|"Dum Dum Diga Diga"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Dil To Hai Dil"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"O Saathi Re Tere Bina Bhi Kya Jeena"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Are Diwano Mujhe Pehchano (Main Hoon Don)"
|}

=== Gala 15: Top 11 – Yaadein with Subhash Ghai ===
This week was the sixth judges's score week and the sixth elimination took place on basis of last two week's votes and this week's scores. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 11 (14–15 February)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
!Result (Gala 14+15)
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
| rowspan="7" |Night 1
|"Nahin Saamne"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom three
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Khal Nayak Hoon Main"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Tu Mera Hero Hai and Ding Dong"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Dard-E-Dil, Dard-E-Jigar"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Bada Dukh Dina O Ramji"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom three
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Lambi Judaai"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"[[Ek Hasina Thi (song)|Ek Hasina Thi]]"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Sugandha Date
| rowspan="7" |Night 2
|"Ishq Bina" and "Taal Se Taal"
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
|Suhail
|"My Name Is Lakhan"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"Pyar Karne Wale Kabhi Darte Nahi" and "Jane Do, Jane Do, Mujhe Jana Hai"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Anshika Chonkar and Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Gawah Hai Chand Tare"
|
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Do Dil Mil Rahe Hain" and "Meri Mehbooba"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
|Abhishek Kumar and Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Jab Koyi Baat Bigad Jaye"
|
|}

=== Gala 16: Top 10 (Part 1) – Indian Idol Goes International ===
This week was the eight public voting week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 10 (21–22 February)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry and Anshika Chonkar
| rowspan="7" |Night 1
|"Chura Ke Dil Mera"
|-
|Suhail
|"[[Afreen Afreen]]"
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"[[Masakali]]"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Binte Dil" and "Ainvayi Ainvayi"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Aaja Aaja Main Hoon Pyar Tera"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla and Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Tere Mere Milan Ki Yeh Raina"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
| rowspan="7" |Night 2
|"Jab Chhaye Mera Jadoo"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh and Suhail
|"Gal Mitthi Mitthi"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"[[Har Kisi Ko]]"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Tu Hi Meri Shab Hai"
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Tum Jo Aaye Zindagi Mein"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar and Amritha Rajan
|"Aajkal Tere Mere Pyar Ke Charche"
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Dekha Na Haye Re"
|-
|}

=== Gala 17: Top 10 (Part 1) – Two Themes Special ===
This week was divided into two themes

This week was the ninth public voting week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 10 (28 February - 1 March)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
|-
|Amritha Rajan
| rowspan="5" |Night 1
|"Meri Zindagi Mein Aaye Ho" and "No Entry: Ishq Di Galli Vich"
|-
|Suhail
|"Meri Zindagi Tera Pyaar"
|-
|Shreenidhi Shastry
|"Ek Ladki Ko Dekha Toh Aisa Laga" and "Ladki Hai Kya Re Baba"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Kate Nahin Kat Te"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Kuchh Na Kaho" and "Keh Do Ke Tum"
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
| rowspan="5" |Night 2
|"Holi Ke Din" and "Ang Se Ang Lagana"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Rang Barse"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Balam Pichkari"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Aahun Aahun" and "Jai Jai Shiv Shankar"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Hori Khele Raghuveera"
|-
|}

=== Gala 18: Top 10 (Part 1) – Idol Ka Mohalla ===

This week was the seventh judges's score week and the seventh elimination took place on basis of last two week's votes and this week's scores. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 10 (7-8 March)
! Contestant
! Performed on
! Song
! Result (Gala 16+17+18)
|-
| Manraj Veer Singh and Anshika Chonkar
| rowspan="6" |Night 1
|"[[Dilliwaali Girlfriend]]"
|
|-
| Abhishek Kumar
|"Ishq Jalakar (Karvaan)"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Anshika Chonkar
|"Be Intehaan"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Tanishk Shukla
|"Likhe Jo Khat Tujhe"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Diwakar Choubey
|"Main Shair To Nahin"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Sun Sahiba Sun"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom two
|-
| Shreenidhi Shastry
| rowspan="7" |Night 2
|"Chahiye Thoda Pyar"
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
| Amritha Rajan
|"[[Chadti Jawani Meri Chaal Mastani]]"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Kahi Na Jaa, Aaj Kahi Mat Jaa"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Tanishk Shukla and Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Mera Mann"
|
|-
| Suhail
|"Tumse Milke Dil Ka"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Manraj Veer Singh
|"Ae Dil Hai Mushkil"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Diwakar Choubey and Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Wada Kar Le Sajna"
|
|-
|}

=== Gala 19: Top 9 – Laxmikant Pyarelal Special ===

This week was the tenth public voting week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 9 (14-15 March)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
| rowspan="6" |Night 1
|"Dheere Dheere Bol, Koi Sun Na Le" and "Hansta Hua Noorani Chehra"
|-
|Suhail
|"Aane Se Uske" and "[[Parda Hai Parda (song)|Parda Hai Parda]]"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Zindagi Ki Na Toote Ladi" and "Roz Sham Aati Thi"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Mere Mehboob Qayamat Hogi" and "Main Jat Yamla Pagla Deewana"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Patthar Ke Sanam" and "Gulabi Aankhen"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh and Suhail
| "Chal Mere Bhai"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
| rowspan="5" |Night 2
|"Hum To Tere Aashiq Hain" and "[[My Name Is Anthony Gonsalves (song)|My Name Is Anthony Gonsalves]]"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Woh Hain Zara Khafa Khafa" and "Na Mangun Sona Chandi"
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"Dhal Gaya Din Ho Gayi Sham" and "Na Jaane Kahan Se Aayi Hai"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Sawan Ka Mahina" and "Jumma Chumma De De"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla and Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Aya Sawan Jhoom Ke"
|}

=== Gala 20: Top 9 – Dream Duet ===

This week was the eleventh public voting week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 9 (21-22 March)
! Contestant
!Performed on
!Song
|-
|Anshika Chonkar and Diwakar Choubey
| rowspan="6" |Night 1
|"Mujhe Pyar Hua Allahmiya"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Badi Mushkil Hai" and "Baadshah, O Baadshah"
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"[[Nimbooda]]"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"Roop Tera Mastana" and "Hadh Kar Di Aapne"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Yeh Dil Sun Raha Hain"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri and Abhishek Kumar
|"Aye Dil Laya Hai Bahaar"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla and Jyotirmayee Nayak
| rowspan="7" |Night 2
|"Hum To Deewane Hue Yaar"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Chaand Taare"
|-
|Suhail
|"Hai Agar Dushman Zamana, Gham Nahin"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar with Abhijeet Da and Kavita Krishnamurthy
|"Tauba Tumhare Yeh Ishare" and "Kay Sera Sera"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Aur Kya"
|-
|Amritha Rajan
|"Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri and Suhail
|"Yeh Jo Teri Payalon Ki Chan Chan Hai"
|-
|}

=== Gala 21: Top 9 – Celebrating Bollywood's Sweet 16 ===

This week was the eight judges's score week and the eighth elimination took place on basis of last two week's votes and this week's scores. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 9 (28-29 March)
! Contestant
! Performed on
! Song
! Result (Gala 19+20+21)
|-
| Amritha Rajan
| rowspan="6" |Night 1
|"Thoda Resham Lagta Hai" and "Yeh Ladka Hai Deewana"
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
|-
| Diwakar Choubey
|"Bholi Si Surat" and "Humne Tumko Dekha"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Ab Jo Mile Hain To" and "Daiya Yeh Main Kahan"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Suhail
|"Hamen Tumse Pyar Kitna" and "Gore Gore Mukhde Pe"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Jyotirmayee Nayak and Tanishk Shukla
|"Muthukodi Kawadi Hada"
|
|-
| Manraj Veer Singh and Anshika Chonkar
|"Kuch Kuch Hota Hai"
|
|-
| Abhishek Kumar
| rowspan="7" |Night 2
|"Dekh Sakta Hoon Main Kuch Bhi Hote Hue" and "Mere Mehboob Mere Sanam"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Tanishk Shukla
|"Tere Jaisa Yaar Kahan" and "[[Zindagi Ek Safar Hai]]"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom three
|-
| Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Koi Shehri Babu" and "Dil To Pagal Hai"
|style="background:#e0f0ff;"|Bottom three
|-
| Anshika Chonkar
|"Dilbar Dil Se Pyare" and "Mere Khwabon Mein"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Manraj Veer Singh
|"Sara Zamana" and "Dil Ne Dil Ko Pukara"
|style="background:#FDFC8F;"|Safe
|-
| Ankita Mahua Giri and Amritha Rajan
|"Ae Ae Ae Phansa"
|
|-
| Ankita Mahua Giri and Abhishek Kumar
|"Ek Shararat Hone Ko Hai"
|
|-
|}

=== Gala 22: Top 8 – Golden Jubilee ===

This week was the twelth public voting week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 8 (4 April)
! Contestant
! Song
|-
| Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"[[Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya]]"
|-
| Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Lekar Hum Deewana Dil, Phirte Hai Manzil Manzil"
|-
| Anshika Chonkar
|"[[Aao Huzoor Tumko]]" and "Pyar Dilon Ka Mela Hai"
|-
| Manraj Veer Singh
|"Jaan-E-Jaan Dhoondta Phir Raha Hoon Tumhe Raat Din"
|-
| Tanishk Shukla
|"Deewana Hua Badal, Sawan Ki Ghata Chhayi" and "An Evening In Paris"
|-
| Diwakar Choubey
|"Paisa Yeh Paisa"
|-
| Abhishek Kumar
|"Tera Mujhse Hain Pehle Ka Nata Koi"
|-
| Suhail
|"Chalat Musafir"
|-
|}

=== Gala 23: Top 8 – Indian Idol Reunion ===

This week was the thirteenth public voting week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed. This week featured contestants from previous seasons as well with Myscmme Bosu and Chaitanya Devadhe joining as wildcard contestants going forward.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 8 (11-12 April)
! Contestant
! Performed on
! Song
|-
|Anshika Chonkar and Manasi Ghosh
| rowspan="8" |Night 1
|"Aa Zara"
|-
|Vaibhav Gupta and Subhadeep Das Chowdhury
|"[[Man Atkeya Beparwah De Naal|Destiny – Mann Atkeya]]" and "Ishq Jalakar (Karvaan)"
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak and Sayli Kamble Patil
|"Kajra Mohabbat Wala"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla and Myscmme Bosu
|"Isharon Isharon Mein Dil Lenewale"
|-
|Salman Ali
|"[[Sajdaa]]"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey and Chaitanya Devadhe (Mauli)
|"Dil Haara"
|-
|Pawandeep Rajan
|"Shayad"
|-
|Sneha Shankar
|"Yaad Piya Ki Aaye"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri and Subhajit Chakraborty
| rowspan="8" |Night 2
|"E Tuku Bhalobasa" and "Bol Na Halke Halke"
|-
|Rishi Singh
|"Pehla Pyaar"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar and Pawandeep Rajan
|"Khamoshiyan"
|-
|Suhail and Sneha Shankar
|"[[Dama Dam Mast Qalandar]]"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh and Manasi Ghosh
|"Bang Bang"
|-
|Chaitanya, Salman, Subhadeep and Vaibhav
|"Ramta Jogi"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar and Subhadeep Das Chowdhury
|"Ek Chatur Naar Karke Sringar"
|-
|Manasi Ghosh
|"Haan Maine Chukar Dekha Hai"
|-
|}

=== Gala 24: Top 10 (Part 2) – Two Themes Special ===
This week was divided into two themes

This week was the fourteenth public voting week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 10 (18-19 April)
! Contestant
! Performed on
! Song
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
| rowspan="5" |Night 1
|"Neeche Phoolon Ki Dukan"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Pehle Kabhi Na Mera Haal"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Yaad Aa Rahi Hai" and "Dekho Maine Dekha Hai Ek Sapna"
|-
|Chaitanya Devadhe (Mauli)
|"Say Shava Shava" and "Chali Chali Phir"
|-
|Suhail
|"Layi Vi Na Gayee"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
| rowspan="5" |Night 2
|"Ae Kash Ke Hum"
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Waada Raha Sanam"
|-
|Myscmme Bosu
|"Jo Haal Dil Ka"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Mujhe Raat Din Bas"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"O O Jaane Jaana" and "Tune Mujhe Pehchana Nahi"
|-
|}

=== Gala 25: Top 10 (Part 2) – Celebrating Bhatt's ===

This week was the fifteenth public voting week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 10 (25-26 April)
! Contestant
! Performed on
! Song
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
| rowspan="5" |Night 1
|"Kaho Na Kaho", "Ab Tere Bin" and "Ya Ali"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Dil Ko Hazar Bar" and "Roop Suhana Lagta Hai"
|-
|Chaitanya Devadhe (Mauli)
|"Tujhe Dekh Dekh Sona (Jiya Dhadak Dhadak)"
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
|"Ek Sanam Chahiye Aashiqui Ke Liye"
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Ghoonghat Ki Aadh Se"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
| rowspan="5" |Night 2
|"Gali Mein Chand (Happy Version)"
|-
|Myscmme Bosu
|"Jadu Hai Nasha Hai" and "Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin"
|-
|Suhail
|"Mann Ki Lagan"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Tere Dar Par Sanam (Male Version)"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Tumhein Apna Banane Ki"
|-
|}

=== Gala 26: Top 10 (Part 2) – Remembering The Legend Asha Bhosle===

This week was the sixteenth public voting week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed.

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 10 (2-3 May)<ref>{{cite web |title="Idol's Ode to Asha Bhosale - Part 1"|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HEC0XInqojE}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title="Idol's Ode to Asha Bhosale - Part 2"|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dAg_jQ9JsvM}}</ref>
! Contestant
! Performed on
! Song
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
| rowspan="7" |Night 1
|"Nigahein Milane Ko Jee Chahata Hai"
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|"Dil Cheez Kya Hai Aap Meri Jaan Lijiye" and "Piya Tu Ab Toh Aaja"
|-
|Suhail
|"Yeh Parda Hata Do"
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
|"Jhumka Gira Re" and "Hungama Ho Gaya"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|"Roz Roz Aankhon Tale" and "Pyaar Karne Wale"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh & Anshika Chonkar
|"Ek Main Aur Ekk Tu"
|-
|Myscmme Bosu & Tanishk Shukla
|"Yeh Raatein Yeh Mausam"
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak & Abhishek Kumar
| rowspan="7" |Night 2
|"O Mere Sona Re"
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|"Aaja Aaja Main Hoon Pyar Tera"
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|"O Haseena Zulfon Wali"
|-
|Chaitanya Devadhe (Mauli)
|"Jaanu Meri Jaan Main Tere Kurbaan"
|-
|Myscmme Bosu
|"In Aakhon Ki Masti" and "Yeh Mera Dil"
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|"Abhi Na Jao Chod Kar"
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri & Diwakar Choubey
|"O Saathi Chal"
|-
|}

=== Gala 27: Top 10 (Part 2) – Celebrating The Legends Shankar–Jaikishan===

{| class="wikitable unsortable" style=" text-align:center; width:auto;"
|+Top 10 (9-10 May)
! Contestant
! Performed on
! Song
! Result
|-
|Abhishek Kumar
| rowspan="5" |Night 1
|
|
|-
|Ankita Mahua Giri
|
|
|-
|Anshika Chonkar
|
|
|-
|Chaitanya Devadhe (Mauli)
|
|
|-
|Diwakar Choubey
|
|
|-
|Jyotirmayee Nayak
| rowspan="5" |Night 2
|
|
|-
|Manraj Veer Singh
|
|
|-
|Myscmme Bosu
|
|
|-
|Suhail
|
|
|-
|Tanishk Shukla
|
|
|-
|}

==Elimination chart==
Like last season, this season too, bi-weekly eliminations were held. One week public votes, next week, judges' scores. The bottom contestants are decided according to the judges' scores from that week, and the person with lowest votes from last week is eliminated.{{columns-list|{{legend|gold|Winner}}
{{legend|silver|Runner-up}}
{{legend|tan|Third place}}
{{legend|#EAE4B6|Fourth place}}
{{legend|#E4E2F9|Sixth place}}
{{legend|#FFEBCD|Did not perform}}
{{legend|#FDFC8F|Saved by the judges scores}}
{{legend|#e0f0ff|Bottom}}
{{legend|#FF91A4|Eliminated}}|colwidth=20em}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;"
|+''Indian Idol'' season 16 – Eliminations
! rowspan="3" scope="col" |Contestant
! rowspan="3" | Place || colspan="2" |Top 29
!Top 16
!Top 15
!Top 14
!Top 13
!Top 12
!Top 11
!Top 10 (Part 1)
!Top 9
!Top 8
!Top 10 (Part 2)
|-
! colspan="2" |Theatre
!Gala 1+2+3
!Gala 4+5
!Gala 6+7
!Gala 8+9+10+11
!Gala 12+13
!Gala 14+15
!Gala 16+17+18
!Gala 19+20+21
!Gala 22+23
!Gala 24+25+26+27
|-
!1/11
!2/11
!8/11–23/11
!29/11–7/12
!13/12–21/12
!27/12–18/1
!24/1–1/2
!7/2–15/2
!21/2–8/3
!14/3–29/3
!4/4–12/4
!18/4–10/5
|-
| Abhishek Kumar
|
| colspan="2" style="background:#FFEBCD;" |N/A
| colspan="9" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
|
|-
| Ankita Mahua Giri
|
| colspan="11" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
|
|-
| Anshika Chonkar
|
| colspan="2" style="background:#FFEBCD;" |N/A
| colspan="9" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
|
|-
| Diwakar Choubey
|
| colspan="2" style="background:#FFEBCD;" |N/A
| colspan="9" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
|
|-
| Jyotirmayee Nayak
|
| colspan="2" style="background:#FFEBCD;" |N/A
| style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom four
| colspan="3" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
| colspan="2" style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom three
| style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom two
| style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom three
| style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
|
|-
| Manraj Veer Singh
|
| colspan="2" style="background:#FFEBCD;" |N/A
| colspan="2" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
| style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom three
| colspan="6" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
|
|-
| Suhail
|
| style="background:#FFEBCD;" |N/A
| colspan="10" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
|
|-
| Tanishk Shukla
|
| style="background:#FFEBCD;" |N/A
| style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
| style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom four
| colspan="2" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
| style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom three
| colspan="3" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
| style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom three
| style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
|
|-
| Myscmme Bosu
|
| style="background:#FFEBCD;" colspan="11" rowspan="2" |Wildcard
|
|-
|Chaitanya Devadhe (Mauli)
|
|
|-
| Amritha Rajan
|9
| colspan="5" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
| style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom three
| colspan="3" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
| style="background:#FF91A4;" |Eliminated
| colspan="2" style="background:grey;" |
|-
| Shreenidhi Shastry
|10
| style="background:#FFEBCD;" |N/A
| colspan="6" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
| style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom three
| style="background:#FF91A4;" |Eliminated
| colspan="3" style="background:grey;" |
|-
| Sugandha Date
|11
| style="background:#FFEBCD;" |N/A
| colspan="5" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
| style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom three
| style="background:#FF91A4;" |Eliminated
| colspan="4" style="background:grey;" |
|-
| Shreya Verma
|12
| style="background:#FFEBCD;" |N/A
| colspan="5" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
| style="background:#FF91A4;" |Eliminated
| colspan="5" style="background:grey;" |
|-
| Abhijeet Sharma
|13
| style="background:#FFEBCD;" |N/A
| colspan="2" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
| colspan="2" style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom three
| style="background:#FF91A4;" |Eliminated
| colspan="6" style="background:grey;"|
|-
| Banashree Biswas
|14
| colspan="2" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
| style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom four
| style="background:#e0f0ff;" |Bottom three
| style="background:#FF91A4;" |Eliminated
| colspan="7" style="background:grey;" |
|-
| Manav
|15
| colspan="3" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
|style="background:#FF91A4;"|Eliminated
| colspan="8" style="background:grey;" |
|-
| Arfin Rana
| 16
| colspan="2" style="background:#FDFC8F;" |Safe
| style="background:#FF91A4;" |Eliminated
| colspan="9" style="background:grey;" |
|-
| Aakarshit Wadhwan
| rowspan="13" style="background:grey;" |
| rowspan="8" style="background:#FFEBCD;" |N/A
| rowspan="8" style="background:#FF91A4;" |Eliminated
| colspan="10" rowspan="8" style="background:grey;" |
|-
| Aaroh Shankar
|-
| Dharmesh Nayat
|-
| Vishwanath Haveri
|-
| Vishal Mattu
|-
| Hrishikesh Karmarkar
|-
| Sankalp Yaduwanshi
|-
|Jayanti Dutta
|-
|Anurag Bhattacharya
| rowspan="5" style="background:#FF91A4;" |Eliminated
| colspan="11" rowspan="5" style="background:grey;" |
|-
| Tabish Ali
|-
|Kalyan Sahay
|-
|Parinay Jain
|-
| Lakshya Mehta
|-
|}

==Production==
The project head for the season was Chitra Langeh, and Akash Tiwari wasagain joining the head of production. Pratyush Prakash was the writer of the series. Music guidance and music band were headed by Anand Sharma and Randeep Bhaskar. Aradhana Bhola, the managing director of ''FremantleIndia'' was the executive producer of the series. The season was directed by Saahil Chhabria. Culver Max Entertainment Private Limited took the whole charge again.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Rules and Regulation of Indian Idol season 16|url=https://origin-staticv2.sonyliv.com/UI_icons/Indian_Idol/Audition_Terms+and+Conditions_Indian+Idol+Season+16_15.07.2025_Clean.pdf |website=SonyLIV |access-date=17 October 2025 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.sonyliv.com/trailer/suhail-s-unparalleled-voice-1090491006?watch=true&utm_source=https://en.wikipedia.org/&utm_medium=none ''Indian Idol''] on [[SonyLIV]]
{{Indian Idol (Hindi TV series)}}

[[Category:2025 Indian television seasons]]
[[Category:Indian Idol (Hindi TV series)]]

Keoti Fort

2026-05-07T05:43:08Z

QuyenStobie2: created some entry needs work...

{{Short description|Fort in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox military installation
| name = Keoti Fort
| partof = [[Madhya Pradesh]], {{flag|India}}
| location = [[Rewa District]], Madhya Pradesh, India
| image = Front Left Outer SE View Keoti Fort MP Jan24 A7C 08736.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Keoti Fort, front and south side, ca. 2024
| map_type = India Madhya Pradesh
| map_relief = yes
| map_size =
| map_caption = Keoti fort within [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| type = [[Fort]]
| coordinates = {{coord|24.81714|81.45725|type:landmark|display=inline}}
| code =
| built =
| builder =
| materials =
| height =
| used =
| demolished =
| condition = dilapidated
| ownership =
| open_to_public = yes
| controlledby =
| garrison =
| current_commander =
| commanders =
| occupants =
| battles =
| events =
| image2 =
| caption2 =
}}

'''Keoti Fort''' (also '''Keonti Fort''') is an Indian fortress ''([[qila]])'' situated on the [[Rewa Plateau]] about {{convert|53|km}} north-east of the city of [[Rewa, Madhya Pradesh|Rewa]], in [[Rewa district]] in the [[India]]n state of [[Madhya Pradesh]].

== History ==
Keoti Fort is said to have been constructed by Raja Parmal Dev in 1500 AD.<ref name=RewaRiyasat>{{Cite news |last=Baghel |first=V.S. |date=20 January 2023 |title=प्राकृतिक सुन्दरता और इतिहास को समेटे हुए है रीवा का 'क्यूटी फोर्ट', प्रशासनिक उपेक्षा से खो रहा वजूद (Rewa's 'Keoti Fort' boasts natural beauty and history, being lost due to administrative neglect) |url=https://www.rewariyasat.com/rewa/rewas-keoti-fort-boasts-of-natural-beauty-and-history-being-lost-due-to-administrative-neglect-101272 |access-date=22 July 2024 |work=RewaRiyasat.com}}</ref> mentioned in an account of the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. Thakur Ranmat Singh Baghel, a prominent leaders of the 1857 revolt in [[Rewa (princely state)|Rewa State]], (Baghelkhand) went into hiding in Keoti Fort and later on fought a battle in Keoti Fort with the British. In an encounter at the fort, he defeated the British army and also killed a British officer who had come to arrest him. Eventually, he was planning to surrender at the urging of the [[Rewa (princely state)|Maharaja Raghuraj Singh Baghel]] of Rewa under the intense pressure from British authorities. However Diwan Dinbandhu Pandey of Rewa acted as an informant for the British, which led to the capture of Thakur Ranmat Singh Baghel by the British authorities. Thakur Ranmat Singh Baghel was arrested, and hanged in 1860 for the murder of the British officer. Thakur Ranmat Singh Baghel was Sardar (commander) in the army of Maharaja Raghuraj Singh Baghel of Rewa and he was also a descendent of Kothi Royal Family (Kothi Princely State, Satna).

Thakur Ranmat Singh Baghel was hanged by the British authorities for his active role in the Revolt of 1857 against British rule in the Baghelkhand region. He led armed resistance, organized rebel forces, and challenged British control in Baghelkhand and nearby territories. The British considered him a major rebel leader because he attacked colonial positions and supported the wider uprising against the East India Company. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Thakur Ranmat Singh |url=https://indianculture.gov.in/node/2820033 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240121154306/https://indianculture.gov.in/node/2820033 |archive-date=21 January 2024 |access-date=21 January 2024 |website=[[Ministry of Culture (India)]] |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Srivastava |first=A.C. |date=1961 |title=THAKUR RANMAT SINGH OF REWA [Summary] |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/44140758.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Acf4b241e6be0fa91bcd7069928558ce8&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&origin=&initiator=search-results&acceptTC=1 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=24 |pages=224–225 |publisher=[[Indian History Congress]]}}</ref>

== Geography ==
Keoti Fort is situated on the Rewa Plateau near the northern end of the [[Vindhya Range|Vindhya Escarpment]].<ref name=Hawkes2014>{{Cite journal |last=Hawkes |first=J.D. |date=25 March 2014 |title=One Size Does Not Fit All: Landscapes of Religious Change in Vindhya Pradesh |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02666030.2014.892370 |journal=South Asian Studies |publisher=[[Routledge]] |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=2-3}}</ref> The fort is built on the right bank of a ravine that the Mahana River has cut into the escarpment. The {{cvt|98|m|ft|abbr=on}} high [[Keoti Falls]] is on the opposite side of the ravine, visible from the northern part of the fort. The elevation of Keoti Fort is {{cvt|280|m|ft|abbr=on}} above mean sea level.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

Keoti Fort is about {{cvt|53|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the city of Rewa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rewa-Keoti Fort route |url=https://www.openstreetmap.org/directions?engine=fossgis_osrm_car&route=24.5359%2C81.2934%3B24.8177%2C81.4562#map=11/24.6857/81.3479&layers=C |access-date=21 January 2024 |website=[[OpenStreetMap]]}}</ref> The nearest airport is located at [[Prayagraj Airport|Prayagraj (Allahabad)]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]], a distance of {{cvt|114|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prayagraj (Allahabad) Airport - Keoti Fort route |url=https://www.openstreetmap.org/directions?engine=fossgis_osrm_car&route=25.4369%2C81.7342%3B24.8177%2C81.4562#map=10/25.1279/81.6579&layers=C |access-date=21 January 2024 |website=[[OpenStreetMap]]}}</ref>

== Architecture ==
[[File:Entrance East Keoti Fort Rewa MP Jan24 A7C 08735.jpg|thumb|left|Entrance in the east facade]]
[[File:Loophole Closeup Keoti Fort Rewa MP Jan24 A7C 08774.jpg|thumb|Loophole with 3 angles of fire]]
[[File:East Wall Inside Plateau Outside Keoti Fort Jan24 A7C 08789.jpg|thumb|left|North-east wall with loopholes facing the flat plateau]]
The west wall of the fort runs along the Mahana ravine for about {{cvt|200|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The south wall extends about {{cvt|100|m|ft|abbr=on}} east from the ravine. The east wall with the main entrance is about {{cvt|40|m|ft|abbr=on}} long. There after, the fort depth narrows to about {{cvt|25|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the northern end of the fort. The total area enclosed by the walls is about {{cvt|1.0|ha|acre|abbr=on}}. Towers are located at the corners of the outer walls.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

The construction material is stone and clay mortar. [[Embrasure|Loopholes]] with three angles of fire are built into the outer walls at regular intervals and at various heights. These are useful for defense against enemy coming across the flat plateau.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

== Tourism ==
[[File:Ornamental Wall Entrance Keoti Fort Jan24 A7C 08798.jpg|thumb|Ornamental tiles near he east entrance]]
The fort is open to the public. Entrance is free (January 2024).{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Fairs are held annually which attract many people. The carvings and stone artefacts, the natural beauty and the view of the Keoti Falls across the gorge behind the fort are attractions that draw visitors.<ref name=RewaRiyasat />

== Controversies ==
In 2016, the MP Government denotified the fort as a "protected heritage site" and transferred it to the Madhya Pradesh Tourism Board to be developed as a heritage hotel. In July 2021, the MP Tourism Board issued a tender for development of the Keoti Fort.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://tourism.mp.gov.in/Uploaded%20Document/Tenders/130720210257112_RFP_Kyoti_fort_Rewa.pdf |title=Request for Proposal for Development of Heritage Hotel at Kyoti Fort, Rewa in Madhya Pradesh |date=9 July 2021 |publisher=Madhya Pradesh Tourism Board |access-date=22 July 2024}}</ref> However, it was reported that the fort had not been leased out and was falling into a state of disrepair.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Shukla |first=A. |date=16 March 2023 |title=Years after plan to develop ‘protected’ heritage sites as hotels, 7 still in ‘Madhya Pradesh of utter neglect’: CAG report |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> A local news report claims that the fort is being neglected by the administration and is frequented by petty criminals. These factors may deter tourists.<ref name=RewaRiyasat />

== Popular culture ==
The Hindi movie Bindhi aur Bandook (1972) was shot at Keoti Fort.<ref name=RewaRiyasat />

== Gallery ==
=== Exterior views ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120px">
File:Front Facade Keoti Fort MP Jan24 A7C 08740.jpg|Front (east) facade
File:Front Right Outer NE View Keoti Fort MP Jan24 A7C 08738.jpg|Front and north side
File:SE Tower Keoti Fort MP Jan24 A7C 08737.jpg|Tower on south-east corner
File:Mahana Gorge Keoti Fort MP Jan24 A7C 08748.jpg|Gorge of the Mahana River behind the fort
</gallery>

=== Interior views ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="120px">
File:Inside South Wall Keoti Fort Madhya Pradesh Jan24 A7C 08785.jpg|Inside south-west part, tower overlooking the ravine, loopholes near the top of the wall
File:North Part Inside Keoti Fort Rewa Jan24 A7C 08786.jpg|Northern inside of the fort: ravine on left, north wall in centre, east wall on right
File:Loophole Keoti Fort Rewa MP Jan24 A7C 08776.jpg|Loophole in outer wall for firearms
File:Grinding Stone Keoti Fort MP Jan24 A7C 08761.jpg|Grinding stone inside the fort
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[List of forts in Madhya Pradesh]]
* [[Keoti Falls]]

== References ==
{{Commons category}}
{{reflist}}

{{Forts in India}}
{{Forts in Madhya Pradesh}}

{{coord|21.4710|76.2937|display=title}}

[[Category:Forts in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Rewa district]]

Shia Islam in South Asia

2026-05-04T04:32:31Z

QuyenStobie2:

{{Short description|none}}
{{use indian english|date=March 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{multiple issues|
{{Confusing|date=November 2024}}
{{over-quotation|date=September 2025}}
}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| regions = [[India]] [[Ladakh]] ([[Kargil district|Kargil]], [[Nubra]]), [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] ([[Budgam district|Budgam]]), [[Gujarat]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] ([[Lucknow]]), [[Rajasthan]] ([[Ajmer]]), [[Karnataka]] ([[Alipur, Karnataka|Alipur]], [[Bangalore]], [[Thyamagondlu]], [[Gauribidanur]], [[Sulibele]], [[Mysore]], [[Holenarasipura]]),<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ziyaraat.net/books/TheShiaAsAMuslimMinorityInKarnataka.pdf |title=The Shi’a as a Muslim Minority in Karnataka, India: Shi’as History & Findings |website=www.ziyaraat.net }}</ref> [[Maharashtra]]
| region1 = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| pop1 = 35–45 million
| region2 = {{flag|India}}
| pop2 = 30–40 million
| region3 = {{flag|Bangladesh}}
| pop3 = 3–4.5 million
}}
{{Shia Islam}}

[[Shia Islam]] was brought to [[South Asia]] during the final years of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. South Asia also served as a refuge for some [[Shias]] escaping persecution from [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]], [[Abbasids]], [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubids]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. The immigration continued throughout the second millennium until the formation of modern nation-states. Shi'ism also won converts among the local population.

Shia Islam has a long history and deep roots in South Asia. However, the earliest major political influence was that of the Shia dynasties in [[Deccan]]. It was here that the indigenous and distinct Shia culture took shape.<ref>Justin Jones, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=rrioNz8_EwwC&q=Shi%27a+Islam+in+Colonial+India '''Shi'a Islam in Colonial India''']", p. 5, Cambridge University Press, (2012).</ref> After the conquest of [[Golconda Fort|Golconda]] by [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Aurangzeb]] in the 17th century and subsequent establishment of hereditary governorship in [[Nawab of Awadh|Awadh]] after his death, [[Lucknow]] became the nerve center of Indian Shi'ism.

In the 18th century, intellectual movements of [[Islamic puritanism]] were launched by [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]] in [[Najd]] and [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi|Shah Waliullah]] and his sons, with [[Shah Abdul Aziz]] being the main flag-bearer of modern [[anti-Shi'ism]] in [[Delhi]]. These movements coincided with the beginning of the [[British conquest of India]] and the downfall of Shia dynasties in [[Bengal]] and Awadh. These factors caused the onset of continuous persecution of the Shia community and laid the foundations of organised violence against them that has become a part of Shia life in the Indian subcontinent, [[Sectarian violence in Pakistan|especially Pakistan]].<ref>B. Metcalf, "'''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BdH_AwAAQBAJ&q=tazia Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900]'''", pp. 40 - 58, Princeton University Press (1982).</ref><ref name=":31" />

== Demography ==
Shias in South Asia are a minority that is geographically scattered in the majority population. Multicultural Indian Subcontinent did not force Shias into ghettos, in contrast to the Shias of the Middle East, who enjoy a local majority in their homelands because they were compelled to [[Ghettoized|ghettoize]] in the medieval period because of persecution, now due to this demographic resource, they have become important political players in modern times.<ref name=":35">{{Cite book|last=Rieck|first=Andreas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HdeCwAAQBAJ&q=shias+of+Pakistan|title=The Shias of Pakistan: An Assertive and Beleaguered Minority|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2016|isbn=9780190613488|pages=xi|language=en}}</ref>

Pakistan is said to have a Shia population of at least 25-50 million, like India.<ref name="CIAr">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=pk&regionCode=sas&#pk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617014724/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html?countryName=Pakistan&countryCode=PK&regionCode=sas&#pk|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 June 2009|title=Field Listing : Religions|year=2010|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=24 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="PewMapping">{{cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/Muslim/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population%286%29.aspx|title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population|date=October 2009|editor=Tracy Miller|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327201319/http://pewforum.org/Muslim/Mapping-the-Global-Muslim-Population%286%29.aspx|archive-date=27 March 2010|access-date=9 June 2010}}</ref><ref name="W.W. Norton">{{cite book|last1=Nasr|first1=Vali|title=The Shia revival : how conflicts within Islam will shape the future|date=2007|publisher=W.W. Norton|isbn=978-0393329681|edition=Paperback|location=New York}}</ref> In 2006, [[Vali Nasr]] assessed the Shia population to be as high as 30-40 million.<ref name="CC">{{cite web|url=http://www.cceia.org/resources/transcripts/5400.html|title=The Shia Revival: How Conflicts within Islam Will Shape the Future|date=October 18, 2006|work=Vali Nasr, Joanne J. Myers|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914193938/http://www.carnegiecouncil.org/studio/transcripts/5400.html|archive-date=14 September 2012|access-date=2010-08-24|quote=Pakistan is the second-largest Shia country in the world, with about 30 million population.}}</ref> Pew research center estimates it to be 15% and for India it is 15% percent of the total Muslim population while for Bangladesh it was estimated to be less than 1%<ref name=":30">{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population20/|title=Methodology for Sunni-Shia Estimates|date=2009-10-07|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-08}}</ref><ref>[https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2009/10/Shiarange.pdf Estimated percentage range of Shias by country]</ref> to 2%<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity|title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation |date=9 August 2012 |work=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=4 September 2013}}</ref> of the total population. Andreas Rieck in his detailed study of the Shias of Pakistan, estimates their numbers between 20 and 40 million, and around 15% of the total population of Pakistan.<ref name=":35" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Estimated Percentage of Shias Among the Muslims of Subcontinent according to Pew Research Center<ref name=":30" />
!Country
!Percentage
!Country
!Percentage
|-
|India
|15% of Muslim minority in whole Country
|Nepal
|< 1%
|-
|Pakistan
|15%
|Bangladesh
| <2%
|-
|Afghanistan
|10%
|Sri Lanka
| <1%
|-
|Bhutan
|< 1%
|Maldives
|< 1%
|}

=== Pre-Partition census ===
In British India, Shias and Sunnis were counted separately in the 1881, 1911 and 1921 censuses. The results were not reflective of reality as most Shias hide their religious beliefs from the state, because Shias [[Taqiya|feared]] the data might leak to the anti-Shia bigots and used to target them. For example, in 1881 Census of Jhang District, only 11, 835 people among the 326, 919 Muslims identified themselves as Shias.<ref name=":13" /> In 1921, in the census for Bihar and Orissa, 3711 Shias were counted separately, but the outcome was clearly absurd because an estimate made at the time placed the numbers at 17,000, i.e. five times the census enumeration.<ref name=":0">J. N. Hollister, "'''''The Shi'a of India'''"'', page 181, Luzac and Co. London (1953).</ref> In the report of the Superintendent of Census Operations in the Province we read that:

<blockquote>"''It is certain that these figures are not nearly complete, and the reason is that many Shias refused to record themselves as such''".<ref>CIR, 1921, VII, (Bihar and Orissa), p. 134.</ref></blockquote>
For Patna, the outcome was ten times less than the estimate.<ref name=":0" /> It was for this reason that in the 1931 and 1941, it was decided not to count Muslims as Shias and Sunnis separately.

== History ==

=== Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) ===
[[File:Mohammad adil rais-Rashidun Caliphate-different phases.gif|thumb|Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)]]
The connection between the [[Indus Valley]] and [[Shia Islam]] was established by the initial Muslim missions. According to Derryl N. Maclean, a link between Sindh and Shias or proto-Shias can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who traveled across Sind to [[Makran]] in the year 649 and presented a report on the area to the Caliph. He supported [[Ali]], and died fighting on his behalf alongside Sindhi [[Jats]].<ref name="Derryl N. Maclean p. 126">{{cite book |author=Derryl N. Maclean |date=1989 |title=Religion and Society in Arab Sind |publisher=E. J. BRILL |page=126 |isbn=90-04-08551-3}}</ref>

During the reign of Ali, many Jats came under the influence of Shi'ism.<ref>Ibn Athir, Vol. 3, pp. 45–46, 381, as cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The Shia Muslims'''", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> Harith ibn Murrah Al-abdi and Sayfi ibn Fil' al-Shaybani, both officers of Ali's army, attacked bandits and chased them to Al-Qiqan (present-day [[Quetta]]) in the year 658.<ref>Ibn Sa'd, 8:346. The raid is noted by Baâdhurî, "fatooh al-Baldan" p. 432, and Ibn Khayyât, Ta'rîkh, 1:173, 183–84, as cited in: Derryl N. Maclean," '''Religion and Society in Arab Sind'''", p. 126, BRILL, (1989) {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}.</ref>

=== Umayyad period (661–750) ===
[[File:Battle of Karbala (Without written version).jpg|thumb|Battle of Karbala]]
Under the [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]], partisans of Ali were persecuted. Sayfi, a commander of Ali's army which had fought against bandits in present-day Balouchistan, was one of the seven Shias who were beheaded alongside [[Hujr ibn 'Adi|Hujr ibn Adi al-Kindi]]<ref>Tabarî, 2:129, 143, 147, as cited in: Derryl N. Maclean," '''Religion and Society in Arab Sind'''", p. 126, Brill, (1989) {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}.</ref> in 660AD, near Damascus. Many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, perhaps to live in relative peace among the Shia Jats. Ziyad Hindi is one of those refugees.<ref>Abul Faraj al-isfahani, "Maqatili Talibiyin", Cairo, (1949). Persian translation by S. Hashim Rasuli Mahallabi, Tehran, pp-143.
As cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The Shia Muslims'''", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> The second wife of the fourth Shia Imam, [[Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin|Ali ibn Hussain]], Jayda al-Sindi, was from Sindh. She is the mother of [[Zayd ibn Ali]].<ref>Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. I, pp. 138–142, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, Australia (1986).

Ibn Qutaybah, "'''al-Ma'ārif'''", p. 73, Cairo (1934)</ref> Sindh was conquered and added to the Umayyad dynasty by [[Muhammad bin Qasim|Muhammad ibn Qasim]] in 711 AD. Persecution of Shias in the Umayyad dynasty reached its peak in the times of [[Al-Walid I|Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik]], especially at the hands of [[Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf|Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]]. While Muhammad ibn Qasim was governor of Shiraz, a disciple of the companion of Prophet [[Jabir ibn Abd Allah|Jabir ibn Abd Allah al-Ansari]] and famous narrator of [[Hadith]], a supporter of revolt of [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath|Ibn al-Ashʿath]] and a Shia notable of the time,{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} [[Atiyya ibn Sa'd|Atiyah ibn Sa'd]] was arrested by him on the orders of [[Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf|Al-Hajjaj]] and commanded to [[Umayyad tradition of cursing Ali|curse Ali]] or be punished.<ref name="Derryl N. Maclean p. 126"/> Atiyah refused and was flogged by 400 lashes and his head and beard shaved for humiliation. He fled to Khurasan.<ref name=":4">Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, "'''Tahdhib al-Tahdhib'''", Volume 7, pp. 226, narrator no. 413.</ref><ref>'''History of al-Tabari,''' Vol. 39, pp. 228, under "Those Who Died in the Year 111", State University of New York Press, (1998).

Attiyah is regarded as a credible source of Hadith by both the Sunni and the Shia. However, neither Sunnis nor Shias accept any Hadith from Muhammad bin Qasim.</ref> Muhammad ibn Qasim had moved on to invade Sindh after this incident, and history is silent about how he treated the Shias of Sindh.

=== Abbasid period (750–1258) ===
After the brief Umayyad rule in Sind had come to an end, history counts ten among the seventy notable Muslims of the eighth and ninth centuries bearing a Sindhi family name (14.3% of all individuals) to be Shi'ites.<ref>Derryl N. Maclean (1989), "'''Religion and Society in Arab Sind'''", pp. 127, BRILL, {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}</ref> In the initial excavation of the urban complex of Brahmanabad-Mansurah-Mahfuzah, A. P. Bellasis uncovered a seal bearing the Arabic inscription "Imam al-Baqir"<ref>A. F. Bellasis, "An Account of the Ancient and Ruined City of Brahminabad, in Sind," JBBRAS 5 (1856) :421.

As cited in: Derryl N. Maclean," '''Religion and Society in Arab Sind'''", p. 127, BRILL, (1989) {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}.</ref> which appear to belong to the fifth Shi'ite Imam [[Muhammad al-Baqir]] (677–733). Some students of Imam Jafar Al Sadiq had Indian family names, e.g., Aban Sindi, Khalid Sindi and Faraj Sindi.<ref>Abdul Hayy, "'''Nuzhat ul-Khawatir'''", Vol. 1, pp. 51–52, Hyderabad, (1947).</ref>

==== Abdullah Shah Ghazi ====
The first major Shi'ite missionary wave that touched the shores of Sindh was the movement led by [[Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya|Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyah]] ibn Abdullah ibn Hasan ibn [[Hasan ibn Ali]], his son Abdullah al-Ashtar and his brother Ibrahim. Around the year 761, they came by sea from Aden to Sind to visit a partisan, [[Umar ibn Hafs Hazarmard]]. The next year, Ibrahim went to Kufah and Nafs al-Zakiyah to Medina and started planning the revolt. Abdullah al-Ashtar, also known as [[Abdullah Shah Ghazi]], stayed in Sindh, married a local Muslim woman and had children by her. Ibn Khaldun and Ibn al-Athir say that the governor had Shi'ite inclinations.<ref>Ibn Khaldûn (3:422); Ibn al Athîr (Kâmil, 5:595).</ref> Abdullah al-Ashtar had around 400 troops of the Shi'ite [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydiyah]] branch, who at the time were active supporters of Ahlulbayt, ready for armed struggle. However, the governor received word from his wife in Basrah that Nafs Al-Zakiyah had been killed in Medina (14 Ramadan 145/6 December 762). Confused and undecided, he told Abdullah Ashtar that:
[[File:Abdullah shah ghazi mazar - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The tomb of [[Abdullah Shah Ghazi]] in Karachi]]
<blockquote>"''I know an influential Hindu king in a district of Sindh who has a strong army. Despite his polytheism, he greatly honors [the family of] the Prophet. He is a trustworthy person. I will write to him and try to arrange an agreement between you and him. You will know that this is the best place for you and your followers. ''"<ref>Tabari, 3: 361; Ibn al-Athîr (Kâmi1, 5: 596); Ibn Khaldûn (3:422).</ref></blockquote>

The Hindu king agreed to offer asylum. Abdullah al-Ashtar spent some years there, probably from 763 to 770. Eventually, the news of his safe escape reached the caliph [[al-Mansur]] who deposed Umar ibn Hafs and appointed Hisham ibn Amr al-Taghlibi on the understanding that he will arrest Abdullah al-Ashtar, kill or disperse the Zaydiyah troops, and annexe the Hindu dynasty. When Hisham also hesitated to carry out the massacre, his brother Sufayh did it in his place, killing Abdullah along with many of his companions.<ref>Tabarî (3:363) and Ibn al-Athîr (Kamil, 5:597) both read the name as Safannaj, but the proper form is Sufayh as recorded in another context by Ibn Khayyat (Ta'rikh,1:473).

As cited in: Derryl N. Maclean, ''Religion and Society in Arab Sind'', pp. 127–130, BRILL, (1989) {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}.</ref>

==== The Buyids and the Fatimids ====
[[File:Buyid Dynasty 934 1055 (AD).PNG|thumb|Buyid Dynasty (934–1055]]
In the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], various Shiite groups organised secret opposition to their rule. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Twelver Shias of the [[Buyid dynasty|Buyid Dynasty]] (934–1055) managed to establish their rule over much of Iran and Iraq without removing the Abbasid Caliph from his throne. Parallel to it was the Ismaili Shia [[Fatimid Caliphate]] (909–1171) in Egypt and North Africa. This was the golden age of Islam as scientists like [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (980–1037), [[Ibn al-Haytham|ibn al -Haytham]] (965–1040), [[Al-Biruni]] (973–1050) and hundreds of others enjoyed the intellectual freedom and contributed to [[Islamic philosophy|philosophy]], [[The Canon of Medicine|medicine]], [[Book of Optics|physics]] and other disciplines of science.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
When the historian and geographer [[al-Masudi]] arrived in Sindh in 915, he met a number of Shias there. They were descendants of Umar ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib, al-Hanafiyah.<ref>Masûdî, Mu'rûj, 1: 377.

As cited in: Derryl N. Maclean, ''Religion and Society in Arab Sind'', pp. 129–130, BRILL, (1989) {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}.</ref> The poet Abu Dulaf Misar ibn Muhalhil al-Yanbui, who came to India around 942, noted that the 'ruler of Multan was a descendant of Umar ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib (عمر الاطراف).<ref>Abû Dulaf, cited in Yâqût, 3:457.

As cited in: Derryl N. Maclean, ''Religion and Society in Arab Sind'', p. 130, BRILL, (1989) {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}.</ref> Perhaps the Shi'ites were quasi-independent in a sector of the province of Multan.
During the mid-11th century, the Buyids gradually fell to the [[Ghaznavid]] and [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuq]] invasions, and with it started the decline of the [[Islamic Golden Age]]. In 1091, the famous Sunni theologian, Imam [[Al-Ghazali]], declared that Philosophers like Ibn Sina were heretics. His book [[The Incoherence of the Philosophers|Tahāfut al-Falāsifa]] proved to be the final blow to science education in the Islamic world.<ref>Pervez Hoodbhoy, ''Islam and Science: Religious Orthodoxy and the Battle for Rationality'', Zed Books, (1991).</ref>

Around 958, a Fatimid missionary converted a local Hindu ruler, and an Ismaili state was established in Sind, with its capital in [[Multan]]. They converted locals to Ismailism ''en masse'', while the khutba was read in the name of the Fatimid Caliph.<ref>Farhad Daftary, ''Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies'', pp. 68, I. B. Tauris Publishers, (2005).</ref> It was during this period that the earliest public [[mourning of Muharram]] and the Shia call to prayer (''Azan'') was introduced to the Indus valley (present-day Pakistan).<ref>Jonah Blank ''Mullahs on the Mainframe: Islam and Modernity Among the Daudi Bohras''. University of Chicago Press. p. 29, (2001). {{ISBN|978-0226056777}}.</ref><ref name=":5">S. A. N. Rezavi, "The Shia Muslims", in ''History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization'', Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref>

==== The Ghaznavids and the Ghurids ====
[[File:Ghaznavid Empire 975 - 1187 (AD).PNG|thumb|Ghaznavid Empire 975–1187]]
In 1005, Sultan [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud of Ghazna]] invaded Multan. The Shi'a mosque was destroyed and reduced to a barn-floor.<ref>Al-Beruni, "Kitab ul Hind", translated by C. Sachau, Alberuni's India, pp. 117, (1964).

As cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The Shia Muslims'''", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> Five years later, he attacked again and annexed the territory completely. Ismailism managed to survive in Sind and enjoyed the protection of the [[Soomra dynasty|Soomras]], a dynasty based in [[Thatta]] for almost three centuries starting in 1051. Small pockets of Ismaili community also thrived in Uchh, Aror, Mansura and Bhakkar.<ref name=":5" />

The Ghaznavid Empire was overthrown in 1186 when Sultan [[Muhammad of Ghor|Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad]] of Ghor conquered the last Ghaznavid capital of [[Lahore]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids|title=GHURIDS – Encyclopaedia Iranica|website=www.iranicaonline.org|access-date=2019-05-31}}</ref> He was a great military leader and unlike Ghaznavids, he founded an empire in India, the Delhi Sultanate. Sultan Muhammad Ghuri lead many military campaigns in north India. On his way to [[Ghazni]] from India in 1206, he was killed. Some sources claim that he was assassinated at the hands of a [[Order of Assassins|devotee]] of the so-called "malahida" (a derogatory term used for Ismailis in medieval history),<ref name=":12">{{cite journal |author=S. A. N. Rezavi |title=The State, Shia's and Shi'ism in Medieval India |journal=Studies in People's History |date=June 2017 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=32–45 |doi=10.1177/2348448917963740|doi-broken-date=12 July 2025 }}</ref> others claim that it was [[Khokhar]]s who killed him.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muizz-al-Din-Muhammad-ibn-Sam|title=Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Sām {{!}} Ghūrid ruler of India|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-06-22}}</ref>

=== Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) ===
[[File:Delhi Sultanate map.png|thumb|Delhi sultanate (1206–1526)]]
[[File:Medieval image of Muinuddin Chishti.tif|thumb|[[Moinuddin Chishti|Muinuddin Chishti]] (image c. 1615)]]
The predecessors of the Delhi Sultanate were the Ghurids. Sunni Islam was brought to this region following the conquest of the Ghurids. Pashtun tribes crossed the Hindu Kush mountains to present-day Pakistan (Khyber Pakhtunkhawa province) between the 13th and 16th centuries, and mixed with the locals. The [[Ghori pathans|Ghurid tribe]] had embraced Islam in the times of [[Ali|Ali ibn Abu Talib]]. The Arab conquest of Persia, that began in 643, reached Khurasan region in 653 where local Pushtun tribes offered fierce resistance.<ref name=":41">{{cite journal |author=Yahia Baiza |title=The Hazaras of Afghanistan and their Shi'a Orientation: An Analytical Historical Survey |journal=Journal of Shi'a Islamic Studies |date=2014 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=151–171 |doi=10.1353/isl.2014.0013}}</ref> The leader of the tribes, Mahawi Suri from the Shansabanian family along with a group of Ghurid chieftains visited the Caliph in Kufa. Upon meeting Ali in 657, they converted to Islam and Mahawi Suri was appointed governor of the region.<ref name=":41" /> The most of today's Afghanistan became part of the Muslim world in the reign of [[Umar II|Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]]. [[Ghor Province|Ghur]] in Khurasan was the only part of Muslim world that had defied the [[Umayyad tradition of cursing Ali]].<ref>Muhammad Qasim Farishta, "''Tarikh-e Farishta''", Vol. 1, p. 81, Usmania University Press, Haiderabad (1926).</ref> The family of the first Rashidun Caliph [[Abu Bakr]] had resisted the Umayyad rule. His daughter [[Aisha]], his sons [[Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr|Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr]] and [[Abdul-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr|Abdur Rahman ibn Abu Bakr]], his grandson [[Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr|Abdullah ibn Zubayr]] and the son of his nephew, [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath|Abdur Rahman ibn Muhammad al-Ash'ath]] are the prominent Sunni opponents of the Umayyad rule. The Sunnis of Khurasan were as opposed to the Umayyad rule as the Shias were. They had been instrumental in [[Abbasid Revolution|overthrow]] of the Umayyad dynasty and in Abbasid rule under the Shia commander [[Abu Muslim|Abu Muslim al-Khurasani]]. The influential Muslim theologian, [[Abu Hanifa|Imam Abu Hanifa]] (699 – 767) was born to an Afghan family living in [[Kufa]], he had great regard for the Ahlulbayt and supported the Shi'ite revolt led by [[Zayd ibn Ali]]. The Delhi empire carried this legacy of attachment with Ahlulbayt and the family of Caliph Abu Bakr. It was during the early years of the Delhi Sultanate that the great [[Sufism in India|Sufi]] saint, [[Moinuddin Chishti]] (1142–1236) set his foot in India and converted many locals to Islam.

During the early years of the establishment of [[Delhi Sultanate]], a number of Ismaili Shias had settled around Delhi. Ismaili faith was also introduced to Gujrat during these years. Ismaili missionaries spread across Gujrat and managed to establish the [[Nizari|Nizari Ismaili]] [[Khoja]] community and the [[Musta'li|Mustali Bohras]]. Till the reign of [[Iltutmish]], they remained politically inactive, preaching their ideology secretly. In contrast to Ismailis, history does not record the presence of mainstream [[Twelver|Twelver Shi'ism]] in the first phase of Delhi sultanate. One reason could be [[Taqiya]], because the Shias fleeing persecution in the Middle East settled in the subcontinent as local minorities cautious of threats to their survival. The other reason for this is that the love of Ahlulbayt and the commemoration of Muharram by the Sufi's helped the twelver Shias integrate well into the Sunni Muslim minority of India and not claim a separate political identity. For example, during the [[Gwalior]] campaign of Iltutmish, special sermons by the name of "''tazkirs''" were delivered in the military camps during the first ten days of Muharram.<ref>Minhaj us-Siraj, pp. 174–175, 249, (1977).

As cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The Shia Muslims'''", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> [[Ibn Battuta]] came across Syed families in Delhi that had originally migrated from Hijaz and Iraq in the reign of [[Muhammad bin Tughluq|Mumamad Tughluq]] (1324 – 1351).<ref>Ibn Batuta, "''The Rehla of Ibn Batuta''", translated by Mahdi Husain, p. 253, (1976).

As cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The Shia Muslims'''", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> They might have fled persecution carried out by [[Ibn Taymiyyah]] and the Mamluks. Twelver Shias seem to be enjoying freedom and equal-before-the-law status during this period.<ref>Istikhan al-Dihlavi, Bastan ul-Uns, Add. 7717; Rieu, II, 752–753, f. 5. (b).

As cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The Shia Muslims'''", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> However, when [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq|Sultan Feroz Shah]] (1351–1388) assumed power, he persecuted them. His order inscribed on the [[Feroz Shah Kotla|Firozshah Kotla Mosque]], reads that 'Shias had published tracts and books on their creed, and engaged in the preaching the faith'. He claimed that he had seized all such Shia missionaries, paraded them for humiliation, executed the prominent ones, while burning their books.<ref name=":39">Sirat-i Firozshahi, facsimile ed. of Patna MS, 1999, pp. 117–22.

As cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The Shia Muslims'''", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> This was a rare incident of its kind in the medieval India. In 1380, the Sufi saint, Syed Muhammad Ashraf Jahangir Simnani introduced the ''alam-i Abbas'' to the subcontinent, the black signature flag of the Muharram commemorations.<ref>Lataif-i Ashrafi, Vol. II, p. 268.

As cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The Shia Muslims'''", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref>

By the end of fourteenth century, the southern and eastern parts of Delhi sultanate proclaimed independence and two separate kingdoms emerged: [[Jaunpur Sultanate]] in the east and the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] in the southern part of India.

==== Shia rule in Makran ====
Contemporary to Delhi Sultanate, a small Shia kingdom had emerged in [[Makran]], the Malik dynasty.<ref>Gazetteer of Makran and Kharan District, p. 113, (1907).</ref> At the end of the thirteenth century, [[Marco Polo]] seems to have noticed them, when he mentioned the country as follows:

"''Kesmacoran (i. e. Kech Makran) is a kingdom having a king of its own and a peculiar language. Some of the people are idolaters, but the most part are Saracens''".<ref name=":21">Gazetteer of Makran and Kharan District, p. 47, (1907).</ref>

In the time of one Malik Kuchko, the country is said to have numerous population, and high degree of civilisation. The decline of this dynasty was caused by an attack by the ruler of Kirman in 1613. Malik Mirza, the last ruler, was killed and this marks the end of the Malik dynasty.<ref name=":21" />

==== Shi'ism in Kashmir ====
[[File:Mirshamsuddinaraqi.jpg|thumb|Tomb of [[Mir Shams-ud-Din Araqi|Mir Shams-ud Din Iraqi]]]]
In 1381, after [[Timur]] invaded Iran, [[Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani|Mir Syed Ali Hamdani]], an Iranian Sufi arrived in Kashmir with a large number of disciples and preached Islam. He instilled the love of Ahlul Bayt in the hearts of the new converts and wrote many books and tracts. Shi'ism was properly introduced by [[Mir Shams-ud-Din Araqi|Mir Shams-ud Din Iraqi]]<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 1, pp. 168–169, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> whose grandfather [[Muhammad Nurbakhsh Qahistani|Syed Muhammad Noor Bakhsh]] belonged to the Sufi order of Mir Syed Ali Hamdani and had huge following base in Iran, Qandhar, Kabul and Kashmir. Mir Shams-ud Din arrived in Kashmir in 1481 and then returned to Iran. Twenty years later in 1501, he came to Kashmir again, along with 700 Shia Sufis, scholars and missionaries. In 1505, the King of the [[Shah Mir dynasty|Shah Mir Dynasty]] converted to Shi'ism and so did the Chak clan of Kashmir. He traveled in the valleys of Himalayas and spread Shi'ism from [[Skardu District|Skardu]] to [[Tibet]], converting thousands of Hindus and Buddhists to Shi'ism. In 1516, the Sunni [[Chak Dynasty|Chak dynasty]] was established and forcible conversions of Hindus began. In 1532, [[Sultan Said Khan]] dispatched an army under the command of [[Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat|Mirza Haider Dughlat]] that attacked Kashmir from [[Kashgar]].<ref name=":3">S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 1, pp. 171–176, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> He hated Shias and therefore went on a killing spree. Soon he suffered a military defeat and fled to the Mughal King [[Humayun]] in Lahore. He returned in 1540, accompanied by Mughal troops, at the invitation of one of the two rival factions that continually fought for power in Kashmir. He put an end to the Chak rule. His reign was a reign of terror and Shias had no choice but to practice ''[[Taqiya|Taqiyya]]''.<ref name=":3" /> In 1550, he killed Mir Danial, the son of Mir Shams-ud Din Iraqi. This sparked an all-out revolt and he was killed by the end of the same year. Chak dynasty was re-established and in 1586, it merged with the Mughal Empire. Mughals appointed talented officers and contributed greatly to the cultural and economic life of Kashmir. In the following four centuries, Sunni Ulema and militia of the area and abroad, led ten campaigns of terror against Shias known as "[[Taraaj-e Shia]]" in the years: 1548, 1585, 1635, 1686, 1719, 1741, 1762, 1801, 1830 and 1872; during which the Shia villages were plundered, people slaughtered, women raped, libraries burnt, corpses mutilated and their sacred sites destroyed.<ref name=":14">{{cite journal |author=Zaheen |title=Shi'ism in Kashmir, 1477-1885 |url=http://www.isca.me/IJSS/Archive/v4/i4/10.ISCA-IRJSS-2014-322.pdf |journal=International Research Journal of Social Sciences |date=April 2015 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=74–80}}</ref>

==== Shi'ism in Gilgit Baltistan ====
In the 16th century, while [[Gilgit]] was ruled by a Buddhist King Sri Badat, it was invaded by Shamsher of Skardu where Shi'ism had already won converts. Sri Badat's treatment of people is said to be so harsh that when Shamsher invaded, the people rose to rebellion and he fled the country. Shamsher introduced Shi'ism to Gilgit.<ref name=":23">Military Report and Gazetteer of the Gilgit Agency, 2nd ed., page 44, (1927).</ref> His successors were Malik Khan, Tratra Khan and Trakhan, respectively. During the rule of Trakhan, Gilgit was invaded by Taj Mughal of Badakhshan. Trakhan was forced to accept Sunnism, and pay a yearly tribute. Taj Mughal then attacked Hunza, seized the ruler, Girkis, and forced them to change their faith. Nagar was not invaded and the people there have retained their original Shia creed.<ref name=":23" /> Around 1659, Sang-i Ali, the ruler of Chitral attacked Gilgit and expelled its ruler, Mirza Khan, who went to Skardu and there he converted to Shia faith. He returned with a stronger force and conquered Gilgit.<ref>Military Report and Gazetteer of the Gilgit Agency, 2nd ed., page 45, (1927).</ref>

=== Shi'ism in south India (1490–1687) ===
[[Ibn Battuta]] reports a settlement of Shi'as at [[Kollam|Quilon]] in [[Kerala]] in the first decades of the fourteenth century, where they 'proclaimed their affiliation openly'.<ref>C.F. Beckingham, tr., "The Travels of Ibn Battuta", Vol. IV, p. 817, London, (1994).

As cited in: S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The State, Shia's and Shi'ism in Medieval India'''", Studies in People's History, 4, 1, p. 32–45, SAGE (2017).</ref> The [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmani kingdom]] (1347–1526) in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], had its capital in Gulbarga and then Bidar (in [[Karnataka]]) ruled by a dynasty of Persian origin. It patronized men of scholarship and hence Shia missionaries and scholars arrived in Deccan. In the phase of decline, it split up into five smaller kingdoms, three of them ruled by Shias.

==== The Adil Shahi dynasty (1489–1686) ====
[[Yusuf Adil Shah]] of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origin, the adopted son of a Shia scholar [[Mahmud Gawan]], declared autonomy in [[Bijapur district, Karnataka|Bijapur]] in 1489 after his father was executed by the drunk king, and proclaimed Shi'ism as the state religion in 1502. Bijapur became the first Twelver Shia state in India, with Ja'fari, Hanafi and Sha'fi schools of Islamic law, each applied to its followers. It was the first time in India that ''Shia [[Adhan]]'' was called on the state pulpits and names of the twelve [[The Twelve Imams|Shia Imams]] be included in ''Khutba''. However, he strictly banned the practice of ''[[tabarra]]''.<ref>J. N. Hollister, "'''The Shi'a of India'''", pp. 113, Luzac and Co, London (1953).</ref> In 1579, the king [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II|Ibrahim II]] adopted Sunni sect, but the people were allowed to follow their own. The [[Adil Shahi dynasty]] stayed independent until 1686 when it was annexed to the [[Mughal Empire]] by [[Aurangzeb]].

==== The Qutb Shahi dynasty (1512–1687) ====

The longest surviving Shia-ruled state in southern India was that of the [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Qutb Shahs]]. Its founder Sultan [[Quli Qutb Mulk]] was of Turkoman origins. He ordered the ''Khutba'' to be read in the names of the twelve Shia Imams. This kingdom was known for its wealth: it is the only one among the Deccan sultanates to have a currency of gold coins. It became the hub of Shia culture in India, later surpassed only by [[Lucknow]]. [[Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah]] (1565–1612) is the first [[Urdu]] poet to have compiled and published a divan<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rekhta.org/Poets/quli-qutub-shah/all|title=Read famous Poetry of Quli Qutub Shah|website=Rekhta|access-date=2019-05-31}}</ref> and also the first to write a ''[[Marsiya]]'' in Urdu. A Shia scholar and scientist, [[Mir Muhammad Momin]], came to Golconda in 1581, and was assigned the task of designing the new capital [[Hyderabad]], which was built in 1591. The first [[Hussainiya|Imambara]] in India, by the name of "''[[Badshahi Ashurkhana]]''" was built along with other monuments and buildings like [[Charminar]], gardens of Ilahi Mahal, Jama Masjid, Colleges and Hospitals. In 1592, the oldest surviving flag <nowiki>''</nowiki>[[Bibi-Ka-Alam|Alam]]<nowiki>''</nowiki> was erected at the Ashurkhana.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A socio-intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''<nowiki>'', Vol. I, p. 307, Mar'</nowiki>ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref>

The kingdom was at the center of diamond production and trade, not [[Asia]] alone but worldwide. rich in agriculture as it was, it was also famous for its weapons industry, cloth, carpet, agriculture, diamond and gold mines.<ref name=":2">J. N. Hollister, "'''The Shi'a of India'''", pp. 120–125, Luzac and Co, London (1953).</ref> Its riches lured Mughal Empire into attack and Shia religious and intellectual culture lost state patronage after it was annexed by [[Aurangzeb]] in 1687. <gallery widths="250" heights="200">
File:Deccan sultanates 1490 - 1687 ad.png|The Deccan sultanates (1490–1687)
File:Madarasa of Mahmud Gawan.JPG|Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Shia scholar and Vizier, in 1460.
File:Charminar sumeet photography 3.JPG|The Charminar designed in 1591 by the Shia scholar Mir Muhammad Momin, is located in Hyderabad, India.
File:Golconda Fort Hyderabad, Golconda Fort Hyderabad India.jpg|Golconda Fort
File:Hyderabad,_Badshahi_Ashurkhana,_interno_01.jpg|Badshahi Ashurkhana, the first Imambargah in the subcontinent, built in 1591
File:Co-education in Qutb Shahi Dynasty.jpeg| Co-education in Golconda: this painting represents a scene in a school with an old teacher seated in the middle in the mid-17th century, Sir Ratan Tata Art Collection 22.3427
</gallery>

==== The Nizam Shahi dynasty (1490–1633) ====
Another dynasty in the Deccan, the [[Nizam Shahi dynasty|Nizam Shahis]] of Ahmadnagar, was founded in 1490 by [[Ahmad Nizam Shah I|Ahmad Nizam Shah]], the son of a Hindu convert to Islam. His son, [[Burhan Nizam Shah I|Burhan Shah]], became a staunch [[Isma'ili]] Shi'a under the influence of [[Shah Tahir]], the ''imam'' of the Muhammad-Shahi (Mu'mini) line of [[Nizari]]s.<ref>J. N. Hollister, "'''The Shi'a of India'''", pp. 118, Luzac and Co, London (1953).</ref> Their independence was lost when the Mughal Emperor [[Akbar]] forced them to pay tribute. In 1633 AD their kingdom was finally annexed by the Mughal Emperor [[Shah Jahan]].

=== Mughal Empire ''Phase-I'' (1526–1707 AD) ===

In March 1526 AD, [[Babur]] defeated the last monarch of the Delhi Sultanate, [[Ibrahim Lodi|Ibrahim Lodhi]], at Panipat and one year later defeated the Rajput hero [[Rana Sanga]] near Sikri. He became the first Mughal Emperor of India but died shortly after, in 1530 AD at Agra. Majority of his army commanders were Turani Begs, however, some of them were Iranians. His son Humayun succeeded him, who inherited his military and Sufi-hanafi orientation. However, he met a crushing defeat at the hands of [[Sher Shah Suri]] in 1540, due to disputes among his brothers, and fled to Iran where [[Tahmasp I|Shah Tahmasp]] welcomed him warmly. In 1545 AD, Hamayun with the help of Iranian military genius [[Bairam Khan|Bayram Khan]], launched attack on Qandhar and then seized Kabul. He conquered Delhi in 1555 AD and died the next year, leaving the throne to his young son [[Akbar]], who was to rule India for almost half a century and become one of the greatest Emperors, Plato's ''[[philosopher king]],'' of India. Him and his contemporary in Deccan, [[Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah]], are perhaps the most enlightened and progressive Kings in Indian history.

In his childhood, two influential Sunni clerics persuaded him to turn a blind eye to their atrocities against Shias. In 1564 AD, a Shia philosopher and mathematician, Mir Murtaza Shirazi, moved to Akbar's court. When he died in 1567 AD, he was buried near the great poet Amir Khusrow. Shaykh Abd un Nabi and Mulla Makhdum-ul Mulk insisted that his dead body be taken out and buried somewhere else, the young Emperor ordered and his grave was dug up. Around 1570 AD, a Shia jurist, Mir Habsh Turbati was killed, and in Kashmir, Akbar's envoy Mirza Muqim.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A socio-intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 1, pp. 212, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> The two clerics would not tolerate difference of opinion, and using their influence in the court of the young king, they forced Fayzi and Abu-ul Fazl into going underground. However, soon the king had enough of their bigotry and he started questioning what he had been taught. In 1575 AD, he built a debating hall by the name of [[Ibadat Khana|Ibadatkhana]], where he would hold discussions between men of knowledge from all backgrounds.<ref>{{cite journal |author=S. A. N. Rezavi |title=Religious Disputations and Imperial Ideology: The Purpose and Location of Akbar's Ibadatkhana |journal=Studies in History |date=July 2008 |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=195–209 |doi=10.1177/025764300902400203}}</ref>

The Mughal state was secular, perhaps the pioneer of secularism, and did not facilitate hate crimes, but a cold war between Shia and Sunni elite continued. Mughal Emperors except Aurangzeb, were indifferent to sectarian disputes and did not encourage sectarian violence.

==== Shia revival in Punjab ====
[[File:Shrine of RAJAN SHAH Layyah.JPG|thumb|Shrine of Syed Raju Shah Bukhari in Layyah]]
In the sixteenth century, an influential Shia saint Syed Raju Shah Bukhari of [[Layyah District|Layyah]] launched a campaign against unnecessary ''taqiyya'' amongst the Shia and invited them to express their beliefs more openly. Another saint, Syed Mahbub-i Alam Shah Jiwana (1490 – 1564 AD) settled in a village near Jhang. During this time, many saints and syeds professed their faith and identified as Shia openly. They and their disciples proselytized across the agricultural heartlands of Punjab.<ref>Andreas Rieck, "'''The Shias of Pakistan'''", p. 7, Oxford University Press, (2015).</ref>

==== Shia intelligentsia in Akbar's court ====
During the reign of the curious and just Akbar the Great (1556–1605 AD), men of knowledge from all over India gathered at his [[Ibadat Khana|Ibadat khana]] in the then Maughal capital, [[Fatehpur Sikri]]. Among them were three Shia scholars: [[Fathullah Shirazi|Shah Fathullah Shirazi]], [[Qazi Nurullah Shustari]] and [[Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi|Mullah Ahmad Thattavi]].

The foundations of Shi'i theology in present-day Pakistan were laid by [[Qazi Nurullah Shustari]] who stayed in Lahore from 1586 AD to 1599 AD.<ref name=":6">S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. I, pp. 342–387, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> He was born in a scholarly family of Iran in 1549 AD. In 1584 AD, he moved from Mash'had to India and arrived in Akbar's court the next year. In 1586 AD, Akbar shifted his capital to Lahore and appointed him as the Qazi (chief jurist) of the city. He accepted the position on the condition that he will follow his own judgement (Ijtihad) and not adhere to a particular school of jurisprudence. He reformed the judiciary system and made sure that justice was served to the masses. [[`Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni|Mulla Badauni]] says:

''"He has reduced the insolent jurists and subtle and crafty judges to order and has eradicated their corruption and has put constraints on their conduct. He is well-known for his neutrality, modesty, piety, justice, virtue, and qualities of a noble man. He is well known for his scholarship, decision power, insight, and clarity of thought. He has authored many tracts and also possesses poetic faculty''<ref name=":6" />''."''

In that era, due to conflict between [[Ottoman Empire]] and [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid Empire]], several books targeting Shias were circulating in India and the Middle East. Shushtari set out to confront the most important of them. He opposed the practice of [[Taqiya|taqiyya]] in an era wherein a just King treated all his subjects equally regardless of their beliefs. He said:<ref name=":12" />
{{Blockquote|text=({{langx|fa|
شهنشهی کہ زپاس حمایتش در هند

نبرده شاهد ایمان من تقیه بکار
}}

"blessed be the King whose patronage in India

has allowed my faith to not depend on taqiyya"|sign=|source=|title=}}

 [[File:Entrance Dargah Shaheed-e-Salis Qazi Nurullah Shustari.jpg|thumb|The tomb of Qazi Nurullah Shustari in Agra]]
He wrote "''Masaib-un Nawasib(مصائب النواصب)''" in response to "''al-Nawaqiz fi Radd ala-al Rawafiz(النواقض فی رد علی الروافض)''", "Sawarim-ul Mohriqa(صوارم المہرقہ) " in response to "''al-Sawaiq-ul Muhriqa(الصواعق المحرقہ)''" and his magnum opus, "''Ihqaq-ul Haq(احقاق الحق)''" in response to "''Ibtal-al Nahjl-al Batil(ابطال النہج الباطل)''". He also wrote "''Majalis-ul Momineen(مجالس المومنین)''" on the history of Shias and exegesis of some parts of Quran. He was not just writing books, he was continuously in touch with Shias of India by writing and responding to their letters. They sought his guidance in religious matters. For example, his correspondence with Syed Hasan, grandson of Syed Raju Shah Bukhari, the Kashmiri Shia clergy, and his famous debate "''Asa'la-e Yusufiyya''", with [[Akhbari]] Shia theologian Mir Yusuf Ali Astarabadi.

Towards the end of his rule, Akbar appointed the Qazi to investigate mishandling of governments funds and property in Agra and other places. It appears that he made many enemies, while holding them accountable. After Akbar's death, in 1605 AD, life became harder for him and eventually, he was sentenced to public flogging by Jahangir. He could not tolerate this humiliation and died while bearing lashes on his back in 1610 AD at the age of sixty-one.<ref name=":6" />

Mullah Ahmed Thattavi was son of the Sunni jurist of [[Thatta]]. He was introduced to Shia faith by an Iraqi merchant.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. I, pp. 227, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> After completing his basic education in Thatta, he went to [[Mashhad]] at the age of 22 and attended a course of Ibn Sina's book on medical science, ''[[The Canon of Medicine|The Canon]].'' He then went to [[Qazvin]], [[Iraq]] and finally [[Mecca|Makkah]], visiting places and attending different courses. Upon his return to India, he first went to the Qutb Shahi court in Golkonda and then in 1583, he joined Akbar's court.<ref>J. N. Hollister, "'''The Shi'a of India'''", page 133, Luzac and Co. London (1953).</ref> In the debates about the history of Islam, he used to advocate Shia point of view with missionary zeal. In 1589 AD, He was assassinated in Lahore, his grave was exhumed and his body mutilated and then put to fire by his opponents.<ref name=":40">S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. I, pp. 233–234, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref>

[[Fathullah Shirazi|Shah Fathullah Shirazi]] was one of the leading intellectuals of India, expert on the books of [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] and [[Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi|Shaikh-i-Ishraq]] as well as mathematics and astronomy of the time. He lived in Bijapur city of Adil Shahi Sultanate of Deccan. Akbar invited him to his court in Fathpur Sikri. He arrived in 1583 AD. The jagirdars on his way were ordered to welcome him and escort his caravan. He was appointed the Amin-ul Mulk (trustee of the empire), Azud-ud Daula (arm of the empire) and a joint finance minister with [[Todar Mal|Raja Todar Mal]]. He was tasked with financial reforms. In May 1589, Shah Fathullah fell ill and died, while accompanying the Emperor on his visit to Kashmir.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. I, pp. 222–226, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> His death was a great loss for Akbar. Although his strict observance of religious discipline and rituals in his daily life was distasteful to the Emperor, he was given full freedom by the secular king. He actively took part in the discussions at the [[Ibadat Khana|Ibadat khana]]. He designed and improved weapons, made new astronomical tables and researched on pedagogical approaches for children with special needs. His students kept his tradition alive and as a result, rational sciences became a part of the ''madrassa'' curriculum until the 19th century AD, when [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi|Shah Waliullah]]'s puritanism replaced them with orthodoxy.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, pp. 196–211, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref>

==== Anti-Shi'ism of the Orthodoxy ====
Shaikh [[Ahmad Sirhindi]] wrote a treatise under the title "''Radd-e-Rawafiz''" to justify the execution of Shia nobles by [[Abdullah Khan II|Abdullah Khan Uzbek]] in [[Mashhad]]. According to him, the worst distorters of faith "are those who bear malice against the companions of Prophet Muhammad. God has called them Kafirs in the Quran". In a letter to [[Shaikh Farid Bukhari]], he said that showing respect to the distortors of faith ([[Bidʻah|''ahl-e-Bidʻah'']]) amounted to destruction of Islam.<ref name="Syed Athar Abbas Rizvi p. 250">Syed Athar Abbas Rizvi, "'''Muslim Revivalist Movements in Northern India'''", p. 250, Agra University Press, Agra, (1965).</ref>

==== Jahangir and Shah Jahan ====
[[File:Hussaini Dalan at Night.jpg|thumb|Imambaraa [[Hussaini Dalan]] in [[Dhaka]], built by Mir Murad under patronage of [[Shah Shuja (Mughal prince)|Shah Shuja]], who was governor of Bengal in Shah Jahan's era.]]
[[Jahangir]] and [[Shah Jahan]] both continued Akbar's policy of coexistence and secularism. Although Jahangir executed Qazi Nurullah Shushtari, it was not for religious reasons; rather, he disliked many of his father's associates and acted against them.<ref name=":6" /> As an eighteenth century editor of ''Jahangirnama'' puts it:

"''the new sovereign possibly wished to draw a line under the rule of his father and all those associated needed to be sidelined''".<ref name=":7" />

Jahangir's jailing of the aforementioned [[Ahmad Sirhindi]], is also indicative of his indifference towards sectarian conflicts.<ref name=":7">{{cite journal |author=Sajjad Rizvi |title=Shī'Ī polemics at the Mughal court: The case of QāẓĪ Nūrullāh Shūshtarī |journal=Studies in People's History |date=June 2017 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=53–67 |doi=10.1177/2348448917693740|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Francisco Pelsaert]], a Dutch merchant who lived in Agra between 1620 and 1627 AD, gives an account of people openly commemorating Muharram:

<blockquote>"''In commemoration of this tragedy, they wail all night for a period of ten days. The women recite lamentations and display grief. The men carry two decorated coffins on the main roads of the city with many lamps. Large crowds attend these ceremonies, with great cries of mourning and noise. The chief event is on the last night, when it seems as if a Pharoah had killed all the infants in one night. The outcry lasts till the first quarter of the day''".<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, p. 298, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref></blockquote>

A similar liberty was noticed when Mahmud Balkhi visited Lahore in Muharram 1625 AD, he wrote:

"''The whole city was commemorating Muharram with passion and enthusiasm. Tazias were taken out on the 10th and the shops were closed. However, a stampede due to failure of crowd control resulted in deaths of around 75 people''".<ref>Mahmud Balkhi, "Bahr-ul Asrar", ed. Riaz-ul Islam, Karachi, 1980, pp. 7–10.

As cited in:

S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The state, Shia's and Shi'ism in Medieval India'''",Studies in People's History, 4, 1, pp. 32–45, SAGE (2017).</ref>
[[File:Shalimar garden 3.JPG|thumb|The Shalimar Garden in Lahore]]
Qazi Nurullah's son, Ala-ul Mulk, was appointed tutor of [[Shah Shuja (Mughal prince)|Shah Shuja]], the second son of Shahjahan. Ala-ul Mulk and one of his brothers lived in [[Dhaka]] and introduced the Shi'i creed there.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, p. 3, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> During Shah Jahan's rule over North India, Shi'ism was introduced in Bengal under patronage of his son Shah Shuja, and the second Imambargah of the subcontinent, [[Hussaini Dalan]], was built in the capital city of [[Dhaka]]. In Shah Jahan's court, sometimes religious debates took place and the Emperor does not seems to be taking sides. The most influential Shia of Shahjahan's era was Ali Mardan Khan. He was appointed governor of Kashmir and Punjab. In Lahore, he built the famous [[Shalimar Gardens, Lahore|Shalimar Garden]] and the Shahi Canal. He also rebuilt the road from Sirinagar to Lahore. In Kashmir too, he built gardens and a caravanserai in the name of twelve Shia Imams.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, pp. 15–17, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> Another important Shia noble of the time was Mir Jumla Said Khan, also known as Muazzam Khan Khan-i Khanan. He was an influential general in the Qutb Shahi dynasty and after alienation in [[Abdullah Qutb Shah]]'s court, he shifted his loyalty to the Mughal court. His role in bringing [[Aurangzeb]] to power and [[Siege of Golconda|annexation of Deccan]] was instrumental.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, pp. 28–33, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref>

==== Aurangzeb's religiosity ====
[[Aurangzeb]] (1658 – 1707 AD) was an able ruler, often compared to his great-grandfather Akbar, but he differed from him in his worldview. When he saw the ''khudadad mahal'' of [[Hyderabad]], an important Shia building, he ordered its destruction.<ref name=":8">S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. I, p. 310, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> Aurangzeb gathered a board of Sunni jurists and tasked them with a compilation of [[Hanafi]] rulings later known as [[Fatawa-e-Alamgiri|Fatawa Alamgiri]]. This was a detailed document, consisting of some 30 volumes. It changed the statecraft of the Mughal Empire and elevated the status of [[Hanafi]] [[Maturidi]] [[Sunni Islam]], sometimes to the detriment of other faiths and sects. Some Shias opted to practice taqiyya to preserve court positions, such as [[Ruhullah Khan]], whose Shi'ism only came to light when he was buried as a Shia according to his will.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, p. 12, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> As a ruler, Aurangzeb spent most of his reign campaigning in [[Deccan Plateau|the Deccan]], where some of the rulers were Shias. He wrote:
[[File:Aurangzeb during the siege of Golconda, 1687 (Hyderabad, India).jpg|thumb|Aurangzeb during the siege of Golconda, 1687.]]
"[[Quli Qutb Shah|[Qutb-ul-Mulk]]] popularized [[Rafida|''rifz'']] and criticism of the companions of Prophet, both being a sign of infidelity and heresy, to the extent that the entire kingdom had abandoned the Sunni faith".<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 1, p. 332, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref>
[[File:Mughal-empire-map.jpg|thumb|Mughal Empire till 1700 AD]]
However, while some of Aurangzeb's policies targeted these communities, he did appoint learned and skillful individuals from those communities as officers.<ref>Jadunath Sarkar, "'''History of Aurangzib'''", Vol. 4, Ch. 47, p. 366, M. C. Sarkar and Sons, Calcutta (1919).</ref> In 1646 AD, Aurangzeb ordered the assassination the leader of the [[Dawoodi Bohra]] [[Isma'ili]] Shia sect, [[Qutub Khan Qutbuddin]]. In the aftermath, the Bohra community, who were sea-faring merchants, resorted to taqiya. In some instances, they were heavily fined and their books were confiscated.<ref>Jadunath Sarkar, "'''History of Aurangzib'''", vol. 5, pp. 433-434, M. C. Sarkar and Sons, Calcutta (1924).</ref> Between 1701 and 1706 AD, the Shi'i governor of [[Kashmir]], Ibrahim Khan, appointed a board of Shia theologians to compile the "''Bayaz-e-Ibrahimi''", in which rare manuscripts were collected from different sources.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, p. 19, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref>

==== Shi'ism in Kurram Valley ====
The ''turi'' Shia tribe of Turkish origin<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V16_055.gif|title=Imperial Gazetteer2 of India, Volume 16, page 49 – Imperial Gazetteer of India – Digital South Asia Library|website=dsal.uchicago.edu|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> were living in the tribal areas of the Indus valley from medieval times as nomadic tribes, but by the end of Aurangzeb's rule, they had established themselves in Kurram valley and introduced Shi'ism in the valley.<ref>Andreas Rieck, "'''The Shias of Pakistan'''", p. 8, Oxford University Press (2015).</ref>

=== Mughal Empire ''Phase-II'' (1707–1857 AD) ===
[[File:Shah-e Mardan Delhi.png|thumb|Imambada Shah-e Mardan in Delhi, built around 1726 AD.]]
Aurangzeb's successor [[Bahadur Shah I|Bahadur Shah]] was a tafzili Sunni. He had made peace with Rajputs and invited Sikh guru [[Guru Gobind Singh|Gobind Singh]] to his court. The Maratha leader Shahu was busy with crushing rebels at home. Sikhs resumed their revolt under Banda, and Bahadur Shah had to move to Lahore to contain it.<ref>Stanley Wolpert, "'''A New History of India'''", pp. 169–170, Oxford University Press, (2004).</ref> He is also said to have visited the famous Shia saint, [[Bari Imam|Barri Shah Latif]], then living in a village at the feet of Margala Hills (present day [[Islamabad]]) and paid tributes.<ref>The Gazetteer of Rawalpindi District, p. 80, (1893-94).</ref>

Aurangzeb's bigotry had fueled a cold war between Shia and Sunni elite in North India. Bahadur Shah tried to sort out the Shia-Sunni problem but his death in 1712 AD left the question undecided.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, pp. 35–41, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986)</ref> From there on to [[Nader Shah|Nadir Shah]]'s invasion of 1739 AD, the business of Empire was taken over by conspiracies of king-makers. Religious and racial sensitivities were manipulated to meet selfish ends. This state of affairs was perfect for sectarian conflicts to grow. It seemed that the [[Kharijites|kharjis]] of the pre-Akbar era had re-surfaced. During [[Farrukhsiyar|Farukhsiyar]]'s reign (1713–1719 AD), the most prominent Sufi saint was Khawaja Muhammad Jafar. A cleric from Multan by the name of Shaykh Abdullah visited Delhi and could not stand the reverence of the twelve Imams on his ''dargah''. He went to Delhi's Friday mosque and started to campaign against the Khawaja, which resulted in violence. When he went back to Multan, he continued the hate speech. He was arrested and sent back to Delhi to be put behind the bars. On his way, his followers attacked the police to free him, but the attempt failed to leave many dead. The Shaykh was put in prison.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, p. 43-45, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref>

In 1714 AD, the Maratha civil war had ended. The weakened Mughals now recognized them as part of Mughal Empire. Shahu was given tax collecting power over the large piece of land he already controlled. But the boundaries between the provinces were always disputed, thus Marathas continued their expansion. Mughal Empire started to become decentralized and a number of successor states emerged. Their rulers had considerable autonomy and sought legitimacy by being ceremonially appointed by the Emperor. In 1723 AD, [[Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I|Nizam-ul Mulk]], the strongest Sunni noble at Delhi's court and Mughal Viceroy of the Deccan, declared himself as a shadow king of the area, founding [[Hyderabad State]]. When the Emperor sent an army to crush his soft coup, it was defeated. However, because of constant Maratha threat, he did not claim independent and chose to stay quasi-independent. Following this the Shia [[Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad|Nawabs of Bengal]] and [[Nawab of Awadh|Nawabs of Awadh]] were also awarded hereditary governorship and local autonomy in their respective areas. Like Nizam, they too appointed their own administration in their state, while paying tributes to the Emperor. Meanwhile, the European trading companies had started to recruit armies from local population in Bombay, Madras and Bengal. The Empire entered into an era of perpetual war, mistrust and treachery.<ref>Stanley Wolpert, "'''A New History of India'''", ch. 12, Oxford University Press, (2004).</ref> However, it was also an era of emergence of new cultural capitals, like [[Lucknow]], [[Murshidabad]], [[Hyderabad]] and [[Pune|Poone]].

==== Shia rule in Bengal ====
[[File:Nizamat Imambara, Murshidabad.JPG|thumb|[[Nizamat Imambara|Nizammat Imambara]] of Murshidabad is the biggest imambargah in the Subcontinent.]]
Shi'ism was introduced to Bengal during the governorship of [[Shah Shuja (Mughal prince)|Shah Shuja]] (1641–1661 AD), son of Shah Jahan. However, from 1707 AD to 1880 AD, the Nawabs of Bengal were Shias. They built huge Imambargahs, including the biggest of the Subcontinent built by Nawab [[Siraj ud-Daulah|Siraj-ud Daula]], the [[Nizamat Imambara|Nizammat Imambara]]. The nawabs of Bengal and Iranian merchants in Bengal patronised ''azadari'' and the political capital [[Murshidabad]] and the trading hub [[Hooghly district|Hoogly]] attracted Shia scholars from within and outside India.<ref>Andreas Rieck, "'''The''' '''Shias of Pakistan'''", p. 3, Oxford university press, (2015).</ref>

The first Nawab, [[Murshid Quli Khan]], was adopted by a Shia merchant Haji Shafi Isfahani and was brought up as a Shia.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, ''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'', Vol. 2, pp. 45–47, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> The fifth nawab, [[Alivardi Khan|Ali Vardi Khan]] (1740 – 1756 AD) is among the best rulers India has produced. He was a hard working and far-sighted man. Bengal at that time was richest state of India, as the center of trade it attracted investments from Asian and European companies,<ref name=":9">B. D. Metcalf and T. R. Metcalf, ''A Concise History of Modern India'', pp. 51–52, Cambridge University press, (2012).</ref> and that was why it was attacked by the [[Maratha]]s,<ref>K. K. Datta, ''Ali Vardi and His Times'', ch. 3, University of Calcutta Press, (1939)</ref> the Afghan [[Rohilla]]s<ref>K. K. Datta, ''Ali Vardi and His Times'', ch. 4, University of Calcutta Press, (1939)</ref> and finally the [[East India Company]] (EIC) managed to conquer it after his demise. During the Anglo-French and Anglo-Indian [[Carnatic Wars|wars]] in Madras region and beyond, and their gradually increasing invisible control over these regions, Ali Vardi Khan studied the developments with the help of his spies. While he encouraged trade with Europeans, he did not let them build military-purpose fortress in Bengal. If they tried doing it, he would demolish it and say to them:

<blockquote>"''You are merchants, what need have you of a fortress? Being under my protection, you have no enemies to fear''".<ref>K. K. Datta, ''Ali Vardi and His Times'', pp. 155–156, University of Calcutta Press, (1939).</ref></blockquote>

He was a practising Shia, he offered prayers and recited [[Quran]] everyday and held meetings with learned men for discussions.<ref>K. K. Datta, ''Ali Vardi and His Times'', p. 170-171, University of Calcutta Press, (1939).</ref> At the times of war and crisis, he used to pray whole night on a [[Turbah|piece of earth]] from the grave of Imam Hussain at Karbala.<ref>K. K. Datta, ''Ali Vardi and His Times'', p. 139, University of Calcutta Press, (1939).</ref> During his reign, many Shia scholars came to Bengal and started teaching in 'maktabs', mosques and imambaras.<ref>K. K. Datta, ''Ali Vardi and His Times'', p. 241, University of Calcutta Press, (1939).</ref> He did not discriminate against Hindus or others on the basis of religion, and this was one of his points of strength. However, the EIC managed to exploit tensions based on religion and when his naive and young grandson [[Siraj ud-Daulah|Nawab Siraj-ud Daula]] came to power, many members of Hindu elite, especially [[Jagat Seth]] and [[Omichund|Amir Chand]], supported the great conspiracy of 1757 AD, and the EIC [[Bengal Presidency|annexed Bengal]].<ref>K. K. Datta, ''Ali Vardi and His Times'', pp. 177–178, University of Calcutta Press, (1939).</ref><ref name=":9" /> Keeping the puppet nawabs on their thrones, now the East India Company were [[Indirect rule|indirectly ruling]] parts of Southern and Eastern India without exposing themselves to the volatile power struggle between the Afghans, the Marathas and the Shias. This strategy of camouflage was adopted to gain maximum economic advantage of the situation. A decade of exploitation followed. Bengal, the once richest province of India, suffered from famine in 1770 AD, and one third of its peasants died and others driven to cannibalism.<ref>Stanley Wolpert, ''A New History of India'', p. 188, Oxford University Press, (2004).</ref>

==== Afghan invasions ====
[[File:THE FIRST SIGHT THAT MET HIS GAZE WAS THE BODIES OF HIS MURDERED COUNTRYMEN..gif|thumb|Nader Shah finds his troops being killed in Delhi riots after rumours of his death spread. This led him to order the slaughter that took 30, 000 lives.]]
After the end of [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] rule over Iran, a general of the Safavids, [[Nader Shah|Nadir Shah]], had crowned himself as the Emperor of Persia in 1736 AD and wrote to the Mughal Emperor to expel the Afghan rebels of Iran who had hidden themselves in areas under Mughal control. When [[Muhammad Shah]], who was busy with revolts at home, failed to respond, he used this as a pretext to attack Delhi and plunder it. The Shia nawab of Awadh, [[Saadat Ali Khan I|Sa'adat Ali Khan]] tried to defend Delhi but was stabbed in the back by [[Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I|Nizam-ul Mulk]], who prevented the Emperor from sending reinforcements and the nawab ended up arrested.<ref>William Irvine, "'''Later Mughals'''", Vol. 2, pp. 341–344, M.C. Sarkar and Sons, (1922).</ref> Nader Shah's campaigns to unify Iran had cost him much and he desperately needed wealth to overcome financial crisis at home, which he took from Delhi. After his assassination in 1747 AD, the commander of his Afghan troops [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmed Shah Abdali Durrani]] proclaimed independence and founded [[Afghanistan]] in parts of Iran and India. To fill his treasury he attacked and looted the Indus Valley seven times. His [[Indian campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani|invasions]] were supported by the Afghan [[Rohilla]]s in Delhi who had rebellious tendencies since last days of Aurangzeb. Ahmed Shah Abdali attacked Punjab in 1747 AD and advanced towards Delhi, but the Shia nawab of Awadh and commander of the Mughal army [[Safdar Jang]] defeated him at Manpur near [[Sirhind-Fategarh|Sirhind]]. After this event, the Rohillas attacked Awadh but were pushed back. Safdar Jang made alliance with Marathas against Abdali and his Rohilla agents. Abdali invaded Punjab again by the end of 1748 AD and created havoc. In 1751 AD, he invaded Punjab the third time and this time the Mughal governor Mir Mannu ceded Lahore and Multan to him and regained governorship under Abdali.

With increasing sectarian strife at the Mughal court, the Sunni faction managed to enthrone [[Alamgir II|Alamgir-II]] as the Emperor, and persuaded him to ban the commemoration of Muharram in Delhi. The old Emperor tried to marry a princess [[Hazrat Begum]], who was famous for her beauty, but she prevented the marriage by threatening to commit suicide.

In 1757 AD Abdali reached Delhi and ordered his forces to unleash carnage. For more than a month, Afghans went from home to home, taking whatever wealth people had, even if it was buried in the ground, and raping women. Sikh militias attacked Abdali's forces on their way back to Afghanistan, and free some of the Hindu or Sikh women that were taken as sex-slaves. Abdali invaded Delhi in 1759 AD again, looted the city, expelled its Shia population, forcibly married the 16-year-old beauty [[Hazrat Begum|Princess Hazrat Begum]]. Alamgir-II was murdered and his son [[Shah Alam II|Shah Alam-II]] exiled to Awadh and the Rohilla Najib-ud Dawla and Imad-ul Mulk were appointed as chief executives.<ref name=":10">S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, pp. 55–60, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> Marathas tried to liberate Delhi and the Emperor, but were defeated by the united Shia-Sunni force in 1761 AD in the historic [[Third Battle of Panipat|third battle of Panipat]].<ref>Stanley Wolpert, "'''A New History of India'''", pp. 183 – 184, Oxford University Press, (2004).</ref> Unlike his father, the young Shia nawab of Awadh [[Shuja-ud-Daula|Shuja-ud Daula]] supported Abdali and Rohillas against the patriotic Marathas for religious reasons, but Abdali proved to be a sectarian bigot when he expelled the Shia population of Delhi and appointed the ruthless Rohillas on the demands of [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi|Shah Waliullah]].<ref name=":10" /> Shah Waliullah died in 1762 AD, but there was no room for Shias in Delhi until the Rohilla chief Najib-ud Daula died in 1770 AD and Ahmed Shah Abdali in 1772 AD. What followed was emergence of Sikh power in Punjab and a power struggle in [[Kandahar|Qandahar]] which stopped his heirs from attacking Indus valley. In 1771 AD, Marathas drove Rohillas out of Delhi and put the Mughal Emperor back to throne. He appointed a Shia general [[Mirza Najaf Khan]] as his minister and the relieved Shias abolished Taqiyya.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, p. 61, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> [[File:Tomb of Mirza Najaf Khan 05.jpg|thumb|[[Mirza Najaf Khan]]'s tomb, the commander-in-chief of the [[Mughal Army]] during 1772–1782 AD.]]

In 1788 AD, the Rohillas under [[Ghulam Kadir|Ghulam Qadir]] sacked Delhi again, blinded the Emperor and tortured the imperial family. The Marathas again came to his rescue and the Rohilla chief was ousted and put to death. The Marathas tried to form a united Maratha-Sikh-Afghan front against the British but failed.<ref>Stanley Wolpert, "'''A New History of India'''", p. 198, Oxford University Press (2004).</ref>

Marathas had lost 75,000 troops in Panipat, this crushing defeat exposed them to attacks from Nizam of Hyderabad in the south and a civil war from within. This offered British a chance to expand in Bombay, the [[Treaty of Salbai]] signed in 1782 AD neutralized Maratha threat for 20 years.<ref>Stanley Wolpert, "'''A New History of India'''", pp. 191 – 192, Oxford University Press, (2004).</ref>

Meanwhile, Sikh militias controlled Punjab and the era of political anarchy and economic misery ended only after [[Ranjit Singh|Maharaja Ranjit Singh]] united Sikh forces and founded the [[Sikh Empire]] (1799–1849 AD). He was a secular leader under whom Punjab blossomed again. With Afghans out, Shias of Punjab started to take out processions. A famous Shia saint, Syed La'al Shah from [[Syed Kasran]] traveled across Punjab and established many Imambargahs. The influential faqirs of Lahore and the descendants of Shah Jiwana of Jhang also ensured religious freedom for Shias and promoted azadari.<ref name=":37">Andreas Rieck, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=2HdeCwAAQBAJ&q=ARanjit+Singh The Shias of Pakistan]", p. 9, Oxford University Press, (2016).</ref>

==== Shia rule in Awadh ====
[[Saadat Ali Khan I|Nawab Sa'adat Ali Khan]] was awarded hereditary governorship over [[Awadh]] in 1717 AD after he led Mughal army against the ''Zamindars'' who had recruited their own militias and stopped paying taxes. He was son of a [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] noble, who had left Iran after Safavid Empire started to lose political authority. He made [[Faizabad|Fayzabad]] his capital. Because of turmoil in Iran, many Shia scholars and Syeds immigrated to this city.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, pp. 52 – 53, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> He died in 1739 AD and his nephew [[Safdar Jang]] was appointed the new Nawab by the Mughal Emperor. He was also appointed the prime minister by the Emperor. In 1745, he led a campaign against the [[Rohilla]] rebels near Delhi. In 1748 AD, he defeated Ahmad Shah Abdali near Sirhind. As his influence increased in the Mughal court so did the cold war between the Shia and Sunni elites. In 1753 AD, Safdar Jang was forced to leave Delhi for Awadh by the Sunni elites of Delhi. In 1756 AD, he died.<ref name=":10" /> His son [[Shuja-ud-Daula|Shuja-ud Daula]] succeeded him.

Although [[Mir Jafar]] was made the Nawab of Bengal after his treachery at [[Battle of Plassey|Plassey]], the power and money lied in the hands of British and the responsibility to manage the people on this puppet, like in [[Arcot State|Arcot]] or [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]]. He was soon replaced by [[Mir Qasim]] who tried to regain freedom. [[Shuja-ud-Daula|Shuja-ud Daula]] and the Mughal Emperor [[Shah Alam II|Shah Alam-II]] supported him in the battle. While the Mughal Empire had lost its military strength due to series of Afghan invasions, the British had foreseen this battle and had employed locals at large scale and trained them on the lines of European warfare. The Indian alliance was defeated [[Battle of Buxar|Buxer]] in 1764 AD. Awadh lost its sovereignty and so did Delhi. The British did not annex these areas because they wanted to use Awadh as a buffer between themselves and the Marathas. According to the [[Treaty of Allahabad|Allahabad Treaty]] signed by the Mughal Emperor and [[Robert Clive]], the British troops and advisers, to be paid by [[Nawab of Awadh|Nawab]], were deployed in Awadh. The company's right to collect revenue from Bengal, the richest province of India, was now recognized and legitimized by the Emperor.<ref>B. D. Metcalf and T. R. Metcalf, "'''A Concise History of Modern India'''", p. 53, Cambridge University press, (2012).</ref>

[[File:Shah Alam II, Mughal Emperor of India, reviewing the East India Company's troops, 1781.jpg|thumb|1894 illustration of [[Shah Alam II]] reviewing the British East India Company's troops in 1781]]
[[File:Outer premises of Bara Imambara (Imambara of Asaf-ud-daula in Lucknow) on a summer afternoon.jpg|thumb|Asafi Imambara and mosque in Lucknow]]

Now the Nawab of Awadh focused on cultural and economic enrichment of his state. In 1775 AD [[Asaf-ud-Daula]], the fourth Nawab, shifted his court to the city of Lucknow from Faizabad. The judicial, financial and governmental capital of Awadh became the cultural capital of India.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=P1swAQAAIAAJ The Lucknow Omnibus], Oxford university Press, (2001).</ref> Urdu/Hindi language started to evolve in North India as the main mode of communication. The poet [[Mirza Muhammad Rafi Sauda|Sauda]] (1713 – 1781 AD), who had moved from Delhi to Lucknow, revived Urdu elegies (''[[marsiya]]''). The seminary of [[Darul Uloom Firangi Mahal]], established by Mulla [[Nizam ud Din Sehalvi]] in Aurangzeb's era now became the most important [[Madrasa|madrassa]] of Sunni theology in India. Lucknow attracted scholars, artists and poets from all over India as well as Europe. In 1784 AD, famine struck Awadh and the semi-independent nawab worked hard to relieve people of misery. One of his projects was to create jobs by building the magnificent Asafi Imambara and mosque complex.<ref>F. Hussain, "'''Lucknow: the Last Phase of Oriental Culture'''", p. 47, Oxford University Press (2001).</ref>

==== Allama Tafazzul Husain Khan ====
Eminent Shia scholar and scientist of the time, [[Tafazzul Husain Kashmiri|Allama Tafazzul Husain Kashmiri]] (1727 – 1801), was patronized by the Nawabs of Awadh. He learned and taught philosophy, mathematics and Newtonian physics.<ref name="Hasan1993">{{cite journal |author=Mushirul Hasan |title=Resistance and Acquiescence in North India: Muslim Responses to the West |journal=Rivista Degli Studi Orientali |date=1993 |volume=67 |issue=1/2 |pages=83–105 |jstor=41880771}}</ref> He authored the following:<ref name=":42">Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, pp. 227–228, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, Australia (1986).</ref>

[[File:Tafazul Husain Khan.jpg|thumb|Allama Tafazzul Husain Khan with a British colleague. Painted by Charles D'Oyly.]]
# ''Commentary on Conica of [[Apollonius of Perga|Appollonus]]''.
# ''Two treatise on Algebra''.
# ''Commentary on Conica of [[Diophantus]]''.
# ''Translation of Sir Isaac Newton's [[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]''.
# ''A book on Physics''.
# ''A book on Western Astronomy''.

Some of these books were taught in Shia scholarly circles in the nineteenth century Lucknow.<ref name=":42" /> His student Nawab [[Saadat Ali Khan II|Saadat Ali Khan]] built an observatory in Lucknow.<ref name="Hasan1993" /> Another student, [[Dildar Ali Naseerabadi|Ayatollah Dildar Ali Naqvi Naseerabadi]], who learnt philosophy under him, became the first Usuli Shia Marja of India.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sajjad Rizvi |title=Faith Deployed for a New Shiʿi Polity in India: The Theology of Sayyid Dildar 'Ali Nasirabadi |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=July 2014 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=363–380 |doi=10.1017/S1356186314000303}}</ref>

==== Shi'ism in Mysore ====
[[File:Indian soldier of Tipu Sultan's army.jpg|thumb|A Mysorean soldier, using his rocket as a flagstaff ([[Robert Home]], 1793/4)]]
Shi'ism was introduced in [[Karnataka]] in 1565 AD when it became part of the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Adil Shahi Dynasty]]. Concurrent to the [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]], a major threat to the rule of the [[East India Company|British East India Company]] emerged under the banner of [[Hyder Ali]] (1766–1782 AD), who was the army commander of the [[Wadiyar dynasty|Wadiyar Dynasty]] of [[Mysore]] and then founded the [[Kingdom of Mysore|Khudadad Sultanate]]. He and his son [[Tipu Sultan]] appeared as the most formidable resistance to the colonial occupation. He was the most farsighted Indian of his time, like [[Akbar|Akbar the Great]], he realized the importance of secularism,<ref>Mohibbul Hasan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hkbJ6xA1_jEC&dq=tipu+state+and+religion&pg=PA357 ''History of Tipu Sultan''], ch. 21, Aakar Books (2005).</ref> unity and modern science for the multi-cultural subcontinent.<ref>Irfan Habib, ''Confronting Colonialism: Resistance and Modernization Under Haidar Ali & Tipu Sultan'', Anthem Press London (2002).</ref> He and his son Tipu Sultan were Sufi Sunnis<ref>{{cite web|url=https://toshkhana.wordpress.com/2012/06/04/the-light-of-islam-tipu-sultan-as-a-practising-muslim/|title=The light of Islam: Tipu Sultan as a practising Muslim|last=Olikara|date=2012-06-03|website=The Seringapatam Times|language=en|access-date=2019-06-24}}</ref> who used to commemorate Muharram.<ref>Mohibbul Hasan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hkbJ6xA1_jEC&q=muharram+ceremonies&pg=PA79 ''History of Tipu Sultan''], p. 79, Aakar Books (2005).</ref> They modernized the army, invented the iron-cased [[Mysorean rockets]] and significantly developed [[Economy of the Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore's economy]]. Tipu had deep love for [[Ali]], he inscribed ''Asadullah-ul Ghalib(اسد الله الغالب)'' on weapons. He sent ambassadors to pay homage to [[Ali]] and [[Husayn ibn Ali|Hussain]] in Iraq and ordered them to seek permission from Ottoman Emperor to build a canal from [[Euphrates]] to [[Najaf]] to meet the needs of clean water in the holy city.<ref>Mohibbul Hasan, ''History of Tipu Sultan'', p. 378, Aakar Books (2005).</ref>
[[File:Tipu Sultan BL.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[Tipu Sultan]]]]
At that point in time, Iran was in turmoil and many Syeds and scholars migrated to different parts of India, some ended up in Mysore, which was building its military muscle. Looking for careers in military, many Syeds joined the army and some 2000 Iranian horse traders settled in [[Srirangapatna Fort]].<ref name=":11">J. J. Bijarboneh, "'''The Socio-Economic Study among the Shia Muslims in Mysore City'''", Ch. 2, Lambert Academic Publishing, (2014).</ref> Tipu tried to form a [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore-]] [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad-]] [[Maratha Empire|Pune]] alliance against the British East India Company, though this effort ultimately failed. He also contacted the French counterpart, [[Napoleon]], the Iranian [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar|Fath Ali Shah]] and the Afghan [[Zaman Shah Durrani|Zaman Shah]] for help, but the British managed to encircle and defeat him. In the last [[Anglo-Mysore Wars|Anglo-Mysore war]] in 1799 AD, [[Mir Sadiq]], [[Purnaiah]] and Qamar-ud Din Khan sided with the British East India Company. Syed Ghaffar, Syed Hamid and Muhammad Raza remained loyal to him till the end.<ref>Mohibbul Hasan, "'''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hkbJ6xA1_jEC&q=Sayyid+Ghaffar+Sayyid+Hamid History of Tipu Sultan]'''''"'', p. 373, Aakar Books (2005).</ref> The Syeds fought hard under Syed Ghaffar and after his death, Tipu himself lead the few soldiers defending the fort, but was unsuccessful and died.<ref>Mohibbul Hasan, "'''History of Tipu Sultan'''''"'', p. 316, Aakar Books (2005).</ref> Although Marathas had joined the British 1792 AD against Tipu, they had stayed neutral this time. However, when the news of Tipu's death reached Pune, [[Baji Rao II|Baji Rao]] said that he had lost his right arm.<ref>Mohibbul Hasan, "'''History of Tipu Sultan'''''"'', p. 322, Aakar Books (2005).</ref> Marathas and Sikhs were going to be the next victims.

After the death of the tiger of Mysore, Tipu Sultan, Shias left Srirangapatna Fort and settled in the Mysore city, and some migrated to Bangalore. A Shia scholar Mir Zain-ul Abideen Abid was appointed Mir Munshi by the Wadiyar king and he constructed an imambargah "Rashk-e Bahisht" in Mysore around 1812 AD.<ref name=":11" />

==== Shia rule in Sindh ====
The [[Talpur dynasty]] was a Shia Muslim dynasty based on the region of [[Sindh]], which ruled Sindh and parts of [[Punjab region]], from 1783 to 1843.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.panhwar.net/aftertheindependence.html|title=After Independence in 1947 Development in the History and Archaeology of Sindh|website=www.panhwar.com|access-date=2023-10-23}}</ref> The Talpur army defeated the [[Kalhora Dynasty]] in the [[Battle of Halani]] in 1783 to become rulers of [[Sindh]]. Later it split into three smaller states of Mirpur, Hyderabad and Khairpur.<ref name=":36">Andreas Rieck, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=2HdeCwAAQBAJ&q=AMir+Fath+Ali+Talpur The Shias of Pakistan]", p. 8, Oxford University Press, (2016).</ref> The Talpur dynasty was defeated by the British in 1843 at the [[Battle of Miani]]. Azadari was greatly patronized by the Mirs. The descendants of Mirza Faridun Beg, who was an influential elite at the court of Mir Karam Ali Talpur, contributed a lot to popularization of Muharram rituals.<ref name=":36" />

=== Colonial Period – British Raj ===

==== Shi'ism in Gilgit Baltistan ====
The Dogras and their British allies started to expand their influence in Gilgit around 1848 AD, when Nagar was occupied. In 1853, Gauhar Aman attacked Gilgit and appealed to its people for help. Bhup Sindh was attacked and all his troops except one were killed at Tuin, later known as ''Bhup Singh ka pari''. Gauhar Aman then appointed his son in law, Muhammad Khan, as the ruler of Gilgit.<ref>Military Report and Gazetteer of the Gilgit Agency, 2nd ed., p. 47, (1927).</ref> However, Gilgit was retaken by a Dogra army under General Hushiara in 1858 AD, who in 1860 ordered a total massacre of the people of Yasin valley as a revenge of the earlier military defeats. In 1863, he collectively punished the population of Darel for not supporting his army against an invasion from Chitral.<ref>Military Report and Gazetteer of the Gilgit Agency, 2nd ed., p. 48, (1927).</ref> Several attempts were made in the following years by the tribal chiefs to liberate Gilgit but all failed due to a lack of modern military equipment and strategy. However these attacks did not let the British establish their rule firmly till 1888 AD. In 1889, the Gilgit agency was established and its powers extended over Gurais, Astor, Bunji, Sai and Gilgit. However Chitral, Punial, Hunza, Nagar, Darel, Gor and Chilas were made tributary to the Dogra court of Kashmir.<ref>Military Report and Gazetteer of the Gilgit Agency, 2nd ed., pp. 48 - 51, (1927).</ref>

In Gilgit, Shias co-existed with Sunnis, Buddhists and Hindus. Northern part was reported to be predominantly Shia, while Sunni tenets were found in the Southern part of the region.<ref>Military Report and Gazetteer of the Gilgit Agency, 2nd ed., p. 19, (1927).</ref> The Gazetteer of Gilgit agency reads:

<blockquote>"''Wherever Sunnis and Shias are found living together, they seem to practice a mutual tolerance rare in other Muhammadan communities. Except in Chilas and the Indus valley below or, there is, generally speaking, a complete absence of fanaticism''".<ref>''Military Report and Gazetteer of the Gilgit Agency'', 2nd ed., pp. 19 - 20, (1927).</ref></blockquote>

==== Shi'ism in Kashmir ====
A very small minority of Shias lived in the suburbs of Srinagar, mainly at Zadibal. However, they were very hard-working and industrious people; finest papier-mache workers, shawl-makers and wealthiest were Shias.<ref name=":210"/> Of the famous 10 [[Taraaj-e Shia|Shia Taraaj's]],<ref name=":14" /> the last one occurred in September 1872. The Gazetteer of Kashmir contains the details of the violence:

"''The disturbances then raged for more than a week, and for some time defied the efforts of the governor, who called in the aid of troops; whole districts were reduced to smoldering heaps of ruins; and business was for some time entirely suspended, a great portion of the city being deserted. The Shias fled in every direction, some seeking safety on the adjacent mountains, while others remained in the city in secret lurking places. Many of the women and children of the Shias found an asylum from the hands of their infuriated co-religionists in the houses of the Hindu portion of the community''".<ref>Gazetteer of the Kashmir, p. 32, (1872-73).</ref>

==== Shi'ism in NWFP and Tribal Agencies ====
After the British annexed Kohat, the Turis repeatedly attacked their troops in Miranzai. In 1854 AD an agreement was reached but the raids increased, and in 1856 AD, a force under Neville Chamberlain attacked the valley and the Turis were made to pay Rs. 8,630. In 1877 AD the Turis revolted against the oppressive attitude of the Afghan governor of Kurram. In November, 1878 AD, a British force commanded by General Roberts attacked Kurram from Thal, and occupied Kurram Fort. The Afghans were defeated at the Peiwar Kotal, and Khost was occupied in January next year. At that time, Afghanistan as being ruled by a fanatic Sunni king, [[Abdur Rahman Khan|Amir Abdur Rahman Khan]]. In 1880 AD, the Turis, with the Bangash, asked the British to take over the valley and protect them from Abdur Rahman Khan's fanaticism; but the British decided to keep them as a buffer between India and Afghanistan and the tribe was declared independent. The Shias of Kurram valley requested to join British India once more and the valley was finally annexed to British India in 1892.<ref>Gazetteer of the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), pp. 239 - 240, (1907).</ref>

Besides Turi and Bangash people of Kurram valley, many Orakzai Pashtuns in Tirah, and some in Kohat, Peshawar and Shirani country also professed Shi'ism. Fanaticism was rampant throughout the area.<ref name=":24">Gazetteer of the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), pp. 33 - 34, (1907).</ref> In Kurram, 22% of the population were Turis, 11% were Bangash and the rest were Chamkannis, Ghilzais, Mangals, Orakzais and a small Hindu minority of Arora caste. Main source of income was agriculture, however Silk was also produced and exported.<ref>Gazetteer of the North West Frontier Province (NWFP), p. 240, (1907).</ref>

According to the British estimates, only 1% of the total population of the province professed to be Shia.<ref name=":24" /> In Peshawar, the Shias were only confined to the city, surrounded by fanatic opponents, and only 0.5% of the Muslim population professed to be Shia.<ref name=":26">Gazetteer of the Peshawar District, p. 110, (1898).</ref> Although the numbers may be under-estimated, as many Shias practice ''[[Taqiya]]h'' on individual level, especially while giving out their personal details. Muharram in Peshawar was observed with utmost respect.<ref>Gazetteer of the Peshawar District, p. 114, (1898).</ref> The small Shia community of Peshawar was mainly made of traders and migrants from Afghanistan, Iran, Kashmir and Punjab. In the late nineteenth century, some members of Qizilbash family provided financial support for arrangements of Muharram mourning.<ref name=":38">Andreas Rieck, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=2HdeCwAAQBAJ&q=lal+shahbaz+qalandar The Shias of Pakistan]", p. 11, Oxford University Press, (2016).</ref>

==== Shi'ism in Punjab ====
[[File:Muharram-in-Lahore-1857.jpg|thumb|A painting illustrating Muharram observance of Lahore in 1857.]]
By the end of eighteenth century, Mulla Mehdi Khata'i, a disciple of Shaykh Hurr-al Amili's student Mullah Muhammad Muqim. His student, Syed Rajab Ali (1806–1866 AD) revived Shia scholarly tradition in Punjab in the nineteenth century.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, pp. 103–105, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> The emergence of Lucknow as an intellectual hub for Shi'ism in North India during the reign of the nawabs of Awadh played significant role in introduction of organised Shi'ism and Shia scholarship to Punjab. Clerics trained at the Asif-ud Daula seminary in Lucknow spread throughout North India to preach Usuli Shi'ism and connect people to the central religious authority at Lucknow. In the nineteenth century AD, Allama Abul Qasim Rizvi (1833 – 1906 AD) arrived in Lahore after having completed higher education in Iraq, and founded an Imamia seminary in 1879 patronized by Nawab Ali Raza Khan Qizilbash. Elites like the Qizilbashs in Lahore, Faqirs and Gardezis in Multan and Shah Jiwana and Rajoa Sa'dat in Jhang contributed heavily to the spread of Shi'ism in Punjab.<ref name=":13">{{cite journal |author1=Tahir Kamran |author2=Amir KhanShahid |title=Shari'a, Shi'as and Chishtiya Revivalism: Contextualising the Growth of Sectarianism in the Tradition of the Sialvi Saints of the Punjab |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=July 2014 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=477–492 |doi=10.1017/S1356186314000194}}</ref>

In Attock district, there were few Shia neighbourhoods, majority of them being Syeds.<ref>Gazetteer of Attock District, p. 103, (1907).</ref> In Rawalpindi, the district Gazetteer of 1893 – 94 reports only some Gakhars openly registering themselves as Shias.<ref>Gazetteer of Rawalpindi District, p. 70, (1894).</ref> In Shahpur district, the only 1.8% of the population said that they followed the Shia creed.<ref name=":27">Gazetteer of Shahpur District, p. 40, (1884).</ref> In Lahore, they were a minority spread across the city.<ref name=":28">Gazetteer of Lahore District, p. 94, (1894).</ref>

The Gazetteer of Jhang District of 1883 – 1884 reads:-

<blockquote>"''Shi'as are unusually numerous in Jhang, a fact due to the influence of the Shi'a Kuraishis of Shorkot and Hassu Balel, and the Sayads of Uch who are connected with the famous Sayad family of Belot in Dera Ismael Khan District and Shah Jiwana and Rajoa in the Jhang District. They are the most bigoted type. They observe the Muharram most strictly, abstaining from all luxuries for the first ten days of the month, and on the 10th they accompany the Taziahs bareheaded and bare-footed. They throw dust on their heads and beat their breasts with extreme violence, and allow neither Hindu nor Muhammadan to approach the Taziah without baring his head and removing his shoes''".<ref name=":29">Gazetteer of Jhang District 1883–84, p. 50, (1984).</ref></blockquote>

The coexistence of Shias and Sunnis was noticed in other parts of Punjab as well. The following passage is taken from the 1923–24 Gazetteer of Multan:

"''They are careful in the observance of the Muharram; and although Sunnis join freely in tazia procession, such observances are particularly unknown, except in the quarters where there are Shias to start and organize them. Generally speaking, there is very little bitterness between the Sunni and Shia sect, and in the ordinary intercourse of life, there is little to distinguish the two''".<ref>Gazetteer of Multan District, pp. 121, (1924).</ref>

In the beginning of the twentieth century AD, Shia-Sunni debates were on the rise following [[Azadari in Lucknow#Riot of 1908 and Piggot committee|sectarian riots in Lucknow]]. Allama Syed Muhammad Baqir Naqvi Chakralvi and other Shia scholars of Punjab held public debates with many Sunni scholars in the early years of the twentieth century. These debates during the British rule allowed Shias to present their case in the public without fear. The Multan District Gazetteer mentions this phenomenon:

"''There is organized proselytizing, but every now and then a man is, by conversion or by loan of books, induced to change his sect, and there seems no doubt that the conversions from Sunnism to Shi'ism are more common than the vice versa''".<ref name=":25">Gazetteer of the Multan District, p. 120, (1924).</ref>

Another factor was the wealth generated by the newly developed [[Punjab Canal Colonies|Canal irrigation system]] made it possible for the Shia elites of the area to spend lavishly on Muharram and build Imambargahs.[[File:1960 Azadari Procession in D I Khan.jpeg|thumb|1960: Muharram Procession in Dera Ismail Khan.]]
The Jhang District Gazetteer of 1929 reads:-

''"Shi'ism is on the increase in the district. The influx of wealth on account of canal irrigation has invested some Sayyid families with added importance, and has proved helpful in spreading Shi'ism"''<ref>Gazetteer of Jhang District 1929 (Lahore, 2000), p. 69.</ref>''.''

The number of followers of Syed Ahmad Barelvi, known as Wahabis, had started to increase and thus the bitterness between Shias and Sunnis was also on the rise. The 1915 Gazetteer of Mianwali District recorded Shia phobia as follows:

"''All the Pathan clans, excepting a small number of Shias Kazilbash Pathans in Bhakkar tahsil, are very strict Sunnis and very particular in the matter of prayers, fasts, etc. They have a great hatred of the Shias and Rafzis. An orthodox Pathan regards tazia with the greatest repugnance. The influence of Sunni governors too seems to have led to the very general profession of the Sunni faith by the bulk of the mixed Jat population, though the Biluches have as a rule adhered to the Shia faith''".<ref>Gazetteer of Mianwali District, pp. 71 - 72, (1915).</ref>

==== Shi'ism in Sindh ====
Most of the Talpurs, the Mughals, Khojas, Bohras, a considerable population of Kalhoras, Syeds and Baluchis professed Shia faith.<ref>Gazetteer of the Province of Sind, p. 160, (1907).</ref> The Muharram mourning was observed throughout Sindh. The British Gazetteer of 1907 notes:

"''Among Shias, who regard [[Yazid I|Yazid]] as a usurper and [[Hasan ibn Ali|Hasan]] and [[Husayn ibn Ali|Husain]] as martyrs, it is a season for deep and solemn, or even frenzied, grief. The Sunnis also consider it proper to mourn on the occasion, but in moderation. The mourning commences ten days before the anniversary and [[Tazia|Taziahs]], or Tabuts, that is models of the tomb of Husain at [[Karbala]], are prepared in many houses, sometimes in very imposing and expensive styles. The Mirs, who are Shias and the Sayads of [[Rohri]], [[Sukkur]] and [[Shikarpur District|Shikarpur]] are lavish in their expenditure on these. During the ten days of mourning the religious do not work, but dress in black and devote themselves to lamentation and prayer and listening to recites of the moving story. On the tenth day the tabuts are taken in procession to the sea, or a river or lake, and thrown into the water''".<ref>Gazetteer of the Province of Sind, p. 240, (1907).</ref>

==== Khairpur Princely State ====
After the British conquest of Sindh in 1843, Khairpur remained as a self-governing [[princely state]]. After the partition of India it became a [[princely states of Pakistan|princely state of Pakistan]] and remained so till 1955, when it was merged into the [[One Unit]] of West Pakistan. The Talpur Mirs patronized the Muharram mourning and built Shia mosques and Imambaras. One of the Shia intellectuals of that era, Mirza Qilich Beg, is known as the pioneer of Sindhi drama and novels.<ref name=":36" /> Mir [[George Ali Murad Khan]] remains one of the few surviving first class rulers of the old Indian Empire, still holding a public Majlis every Muharram at his sprawling palace, Faiz Mahal.

==== Shi'ism in Balochistan ====
The annexation of Balochistan and formation of British garrison in 1876 coincided with the rule of [[Abdur Rahman Khan|Amir Abdur Rahman Khan]], the Sunni king of Afghanistan, who attacked [[Hazarajat]] to annex the area, and his forces committed atrocities against the Shia Hazaras. Meanwhile, the 1888 – 1893 [[1888–1893 Uprisings of Hazaras|Hazara uprising]] had begun in Afghanistan, which was ruthlessly suppressed, about half of the Hazara population killed or expelled, their properties confiscated and women and children were sold as slaves.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/hazaras/|title=Hazaras|website=Minority Rights Group|date=19 June 2015 |language=en-GB|access-date=2019-09-23}}</ref> Many Hazaras fled to Quetta and started to live there. Some Shias from Punjab also settled there.<ref name=":38" />

In [[Lasbela district]], the trading community of Khojas were Shias, and lived in Miani niabat, Uthal, Ormara, and Shah Liari. They were majorly Ismailis, but a few Twelvers who observed mourning and made tazias or effigies of the Imams. The British Gazetteer noted that the Shias were despised by the Sunnis.<ref>Gazetteer of Las Bela, p. 63, (1907).</ref> In the district of Makran and Kharan, the Shias were known as Lotias, who were Khojas by ethnicity. They were found in Gwadar, Pasni, and Isai. They lived along the coastline and engaged in trade.<ref>Gazetteer of Makran and Kharan, p. 109, (1907).</ref>

==== Shi'ism in Karachi ====

Karachi's cultural and social soul has been profoundly shaped by its numerous historic imambargahs, which serve as vital pillars of faith, resilience, and cultural preservation, especially during Muharram. These include the venerable '''Imambargah Siraj''' (circa 1775) in Lyari, the city's oldest; '''Ghareebul Ghurba Imambargah''' (1830) and '''Bishu Imambargah''' (1835) in Naya Abad; '''Imambargah Barah Imam''' (from 1836) in Bhim Pura; '''Barra Imambargah''' (1868) in Kharadar, renowned for its poetic rituals; and post-Partition establishments like '''Imambargah Hussainia Iranian''' (1948) and '''Mehfil-i-Shah-i-Khorasan''' (1948) in Soldier Bazaar, '''Qaimia Imambargah''' (1948) and '''Imambargah Darbar-i-Husaini''' (1954) in Malir; and later additions such as '''Imambargah Shah Wilayat''' (1960) in Golimar, '''Imambargah Jaffar-i-Tayyar''' (1960) in Malir, and '''Shah-i-Karbala Trust (Rizvia) Imambargah''' (1960) in Rizvia Society. These imambargahs collectively serve as crucial spiritual hubs, safeguard cultural traditions, and foster strong social cohesion for the city's diverse communities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raza |first=Mansoor |date=2025-07-06 |title=THE IMAMBARGAHS THAT SHAPED KARACHI'S SOUL |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1922423 |access-date=2025-07-14 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref>

== Sectarian Violence ==
{{see also|Genocide of Kashmiri Shias}}
While Shias and Sunnis have lived side by side in the subcontinent for centuries, anti-Shia violence has been growing consistently for the past 300 years. Anti-Shi'ism has two aspects: shiaphobic literature and hate-crimes. The anti Shia literature that portrays Shias as religiously heretic, morally corrupt, politically traitors and lesser human beings sets the ideological framework for the violence against them.

=== Historical timeline ===
In the medieval period, the Middle East saw bloody clashes between both sects but the subcontinent remained safe and peaceful because of the secular policy of Mughals. Until the end of the sixteenth century AD, only two anti-Shia books were written in India: ''Minhaj al-Din'' by Makhdoom-ul Mulk Mullah Abdullah Sultanpuri and ''Radd-e Rawafiz'' by [[Ahmad Sirhindi|Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi]].<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "Shah Abd al-Aziz", p. 253, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, (1982).</ref> Sirhindi argues:
<blockquote>"''Since the Shia permit cursing Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and one of the chaste wives (of the Prophet), which in itself constitutes infedality, it is incumbent upon the Muslim ruler, nay upon all people, in compliance with the command of the Omniscient King (Allah), to kill them and to oppress them in order to elevate the true religion. It is permissible to destroy their buildings and to seize their property and belongings.''"<ref>Yohanan Friedmann, "'''Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi'''", Chapter 5(3), p. 74, PhD Thesis, Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill University, Montreal, (1967).</ref>
</blockquote>
He has expressed his hate towards Shias in his letters too. According to him, the worst distorters of faith "are those who bear malice against the companions of Prophet Muhammad. God has called them Kafirs in the Quran". In a letter to Sheikh Farid, he said that showing respect to the distortors of faith ([[Bidʻah|''ahl-e-Bidʻah'']]) amounted to destruction of Islam.<ref name="Syed Athar Abbas Rizvi p. 250"/>

As far as armed violence is concerned, the medieval period has only few examples of Shias being killed for their beliefs, most notable incidents are the killing of [[Abdullah Shah Ghazi]] in 768 AD,<ref>Derryl N. Maclean," Religion and Society in Arab Sind", p. 111, BRILL, (1989) {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}: "It is difficult to evaluate these claims ... in the absence of either period epigraphs or early textual references".</ref> the destruction of Multan in 1005 AD, the persecution of Shias at the hands of [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq|Sultan Feroz Shah]] (1351–1388 AD),<ref name=":39" /> and the target killing of Mullah Ahmad Thathavi in 1589 AD.<ref name=":40" /> However, the killer of Mulla Ahmad Thathavi was served justice by Emperor Akbar.<ref name=":12" /> The death of Syed Nurullah Shushtari seems to be politically motivated.<ref name=":7" /> The region of [[Srinagar]] in Kashmir is an exception in Middle Ages with ten bloody [[Taraaj-e Shia]] campaigns.<ref name=":14" />

However, in the eighteenth century AD, the number of polemical writings started to increase.<ref name="A. Rizvi p. 255">S. A. A. Rizvi, "Shah Abd al-Aziz", p. 255, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, (1982).</ref> It started with Aurangzeb's discrimination against the Shias. The sixth Mughal emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir hated the Shias; he abolished the secular policy of Akbar and tried to establish the superiority of the Sunni sect. He supervised the compilation of an encyclopedia of religious rulings, called fatawa Alamgiri, in which Shias were said to be heretics. The spiritual leader of Bohra Shias, Sayyid Qutb-ud-din, along with his 700 followers were massacred on the orders of Aurangzeb. He banned the tazia processions.<ref>A. Truschke, "Aurangzeb: The Man and The Myth", Penguin, (2017).</ref> In the century following his death, polemical literature and sectarian killings increased.

==== Shia vs Sunni power struggle ====
Whenever a Mughal emperor died, war of succession followed in which elites played a key role. After Aurangzeb's death, when the Shia elites tried to play political role, the Sunni elite used the sectarian polarization created by Aurangzeb to undermine the Shia elite. This created a tug-of-war at the heart of Mughal Empire. Bengal and Awadh came under the rule of the Shia elite and the rest of the states, e.g. Deccan, Rohailkhand, Kashmir, etc., were ruled by Sunni elite. Shah Waliullah (1703 – 1762 AD) was among those Sunni clerics who were patronized by the Sunni elite. He started his career by translating the anti-Shia track of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, ''radd-e-rawafiz'', into Arabic under the title of ''al-muqaddima tus-suniyyah fil intisar lil-firqa te-sunniyah (المقدمة السنية في الانتصار للفرقة السنية).''<ref>{{cite web|title=مخطوطات > المقدمة السنية في الانتصار للفرقة السنية > الصفحة رقم 10|url=https://makhtota.ksu.edu.sa/makhtota/4583/10|access-date=2021-01-03|website=makhtota.ksu.edu.sa}}</ref> He continued to criticise the Shias in his books like ''Qurat-ul Ainain'' (قراۃ العینین), ''Azalah-tul Khafa (ازالۃ الخفا)'', ''Fayyuz-ul Haramain'' (فیوض الحرمین), etc.<ref name=":19">Khaled Ahmed, "Sectarian War", pp. 12 – 14, Oxford University press, (2012).</ref><ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "Shah Waliullah and His Times", pp. 249 – 256, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, (1980).</ref> Other Sunni polemics include ''Najat al-Muminin (نجات المومنین)'' by Muhammad Mohsin Kashmiri, and ''Durr-ut Tahqiq (درالتحقیق)'' by Muhammad Fakhir Allahabadi.<ref name="A. Rizvi p. 255"/> In a letter to Sunni nawabs, Shah Waliullah said:

<blockquote>"''Strict orders should be issued in all Islamic towns forbidding religious ceremonies publicly practised by Hindus such as the performance of Holi and ritual bathing in the Ganges. On the tenth of Muharram, the Shias should not be allowed to go beyond the bounds of moderation, neither should they be rude nor repeat stupid things in the streets or bazars''".<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, ''Shah Waliullah and His Times'', p. 227, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, (1980).</ref></blockquote>

When on his and Rohilla's invitation, Ahmad Shah Abdali Durrani conquered Delhi, he expelled Shias.<ref name=":10" /> Shias of Kashmir were also massacred in an organised campaign after Afghans took power.<ref name=":14" /> In Multan, under the Durrani rule, Shia were not allowed to practise their religion.<ref name=":25" /> In 1762 - 1764 CE, the Afghan ruler of Kashmir Buland Khan Bamzai persecuted the Shias. Once the rumor spread that some Shias have passed negative remarks about a Sufi saint [[Khawaja Habibullah Nowshehri|Habibullah Nowshehri]]. Furious Sunni mob attacked Zadibal neighborhood and torched the houses belonging to the Shias. Buland Khan ordered arrests of the Shias accused of blasphemy. They were terribly tortured and humiliated by cutting off their nose, limbs, ears, and heavy fines were imposed on them.<ref>Pir Ghulam Hasan Khuihami, "'''Ta'rikh-e Hasan'''", vol. 1, "Taraaj-e Shia", p. 490, Research & Publ. Dpt., Jammu & Kashmir Gov., Srinagar (1960).</ref>

====''Shah Abd al-Aziz''====
Shah Waliullah's eldest son, [[Shah Abdul Aziz|Shah Abd al-Aziz]] (1746 – 1823 AD), hated Shias the most. Although he did not declare them apostates or non-Muslims, but he considered them lesser human beings just like what he would think about Hindus or other non-Muslims. In a letter he advises Sunnis to not greet Shias first, and if a Shia greets them first, their response should be cold. In his view, Sunnis should not marry Shias, avoid eating their food and the animals slaughtered by a Shia.<ref name=":33">S. A. A. Rizvi, "Shah Abd al-Aziz", pp. 207 – 208, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, (1982).</ref>

In 1770 AD, Rohilla ruler Najib-ud Daula died and Afghan control over power in Delhi weakened. Mughal Emperor Shah Alam returned to Delhi, adopted a secular policy and appointed a Shia general, Najaf Khan. Najaf Khan died in 1782, but his influence had helped Shias resettle in Delhi.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, ''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'', Vol. 2, p. 304, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> This was not acceptable for Shah Abd al-Aziz and he termed it as a Shia conspiracy. To create fear among the majority and incite them, he wrote in ''Tuhfa Asna Ashariya'':

"''In the region where we live, the Isna Ashariyya faith has become so popular that one or two members of every family is a Shia''".<ref name=":15">S. A. A. Rizvi, "Shah Abd al-Aziz", p. 256, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, (1982).</ref>

This was a clear exaggeration. This tactic of presenting Shias as dangerous and spreading fear among Sunnis has been a common trait of all militant organisations targeting Shias.<ref name=":31">{{cite book |author=Abbas Zaidi |editor1=Jawad Syed |editor2=Edwina Pio |editor3=Tahir Kamran |editor4=Abbas Zaidi |chapter=The Shias of Pakistan: Mapping an Altruistic Genocide |title=Faith-Based violence and Deobandi militancy in Pakistan |year=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |pages= |isbn=978-1-349-94965-6}}</ref> In complete contrast to this claim, in ''Malfuzat-i Shah Abd al-Aziz (ملفوظات شاہ عبد العزیز)'', he says that no Shia was left in Delhi after Ahmad Shah Abdali's expulsion, as predicted by his father Shah Waliullah.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, ''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'', Vol. 2, p. 60, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> How could a community that was completely cleansed thirty years ago reach such high numbers in such a short period? The reality lies somewhat in between: expelled Shias had started to return and resettle in their homes, and continue Muharram processions which had upset him.

Shah Abd al-Aziz was also a flag-bearer of anti-science orthodoxy. Following the tradition of Imam Ghazali's [[The Incoherence of the Philosophers|Tahafat-ul-Filasafa]], he declared that the eminent Shia scientist [[Tafazzul Husain Kashmiri|Allama Tafazzul Husain Khan]] was an apostate (''mulhid-i-kamil'').<ref>Rizvi, "'''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'''", Vol. 2, pp. 229, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, Australia (1986).</ref>

He compiled most of the anti-Shia books available to him, albeit in his own language and after adding his own ideas, in a single book ''Tuhfa Asna Ashariya (تحفہ اثنا عشریہ )''. Shah Abd al-Aziz published his book in 1789 AD, using a pen name ''Hafiz Ghulam Haleem''.<ref name=":15" /> This book appeared at a very important juncture in history of the Subcontinent. In the nineteenth century, publishing technology was introduced to India and publications became cheaper. This book was published on a large scale, financed by the Sunni elite. An Arabic translation of it as sent to the Middle East.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "Shah Abd al-Aziz", p. 357, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, (1982).</ref> The first Shia response came from [[Mirza Muhammad Kamil Dehlavi|Mirza Muhammad Kamil Dihlavi]], titled ''Nuzha-tu Asna Ashariya (نزھۃ اثنا عشریۃ)''. Mirza was then invited by the Sunni governor of [[Jhajjar district|Jhajjar]] under the pretext of medical treatment and poisoned to death. The leading Shia theologian of the time, Ayatullah Syed Dildar Ali Naqvi wrote separate books for its main chapters. His disciples Mufti Muhammad Quli Musavi and Molana Syed Muhammad Naqvi also wrote rejoinders. However the book which gained widespread popularity in the scholarly circles was ''Abqaat-ul Anwar fi Imamat-i Aaima til Athaar (عبقات الانوار فی امامۃ الائمۃ الاطہار)'' by Ayatullah Mir Hamid Husain Musavi containing 18 volumes.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "Shah Abd al-Aziz", pp. 358 – 359, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, (1982).</ref>

By the end of the 18th century, influence of the Wahhabi movement led by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab had started to touch Indian shores through Indian Hajj pilgrims and clerics visiting Hijaz.

In 1801 CE, Muharram procession in Srinagar was attacked by a Sunni mob after rumors spread that Shias were doing [[tabarra]]. The Pashtuns and extremists among the local Sunnis got together to attack the Shia neighborhood. They looted the belongings and raped the women.<ref>Pir Ghulam Hasan Khuihami, "'''Ta'rikh-e Hasan'''", vol. 1, "Taraaj-e Shia", p. 491, Research & Publ. Dpt., Jammu & Kashmir Gov., Srinagar (1960).</ref> The British gazetteer of Kashmir notes:<blockquote>"''In the times of the Pathans, the Shias were not allowed to enact the feast of Moharem. In the time of Abdullah Khan, who made himself independent of his master at Kabul, they attempted to celebrate, but were attacked and plundered, and their houses burnt; some 150 of them (for there were very few in the city) were collected, their noses pierced, and one string passed through them all, and thus linked together, they were made to perambulate the bazars''".<ref name=":210">Gazetteer of the Kashmir, p. 31, (1872-73).</ref></blockquote>Shah Abd al-Aziz used to heavily criticise making of taziya and other arts associated with commemoration of Muharram,<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, ''A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India'', Vol. 2, p. 305, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> but he also authored a short treatise entitled ''Sirr al-Shahadatayn (سر الشہادتین)'', in which he described the commemoration of Muharram as God's will to keep the memory of Hussain's martyrdom alive. He also said that the martyrdom of Hasan and Hussain was, in spirit, the martyrdom of the Muhammad. He used to arrange public gatherings in Muharram himself. Rizvi said:

"''In a letter dated 1822 CE he wrote about two assemblies which he used to hold in his own house and considered perfectly legal from the Shari'a point of view. One was held on the anniversary of Prophet Muhammad's demise and the other to commemorate the martyrdom of Imam Hasan and Imam Hussain on the tenth of Muharram or a day or two earlier. From four to five hundred and up to a thousand people gathered there. They recited durud. After the Shah's own arrival, the greatness of Imam Hasan and Imam Hussain, as related in the works of hadith, was described. The prophecies concerning their martyrdom, the circumstances that led to it and the wickedness of those who killed them were also recounted. The elegies on their martyrdom which Umm Salma and the companions of the Prophet had heard, were also described. Those dreadful visions, which Ibn Abbas and the Prophet's other companions saw relating to the Prophet's anguish at his grandson's tragic death, were also recited. The session concluded with the intoning of the Quran and fatiha over whatever food was available. Those who could recite a salam or an elegy melodiously did so. Those present, including Shah Abd al-Aziz, wept''".<ref>''Fatawa-e-Aziziya'', vol. 1, pp. 110 – 111. As cited in S. A. A. Rizvi, ''Shah Abd al-Aziz'', pp. 196 – 197, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, (1982).</ref>

But it was also in the 19th century that exclusionary puritanical and fascist revivalist movements started to emerge among both Hindus and Muslims. Muharram was limited to Shias only.

==== First wave of anti-Shia militancy ====
On 21 April 1802, the puritanical followers of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahab had sacked the holy city of [[Wahhabi sack of Karbala|Karbala]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KBYnDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74|title=Understanding Islamic Fundamentalism: The Theological and Ideological Basis of Al-Qa'ida's Political Tactics|last=Khatab|first=Sayed|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9789774164996|page=74|language=en}}</ref> killed more than 5000 Shias, and vandalized the holy shrines. In 1804, they had vandalized Prophet's Shrine in Medina and in 1805, Makkah, forcing people to adopt their creed.<ref>Charles Allen, "God's Terrorists: The Wahhabi Cult and the Hidden Roots of Modern Jihad", pp. 63–64, Abacus, (2006).</ref> While this cruelty sent shock waves to the Muslims all around the globe, it encouraged Syed Ahmad Barelvi and Shah Ismail Dihlavi to take up arms and enforce their puritanical views. They were the pioneers of anti-Shia terrorism in the subcontinent. Barbara Metcalf says:

"''A second group of abuses Syed Ahmad held were those that originated from Shi'i influence. He particularly urged Muslims to give up the keeping of ta'ziyahs. The replicas of the tombs of the martyrs of Karbala taken in procession during the mourning ceremony of Muharram. Muhammad Isma'il wrote,''

<blockquote> ''a true believer should regard the breaking of a tazia by force to be as virtuous an action as destroying idols. If he cannot break them himself, let him order others to do so. If this even be out of his power, let him at least detest and abhor them with his whole heart and soul''.</blockquote>
''Sayyid Ahmad himself is said, no doubt with considerable exaggeration, to have torn down thousands of imambaras, the building that house the taziyahs''".<ref>B. Metcalf, "'''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BdH_AwAAQBAJ&q=tazia Islamic revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900]'''", p. 58, Princeton University Press (1982).</ref>

These attacks were carried out between 1818 and 1820. Rizvi has given more details about time, places and circumstances in which these attacks were carried out.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "A Socio-Intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India", Vol. 2, pp. 306 – 308, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> In response to these attacks, some shias started to recite ''tabarra''. Maulana Syed Baqir Dihlavi, the editor and owner of Dihli Urdu Akhbar, stopped them from doing so.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "A socio-intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India", Vol. 2, p. 98, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref>

Another puritanical movement was launched in Bengal between 1820 and 1840 by Haji Shari'atullah. The following statement is inscribed on his grave:

"''The learned of all learned, the exponent of Divine law in eloquent and elegant tongue, the source of all guidance in the land of Hind and Bengal. Defender of religion against the menaces of the Shi'ahs and the disbelievers against all falsehood and vanity, deliverer if Islam (which) was covered by darkness like the sun enveloped in clouds. Whose words in truthfulness were like mountains in the open field''".<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "Shah Abd al-Aziz", pp. 538 – 539, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, (1982).</ref>

In 1831 CE, a mob attacked the Shia neighborhood of Srinagar, Kashmir. Precious belongings were looted and women were raped. Some Sunni men even cut the private parts of their female victims with knives.<ref>Pir Ghulam Hasan Khuihami, "'''Ta'rikh-e Hasan'''", vol. 1, "Taraaj-e Shia", pp. 491 - 492, Research & Publ. Dpt., Jammu & Kashmir Gov., Srinagar (1960).</ref> The British gazetteer of Kashmir notes:

"''in the time of the governor Bama Singh, the Shias attempted to celebrate the Moharem, but the enraged Sunnis fell upon them, killed fifteen of them, and plundered their property; and the Persian merchants, of whom there were two or three hundred, retreated from Kashmir and have never since resided there''".<ref>Gazetteer of the Kashmir, pp. 31 - 32, (1872-73).</ref>

While Syed Ahmad's military adventure failed costing him his life in 1831, his ideological legacy continued in the Deoband school of thought. Data shows that around 90 percent of religious terrorists in Pakistan are Deobandis by faith and many of them belong to the Pashtun belt (the area where Syed Ahmad carried out his military endeavour).<ref>{{cite thesis |author=Syed Ejaz Hussain |date=2010 |title=Terrorism in Pakistan: Incident patterns, terrorists' characteristics, and the impact of terrorist arrests on terrorism |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/handle/20.500.14332/28163 |type=PhD |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |access-date=6 October 2023}}</ref>

His legacy of sectarian terrorism continued. The incidents of Wahhabist Sunnis attacking Azadari gatherings were not uncommon. One such event is reported in Delhi's ''Urdu Akhbar'' on 22 March 1840:<blockquote>Some Sunnis had come to attack the gathering of Taziyah-dari in the bungalow of Mrs. Amir Bahu Begum, the widow of Shams al-Din Khan. However, the magistrate had learned of it the night before. He met with the local police officer and ordered him to appoint sufficient force and stop the agitators from reaching there. As a result of timely measures, it was reported that the event concluded peacefully.<ref>"Dihli Urdu Akhbar", 22 March 1940, Compiled by Khawaja Ahmad Farooqi, Department of Urdu, Delhi University, (1972).</ref></blockquote>Kanhaiya Lal in his book "Tarikh-i-Lahore", records an attack on Karbala Gamay Shah as follows:

"''In 1849, this place Karbala Gamay Shah was demolished. On the 10th of Muharram that year, when Zuljanah came out, there was a fierce clash between the Shia and Sunni people near [[Lahore Fort|Shah Aalmi Gate]]. On that day, the buildings inside the enclosure were razed to the ground. The minarets of the shrines were also razed and the water well was mounded with bricks. Gamay Shah was thrashed until he fainted. Finally, the Deputy Commissioner Edward summoned a contingent of cavalry from Anarkali cantonment and the mob dispersed. Those who were arrested were punished''".<ref>Kanhaiya Lal, '''Tareekh-i-Lahore''', p. 305, Victoria Press, Lahore (1884).</ref>

==== Side effects of colonial rule ====
With the start of colonial rule in 1857, religious institutions and scholars lost most of the financial support they enjoyed previously. They now had to rely on public funding, the ''chanda''. Secondly, when the British masters decided to introduce modern societal reforms, and everybody became ascribed to a singular identity in census and politically important in voting. Thus, politicization of religion and marking boundaries of the spheres of influence became a financial need of the religious leaders. They started to describe everybody belonging to their sect or religion as one monolithic group of people whose religion was in danger. The third important social change was the printing press which made writing and publishing pamphlets and books easy and cheap. The fourth factor was the railways and postal service; it became easy for communal leaders to travel, communicate and build networks beyond their place of residence. This changed the religious discourse drastically and gave birth to communal and sectarian violence. The puritanical wahhabists had already excluded Azadari from the Sunni Islam, and Arya Samaj and Shudhis started to ask Hindus to refrain from Azadari.

New sects emerging among Sunnis; e.g. Deobandis, Barelvis, Ahle Hadith, Ahmadis and the Quranists; took extreme positions against Shias in order to prove themselves pure and real spokesmen of Sunni Islam. Shias also started to modify the practice in order to popularize it. A new class of Urdu orators emerged, the khatibs, replacing Mujtahideen. A competition of holding the best majlis and attract participants made the Shia elite to introduce new practices and customs, like ''Zanjirzani,'' ''chup ka tazia'', ''mehndi'' and ''Zuljinah.'' The Shia and Sunni orators started to challenge each other in religious debates and hence earn money as well as publicity, the most famous were Abdul Shakoor Lakhnavi (Sunni) and Maqbool Ahmad Dihlavi (ex-Sunni).<ref>J. Jones, "Shi'a Islam in Colonial India", pp. 81 – 99, Cambridge University Press, (2012).</ref>

Meanwhile, the number the followers of Syed Ahmad Barelvi, who were commonly known as ''wahabis'', was increasing. Their statistics given in the Gazetteer of the districts of Punjab is representative of the overall spread of the new sect.
{| class="wikitable"
|+The percentage of ''Wahabis'' in the Muslim Population of Punjab
!Year
!District
!Wahabis
|-
|1897–98
|Peshawar
|0.01%<ref name=":26" />
|-
|1883–84
|Shahpur
|0.07%<ref name=":27" />
|-
|1883–84
|Jhang
|0.02%<ref name=":29" />
|-
|1893–94
|Lahore
|0.03%<ref name=":28" />
|}
Although the numbers are not available for most of the districts, a tendency of increasing followers of Syed Ahmad Barelvi's puritanism can be confirmed. The numbers given in the Gazetteer's are also not exact, because many wahabis preferred to identify as mainstream sunnis. The Lahore Gazetteer notes:

<blockquote>"''The wahabis are returned very short of their real number; probably many Muhammadans who were wahabis thought it safer not to reveal themselves as such''".<ref name=":28" /></blockquote>In 1859, Maulvi Noor Ahmad Chishti wrote in his book "Yadgar-e-Chishti":

"''Another splinter group has now emerged from within the Muslims and they are known as the Wahhabis. I see that many learned ones are attracted to them. I seek refuge in Allah! May God correct their beliefs.''"<ref>Maulvi Noor Muhammad Chishti, "'''Yadgar-e-Chishti'''", p. 152, Majlis-i-Taraqi-i-Urdu Adab, Lahore.</ref>

The following paragraph from this book narrates attacks on Shia mourners in Muharram:

"a''nd in every bazaar, people gather to pay tributes to the [[Zuljanah]]. Rose water is sprinkled on the horse from all sides but some people make fun of the mourners due to grudges. Some of these chant "Madad Char Yaar" which may sometimes result in violent clashes. So, when Major Karkar Bahadur was the Deputy Commissioner in Lahore, riots erupted between the Sunnis and Shias and many people got injured. Since then the Deputy commissioner of police, District police officer, Sub officer, some men of the company and one army officer accompany the horse to protect the Shias but still some try to cause trouble''".<ref>Maulvi Noor Muhammad Chishti, "'''Yadgar-e-Chishti'''", p. 237, Majlis-i-Taraqi-i-Urdu Adab, Lahore.</ref>

Polemical works were also being authored at a larger scale. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan started writing ''Tuhfa-e-Hasan (تحفہ حسن)'' against Shias but stopped after writing two volumes because he realized that it was doing harm. Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk wrote ''Ayyat-i-Bayenat (آیات بینات)'', Molana Rashid Ganguhi of Deoband wrote ''Hadiyah-tu-Shia (ہدیہ الشیعہ)'', Khalil Ahmad Saharanpori of Deoband wrote ''Mitraqah-tul-Karamah (مطرقہ الکرامه)'', Mirza Hairat Dihlavi of Deoband wrote ''Kitab-e-Shahdat (کتاب شہادت)'' in which he attacked Imam Ali and his sons for resisting against Umayyads.

==== The making of sectarian fascism ====
{{see also|Madhe Sahaba Agitation}}
[[File:Madh-e-Sahaba Celebration in Lucknow.jpeg|thumb|Cartoon appearing in Lucknow Punch, an Urdu satirical magazine mocking riots during Muharram 1908.]]

New technology, i.e. printing press and railways, along with political reforms brought major social changes and the institution of nation state started to take shape. Barbara Metcalf and Thomas Metcalf explain:

''"The decades that spanned the turn of the twentieth century marked the apogee of the British imperial system, whose institutional framework had been set after 1857. At the same time, these decades were marked by a rich profusion and elaboration of voluntary organizations; a surge in publication of newspapers, pamphlets and posters; and the writing of fiction and poetry as well as political, philosophical, and historical non-fiction. With this activity, a new level of public life emerged, ranging from meetings and processions to politicized street theatre, riots, and terrorism. The vernacular languages, patronized by the government, took new shape as they were used for new purposes, and they became more sharply distinguished by the development of standardized norms. The new social solidarities forged by these activities, the institutional experience they provided, and the redefinitions of cultural values they embodied were all formative for the remainder of the colonial era, and beyond."''<ref>B. D. Metcalf and T. R. Metcalf, "'''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/concise-history-of-modern-india/civil-society-colonial-constraints-18851919/96A7AE049281D89791BCFF1E798AF2A9 A Concise History of Modern India]'''", p. 123, Cambridge (2012).</ref>

In [[Pune]], there used to be more Hindus than Muslims participating in Muharram processions. In the 1890s, some communal Hindu leaders called for a boycott of what they thought was a Muslim festival. Colonial government facilitated them by refusing to issue licences to Hindus to erect the flags. Similarly in Satara, as a result of a campaign run from Pune, Muslims were left alone to observe Muharram.<ref>Gordon Johnson, "Provincial Politics and Indian Nationalism – Bombay and the Indian National Congress 1880 – 1915", p. 85, Cambridge University Press, (2005).</ref> During the Ganpati festival, slogans against Muharram and Muslims were raised, and pamphlets were distributed urging Hindus to arm themselves. One Muslim was killed.<ref>Gordon Johnson, "Provincial Politics and Indian Nationalism – Bombay and the Indian National Congress 1880 – 1915", p. 86, Cambridge University Press, (2005).</ref>

By the start of the 1900s, the majority of Sunnis still observed Muharram. Molana Abdul Shakoor Lakhnavi devised a clever plan to widen the gulf between the Shias and Sunnis. He started to advocate a celebration of victory of Imam Hussain over Yazid. He established a separate Sunni Imambargah at Phul Katora and asked Sunnis to wear red or yellow dress instead of black, and carry a decorated charyari flag instead of the traditional black alam-e-Abbas. Instead of honouring the Sahaba on their birthdays, he started to arrange public meetings under the banner of bazm-e-siddiqi, bazm-e-farooqi and bazm-e-usmani, in the first ten days of Muharram to revere the first three Caliphs and named it Madh-e-Sahaba. He would discuss the lives of the first three Caliphs and attack Shia beliefs. Shias saw it an attempt to sabotage the remembrance of the tragedy of Karbala and started to recite ''tabarra'' in response.<ref>J. Jones, "Shi'a Islam in Colonial India", pp. 100 – 105, Cambridge University Press, (2012).</ref> These ideas resulted in Muharram becoming a feast as well as a battleground. As the government gazetteer noted:

<blockquote>
Shops and booths came to be set up and there were amusements such as swings and merry go rounds. It appears further that women of the town had begun not only to frequent the route of the tazias but to set up tents on the fairground where they received visitors.<ref name=":17">{{cite journal |author=Venkat Dhulipala |title=Rallying the Qaum: The Muslim League in the United Provinces, 1937–1939 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |date=May 2010 |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=603–640 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X09004016}}</ref>
</blockquote>

According to Dhulipala;

<blockquote>
The Shias took exception to these practices which they felt denigrated the solemnity of these religious occasions which were predominantly for mourning. They therefore petitioned the Lucknow District Magistrate to check these practices and to disallow anything which went against the character of these occasions. In response, stringent rules sympathetic to Shia demands were put into place for the ''Ashra'' procession of 1906 by the Lucknow District administration. The Sunnis objected to the new rules claiming that unlike the Shias, they regarded the processions as celebrations in honour of an Islamic hero and not as occasions for mourning. The dispute between the two sides was temporarily settled in 1906 with the Lucknow district administration granting a separate site for Sunnis to bury their Karbala.

The Sunnis, however, were now determined to give their processions a character that was distinct to that of the Shia processions. Verses at the time known as ''Charyari'' were recited during the Sunni processions. These verses were in praise of the first four Caliphs who were portrayed as friends of the Prophet as well as friends of each other. Since some of these verses 'were positively objectionable in that they contained abuse of Shias and of their beliefs', their recitation was found provocative by the Shias. The Shias retaliated by reciting ''Tabarra'' or abuse of the first three Caliphs in their own processions, since they saw them as usurpers who were hostile to the rightful Caliph Ali and his family. These developments marked a watershed in the social relations between these two sects of Islam in the UP. Serious riots broke out in 1907 and 1908 in Lucknow due to the recitation of ''Charyari'' and ''Tabarra'' by Sunni and Shia processions respectively.

Responding to these developments, in 1908, the provincial government set up a committee headed by T.C. Piggott, an ICS officer, who was asked to examine the whole issue, assess the claims of both parties, and to make recommendations. The Piggott committee concluded that the recitation of ''Charyari'' verses in an organised way, and converting ''Tazia'' processions into ''Charyari'' processions, was an 'innovation' since 1906. Such social innovations were deemed to be at the root of civil disturbances in a combustible religious society like India, and the British, in their keenness to maintain law and order, actively discouraged them. Not surprisingly, the Piggott committee recommended prohibiting the recitation of ''Charyari'' verses along the 'route of any ''tazia'', ''alam'' or other Mohammadan procession or in the hearing of such a procession' on three days of the year – ''Ashra'', ''Chhelum'' and the 21st day of ''Ramzan''.<ref name=":17" />
</blockquote>

With increasing incidents of violence and having lost political influence in Awadh and Bengal, Shias started to practice ''Taqiyya'' on individual level. Hollister says:-

"''For some decades the decennial census made a separate enumeration of Shias and Sunnis in some of the Provinces. In 1911 and 1921, most Provinces and states were included but the results were unsatisfactory. For example, in 1921, in the census for Bihar and Orissa, 3711 Shias were enumerated, but in the report of superintendent of Census Operations in the Province, we read that:''

'''It is certain that these figures are not nearly complete, and the reason is that many Shias refused to record themselves as such'.''

''That they would refuse to do so was clearly stated the day before the census was taken, by a Shiite member in the Legislative Council at Patna. An estimate made at that times placed the probable figure at 17,000, or nearly five times the census enumeration. For Patna city, the estimate was for 10,000 against a census figure of 1000. In 1931 and 1941, the effort to make a separate enumeration of Shias was generally discontinued''".<ref name=":0" />

During the 1929 revolt against Afghan king Amanullah, Shia villages were attacked in Tirah valley in the tribal areas bordering Afghanistan. Ghani Khan reports:

"Heaven and houris were promised to those who killed the Shias. The Afridi's listened. The gold offered and the houris promised proved too much for them. They picked up their rifles and went in search of Heaven. Then followed a most frightful destruction not only of the Shias but of cattle and trees as well. Valleys where the Shias lived were laid desolate – millions of fruit trees, hundreds of years old Chinar and almond plantations were sawn down. The Shias were too broken and distracted to come to Amanullah's help".<ref>Ghani Khan, "The Pathan", ch. 10.</ref>

After the failure of the Khilafat movement in the 1920s, the political ulema had lost their support in public and Muslims started to follow modern minds like Muhammad Ali Jinnah. To keep themselves relevant, the ulema established a militant Deobandi organisation, Majlis Ahrar-e-Islam, in 1931. They came from neighboring Malihabad, Kanpur, Delhi, Meerut and from as far as Peshawar.<ref name=":18">{{cite journal |author=Mushirul Hasan |title=Traditional Rites and Contested Meanings: Sectarian Strife in Colonial Lucknow |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |date=1996 |volume=31 |issue=9 |pages=543–550 |jstor=4403862}}</ref> This organisation can be considered as predecessor of Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP). They first agitated against the Ahmedis in Kashmir and now they were looking for an opportunity. It was provided by Molana Abdul shakoor Lakhnavi who now added Farooqi to his name and had become a follower of Deobandi sect and he had established a seminary in Lucknow in 1931 right on the route of Azadari, called Dar-ul-Muballighin.<ref>J. Jones, "Shi'a Islam in Colonial India", pp. 188 – 199, Cambridge University Press, (2012).</ref> Molana Abdul Shakoor Farooqi wrote many books and pamphlets. Shias responded by writing rejoinders. As paper had become available in plenty, these writings spread all over subcontinent and caused incidents of violence, though negligible compared to what was happening in UP. Dhulipala says:

<blockquote>
The problem broke out with renewed vigour in 1936 on ''Ashra'' day when two Sunnis disobeyed orders and publicly recited ''Charyari'' in the city centre of Lucknow. They were arrested and prosecuted, but then on ''Chhelum'' day more Sunnis took part in reciting ''Charyari'' and fourteen were arrested. This led to a new agitation by the Lucknow Sunnis in favour of reciting these verses publicly, which came to be known as ''Madhe Sahaba''.<ref name=":17" />
</blockquote>

The government appointed the Allsop committee which endorsed the decision of the Piggott committee and imposed ban on Madhe Sahaba on the days of Azadari. Jinnah had stopped members of Muslim League from taking sides in the conflict which he termed as a conspiracy to distract Muslims from their real concerns. Liaquat Ali Khan delivered a speech on the floor of UP assembly supporting Madh-e-Sahaba agitation in Muharram.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ahrar.org.pk/ur/naqeeb-rasala/%d8%aa%d8%ad%d8%b1%db%8c%da%a9-%d9%85%d8%af%d8%ad-%d8%b5%d8%ad%d8%a7%d8%a8%db%81-%d9%86%d9%88%d8%a7%d8%a8%d8%b2%d8%a7%d8%af%db%81-%d9%84%db%8c%d8%a7%d9%82%d8%aa-%d8%b9%d9%84%db%8c-%d8%ae%d8%a7/|title=تحریک مدح صحابہ — نوابزادہ لیاقت علی خان کی تائیدی تقریر {{!}} مجلس احرار پاکستان|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-08}}</ref> The Allsop committee report was published in March 1938 and was rejected by the Deobandi ulema. Dhulipala narrates:

<blockquote>
Zafarul Mulk declared that he had sent a notice to the government that the Sunnis would launch civil disobedience in case it did not reconsider its decision. The next day on ''Chhelum'', there was an incident at Patanala, a narrow lane in Lucknow, housing the Dar al Muballaghin, a Sunni religious institution run by Maulana Abdul Shakur. Brickbats were thrown at a Shia ''Tazia'' procession passing in front of the institution and the consequent riot saw ten people being killed and several dozen injured.<ref name=":17" />
</blockquote>

This was peak of [[Madhe Sahaba Agitation]]. Killings of Shias had begun. Molana Hussain Ahmed Madani, the Congress-paid cleric who had so far disguised himself in a secular outlook by opposing the two-nation theory, removed the hypocritical mask. Mushirul Hasan describes his role in anti-Shia violence as:

"''All hell broke loose. Husain Ahmad Madani (1879–1957), principal of the renowned seminary at Deoband along with other Jam'iyat al-'Ulama' leaders, jumped into the fray. He advocated civil disobedience. Thousands paid heed to his call and courted arrest. Though a fervent advocate of secular nationalism and a principled critic of the «two-nation theory», he stirred sectarian passions unabashedly. He spoke at a public meeting in Lucknow on 17 March 1938 sharing the platform with the firebrand head of the Dar al-Muballighin, Maulvi 'Abdul Shakoor, and Maulana Zafarul Mulk, chief exponent of Madh-e Sahaba in Lucknow''".<ref name=":18" />

==== From stone pelting to bomb blasts ====
Azadari in UP was no more peaceful; it would never be the same again. Violence went so far that on Ashura 1940, a Deobandi terrorist attacked the Ashura procession with a bomb. Hollister writes:

"''Conflicts between Sunnis and Shias at Muharram are not infrequent. Processions in the cities are accompanied by police along fixed lines of march. The following quotations from a single newspaper are not usual. They indicate what might happen if government did not keep the situation under control: 'adequate measures avert incidents', 'Muharram passed off peacefully', 'All shops remained closed in . . . in order to avoid incidents', 'Several women offered satyagraha in front of the final procession . . . about twenty miles from Allahabad. They object to the passing of the procession through their fields', 'the police took great precautions to prevent a breach of the peace', 'as a sequel to the cane charge by the police on a Mehndi procession the Moslems . . . did not celebrate the Muharram today. No ta'zia processions were taken out . . . Business was transacted as usual in the Hindu localities', 'Bomb thrown on procession'. Not all of these disturbances spring from sectarian differences, but those differences actuate many fracases. Birdwood says that, in Bombay, where the first four days of Muharram are likely to be devoted to visiting each other's tabut khanas, women and children as well as men are admitted, and members of other communities – only the Sunnies are denied 'simply as a police precaution'''".<ref>J. N. Hollister, "The Shi'a of India", p. 178, Luzac and Co, London, (1953).</ref>

The main purpose of the army of Sahaba had been achieved: Shias and Sunnis were segregated as Azadari was not safe any more.

Congress wanted to use the sectarian card against Jinnah, who was a Shia, but the more Congress supported the religio-fascists ulema, the more it alienated her from the Muslims and the more the League became popular. The sectarian activities started to fire back. Deobandi ulema were becoming infamous and Muslim masses were disgusted with what the Muslim league interpreted as 'divide-and-rule' policy of Congress. With the Pakistan movement gaining momentum, Muslims put their differences aside and started to respond to the Muslim League's call of Muslim Unity and establishment of a separate homeland.<ref name=":17" /> Now Deobandi ulema changed tactics: in 1944 they established a separate organisation to do the dirty work, ''Tanzim-e-Ahle-Sunnat'', solely focused on the anti-Shia violence<ref>A. Rieck, "The Shias of Pakistan", p. 47, Oxford University Press, (2015).</ref> and the main leaders like Madani started to present themselves as inclusive secularists again. The irony is that the same nationalistic secular ulema were writing fake history about Akbar being the cursed infidel and Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi being a notable opposition to his secularism. Archives and history books of Mughal period have much material about opposition leaders, e.g. Shiva Ji, but there is no mention of Ahmad Sirhindi. It was Molana Azad who first crafted a hero out of Ahmad Sirhindi and later this fabrication was carried on by all Deobandi historians.<ref>Mubarak Ali, "''Almiyah-i-Tarikh''", Ch. 9 & 10, Fiction House, Lahore, (2012).</ref> Some others, like ''Shabbir Ahmad Usmani'', joined the League and when failed to snatch leadership from Jinnah, formed a new party in 1946, Jamiat Ulema-i-Islam (JUI) which would become the first opposition party after the foundation of Pakistan.

=== Shiaphobia in modern Subcontinent ===
After the demise of Jinnah, the feudal prime minister of Pakistan, Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan, allied with Deobandi ulema and passed the [[Objectives Resolution]] and adopted the puritanical Wahhabism as state religion. This move against the Non-Muslim citizen was supported by Shias and Ahmadis too. Jinnah's appointed law minister, [[Jogendra Nath Mandal]], resigned from his post. [[Shias]] of Pakistan allege discrimination by the Pakistani government since 1948, claiming that [[Sunni Islam|Sunnis]] are given preference in business, official positions and administration of justice.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O7GPWbu8XKgC&q=gilgit+shias+1988+killing&pg=PT24|title=Around Rakaposhi|last=Jones|first=Brian H.|publisher=Brian H Jones|year=2010|isbn=9780980810721|quote=Many Shias in the region feel that they have been discriminated against since 1948. They claim that the Pakistani government continually gives preferences to Sunnis in business, in official positions, and in the administration of justice...The situation deteriorated sharply during the 1980s under the presidency of the tyrannical Zia-ul Haq when there were many attacks on the Shia population.}}</ref> Although the sectarian hateful literature had been pouring into Punjab since Shah Abd al-Aziz wrote his ''Tuhfa Asna Ashariya'', however, major incidents of anti-Shia violence began only after mass migration in 1947. Many students of Molana Abdul Shakoor Farooqi and Molana Hussain Ahmad Madani migrated to Pakistan and either set up seminaries here or became part of the Tanzim-e-Ahle-Sunnat (TAS) or Jamiat Ulema-i-Islam (JUI). They travelled through the length and breadth of the country and called for attacks on Azadari and wrote books and tracts against it. Among them were: Molana Noorul Hasan Bukhari, Molana Dost Muhammad Qureshi, Molana Abdus Sattar Taunsavi, Molana Mufti Mahmood, Molana Abdul Haq Haqqani, Molana Sarfaraz Khan Safdar Gakharvi, and Molana Manzoor Ahmad Naumani.

====First decade post-independence====
In the 1950s, ''Tanzim-e-Ahle-Sunnat'' started to arrange public gatherings all over Pakistan to incite violence and mock Shia sanctities. TAS issued an anti-Shia monthly, called ''Da'wat''. In Muharram 1955, attacks took place on at least 25 places in Punjab. In 1956, thousands of armed villagers gathered to attack Azadari in the small town of Shahr Sultan, but were stopped by Police from killing. On 7 August 1957, three Shias were killed during an attack in Sitpur village. Blaming the victim, TAS demanded that government should ban the thousand years old tradition of Azadari, because it caused rioting and bloodshed. In May 1958, a Shia orator Agha Mohsin was target-killed in Bhakkar. Police needed to be appointed to many places, the scenario became more like in the pre-partition Urdu Speaking areas.<ref>A. Rieck, "The Shias of Pakistan", pp. 88 – 98, Oxford University Press, (2015).</ref> It is important to note here that the Shia ulema were becoming part of religious alliances and not supporting secularism. The syllabus taught at Shia seminaries does not include any course on the history of the subcontinent. Shia clerics don't have an independent political vision: they were strengthening the puritanism which was going to deprive Shias of basic human rights, like equality, peace and freedom.

====Under Ayub Khan and Bhutto====
{{see also|Therhi Massacre}}
Ayyub Khan enforced Martial Law in 1958. In the 1960s, Shias started to face state persecution when Azadari processions were banned at some places and the ban was lifted only after protests. In Lahore, the main procession of Mochi gate was forced to change its route. After Martial Law was lifted in 1962, anti-Shia hate propaganda started again, both in the form of books and weekly papers. The Deobandi organisation ''Tanzim-e-Ahle-Sunnat'' demanded the Azadari to be limited to Shia ghetto's. Following Muharram, on 3 June 1963, two Shias were killed and over a hundred injured in an attack on Ashura procession in Lahore. In a small town of Tehri in the Khairpur District of Sindh, 120 Shias were slaughtered. The press did not cover the incidents properly, as the identity of both the perpetrators and the victims, and their objective was concealed. On 16 June, six Deobandi organisations arranged a public meeting in Lahore where they blamed the victims for the violence. In July, a commission was appointed to inquire into the riots. Its report was published in December that year, but it too did not name any individual or organisation. Nobody was punished.<ref>A. Rieck, "The Shias of Pakistan", pp. 109 – 114, Oxford University Press, (2015).</ref> Mahmood Ahmad Abbasi, Abu Yazid Butt, Qamar-ud-Din Sialvi and others wrote books against Shias.

In 1969, Ashura procession was attacked in Jhang. On 26 February 1972, Ashura procession was stone pelted on in Dera Ghazi Khan. In May 1973, the Shia neighbourhood of Gobindgarh in Sheikhupura district was attacked by Deobandi mob. There were troubles in Parachinar and Gilgit too. In 1974, Shia villages were attacked in Gilgit by armed Deobandi men. January 1975 saw several attacks on Shia processions in Karachi, Lahore, Chakwal and Gilgit. In a village Babu Sabu near Lahore, three Shias were killed and many were left injured.<ref>A. Rieck, "'''[https://books.google.com/books?id=t6aKCwAAQBAJ&q=Babu+Sabu+near+Lahore&pg=PA180 The Shias of Pakistan]'''", pp. 181– 184, Oxford University Press, (2015).</ref>

On the other hand, Mufti Mahmood, Molana Samiul Haq, Ihsan Illahi Zaheer and others wrote and spoke furiously against Shias. Molana Samilul Haq wrote in the editorial of ''Al-Haq'' magazine'':''

<blockquote>"''We must also remember that Shias consider it their religious duty to harm and eliminate the Ahle-Sunna .... the Shias have always conspired to convert Pakistan to a Shia state ... They have been conspiring with our foreign enemies and with the Jews. It was through such conspiracies that the Shias masterminded the separation of East Pakistan and thus satiated their thirst for the blood of the Sunnis''".<ref name=":32">Khaled Ahmad, "Sectarian War", p. 136, Oxford University Press, (2015).</ref></blockquote>

The [[Bangladesh Liberation War#Background|liberation struggle of Bangladesh]] was instigated by economic and cultural grievances, not religion. The religious reality is that the Shia population of Bangladesh was less than 1%, and similarly the [[Mukti Bahini|Mukti Bahni]] was pre-dominantly Sunni. The members of [[Al-Badr (East Pakistan)|Al-Badr]] and [[Al-Shams (East Pakistan)|Al-Shams]], the jihadi militias set up by Pakistan armed forces to crush the Bengali fighters, were recruited from [[Jamaat-e-Islami|Jamaat-i-Islami]] and followed ''wahhabist'' form of Islam preached by followers of Syed Ahmad Barelvi and Shah Ismael Dihlavi. Shias of Pakistan form a small minority in civil and military services and they too try to downplay their religious identity for fears of discrimination.<ref>Andreas Rieck, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=2HdeCwAAQBAJ&q=preface The Shias of Pakistan]", p. xi, Oxford University Press, (2016).</ref>

==== Zia's Islamization and Afghan Jihad ====
After Zia's takeover in 1977, the influence of socialism and modernism started to wane and religious parties felt empowered by Zia's islamization program. They began to recruit workers and volunteers. In February 1978, Ali Basti, a Shia neighborhood in Karachi, was attacked by a Deobandi mob and 5 men were killed.<ref>{{cite web|date=2013-02-10|title=Shia-Sunni conflict: One man's faith is another man's funeral|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/505605/shia-sunni-conflict-one-mans-faith-is-another-mans-funeral|access-date=2020-11-22|website=The Express Tribune|language=en}}</ref> Next Muharram, in 1978, Azadari processions were attacked in Lahore and Karachi leaving 22 Shias dead.<ref name=":20">{{cite web|url=https://lubpak.net/archives/132675|title=Shia Genocide Database|access-date=8 September 2019|archive-date=26 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526230842/https://lubpak.net/archives/132675|url-status=dead}}</ref> After Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, the country became a safe haven for Shia phobic militants. They could now train in the name of Afghan Jihad, kill Shias and go to Afghanistan in hiding. The number of hate crimes against the Shias increased. During Muharram 1980, the Afghan Refugees settled near Parachinar attack Shia villages and in 1981, they expelled Shias from Sada. At that time, Kurram Militia was employed in Kurram Agency, they successfully contained this violence. In 1983, Shias neighbourhoods of Karachi were attacked on Eid Milad-un-Nabi.<ref>A. Rieck, "The Shias of Pakistan", p. 218, Oxford University Press, (2015).</ref> 94 houses were set on fire, 10 Shias were killed.<ref name=":20" /> On Muharram 1983, there were again attacks on Shias in Karachi.<ref name=":03">{{cite news|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1987/11/10/sectarian-strife-threatens-pakistans-fragile-society/|title=Sectarian Strife Threatens Pakistan's Fragile Society|last=Broder|first=Jonathan|date=10 November 1987|work=Chicago Tribune|access-date=31 December 2016|quote=Pakistan's first major Shiite-Sunni riots erupted in 1983 in Karachi during the Shiite holiday of Muharram; at least 60 people were killed. More Muharram disturbances followed over the next three years, spreading to Lahore and the Baluchistan region and leaving hundreds more dead. Last July, Sunnis and Shiites, many of them armed with locally made automatic weapons, clashed in the northwestern town of Parachinar, where at least 200 died.}}</ref> On 6 July 1985, police opened fire on a Shia demonstration in Quetta, killing 17 Shias.<ref>A. Rieck, "The Shias of Pakistan", pp. 224 – 225, Oxford University Press, (2015).</ref> Shias responded and 11 attackers were killed. According to police report, among the 11 attackers who died in the clash only 2 were identified as police sepoys and 9 were civilian Deobandis wearing fake police uniforms. In Muharram 1986, 7 Shias were killed in Punjab, 4 in Lahore, 3 in Layyah.<ref name=":20" /> In July 1987, Shias of Parachinar were attacked by the Afghan Mujahideen again, who were ready to defend and as a result, 52 Shias and 120 attackers died.<ref>A. Rieck, "The Shias of Pakistan", p. 229, Oxford University Press, (2015).</ref> In 1988, Shia procession was banned in Dera Ismail Khan and 9 unarmed Shia civilians were shot dead while defying the ban. The government had to restore the procession. In the [[1988 Gilgit Massacre]], [[Osama bin Laden]]-led [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] tribals assaulted, massacred and raped [[Shias|Shia]] civilians in [[Gilgit District|Gilgit]] after being inducted by the [[Pakistan Army]] to quell a [[Shias|Shia]] uprising in [[Gilgit District|Gilgit]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O7GPWbu8XKgC&q=gilgit+shias+1988+killing&pg=PT24|title=Around Rakaposhi|last=Jones|first=Brian H.|publisher=Brian H Jones|year=2010|isbn=9780980810721|quote=Many Shias in the region feel that they have been discriminated against since 1948. They claim that the Pakistani government continually gives preferences to Sunnis in business, in official positions, and in the administration of justice...The situation deteriorated sharply during the 1980s under the presidency of the tyrannical Zia-ul Haq when there were many attacks on the Shia population. In one of the most notorious incidents, during May 1988 Sunni assailants destroyed Shia villages, forcing thousands of people to flee to Gilgit for refuge. Shia mosques were razed and about 100 people were killed}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/feb/26raman.htm|title=The Karachi Attack: The Kashmir Link|last=Raman|first=B|date=26 February 2003|work=Rediiff News|access-date=31 December 2016|quote=A revolt by the Shias of Gilgit was ruthlessly suppressed by the Zia-ul Haq regime in 1988, killing hundreds of Shias. An armed group of tribals from Afghanistan and the North-West Frontier Province, led by Osama bin Laden, was inducted by the Pakistan Army into Gilgit and adjoining areas to suppress the revolt.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://herald.dawn.com/news/1153556|title=This Muharram, Gilgit gives peace a chance|last=Taimur|first=Shamil|date=12 October 2016|work=Herald|access-date=31 December 2016|quote=This led to violent clashes between the two sects. In 1988, after a brief calm of nearly four days, the military regime allegedly used certain militants along with local Sunnis to 'teach a lesson' to Shias, which led to hundreds of Shias and Sunnis being killed.}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PYquDAAAQBAJ&q=gilgit+shias+osama+bin+laden&pg=PA37|title=International Organizations and The Rise of ISIL: Global Responses to Human Security Threats|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=9781315536088|pages=37–38|quote=Several hundred Shiite civilians in Gilgit, Pakistan, were massacred in 1988 by Osama Bin Laden and his Taliban fighters (Raman, 2004).}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19mPVOBZ_9YC&q=gilgit+shias+raped+1988&pg=PA134|title=The Making of Terrorism in Pakistan: Historical and Social Roots of Extremism|last=Murphy|first=Eamon|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=9780415565264|page=134|quote=Shias in the district of Gilgit were assaulted, killed and raped by an invading Sunni lashkar-armed militia-comprising thousands of jihadis from the North West Frontier Province.}}</ref>

It is important to note here that it was not Zia, but Liaquat Ali Khan who had patronised the perpetrators of Lucknow sectarianism and started the process of Islamization. Ayyub Khan not only alienated Bengalis but also promoted a historical narrative of Ghulam Ahmad Pervaiz, a conspiracy theorist who attacked Shias in his books like ''Shahkaar-e-Risalat''. Long before Zia, the two-nation theory of Jinnah had been attributed to Ahmad Sirhindi and Shah Waliullah. These hate preachers were presented as heroes and real founders of Pakistan in Syllabus.<ref name=":19" />

Other significant event was the Islamic revolution of Iran. It indirectly strengthened the Islamists in Pakistan. Molana Maududi's ''Jamaat-e-Islami'' shared common ideas of political Islamism. They were the first to support it and publish Khomeini's writings and speeches in Pakistan. Shias did not support this revolution until 1985, when Molana Arif al-Hussaini assumed leadership of the Shia organisation ''Tehreek-e-Jafariya''. Molana Manzoor Ahmad Naumani had been writing against Jamaat-e-Islami for long time. Fearing that this revolution might actually empower Jamaat-i-Islami and the Shias, he obtained funding from Rabta Aalam-i-Islami of Saudi Arabia and wrote a book against Shias and Khomeini. Meanwhile, Molana Nurul Hasan Bukhari and Attaullah Shah Bukhari had died and ''Taznim-e-Ahle-Sunnat'' (TAS) was in a bad shape. The need for its re-organization was met by another Deobandi cleric of lower rank, Molana Haq Nawaz Jhangvi from Punjab. With same ideology and support base, he chose the name ''Anjuman Sipah-e-Sahaba'' (ASS) and later changed it to ''Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan'' (SSP).

==== The search for strategic depth ====
Just as the Soviet forces were leaving Afghanistan, a wave of civil disobedience and protests erupted in Kashmir.<ref>J. R. Schmidt, "[https://archive.org/details/unravelingpakist0000schm  The Unraveling: Pakistan in the Age of Jihad]", ch. 4, Macmillan, (2012).</ref> Pakistan decided to send in the Jihadis trained for Afghan Jihad. The followers of [[Syed Ahmad Barelvi]]'s puritanical form of Islam were trained at [[Balakot]], the place where he was killed while fleeing the joint Sikh-Pashtun attack in 1831. New organisations, like Hizbul Mujahideen, were set up, but their members were drawn from the ideological spheres of Deobandi seminaries and Jamaat-e-islami.<ref>Khaled Ahmad, "Sectarian War", pp. 133 - 135, Oxford University Press, (2015).</ref> This made matters worse for Shias in Pakistan, as the jihadis trained for Kashmir used to come home and act as part-time sectarian terrorists. The state initially turned a blind eye. Sipah-e-Sahaba became more lethal, and the incidents of Shia killing became more organised and more targeted. Shia intellecticide began in the 1990s: doctors, engineers, professors, businessmen, clerics, lawyers, civil servants and other men of learning were being listed and murdered.<ref>Andreas Rieck, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=2HdeCwAAQBAJ&q=sectarian+vendetta The Shias of Pakistan]", pp. 249 - 263, Oxford University Press, (2016).</ref> Mainstream media, either under fear of jihadists or out of ideological orientation of majority of journalists, chose to hide the identity of Shia victims and create false binaries which made it difficult for the people to understand the gravity of the situation and researchers and human rights activists to gather the correct data and form a realistic narrative.<ref name=":34">{{cite book |author=Abbas Zaidi |editor1=Jawad Syed |editor2=Edwina Pio |editor3=Tahir Kamran |editor4=Abbas Zaidi |chapter=Covering Faith-Based Violence: Structure and Semantics of News Reporting in Pakistan |title=Faith-Based violence and Deobandi militancy in Pakistan |year=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |pages= |isbn=978-1-349-94965-6}}</ref> Another tactic deployed for this strategy of confusion was to change the names of sectarian outfits: in the 1980s Tanzim-e-Ahlesunnat (TAS) had come to be known as Sipahe Sahaba (SSP), in the 1990s a new umbrella was set up under the name of [[Lashkar-e-Jhangvi]] (LeJ), whose members, if caught red-handed, were supported by SSP's lawyers and funding.<ref>Khaled Ahmad, "Sectarian War", p. 121, Oxford University Press, (2015).</ref>

==== Post-9/11 scenario ====
In 2001, after the [[September 11 attacks]] on twin towers in the United States, Pakistan decided to join America in her war against terrorism. President Musharraf banned Lashkar-e-Jhangvi and Sipah-e-Muhammad.<ref>Khaled Ahmad, "Sectarian War", pp. 121-122, Oxford University Press, (2015)</ref> In October 2001, Mufti Nizam al-Din Shamzai, a renowned Deobandi religious authority, issued a ''[[fatwa]]'' calling for ''[[Jihad]]'' against the US and Pakistani States.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Farhan Zahid |title=Deconstructing Thoughts and Worldviews of Militant Ideologue Mufti Nizamuddin Shamzai |journal=Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses |date=2018 |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=8–11 |jstor=26458485}}</ref>

It has been quoted by the terrorists groups as religious justification of their acts of violence, such as targeting government offices and spreading chaos through suicide bombings. The prime targets of these attacks have been the Shia Muslims.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://institute.global/insight/co-existence/violent-islamist-extremism-global-problem|title=Violent Islamist Extremism: A Global Problem|website=Institute for Global Change|date=September 2018|language=en|access-date=2019-10-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915092126/https://institute.global/insight/co-existence/violent-islamist-extremism-global-problem|archive-date=15 September 2018}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Faith-based violence against Shias in post 9/11 Pakistan<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lubpak.net/archives/132675|title=Shia Genocide Database: A detailed account of Shia killings in Pakistan from 1963 to 30th June 2019 – by Abdul Nishapuri – LUBP|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-05|archive-date=26 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526230842/https://lubpak.net/archives/132675|url-status=dead}}</ref>
!Year
!Bomb Blasts
!Firing Incidents
!Urban
!Rural
!Killed
!Injured
|-
|2001
|0
|7
|6
|1
|31
|6
|-
|2002
|0
|6
|6
|0
|29
|47
|-
|2003
|1
|4
|5
|0
|83
|68
|-
|2004
|5
|4
|9
|0
|130
|250
|-
|2005
|4
|2
|2
|4
|91
|122
|-
|2006
|2
|3
|2
|3
|116
|unknown
|-
|2007
|2
|11
|4
|9
|442
|423
|-
|2008
|6
|10
|7
|9
|416
|453
|-
|2009
|8
|27
|19
|16
|381
|593
|-
|2010
|7
|16
|16
|7
|322
|639
|-
|2011
|2
|33
|26
|9
|203
|156
|-
|2012
|11
|310
|247
|74
|630
|616
|-
|2013
|20
|283
|269
|34
|1222
|2256
|-
|2014
|7
|262
|251
|18
|361
|275
|-
|2015
|11
|99
|100
|10
|369
|400
|-
|2016
|2
|54
|49
|7
|65
|207
|-
|2017
|4
|34
|26
|12
|308
|133
|-
|2018
|1
|28
|24
|5
|58
|50
|-
|2019
|2+
|15+
|16+
|1+
|38+
|9+
|}
The incidents of violence in cities occur more often than in rural areas. This is because the urban middle class is easy to radicalise, especially the people migrating from rural areas seek refuge in religious organisations to fight the urban culture and to look for new friends of similar rural mindset.<ref>Anatol Lieven, "Pakistan: A Hard Country", pp. 132 - 134, Penguin Books, (2012).</ref> Increasing urbanisation was one of the root causes of the violence in Lucknow in the 1930s. Justin Jones says:

"''one of the greatest contributing social factors to Shi'a-Sunni conflict throughout the 1930s was the massive shift of population and demography taking place in Lucknow. Before the 1920s, colonial Lucknow had been slow to modernise and remained largely stagnant both in terms of economic and population growth. However, Lucknow's quick development thereafter into a major provincial centre of industry and trade saw the city's population spiral after 1921 from some 217,000 to 387,000 in just twenty years''".<ref>Justin Jones, "Shi'a Islam in Colonial India", pp. 202 - 203, Cambridge University Press, (2012).</ref>

=== Conceptualizing anti-Shia violence in Pakistan ===
To make sense of the continuous, systematic and multi-dimensional persecution of the Shias of Pakistan, Abbas Zaidi has applied model of [[genocide]] to the phenomena, what he terms as a slow-genocide,<ref name=":31" /> a term used by Nobel Laureates Professor [[Amartya Sen]] and [[Desmond Tutu]] for describing the plight of the [[Rohingya people|Rohingya]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tribunalonmyanmar.org/2014/11/15/the-slow-genocide-of-the-rohingya-by-nobel-laureate-amartya-sen/|title=The Slow Genocide of the Rohingya by Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen – People's Tribunal on Myanmar|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tutufoundationusa.org/2015/05/29/desmond-tutu-the-slow-genocide-against-the-rohingya/|title=Desmond Tutu: The Slow Genocide Against the Rohingya|date=2015-05-30|website=Desmond Tutu Foundation USA|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-05|archive-date=22 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922193944/http://www.tutufoundationusa.org/2015/05/29/desmond-tutu-the-slow-genocide-against-the-rohingya/|url-status=usurped}}</ref> In 1996, [[Gregory Stanton]], the president of [[Genocide Watch]], presented a briefing paper called "The 8 Stages of Genocide" at the [[United States Department of State]].<ref name="GSGW-1996">[[Gregory Stanton]]. [http://www.genocidewatch.org/aboutgenocide/8stagesofgenocide.html The 8 Stages of Genocide], Genocide Watch, 1996</ref> In it he suggested that genocide develops in eight stages that are "predictable but not inexorable".<ref name="GSGW-1996" /><ref>The [[FBI]] has found somewhat similar stages for [[Hate groups#Psychopathology of hate groups|hate groups]].</ref>

The political Islamist movements in Pakistan have always had an [[genocidal intent|intent to destroy]], in whole or in part, the Shia community which they termed as a Jewish conspiracy against Islam, that is morally corrupt and dangerous for the Sunni majority.<ref name=":32" /> The South Asian ideologue of anti-Shi'ism, [[Shah Abdul Aziz|Shah Abd al-Aziz]], presents a conspiracy theory to explain the origins of Shi'ism, in which the conquered Jews, led by a [[Sherlock Holmes]] type character, [[Abdullah ibn Saba'|Abdullah ibn Saba]], planned to take revenge from Islam and joined the ranks of Ali as his partisans.<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "Shah Abd al-Aziz", p. 261, Ma'rifat Publishing House, Canberra, (1982).</ref> He intentionally ignores the emergence of the Shia-Sunni split right after the death of the Prophet, over the question of Caliphate.<ref>Lesley Hazleton, "[https://archive.org/details/afterprophetepic0000hazl  After the Prophet: The Epic Story of the Shia-Sunni Split in Islam]", Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, (2009).</ref> He also doesn't point towards the activism of [[Abu Dhar al-Ghifari]], whose was the first major protest movement against the Umayyad domination.<ref>Abu Zarr started his protest movement against the Caliph Uthman after he gave 500, 000 dirhams to Marwan; 300, 000 to his brother Harith and 100, 000 to Madinan Zayd ibn Thabit. Abu Zarr condemned this nepotism and quoted Quranic verses that regarded accumulation of wealth as hell fire. He was warned and then exiled to Damascus. He continued his protest there too. He was exiled to and died in the Rabazah desert.

{{cite book |last1=Madelung |first1=Wilferd |title=The Succession to Muḥammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate |url=https://archive.org/details/successiontomuam0000made |url-access=registration |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-0-521-56181-5 }}</ref> The sayings of Muhammad mentioning the term "Shias of Ali",<ref>The Prophet is reported to have said: "Ali! Verily you and your Shi'a will be in Paradise", see: Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, "Fadha'il al-Sahaba", Vol. 2, pp-655; and Ibn Hajar Haythami, "al-Sawa'iq al-Muhriqah" Ch. 11, section 1, pp-247.</ref> and the presence of a group of the companions of Prophet known for their reverence to Ali<ref>S. A. N. Rezavi, "'''The Shia Muslims'''", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> were also excluded from his painting of Shia history. This deviation from the real origins of Shia Islam<ref>Syed Husain Mohammad Jafri, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=wQF0QgAACAAJ&q=origins+and+early+developments+of+Shia+islam The Origins and Early Development of Shiʻa Islam]", Oxford University Press, 2000.</ref> and the anti-semitic, ahistorical narrative has been an ideological basis for the crimes of genocidal nature against Shias.<ref name=":32" /> He also advises Sunnis to humiliate the Shias.<ref name=":33" /> His book targeting Shia history and beliefs, ''[[Tauhfa Ithna Ashari]]'', is widely taught in Sunni seminaries of modern South Asia.

Like all genocidal narratives, Shias are presented as traitors and morally corrupt. Most of the negative Muslim characters of South Asian history are painted as Shias. Mushirul Hasan notes:

"''There was in addition, a concerted move to discourage Shia-Sunni marriages, portray Shias as sexually promiscuous, describe them as heretics and depict them as traitors to the country and as enemies of Islam. Frequently cited examples were Mir Sadiq, diwan of Tipu Sultan; Mir Alam, divan of Hyderabad; Mir Jafar, diwan of Siraj ud-Daula, or the Bilgrami family. They were chided for being in league with British or Indian governments against their Sunni overlords''".<ref name=":18" />

While [[Mir Sadiq]] and [[Mir Alam]] belonged to the Sunni sect of their respective rulers, [[Mir Jafar]] was actually a Shia but so was [[Siraj ud-Daulah|Siraj-ul Daula]], whom he deserted for political benefits. Shia personalities of the past who are perceived as heroes, like [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah|Jinnah]] in Pakistan and [[Siraj ud-Daulah|Siraj-ul Daula]], are painted as Sunnis.<ref>Khaled Ahmed, "Sectarian War", pp. 7 - 9, Oxford University Press, (2012).</ref>

In Urdu literature, many famous Sunni novelists and drama writers depict Shias as sex workers, hypocrites and criminals. One such example is the famous [[Inspector Jamshaid series|Inspector Jamshaid Series]] of crime novels by Ishtiaq Ahmad.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lubpak.net/archives/326785|title=انسپکٹر جمشید اورسپاہ صحابہ: پاکستان میں تکفیری دہشت گردی میں مشہور جاسوسی ناول نویس اشتیاق احمد کا کردار- ازعبدل نیشاپوری – LUBP|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-25}}</ref> In novels of Bano Qudsia, lady sex worker have Shia names and alam-i Abbas erected on their place of work house, which is actually a Shia symbol erected on Imambargahs.

This anti-Shia narrative of popular history and literature has implications: In 2007, Tahir Ashrafi, an advisor of the Punjab government, visited the detained members of the banned Lashkar-i Jhangvi. He says:

"''some of them showed me religious decrees issued in the printed form that said: women of Shias and Qadiyanis are your slaves, their properties are halal and their killing is a religious necessity''".<ref>Safdar Sial, "A Debate on Takfeer and Khurooj", p. 102, Narratives, Lahore (2012).</ref>

One pamphlet circulated by Lashkar-e-Jhangvi in Pakistan's province of Balouchistan reads:

<blockquote>"''All Shia are worthy of killing. We will rid Pakistan of unclean people. Pakistan means "land of the pure" and the Shia have no right to live in this country. We have the edict and signatures of revered scholars, declaring the Shia infidels. Just as our fighters have waged a successful jihad against the Shia Hazara in Afghanistan, our mission in Pakistan is the abolition of this impure sect and its followers from every city, every village, and every nook and corner of Pakistan''.

''As in the past, our successful jihad against the Hazara in Pakistan and, in particular, in Quetta is ongoing and will continue in the future. We will make Pakistan the graveyard of the Shia Hazara and their houses will be destroyed by bombs and suicide-bombers. We will only rest when we will be able to fly the flag of true Islam on this land of the pure. Jihad against the Shia Hazara has now become our duty''."<ref name=":31" /> </blockquote>

The killers of Shias are well organised. The organisations targeting the Shia community in Pakistan have functional units in all major cities and towns, where they spread hate against Shias; and train and motivate their members to carry out assassinations and suicide bombings.<ref>Khaled Ahmed, "Sectarian War", ch. 4, Oxford University Press, (2015).</ref> Shia civilians in the country are regularly killed on a daily basis by the ''[[takfiri]]'' Deobandi terrorist organisations such as [[Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan]], [[Lashkar-e-Jhangvi]], [[Jaish-e-Mohammed]], [[Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan]], [[Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami]], [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]] and others. The Pakistani governments turn a blind eye.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://globalvoices.org/2015/03/02/with-the-government-silent-on-shia-killings-pakistani-activists-raise-their-voice/ |title=With Their Government Silent on Rising Shia Killings, These Pakistanis are Speaking Up |website=Global Voices|date=2 March 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Husain |first=Waris |date=Fall 2015 |title=Simmering Shia Genocide in Pakistan: Early Warning and Action |url=https://www.academia.edu/25300077 |journal=Howard University Human and Civil Rights Law Review |volume=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://unpo.org/article/20775 |title=Balochistan: Government Remains Silent On Increasing Insecurity Faced By Minorities |website=Unrepresented Peoples and Nations Organization|date=2 November 2009 }}</ref>

Abbas Zaidi in his detailed study of media coverage of the crimes against Shias of Pakistan, argues that both the state and the private media houses have adopted a policy of justification and denial.<ref name=":34" /> He says:

"''the media reports Shia killing in one of three ways: denial, obfuscation, and justification. By denial I mean that the media explicitly or implicitly claims that not Shias but "people", "men", "pilgrims", or ethnic "Hazaras" are being killed. This happens when the media either does not report Shia killing at all or deliberately hides Shia victims' sectarian identity. By obfuscation I mean that the media portrays Shia killing in terms of a Shia–Sunni binary in which both sects are shown to be equally involved in violence. By justification I mean that the media portrays the Shias as heretics, blasphemers, and agents provocateurs operating on behalf of foreign powers and thus deserving of violence being done to them''".<ref name=":34" />

Khaled Ahmed argues that it is because the owners of the media houses and the manpower employed there is overwhelmingly Sunni, and that there is a 'sense of shame' that stops them from openly talking about the problem.<ref>Khaled Ahmed, "Sectarian War", pp. xxv - xxvi, Oxford University Press, (2015).</ref>

== Shi'ism in Pakistan ==
Although the overwhelming majority of Pakistani Shia Muslims belong to [[Ithna 'ashariyah]] school, there are significant minorities of [[Nizari]] [[Ismaili]]s, ([[Aga Khan]]is) and the smaller [[Mustaali]] Dawoodi Bohra and [[Sulaimani Bohra]] branches.<ref name="Shia resistance and revival">{{cite news|url=https://herald.dawn.com/news/1153276/heart-of-darkness-shia-resistance-and-revival-in-pakistan|title=Heart of darkness: Shia resistance and revival in Pakistan|date=29 October 2015|work=[[Herald (Pakistan)]]|access-date=14 February 2016}}</ref> The distribution of Shia population is uneven. They are a local majority only in Gilgit-Baltistan and Kurram. In Punjab and Sindh, most Shias live in small towns and villages.

=== Notable Shias of Pakistan ===
[[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], the Quaid-e-Azam ("the Great Leader"), the founder of Pakistan, was born into a Shia family. Some claim that he practiced the Sunni [[Madhhab|school of thought]] later in life, however, after his death, his sister [[Fatima Jinnah]] asked the court to execute Jinnah's will under Shia Islamic law. [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] and Fatima Jinnah both asserted in a joint affidavit that Jinnah was Shia. However, Jinnah's grandnephew, Liaquat H. Merchant, writes that "the Quaid was not a Shia; he was also not a Sunni, he was simply a Muslim."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ahmed |first1=Khaled |title=The secular Mussalman |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/old/ie/daily/19980523/14350814.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515043103/http://www.financialexpress.com/old/ie/daily/19980523/14350814.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-05-15 |work=The Financial Express |location=India |access-date=October 18, 2023 |date=May 23, 1998}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-09-11 |title=From Dawn's Archives: The Father of the Nation laid to rest |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1356979 |access-date=2023-04-28 |work=Dawn |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Nasr |first1=Vali |title=Pakistan's Transition from Shia to Sunni Leadership |url=https://faroutliers.com/2006/10/13/pakistans-transition-from-shia-to-sunni-leadership/ |website=Far Outliers |publisher=New York: W. W. Norton & Co. pp. 88–90. |access-date=October 18, 2023 |date=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Was Jinnah a Shia or Sunni? |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/1998/may/09jinnah.htm |work=Rediff |access-date=October 18, 2023 |date=May 9, 1998}}</ref>

While in past few decades, to address the legal needs and political support of the Shi'a population in Pakistan, organisations like [[Tehrik-e-Jafaria Pakistan]] and [[Imamia Students Organisation]] were formed, while [[Sipah-e-Muhammad Pakistan]], a Shia militant group, was formed to deter the militancy against Shias by [[Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan]] as well as Lashkar-e-Jhangvi, [[Deobandi]] militant groups. Although the [[Sunni]] and [[Shia]] Muslims usually coexist peacefully, [[Sectarian violence in Pakistan|sectarian violence]] is carried out sporadically by radical groups.

When General [[Zia ul-Haq]], the former military ruler of [[Pakistan]], introduced new laws to make [[Zakat]] deductions mandatory for every [[Muslim]] during the 1980s, [[Tehrik-e-Jafaria Pakistan|Tehrik-e-Jafaria]] held a large public demonstration in [[Islamabad]] to compel the government to exempt the [[Shia Muslim]] community from this law. This protest resulted in the "Islamabad Agreement" in which the government agreed to introduce a separate syllabus for Shia students in public schools, as well as exempt the Shia community from the Zakat law, since Shia consider Zakat as a personal tax (to be paid to the needy) not collectible by the state. According to one senior Pakistani journalist who witnessed these events, Iranian leader [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] played an important role in this agreement being reached, and he sought assurances from General Zia al-Haq that Shia demands would be met. A message from Ayatollah Khomeini was also read out to the Shia protesters in Islamabad in which he called for them to keep up their spirits.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ezsoftech.com/akram/shiasunniunity.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030822163923/http://www.ezsoftech.com/Akram/shiasunniunity.asp|url-status=usurped|archive-date=22 August 2003|title=Shia Sunni Unity, Shia Sunni differences, Ali ibn Abu Talib, Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), Holy Qur'an, Ayesha, Misconception, Temporary marriages, Mutah|last=Syed|first=Akramulla|website=www.ezsoftech.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=3&id=16368 |title=Asharq Alawsat Newspaper (English) |access-date=30 June 2010 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501185900/http://aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=3 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Shi'ism in modern India ==
{{see also|Imambaras of Lucknow}}[[File:Bara Imambara Lucknow.jpg|thumb|500x500px|[[Asafi Imambara]] Lucknow, built by Nawab Asaf ud Daulah one of the largest [[Imambara]] of [[India]]]]
In India, the Shia population is distributed unevenly. Lucknow, Hyderabad, Delhi, Murshidabad, Aligarh, Mumbai, Junnair, Kolkata, Mysore, Bhopal, Chennai and Bangalore are major cities with Shia neighbourhoods. Among the Shias of India an overwhelming majority belongs to the [[Twelver Shi'ism|Twelver]] sect, while the Shias among the [[Khoja]] and Bohra communities are mainly [[Nizari Isma'ilism|Nizari]] and [[Musta'li Ismailism|Musta'li]], respectively.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/opinion/edit-page/Reform-Friendly/articleshow/762529.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104201338/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-12-11/edit-page/27792410_1_shias-islamic-law-sunnis|url-status=live|archive-date=November 4, 2012|title=Reform Friendly|last1=Mahmood|first1=Tahir|date=December 11, 2006|access-date=2010-07-17|work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The [[Dawoodi Bohra]]s are primarily based in [[India]], even though the Dawoodi Bohra theology originated in [[Yemen]]. India is home to the majority Dawoodi Bohra population, with most of them concentrated in [[Gujarat]] out of over 1 million followers worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawoodibohra.co.uk/|title=Far Reaching Dawoodi Bohras|publisher=[[Dawoodi Bohra UK]]|access-date=2010-07-04|archive-date=1 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701003427/http://www.dawoodibohra.co.uk/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

India, the only non-Muslim nation in the world with Shia population of 3-7 percent of its entire population, has recognised the [[day of Ashura]] listed as [[Moharram]] as a [[Public holidays in India|public Holiday in India]]. India also has the birthday of [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Imam]] [[Ali]] as a public holiday in states of [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]], whose capital [[Lucknow]] is considered as the centre of India's Shia Muslim community. The birthday of Imam Ali is not recognised as public holiday by any country other than [[India]], [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Iran]]. When [[Saddam]] mercilessly quelled a [[1991 uprisings in Iraq|Shia uprising in 1992]], the world media remained silent and damage to the shrines of [[Husayn ibn Ali]] and his half-brother [[al-Abbas ibn Ali]], in the course of [[Baathist]] attempts to flush out Shia rebels was a tightly kept secret of the [[Saddam]] regime, but Indian media [[Doordarshan]] was the only network in the world to have shown that footage.<ref name="Indian Express">{{cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/oldStory/42343/|title=Pieces of Shia Jigsaw|work=[[Indian Express]]|access-date=2010-07-11}}</ref> [[File:Chhota imambara Lucknow.jpg|thumb|Husainabad Imambara also known as Chota Imambara at Husainabad, Lucknow, built in 1838 by King Mohammad Ali Shah of Awadh]] [[Azadari]] or the mourning practice of Imam [[Husain ibn Ali]] is very much prevalent across India.<ref>{{cite news |title=Muharram observed across India |work=Press Trust of India |date=30 January 2007 |quote=Muharram, marking the martyrdom of Hazrat Imam Hussain ... was observed across India Tuesday.}}</ref> One thing which is worth noting in Indian [[Azadari]] is the participation of non Muslims in Shia rituals on the [[day of Ashura]].<ref name="autogenerated22">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/Majalis-processions-mark-Yaum-e-Zainab/articleshow/535787.cms|title=Majalis, processions mark Yaum-e-Zainab|date=2004-03-04|access-date=2010-06-21|work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref name="The Telegraph (Kolkata)2">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050218/asp/ranchi/story_4391691.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629124450/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050218/asp/ranchi/story_4391691.asp|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 June 2011|title=Peace pact in martyr?s memory – Hindus to set up refreshment stalls for muharram|last=Dutta|first=Tuhin|date=2005-02-18|access-date=2010-06-21|publisher=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)]]|location=Calcutta, India}}</ref><ref name="DNA (newspaper)2">{{cite news |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_hindus-walk-on-fire-on-moharram_1077048|title=Hindus walk on fire on Moharram|work=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|access-date=2010-06-21}}</ref>

The [[Hindu]] rulers of [[Vijayanagara|Vijayanagar]] during the 16th and 17th centuries even donned blackened garments and helped to arrange the Kala Tazia ([[Tazia|Black Tazia]]) processions. Even the [[Scindias]] of [[Gwalior]] and the [[Holkar Maharaja]]s of [[Indore]] conducted [[Majlis]] or [[Azadari|Muharram congregations]].<ref name="Times of India2">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/36359828.cms|title=Muharram in India: Indigenous in Spirit|date=2001-04-05|access-date=2010-07-27|publisher=[[Times of India]]}}</ref> In [[Lucknow]] [[Hindus]] regularly join Muslims in the [[Azadari]] and [[Islamic flags|Alam]] processions. The [[Sufi]] saints of India along with the [[Shi'ite]] scholars encouraged the mixing and merging of indigenous elements from the rich cultural heritage of the land to that of [[Muharram]] thus proclaiming the message of peaceful co-existence among communities and united resistance to tyrannical authority.<ref name="Times of India2" />

The carrying of Alams through fire by men is more common. There are several occasions when these are traditionally practised particularly in the town of [[Vizianagaram]] 550 km outside of Hyderabad where 110 Alams are taken through the fire. A significant aspect of firewalking in the context of [[Moharram]] commemorations in [[Andhra Pradesh]] is the participation of Hindus in the ceremonies. In [[Vizianagaram|Vizinagaram]] 109 of the Alams are carried by Hindus.<ref>Toby Howarth. ''The Twelver Shi'a as a Muslim Minority in India: Pulpit of Tears''. Notes, page 195</ref> The [[Grand Ashura Procession In Kashmir]] is banned by the state government of [[Kashmir]].

=== All India Shia Personal Law Board ===
Shias also claim to be sidelined in India, hence the [[All India Shia Personal Law Board]] was formed after segregation from the [[All India Muslim Personal Law Board]] in 2005 to address the legal needs of the [[Shia]] population. [[AISPLB]] feels that there should be a national policy for the Shias to prevent their exploitation by vested interests. The attitude of the government towards Muslims especially in [[Maharashtra]] came in for criticism.<ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/Shia-women-too-can-initiate-divorce/articleshow/334804.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811081425/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-11-06/lucknow/27799200_1_model-nikahnama-new-nikahnama-shia-personal-law-board|url-status=live|archive-date=August 11, 2011|title=Shia women too can initiate divorce|date=November 6, 2006|access-date=2010-06-21|work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The newly formed All India Shia Personal Law Board had 69 members at the time of formation compared to 204 members in the [[All India Muslim Personal Law Board]].<ref name="India's Muslims face up to rifts"/> The Shia body had the support of the erstwhile royal family of [[Lucknow]], some 2000 descendants of the family claim to have extended their support. Shias claim they have been sidelined by the [[Sunni]]-dominated law board, which was set up in 1972.<ref name="India's Muslims face up to rifts">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4235999.stm|title=India's Muslims face up to rifts|last=Mukerjee|first=Sutapa|date=February 9, 2005|access-date=2010-06-23|work=BBC News}}</ref> Maulana [[Mirza Mohd Athar|Mirza Mohammed Athar]], president of the breakaway [[All India Shia Personal Law Board]] explained the reason for segregation saying that, [[Shias]] have formed a forum of themselves because the [[All India Muslim Personal Law Board]] never took interest in their well-being." [[Shias]] and [[Sunnis]] do not interpret family laws in a similar way. [[Shiites]] also have different [[Mosques]] and [[Burial grounds]] in India."<ref name="India's Muslims face up to rifts" />

=== Community ===
There are notable Shia Muslims involved in many prominent Indian affairs, such as Arts, Business, Diplomates, Bureaucracies, Journalism, Sports, Science, Religion, Literature, Politics, etc.

[[Azim Hashim Premji]], one of India's richest businessman belongs to the Shia community. [[Bismillah Khan]], the winner of [[Bharat Ratna]] award and Badey Ghulam Ali Khan are regarded as one of the most important figures in Indian music. Shia Muslims play an important role in Indian politics as well.

Some Shia organizations in India include:-
* [[All India Shia Personal Law Board]]
* [[All India Shia Political Conference]]
* [[Iman Foundation Najafi House Mumbai]]
* [[Madrasatul Waizeen|Madrasah al Waizeen]] (College of preachers)
* [[Jamia Nazmia]]
* Department of Shia Theology, Faculty Of Theology, [[Aligarh Muslim University]], Aligarh
* [[Sultanul Madaris|Sultan al Madaris]]
* [[Anjuman Haideri Hallaur]]
* [[All India Shia Organisation]]
* [[Shia Companions organisation]]
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shiacompanions.org/|title=Shia Companions|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126173555/http://www.shiacompanions.org/|archive-date=2013-11-26|access-date=2013-07-19|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Anjuman -e- Imamia (Bangalore)]]
* [[Tanzeemul Makatib]]
* [[Anjuman e Murtazvi junnair]]
* [[Shia Education Trust Junnair]]
* [[Husaini walefare society Junnair]]
* [[All Jammu and Kashmir Shia Association]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://iuvmpress.com/10665 |title=Shias of Kashmir: Socio-political dilemmas - IUVMPRESS |access-date=28 August 2020 |archive-date=6 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606010137/http://iuvmpress.com/10665 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Shi'ism in modern Bangladesh ==
{{Main|Shia Islam in Bangladesh}}

Upon partition of the subcontinent in 1947, most of the Shia neighbourhoods of [[Murshidabad]] and [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] became part of India. Today, there is a small Shia community in [[Dhaka]] and the western part of the country.<ref name="Pew"/><ref name=":30" />
Many of the Shias in Bangladesh originally trace their ancestry to the states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in India. Some parts of Bangladesh, such as [[Moulvibazar]] in [[Greater Sylhet]] and [[Chittagong]] were also influenced by an influx of Iranian settlers like the [[Prithimpassa Family|Prithimpassa family]], who were able to spread Shia Islam in the [[Kulaura Upazila]] of Moulvibazar.

==See also==
{{Portal|Islam}}
* [[Islam in Pakistan]]
* [[Abdullah Shah Ghazi]]
* [[Zaidpur|Saadat Zaidpur]]
* [[Grand Ashura Procession In Kashmir]]
* [[List of Shi'a Muslim dynasties|List of Shia Muslim dynasties]]
* [[Public holidays in India|Public Holidays in India]]
* [[Five Martyrs of Shia Islam]]
* [[Persecution of Shia Muslims]]
* [[Sectarian violence in Pakistan]]
* [[Shia Islam in Bangladesh]]
* [[Shia Islam in Pakistan]]
* [[Sayyid of Uttar Pradesh|Sayyid in Uttar Pradesh]]
* [[Alipur, Karnataka]]
* [[Sayyid of Gujarat|Sayyid in Gujarat]]
* [[Nasirabad, Raibareli|Sadaat Nasirabad]]
* [[Hallaur]]
* [[Naugawan Sadat|Naugawan Saadat]]
* [[Sadaat Amroha]]
* [[Saadat-e-Bara|Sadat e Bara]]
* [[Dildar Ali Naseerabadi|Ayatollah Dildar Ali Naqvi Naseerabadi]]
* [[Ghulam Rasool Noori]]
* [[Moulvi Muhammad Baqir|Moulvi Muhammad Baqir Dehlvi]]
* [[Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi|Professor Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi]]
* [[Religion in India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Asia topic|Shia Islam in}}
__FORCETOC__

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indian subcontinent}}
[[Category:Shia Islam in India| ]]
[[Category:Shia Islam in Pakistan| ]]
[[Category:Shia Islam in Asia]]
[[Category:Shia Islam by region]]
[[Category:Shia Islam by continent]]
[[Category:Islam in South Asia]]

Shri Ram Centennial School

2026-05-03T02:33:04Z

QuyenStobie2: New initial entry needs work

{{more citations needed|date=March 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2017}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Shri Ram Centennial School, Indore
| image = SRCS_Indore_Logo.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = SRCS Indore Logo
| logo =
| logo_size =
| logo_alt =
| motto = "Learning For Tomorrow"
| established = 2013
| type = Independent Boarding cum Day Boarding School.
| affiliation = [[Central Board of Secondary Education]] (CBSE)
| classes = Pre Primary – 12th
| head_of_school =
| enrollment =
| campus_size = {{convert|14|acre|m2}}
| location = Indore, [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| country = India
| website = {{URL|http://www.shriramschool.org/}}
}}

'''Shri Ram Centennial School''', or '''SRCS Indore''', is an educational institution established by the Shri Ram Educational Trust and the Prabodh Foundation in Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India. Also had a sister school; Viraj Shri Ram Centennial School, now Renamed to [[Viraj International School]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord|22.7570689|75.9033185|display=title}}

[[Category:Schools in Indore]]
[[Category:Education in Indore]]
[[Category:Boarding schools in Madhya Pradesh]]

Barry Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Foundation

2026-04-26T19:24:40Z

QuyenStobie2: adding a info

{{Short description|American merit-based scholarship awarded to prospective scientists}}
{{COI|date=October 2025}}
[[File:Barry Goldwater photo1962.jpg|thumb|The scholarship is named for Senator [[Barry Goldwater]] (pictured 1962).]]
The '''Barry Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Foundation''' was established by the [[United States Congress]] in 1986 in honor of former [[United States Senate|United States Senator]] and [[1964 United States presidential election|1964 presidential candidate]] [[Barry Goldwater]]. By providing scholarships to college sophomores and juniors who intend to pursue research careers in the natural sciences, mathematics, and engineering, the Goldwater Foundation seeks to ensure that the U.S. is producing the number of highly-qualified professionals the Nation needs in these critical fields.

The scholarship—one of the most prestigious national undergraduate scholarships in the natural sciences, engineering and mathematics<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201805/goldwater.cfm|title=The Road to a Goldwater Scholarship|website=www.aps.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-02|archive-date=2019-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402082102/https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201805/goldwater.cfm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201705/goldwater.cfm|title=An Insider's Look at the Goldwater Scholarship|website=www.aps.org|language=en|access-date=2019-04-02|archive-date=2019-04-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402082739/https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201705/goldwater.cfm|url-status=live}}</ref>—is awarded annually to about 500 college [[Sophomore year|sophomores]] and juniors out of approximately 1,300 nominees.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 31, 2023 |title=Barry Goldwater Scholarship |url=https://goldwaterscholarship.gov/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404092139/https://goldwaterscholarship.gov/ |archive-date=April 4, 2023 |access-date=April 4, 2023 |publisher=Barry Goldwater Scholarship & Excellence in Education Foundation}}</ref> The scholarship is awarded based on merit, and the actual amount given is based on financial need, up to a maximum of $7,500 per academic year. In addition, from 2001 to 2018, about 50 exceptional applicants not awarded the Scholarship have been recognized with official Honorable Mentions each year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.act.org/goldwater/sch-2008.html |title=Barry M. Goldwater Scholarship Website |access-date=2009-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916021244/http://www.act.org/goldwater/sch-2008.html |archive-date=2008-09-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Colleges and universities may nominate up to four undergraduate students per year for consideration. A 5th student can be nominated if one or more of the nominees is a transfer student or a veteran. A 6th student can be nominated if a transfer student and a veteran are nominated. Most applicants are seeking PhDs. Those who also wish to practice medicine must demonstrate a clear commitment to research.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://goldwaterscholarship.gov/faqs-3/|title=Frequently asked questions|date=6 October 2016 |publisher=Barry Goldwater Scholarship & Excellence in Education Foundation|access-date=March 20, 2025}}</ref>

In awarding scholarships, the Foundation considers the field of study, career objectives, commitment, and potential for a significant professional contribution. This is judged by letters of reference, student essays, and prior research experience. The number of scholarships per region depends on the number and qualifications of the nominees for that region. The regions are defined as each of the 50 [[U.S. states]], the [[District of Columbia]], [[Puerto Rico]], Guam, United States Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Republic of the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Republic of Palau, and any other territory or possession of the United States; or a permanent resident.

==Leadership==
===Board of Trustees===
The board of trustees is composed of 13 members, 8 of which are appointed by the [[president of the United States]] with the consent of the [[United States Senate]]. No more than four of the presidentially-appointed members may be affiliated with the same political party. These members are appointed to terms of six years, but they may continue to serve on the board until a successor is confirmed.<ref name="USC">{{USCode|20|4703}}</ref>

Four trustees are members of Congress, two members each from the Senate and the House of Representatives. One member is appointed by the majority leader, the minority leader of the Senate, the majority leader, and the minority leader of the House, respectively. These members may not serve on the board for more than a total of six years.<ref name="USC" />

In addition, the [[U.S. Secretary of Education]], or their designee, serves as an ''[[ex officio]]'' member of the board, though they are ineligible to serve as chairman.<ref name="USC" />

===Current Board Members===
The current board members {{as of|lc=y|df=US|2026|04|26}}:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://goldwaterscholarship.gov/the-foundation/ |title=Board of Trustees |author= |date= |website=goldwaterscholarship.gov |publisher=Barry Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Foundation |access-date=April 26, 2026}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
! Position
! Name
! Party
! Assumed office
! Term expiration
|-
! Chair
| {{sortname|John H.|Yopp}}
| {{party shading/Democratic}} | Democratic
| {{dts|2011|09|26}}
| {{dts|2017|10|13}}
|-
! Member
| {{sortname|Stewart|DeSoto}}
| {{party shading/Republican}} | Republican
| {{dts|2013|01|01}}
| {{dts|2016|08|11}}
|-
! Member
| {{sortname|Peggy Goldwater|Clay}}
| {{party shading/Republican}} | Republican
| {{dts|1995|04|06}}
| {{dts|2012|06|05}}
|-
! Member
| {{sortname|Joseph M.|Green}}
| {{party shading/Democratic}} | Democratic
| {{dts|2021|12|18}}
| {{dts|2028|03|03}}
|-
! Member
| {{sortname|Charlie|Korsmo}}
| {{party shading/Republican}} | Republican
| {{dts|2011|09|26}}
| {{dts|2017|10|13}}
|-
! Member
| {{sortname|Maria E.|Rengifo-Ruess}}
| {{party shading/Democratic}} | Democratic
| {{dts|2011|09|26}}
| {{dts|2014|02|04}}
|-
! Member
| ''Vacant''
| {{party shading/Democratic}} | Democratic
|
|
|-
! Member
| ''Vacant''
| {{party shading/Republican}} | Republican
|
|
|-
! Member 
| {{sortname|Burgess|Owens}}
| {{party shading/Republican}} | Republican
| {{dts|2025|11|18}}
| {{dts|2027|01|03}}
|-
! Member 
| {{sortname|John B.|Larson}}
| {{party shading/Democratic}} | Democratic
| {{dts|2023|04|07}}
| {{dts|2027|01|03}}
|-
! Member 
| ''Vacant''
| {{party shading/Republican}} | Republican
|
|
|-
! Member 
| {{sortname|Mark|Kelly}}
| {{party shading/Democratic}} | Democratic
| {{dts|2025|04|04}}
| {{dts|2029|01|03}}
|-
! Member (''ex officio'')
| {{sortname|Linda|McMahon}}
| {{party shading/Republican}} | Republican
| {{dts|2025|03|03}}
| —
|-
|}

===Foundation President and Executive Secretary===
The board appoints an Executive Secretary of the Foundation, who serves as the President of the Foundation and carries out its functions, subject to the supervision and direction of the board.<ref>{{USCode|20|4709}}</ref>

John Mateja has served as the third President of the Foundation since 2016.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://goldwaterscholarship.gov/dr-john-mateja/ |title=Biographical Synopsis — Dr. John Mateja, Goldwater Foundation President and Executive Secretary |author= |date= |website=goldwaterscholarship.gov |publisher=Barry Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Foundation |access-date=October 10, 2024}}</ref>

====Past presidents====
The past presidents and executive secretaries of the foundation:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://goldwaterscholarship.gov/the-foundation/ |title=Emeritus Presidents |author= |date= |website=goldwaterscholarship.gov |publisher=Barry Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Foundation |access-date=October 10, 2024}}</ref>
* W. Franklin Gilmore (2012–2015)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://goldwaterscholarship.gov/frank-gilmore-the-barry-goldwater-scholarship-foundations-second-president-passes-away/ |title=Frank Gilmore, The Barry Goldwater Scholarship Foundation's Second President, Passes Away |author=Peggy Goldwater Clay |date= |website=goldwaterscholarship.gov |publisher=Barry Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Foundation |access-date=October 10, 2024}}</ref>
* Gerald J. Smith (1988–2011)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://goldwaterscholarship.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Gerald-Smith-Obituary.pdf |title=First Goldwater Foundation President, COL Gerald J. Smith (USAF, Ret), PASSES AWAY |author=Peggy Goldwater Clay |date= |website=goldwaterscholarship.gov |publisher=Barry Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Foundation |access-date=October 10, 2024}}</ref>

==Change in number of scholarships awarded, 2019==

In 2019, the Barry Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Foundation partnered with the Department of Defense National Defense Education Programs (NDEP) to dramatically increase the number of scholarships offered from the historical average of 15-20% of nominees at the national level to over 40%. This awarded a Goldwater scholarship to all students who would have received an Honorable Mention in previous years. A new program associated with the award is its veterans’ initiative. Institutions will, instead of being limited to nominating 4 students, be able to nominate a 5th student if one of the nominees is a veteran.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://goldwater.scholarsapply.org/ |title=2019 Scholar Press Release |website=goldwater.scholarsapply.org |publisher=Barry Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Foundation |access-date=2019-08-24 |archive-date=2019-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827194815/https://goldwater.scholarsapply.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Changes implemented in 2020==
* Nomination materials will now be reviewed by discipline instead of state of residence.
* Four-year schools that present a transfer student as a nominee can also nominate an additional (5th) student.
* Institutions cannot reduce a student's institutionally-controlled scholarship funding after a student receives the Goldwater award.
* The Foundation will no longer reduce a student’s Goldwater award if the student receives additional scholarship funding during the same year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://goldwater.scholarsapply.org/new-for-2020/ |title=New for 2020 |website=goldwater.scholarsapply.org |publisher=Barry Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Foundation |access-date=2019-08-24 |archive-date=2019-08-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824231437/https://goldwater.scholarsapply.org/new-for-2020/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* https://goldwaterscholarship.gov

{{Barry Goldwater}}

[[Category:Awards established in 1986]]
[[Category:Barry Goldwater]]
[[Category:American organizations established in 1986]]
[[Category:Undergraduate scholarships in the United States]]

Humayun Reza

2026-04-19T12:03:47Z

QuyenStobie2: created new info first draft...

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1948)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Humayun Reza
| image = 
| caption =
| birth_date = 6 December 1948
| birth_place =
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| office = Member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Suti Assembly constituency|Suti]]
| term_start = 2016
| term_end = 2021
| predecessor = [[Emani Biswas]]
| successor = Emani Biswas
| occupation = Pensioner
| profession = Politician
| alma_mater = [[University of North Bengal]] (B.Ed., 1979)
| spouse = 
| children = 
| website = 
}}
'''Humayun Reza''' (born 6 December 1948)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Humayun Reza, INC MLA from Suti - Our Neta |url=https://ourneta.com/neta/humayun-reza/ |access-date=2025-05-18 |language=en}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[West Bengal]]. He is a former member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] from [[Suti Assembly constituency]] in [[Murshidabad district]]. He was elected in the [[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] representing the [[Indian National Congress]] Party.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IndiaVotes AC Summary: Suti 2016 |url=https://www.indiavotes.com/ac/summary/36724 |access-date=2025-05-18 |website=IndiaVotes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Suti Election Result 2021 Live Updates: Emani Biswas of TMC Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/suti-election-result-2021-live-updates-suti-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-3695522.html |access-date=2025-05-18 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Reza is from Daharpar, Mahendrapur village, Murshidabad district, West Bengal.<ref name=":1" /> He is the son of late [[Lutfal Haque]]. He completed his Bachelors degree in Education at [[North Bengal University]] in 1979. Earlier, he did his Bachelor of Science degree in a college affiliate to [[Calcutta University]] in 1968.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Humayun Reza(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- SUTI(MURSHIDABAD) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://www.myneta.info/WestBengal2021/candidate.php?candidate_id=1737 |access-date=2025-05-18 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Reza was elected in the Suti Assembly constituency representing the Indian National Congress in the 2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election. He polled 84,017 votes and defeated his nearest rival, [[Emani Biswas]] of the [[All India Trinamool Congress]], by a margin of 3,950 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-08 |title=West Bengal Assembly election 2021, Suti profile: Congress' Humayun Reza won seat in 2016 |url=https://www.firstpost.com/politics/west-bengal-assembly-election-2021-suti-profile-congress-humayun-reza-won-seat-in-2016-9327301.html |access-date=2025-05-18 |website=Firstpost |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Suti Assembly Constituency Election Result - Legislative Assembly Constituency |url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/suti-west-bengal-assembly-constituency |access-date=2025-05-18 |website=resultuniversity.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-02 |title=Suti Election Result 2021 LIVE: How to check Suti assembly (Vidhan Sabha) election winners, losers, vote margin, news updates - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/politics/suti-election-result-2021-live-how-to-check-suti-assembly-vidhan-sabha-election-winners-losers-vote-margin-news-updates-9149021.htm |access-date=2025-05-18 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref> He lost the next election in the [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] which was won by [[Emani Biswas]] of the Trinamool Congress. Reza could only finish third behind BJP's Kaushik Das, who came second. Before the election, a section of the local Congress workers protested against the re-nomination of Reza for the Suti seat.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 March 2021 |title=Bengal Polls 2021: Congress supporters protest against renomination of Humayun Reza |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/west-bengal-assembly-elections-2021-congress-supporters-protest-against-renomination-of-humayun-reza/cid/1809610 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318062133/https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/west-bengal-assembly-elections-2021-congress-supporters-protest-against-renomination-of-humayun-reza/cid/1809610 |archive-date=2021-03-18 |access-date=2025-05-19 |website=The Telegraph India}}</ref>

He has no criminal cases against him and has less than Rs.1 crore assets as declared to the Election Commission of India.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reza. Humayun}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Politicians from Murshidabad district]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2016–2021]]

Mizanur Rahman Kazi

2026-04-16T04:58:53Z

QuyenStobie2: new a stub w/ refs - done

{{Short description|Meghalaya politician (born 1975)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix = Dr. Md.
| name = Mizanur Rahman Kazi
| native_name =
| office = Member of [[Meghalaya Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 2023
| term_end =
| constituency = [[Rajabala Assembly constituency|Rajabala]]
| predecessor = [[Abdus Saleh]]
| successor =
| image = Dr. Mizanur Rahman Kazi.jpg
| birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1975}}
| birth_place = [[Rajabala Assembly constituency|Rajabala]], [[Meghalaya]]
| death_place =
| death_date =
| party = [[All India Trinamool Congress]]
| other_party = [[United Democratic Party (Meghalaya)|United Democratic Party]] (2013-2018) [[National People's Party (India)|National People's Party]](2018-2023)
| alma_mater =
| relatives =
| children = 2
| caption = When Garodubi came to visit the village, he was busy playing carrom.
}}
'''Mizanur Rahman Kazi''' ({{langx|bn|মিজানুর রহমান কাজী}}) is a doctor and politician. He is the current MLA for the [[Rajabala Assembly constituency|Rajabala]] constituency in the [[Meghalaya Legislative Assembly]]. Kazi is a [[fellow]] of the Indian Association of Clinical Medicine and recipient of the Distance Fellowship in Diabetes Management (DFID) from [[Christian Medical College Vellore]].<ref name=eight>{{cite web|url=https://www.myneta.info/meghalaya2018/candidate.php?candidate_id=5867|title=Mizanur Rahman Kazi|website=My Neta|access-date=5 December 2022}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
{{BLP unreferenced section|date=July 2023}}
[[File:Dr. Mizanur Rahman Kazi 2.jpg|thumb|while playing carrom at Garodubi Village]]
Mizanur Rahman Kazi was born into a [[Muslim]] family of [[Qadi|Kazi’]]s in [[Rajabala Assembly constituency|Rajabala]] located in the [[West Garo Hills district]] of [[Meghalaya]]. His father is [[Abdul Jalil Kazi]] who was a close associate of Lt P A Sangma. His wife Sabina Kazi holds an MBA degree from AMU and is a businesswoman . Kazi has a son Sohail Kazi and a daughter Myreen Kazi. Kazi post graduated from the [[Sarojini Naidu Medical College]] under [[Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar University]] Agra in 2005 with a [[Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery|Doctor of Medicine (MD)]] degree and became a private medical practitioner. He owns land in Meghalaya plains and [[Dhubri district|Dhubri]] and New Delhi.

==Political career==
Dr. Kazi contested the [[2023 Meghalaya Legislative Assembly election]] on [[Trinamool Congress|All india Trinamool Congress]] ticket where he was successfully elected, defeating four-time MLA [[Abdus Saleh]] of the NPP by 10 votes.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latestly.com/india/news/meghalaya-assembly-election-results-2023-trinamool-congress-candidate-mizanur-rahman-kazi-wins-by-only-10-votes-from-rajabala-seat-4903292.html|work=Latestly|title=Meghalaya Assembly Election Results 2023: Trinamool Congress Candidate Mizanur Rahman Kazi Wins by Only 10 Votes From Rajabala Seat|date=2 March 2023|location=[[Shillong]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kazi, Mizanur Rahman}}
[[Category:Meghalaya MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:21st-century Bengali people]]
[[Category:People from West Garo Hills district]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:1976 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:National People's Party (India) politicians]]
[[Category:Sarojini Naidu Medical College alumni]]
[[Category:Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar University alumni]]
[[Category:United Democratic Party (Meghalaya) politicians]]
[[Category:Trinamool Congress politicians from Meghalaya]]
[[Category:Muslims from Meghalaya]]

Darhal Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:39:28Z

QuyenStobie2: New Stub

{{Short description|Constituency of the Jammu and Kashmir legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
|name = Darhal Malkan
|type= SLA
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
|state = [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
|district = [[Rajouri district|Rajouri]]
|established = 1967
| abolished = 2018
|electors = 
|reservation =
}}
'''Darhal''' was a legislative constituency in the [[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] a north state of [[India]]. Darhal Malkan was also part of Jammu Lok Sabha constituency.<ref>[http://www.elections.in/jammu-and-kashmir/assembly-constituencies/darhal.html Sitting and previous MLAs from Darhal Assembly Constituency]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ceojammukashmir.nic.in/Constituencies.html |title=Assembly Constituencies - Corresponding Districts and Parliamentary Constituencies of Jammu and Kashmir |publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Jammu and Kashmir |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231174529/http://ceojammukashmir.nic.in/Constituencies.html |archive-date=31 December 2008 }}</ref><ref name="ceo">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|publisher=The Election Commission of India|pages=562}}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[1962 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1962]] || Mohammed Iqbal Mirza || {{Full party name with color|Jammu & Kashmir National Conference}}
|-
| [[1967 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1967]] || [[Chowdhary Mohmmad Hussain]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1972 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || Abdul Rashid Mirza
|-
| [[1977 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1977]] || [[Chowdhary Mohmmad Hussain]] || {{Full party name with color|Jammu & Kashmir National Conference}}
|-
| [[1983 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1983]] || Bashir Ahmed || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1987 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1987]] || rowspan=2 | [[Chowdhary Mohmmad Hussain]] || {{Full party name with color|Jammu & Kashmir National Conference|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1996 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
|-
| [[2002 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2002]] || Thakur Puran Singh || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[2008 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2008]] || rowspan=2 | [[Chowdhary Zulfkar Ali]] || {{Full party name with color|Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 2014 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] : Darhal<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Jammu & Kashmir 2014 - Jammu & Kashmir - Election Commission of India |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3797-jammu-kashmir-2014/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613150235/https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3797-jammu-kashmir-2014/ |archive-date=2019-06-13 |access-date= |website=eci.gov.in}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chowdhary Zulfkar Ali]] |party=Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party |votes=24,381 |percentage=31.58% |change={{increase}}3.03 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chowdhary Liaqat Ali |party=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |votes=19,313 |percentage=25.01% |change={{increase}}3.66 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohammed Iqbal Malik |party=Indian National Congress |votes=18,605 |percentage=24.10% |change={{increase}}5.69 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Thakur Puran Singh |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=11,940 |percentage=15.46% |change={{increase}}13.89 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nazir Hussain |party=Independent politician |votes=656 |percentage=0.85% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Manir Hussain |party=Independent politician |votes=645 |percentage=0.84% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=475 |percentage=0.62% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=5,068 |percentage=6.56% |change= {{decrease}}0.12 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=77,213 |percentage=82.45% |change= {{increase}}5.09 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 93,646 |ref = |change= {{increase}}6.62 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party |loser=Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party |swing= {{increase}}3.03 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2008 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2008 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] : Darhal<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2008 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=https://ceojk.nic.in/pdf/10-Detailed%20Results.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241225073739/https://ceojk.nic.in/pdf/10-Detailed%20Results.pdf|archive-date=25 December 2024|access-date=25 December 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chowdhary Zulfkar Ali]] |party=Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party |votes=19,399 |percentage=28.55% |change={{increase}}16.33 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohammed Iqbal Malik |party=Independent politician |votes=14,858 |percentage=21.87% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chowdhary Liaqat Ali |party=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |votes=14,510 |percentage=21.35% |change={{decrease}}6.23 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Thakur Puran Singh |party=Indian National Congress |votes=12,506 |percentage=18.40% |change={{increase}}12.98 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Masood Ahmed Chowdhary |party=Independent politician |votes=1,753 |percentage=2.58% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Abdul Hamid |party=Independent politician |votes=1,532 |percentage=2.25% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohammed Farooq |party=Jammu and Kashmir National Panthers Party |votes=1,140 |percentage=1.68% |change={{decrease}}1.13 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dev Raj Sharma |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=1,072 |percentage=1.58% |change={{decrease}}0.59 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,541 |percentage=6.68% |change= {{increase}}6.17 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=67,952 |percentage=77.37% |change= {{increase}}30.76 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 87,831 |ref = |change= {{decrease}}2.79 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party |loser=Independent politician |swing= {{increase}}0.45 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2002 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2002 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] : Darhal<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2002 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=http://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/StatRep_JK_02.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127192246/http://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/StatRep_JK_02.pdf|archive-date=27 January 2013|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Thakur Puran Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=11,832 |percentage=28.09% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chowdhary Liaqat Ali |party=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |votes=11,615 |percentage=27.58% |change={{decrease}}13.33 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chowdhary Zulfkar Ali]] |party=Independent politician |votes=7,870 |percentage=18.69% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Tasadiqe Hussain |party=Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party |votes=5,146 |percentage=12.22% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ahssain Ullah Pervaize Malik |party=Indian National Congress |votes=2,285 |percentage=5.43% |change={{decrease}}16.76 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mushtaq Hussain |party=Jammu and Kashmir National Panthers Party |votes=1,181 |percentage=2.80% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dev Raj Sharma |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=911 |percentage=2.16% |change={{decrease}}5.99 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Zulifkar Hussain |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=805 |percentage=1.91% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Abdul Khaliq |party=Independent politician |votes=470 |percentage=1.12% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=217 |percentage=0.52% |change= {{decrease}}13.60 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=42,115 |percentage=46.61% |change= {{decrease}}8.00 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 90,353 |ref = |change= {{increase}}34.85 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Independent politician |loser=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |swing= {{decrease}}12.81 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1996 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1996 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] : Darhal<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1996 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-JK96.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117084805/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1996/StatisticalReport-JK96.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chowdhary Mohmmad Hussain]] |party=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |votes=14,969 |percentage=40.91% |change={{decrease}}23.43 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Abdul Rashid Mirza |party=Independent politician |votes=9,803 |percentage=26.79% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Tassdiq Hussain |party=Indian National Congress |votes=8,119 |percentage=22.19% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dev Raj Sharma |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=2,982 |percentage=8.15% |change={{increase}}2.83 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ghulam Abbas |party=Janata Dal |votes=506 |percentage=1.38% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=5,166 |percentage=14.12% |change= {{decrease}}19.97 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=36,593 |percentage=55.41% |change= {{decrease}}20.29 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 67,002 |ref = |change= {{increase}}12.48 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |loser=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |swing= {{decrease}}23.43 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1987 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1987 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] : Darhal<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1987 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1987/StatisticalReport_jk_87.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114084427/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1987/StatisticalReport_jk_87.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chowdhary Mohmmad Hussain]] |party=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |votes=28,707 |percentage=64.34% |change={{increase}}31.02 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohammed Sadiq Malik |party=Independent politician |votes=13,496 |percentage=30.25% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kuldeep Raj Gupta |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=2,375 |percentage=5.32% |change={{increase}}2.34 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=15,211 |percentage=34.09% |change= {{increase}}27.08 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=44,620 |percentage=75.78% |change= {{increase}}7.31 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 59,568 |ref = |change= {{increase}}20.87 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1983 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1983 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] : Darhal<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1983 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/StatisticalReport_JK_1983.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117082124/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/StatisticalReport_JK_1983.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Bashir Ahmed |party=Indian National Congress |votes=13,435 |percentage=40.33% |change={{increase}}16.42 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chowdhary Mohmmad Hussain]] |party=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |votes=11,100 |percentage=33.32% |change={{decrease}}24.62 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohammed Sadiq Malik |party=Independent politician |votes=7,345 |percentage=22.05% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kuldeep Raj Gupta |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=993 |percentage=2.98% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chooni Lal |party=Independent politician |votes=288 |percentage=0.86% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,335 |percentage=7.01% |change= {{decrease}}27.03 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=33,313 |percentage=68.84% |change= {{increase}}21.69 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 49,284 |ref = |change= {{increase}}14.66 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |swing= {{decrease}}17.61 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1977 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1977 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] : Darhal<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1977 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReport_JK_77.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117081946/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/StatisticalReport_JK_77.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chowdhary Mohmmad Hussain]] |party=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |votes=11,433 |percentage=57.94% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Abdul Rashid Mirza |party=Indian National Congress |votes=4,717 |percentage=23.91% |change={{decrease}}40.18 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nulzar Ahmad |party=Janata Party |votes=2,629 |percentage=13.32% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohammed Sadiq Malik |party=Independent politician |votes=953 |percentage=4.83% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=6,716 |percentage=34.04% |change= {{increase}}0.66 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=19,732 |percentage=46.90% |change= {{decrease}}19.44 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 42,982 |ref = |change= {{increase}}6.84 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}6.14 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1972 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] : Darhal<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1972 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisticalRep_JK_72.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117083027/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisticalRep_JK_72.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Abdul Rashid Mirza |party=Indian National Congress |votes=16,848 |percentage=64.08% |change={{decrease}}6.94 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gulzar Ahmed |party=Independent politician |votes=8,073 |percentage=30.71% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kuldeep Raj Gupta |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes=1,237 |percentage=4.71% |change={{decrease}}11.90 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,775 |percentage=33.38% |change= {{decrease}}21.05 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=26,291 |percentage=66.66% |change= {{increase}}8.45 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 40,231 |ref = |change= {{increase}}24.40 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1967 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] : Darhal<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report_Jk_1967.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006052138/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report_Jk_1967.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chowdhary Mohmmad Hussain]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=13,071 |percentage=71.03% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=R. Lal |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes=3,055 |percentage=16.60% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=G. R. Dar |party=Democratic National Conference |votes=2,277 |percentage=12.37% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=10,016 |percentage=54.43% |change= {{increase}}12.39 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=18,403 |percentage=59.75% |change= {{decrease}}25.76 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 32,341 |ref = |change= {{increase}}39.59 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1962 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1962 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] : Darhal<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_JK_1962.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006183842/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_JK_1962.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Mohammed Iqbal Mirza |party=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |votes=13,601 |percentage=71.02% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Adbul Rehman |party=Praja Socialist Party |votes=5,550 |percentage=28.98% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,051 |percentage=42.04% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=19,151 |percentage=84.32% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 23,168 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Jammu & Kashmir National Conference |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Jammu and Kashmir}}
{{coord|33.485|74.413|display=title}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Rajouri district]]
[[Category:Politics of Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Tehsils of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2019]]
[[Category:2019 disestablishments in India]]

Parel Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:25:21Z

QuyenStobie2: stub

{{Short description|Former constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Parel
| type = SLA
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| state = [[Maharashtra]]
| district =
| division =
| loksabha_cons = [[Mumbai North Central Lok Sabha constituency|Mumbai North Central]]
| constituency_no = 14
| established = 1962
| reservation =
| abolished = 2008
| electors =
}}
'''Parel''' was one of the constituencies of [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]], in India.<ref name=delimitation1961>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/eci-backend/public/api/download?url=LMAhAK6sOPBp%2FNFF0iRfXbEB1EVSLT41NNLRjYNJJP1KivrUxbfqkDatmHy12e%2FzVx8fLfn2ReU7TfrqYobgItkPooCRaZcvrgUBFpKv6bdcr76FQDeo4Kbxo8pmzBdqn57Vkq%2BOs6XLNlp7ij%2BALC0VvUMtFnsvNH%2Ba3UdineGBntf08Jwr8por21kYpP4d |title=The Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 1961 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |date=7 December 1961 |access-date=16 July 2024 |url-access=limited }}</ref> It was last represented by [[Dagdu Sakpal]] of the [[Shiv Sena]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{|class=wikitable
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2"| Party
|-
|[[1957 Bombay Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|Vyankatesh Shenoy
|{{Full party name with color|Praja Socialist Party}}
|-
| [[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
| Madhavrao Mani<ref name="election1962">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3714-maharashtra-1962/ |title=Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Election, 1962 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=9 May 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref>
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| [[Krishna Desai]]
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India}}
|-
| 1970^
| [[Wamanrao Mahadik]]
|{{Full party name with color|Shiv Sena}}
|-
| [[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
| Gajanan Loke
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1978 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
| Vasu Desai<ref name="election1978">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3717-maharashtra-1978/ |title=Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Election, 1978 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=9 May 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref>
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1980 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| [[Satish Pednekar]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
| [[1985 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| Sharad Khatu
|{{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[1990 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
| Vitthal Chavan
| {{Full party name with color|Shiv Sena|rowspan=4}}
|-
| [[1995 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
| Suryakant Desai<ref name="election1995">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3721-maharashtra-1995/ |title=Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Election, 1995 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 25 April 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref>
|-
| [[1999 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1999]]<ref name="election1999">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3722-maharashtra-1999/ |title=Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Election, 1999 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 25 April 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref>
| rowspan="2"| Dagdu Sakpal
|-
| [[2004 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2004]]<ref name="election2004">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3723-maharashtra-2004/ |title=Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Election, 2004 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 25 April 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref>
|-
| colspan="4"|{{center|''2008 onwards: Constituency merged into [[Shivadi Assembly constituency|Shivadi]]''}}
|}

==Election results==
===Assembly Election 2004===
{{Election box begin|title = [[2004 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Parel}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Dagdu Haribhau Sakpal |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 50,646 |percentage = 66.36% |change={{increase}}11.83 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Ghandat Sandeep Sitaram |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 20,967 |percentage = 27.47% |change={{increase}}6.39 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Sanjay Prabhakar Girkar |party=Akhil Bharatiya Sena |votes = 4,703 |percentage = 6.16% |change={{increase}}4.83 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 29,679 |percentage = 38.89% |change= {{increase}}5.44 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 76,320 |percentage = 55.98% |change= {{increase}}9.16 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 76,316}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,36,334|ref = |change= {{decrease}}2.66 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Shiv Sena |loser = Shiv Sena |swing= {{increase}}11.83 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1999===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1999 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Parel<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-MH99.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117044316/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-MH99.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Dagdu Haribhau Sakpal |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 35,759 |percentage = 54.53% |change={{increase}}3.20 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Arun Govind Nare |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 13,823 |percentage = 21.08% |change={{decrease}}3.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Vishnu (Baban) Jairam Kanavje |party=Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 13,534 |percentage = 20.64% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Chandrakant Wairkar (Master) |party=Independent politician |votes = 1,105 |percentage = 1.69% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Colonol (Retired) Ashok Mhatre |party=Akhil Bharatiya Sena |votes = 876 |percentage = 1.34% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Shankar Sandipan Hegade |party=Independent politician |votes = 478 |percentage = 0.73% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 21,936 |percentage = 33.45% |change= {{increase}}6.43 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 65,577 |percentage = 46.82% |change= {{decrease}}19.24 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 65,575}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,40,060|ref = |change= {{increase}}1.98 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Shiv Sena |loser = Shiv Sena |swing= {{increase}}3.20 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1995===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1995 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Parel<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1995 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-MH95.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117121534/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-MH95.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Desai Suryakant Gangaram |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 46,574 |percentage = 51.34% |change={{increase}}0.39 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Dr. Jagannathrao Hegde |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 22,061 |percentage = 24.32% |change={{increase}}1.53 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Chandrakant Wairkar (Master) |party=Independent politician |votes = 11,194 |percentage = 12.34% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Sharad Khatu |party=Samajwadi Janata Party (Maharashtra) |votes = 4,551 |percentage = 5.02% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Parkar Shridhar Narayan |party=Independent politician |votes = 4,384 |percentage = 4.83% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Chandrakant Mahadeo Jadhav |party=Independent politician |votes = 607 |percentage = 0.67% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Dr. Satyavan Bhau Nandoskar |party=Independent politician |votes = 550 |percentage = 0.61% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 24,513 |percentage = 27.02% |change= {{increase}}2.05 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 92,270 |percentage = 67.19% |change= {{increase}}5.30 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 90,725}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,37,336|ref = |change= {{decrease}}5.33 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Shiv Sena |loser = Shiv Sena |swing= {{increase}}0.39 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1990===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1990 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Parel<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1990 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_MT_90.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117080722/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_MT_90.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Vithal Chavan |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 44,907 |percentage = 50.95% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Sharad Khatu |party=Janata Dal |votes = 22,899 |percentage = 25.98% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=[[Satish Pednekar]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 20,086 |percentage = 22.79% |change={{decrease}}1.46 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 22,008 |percentage = 24.97% |change= {{increase}}19.57 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 89,009 |percentage = 61.36% |change= {{increase}}2.83 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 88,140}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,45,071|ref = |change= {{increase}}10.20 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Shiv Sena |loser = Independent politician |swing= {{increase}}21.30 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1985===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1985 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Parel<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201985.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117075119/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201985.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Sharad Khatu |party=Independent politician |votes = 22,613 |percentage = 29.65% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Jagannathrao Hegde |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 18,493 |percentage = 24.25% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Nagesh Pawar |party=Independent politician |votes = 17,709 |percentage = 23.22% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Laxman Jadhab |party=Janata Party |votes = 11,904 |percentage = 15.61% |change={{decrease}}29.95 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Baburao Shankar Shelar |party=Communist Party of India |votes = 4,913 |percentage = 6.44% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Ramshiromani Yadav |party=Independent politician |votes = 505 |percentage = 0.66% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,120 |percentage = 5.40% |change= {{decrease}}3.47 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 77,041 |percentage = 58.52% |change= {{increase}}15.81 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 76,257}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,31,648|ref = |change= {{increase}}2.07 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Independent politician |loser = Indian National Congress (I) |swing= {{decrease}}24.78 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1980===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1980 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Parel<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1980 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Maharashtra.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117083555/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Maharashtra.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Satish Pednekar]] |party=Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 29,570 |percentage = 54.44% |change={{increase}}45.67 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Vasu Desai |party=Janata Party |votes = 24,750 |percentage = 45.56% |change={{decrease}}5.09 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,820 |percentage = 8.87% |change= {{decrease}}22.44 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 54,983 |percentage = 42.63% |change= {{decrease}}29.30 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 54,320}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,28,981|ref = |change= {{increase}}5.70 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress (I) |loser = Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}3.78 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1978===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1978 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Parel<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1978 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%201978%20Maharashtra.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629182050/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%201978%20Maharashtra.pdf|archive-date=29 June 2017|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Vasu Desai |party=Janata Party |votes = 44,147 |percentage = 50.66% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Dattaji Salvi |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 16,856 |percentage = 19.34% |change={{decrease}}17.00 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Gajanan Shankar Loke |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 11,549 |percentage = 13.25% |change={{decrease}}37.74 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Kandalkar Tukaram Ganesh |party=Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 7,636 |percentage = 8.76% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Chitnis Gangadhar Vishnu |party=Communist Party of India |votes = 6,789 |percentage = 7.79% |change={{decrease}}3.59 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 27,291 |percentage = 31.32% |change= {{increase}}16.66 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 88,516 |percentage = 72.54% |change= {{decrease}}0.21 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 87,147}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,22,022|ref = |change= {{increase}}29.90 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Janata Party |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}0.34 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1972===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Parel<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519183024/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-date=19 May 2017|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Gajanan Shankar Loke |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 34,310 |percentage = 50.99% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Vaman Shivram Mahadik |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 24,451 |percentage = 36.34% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Prabhakar Balwant Vaidya |party=Communist Party of India |votes = 7,656 |percentage = 11.38% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Aba Deugaonkar |party=Indian National Congress (Organisation) |votes = 866 |percentage = 1.29% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 9,859 |percentage = 14.65% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 68,308 |percentage = 72.72% |change= }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 67,283}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 93,934|ref = |change= }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Independent politician |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly By-election 1970===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1970 elections in India#Maharashtra|1970 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly by-election]] : Parel<ref>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/2511-details-of-bye-elections-from-1952-to-1995/ |title=Details of Bye Elections from 1952 to 1995 |access-date=21 December 2025 |website=old.eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] }}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Wamanrao Mahadik]] |party=Independent politician |votes = 31,592 |percentage = |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=D. S. Krishnaji |party=Communist Party of India |votes = 29,913 |percentage = |change=}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,679 |percentage = |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = |percentage = |change= }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 0}}
|change= }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Independent politician |loser = Communist Party of India |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1967===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Parel<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926233227/https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-date=26 September 2018|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Krishna Desai|Krishna Gangaram Desai]] |party=Communist Party of India |votes = 28,847 |percentage = 47.38% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Madhavrao Ganpatrao Mani |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 18,231 |percentage = 29.94% |change={{decrease}}15.86 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=A. B. Vichare |party=Praja Socialist Party |votes = 9,282 |percentage = 15.24% |change={{increase}}3.46 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=S. S. Paul |party=Independent politician |votes = 2,361 |percentage = 3.88% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=N. K. Jagtap |party=Swatantra Party |votes = 2,168 |percentage = 3.56% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 10,616 |percentage = 17.44% |change= {{increase}}7.34 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 62,863 |percentage = 73.56% |change= {{increase}}8.18 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 60,889}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 85,463|ref = |change= {{increase}}18.79 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Communist Party of India |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}1.57 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1962===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Parel<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117085627/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Madhavrao Ganpatrao Mani |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 20,784 |percentage = 45.80% |change={{increase}}11.87 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=[[Krishna Desai|Krishna Gangaram Desai]] |party=Independent politician |votes = 16,203 |percentage = 35.71% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Vishwanath Krishna Tembe |party=Praja Socialist Party |votes = 5,349 |percentage = 11.79% |change={{decrease}}54.28 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Prabhakar Ramchandra Keluskar |party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 2,345 |percentage = 5.17% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Shridhar Vasudeo Redkar |party=Socialist Party (India) |votes = 694 |percentage = 1.53% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,581 |percentage = 10.10% |change= {{decrease}}22.04 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 47,450 |percentage = 65.95% |change= {{decrease}}9.07 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 45,375}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 71,943|ref = |change= {{increase}}18.75 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Praja Socialist Party |swing= {{decrease}}20.26 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1957===
{{Election box begin|title = [[1957 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Parel<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Bombay_1957.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114093455/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Bombay_1957.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Shenoy Vyankatesh Appa |party=Praja Socialist Party |votes = 28,876 |percentage = 66.07% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Gaonkar Hari Dharmaji |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 14,832 |percentage = 33.93% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 14,044 |percentage = 32.13% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 43,708 |percentage = 72.15% |change= }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 43,708}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 60,583|ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Praja Socialist Party |loser = |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Maharashtra}}
{{coord|18.998|72.840|display=title}}

[[Category:Mumbai City district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Mumbai]]
[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Politics of Mumbai]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1962]]
[[Category:1962 establishments in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2008]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in India]]

Yelburga Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:38:46Z

QuyenStobie2: New basic entry added tags...

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Karnataka State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Yelburga
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 63
| map_image = 63-Yelburga constituency.svg
| mla = [[Basavaraj Rayareddy]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress ]]
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| preceded_by = [[Halappa Achar]]
| state = [[Karnataka]]
| district = [[Koppal district|Koppal]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Koppal (Lok Sabha constituency)|Koppal]]
| established = 1951
| reservation = None
| electors = {{formatnum:182472}}<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/15163-karnataka-2023/ |title=Karnataka Legislative Assembly Election - 2023 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |website=eci.gov.in |access-date=24 July 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|7}}
}}

'''Yelburga Assembly constituency''' is one of the 224 [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Karnataka]] in [[India]].<ref name=electors2019>{{cite web |url=https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PCELE2019/GE2019_VOTERS_COUNT.pdf |title=Karnataka Loksabha Elections - 2019 - Voters Count |website=ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in |accessdate= 10 February 2021}}</ref>

It is part of [[Koppal district]].

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#BB8ED0" | [[1952 Hyderabad State Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || Ayyangowda || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1957 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1957]] || Alwandi Shankargouda
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1962 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1962]] || Veerabhadrappa Irappa || {{Full party name with color|Lok Sewak Sangh}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1967 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1967]] || C. Gouda || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1972 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || Prabhuraj. L. Patil
|-
| [[1978 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1978]] || Shrilingraj Shivashankar Rao || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
| [[1983 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1983]] || Lingaraj Shivashankara Rao Desai || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1983 elections in India#Karnataka|1983 By-election]] {{efn|Died on
05/02/1983}} || Subashchandra Basalingagouda Patil
|-
| [[1985 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1985]] || rowspan="3" | [[Basavaraj Rayareddy]] || {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1989 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1989]] || {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1994 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1994]]
|-
| [[1996 elections in India#Karnataka|1996 By-election]] {{efn|Resigned on 27/05/1996}} || Rudragouda Hunsihal
|-
| [[1999 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1999]] || Shivasharanappa Gouda Patil || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2004]] || [[Basavaraj Rayareddy]]
|-
| [[2008 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2008]] || Eshanna Gulagannavar || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[2013 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2013]] || [[Basavaraj Rayareddy]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2018]] || [[Halappa Achar]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2023]] || [[Basavaraj Rayareddy]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|}
{{notelist}}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 2023 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref name=election2023/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Basavaraj Rayareddy]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 94,330 |percentage = 53.29% |change = {{increase}}13.36 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Halappa Achar]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 77,149 |percentage = 43.59% |change = {{decrease}}4.43 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 1,565 |percentage = 0.88% |change = {{decrease}}0.04 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 17,181 |percentage = 9.71% |change = {{increase}}1.62 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 177,012 |percentage = 79.30% |change = {{decrease}}0.23 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 176,998}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 223,211 |ref = |change = {{increase}}7.71 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}5.27 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2018 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref name=election2018>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/6933-karnataka-2018/ |title=Karnataka Legislative Assembly Election - 2018 |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate= 4 February 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Halappa Achar]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 79,072 |percentage = 48.02% |change = {{increase}}24.58 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Basavaraj Rayareddy]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 65,754 |percentage = 39.93% |change = {{increase}}5.33 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Veeranagouda Police Patil Ballutagi |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 14,591 |percentage = 8.86% |change = {{increase}}0.91 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 1,510 |percentage = 0.92% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 13,318 |percentage = 8.09% |change = {{decrease}}3.07 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 164,804 |percentage = 79.53% |change = {{increase}}3.50 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 164,667}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 207,232 |ref = |change = {{increase}}15.12 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}13.42 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2013 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2013 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2013 : To the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/StatReports2013.pdf |website=eci.nic.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=2014-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220034253/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/StatReports2013.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-20 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Basavaraj Rayareddy]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 52,388 |percentage = 34.60% |change = {{increase}}6.50 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Halappa Achar]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 35,488 |percentage = 23.44% |change = {{decrease}}32.77 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = G. T. Pampapati |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 12,040 |percentage = 7.95% |change = {{decrease}}1.00 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Naveen Kumar. E. Gulagannanavar |party = Badavara Shramikara Raitara Congress |votes = 10,640 |percentage = 7.03% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = C. H. Patil |party = Karnataka Janata Paksha |votes = 10,212 |percentage = 6.74% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Nagaraj Kolaji |party = Independent politician |votes = 9,888 |percentage = 6.53% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Somashekar. T. M |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,018 |percentage = 1.33% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shivashankarayya Baligerimath |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,233 |percentage = 0.81% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 16,900 |percentage = 11.16% |change = {{decrease}}16.94 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 136,866 |percentage = 76.03% |change = {{increase}}9.60 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 151,417}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 180,009 |ref = |change = {{increase}}12.79 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{decrease}}21.61 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2008 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2008 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web |title=General Election Karnataka Legislative Assembly 2008 Election Statistics |url=https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PDFS/Previous%20Elections/Election%20Statistics%202008%20Final.pdf |publisher=Government of Karnataka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201232433/https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PDFS/Previous%20Elections/Election%20Statistics%202008%20Final.pdf |archive-date=1 February 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Eshanna Gulagannavar |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 59,562 |percentage = 56.21% |change = {{increase}}14.34 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Basavaraj Rayareddy]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 29,781 |percentage = 28.10% |change = {{decrease}}19.20 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Amaragundappa Adappa Meti |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 9,482 |percentage = 8.95% |change = {{increase}}1.46 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shivappa Basappa Rampur |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,216 |percentage = 3.03% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shankargouda Timmanagouda Malipatil |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 2,195 |percentage = 2.07% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Rudrappa Ramappa Bhandari |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,733 |percentage = 1.64% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 29,781 |percentage = 28.10% |change = {{increase}}22.67 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 106,017 |percentage = 66.43% |change = {{increase}}1.64 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 105,969}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 159,599 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}1.03 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}8.91 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2004 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2004 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_KT_2004.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006204912/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_KT_2004.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Basavaraj Rayareddy]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 49,401 |percentage = 47.30% |change = {{increase}}12.32 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Eshanna Gulagannavar |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 43,729 |percentage = 41.87% |change = {{increase}}21.14 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Channa Basangouda Halagin Gouda Police Patel |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 7,820 |percentage = 7.49% |change = {{decrease}}6.35 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Manjunath Sorutur |party = Kannada Nadu Party |votes = 3,498 |percentage = 3.35% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,672 |percentage = 5.43% |change = {{increase}}0.91 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 104,489 |percentage = 64.79% |change = {{increase}}1.12 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 104,448}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 161,266 |ref = |change = {{increase}}16.33 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}12.32 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1999 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1999 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-KT99.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006053217/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-KT99.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Shivasharanappa Gouda Patil |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 28,706 |percentage = 34.98% |change = {{decrease}}7.86 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Halappa Achar]] |party = Janata Dal (United) |votes = 24,993 |percentage = 30.45% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Eshanna Gulagannavar |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 17,016 |percentage = 20.73% |change = {{increase}}9.67 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Veeranagouda Shivashantagowda Police Patil |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 11,359 |percentage = 13.84% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 3,713 |percentage = 4.52% |change = {{increase}}1.26 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 88,257 |percentage = 63.67% |change = {{increase}}1.03 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 82,074}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 6,137 |percentage = 6.95% |change = {{increase}}4.21 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 138,623 |ref = |change = {{increase}}7.43 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Janata Dal |swing = {{decrease}}11.12 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly By-election 1996 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1996 elections in India#Karnataka|1996 Karnataka Legislative Assembly by-election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/ByeElection/ByeNov1996/index.htm |title=Bye Elections - 1996 - Election Commission of India |access-date=21 December 2025 |website=old.eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] }}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Rudragouda Hunsihal |party = Janata Dal |votes = 36,245 |percentage = 46.10% |change = {{decrease}}14.05 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shivasharanappa Gouda Patil |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 33,683 |percentage = 42.84% |change = {{increase}}23.29 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Andappa Gurulingappa Somapur |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 8,692 |percentage = 11.06% |change = {{increase}}9.35 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,562 |percentage = 3.26% |change = {{decrease}}37.34 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 80,832 |percentage = 62.64% |change = {{decrease}}1.98 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 78,620}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 2,212 |percentage = 2.74% |change = {{decrease}}0.55 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 129,034 |ref = |change = {{increase}}2.73 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Janata Dal |swing = {{decrease}}14.05 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1994 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1994 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1994 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StatisticalReport-KT94.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006211324/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StatisticalReport-KT94.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Basavaraj Rayareddy]] |party = Janata Dal |votes = 47,215 |percentage = 60.15% |change = {{increase}}9.52 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Jayshree Subhashachandra Patil |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 15,347 |percentage = 19.55% |change = {{decrease}}27.82 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sripadappa Neelappa Adhikari |party = Independent politician |votes = 10,170 |percentage = 12.96% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Bheemashappa Balappa Halli |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,327 |percentage = 2.96% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shivanagouda Banappa Goudra |party = Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes = 1,411 |percentage = 1.80% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Amrutappa Sidramappa Desai |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 1,341 |percentage = 1.71% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 31,868 |percentage = 40.60% |change = {{increase}}37.35 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 81,164 |percentage = 64.62% |change = {{decrease}}2.82 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 78,496}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 2,668 |percentage = 3.29% |change = {{decrease}}1.91 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 125,604 |ref = |change = {{increase}}7.85 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Janata Dal |swing = {{increase}}9.52 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1989 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1989 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1989 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20karnataka%201989.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007070737/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20karnataka%201989.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Basavaraj Rayareddy]] |party = Janata Dal |votes = 37,692 |percentage = 50.63% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shivasharanappa Gouda Adiveppa Gouda Patil |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 35,271 |percentage = 47.37% |change = {{increase}}3.60 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. S. Patil (Vakilaru) |party = Janata Party |votes = 1,488 |percentage = 2.00% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,421 |percentage = 3.25% |change = {{decrease}}6.53 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 78,537 |percentage = 67.44% |change = {{increase}}8.33 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 74,451}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 4,086 |percentage = 5.20% |change = {{increase}}2.90 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 116,461 |ref = |change = {{increase}}25.58 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Janata Dal |loser = Janata Party |swing = {{decrease}}2.91 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1985 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1985 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201985.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006143216/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201985.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Basavaraj Rayareddy]] |party = Janata Party |votes = 28,674 |percentage = 53.54% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Subashchandra Basalingagouda Patil |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 23,439 |percentage = 43.77% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ashok Siddappa Mensinkai |party = Independent politician |votes = 816 |percentage = 1.52% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shrinivas Ventakesh Vaidya |party = Independent politician |votes = 625 |percentage = 1.17% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,235 |percentage = 9.78% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 54,815 |percentage = 59.11% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 53,554}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 1,261 |percentage = 2.30% |change = }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 92,738 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Janata Party |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly By-election 1983 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1983 elections in India#Karnataka|1983 Karnataka Legislative Assembly by-election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web |url=https://kla.kar.nic.in/assembly/member/7assemblymemberslist.htm |title=Seventh Karnataka Legislative Assembly |access-date=21 December 2025 |website=kla.kar.nic.in |publisher=[[]] |archive-date= 6 Apr 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406163649/https://kla.kar.nic.in/assembly/member/7assemblymemberslist.htm}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Subashchandra Basalingagouda Patil |party = Indian National Congress |votes = |percentage = |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}53.59 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1983 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1983 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1983 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/Statistical%20Report%201983%20karnatkaa.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007124742/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/Statistical%20Report%201983%20karnatkaa.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Lingaraj Shivashankara Rao Desai |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 23,387 |percentage = 53.59% |change = {{increase}}49.79 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shankar Rao Krishna Rao Deshpande |party = Independent politician |votes = 19,339 |percentage = 44.31% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shivashankar Patil Alwawandi |party = Independent politician |votes = 914 |percentage = 2.09% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,048 |percentage = 9.28% |change = {{decrease}}25.88 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 45,715 |percentage = 52.67% |change = {{decrease}}12.65 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 43,640}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 2,075 |percentage = 4.54% |change = {{increase}}0.53 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 86,792 |ref = |change = {{increase}}6.58 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Indian National Congress (I) |swing = {{decrease}}9.97 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1978 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1978 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1978 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201978.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007164123/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201978.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Shrilingraj Shivashankar Rao |party = Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 32,453 |percentage = 63.56% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shankarappa Siddappa |party = Janata Party |votes = 14,504 |percentage = 28.41% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Desai. P. K |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 1,942 |percentage = 3.80% |change = {{decrease}}66.35 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shripadappa Neelappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,708 |percentage = 3.35% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Channabasappa Honnappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 448 |percentage = 0.88% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 17,949 |percentage = 35.16% |change = {{decrease}}9.13 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 53,190 |percentage = 65.32% |change = {{increase}}17.19 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 51,055}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 2,135 |percentage = 4.01% |change = {{increase}}4.01 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 81,432 |ref = |change = {{increase}}7.38 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress (I) |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}6.59 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1972 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1972 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisRep_Mysore_72.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006074555/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisRep_Mysore_72.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Prabhuraj. L. Patil |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 24,430 |percentage = 70.15% |change = {{increase}}8.23 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = A. G. Virupakshagouda Patil |party = Indian National Congress (Organisation) |votes = 9,005 |percentage = 25.86% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ajjayyaswamy Rudrayya |party = Independent politician |votes = 970 |percentage = 2.79% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shankarappa Bangarshettar |party = Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 420 |percentage = 1.21% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 15,425 |percentage = 44.29% |change = {{increase}}18.43 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 36,504 |percentage = 48.13% |change = {{decrease}}14.16 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 34,825}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 75,837 |ref = |change = {{increase}}12.17 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}8.23 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1967 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Mysore%201967.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006083645/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Mysore%201967.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = C. Gouda |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 24,256 |percentage = 61.92% |change = {{increase}}14.87 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Veerabhadrappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 14,126 |percentage = 36.06% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = A. Khaji |party = Independent politician |votes = 792 |percentage = 2.02% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 10,130 |percentage = 25.86% |change = {{increase}}19.96 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 42,114 |percentage = 62.29% |change = {{increase}}10.59 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 39,174}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 67,607 |ref = |change = {{increase}}6.12 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Lok Sewak Sangh |swing = {{increase}}8.97 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1962 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1962 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Mysore_1962.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006093153/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Mysore_1962.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Veerabhadrappa Irappa |party = Lok Sewak Sangh |votes = 16,104 |percentage = 52.95% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shankargouda Basangouda |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 14,310 |percentage = 47.05% |change = {{decrease}}11.58 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,794 |percentage = 5.90% |change = {{decrease}}11.36 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 32,938 |percentage = 51.70% |change = {{decrease}}10.52 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 30,414}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 63,708 |ref = |change = {{increase}}13.10 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Lok Sewak Sangh |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}5.68 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1957 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1957 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Mysore_1957.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111195053/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Mysore_1957.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Alwandi Shankargouda |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 20,548 |percentage = 58.63% |change = {{increase}}7.90 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sirur Veerabhadrappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 14,500 |percentage = 41.37% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 6,048 |percentage = 17.26% |change = {{increase}}15.79 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 35,048 |percentage = 62.22% |change = {{increase}}9.92 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 35,048}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 56,328 |ref = |change = {{increase}}8.94 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}7.90 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Hyderabad State Legislative Assembly election]] : Yelburga <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Hyderabad |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_HBD.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160606161433/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_HBD.pdf|archive-date=6 June 2016|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Ayyangowda |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 13,719 |percentage = 50.73% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Veerabhadrappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 13,322 |percentage = 49.27% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 397 |percentage = 1.47% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 27,041 |percentage = 52.30% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 27,041}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 51,704 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Koppal district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Karnataka}}

[[Category:Koppal district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Politics of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Mysore State]]
{{coord|15.61|76.01|display=title}}

Thillalangadi

2026-04-11T16:57:44Z

QuyenStobie2: New some entry needs work...

{{short description|2010 film by Mohan Raja}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Thillalangadi
| image = Thillalangadi.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Mohan Raja|M. Raja]]
| producer = {{plainlist|
* [[Editor Mohan]]
* M. Raja}}
| screenplay = M. Raja
| based_on = {{Based on|''[[Kick (2009 film)|Kick]]''|[[Vakkantham Vamsi]]}}
| starring = {{plainlist|
* [[Ravi Mohan]]
* [[Tamannaah Bhatia|Tamannaah]]
* [[Shaam (actor)|Shaam]]}}
| music = {{plainlist|
*'''Songs:'''
* [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]]
* [[Thaman S]]
*'''Score:'''
* Thaman S }}
| cinematography = B. Rajasekar
| editing = Ram Sudharsan
| studio = Jayam Company
| distributor = [[Sun Pictures]]
| released = {{Film date|2010|07|23|df=y}}
| runtime = 180 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Thillalangadi''''' ({{Translation|Defiler}}) is a 2010 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[Action comedy|action comedy film]] directed by [[Mohan Raja|M. Raja]]. A remake of the 2009 [[Telugu language|Telugu]] film ''[[Kick (2009 film)|Kick]]'', it stars Raja's brother [[Ravi Mohan]] (credited as Jayam Ravi) along with [[Tamannaah Bhatia|Tamannaah]] and [[Shaam (actor)|Shaam]], who reprises his role from ''Kick'', and a supporting cast including [[Prabhu (actor)|Prabhu]], [[Suhasini Maniratnam]], [[Vadivelu]], [[Santhanam (actor)|Santhanam]], and [[Sanchita Shetty]]. The film features a soundtrack composed by [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]], whilst [[Thaman S]]'s original score has been reused. The film, produced by Raja's father [[Editor Mohan]] and distributed by [[Sun Pictures]], was released on 23 July 2010.

''Thillalangadi'' depicts the story of Krishna (Jayam Ravi), a brilliant student who has excelled in all aspects of life but loves to have an [[adventure]] in his life and would do anything just to experience this kick (addiction).

==Plot==
Krishna is a happy-go-lucky youth who excels in every field but always does strange and dangerous things to obtain a certain "kick" – a thrill or excitement that he craves. One such activity is secretly double-crossing his childhood friend Das while helping him elope. At this point, he meets Nisha, who is shocked at his recklessness and writes him off as crazy. Krishna sets his sights on Nisha and woos her in a very unorthodox way; he begs her ''not'' to fall in love with him. After a host of comical situations involving Krishna's caring but easygoing parents, local thugs, and an ever-present comic relief Jackson, Nisha accepts Krishna's love. However, she sets a condition: Krishna must stay in a well-paying job (he had resigned from other jobs due to lack of "kick"), and only then will she agree to marry him. Krishna accepts but soon resigns again for the same reason and tries to hide it from Nisha. When Nisha finds out, she breaks up with him and leaves him for good.

Some months later, Nisha's parents arrange for her to meet a prospective suitor in Malaysia. Though reluctant, she meets the suitor Krishna Kumar, a tough but honest policeman. She narrates the story of her affair with Krishna, and Krishna Kumar reveals that he is tracking a dangerous thief who has stolen large amounts of money from wealthy (mostly corrupt) politicians. At Malaysia, Nisha, her sister, and Jackson run into Krishna again but learn that he has lost his memory and cannot remember his past life. Nisha sees this as an opportunity to start their relationship again from scratch. However, it is revealed that Krishna is not really suffering from amnesia; he has faked his condition by convincing an amnesiac that he is a doctor, and tricked him into diagnosing his condition falsely. Nisha is upset but realizes that it was done due to his love for her, and she has hidden her own feelings from him. They reconcile.

Meanwhile, it is revealed that the thief whom Krishna Kumar has been tracking is Krishna. His motives are simple; he steals ill-gotten money from politicians to pay for operations of children suffering from cancer. After manipulating various people, such as an [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]], and stealing from them, he is finally caught in the act by Krishna Kumar. Krishna is still unfazed, celebrating his failure at a street party. He dares Krishna Kumar to catch him in his final crime: stealing money from the minister. After many harrowing stunts, Krishna pulls it off successfully. Krishna Kumar is demoted from his job for his failure and is shocked to learn that his replacement is Krishna, who promises to "guard" the minister's remaining money. Knowing what is in store for the politicians, Krishna Kumar leaves with a new respect for his foe.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Ravi Mohan]] as Krishna/Thillalangadi
* [[Shaam (actor)|Shaam]] as ACP Krishna Kumar
* [[Tamannaah Bhatia|Tamannaah]] as Nisha
* [[Prabhu (actor)|Prabhu]] as Vatti, Krishna's father
* [[Vadivelu]] as Jackson "Jacky" / John
* [[Santhanam (actor)|Santhanam]] as Dr. Butty Paul
* [[Ganja Karuppu]] as Karuppu
* [[Sathyan (Tamil actor)|Sathyan]] as Das
* [[Thyagu (actor)|Thyagu]] as Minister
* [[Manivannan]] as an ''[[ashram]]'' staff member
* [[Mansoor Ali Khan (actor)|Mansoor Ali Khan]] as the police inspector
* [[Manobala]] as a priest
* [[J. Livingston|Livingston]] as Ganesan, Nisha's uncle
* [[Jayaprakash (actor)|V. Jayaprakash]] as Ramaswamy, Nisha's father
* [[Mayilsamy]] as Maasi's sidekick
* [[Five Star Krishna]] as Venkat
* [[Geetha (actress)|Geetha]] as Janaki, Krishna Kumar's mother
* [[L. Raja|''Sankar Guru'' Raja]] as Natraj Veerabhadran, Krishna Kumar's father
* [[Kadhal Dhandapani]] as Minister Chandra Lakshman
* [[John Vijay]] as 'Manda Odu' Maasi
* [[Crane Manohar]] as a drunkard
* [[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]] as Valli, Krishna's mother
* [[Sanchita Shetty]] as Ammu
* [[Nalini (actress)|Nalini]] as an [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] Vannai Vasanthi, Nisha's mother
* [[Chandra Lakshman]] as Shreya Das
* [[Vijayalakshmi (Kannada actress)|Vijayalakshmi]] as Swapna
* Latha Rao as Usha
* [[Visweswara Rao|Vichu]] as Rajaraam's PA
* Shankar Sundaram as a doctor
* [[L. R. Eswari]] as herself
* Lakshmi Vasudevan as Dhanalakshmi, Nisha's aunt
;Uncredited
* [[Radha Ravi]] as Minister Rajaraam
* [[Yogi Babu]] as Maasi's sidekick
* ''Osthe'' J. Ram as Maasi's sidekick
}}

== Production ==

=== Development ===
After the success of the Telugu film ''[[Kick (2009 film)|Kick]]'' in early May 2009, [[Editor Mohan]] purchased the remake rights for the Tamil version later the same month.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |date=30 May 2009 |title=Telugu 'Kick' lucky for Vijay |url=http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/30052009-3.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090531064724/http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/30052009-3.shtml |archive-date=31 May 2009 |access-date=11 August 2009 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref> While Mohan himself would produce the film, Mohan's elder son, M. Raja, was made the director, directing again his brother Jayam Ravi, who would later bag the lead role in the film. It is, noticeably, the fifth "remake project" of this combo, featuring 'Editor' Mohan as the producer, M. Raja as the director and Jayam Ravi as the lead actor, after ''[[Jayam (2003 film)|Jayam]]'', ''[[M. Kumaran Son of Mahalakshmi]]'', ''[[Unakkum Enakkum]]'' and ''[[Santosh Subramaniam]]''.

=== Casting ===

The lead female role, originally played by [[Ileana D'Cruz]], was eventually won by [[Tamannaah Bhatia]].{{citation needed|date=September 2025}} Initially, the crew had planned to sign Ileana for the same role in Tamil as well and approached her, but her father is said to have refused the offer as he didn't want his daughter to play the same role again.{{citation needed|date=September 2025}} Also actress [[Muktha (actress)|Bhanu]], who had starred in the films ''[[Thaamirabharani]]'' and the very recently released ''[[Azhagar Malai]]'', was approached for the role.{{citation needed|date=September 2025}} However, she, too, refused the offer as she felt the role was too glamorous and she wouldn't fit the role.{{citation needed|date=September 2025}}

Meanwhile, [[Shaam (actor)|Shaam]], who played a vital role in the Telugu version, took up the same the role in Tamil.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 July 2009 |title=Shaam plays a don in agampuram |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2009/Jul/22/shaam-plays-a-don-in-agampuram-69807.html |access-date=2025-09-25 |website=[[The New Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref> Unlike in Raja's earlier remakes, which all had music scored by the composer who scored the original version and the same songs as well (except for ''[[M. Kumaran Son of Mahalakshmi]]''), composer [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]] was hired for the musical score this time, replacing [[Thaman S]], who composed the music of ''Kick''.{{citation needed|date=September 2025}}

=== Filming ===
The film was formally launched on 19 August 2009 at AVM Studios.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 August 2009 |title=Thillalangadi launched at AVM studio |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2009/Aug/25/thillalangadi-launched-at-avm-studio-80213.html |access-date=2025-09-25 |website=[[The New Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref> The first shot, featuring Jayam Ravi and Tamannaah, was directed by [[S. Shankar]], with actor [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]] giving the inaugural clap shot. The launch was attended by many prominent people from the Tamil film industry as Tamil Film Producers Council chief Ramanarayanan, KRG, Abirami Ramanathan, [[S. A. Chandrasekhar]], R. B. Chowdhary, Ram Kumar, [[Kasthuri Raja]], PL Thenappan, actor [[Karthi]] and actress [[Khushbu Sundar]] among others.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 August 2009 |title=Jayam Ravi's Thillalangadi starts rolling! |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/jayam-ravi-s-thillalangadi-starts-rolling-news-tamil-kkfrAfgeacg.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008172452/http://www.sify.com/movies/jayam-ravi-s-thillalangadi-starts-rolling-news-tamil-kkfrAfgeacg.html |archive-date=2012-10-08 |access-date=2025-09-25 |work=[[Sify]]}}</ref>

The film was shot at various locations, including [[Chennai]] (India), [[Kuala Lumpur]] ([[Malaysia]]), [[Bangkok]] ([[Thailand]]) and [[Singapore]]. The crew, including director Raja, Jayam Ravi, manager Senthil, cinematographer B. Rajasekar and art director Milan had been looking for locations in Malaysia in August 2009, after which the film shooting began. At first, shooting was held in Chennai for nearly 20 days, following which the crew flew to Malaysia, where a major portion of the film was to be shot, where the original film was shot as well.{{citation needed|date=September 2025}} By mid-November, the crew had completed a 30-day schedule in Malaysia. The shoot in Malaysia involved an action sequence, filmed by three cameras simultaneously, which was shot on busy roads with special permissions from the local police authorities and a song sequence featuring Ravi and Tamannaah. Shooting was held also at the famous [[Petronas Towers]] and on the Singapore-Malaysian railway line.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 November 2009 |title=Jeyam Ravi's stunt on the Twin Towers |url=http://cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/13112009-2.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113061101/http://cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/13112009-2.shtml |archive-date=2010-01-13 |access-date=2025-09-25 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref> During the 30-day filming, the September [[2009 Sumatra earthquakes]] occurred, which the team survived.<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 October 2009 |title=Jayam Ravi and Tammu survive earthquake! |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/jayam-ravi-and-tammu-survive-earthquake-news-tamil-kkfrzsbajfj.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008172531/http://www.sify.com/movies/jayam-ravi-and-tammu-survive-earthquake-news-tamil-kkfrzsbajfj.html |archive-date=2012-10-08 |access-date=2025-09-25 |work=[[Sify]]}}</ref> In late January 2010, a special song ("Solpechu Ketkadha Sundari"), widely publicized as the "360 degree song" was shot. It was filmed using a Nero motion control camera that revolves on a 360 degree angle set, which was handled by an Australian specialist Scott and would later look like a single shot. This song, choreographed by Shobi, which would feature 15 Jayam Ravis and 5 Tamannaahs, was completed in around 45 hours, on which alone nearly Rs. 75 lakhs was said to be spent.<ref name="A 360 degree song!">{{cite news |last1=Pillai |first1=Sreedhar |date=13 February 2010 |title=A 360 degree song! |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-02-13/news-interviews/28144788_1_song-thillalangadi-tamannaahs |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103045419/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-02-13/news-interviews/28144788_1_song-thillalangadi-tamannaahs |archive-date=3 November 2012 |access-date=16 February 2010 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Music ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Thillalangadi
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2 July 2010
| recorded = 2009–10
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 34:59
| label = [[Sony Music India]]
| producer = Yuvan Shankar Raja
| prev_title = [[Kaadhal Solla Vandhen]]
| prev_year = 2010
| next_title = [[Naan Mahaan Alla (2010 film)|Naan Mahaan Alla]]
| next_year = 2010
}}

The ''Thillalangadi'' soundtrack is composed by [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]], working together with director [[Mohan Raja]] for the first time. The soundtrack album features 7 songs, two of which have been reused from the [[Kick (2009 film)#Soundtrack|original version]], composed by [[Thaman S]], as per Raja's wish. The lyrics are penned by [[Na. Muthukumar]] and [[Viveka (lyricist)|Viveka]]. The audio was released on 2 July 2010 at the [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]] studios and premiered on Sun Music in the evening.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sify.com/movies/tamil/fullstory.php?id=14947546 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704101622/http://sify.com/movies/tamil/fullstory.php?id=14947546 |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 July 2010 |title=Thillalangadi audio straight to the stores |website=[[Sify]] |date=1 July 2010 |access-date=8 November 2012}}</ref> The background score was taken from the original, scored by Thaman. It comprises the first time working together of two legendary singers [[K. S. Chithra]] and [[Shreya Ghoshal]]. This duo got a nomination for best Playback Singing on [[Filmfare Awards South]].

{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 34:59
| title1 = Ding Ding
| music1 = [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]]
| lyrics1 = [[Viveka (lyricist)|Viveka]]
| extra1 = [[Vijay Prakash]], Naveen
| length1 = 5:14
| title2 = Sol Pechu
| music2 = Yuvan Shankar Raja
| lyrics2 = [[Na. Muthukumar]]
| extra2 = [[K. S. Chithra]], [[Shreya Ghoshal]], [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]]
| length2 = 4:56
| title3 = Pootta Paathadhum
| note3 = based on "Dil Kalaase" from ''Kick''
| music3 = [[Thaman S]]
| lyrics3 = Viveka
| extra3 = [[Suchitra]]
| length3 = 3:39
| title4 = Memory Loss
| music4 = Yuvan Shankar Raja
| lyrics4 = Viveka
| extra4 = [[Kailash Kher]], [[Ranjith (singer)|Ranjith]]
| length4 = 4:28
| title5 = Pattu Pattu
| music5 = Yuvan Shankar Raja
| lyrics5 = Na. Muthukumar
| extra5 = [[Silambarasan]], [[Manasi Scott]]
| length5 = 4:57
| title6 = Idhayam Karaikirathe
| note6 = based on "Manase Thadisela" from ''Kick''
| music6 = S. Thaman
| lyrics6 = Viveka
| extra6 = Srivardhini
| length6 = 2:35
| title7 = Thothu Ponen
| music7 = Yuvan Shankar Raja
| lyrics7 = Viveka
| extra7 = [[Shankar Mahadevan]]
| length7 = 3:24
}}

==Release==
=== Theatrical ===
The film had a solo release on 23 July 2010.{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}

=== Home media ===
The film had its television premiere on 21 December 2014 via [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 December 2014 |title=Thillalangadi matinee on Sun TV today |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/Thillalangadi-matinee-on-Sun-TV-today/articleshow/45592640.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306041950/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/Thillalangadi-matinee-on-Sun-TV-today/articleshow/45592640.cms |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=20 April 2018 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Reception ==
A reviewer from ''[[Sify]]'' rated the film as "average" film and added that it is "boring".<ref name=":30">{{Cite web |title=Thillalangadi is boring |url=http://sify.com/movies/tamil/review.php?id=14950744&ctid=5&cid=2429 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726113646/http://sify.com/movies/tamil/review.php?id=14950744&ctid=5&cid=2429 |archive-date=2010-07-26 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> Pavithra Srinivasan from ''[[Rediff.com]]'' cited the film as a "ridiculous pot-boiler" and criticised Jeyam Ravi's lacking punch and wafer-thin story line, giving the film a mere 1.5 out of 5.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Srinivasan |first=Pavithra |date=23 July 2010 |title=Thillalangadi is a ridiculous pot-boiler |url=http://movies.rediff.com/report/2010/jul/23/south-tamil-movie-review-thillalangadi.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303194431/http://movies.rediff.com/report/2010/jul/23/south-tamil-movie-review-thillalangadi.htm |archive-date=2016-03-03 |work=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> A critic from ''[[The Times of India]]'' also criticised the film saying that it "lacks that light touch needed to carry off the candyfloss content" as well as Jayam Ravi's performance describing his character as "a ham of what is simply a ridiculously featherweight character".<ref>{{cite news |last=Ravi |first=Bhama Devi |date=26 July 2010 |title=Thillalangadi |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/movie-reviews/Thillalangadi/movie-review/6218103.cms |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105150946/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/movie-reviews/Thillalangadi/movie-review/6218103.cms |archive-date=5 November 2012 |access-date=1 July 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> A critic from ''Chennai Online'' said "the film somehow manages to entertain with comedy elements".<ref>{{cite web |date=26 July 2010 |title=Movie Review : 'Thillalangadi' |url=http://chennaionline.com/movies/movie-reviews/20105426105429/Movie-Review--Thillalangadi.col |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501145103/http://chennaionline.com/movies/movie-reviews/20105426105429/Movie-Review--Thillalangadi.col |archive-date=1 May 2011 |access-date=8 November 2012 |website=Chennai Online |publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=30 July 2010 |title=Comedy of errors |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/Comedy-of-errors/article16214551.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108015934/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/Comedy-of-errors/article16214551.ece |archive-date=8 November 2021 |access-date=8 November 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

{{M. Raja}}

[[Category:2010 films]]
[[Category:Tamil remakes of Telugu films]]
[[Category:Indian action comedy films]]
[[Category:2010 action comedy films]]
[[Category:2010s masala films]]
[[Category:2010 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2010 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Yuvan Shankar Raja]]
[[Category:Films directed by Mohan Raja]]
[[Category:Films scored by Thaman S]]
[[Category:Films shot in Chennai]]
[[Category:Films shot in Singapore]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kuala Lumpur]]
[[Category:Films shot in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Films shot in Bangkok]]
[[Category:Films shot in Thailand]]
[[Category:2010 comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian films with live action and animation]]

P. S. Vijayakumar

2026-04-11T12:41:01Z

QuyenStobie2: done

{{Infobox officeholder
| name = P. S. Vijayakumar
| image =
| image size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1954|5|4|df=y}}
| birth_place = Tiruvannamalai
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office1 = Member-Legislative Assembly, Tamil Nadu.
| constituency1 = [[Polur Assembly constituency|Polur]]
| term_start1 = 2006
| term_end1 = 2011
| predecessor1 = [[Nalini Manokaran]]
| successor1 = [[L. Jaya Sudha]]
| office2 =
| constituency2 =
| term_start2 =
| term_end2 =
| successor2 =
| term_start3 =
| term_end3 =
| term_start4 =
| term_end4 =
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| spouse =
| alma_mater =
| relations =
| children =
| profession = Advocate
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| website =
}}
'''P. S. Vijayakumar''' is an Indian politician and a former [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] (MLA) of [[Tamil Nadu]]. He hails from the [[Polur]] region in the [[Tiruvannamalai district]]. Vijayakumar has completed M. A. degree at [[Annamalai University]], Chidambaram and studied LLB at Bangalore in the year 2005.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.myneta.info/tn2006/candidate.php?candidate_id=423 | title=Tamil Nadu 2006 | accessdate=21 December 2025}}</ref> Representing the [[Indian National Congress]] party, he contested and won the [[2006 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]] from the [[Polur Assembly constituency]] to become a member of the state assembly.<ref>Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly "WHO'S WHO Thirteenth Assembly 2006. Chennai-600009: Legislature Assembly Secretariat, Chennai-600009. 2007. p. 132-134.</ref>

==Electoral Performance==
===2006===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2006 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Polur<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India| title = 2006 Election Statistical Report| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_TN_2006.pdf| access-date = 12 May 2006| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007200819/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2006/StatReport_TN_2006.pdf| archive-date = 7 Oct 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=P. S. Vijayakumar |party=Indian National Congress |votes=58,595 |percentage=47.08% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=T. Vediyappan |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=51,051 |percentage=41.02% |change=-10.3 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. C. Purushothaman |party=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam |votes=6,867 |percentage=5.52% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=G. Elangeswaran |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=2,299 |percentage=1.85% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. B. Lakshmanan |party=Independent politician |votes=2,089 |percentage=1.68% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=G. Shanmugam |party=Samajwadi Party |votes=2,011 |percentage=1.62% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Durairaj |party=Independent politician |votes=815 |percentage=0.65% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=C. Sankar |party=Independent politician |votes=729 |percentage=0.59% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=7,544 |percentage=6.06% |change= -3.23% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=124,456 |percentage=71.53% |change= 5.29% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 173,999 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -4.23% }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Tamil Nadu MLAs 2006–2011]]
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Cinematic style of S. S. Rajamouli

2026-04-11T09:23:27Z

QuyenStobie2: New A Stub.

{{Short description|Filmmaking style of S. S. Rajamouli}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2022}}
[[File:Photos-Alia-Bhatt-Ram-Charan-Jr.-NTR-and-S.-S.-Rajamouli-snapped-during-their-upcoming-film-RRR-promotions-at-PVR-Plaza-in-New-Delhi-5.jpg|thumb|Rajamouli in 2022]]

[[S. S. Rajamouli]] is an Indian filmmaker who primarily works in [[Telugu cinema]] and is known for his [[Action film|action]], [[fantasy]], and [[Epic film|epic]] genre films. [[Rachel Dwyer]] called Rajamouli "India's most significant director today".<ref name=":122">{{Cite web |last=Dwyer |first=Rachel |author-link=Rachel Dwyer |date=2022-04-01 |title=Director's Roar - The globalisation of South Indian cinema began with Rajamouli |url=https://openthemagazine.com/cover-stories/directors-roar/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905161209/https://openthemagazine.com/cover-stories/directors-roar/ |archive-date=5 September 2022 |access-date=2022-09-05 |website=[[Open (Indian magazine)|Open Magazine]] |language=en-GB |quote=SS Rajamouli is perhaps India’s most significant director today. He can make a film in a south Indian language that, when dubbed, becomes a pan-Indian film that can also be enjoyed overseas.}}</ref> His films are typically characterised by their epic grandeur, unbridled [[hero]]ism and larger-than-life characters. His films have themes and characters inspired from [[Indian epic poetry|ancient Indian epics]] such as ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and are noted for their integration of the essential lessons and emotions in those ancient epics with visual grandeur. He frequently mentions that the mythological themes in his films are storytelling elements intended to create strong emotional impact on the viewers and are not a reflection of his [[personality]] or [[worldview]]. His films also have a liberal dose of violence, often orchestrated in stylised action set-pieces.

Rajamouli's films mostly follow the [[three-act structure]] where every major [[plot point]] ends on a high note with the film having a clap-worthy moment every 10 to 15 minutes. Several of his films also feature [[Flashback (narrative)|flashback]] episodes. His recent films focus heavily on visual storytelling. They are primarily made in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and then dubbed into various other Indian and foreign languages. His works are typically [[visual effects]]-heavy, and he is one of the pioneering filmmakers in India in integrating [[computer-generated imagery]] (CGI) with [[live action]]. He prefers [[practical effect]]s over CGI and likes to capture as much footage as possible [[In-camera effect|in-camera]]. With his [[Baahubali (franchise)|''Baahubali'']] films, he has pioneered the [[Pan-Indian film]] movement.

[[M. M. Keeravani]], his cousin, has worked as the music composer for all of his films. Rajamouli has co-written several of his films with his father, [[V. Vijayendra Prasad|Vijayendra Prasad]]. Rajamouli's wife, [[Rama Rajamouli|Rama]] worked as a costume designer or stylist for all of his films starting from ''Sye.'' Other frequent collaborators include editor [[Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao]], cinematographer [[K. K. Senthil Kumar]], production designers [[Sabu Cyril]] and S. Ravinder, action choreographers [[Peter Hein]], [[Ram Lakshman (stunt choreographers)|Ram-Lakshman]], and King Solomon. His films feature many recurring actors, notably [[Prabhas]], [[Ram Charan]], [[N. T. Rama Rao Jr.|Jr. NTR]], and [[Anushka Shetty]], who appeared in [[Leading actor|lead roles]] in several films.

== Themes ==
{{Quote box
| width = 32.5%
| bgcolor = Cornsilk
| align = right
| quote = When I start writing a story, for me, it is the emotion I should be moved by. I might be [[agnostic]], but when I see a good film, like for example, [[Annamayya (film)|''Annamayya'']], a Telugu film which is about a devotee of [[Venkateswara|Lord Venkateswara]], and when I see the climax, I cry. It is a conversation between God and man, his disciple. I might not believe in God, but I connect to the emotion of a devotee and a God. And, I connect to the emotion that drives masses: devotion and submission to a greater self. I understand the power of that emotion, the power of a mass emotion, and I too feel that emotion. I might not believe in God, but I believe in the emotion, and if it moves me, I write it.
| source = Rajamouli on emotions and themes in his films.<ref name=BT/>
}}

A penchant for "larger-than-life" filmmaking,<ref name="Kokra">{{Cite web |last=Kokra |first=Sonali |date=12 April 2022 |title='RRR' director SS Rajamouli on being a 'rollercoaster entertainer' |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/film/2022/04/12/rrr-director-ss-rajamouli-on-being-a-rollercoaster-entertainer/ |access-date=30 August 2022 |website=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |language=en |quote='I generally like larger-than-life, pushing-the-boundaries sort of canvases,' he says. |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830080822/https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/film/2022/04/12/rrr-director-ss-rajamouli-on-being-a-rollercoaster-entertainer/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite news |date=13 April 2017 |title=Q&A: Director Rajamouli on the making of 'Bahubali' |language=en |quote=The vision was not just in 2012 - it kept building over a period of years, right from my childhood. I had this penchant for bigger films, larger-than-life characters. |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/rajamouli-baahubali-film-idUSKBN17F0JS |access-date=3 July 2022 |archive-date=3 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703203219/https://www.reuters.com/article/rajamouli-baahubali-film-idUSKBN17F0JS |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Kumar">{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=Anuj |date=18 October 2012 |title=Flight of imagination |language=en-IN |quote=I like larger-than-life ideas. I take an impossible situation and then make the audience believe in it. |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Flight-of-imagination/article12562497.ece |access-date=23 August 2022 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=8 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808233406/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Flight-of-imagination/article12562497.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Srinivasan |first=Latha |date=30 March 2022 |title=Inside the mind of SS Rajamouli: Decoding how the RRR director lends scale to his storytelling |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/inside-the-mind-of-ss-rajamouli-decoding-how-the-rrr-director-lends-scale-to-his-storytelling-10501081.html |access-date=20 July 2022 |website=Firstpost |language=en |quote=[f]rom a young age, I had this vivid imagination. When my father started working, he would tell us scenes he had developed, and I would amp them up in my own way. |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818144603/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/inside-the-mind-of-ss-rajamouli-decoding-how-the-rrr-director-lends-scale-to-his-storytelling-10501081.html |url-status=live }}</ref> combined with a fascination for historical and mythological themes; abound with forts, battles, kings and their tales had Rajamouli helm films like ''[[Yamadonga]]'', ''[[Magadheera]]'' and the [[Baahubali (franchise)|''Baahubali'']] duology.<ref name="forbes">{{Cite web |last=Cain |first=Rob |date=27 August 2015 |title=An Interview With 'Baahubali' Director SS Rajamouli: The Beginning |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/robcain/2015/08/27/an-interview-with-baahubali-director-ss-rajamouli-the-beginning/ |access-date=27 July 2022 |website=Forbes |language=en |quote=I was fascinated by the forts, the battles, the kings, I not only used to read those stories but I kept telling those stories to my friends in my own way.[...] I experimented a bit with two of my earlier films Yamadonga and Magadheera which had a bit of folklore and mythology in them. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201043901/https://www.forbes.com/sites/robcain/2015/08/27/an-interview-with-baahubali-director-ss-rajamouli-the-beginning/|archive-date=December 1, 2022|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Suhani |date=17 December 2021 |title=S.S. Rajamouli: The return of the king |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cinema/story/20211227-s-s-rajamouli-the-return-of-the-king-1888561-2021-12-17 |url-access=subscription |access-date=26 July 2022 |website=India Today |language=en |archive-date=1 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701185022/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cinema/story/20211227-s-s-rajamouli-the-return-of-the-king-1888561-2021-12-17 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rajamouli has cited [[Outline of ancient India|ancient Indian]] narrative [[Epic poetry|epics]] such as ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]'' to be inspirational sources for his storytelling.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adivi |first=Sashidhar |date=3 August 2017 |title=SS Rajamouli's epic inspiration |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/030817/ss-rajamoulis-epic-inspiration-1.html |access-date=23 September 2021 |website=Deccan Chronicle |language=en |quote=All my films are inspired by Mahabharata and Ramayana because I was raised with these epics. I have a deep emotional connect with them. |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330031504/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/030817/ss-rajamoulis-epic-inspiration-1.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=My films have narratives inspired by mythology: S S Rajamouli |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/interviews/2022/01/30/ss-rajamouli-interview-rrr.html |access-date=26 June 2022 |website=OnManorama |quote=My films will always have narratives that are inspired by mythology. I am deeply influenced by the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. They somehow come out in various forms. But it isn’t deliberate. [...] I don’t think there is any emotion that hasn’t been written in the Mahabharata or Ramayana. |archive-date=27 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527130927/https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/interviews/2022/01/30/ss-rajamouli-interview-rrr.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cain |first=Rob |date=27 August 2015 |title=An Interview With 'Baahubali' Director SS Rajamouli: The Beginning |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/robcain/2015/08/27/an-interview-with-baahubali-director-ss-rajamouli-the-beginning/ |access-date=27 July 2022 |website=Forbes |language=en |quote=mostly my stories are drawn from the epics of India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201043901/https://www.forbes.com/sites/robcain/2015/08/27/an-interview-with-baahubali-director-ss-rajamouli-the-beginning/|archive-date=December 1, 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> He revisits the ''[[Amar Chitra Katha]]'' comics and keeps reading different versions of the ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata'' from time to time.<ref name=":10" /> About the presence of mythological elements in his films, Rajamouli spoke thus:<blockquote>"I am deeply influenced by mythology. Including it in my projects has always been a very [[sub-conscious]] decision because I grew up listening to the stories of mythology from my grandparents. It is completely embedded in my blood. Whatever goes in, comes out. I have so much input of mythology, it comes out in my stories in different forms. I feel very proud of it."<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 March 2022 |title=SS Rajamouli opens up on why he includes mythological elements in his films |url=https://theprint.in/features/ss-rajamouli-opens-up-on-why-he-includes-mythological-elements-in-his-films/881350/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626092557/https://theprint.in/features/ss-rajamouli-opens-up-on-why-he-includes-mythological-elements-in-his-films/881350/ |archive-date=26 June 2022 |access-date=17 July 2022 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref></blockquote>

A scene in ''Simhadri'' had the protagonist impale a rapist on spikes overhead and bathe in his blood, who is then given a [[abhisheka]] by the priests for his deed. ''Baahubali'' series had elements resembling narratives from ''Mahabharata'' and ''Ramayana''. The Devasena-Bhallaladeva scenes mirror the [[Sita]]-[[Ravana]] interactions in the ''Ramayana''. The Baahubali-Bhallaladeva conflict parallels the [[Pandava]]-[[Kaurava]] conflict in the ''Mahabharata''. ''[[Magadheera]]'' and ''[[Eega]]'' had the concept of [[reincarnation]] in its central plot.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Tetali |first=Sagar |date=22 March 2022 |title=SS Rajamouli, Maker of Myths |url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/1leqf |access-date=16 July 2022 |website=Film Companion}}</ref>

Piyush Roy, a critic and film historian, attributed the success of Rajamouli to his ability to integrate the essential lessons and emotions in stories of [[Indian epics]] with visual grandeur. He noted that "aspects such as constant duel between [[good and evil]], women as strong characters, presence of mother figures like [[Kunti]] and [[Gandhari (Mahabharata)|Gandhari]] are recurrent themes of his narratives."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Naidu |first=Rajesh |title=S S Rajamouli: The Epic Storyteller |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/s-s-rajamouli-the-epic-storyteller/articleshow/48421698.cms |access-date=2022-10-12 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829131058/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/s-s-rajamouli-the-epic-storyteller/articleshow/48421698.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rajamouli frequently mentions that his films are not a reflection of his personality or worldview.<ref name="BT">{{Cite web |last1=S. |first1=Vidya |last2=Lidhoo |first2=Prerna |date=22 July 2022 |title=How Movies From the South Conquered Bollywood |url=http://www.businesstoday.in/interactive/longread/how-movies-from-the-south-conquered-bollywood-146-22-07-2022 |access-date=2022-08-27 |website=[[Business Today (India)|Business Today]] |archive-date=14 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814163253/https://www.businesstoday.in/interactive/longread/how-movies-from-the-south-conquered-bollywood-146-22-07-2022 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Hemanth |date=2017-04-27 |title=SS Rajamouli on Baahubali 2: The Conclusion, being an atheist and his love for cinema |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/ss-rajamouli-on-baahubali-2-the-conclusion-being-an-atheist-and-his-love-for-cinema-3408524.html |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=Firstpost |language=en |quote=However, I must add that my personality and my films are poles apart. |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003163317/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/ss-rajamouli-on-baahubali-2-the-conclusion-being-an-atheist-and-his-love-for-cinema-3408524.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":49">{{Cite news |title=I am scared of handling big stars: Rajamouli |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/i-am-scared-of-handling-big-stars-rajamouli/articleshow/17677673.cms |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=14 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914122617/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/i-am-scared-of-handling-big-stars-rajamouli/articleshow/17677673.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> He stated that the mythological and religious themes in his films are storytelling elements intended to create strong emotional impact on the viewers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-04-27 |title=SS Rajamouli on Baahubali 2: The Conclusion, being an atheist and his love for cinema |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/ss-rajamouli-on-baahubali-2-the-conclusion-being-an-atheist-and-his-love-for-cinema-3408524.html |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=Firstpost |language=en |quote=For me, Bhakti, in terms of subservience to a higher power, is a very strong emotion. I use it as a storytelling element in my movies. As a director, it’s my job to bring out such strong emotions for a big impact on the viewers. |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003163317/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/ss-rajamouli-on-baahubali-2-the-conclusion-being-an-atheist-and-his-love-for-cinema-3408524.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BT" /> He is also inclined to make films that transcend beyond language. Regarding that he says, "I learned that if I make my story based on basic human emotions, you can translate beyond the language. I have a chance to connect with more people."<ref name="DeadlineInt">{{Cite web |last=Tartaglione |first=Nancy |date=8 April 2022 |title='RRR' Director S.S. Rajamouli Talks Film's Global Success, Comparisons To Marvel |url=https://deadline.com/2022/04/rrr-ss-rajamouli-interview-box-office-marvel-1234997120/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220806005438/https://deadline.com/2022/04/rrr-ss-rajamouli-interview-box-office-marvel-1234997120/ |archive-date=6 August 2022 |access-date=27 August 2022 |website=[[Deadline Hollywood]] |quote=All languages are of value, but it has been proven even before Baahubali, if the film is based on human emotions you can translate beyond the language.}}</ref><ref name=":5" />

Devarsi Ghosh of ''[[India Today]]'' observed that "the themes of an [[Orphan|orphaned hero]], a secret backstory, a separated family and a protagonist in search of his/her origins are prominent in Rajamouli's films."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Devarsi Ghosh |date=25 April 2017 |title=How Baahubali's themes are tied to SS Rajamouli's entire filmography |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/baahubali-2-full-coverage/story/baahubali-2-the-conclusion-ss-rajamouli-eega-magadheera-973408-2017-04-25 |access-date=12 July 2021 |website=[[India Today]] |language=en |archive-date=12 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712050352/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/baahubali-2-full-coverage/story/baahubali-2-the-conclusion-ss-rajamouli-eega-magadheera-973408-2017-04-25 |url-status=live }}</ref> Themes centered around Jealous siblings, and adopted sons who strive to prove their loyalty featured prominently in ''Simhadri'', ''Chatrapathi'', and ''Baahubali.''<ref name=":0" />''<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=R |first=Manoj Kumar |date=24 March 2022 |title=Decoding SS Rajamouli's success ahead of RRR: A director who sells more tickets than superstars |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/opinion-entertainment/ss-rajamouli-rrr-a-director-who-sells-more-tickets-than-superstars-7831831/ |access-date=20 July 2022 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=20 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220720112032/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/opinion-entertainment/ss-rajamouli-rrr-a-director-who-sells-more-tickets-than-superstars-7831831/ |url-status=live }}</ref>'' His films also have elements of [[tragedy]] which is not typical for commercial Telugu cinema{{Em dash}}the death of Vikram Rathore during the central set-piece in ''Vikramarkudu'', Kaala Bhairava jumping off the cliff in ''Magadheera'', the self-immolation of the fly in the climax of ''Eega'', the betrayal and death of Amarendra Baahubali in ''Baahubali'' films.<ref name=":0" />

Rajamouli's films feature strong, principled [[hero]]es. Piyush Roy noted that the Veera rasa (heroism), amongst the [[Indian aesthetics|navarasas]], is the most prominent in the characters of Rajamoulis protagonists who make the film very engaging.<ref name=":55">{{Cite news |last=Naidu |first=Rajesh |title=S S Rajamouli: The Epic Storyteller |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/s-s-rajamouli-the-epic-storyteller/articleshow/48421698.cms |access-date=29 August 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en |quote=Piyush Roy, a film historian with University of Edinburgh says, "All of Rajamouli's films have well-rounded action plots. Among the [[Indian aesthetics#The navarasas|Navarasas]], it is the Veera rasa that make his narrative very engaging. His plots have all elements of exploits of a hero and heroism. His heroes are not only mentally upright but also physically strong. He invests in characterisation. Even his supporting characters are well-established." |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829131058/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/s-s-rajamouli-the-epic-storyteller/articleshow/48421698.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":47">{{Cite web |last=Ramnath |first=Nandini |date=3 June 2015 |title=SS Rajamouli conquered Telugu cinema a decade ago. Is Bollywood next? |url=http://scroll.in/article/731818/ss-rajamouli-conquered-telugu-cinema-a-decade-ago-is-bollywood-next |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US |archive-date=14 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914153715/https://scroll.in/article/731818/ss-rajamouli-conquered-telugu-cinema-a-decade-ago-is-bollywood-next |url-status=live }}</ref> The antagonists in his films are irredeemable with no [[Morality|moral compass]].<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Keramalu |first=Karthik |date=31 December 2021 |title=How Rajamouli became India's blockbuster director |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/how-rajamouli-became-indias-blockbuster-director-1066713.html |access-date=20 July 2022 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en |archive-date=20 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220720125707/https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/how-rajamouli-became-indias-blockbuster-director-1066713.html |url-status=live }}</ref> His protagonists have graduated from pure brawn in ''Simhadri'', ''Chatrapathi'', and ''Vikramarkudu'' to thinking, intelligent heroes who overthink their antagonists in ''[[Maryada Ramanna]]'', ''Eega'', and ''Baahubali.'' Rajamouli also experimented in ''Maryada Ramanna'' with a protagonist who is not hypermasculine or courageous–traits that are typical of his leads.<ref name=":0" />

[[Revenge]] is a theme that regularly features in his films.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":23">{{Cite web |last1=S. |first1=Vidya |last2=Lidhoo |first2=Prerna |date=22 July 2022 |title=How Movies From the South Conquered Bollywood |url=http://www.businesstoday.in/interactive/longread/how-movies-from-the-south-conquered-bollywood-146-22-07-2022 |access-date=27 August 2022 |website=[[Business Today (India)|Business Today]] |quote=Says Rajamouli, an agnostic whose tales are replete with mythological themes of reincarnation and revenge, brought to life using heavy doses of modern-day technologies. |archive-date=14 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814163253/https://www.businesstoday.in/interactive/longread/how-movies-from-the-south-conquered-bollywood-146-22-07-2022 |url-status=live }}</ref> When asked why this is so, in an interview with filmmaker [[Sandeep Reddy Vanga|Sandeep Vanga]], Rajamouli said, "I believe revenge is the strongest emotion. I don't set out to make a revenge drama in particular. Revenge is an emotion that strongly and easily resonates with the audience. So, most of the time it's revenge."<ref>{{Citation |title=Sandeep Reddy Vanga Interview with SS Rajamouli {{!}} RRR Movie on 25 March {{!}} NTR, Ram Charan |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VYYStalJsAw |language=en |access-date=3 July 2022 |archive-date=3 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703150420/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VYYStalJsAw |url-status=live }}; From 0:25 to 1:15</ref> His films generally use a wide range of animals and Rajamouli attributes this to his love of animals.<ref name=":223">{{Cite web |last=Patel |first=Sunil |date=27 May 2022 |title=Rip-Roaring Revolution: S.S. Rajamouli on his Bromantic Epic |url=https://letterboxd.com/journal/rip-roaring-revolution-ss-rajamouli-rrr/ |access-date=3 July 2022 |website=[[Letterboxd]] |language=en |archive-date=3 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703203218/https://letterboxd.com/journal/rip-roaring-revolution-ss-rajamouli-rrr/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rajamouli's films also have a liberal dose of violence, often orchestrated in stylised action set-pieces.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tetali |first=Sagar |date=22 March 2022 |title=SS Rajamouli, Maker of Myths |url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/1leqf |access-date=16 July 2022 |website=Film Companion |quote=But there is another dimension to mythology that is central to Rajamouli’s filmography, long unexplored in Indian cinema — that of violence.}}</ref> He cited the violence in Indian epics as an important factor that shaped up India, and as a filmmaker he doesn't think anyone in India would tone it down if not for the censorship. The violent scenes are often employed to induce awe in the viewer.<ref name=":0" /> His films also feature protagonists wielding ornate weapons.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Manohar |first=Niveda |date=9 July 2015 |title=Before Watching Baahubali: 7 Rajamouli Quirks |url=https://silverscreenindia.com/telugu/features/before-watching-baahubali-7-rajamouli-quirks/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103134750/https://silverscreenindia.com/telugu/features/before-watching-baahubali-7-rajamouli-quirks/ |archive-date=3 January 2023 |access-date=27 February 2023 |website=Silverscreen India}}</ref>

== Method ==
Maintaining that his storytelling style has remained the same since he was in class two, Rajamouli prefers to set his films in an unrealistic and a fantasy world so that people can come out of their world into his. "I like people to be awe struck by my films," he said.<ref name=":49" /> His films mostly follow the [[three-act structure]] where every major [[plot point]] has a setup, confrontation, and resolution; resulting in a screenplay where every plot point ends on a high note with the film having a clap-worthy moment every 10 to 15 minutes.''<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Jain |first=Gautam |date=25 March 2022 |title=The original Pan India filmmaker |url=https://www.ormaxmedia.com/insights/stories/the-original-pan-india-filmmaker.html |access-date=20 July 2022 |website=Ormax Media |archive-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523195352/https://www.ormaxmedia.com/insights/stories/the-original-pan-india-filmmaker.html |url-status=live }}</ref>''

Several of Rajamouli's films feature [[Flashback (narrative)|flashback]] episodes where the protagonist's backstory is revealed, typically in the second half of the film. This narrative style is used in ''Simhadri'', ''Vikramarkudu'', ''Magadheera'', ''Baahubali: The Beginning'', and ''RRR.<ref name=":8" />'' The high point of Rajamouli's narrative style is considered to be the pre-interval scene—the scene immediately prior to the [[intermission]]. His pre-interval action scenes rev up the emotions of the audience creating a high point that increases the interest for the second half of the film.''<ref name=":5" />'' Examples include the [[Godavari Pushkaralu]] fight scene in ''Simhadri'', the pre-interval fight scene in ''Vikramarkudu'', and the 100 soldier fight scene in ''Magadheera''.''<ref name=":8" />''<ref name=":0" />

{{Quote box
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| quote = I’m very loyal to my action sequences. I just won’t put them in for the sake of it. I believe that human endurance and physical capabilities are unimaginable when they are emotionally charged. There are things that real people have achieved that we can’t imagine, but they happen once in a lifetime … The only thing is they happen quite a number of times in my films.
| source = Rajamouli on action sequences in his films.<ref name="nationalnews">{{Cite web |last=Kokra |first=Sonali |date=2022-04-12 |title='RRR' director SS Rajamouli on being a 'rollercoaster entertainer' |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/film/2022/04/12/rrr-director-ss-rajamouli-on-being-a-rollercoaster-entertainer/ |access-date=2022-08-30 |website=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830080822/https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/film/2022/04/12/rrr-director-ss-rajamouli-on-being-a-rollercoaster-entertainer/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

Describing his films as “big-scale action movies driven by hard-core emotion”,<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |last=Shanmugam |first=Kavitha |date=9 April 2022 |title=I make big-scale movies driven by emotions: Rajamouli |url=https://thefederal.com/cii-dakshin-event/i-make-big-scale-movies-driven-by-emotions-rajamouli/ |access-date=24 August 2022 |website=The Federal |quote=“When humans are under the grip of emotion, they tend to behave in a superhuman way and are pushed to do anything and that is what I tap,” he said, describing his films as being “big scale action movies driven by hard-core emotion”. |archive-date=24 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220824130532/https://thefederal.com/cii-dakshin-event/i-make-big-scale-movies-driven-by-emotions-rajamouli/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Rajamouli considers himself to be a magnifying glass that enhances the various emotions of the characters on screen, and sees the presence of violent action as an integral factor that engages the viewer with on screen proceedings.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhopatkar |first=Tejashree |date=30 December 2021 |title=SS Rajamouli: My family members are ruthless critics; they show no mercy in ripping apart my films if they don't like anything |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/ss-rajamouli-my-family-members-are-ruthless-critics-they-show-no-mercy-in-ripping-apart-my-films-if-they-dont-like-anything/articleshow/88572528.cms |access-date=27 August 2022 |website=The Times of India |quote=Yes, violence is part of my storytelling but not in a negative way. Each and everything, whether it is violence, softness, or any kind of emotion, I like to call myself a magnifying glass. I like to enhance my emotions. And I feel the same kind of emotion will enhance much more if you have action, if it has something just running around, It will just explode. It gives a larger-than-life effect. So that is my way of storytelling. That is how I like to see films, that is how I like to make films. |archive-date=27 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827062904/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/ss-rajamouli-my-family-members-are-ruthless-critics-they-show-no-mercy-in-ripping-apart-my-films-if-they-dont-like-anything/articleshow/88572528.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jain |first=Gautam |date=25 March 2022 |title=The original Pan India filmmaker |url=https://www.ormaxmedia.com/insights/stories/the-original-pan-india-filmmaker.html |access-date=20 July 2022 |website=Ormax Media |quote=Instead of relying on action to only drive an adrenaline rush, SS Rajamouli uses action to drive various emotions. This leads to higher engagement with the proceedings on screen during action set-pieces. |archive-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523195352/https://www.ormaxmedia.com/insights/stories/the-original-pan-india-filmmaker.html |url-status=live }}</ref> "For me, the character being emotionally charged up at that moment to go into that action sequence is very, very important," said Rajamouli about action sequences in his films.<ref name=":223" />

Rajamouli's initial films have comedic sub-plots and songs that are not integral to the main plot of the film. He noted, “Initially, I used to add a lot of scenes for the sake of comedy, songs because I used to fear how people would react if they aren't there. Once I got a lot of confidence as a story-teller, I no longer see the necessity to do all that”.<ref name="atheist">{{Cite news |date=27 April 2017 |title=SS Rajamouli on Baahubali 2: The Conclusion, being an atheist and his love for cinema |work=Firstpost |url=http://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/ss-rajamouli-on-baahubali-2-the-conclusion-being-an-atheist-and-his-love-for-cinema-3408524.html |access-date=1 May 2017 |archive-date=30 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430233149/http://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/ss-rajamouli-on-baahubali-2-the-conclusion-being-an-atheist-and-his-love-for-cinema-3408524.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rajamouli regrets not working for a longer time as an assistant director. “When I made my first film ''Student No: 1'', I didn't know how to use a [[Crane (machine)|crane]] because I never used a crane while I was doing my TV serial." He mentions basic [[Shot (filmmaking)|shotmaking]] as his biggest shortcoming as a director. “I still don't know which shot exactly gives me what I need. I get so many doubts whether I should keep the camera standard, whether I should move the track-in slowly, how close should I really get {{Em dash}} close to the eyes, close to the face, whether I should go a little bit to the top. There are thousands of options that run through my mind and I don't know which is the right thing to do. That is my shortcoming. I can't decide which is the right camera angle," he noted in an interaction in June 2022.<ref name=":43">{{Citation |title=S S Rajamouli and Anupam Kher at Goafest 2022 |date=15 June 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MDFk584zf6o |language=en |access-date=2022-09-14 |archive-date=14 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914122625/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MDFk584zf6o |url-status=live }}; Event occurs from 24:56 to 26:47</ref><ref name=":44">{{Cite news |title=I am far from being a perfectionist, says 'RRR' film-maker SS Rajamouli |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/i-am-far-from-being-a-perfectionist-says-rrr-filmmaker-ss-rajamouli/articleshow/91395398.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2022-09-14 |archive-date=14 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914122617/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/i-am-far-from-being-a-perfectionist-says-rrr-filmmaker-ss-rajamouli/articleshow/91395398.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the beginning of his career, Rajamouli used to act and show the actors how to perform or enact the character and was very adamant on the minutiae of their performances. "Slowly I realised that all my actors are looking the same. All my actors were imitating what I was doing. Then I thought, why do I go to a particular actor? (It is) because he has a specific ability. Then I started hammering the emotion into the actor and let them perform accordingly," he noted.<ref name=":45">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MDFk584zf6o |title=S S Rajamouli and Anupam Kher at Goafest 2022 |date=15 June 2022 |time=28:00 to 30:42 |time-caption=From |access-date=2022-09-14 |archive-date=14 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914122625/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MDFk584zf6o |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":44" />

Beginning with the ''Baahubali'' films, Rajamouli started conducting workshops with the major cast members and writing everything about a character {{Em dash}} the complete [[backstory]] of the character including traits and events that aren't present in the final film {{Em dash}} prior to the commencement of [[principal photography]].<ref name=":45" /><ref name=":44" />

Rajamouli's films typically, are [[visual effects]]-heavy and he is one of the pioneering filmmakers in India in integrating [[computer-generated imagery]] (CGI) with [[live action]]. He mentions his preference for [[practical effect]]s over CGI and likes to capture as much footage as possible [[In-camera effect|in-camera]].<ref name=":223" /> Rajamouli's craft in CGI has improved with time. The CGI in the underwater shark-fighting sequence in ''Chatrapathi'' was considered ambitious, but choppy. The CGI sequences in ''Magadheera'', ''Eega'', ''Baahubali'', and ''RRR'' are more polished with each film improving upon the previous one.<ref name=":0" />

=== Visual storytelling ===
{{Quote box
| width = 30%
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| quote = For me, whether it is subtitling or the (original) language, it's just a medium of communication. Those are not important for me. I would rather want my audience to get the story through the visuals, the way actors are performing or how the background score is. That is what I would prefer as a filmmaker.
| source = Rajamouli on visual storytelling.<ref name="week">{{Cite web |date=19 March 2022 |title=Want audience to get my story through visuals, not dialogue or subtitles: Rajamouli |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/entertainment/2022/03/19/want-audience-to-get-story-through-visuals-not-dialogue-rajamouli.html |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=[[The Week (Indian magazine)|The Week]] |archive-date=25 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125174842/https://www.theweek.in/news/entertainment/2022/03/19/want-audience-to-get-story-through-visuals-not-dialogue-rajamouli.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

Rajamouli's later films focus heavily on visual storytelling.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ghosh |first=Sankhayan |title=A Song of Fire and Water: SS Rajamouli's Cinema of Miracles |url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/features/ss-rajamouli-movies-rrr-baahubali-a-song-of-fire-and-water-cinema-of-miracles |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Film Companion |language=en |via=[[Ghostarchive]] |quote=Rajamouli has perfected his skills as a visual storyteller over the years, gravitating towards fantasy. |archive-date=14 April 2023 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20230414200403/https://www.filmcompanion.in/features/ss-rajamouli-movies-rrr-baahubali-a-song-of-fire-and-water-cinema-of-miracles |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref><ref name="BT" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 March 2022 |title=Want audience to get my story through visuals, not dialogue or subtitles: S S Rajamouli |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/want-audience-to-get-my-story-through-visuals-not-dialogue-or-subtitles-s-s-rajamouli-1092756.html |access-date=30 August 2022 |website=[[Deccan Herald]] |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830043838/https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/want-audience-to-get-my-story-through-visuals-not-dialogue-or-subtitles-s-s-rajamouli-1092756.html |url-status=live }}</ref> He noted in an interview, "While creating a story, I think 'If I switch off this dialogue portion, will the audience still connect to my movie?' Many times, the answer is a yes.”<ref name=":9" />

<blockquote>“I try to tell my story through visuals. I try to put in as little dialogue as possible, but the dialogues we do put in ... my writers take excruciating care, writing version after version so that nuance does not get lost in translation.”<ref name=nationalnews/></blockquote>

=== Multi-lingual films ===

Rajamouli's films starting from ''Eega'' have been made in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] language and then dubbed into various Indian and foreign languages.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 July 2012 |title=Get ready for the buzz as Eega releases today |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/get-ready-for-the-buzz-as-eega-releases-today-626297 |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 May 2018 |title=Bilingual films: The big, bilingual scam |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2018/may/20/bilingual-films-the-big-bilingual-scam-1817232.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=The New Indian Express |archive-date=14 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014023155/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2018/may/20/bilingual-films-the-big-bilingual-scam-1817232.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Released in over ten languages and counting |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/photo-features/top-10-amazing-facts-about-baahubali-franchise-that-will-blow-your-mind/released-in-over-ten-languages-and-counting/photostory/53559940.cms |access-date=2023-04-14 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nair |first=Shreejit |date=2023-01-19 |title=What's Up With RRR's Various Dubs? |url=https://collider.com/rrr-netflix-dubs/ |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=[[Collider (website)|Collider]] |language=en}}</ref> He described the process of making a multi-lingual film in this way.

<blockquote>"My thinking is in Telugu, the script is in Telugu first. But even before I go to shoot, I send the script to other language writers so they also get into the clue of what the film is about. Those dialogues may not be the final ones I am going to use in the film, but they read the script and if there is anything that complements my story, I change the Telugu version. It's an elaborate process because they write, but have to check with the lip-sync. You can't have a 20 word sentence in place of a six word sentence. We get the lip-sync right, but we don't compromise on the quality."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tartaglione |first=Nancy |date=2022-04-08 |title='RRR' Director S.S. Rajamouli Talks Film's Global Success, Comparisons To Marvel |url=https://deadline.com/2022/04/rrr-ss-rajamouli-interview-box-office-marvel-1234997120/ |access-date=2022-08-27 |website=[[Deadline Hollywood]] |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127020429/https://deadline.com/2022/04/rrr-ss-rajamouli-interview-box-office-marvel-1234997120/ |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote>

== Influences ==
{{Multiple image
| image1 = Mayabazar film poster.jpeg
| image2 = Ben hur 1959 poster.jpg
| direction = horizontal
| align = right
| total_width = 300
| width1 = 145
| width2 = 155
| footer = [[Mayabazar]] (''left'') and [[Ben-Hur (1959 film)|Ben-Hur]] (''right''), two of Rajamouli's most favourite and influential films.
}}
[[Action film|Action]] and [[Adventure film|adventure]] films are Rajamouli's favourite genre.<ref name=":052">{{Cite web |date=22 September 2005 |title=Interview with SS Rajamouli by Jeevi – Chatrapathi |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/ssrajamouli.html |website=[[Idlebrain.com]] |access-date=5 January 2023 |archive-date=22 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122112710/http://idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/ssrajamouli.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Rajamouli frequently mentions ''[[Mayabazar]]'' (1957), [[Ben-Hur (1959 film)|''Ben-Hur'']] (1959) and ''[[Braveheart]]'' (1995)<ref>{{Cite news |date=18 November 2021 |title=How the Telugu classic, Mayabazar, set a trend |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/how-the-telugu-classic-mayabazar-set-a-trend/article37559807.ece |access-date=4 July 2022 |issn=0971-751X |quote=S.S. Rajamouli calls Mayabazar “the greatest classic and absolute influence of all times, not only on me and my generation of filmmakers, but the entire Telugu film industry.” |archive-date=5 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705191249/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/how-the-telugu-classic-mayabazar-set-a-trend/article37559807.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Naidu |first=Rajesh |title=S S Rajamouli: The Epic Storyteller |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/s-s-rajamouli-the-epic-storyteller/articleshow/48421698.cms |access-date=29 August 2022 |website=The Times of India |quote=It is no wonder that Rajamouli cites K V Reddy's 1957 bi-lingual (Telugu and Tamil) film Mayabazaar as one of the films that has influenced him a lot. |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829131058/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/s-s-rajamouli-the-epic-storyteller/articleshow/48421698.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":51">{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Hemanth |date=2017-04-27 |title=SS Rajamouli on Baahubali 2: The Conclusion, being an atheist and his love for cinema |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/ss-rajamouli-on-baahubali-2-the-conclusion-being-an-atheist-and-his-love-for-cinema-3408524.html |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=Firstpost |quote=I was 7–8 years old when I first saw it as a kid, I loved it immensely. Later, when I came to the film industry, I kept thinking about how KV Reddy and his team made the film back in those days. I was mesmerised by the visual effects in that film. Later, while making Yamadonga, my VFX supervisor and I spent two days just to figure out how KV Reddy had pulled off such amazing special effects back then. The more I explored the world of Mayabazaar, my respect for KV Reddy kept growing. |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003163317/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/ss-rajamouli-on-baahubali-2-the-conclusion-being-an-atheist-and-his-love-for-cinema-3408524.html |url-status=live }}</ref> as his most favourite and influential films.<ref name=":322">{{Cite web |date=4 July 2022 |title=Rajamouli on his next dream project and Bollywood vs south film industry |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/rajamouli-on-his-next-dream-project-and-bollywood-vs-south-film-industry-11656874085710.html |access-date=4 July 2022 |website=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |language=en |archive-date=4 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704182514/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/rajamouli-on-his-next-dream-project-and-bollywood-vs-south-film-industry-11656874085710.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite web |last=Rajamani |first=Radhika |date=7 November 2006 |title='I am trying to experiment' |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/nov/07rajamouli.htm |access-date=27 July 2022 |website=[[Rediff]] |archive-date=29 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929111820/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/nov/07rajamouli.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":36">{{Cite web |last1=Olson |first1=Josh |last2=Dante |first2=Joe |date=16 August 2022 |title=RRR Writer/Director S.S. Rajamouli on 'The Movies That Made Me' Podcast |url=https://trailersfromhell.com/podcast/s-s-rajamouli/ |access-date=4 September 2022 |website=[[Trailers from Hell]] |language=en-US |archive-date=4 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904171400/https://trailersfromhell.com/podcast/s-s-rajamouli/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":223" /><ref name=":52" /><ref name=":12" /> His other favourite films include ''[[Missamma]]'' (1955), ''[[The Last of the Mohicans (1992 film)|The Last of the Mohicans]]'' (1992)'', [[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]'' (1966)'', [[Terminator 2: Judgment Day|Terminator 2]]'' (1991)'', [[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]'' (1989), ''[[City Lights]]'' (1931), ''[[Apocalypto]]'' (2006), ''[[Kung Fu Panda (film)|Kung Fu Panda]]'' (2008), ''[[The Lion King]]'' (1994), ''[[Aladdin (1992 Disney film)|Aladdin]]'' (1992), ''[[Sherlock Holmes (2009 film)|Sherlock Holmes]]'' (2009), ''[[Forrest Gump (film)|Forrest Gump]]'' (1994), and ''[[Django Unchained]]'' (2012).<ref name=":052"/><ref name=":36" /><ref name=":322" /> He expressed his liking for the films of [[James Cameron]], [[Steven Spielberg]], [[Quentin Tarantino]] and [[John Woo]].<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":36" /> The chariot race scene in ''Ben-Hur'' was a strong influence on him since his childhood.<ref name=":36" /> His 2009 directorial ''[[Magadheera]]'' featured scenes with horses and chariots that Rajamouli acknowledged as an inspiration from ''Ben-Hur'' .<ref name=":223" /><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ssi0bdAWy58 |title=Ben-Hur is my inspiration, says S. S. Rajamouli in Magadheera audio release function |time=1:30 |access-date=3 July 2022 |archive-date=3 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703203219/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ssi0bdAWy58 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rajamouli has cited [[Mel Gibson]] as his favourite filmmaker and the biggest influence on his filmmaking style.<ref name=":322" /> He mentioned that he considers Gibson to be his [[guru]], and also compared himself with [[Ekalavya]] to Gibson's [[Drona]]. Regularly paying [[Homage (arts)|homage]] to Gibson in his films,<ref name=":36" /> he noted in an interview:<blockquote>"Many of Mel Gibson's films have a very, very big influence on me. The way he blends the action with the drama, how he slows down, how he switches the dramatic moment before the action explodes, I really, really love it. I get really inspired by his action a lot. That's one thing that really comes to my mind when I talk about action films. It's what inspired me to do action films."<ref name=":223" /><ref name=":52">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dl_l2vcccYw&t=447s |title=10 Questions With SS Rajamouli {{!}} Baradwaj Rangan {{!}} RRR |date=24 March 2022 |publisher=Galatta |time=7:27 to 8:15 |time-caption=From |access-date=4 July 2022 |archive-date=5 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905061604/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dl_l2vcccYw&t=447s |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote>He is also deeply fascinated by the films of [[Vijaya Vauhini Studios|Vijaya Productions]] like ''[[Pathala Bhairavi]]'' (1951) and ''[[Jagadeka Veeruni Katha]]'' (1961). He noted, "Those films stirred the creative juices in my childhood itself. The artistes, their body language, dialogue delivery are all etched into my memory permanently."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Atluri |first=Sri |date=31 July 2008 |title=Star Interviews : Exclusive Interview: Rajamouli |url=http://www.telugucinema.com/c/publish/stars/interview_rajamouli_2007.php |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928113529/http://www.telugucinema.com/c/publish/stars/interview_rajamouli_2007.php |archive-date=28 September 2008 |access-date=24 August 2022 |website=[[Telugucinema.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajamani |first=Radhika |date=21 August 2007 |title=The Rajmouli-NTR Jr winning combination |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/aug/21ssraja.htm |access-date=24 August 2022 |website=Rediff.com |quote=I am fascinated by the films made by Vijaya films, which was the primary source of inspiration, and started the creative juices in me. |archive-date=25 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125174839/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/aug/21ssraja.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rajamouli attributes his sense of drama to his father Vijayendra Prasad under whom he worked as an assistant early in his career.<ref name=":223" /> He is deeply influenced by the novels of [[Malladi Venkata Krishna Murthy]] and [[Yandamuri Veerendranath]].<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jDyefmbed4c |title=SS Rajamouli Superb Words About Sukumar {{!}} #RRR {{!}} NTV Entertainment |access-date=11 July 2022 |archive-date=14 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714124508/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jDyefmbed4c |url-status=live }}</ref> He also expressed his fondness for the works of [[Wilbur Smith]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Suhani |date=17 December 2021 |title=S.S. Rajamouli: The return of the king |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cinema/story/20211227-s-s-rajamouli-the-return-of-the-king-1888561-2021-12-17 |access-date=26 July 2022 |website=India Today |quote=“I have read all of his books. I love his sense of largeness. The adventure and emotions are mass-y by themselves,” says Rajamouli. |archive-date=1 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701185022/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cinema/story/20211227-s-s-rajamouli-the-return-of-the-king-1888561-2021-12-17 |url-status=live }}</ref> He generally dislikes [[Horror film|horror]] films, especially ones that involve [[jump scare]]s. He is more receptive to films that scare the viewer with their theme or story. He mentioned his favourite films in the horror genre as ''[[The Omen]]'' (1976) and ''[[Paranormal Activity]]'' (2007).<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2022 |title=Rajamouli reveals his favourite horror movies |url=https://www.123telugu.com/mnews/rajamouli-reveals-his-favourite-horror-movies.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=123Telugu.com |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902074901/https://www.123telugu.com/mnews/rajamouli-reveals-his-favourite-horror-movies.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2022 |title=Rajamouli reveals his two favourite horror films at Aha's Anya's Tutorial trailer launch event |url=https://filmyfocus.com/rajamouli-reveals-his-two-favourite-horror-films-at-ahas-anyas-tutorial-trailer-launch-event/ |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Filmy Focus |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902074911/https://filmyfocus.com/rajamouli-reveals-his-two-favourite-horror-films-at-ahas-anyas-tutorial-trailer-launch-event/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Among Indian directors, Rajamouli cites [[K. V. Reddy]] as his biggest influence;<ref name=":51" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":54" /> [[Ram Gopal Varma]] and [[Raj Kapoor]] being others.<ref name=":54">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0zVh_1cROP4&t=241s |title=S.S.Rajamouli's Rapid Fire {{!}} RRR |date=27 December 2021 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |time=4:01 to 4:30 |time-caption=From |access-date=29 September 2022 |archive-date=29 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929182311/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0zVh_1cROP4&t=241s |url-status=live }}</ref> Among his contemporaries in [[Telugu cinema]], he expressed his admiration for the works of [[Sukumar]] and [[Trivikram Srinivas]].<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tDrM0DQ4aFI |title=Mee Star : S.S.Rajamouli Part 2 (in Telugu) |time=30:06 to 31:17 |time-caption=From |access-date=9 July 2022 |archive-date=9 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709124848/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tDrM0DQ4aFI&gl=US&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref> He also praised the work and cinematic style of [[Rajkumar Hirani]] and [[Anurag Kashyap]].<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTOMLXD3_sc |title="I Can't Even Make One Scene Like How Rajkumar Hirani Does": S S Rajamouli |time=1:50 to 2:52 |time-caption=From |access-date=9 July 2022 |archive-date=9 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709124848/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTOMLXD3_sc&gl=US&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

For ''[[Baahubali (franchise)|Baahubali]]'', Rajamouli was inspired by the tales of ''[[Amar Chitra Katha]]'' and ''[[Chandamama]]'' along with the Sanskrit epics ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and ''[[Ramayana]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=TS |first=Sudhir |date=21 July 2015 |title=Baahubali and Bajrangi Bhaijaan writer reveals his secrets |url=https://www.dailyo.in/arts/bajrangi-bhaijaan-baahubali-vijayendra-prasad-100-crore/story/1/5107.html |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=DailyO |archive-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108102035/https://www.dailyo.in/arts/bajrangi-bhaijaan-baahubali-vijayendra-prasad-100-crore/story/1/5107.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Dutta |first=Prabhash K |date=28 April 2017 |title=Baahubali 2: How Rajamouli picked up patches from history for his fictional epic |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/fyi/story/baahubali-2-kattappa-mahismati-ballaldev-974053-2017-04-28 |access-date=2023-02-27 |website=India Today |language=en |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227113101/https://www.indiatoday.in/fyi/story/baahubali-2-kattappa-mahismati-ballaldev-974053-2017-04-28 |url-status=live }}</ref> For [[RRR (film)|''RRR'']], he mentioned [[The Motorcycle Diaries (film)|''The Motorcycle Diaries'']] (2004) and ''[[Inglourious Basterds]]'' (2009) as his inspirations.<ref>{{Cite web |title='RRR' is fictitious story based on two greatest freedom fighters: SS Rajamouli |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2019/mar/15/rrr-is-fictitious-story-based-on-two-greatest-freedom-fighters-1951300.html |access-date=9 July 2022 |website=The New Indian Express |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401072735/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2019/mar/15/rrr-is-fictitious-story-based-on-two-greatest-freedom-fighters-1951300.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=11 December 2021 |title=RRR will be stronger than Baahubali in terms of its emotions – SS Rajamouli |url=https://www.onlykollywood.com/rrr-will-be-stronger-than-baahubali-in-terms-of-its-emotions-ss-rajamouli/ |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=Only Kollywood |archive-date=25 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925023206/https://www.onlykollywood.com/rrr-will-be-stronger-than-baahubali-in-terms-of-its-emotions-ss-rajamouli/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Collaborators ==

=== Crew ===

Rajamouli frequently collaborates with a set of crew members and technicians. [[Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao]], under whom he started his film career as an assistant, has edited all of his films except for ''RRR'', which was edited by [[A. Sreekar Prasad]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sundar |first=Anusha |date=6 April 2022 |title=Sreekar Prasad Interview: Editor on Cutting 'RRR', His First Collaboration with SS Rajamouli, His Process & More |url=https://silverscreenindia.com/movies/features/interviews/sreekar-prasad-interview-editor-on-cutting-rrr-his-first-collaboration-with-ss-rajamouli-his-process-more/ |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Silverscreen India |language=en-US |quote=The film marks their first collaboration, Rajamouli having previously only worked with editor Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao. |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902074856/https://silverscreenindia.com/movies/features/interviews/sreekar-prasad-interview-editor-on-cutting-rrr-his-first-collaboration-with-ss-rajamouli-his-process-more/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[K. K. Senthil Kumar]] served as the cinematographer on eight of his films.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dundoo |first=Sangeetha Devi |date=31 March 2022 |title=Cinematographer Senthil Kumar on the technical strides for 'RRR' and his quest to keep offering better visual experiences |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/for-rrr-cinematographer-senthil-kumar-wanted-the-sharpest-visual-quality/article65273800.ece |access-date=1 September 2022 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901205138/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/for-rrr-cinematographer-senthil-kumar-wanted-the-sharpest-visual-quality/article65273800.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":50">{{Cite web |last=J Rao |first=Subha |date=12 April 2022 |title=Inside RRR universe with cinematographer KK Senthil Kumar, his two-decade long association with SS Rajamouli |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/inside-rrr-universe-with-cinematographer-kk-senthil-kumar-his-two-decade-long-association-with-ss-rajamouli-10545911.html |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=Firstpost |language=en |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901205139/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/inside-rrr-universe-with-cinematographer-kk-senthil-kumar-his-two-decade-long-association-with-ss-rajamouli-10545911.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Among art directors or [[production designers]], he worked with [[Anand Sai]] for ''Simhadri'', ''Sye'', and ''Yamadonga''; S. Ravinder worked with him in five of his films till ''Eega''; the acclaimed [[Sabu Cyril]] worked with him on the ''[[Baahubali (franchise)|Baahubali duology]]'' and ''RRR''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Jeevi |title=Movie Review - Simhadri |url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-simhadri.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Idlebrain.com}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Jeevi |title=Movie Review - Sye |url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-sye.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Idlebrain.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Srividya |first=Palaparthi |title=God's own countryman |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/magazine/2018/mar/10/gods-own-countryman-1784137.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2015 |title=I couldn't devote 4 years to Baahubali: Ravinder |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Cinema/2015-04-07/I-couldnt-devote-4-years-to-Baahubali-Ravinder/142481 |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=[[The Hans India]] |language=en |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901205132/https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Cinema/2015-04-07/I-couldnt-devote-4-years-to-Baahubali-Ravinder/142481 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":33">{{Cite web |date=9 March 2022 |title=When Chatrapathi Art Director Handed Wooden Rod to Villain Against Prabhas And Then... |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/when-chatrapathi-art-director-handed-wooden-rod-to-villain-against-prabhas-and-then-4856123.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=News18 |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902205531/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/when-chatrapathi-art-director-handed-wooden-rod-to-villain-against-prabhas-and-then-4856123.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajendran |first=Gopinath |date=24 May 2022 |title=Sabu Cyril: We knew that RRR wouldn't be as big as the Baahubali films |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/cinema/2022/may/24/sabu-cyril-we-knew-that-rrr-wouldnt-be-as-big-as-the-baahubali-films-40990.html |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=Indulge Express |publisher=[[The New Indian Express]] |language=en |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901205139/https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/cinema/2022/may/24/sabu-cyril-we-knew-that-rrr-wouldnt-be-as-big-as-the-baahubali-films-40990.html |url-status=live }}</ref> M. Ratnam worked as a dialogue writer for all six of Rajamouli's films starting from ''Simhadri'' till ''Magadheera''.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":22" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-06-19 |title=Writer M Ratnam has a script ready for Balayya |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/writer-m-ratnam-has-script-ready-balayya-83321 |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> Among [[Stage combat|action choreographers]], he collaborated with [[Peter Hein]] in five films {{Em dash}} ''Student No.1'', ''Chatrapathi'', ''Magadheera'', ''Maryada Ramanna'', and ''Baahubali: The Beginning'';<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Jeevi |title=Maryada Ramanna Review |url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-maryadaramanna.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=[[Idlebrain.com|Idlebrain]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 December 2016 |title=Peter Hein, le réalisateur qui monte à Bollywood |url=https://lecourrier.vn/peter-hein-le-realisateur-qui-monte-a-bollywood/368415.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=[[Le Courrier du Vietnam]] |language=fr}}</ref> [[Ram Lakshman (stunt choreographers)|Ram-Lakshman]] worked with him in three films {{Em dash}} ''Sye'', ''Vikramarkudu'', and ''Magadheera'';<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=Jeevi |title=Movie Review - Vikramarkudu |url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-vikramarkudu.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 July 2021 |title=రాజమౌళి సినిమాలో పని చేస్తే గుర్తింపు రాదు: రామ్‌-లక్ష్మణ్‌ |url=https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/fight-masters-ram-lakshman-comments-director-ss-rajamouli-1377307 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=[[Sakshi (media group)|Sakshi]] |language=te |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902074856/https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/fight-masters-ram-lakshman-comments-director-ss-rajamouli-1377307 |url-status=live }}</ref> King Solomon worked as the action choreographer for ''Baahubali'' and ''RRR'';<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 March 2022 |title=రాజమౌళిని డిజప్పాయింట్ చేసిన హాలీవుడ్ స్టంట్ మాస్టర్ |url=https://telugu.abplive.com/entertainment/cinema/rajamouli-disappointed-with-famous-hollywood-stunt-choreographer-rrr-movie-26917 |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=[[ABP Group|ABP Desam]] |language=te |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901205134/https://telugu.abplive.com/entertainment/cinema/rajamouli-disappointed-with-famous-hollywood-stunt-choreographer-rrr-movie-26917 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=3 May 2018 |title=National Film Award for Best Action Director |url=https://twitter.com/PIB_India/status/992008652172095488?lang=en |access-date=2023-04-15 |website= |publisher=[[Press Information Bureau]] |language=en |via=[[Twitter]]}}</ref> Lee Whittaker worked as an action director / stunt coordinator for both the ''Baahubali'' films.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 June 2016 |title=This is How the Climax of Baahubali 2 Will be Filmed |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/this-is-how-the-climax-of-baahubali-2-will-be-filmed-1418438 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=[[NDTV]] |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902074855/https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/this-is-how-the-climax-of-baahubali-2-will-be-filmed-1418438 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:S._S._Rajamouli_and_Pete_Draper_on_the_sets_of_'Eega'.jpg|thumb|Rajamouli and Pete Draper of Makuta VFX on the sets of ''Eega'']]
R. C. Kamalakannan served as the [[visual effects supervisor]] for five of his films {{Em dash}} ''Yamadonga'', ''Magadheera'', ''Maryada Ramanna'', ''Eega'', and ''Baahubali 2: The Conclusion''.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dundoo |first=Sangeetha Devi |date=2019-11-20 |title=VFX supervisor R C Kamalakannan on what went into creating the make-believe worlds of 'Sye Raa Narasimha Reddy' and 'Saaho' |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/vfx-supervisor-r-c-kamalakannan-on-what-went-into-creating-the-make-believe-worlds-of-sye-raa-narasimha-reddy-and-saaho/article30026275.ece |access-date=2023-04-14 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Dundoo |first=Sangeetha Devi |date=4 May 2017 |title=R C Kamalakannan, visual effects supervisor for 'Baahubali 2', discusses working with 35 VFX studios and highlights the best segments |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/r-c-kamalakannan-visual-effects-supervisor-for-baahubali-2-discusses-working-with-35-vfx-studios-and-highlights-the-best-segments/article18383360.ece |access-date=1 September 2022 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901205134/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/r-c-kamalakannan-visual-effects-supervisor-for-baahubali-2-discusses-working-with-35-vfx-studios-and-highlights-the-best-segments/article18383360.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> [[V. Srinivas Mohan]] worked as the visual effects supervisor for ''Baahubali: The Beginning'', and ''RRR''.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dundoo |first=Sangeetha Devi |date=29 March 2022 |title=V Srinivas Mohan, visual effects supervisor of 'RRR' opens up on key sequences of the film |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/radio-controlled-cars-to-miniatures-the-making-of-rrrs-visual-spectacle/article65270051.ece |access-date=1 September 2022 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901205145/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/radio-controlled-cars-to-miniatures-the-making-of-rrrs-visual-spectacle/article65270051.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> Iranian citizen Adel Adili, who previously worked on ''Yamadonga'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 August 2009 |title=Making of Magadheera visual effects |url=https://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/magadheera-vfx.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Idlebrain.com}}</ref> Englishman Pete Draper, and R. C. Kamalakannan founded [[Makuta VFX]] based out of [[Hyderabad]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jain |first=Aashika |date=2018-05-30 |title=How Makuta VFX Venture is Proving to be a Boon For the Indian Film Industry |url=https://www.entrepreneur.com/en-in/technology/how-makuta-vfx-venture-is-proving-to-be-a-boon-for-the/314117 |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=[[Entrepreneur (magazine)|Entrepreneur]] |language=en}}</ref> Makuta has extensively collaborated with Rajamouli in all his films from ''Magadheera'' till ''RRR''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 March 2023 |title=OTTplay Changemakers Awards: Makuta VFX wins 'Best Visual Effects' award for RRR |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/ottplay-changemakers-awards-2023-makuta-vfx-wins-best-visual-effects-award-for-rrr/524714ee13298 |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Bhatia |first1=Uday |last2=Ghosh |first2=Sankhayan |date=21 April 2017 |title=Meet the company behind Baahubali's special effects |url=https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/E6nRlg9Kc2XIrupCSVZZrL/Baahubali-mass-effects.html |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |language=en |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901174616/https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/E6nRlg9Kc2XIrupCSVZZrL/Baahubali-mass-effects.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Sweeney |first=R. Emmet |date=18 April 2022 |title=Makuta VFX's Pete Draper on Working with RRR Director S.S. Rajamouli |url=https://filmmakermagazine.com/114153-interview-makuta-vfx-pete-draper-rrr-s-s-rajamouli/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901153816/https://filmmakermagazine.com/114153-interview-makuta-vfx-pete-draper-rrr-s-s-rajamouli/ |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=[[Filmmaker (magazine)|Filmmaker]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[K. Raghavendra Rao]] produced his debut film ''Student No: 1'' and presented the ''Baahubali'' films.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Number Seventh Blockbuster of the year 2001 – Student No.1 |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/y2k1/student.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Idlebrain.com |quote=K Raghavendra selected Raja Mouli, his assistant director of 'Santhi Nivasam' Tele serial, as the director. Incidentally Raja Mouli is the son of Samarasimha Reddy's storywriter Vijayendra Prasad and the cousin of music director Keeravani. |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902064458/http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/y2k1/student.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=15 May 2017 |title=Whose Baahubali is it now? |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/150517/whose-baahubali-is-it-now.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |language=en |quote=K. Raghavendra Rao is said to be one of the stakeholders. He was the film’s presenter and was instrumental in obtaining the permission (venue) for the first part’s music launch in Tirupati, apart from clearing a few decks during the production. |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902074901/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/150517/whose-baahubali-is-it-now.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Chiranjeevi Pedamallu|Cherry (Chiranjeevi Pedamallu)]] was the executive producer for ''Chatrapathi'', ''Vikramarkudu'' and later produced ''Yamadonga''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 August 2007 |title=Cherry (P Chiranjeevi) – Interview – Telugu film producer |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/cherry.html |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=Idlebrain.com |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901205132/http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/cherry.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 July 2006 |title=Cherry to produce Yeleti – Gopichand film |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/cherry-to-produce-yeleti-gopichand-film--news-24121 |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=IndiaGlitz.com |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901205139/https://www.indiaglitz.com/cherry-to-produce-yeleti-gopichand-film--news-24121 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Vikramarkudu – Telugu cinema Review – Ravi Teja & Anushka |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-vikramarkudu.html |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=Idlebrain.com |archive-date=18 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918175435/http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-vikramarkudu.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[B. V. S. N. Prasad]] produced ''Chatrapathi'' and was the executive producer for ''Magadheera''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BVSN Prasad Interview on Chhatrapati |url=https://www.ragalahari.com/celebrity-interview/1294/bvsn-prasad-interview-on-chhatrapati |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=Ragalahari |language=en |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901205133/https://www.ragalahari.com/celebrity-interview/1294/bvsn-prasad-interview-on-chhatrapati |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=31 July 2022 |title=13 years of 'Magadheera': 9 surprising facts about the Ram Charan, Kajal Aggarwal starrer you probably didn't know |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/13-years-of-magadheera-9-surprising-facts-about-the-ram-charan-kajal-aggarwal-starrer-you-probably-didnt-know/photostory/93242064.cms |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901205133/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/13-years-of-magadheera-9-surprising-facts-about-the-ram-charan-kajal-aggarwal-starrer-you-probably-didnt-know/photostory/93242064.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Shobu Yarlagadda and Prasad Devineni]] produced ''Maryada Ramanna'' and the ''Baahubali'' duology.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Suhani |date=1 May 2017 |title=Baahubali 2: The epic story behind making of the epic blockbuster |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20170501-baahubali-the-conclusion-ss-rajamouli-prabhas-kattappa-986223-2017-04-21 |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cain |first=Rob |date=26 May 2017 |title='Baahubali' Producer Shobu Yarlagadda Explains How It Was Done |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/robcain/2017/05/26/baahubali-producer-shobu-yarlagadda-explains-how-it-was-done/ |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901205138/https://www.forbes.com/sites/robcain/2017/05/26/baahubali-producer-shobu-yarlagadda-explains-how-it-was-done/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Sai Korrapati]] and [[Prasad V. Potluri]] produced his ''Eega''; [[D. V. V. Danayya]] produced his magnum opus, ''RRR''.

Rajamouli regularly collaborates with many members of his extended family.<ref name=":30">{{Cite news |title=How 'Baahubali 2: The Conclusion' was a family affair for SS Rajamouli |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/photo-features/baahubali-2-the-conclusion-times-when-the-s-s-rajamouli-epic-made-headlines/how-baahubali-2-the-conclusion-was-a-family-affair-for-ss-rajamouli/photostory/58432554.cms |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=The Times of India |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902123821/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/photo-features/baahubali-2-the-conclusion-times-when-the-s-s-rajamouli-epic-made-headlines/how-baahubali-2-the-conclusion-was-a-family-affair-for-ss-rajamouli/photostory/58432554.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":29" /> His cousin [[M. M. Keeravani]] has worked as the music composer for all of his films.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Manjula |date=26 October 2020 |title=Jr NTR, Charan, Keeravani Explain What A Pain It Is To Work For Rajamouli |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/jr-ntr-charan-keeravani-explain-what-a-pain-it-is-to-work-for-rajamouli-653096 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=[[The Hans India]] |language=en |quote=Music director Keeravani who scores music for all Rajamouli's movies says .... |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902074909/https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/jr-ntr-charan-keeravani-explain-what-a-pain-it-is-to-work-for-rajamouli-653096 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hooli |first=Shekhar H. |date=24 April 2020 |title=Baahubali musician Keeravani opens up on his dislikes about RRR director SS Rajamouli |url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/baahubali-musician-keeravani-opens-his-dislikes-about-rrr-director-ss-rajamouli-818332 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=International Business Times India |language=en |quote=It is known that ace music director MM Keeravani shares a great bonding with his brother SS Rajamouli. The proof for it is that he has composed the music for all the movies of the director. |archive-date=24 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524234834/https://www.ibtimes.co.in/baahubali-musician-keeravani-opens-his-dislikes-about-rrr-director-ss-rajamouli-818332 |url-status=live }}</ref> His father [[V. Vijayendra Prasad|Vijayendra Prasad]] provided the story for nine of his films.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 April 2022 |title=Meet SS Rajamouli's father, writer KV Vijayendra Prasad, who has penned RRR, Baahubali, Bajrangi Bhaijaan |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-meet-ss-rajamouli-s-father-writer-kv-vijayendra-prasad-who-has-penned-rrr-baahubali-bajrangi-bhaijaan-2944324 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=DNA India |language=en |archive-date=31 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031172539/https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-meet-ss-rajamouli-s-father-writer-kv-vijayendra-prasad-who-has-penned-rrr-baahubali-bajrangi-bhaijaan-2944324 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":25">{{Cite news |last=Naidu |first=Rajesh |title=S S Rajamouli: The Epic Storyteller |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/s-s-rajamouli-the-epic-storyteller/articleshow/48421698.cms |access-date=29 August 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=29 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829131058/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/s-s-rajamouli-the-epic-storyteller/articleshow/48421698.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> His wife, [[Rama Rajamouli]], worked as a costume designer or stylist for all of his films starting from ''Sye.''<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 August 2020 |title=SS Rajamouli's wife Rama turns dialogue writer for 'RRR' |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/ss-rajamouli-s-wife-rama-turns-dialogue-writer-rrr-131093 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=The News Minute |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902123835/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/ss-rajamouli-s-wife-rama-turns-dialogue-writer-rrr-131093 |url-status=live }}</ref> His sister-in-law M. M. Srivalli, wife of Keeravani, served as a Line Producer on four of his films.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-03-14 |title=Call of cinema: Blood is thicker than water |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/call-of-cinema-blood-is-thicker-than-water/articleshow/98619755.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-04-15 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Makkhi (Eega) Hindi Dubbed Movie |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YHd-jQn6Oes&t=149s |access-date=2023-04-15 |publisher=Goldmines |language=en}}; Event occurs from 2:28 to 2:31</ref><ref name=":30" /> His cousin S. S. Kanchi collaborated with him on four<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |date=17 June 2014 |title=Rajamouli's brother Kanchi joins Social Media |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/Rajamoulis-brother-Kanchi-joins-Social-Media/articleshow/36721545.cms |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406142056/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/Rajamoulis-brother-Kanchi-joins-Social-Media/articleshow/36721545.cms |archive-date=6 April 2016 |access-date=6 April 2016 |website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite web |title=ఆదిపురుష్ చిత్రాన్ని కించపరుస్తూ ఆర్ ఆర్ ఆర్ రైటర్ ట్వీట్... ఆ సత్తా తెలుగోడికే ఉందంటూ ప్రభాస్ మూవీపై సెటైర్! |url=https://telugu.asianetnews.com/gallery/entertainment/rrr-writer-ss-kanchi-indirectly-targets-prabhas-aidipursh-insults-in-style-rj7xea |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=[[Asianet News Network]] |language=te}}</ref> films in the writing department including as a story writer for ''Maryada Ramanna''.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":34">{{Cite web |title=SS Rajamouli about Maryada Ramanna interview |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/ssrajamouli-maryadaramanna.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Idlebrain.com |quote=Though my father gave stories to all my earlier movies, Kanchi’s contribution in story department for those movies was notable. Kanchi has been working in story department of my films since Chatrapati. I used to be like monarch in our story discussions and I dominate everybody. Kanchi is the only guy who doesn’t succumb to my domination. He gave very good story for Maryada Ramanna. |archive-date=14 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141114105429/http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/ssrajamouli-maryadaramanna.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

His uncle [[Siva Shakthi Datta]], brother of Vijayendra Prasad and father of Keeravani, worked as a lyricist in five of his films.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Siva Shakti Datta Songs |url=https://wynk.in/music/artist/siva-shakti-datta/wa_4LmJ0V_zgg |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=Wynk Music |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Agni Skalana (Full Song & Lyrics) - Chatrapathi - JioSaavn |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/song/agni-skalana/GCodfTBkUnQ |access-date=2023-04-15 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":110">{{Cite web |date=25 November 2015 |title=Baahubali, Srimanthudu top IIFA Awards nominations |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/baahubali-srimanthudu-tops-iifa-awards-nominations-telugu-news-147627 |access-date=7 July 2022 |website=IndiaGlitz.com |archive-date=25 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125174839/https://www.indiaglitz.com/baahubali-srimanthudu-tops-iifa-awards-nominations-telugu-news-147627 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Google reveals top movies, songs in India in 2017; you won't believe who made it to the list |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/photos/technology-gallery/961982/google-reveals-top-movies-songs-in-india-in-2017-you-wont-believe-who-made-it-to-the-list/ |access-date=7 July 2022 |website=Financialexpress |language=en |archive-date=7 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707055641/https://www.financialexpress.com/photos/technology-gallery/961982/google-reveals-top-movies-songs-in-india-in-2017-you-wont-believe-who-made-it-to-the-list/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hymavathi |first=Ravali |date=31 December 2021 |title=Ramam Raghavam: The Rise Of Ram Song From RRR Movie Will Be Out Today |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/ramam-raghavam-the-rise-of-ram-song-from-rrr-movie-will-be-out-today-722538 |access-date=7 July 2022 |website=The Hans India |language=en |archive-date=19 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419165857/https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/ramam-raghavam-the-rise-of-ram-song-from-rrr-movie-will-be-out-today-722538 |url-status=live }}</ref> Another uncle of his, Koduri Ramakrishna, was the co-lyricist for ''[[Saahore Baahubali]]'' along with Datta.<ref name=":29">{{Cite web |date=8 May 2017 |title=It runs in the family of Koduri – Baahubali story |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/news/today/it-runs-in-the-family-of-koduri-baahubalistory.html |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=Idlebrain.com |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901174616/http://www.idlebrain.com/news/today/it-runs-in-the-family-of-koduri-baahubalistory.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":30" /> Rajamouli's cousin [[Kalyani Malik]] works as a sound supervisor for his films.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 July 2015 |title=Interview with Kalyan Koduri about awards – Telugu cinema music composer |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/kalyanikoduri1.html |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=Idlebrain.com |quote=I have been given credit for ‘Sound Supervision’ in Baahubali. I have worked for Simhadri, Chatrapati, Sye and Magadheera as sound supervisor. But I am being recognized in Baahubali because of the magnitude of the film. |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901174616/http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/kalyanikoduri1.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Kalyan Koduri bats for Rahman to succeed Keeravani |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/music/kalyan-koduri-bats-for-rahman-to-succeed-keeravani/articleshow/48911788.cms |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en |quote=Kalyan Koduri, who works as sound supervisor for all of Rajamouli films ..... |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901174616/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/music/kalyan-koduri-bats-for-rahman-to-succeed-keeravani/articleshow/48911788.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite web |last=Atluri |first=Sri |date=22 September 2004 |title=S. S. Rajamouli Exclusive interview with TC.Com |url=http://www.telugucinema.com/c/stars/ssrajamoulinterview.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041206213017/http://www.telugucinema.com/c/stars/ssrajamoulinterview.shtml |archive-date=6 December 2004 |website=[[Telugucinema.com]]}}</ref> [[Raja Koduri]], another cousin of his, contributed to ''Baahubali'' series in technical departments through [[Radeon|AMD Radeon]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cain |first=Rob |date=25 May 2017 |title='Baahubali' Tech Wizard Raja Koduri Discusses Making Movie And VR Magic |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/robcain/2017/05/25/baahubali-tech-wizard-raja-koduri-discusses-making-movie-and-vr-magic/ |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901174616/https://www.forbes.com/sites/robcain/2017/05/25/baahubali-tech-wizard-raja-koduri-discusses-making-movie-and-vr-magic/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":28">{{Cite web |date=13 April 2017 |title=Baahubali VR: How AMD's ambitious effort for Rajamouli's epic could be a game changer |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/baahubali-vr-how-amds-ambitious-effort-for-rajamoulis-epic-could-be-a-game-changer-3380714.html |access-date=18 June 2022 |website=Firstpost |language=en |archive-date=18 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618130807/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/baahubali-vr-how-amds-ambitious-effort-for-rajamoulis-epic-could-be-a-game-changer-3380714.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 May 2017 |title=Trinity Behind 'Baahubali' Magic |url=https://www.animationxpress.com/latest-news/keeravani-rajamouli-and-koduri-trinity-baahubali/ |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=AnimationXpress |language=en-US |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901180927/https://www.animationxpress.com/latest-news/keeravani-rajamouli-and-koduri-trinity-baahubali/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Rajabali, another cousin of his, worked as a VFX Assistant for ''Baahubali''.<ref name=":30" /> His nephew [[Kaala Bhairava]], elder son of Keeravani, worked as a [[playback singer]] in ''Baahubali'' series and ''RRR''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kaala Bhairava - Top Songs |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/artist/kaala-bhairava-songs/IkKOZu9763k_ |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=JioSaavn |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2018 |title='Baahubali 2' singer Kaala Bhairava croons for upcoming TV serial 'Kathalo Rajakumari' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/baahubali-2-singer-kaala-bhairava-croons-for-upcoming-tv-serial-kathalo-rajakumari/articleshow/62620574.cms |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902123824/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/baahubali-2-singer-kaala-bhairava-croons-for-upcoming-tv-serial-kathalo-rajakumari/articleshow/62620574.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Sri Simha]], younger son of Keeravani, worked as a child actor in ''Yamadonga'' and ''Maryada Ramanna'', along with minor roles in ''Eega'' and ''Baahubali: The Beginning''.<ref name=":20">{{Cite web |date=2021-04-13 |title=Sri Simha : 'యమదొంగ' లో చిన్నప్పటి ఎన్టీఆర్ క్యారెక్టర్ చేసింది ఈ హీరోనే! తర్వాత 'బాహుబలి' లో కూడా.. |url=https://10tv.in/latest/sri-simha-acted-as-childhood-role-of-ntr-in-yamadonga-movie-212292.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=[[10TV]] |language=te}}</ref><ref name=":21">{{Cite news |title=Dongalunnaru Jaagratha: Sri Simha Koduri join hands with debutant Satish Tripura for his next; See PHOTOS of formal pooja ceremony |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/dongalunnaru-jaagratha-sri-simha-koduri-join-hands-with-debutant-satish-tripura-for-his-next-see-photos-of-formal-pooja-ceremony/articleshow/84228753.cms |access-date=2023-04-14 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref name="G">{{Cite web |date=25 October 2019 |title=Good luck wishes for Sri Simha |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/251019/good-luck-wishes-for-sri-simha.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902123834/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/251019/good-luck-wishes-for-sri-simha.html |archive-date=2 September 2022 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref> In addition, Rajamouli's step-son S. S. Karthikeya also works in the production or direction department of his films.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adivi |first=Sashidhar |date=8 May 2020 |title=Karthikeya steps out of Akasavani, as RRR requires more attention |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/080520/karthikeya-steps-out-of-akasavani-as-rrr-requires-more-attention.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Deccan Chronicle |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902123820/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/080520/karthikeya-steps-out-of-akasavani-as-rrr-requires-more-attention.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=26 April 2017 |title=Before Baahubali 2, SS Rajamouli's son SS Karthikeya has this to say about the film |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/before-baahubali-2-ss-rajamouli-son-ss-karthikeya-has-this-to-say-about-the-film-4629244/ |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902123834/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/before-baahubali-2-ss-rajamouli-son-ss-karthikeya-has-this-to-say-about-the-film-4629244/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":30" /> His adopted daughter Mayookha along with Keeravani's daughter acted in the song ''Saahore Baahubali'' of ''Baahubali 2''.<ref name=":27">{{Cite web |date=28 April 2020 |title=Baahubali 2: Did you know SS Rajamouli's daughter acted in the film too? |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/baahubali-2-did-you-know-ss-rajamoulis-daughter-acted-in-the-film-too/ |access-date=1 September 2022 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |language=en |archive-date=3 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103173740/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/baahubali-2-did-you-know-ss-rajamoulis-daughter-acted-in-the-film-too/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":30" /> Kalyani Malik's son Mayur lent his voice in some parts at the end of ''Baahubali 2''.<ref name=":30" /><ref name=":29" /> As many as fifteen members of his extended family had worked on ''Baahubali 2''.<ref name=":30" />

{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" style="text-align:center;"
|+ class="nowrap" | Collaborations of Rajamouli – Crew
|-
!rowspan=2 {{diagonal split header 2| Collaborator|Work}}
|-
!''[[Student No: 1|Student No:1]]''
(2001)
!''[[Simhadri (2003 film)|Simhadri]]''
(2003)
!''[[Sye (2004 film)|Sye]]''
(2004)
!''[[Chatrapathi (2005 film)|Chatrapathi]]''
(2005)
!''[[Vikramarkudu]]''
(2006)
!''[[Yamadonga]]''
(2007)
!''[[Magadheera]]''
(2009)
!''[[Maryada Ramanna]]''
(2010)
!''[[Eega]]''
(2012)
!''[[Baahubali (franchise)|Baahubali]]''
(2015, 2017)
!''[[RRR (film)|RRR]]''
(2022)
!Total
|-
|[[M. M. Keeravani]]
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|11
|-
|[[V. Vijayendra Prasad]]
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|8
|-
|[[K. K. Senthil Kumar]]
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|7
|-
|[[Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao]]
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|10
|-
|[[Rama Rajamouli]]
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|9
|-
|M. Ratnam
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|6
|-
|[[Peter Hein]]
|{{ya}}
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|5
|-
|[[Ram Lakshman (stunt choreographers)|Ram-Lakshman]]
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|3
|-
|[[Vijayan (stunt coordinator)|Vijayan]]
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|2
|-
|King Solomon
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|3
|-
|Anand Sai
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|3
|-
|S. Ravinder
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|5
|-
|[[Sabu Cyril|Sabu Syril]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|2
|-
|R. C. Kamalakannan
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|5
|-
|[[V. Srinivas Mohan]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|2
|-
|S. S. Kanchi
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|4
|-
|M. M. Srivalli
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|4
|-
|[[Shobu Yarlagadda and Prasad Devineni]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|2
|-
|[[K. Raghavendra Rao]]
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|2
|-
|Cherry
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|3
|-
|[[B. V. S. N. Prasad]]
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|2
|}

=== Cast ===
Rajamouli has worked with some actors frequently in his career. [[N. T. Rama Rao Jr.|Jr. NTR]] starred in four of his films including Rajamouli's debut film ''Student No.1''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 December 2021 |title=Jr NTR opens up about being 'depressed' during low phase in career, says SS Rajamouli pulled him out of it |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/telugu-cinema/jr-ntr-opens-up-about-being-depressed-during-low-phase-in-career-says-ss-rajamouli-pulled-him-out-of-it-101640767944871.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902131055/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/telugu-cinema/jr-ntr-opens-up-about-being-depressed-during-low-phase-in-career-says-ss-rajamouli-pulled-him-out-of-it-101640767944871.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Prabhas]] has starred in three of his films {{Em dash}} ''Chatrapathi'' and ''Baahubali'' series.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 December 2020 |title=Will definitely do a film with Prabhas: SS Rajamouli |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/will-definitely-do-a-film-with-prabhas-ss-rajamouli/articleshow/79529958.cms |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902131054/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/will-definitely-do-a-film-with-prabhas-ss-rajamouli/articleshow/79529958.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Ram Charan]] collaborated with him on ''Magadheera'' and ''RRR''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 November 2021 |title=Ram Charan plays three different roles in RRR: 'Can't get bigger than this' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/ram-charan-plays-three-different-roles-in-rrr-ss-rajamouli-7649268/ |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902131054/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/ram-charan-plays-three-different-roles-in-rrr-ss-rajamouli-7649268/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Ravi Teja]] starred in ''Vikramarkudu''<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 June 2020 |title=14 Years for Vikramarkudu: How the Ravi Teja starrer turns out to be a hit with both audience and critics |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/14-years-for-vikramarkudu-how-the-ravi-teja-starrer-turns-out-to-be-a-hit-with-both-audience-and-critics-/photostory/76514354.cms |access-date=2023-04-14 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> and provided the voice for bicycle in ''Maryada Ramanna''.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Vishnu's Doosukeltha has Ravi Teja voiceover |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/vishnus-doosukeltha-has-ravi-teja-voiceover/articleshow/23419018.cms |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902131055/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/vishnus-doosukeltha-has-ravi-teja-voiceover/articleshow/23419018.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Sunil (actor)|Sunil]] starred in ''Maryada Ramanna'' and played a supporting role in ''Magadheeera''.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":4" /> [[Sudeepa|Sudeep]] played the antagonist in ''Eega'' and had a cameo in ''Baahubali: The Beginning''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 July 2022 |title=Kiccha Sudeep says he was 'not called' for Baahubali 2 after first film: 'It started moving very fast, I couldn't catch up' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/kiccha-sudeep-says-he-was-not-called-for-baahubali-2-after-first-film-8048394/ |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902131055/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/kiccha-sudeep-says-he-was-not-called-for-baahubali-2-after-first-film-8048394/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Anushka Shetty]] played the female lead in ''Vikramarkudu'' and the ''Baahubali'' series.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 May 2017 |title=Did you know Baahubali's 'Devasena' Anushka Shetty was rejected after her first audition? See her first photoshoot |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/baahubali-devasena-anushka-shetty-first-photoshoot-rejected-first-audition-prabhas-ss-rajamouli-see-photos-4658391/ |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |quote=But her major breakthrough came in 2006 film, Vikramarkudu, which was helmed by her Baahubali director SS Rajamouli. Hence, began a long association between the actor and the director, and their latest Baahubali: The Conclusion is only a testimony of their successful bond. She is the first female star to work with Rajamouli thrice. |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902190201/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/baahubali-devasena-anushka-shetty-first-photoshoot-rejected-first-audition-prabhas-ss-rajamouli-see-photos-4658391/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Shriya Saran]] played the female lead in ''Chatrapathi'' and was also cast in ''RRR'' in a supporting role.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hooli |first=Shekhar H. |date=13 September 2020 |title=Shriya Saran on SS Rajamouli's RRR movie: I had a great time working with Ajay Devgn |url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/shriya-saran-ss-rajamoulis-rrr-movie-i-had-great-time-working-ajay-devgn-828006 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=International Business Times India |language=en |quote=Although it's a cameo appearance, it felt great to work with SS Rajamouli again after Chatrapathi (2005). |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902190203/https://www.ibtimes.co.in/shriya-saran-ss-rajamoulis-rrr-movie-i-had-great-time-working-ajay-devgn-828006 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Ramya Krishnan|Ramya Krishna]] appeared in an [[Item number|item song]] in ''Simhadri'' and later played one of the central character, Sivagami Devi, in ''Baahubali'' films.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Telugu cinema review – Simhadri – NTR, Ankita, Bhumika Chawla – SS Rajamouli |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-simhadri.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Idlebrain.com |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902190203/http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-simhadri.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kavirayani |first=Suresh |date=18 July 2015 |title=Rajamouli's story gave me goosebumps: Ramya Krishna |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/150717/entertainment-tollywood/article/rajamouli%E2%80%99s-story-gave-me-goosebumps-ramya-krishna |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Deccan Chronicle |language=en |archive-date=20 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320231104/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/150717/entertainment-tollywood/article/rajamouli%e2%80%99s-story-gave-me-goosebumps-ramya-krishna |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Saloni Aswani|Saloni]] had a cameo in ''Magadheera'' and later played the female lead in ''Maryada Ramanna''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 July 2010 |title=Saloni interview – Telugu Cinema interview – Telugu film actress |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/saloni.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Idlebrain.com |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902190210/http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/saloni.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Mumaith Khan]] appeared in [[item songs]] in ''Chatrapathi'' and ''Magadheera''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 April 2007 |title=I will continue my career as an artiste too: Mumaith Khan |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/i-will-continue-my-career-as-an-artiste-too-mumaith-khan-kannada-news-30622 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=IndiaGlitz.com |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902190201/https://www.indiaglitz.com/i-will-continue-my-career-as-an-artiste-too-mumaith-khan-kannada-news-30622 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Jeevi |title=Movie Review - Magadheera |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-magadheera.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722221652/http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-magadheera.html |archive-date=22 July 2015 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Idlebrain.com}}</ref>

[[Kota Srinivasa Rao]] worked with him in three films.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jeevi |title=Telugu Cinema Review - Student No. 1 |url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-student.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite web |last=Jeevi |title=Movie Review - Chatrapati |url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-chatrapati.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Idlebrain.com}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] acted in ''Simhadri'', ''Sye'', and the ''Baahubali'' series.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 June 2022 |title=Actor Nassar to Quit Acting; All You Need to Know |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/actor-nassar-to-quit-acting-all-you-need-to-know-5449189.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=News18 |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902205529/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/actor-nassar-to-quit-acting-all-you-need-to-know-5449189.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Pradeep Rawat (actor)|Pradeep Rawat]] was introduced to [[Telugu film industry]] by Rajamouli as the [[antagonist]] Bikshu Yadav in ''Sye'' which won him fame.<ref name=":11" /> He later worked in ''Chatrapathi'' as the villain Ras Bihari.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 November 2020 |title=What is the story of Prabhas's Chatrapathi? |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/what-is-the-story-of-prabhas-s-chatrapathi-1744604-2020-11-27 |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=23 April 2017 |title=I owe a lot to the Tollywood, says Pradeep Rawat |url=https://www.ap7am.com/english-news-41041/i-owe-a-lot-to-the-tollywood-says-pradeep-rawat |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Ap7am |language=en |quote=Among these, Rajamouli had brought Pradeep Rawat to the Telugu film industry. He attracted the audiences with his performance in Sye and Chatrapati. Pradeep Rawat treats Rajamouli as his Godfather. |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902205528/https://www.ap7am.com/english-news-41041/i-owe-a-lot-to-the-tollywood-says-pradeep-rawat |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Narendra Jha]] was cast as the antagonist Baji Rao in ''Chatrapathi'' and later also acted in ''Yamadonga''.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Chatrapati – Post mortem – Telugu cinema – SS Rajamouli |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/postmortem/chatrapati.html |access-date=2 June 2022 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]] |archive-date=13 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513052131/http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/postmortem/chatrapati.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite web |last=Jeevi |title=Yamadonga Movie Review |url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-yamadonga.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=14 March 2018 |title=Gone too soon! Remembering actor Narendra Jha's journey in the film industry |url=https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/bollywood-news/photo/narendra-jha-the-versatile-actor-who-impressed-in-films-and-the-small-screen-16381/10 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=[[Mid-day]] |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902205531/https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/bollywood-news/photo/narendra-jha-the-versatile-actor-who-impressed-in-films-and-the-small-screen-16381/10 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Supreeth]] worked in three films of Rajamouli as a goon or henchman of the main antagonist.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":33" /> Rajamouli gave [[Prabhakar (Telugu actor)|Prabhakar]] his first full-fledged role in ''Maryada Ramanna'' which became his [[breakthrough role]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vyas |date=2019-05-16 |title=Kalakeya bags a biggie |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/kalakeya-bags-a-biggie-529806 |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=[[The Hans India]] |language=en |quote=Actor Prabhakar has been working in the industry for over a decade but got a break with S.S. Rajamouli's comedy-thriller 'Maryada Ramanna'. Immediately, he was roped in to play the role of 'Kalakeya' in the epic project 'Baahubali: The Beginning' and the recognition and response was huge!}}</ref> Prabhakar named his son after Rajamouli as gratitude towards him.<ref>{{Cite web |last=K Sekhar |date=16 May 2020 |title=రాజమౌళి రుణం తీర్చుకున్న కాళకేయ |url=https://telugu.samayam.com/telugu-movies/cinema-news/baahubali-fame-kalakeya-prabhakar-son-name-is-rajamouli/articleshow/75781566.cms |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=[[Samayam]] |language=te}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kavirayani |first=Suresh |date=27 May 2015 |title=Rajamouli gave me a new life: Prabhakar |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/150526/entertainment-tollywood/article/rajamouli-gave-me-new-life-prabhakar |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Deccan Chronicle |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902205530/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/150526/entertainment-tollywood/article/rajamouli-gave-me-new-life-prabhakar |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite web |date=20 July 2022 |title=Baahubali Prabhakar: అఖండ తర్వాత వరసగా 14 సినిమాల్లో పోలీస్‌ పాత్రలే.. |url=https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/kalakeya-prabhakar-telugu-actor-journey-family-movies-special-interview-1472229 |access-date=3 September 2022 |website=Sakshi |language=te |archive-date=26 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220726055632/https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/kalakeya-prabhakar-telugu-actor-journey-family-movies-special-interview-1472229 |url-status=live }}</ref> He later played the Kalakeya leader Inkoshi in ''Baahubali: The Beginning.'' After the film's success, he came to be popularly referred to as 'Kalakeya Prabhakar'.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adivi |first=Sridhar |date=31 July 2017 |title=I am indebted to Rajamouli, says Kalakeya Prabhakar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/i-am-indebted-to-rajamouli-says-kalakeya-prabhakar/articleshow/59842100.cms |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=25 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125174840/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/i-am-indebted-to-rajamouli-says-kalakeya-prabhakar/articleshow/59842100.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dhantadhan Baahubali Fame Kalakeya Prabhakar Interview |url=https://marathi.abplive.com/topic/dhantadhan-baahubali-fame-kalakeya-prabhakar-interview |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=[[ABP Majha]] |language=mr}}</ref>

Rajamouli also regularly collaborates with [[Rajeev Kanakala]] and [[Chatrapathi Sekhar]] who appeared in six and nine of his films respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-07 |title=Rajamouli: రాజమౌళి ప్రతి సినిమాలో చత్రపతి శేఖర్ ఎందుకు ఉంటాడో తెలుసా ?.. కారణమదే.. |url=https://tv9telugu.com/entertainment/tollywood/did-you-know-why-chatrapathi-shekhar-will-act-in-rajamoulis-every-movie-au55-928754.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=[[TV9 Telugu]] |language=te |quote=రాజమౌళి మొదటి చిత్రం స్టూడెంట్ నెంబర్ 1 సినిమా మొదలుకొని.. సింహాద్రి, సై, చత్రపతి, విక్రమార్కుడు, మగధీర, మర్యాద రామన్న, ఈగ, ఆర్ఆర్ఆర్ వంటి చిత్రాల్లో కనిపించాడు శేఖర్. ఇప్పటివరకు జక్కన్న మొత్తం 12 చిత్రాలు తెరకెక్కించగా.. 9 సినిమాల్లో ఉన్నాడు శేఖర్.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 August 2022 |title=రాజమౌళి చెప్పడం వల్లే: రాజీవ్ కనకాల |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/telugu/telangana/entertainment/movie/rajeev-kanakala-about-ntr-rajamouli/na20220808150231479479919 |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=ETV Bharat News |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902190202/https://www.etvbharat.com/telugu/telangana/entertainment/movie/rajeev-kanakala-about-ntr-rajamouli/na20220808150231479479919 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":31">{{Cite web |date=14 May 2019 |title=Secret Behind Jakkanna Name For Rajamouli |url=https://english.sakshi.com/entertainment/2019/05/14/secret-behind-jakkanna-name-for-rajamouli |access-date=30 June 2022 |website=Sakshi Post |language=en |archive-date=30 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630140017/https://english.sakshi.com/entertainment/2019/05/14/secret-behind-jakkanna-name-for-rajamouli |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Vadla |first=Praveen Kumar |date=13 March 2020 |title=ప్రభాస్ నాకు ప్రాణం పోసాడు.. ఛత్రపతి నటుడు సంచలన నిజాలు.. |url=https://telugu.news18.com/news/movies/prabhas-saved-my-life-in-chatrapathi-shooting-says-actor-sekhar-who-acted-in-rajamouli-movies-pk-474586.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=News18 Telugu |language=te |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902190203/https://telugu.news18.com/news/movies/prabhas-saved-my-life-in-chatrapathi-shooting-says-actor-sekhar-who-acted-in-rajamouli-movies-pk-474586.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Rajamouli also worked with the comic actors [[Brahmanandam]], [[M. S. Narayana]], [[Venu Madhav (actor)|Venu Madhav]], [[Ali (actor)|Ali]], [[L. B. Sriram]], [[Raghu Babu]], [[Srinivasa Reddy]], [[Sivannarayana Naripeddi]], and [[Hema (actress)|Hema]] in multiple films.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":14" /><ref name=":24" /><ref name=":7" /> [[Tanikella Bharani]] acted in ''Student No.1'', ''Sye'', and ''Baahubali''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 July 2015 |title=Rajamouli is the man of the moment: Karan Johar |work=[[Business Standard]] |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/rajamouli-is-the-man-of-the-moment-karan-johar-115071100223_1.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902205531/https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/rajamouli-is-the-man-of-the-moment-karan-johar-115071100223_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=Telugu cinema Review – Sye – Nitin, Genelia – SS Rajamouli |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-sye.html |access-date=2 September 2022 |website=Idlebrain.com |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902205528/http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-sye.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Sameer (Telugu actor)|Sameer]], [[Ajay (actor)|Ajay]], [[Jaya Prakash Reddy]], [[Rao Ramesh]], [[Subbaraya Sarma]], [[Surya (Telugu actor)|Surya]], and [[Preeti Nigam]] acted in supporting roles in many of his films.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":14" /><ref name=":24" /><ref name=":7" /> His cousin S. S. Kanchi acted in his films apart from working in the writing department.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> His nephew [[Sri Simha]], younger son of Keeravani, worked as a child actor in ''Yamadonga'' and ''Maryada Ramanna'',<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21" /> along with minor roles in ''Eega'' and ''Baahubali: The Beginning''.<ref name="G" /><ref name=":21" />

{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" style="text-align:center;"
|+ class="nowrap" | Collaborations of Rajamouli – Cast
|-
!rowspan=2 {{diagonal split header 2| Collaborator|Work}}
|-
!''[[Student No: 1]]''
(2001)
![[Simhadri (2003 film)|''Simhadri'']]
(2003)
![[Sye (2004 film)|''Sye'']]
(2004)
![[Chatrapathi (2005 film)|''Chatrapathi'']]
(2005)
!''[[Vikramarkudu]]''
(2006)
!''[[Yamadonga]]''
(2007)
!''[[Magadheera]]''
(2009)
!''[[Maryada Ramanna]]''
(2010)
!''[[Eega]]''
(2012)
![[Baahubali (franchise)|''Baahubali'']]
(2015, 2017)
![[RRR (film)|''RRR'']]
(2022)
!Total
|-
|[[N. T. Rama Rao Jr.|Jr. NTR]]
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|4
|-
|[[Prabhas]]
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|2
|-
|[[Ram Charan]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|2
|-
|[[Sunil (actor)|Sunil]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|2
|-
|[[Ravi Teja]]
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|Voice role
|
|
|
|2
|-
|[[Sudeepa|Sudeep]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|2
|-
|[[Anushka Shetty]]
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|2
|-
|[[Shriya Saran]]
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|2
|-
|[[Ramya Krishnan|Ramya Krishna]]
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|2
|-
|[[Saloni Aswani|Saloni]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|2
|-
|[[Mumaith Khan]]
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|2
|-
|[[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]]
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|3
|-
|[[Kota Srinivasa Rao]]
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|3
|-
|[[Pradeep Rawat (actor)|Pradeep Rawat]]
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|2
|-
|[[Ajay (actor)|Ajay]]
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|5
|-
|[[Jaya Prakash Reddy]]
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|3
|-
|[[Supreeth]]
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|3
|-
|[[Prabhakar (Telugu actor)|Prabhakar]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|2
|-
|[[Narendra Jha]]
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|2
|-
|[[Rajeev Kanakala]]
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|6
|-
|[[Chatrapathi Sekhar]]
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|9
|-
|[[Sameer Hasan|Sameer]]
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|4
|-
|[[Tanikella Bharani]]
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|3
|-
|[[Rao Ramesh]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|2
|-
|[[Subbaraya Sharma]]
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|7
|-
|[[Surya (Telugu actor)|Surya]]
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|2
|-
|[[Prabhas Sreenu]]
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|2
|-
|[[Preeti Nigam]]
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|2
|-
|[[Brahmanandam]]
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|5
|-
|[[M. S. Narayana]]
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|2
|-
|[[Venu Madhav (actor)|Venu Madhav]]
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|3
|-
|[[Ali (actor)|Ali]]
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|2
|-
|[[Srinivasa Reddy]]
|
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|4
|-
|[[Sivannarayana Naripeddi]]
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|6
|-
|[[L. B. Sriram]]
|{{ya}}
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|2
|-
|[[Raghubabu]]
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|
|2
|-
|S. S. Kanchi
|
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|4
|-
|[[Hema (actress)|Hema]]
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|{{ya}}
|
|
|
|
|2
|}

== Views on the film industry ==

=== Theatres and streaming services ===
Rajamouli is of the view that watching films in a [[movie theatre]] is the best way to experience them as theatres provide the unique communal experience in seeing how other people feel the emotions of the characters on screen. He said there's a kind of synergy that one experiences in a theater which doesn't come in a home or on a personal device, the experience can't be replicated. Being optimistic that theaters would thrive and prosper in the age of [[Streaming media]], he said "[a] movie theater is like a temple. The other day, I went to the [[Music Box Theatre (Chicago)|Music Box Theatre]] in Chicago, and I almost had tears. It was such a great feeling." In an interview with American media, he suggested various measures to make people prefer theatres over [[List of streaming media services|streaming services]], like reintroduction of [[intermission]] {{endash}} as it provides an opportunity for the audience to refresh themselves. He also opined that [[movie star]]s play a big role in bringing audiences to theaters.<ref>{{cite web|title=RRR director S.S. Rajamouli: To save movie theaters, we have to deliver|work=Polygon|url=https://www.polygon.com/23478046/rrr-ss-rajamouli-movies-top-gun-avengers-future|date=13 December 2022|access-date=5 January 2023|archive-date=23 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223184017/https://www.polygon.com/23478046/rrr-ss-rajamouli-movies-top-gun-avengers-future|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Pan-Indian film ===
{{See also|Pan-Indian film}}
Rajamouli is credited with pioneering the pan-Indian films movement with his duology of epic action films ''[[Baahubali: The Beginning]]'' (2015) and ''[[Baahubali 2: The Conclusion]]'' (2017), that changed the face of Indian cinema.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bamzai |first=Kaveree |date=1 April 2022 |title=Cinema's Biggest Mythmaker |url=https://openthemagazine.com/cover-stories/ss-rajamouli-cinemas-biggest-mythmaker/ |access-date=26 June 2022 |website=[[Open (Indian magazine)|Open Magazine]] |language=en |quote=He is perhaps singlehandedly responsible for the rise of the pan-Indian film. |archive-date=26 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626102823/https://openthemagazine.com/cover-stories/ss-rajamouli-cinemas-biggest-mythmaker/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":8" /><ref name="Srinivasan-2022">{{Cite web |last=Srinivasan |first=Latha |date=30 March 2022 |title=Inside the mind of SS Rajamouli: Decoding how the RRR director lends scale to his storytelling |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/inside-the-mind-of-ss-rajamouli-decoding-how-the-rrr-director-lends-scale-to-his-storytelling-10501081.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818144603/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/inside-the-mind-of-ss-rajamouli-decoding-how-the-rrr-director-lends-scale-to-his-storytelling-10501081.html |archive-date=18 August 2022 |access-date=20 July 2022 |website=[[Firstpost]] |language=en |quote=Producer G Dhananjayan says, “Rajamouli has redefined the reach of regional cinema consistently through his films, starting with Eega [2012] to the Baahubali series, and now with RRR. The entire concept of pan-Indian films came from him when he succeeded with Eega across many Indian languages. This opened up this concept. Thanks to his vision, today, a lot of films are able to be made on a bigger budget targeted at a pan-Indian audience. Rajamouli stands tall among all Indian filmmakers for his vision, innovation, and expansion of the regional language market at a global level.”}}</ref> He emphasised that making a pan-Indian film doesn't necessarily mean getting actors from different [[Cinema of India#Cinema by language|Indian film industries]], but instead its about having a story and emotion that connects to everyone irrespective of the language. He stated that while creating a story, he often thinks whether the audience would be able to connect to his movie if the dialogue is turned off and many a times he feels in the affirmative.<ref name=":9" />

== See also ==

* [[List of awards and nominations received by S. S. Rajamouli]]
* [[List of film director and actor collaborations]]
* [[List of highest-grossing Indian films]]
* [[List of highest-grossing Telugu films]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{S. S. Rajamouli}}

[[Category:S. S. Rajamouli]]
[[Category:Cinematic styles of film directors]]

Leena Kapoor

2026-04-02T16:48:36Z

QuyenStobie2: new basic post more to come - done

{{short description|Indian model, and actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox model
| bgcolour =
| name = Leena Kapoor
| image = Leena Kapoor on location 2015.jpg
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Delhi
| death_date =
| death_place =
| height =
| haircolor = Black
| eyecolor = Brown
| occupation =Model Actress
| dress size =
| website =
}}
'''Leena Kapoor''' is an Indian [[model (profession)|model]], and actress known for her works in [[Hindi cinema]], and Malayalam Television.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/umpire-asad-rauf-pulled-out-of-champions-trophy/article4743163.ece|title=Umpire Asad Rauf pulled out of Champions Trophy|author=PTI|work=The Hindu}}</ref> Before her debut in films, Leena has appeared in several Punjabi [[Music Video]]s, Television commercials and series such as "Love Net - Season 2" in [[Channel V]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/tag/leena-kapoor/|title=Leena Kapoor|work=indianexpress.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/photos/leena-kapoor-photoshoot-stills-golden-frock-872-slide-7108|title=Leena Kapoor Photoshoot Stills In Golden Frock|date=15 April 2015|work=International Business Times, India Edition}}</ref>

==Music videos==
{{BLP unreferenced section|date=May 2019}}
*"Manka Manka" - Gurmukh Doabia

==Movies ==
* [[Salaam-e-Ishq]] (2007)
* [[Wajah Tum Ho]] (2016)
* [[Madmast Barkhaa]] (2015)
* Gurjar Aandolan (2014).[https://www.imdb.com/name/nm7445466/bio/]
{{Expand section|date=January 2022}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|7445466}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kapoor, Leena}}
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Act, 1978

2026-04-02T14:33:17Z

QuyenStobie2: created the info w/ infobox

{{Short description|Act of the Indian Parliament}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2016}}
{{Infobox legislation
|short_title = High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Act, 1978
|legislature = [[Parliament of India]]
|imagesize = 150
|long_title = An Act to provide in the public interest for the demonetisation of certain high denomination bank notes and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto
|citation = Act XI of 1978<ref name= "A PDF of the Act">{{cite web |url=https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1380/1/A1978-11.pdf |title=The High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Act, 1978 |website=indiacode.nic.in |publisher=Department of Legislative Affairs, Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref>
|territorial_extent = India
|enacted_by = [[Lok Sabha]]
|date_passed = 16 January 1978
|enacted_by2 = [[Rajya Sabha]]
|bill = Number 20 of 1978
|amended_by = High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Amendment Act, 1998
|related_legislation = {{Flatlist|
* Bank Notes (Declaration of Holdings) Ordinance, 1946
* High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Ordinance, 1946
}}<ref name = "Report of the CBoDs for 1945-46 - RBI">{{cite web |url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/AnnualReport/PDFs/9032020AR_1946.PDF |title=Report of the Central Board of Directors for the Year Ended 30th June 1946 |date=5 August 1946 |website=rbidocs.rbi.org.in |publisher=RBI |access-date=14 December 2023}}</ref>{{rp|5}}
|status = Repealed
}}
The '''High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Act, 1978''' was an act of the [[Parliament of India|Indian Parliament]] that [[Legal tender|demonetized]] the high-denomination banknotes of ₹1000, ₹5000, and ₹10000. It was first introduced as the High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Ordinance, 1978, by the then [[President of India]] [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/flashback-1978-currency-ban-500-1000-invalid-the-transition-to-new-notes-was-less-painful-4375865/|title= Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, issued an Ordinance to demonetisation, in 1978|work=Indian Express|date= 15 November 2016}}</ref> The then [[Prime Minister of India]], [[Morarji Desai]] of [[Janata Party]], and Finance Minister [[Hirubhai M. Patel]] were considered key architects of the policy,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://m.indiatoday.in/story/demonetisation-black-money-corruption-modi-government-finance-minister-hm-patel/1/817724.html|title= Key people in 1978 demonetisation|work= India Today|date= 23 November 2016}}</ref> while [[List of governors of the Reserve Bank of India|RBI Governor]] [[I. G. Patel]] was opposed to it.<ref name = "SC Judgement on Demonetisation: Majority">{{cite web |url=https://api.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2016/37662/37662_2016_3_1501_40708_Judgement_02-Jan-2023.pdf |title=Vivek Narayan Sharma v. Union of India (Majority Judgement) |last=Gavai |first=BR |date=2 January 2023 |website=main.sci.gov.in |publisher=Supreme Court of India |access-date=25 December 2023}}</ref>{{rp|128}}

As a result of this legislation, 93% of the total currency notes in circulation were exchanged, while the remaining went out of circulation or were not exchanged.<ref name = "SC Judgement on Demonetisation: Dissent">{{cite web |url=https://www.scobserver.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Demonetisation-Judgment-259-382.pdf |title=Vivek Narayan Sharma v. Union of India (Dissenting Judgement) |last=Nagarathna |first=BV |date=2 January 2023 |website=scobserver.in |publisher=Supreme Court of India |access-date=25 December 2023}}</ref>{{rp|34}} It was repealed by the Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Act, 2023.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://egazette.gov.in/WriteReadData/2023/248047.pdf |title=Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Act, 2023 |date=11 August 2023 |website=egazette.gov.in |publisher=Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India |access-date=25 December 2023 |page=29}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Demonetisation Ordinance, 1946 ===
The first demonetisation of India was carried out in the year 1946 when, under the then [[Governor General of India]], [[Field Marshal (United Kingdom)|Field Marshal]] [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell]], the Reserve Bank of India demonetised notes of ₹500, ₹1000, and ₹10,000 in order to check [[Black market|black market operations]] and [[Tax evasion|tax evasions]]. This was done via 2 ordinances. The first ordinance, the Bank Notes (Declaration of Holdings) Ordinance, 1946, required all [[Bank|banks]] and [[Treasury|government treasurie]]s in [[British India]] to furnish a statement of the amount of [[Banknote|bank notes]] they were [[Reserve requirement|holding]] as of 11 January 1946. The second ordinance, the High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Ordinance, 1946, demonetised bank notes of denominations ₹500 and above. While the exchanging of notes was initially allowed only until 9 February 1946, it was extended multiple times.<ref name = "Report of the CBoDs for 1945-46 - RBI" />{{rp|5}} By the end of 1947, out of a total of Rs. 143.97 crore of high denomination banknotes, notes of the value of Rs. 134.90 crore were exchanged and notes worth Rs. 9.07 crore went out of circulation or were not exchanged.<ref name = "SC Judgement on Demonetisation: Dissent" />{{rp|34}} It is pertinent to note that this action was opposed by the then [[List of governors of the Reserve Bank of India|Governor of RBI]], Shri [[C.D. Deshmukh]].<ref name = "SC Judgement on Demonetisation: Majority" />{{rp|128}}

=== Passage in the Parliament ===
The Act was passed by consideration in both Houses of Parliament and supreme court, and was implemented by an issue of an [[Act of Parliament|ordinance]] on 16 January 1978,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/1978-demonetisation-law-was-not-unreasonable-SC-had-ruled/articleshow/55391335.cms|title= Supreme Court verdict on 1978 demonetisation|work= The Times of India|date= 12 November 2016}}</ref> which was later made an Act, from 30 March 1978.<ref name= "A PDF of the Act" />

== The Act ==

=== Preamble ===
The Preamble to the Demonetisation Act, 1978 highlighted the need for demonetisation of certain high denominations bank notes in the public interest. The reason this was considered necessary was because high-denomination bank notes were considered detrimental to the [[Economy of India|Indian economy]] due to their use for illegal purposes.<ref name= "A PDF of the Act" />

=== Details ===
The Demonetisation Act of 1978 has fifteen sections.<ref name= "A PDF of the Act" />

Section 2 details the usage of bank notes in Act.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Madurai/Madurai-Bench-first-to-decide-on-demonetisation/article16444847.ece|title= Definition of Bank notes in Act|work= The Hindu|date= 14 November 2016}}</ref>

=== Amendment of 1998 ===
Section 2 of the Act was amended in the winter session of [[Indian Parliament]] in 1998. Following a discussion in the 1998 winter session of Indian Parliament, the bill was introduced, by the then Finance minister [[Yashwant Sinha]] to reintroduce ₹1000 banknotes,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-how-atal-bihari-vajpayee-undid-a-cabinet-decision-2274509|title= Reintroduction of 1000 rupees in 1998|work= DNA India|date= 18 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/580095/not-first-demonetisation-india.html|title=1978 Demonetisation in India|date=9 November 2016|work=Deccan Herald}}</ref> due to claims of shortage of high-denomination notes and increasing pressure on lower denominations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/demonetization-rs-500-rs-1000-how-nda-under-vajpayee-saw-high-value-notes-4377627/|title= Yaswant Sinha, reintroduced 1000 rupee notes, in 1998|work= Indian Express|date=16 November 2016}}</ref>

== Opposition ==
The constitutional validity of 1978 Act of Demonetisation was challenged in the [[Supreme Court of India]], on the claimed grounds that it violated the then [[Fundamental Rights of India|Fundamental Right of property]]. The Constitutional bench of the Supreme Court of India rejected the petitioners' plea, and upheld the Constitutional validity of Demonetisation Act, 1978.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://m.firstpost.com/india/note-ban-will-sc-redefine-separation-of-power-with-its-decision-on-demonetisation-3124480.html|title= Supreme Court Upheld Constitutional validity, of 1978 Act|work=First Post|date= 25 November 2016}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==
The chief economic advisor of the State Bank of India affirmed that 25% of the proscribed currency notes did not return to the banking system during the 1978 demonetisation episode.<ref>[http://www.epw.in/engage/article/%E2%80%8B-demonetisation-post-truths-0 Only 75% of demonetised currency returned to the central bank in 1978]</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Money|Numismatics}}
*[[2016 Indian banknote demonetisation]]
*[[List of acts of the Parliament of India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Indian currency}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Acts of the Parliament of India 1978]]
[[Category:Desai administration]]
[[Category:Financial history of India]]

Sampath Nandi

2026-03-30T17:40:08Z

QuyenStobie2: New new details needs work...

{{Short description|Indian film director}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sampath Nandi
| image = Sampath Nandi.jpg
| caption = Nandi in 2018
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1980|6|20}}
| birth_place = [[Odela]], [[Peddapalli district]], Telangana India)
| occupation = {{hlist|Film director|screen writer|producer}}
}}

'''Sampath Nandi''' (born 20 June 1980) is an Indian film director, screenwriter and producer who works primarily in [[Telugu cinema]].

==Career==

After completing his Bachelor's degree in Pharmacy (B.Pharm) from the V. L. College of Pharmacy. Nandi assisted [[Posani Krishna Murali]] for about three years. In the meantime he used to make ad-films in [[Mumbai]] and [[Bengaluru]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/sampathnandi.html |title=Sampath Nandi interview – Telugu film director |publisher=Idlebrain.com |date= |accessdate=2015-07-02}}</ref>

In 2010, Nandi made his directorial debut with ''[[Yemaindi Ee Vela]]'', starring [[Varun Sandesh]] and [[Nisha Agarwal|Nisha Aggarwal]]. It was a remarkable debut with a run of 50 days in 32 centers. His second film was 2012's [[Racha (film)|''Racha'']], starring [[Ram Charan]] and [[Tamannaah Bhatia]] which turned to be a blockbuster. The film successfully completed a 50-day run in 127 direct centers across Andhra Pradesh.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/telugu/news-interviews/Ram-Charans-Racha-completes-50-days-in-127-centers/articleshow/13406133.cms|title=Ram Charan's Racha completes 50 days in 127 centers|work=The Times of India|date=23 May 2012|accessdate=20 November 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141120115845/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/telugu/news-interviews/Ram-Charans-Racha-completes-50-days-in-127-centers/articleshow/13406133.cms|archivedate=20 November 2014}}</ref> and completed a 100-day run in 38 centers across Andhra Pradesh on 13 July 2012 which is a unique feat.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/news/functions/pressmeet-racha100days.html|title=Racha completes 100 days in 38 centers|publisher=[[Idlebrain.com]]|date=12 July 2012|accessdate=20 November 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141120120349/http://www.idlebrain.com/news/functions/pressmeet-racha100days.html|archivedate=20 November 2014}}</ref> The film collected a lifetime share of {{INRConvert|450|m}}<ref name="WWS">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/top-worldwide-share-telugu-039yevadu039-039svsc039-039attarintiki-daredi039-039mirchi039-and-other-films-538981|title=Top Worldwide Share (Telugu): 'Yevadu', 'SVSC', 'Attarintiki Daredi', 'Mirchi' and Other Films|publisher=[[International Business Times|International Business Times India]]|date=16 February 2014|accessdate=20 November 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141120120553/http://www.ibtimes.co.in/top-worldwide-share-telugu-039yevadu039-039svsc039-039attarintiki-daredi039-039mirchi039-and-other-films-538981|archivedate=20 November 2014}}</ref>

In 2015, Nandi directed [[Ravi Teja]]'s film ''[[Bengal Tiger (2015 film)|Bengal Tiger]]'', which has [[Tamannaah Bhatia|Tamannaah]] and [[Raashii Khanna|Raashi Khanna]] as lead actresses.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/Sampath-Nandi-to-direct-Ravi-Teja/articleshow/45005929.cms |title=Sampath Nandi to direct Ravi Teja – The Times of India |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date=1 November 2014 |accessdate=2015-07-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author= |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/141105/entertainment-tollywood/article/tamannaah-bhatia-paired-ravi-teja |title=Tamannaah Bhatia paired with Ravi Teja |publisher=Deccanchronicle.com |date=5 November 2014 |access-date=2015-07-02}}</ref> Bengal Tiger released worldwide on 10 December 2015. In 2017, Nandi's directorial ''[[Goutham Nanda]]'' starring [[Gopichand (actor)|Gopichand]], [[Catherine Tresa]] and [[Hansika Motwani]] was released.

Sampath Nandi teamed again up with [[Gopichand (actor)|Gopichand]] for the film ''[[Seetimaarr]]'' which is film based on Indian sport [[Kabaddi]].<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2021-09-11 |title=‘Seetimaarr’ movie review: Sampath Nandi and Gopichand’s film lives up to its title |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/reviews/seetimaarr-movie-review-sampath-nandi-and-gopichands-film-lives-up-to-its-title/article36399157.ece |access-date=2026-02-26 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The film's principal shooting started in December 2019 but was postponed due to the pandemic that took over in 2020. The film had a theatrical release on September 10, 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2021-09-10 |title=Seetimaarr Movie Review: A fairly enjoyable potboiler |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/review/2021/Sep/10/seetimaarr-movie-review-gopichand-tamannaah-26571.html |access-date=2026-02-26 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref> His next directorial, ''Bhogi'' is set to release worldwide on 28 Aug, 2026.

==Filmography==
{{Pending films key}}

{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" |Title
! scope="col" width=65 |Director
! scope="col" width=65 |Writer
! scope="col" width=65 |Producer
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Yemaindi Ee Vela]]'' || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{no}} || ||
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Racha (film)|Racha]]'' || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{no}} || ||
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Galipatam]]'' || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes}} || ||
|-
| 2015 ||''[[Bengal Tiger (2015 film)|Bengal Tiger]]'' || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{no}} || Also lyricist for the song "Aasia"||
|-
| 2017 ||''[[Goutham Nanda]]'' || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{no}} || ||
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Paper Boy (2018 film)|Paperboy]]'' || {{no}} ||{{yes}} || {{yes}} || ||
|-
| 2021 ||''[[Seetimaarr]]'' || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{no}} || ||
|-
| 2022 || ''[[Odela Railway Station]]'' || {{no}} || {{partial|Story}} || {{no}} || || <ref>{{cite web |title=Sampath Nandi goes down memory lane at his native Odela |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/sampath-nandi-goes-down-memory-lane-at-his-native-odela/articleshow/78621647.cms|website=The Times of India |date=12 October 2020}}</ref>
|-
|2024
|''[[Simbaa]]''
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|{{yes}}
|
|
|-
|2025
|''[[Odela 2]]''
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|{{yes}}
|Also Direction Supervisor
|
|-
| 2026 || {{pending film|[[Sharwanand|Bhogi]]}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{no}} || Filming||
|-
| rowspan="1" |{{TableTBA}}
|{{Pending film|Black Rose}}
|{{no}}
|{{partial|Story}}
|{{no}}
|Delayed
|<ref>{{cite web |date=3 January 2021 |title=Urvashi Rautela's Black Rose set to release |url=https://telanganatoday.com/urvashi-rautelas-black-rose-set-to-release |website=Telangana Today}}</ref>
|-
|}

==References==
<references>

https://www.123telugu.com/interviews/interview-sampath-nandi-audience-has-blessed-with-a-super-hit.html
https://telugu.industryhit.com/2021/09/11/director-sampath-nandi-interview-about-seetimaar/
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/seetimaarr-director-sampath-nandi-takes-up-the-green-india-challenge/articleshow/86067273.cms
https://www.gulte.com/movienews/112309/simbaa-the-forest-man-starts

</references>

==External links==
*{{IMDB name|nm4214524|section=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm4214524/}}
*{{Facebook|IamSampathNandi|name=Sampath Nandi}}

{{Authority control}}{{Sampath Nandi}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Nandi, Sampath}}
[[Category:1980 births]]
[[Category:Film directors from Telangana]]
[[Category:Telugu film directors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Film producers from Telangana]]
[[Category:People from Karimnagar district]]
[[Category:Telugu screenwriters]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Telangana]]
[[Category:Indian film directors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian people]]
|}

Ajanta Oreva Group

2026-03-30T16:59:45Z

QuyenStobie2:

{{Short description|Group of companies}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Ajanta Oreva Group
| logo = Ajanta Oreva Group.svg
| trading_name = Ajanta Manufacturing Private Limited
| type = Private
| industry = {{Unbulleted list
|[[Textiles]]
|[[Transport]]
|[[Construction]]
|[[Machinery]]
}}
| founded = {{Start date and age|1971|df=yes}}
| founder = [[Odhavaji Raghavji Patel]]
| hq_location = [[Ahmedabad]], [[Gujarat]], India
| key_people = Jaysukh Patel (Managing Director)
| products = {{Unbulleted list
|Lighting products
|[[Electric vehicle]]s
|[[Home appliance]]s
|[[Telephone]]s
|[[LED television]]s
|[[Clock]]s
}}
| revenue = ₹800 Crore
| num_employees = 5000 (2022)
| website = {{URL|https://shoporeva.com}}
}}
'''Ajanta Group''' or '''Oreva Group''' (stylized as '''OREVA''') <ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-22 |title=Sunhrarrt group & Ajanta Oreva group creates history by forming India's biggest vitrified tiles plant |work=The Live Nagpur |url=https://thelivenagpur.com/2021/07/22/sunhrarrt-group-ajanta-oreva-group-creates-history-by-forming-indias-biggest-vitrified-tiles-plant/ |access-date=2022-10-31 |language=en-US}}</ref> is a diversified Indian conglomerate, active in textiles, transport, construction equipment, and machinery.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/ajanta-group-mulls-foray-into-led-lighting-110113000006_1.html |title=Ajanta Group mulls foray into LED lighting |work=[[Business Standard]] |date=29 November 2010 |access-date=2024-11-20}}</ref>

[[File:Acetech 2025, Bangalore International Exhibition Centre (94).jpg|thumb|right|Ajanta Quartz at Acetech 2025, [[Bangalore International Exhibition Centre|BIEC]] ]]

== History ==
The company was founded by [[Odhavaji Raghavji Patel]] in 1971. It is known for the manufacturing [[clock]]s.

In 2008, the company unsuccessfully tried to enter the automotive industry with the Oreva Super, a low-cost [[electric car]].<ref name="NDTV">{{cite web |last=Ray |first=Joydeep |title=A car that could give Nano competition |url=https://www.ndtv.com/video/a-car-that-could-give-nano-competition-41062 |website=[[NDTV]] |access-date=9 December 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120903184813/http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080068549 |archive-date=3 September 2012 |date=12 October 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-10-14 |title=Made in Gujarat:Ajanta's battery operated Oreva car(Video) |url=https://www.deshgujarat.com/2008/10/14/made-in-gujaratajantas-battery-operated-oreva-carvideo/ |access-date=2022-11-02 |website=DeshGujarat |language=en-US}}</ref> It was dubbed "[[Tata Nano]]-Killer," reportedly costing less than [[Indian rupee|INR]]{{nbsp}}100,000 or roughly around ${{To USD round|100000|IND|2008|sf=2}}.<ref name="NDTV"/>

== Ajanta Energy ==
Ajanta Energy Pvt. Ltd. specializes in renewable energy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About AEPL |url=https://oreva.com/about-aepl/ |website=Oreva |access-date=2024-11-20}}</ref>

Ajanta Energy provides solar power systems, windmills, and [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] services.

== Controversies ==
In 2022, the company and its staff were investigated for the collapse of a [[2022 Morbi bridge collapse|bridge]] in [[Morbi]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Mogul |first1=Rhea |first2=Manveena |last2=Suri |first3=Swati |last3=Gupta |date=2022-11-01 |title=What we know about India's deadly bridge collapse |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/11/01/india/india-gujarat-morbi-bridge-collapse-explainer-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=2022-11-02 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> The Municipality of Morbi owned the bridge, and entered into a 15-year maintenance agreement with Oreva Group.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-01 |title=Morbi bridge collapse: Oreva Group under scanner over repair, maintenance |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/corporate/story/morbi-bridge-collapse-oreva-group-under-scanner-over-repair-maintenance-351417-2022-11-01 |access-date=2022-11-02 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref> Initial reports say that the bridge opened to the public ahead of schedule after temporary repairs,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-02 |title=Gujarat: Oreva Reopened Morbi Bridge After 'Temporary Repairs'; Complete Work Promised After Permanent Contract Only |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/gujarat-oreva-reopened-morbi-bridge-after-temporary-repairs-complete-work-promised-after-permanent-contract-only-news-234087 |access-date=2022-11-02 |website=[[Outlook India]] |language=en}}</ref> even though no 'certificate of fitness' from the local authorities had been obtained.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Make temporary repair and open bridge': Oreva Group's letter to Morbi collector in January 2020 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/gujarat-morbi-bridge-collapse-oreva-group-letter-make-temporary-repairs-and-open-2292125-2022-11-01 |first=Saurabh |last=Vaktania |date=1 November 2022 |access-date=2022-11-02 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> {{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Companies based in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Clock manufacturing companies of India]]
[[Category:Indian brands]]

{{India-company-stub}}

List of India Twenty20 International cricket records

2026-03-29T04:08:48Z

QuyenStobie2: refine intro for consistency and improved wording

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2013}}

A '''Twenty20 International''' ('''T20I''') is a form of [[cricket]], played between two of the international members of the [[International Cricket Council]] (ICC), in which each team faces a maximum of twenty [[Over (cricket)|overs]]. The matches have top-class status and are the highest T20 standard. The game is played under the rules of [[Twenty20]] cricket.<ref>{{cite web |title=Classification of Official Cricket |publisher=International Cricket Council |url=http://l.yimg.com/t/icccricket/pdfs/classification-of-official-cricket-july-2008.pdf |access-date=12 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929114225/http://l.yimg.com/t/icccricket/pdfs/classification-of-official-cricket-july-2008.pdf |archive-date=29 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecb.co.uk/news/england/england-archive/icc-world-twenty20-2009/history/ |title=History of Twenty20 cricket |publisher=[[England and Wales Cricket Board]] |access-date=3 February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203150110/http://www.ecb.co.uk/news/england/england-archive/icc-world-twenty20-2009/history/ |archive-date=3 February 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The first Twenty20 International match between two men's sides was played on 17 February 2005, involving [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]] and [[New Zealand national cricket team|New Zealand]]. ''[[Wisden Cricketers' Almanack]]'' reported that "neither side took the game especially seriously",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/288833.html |title=New Zealand v Australia |last=Ramsay |first=Andrew |year=2006 |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=30 January 2015}}</ref> and it was noted by ''[[ESPNcricinfo]]'' that but for a large score for [[Ricky Ponting]], "the concept would have shuddered".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/144657.html |title=Saved by Private Ricky |last=English |first=Peter |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |date=18 February 2005 |access-date=30 January 2015}}</ref> However, Ponting himself said "if it does become an international game then I'm sure the novelty won't be there all the time".<ref name="RP-quote">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/149574.html |title=South Africa's Superman |access-date=17 February 2017 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |date=17 May 2006 }}</ref>
This is a list of [[India national cricket team|India Cricket team]]'s [[Twenty20 International]] records. It is based on the [[List of Twenty20 International records]], but concentrates solely on records dealing with the Indian cricket team. India played its first Twenty20 game against South Africa in December 2006, and these records date from that game.
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Key==
The top five records are listed for each category, except for the [[#Head to head record|team wins, losses, draws and ties]], [[#All-round Records|all round records]] and the [[#Partnership records|partnership records]]. Tied records for fifth place are also included. Explanations of the general symbols and cricketing terms used in the list are given below. Specific details are provided in each category where appropriate. All records include matches played for [[India national cricket team|India]] only, and are correct {{as of|2023|10|lc=yes}}.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|+ Key
|-
! scope=col | Symbol
! scope=col | Meaning
|-
! scope=row | {{dagger}}
| Player or umpire is currently active in T20I cricket
|-
! scope=row | {{double-dagger}}
| Event took place during a [[ICC Men's T20 World Cup]]
|-
! scope=row | *
| Player remained [[not out]] or partnership remained unbroken
|-
! scope=row style=background:#cee0f2; | ♠
| [[List of Twenty20 International records|Twenty20 International cricket record]]
|-
! scope=row | Date
| Starting date of the match
|-
! scope=row | Innings
| Number of [[innings]] played
|-
! scope=row | Matches
| Number of matches played
|-
! scope=row | Opposition
| The team India was playing against
|-
! scope=row | Period
| The time period when the player was active in ODI cricket
|-
! scope=row | Player
| The player involved in the record
|-
! scope=row | Venue
| [[List of Twenty20 International cricket grounds|Twenty20 International cricket ground]] where the match was played
|}

==Team records==

=== Overall record ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|- style="background:#9cf;"
! scope="col" |Matches
! scope="col" |Won
! scope="col" |Lost
! scope="col" |Tied
! scope="col" |Tie+Win
! scope="col" |Tie+Loss
! scope="col" |NR
! scope="col" |Win %
|-
| 277 || 193 || 75 || 1 || 6 || 0 || 8 || 71.93
|-
| scope="row" colspan="8" style="text-align:left" |'' Last Updated: 8 March 2026''<ref name="T20I results summary">{{cite web |title=Records / T20I matches / Team records / Results summary |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283307.html |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Head to head record ===
{{India T20I cricket records by opponent}}

=== First bilateral T20I series wins ===

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! Opponent !! Year of first Home win !! Year of first Away win
|-
| {{cr|Afghanistan|2013}} || [[Afghan cricket team in India in 2023-24|2024]] || YTP
|-
| {{cr|Australia}} || [[Australian cricket team in India in 2007-08|2007]] || [[Indian cricket team in Australia in 2015-16|2016]]
|-
| {{cr|Bangladesh}} || [[Bangladeshi cricket team in India in 2019-20|2019]] || YTP
|-
| {{cr|England}} || [[English cricket team in India in 2016-17|2017]] || [[Indian cricket team in England in 2018|2018]]
|-
| {{cr|Ireland}} || YTP || [[Indian cricket team in Ireland in 2018|2018]]
|-
| {{cr|New Zealand}} || [[New Zealand cricket team in India in 2017-18|2017]] || [[Indian cricket team in New Zealand in 2019-20|2020]]
|-
| {{cr|Pakistan}} || – || YTP
|-
| {{cr|South Africa}} || [[South African cricket team in India in 2022-23|2022]] || [[Indian cricket team in South Africa in 2006-07|2006]]
|-
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Sri Lankan cricket team in India in 2015-16|2016]] || [[Indian cricket team in Sri Lanka in 2008-09|2008]]
|-
| {{cr|West Indies}} || [[West Indian cricket team in India in 2018-19|2018]] || [[Indian cricket team in the West Indies in 2011|2011]]
|-
| {{cr|Zimbabwe}} || YTP || [[Indian cricket team in Zimbabwe in 2010|2010]]
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=3 | Last Updated: 15 January 2024<ref>{{cite web |title=Records / India / T20I matches / Series summary |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=start;size=200;team=6;template=results;tournament_type=2;type=team;view=series |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== First T20I match wins ===

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Opponent !! colspan="2" | Home !! colspan="2" | Away / Neutral
|-
! Venue !!style="text-align:center"|Year !!style="text-align:center"|Venue !!style="text-align:center"|Year
|-
| {{cr|AFG|2013}} || [[Inderjit Singh Bindra Stadium]], [[Mohali]], India || [[Afghan cricket team in India in 2023-24|2024]] || [[Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium]], [[Gros Islet]], Saint Lucia || [[2010 ICC World Twenty20|2010]]
|-
| {{cr|AUS}} || [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || [[Australian cricket team in India in 2007–08|2007]] || [[Kingsmead cricket ground, Durban|Sahara Stadium, Kingsmead]], [[Durban]], South Africa || [[2007 ICC World Twenty20|2007]]
|-
| {{cr|BAN}} || [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || [[2016 ICC World Twenty20|2016]] || [[Trent Bridge]], [[Nottingham]], England || [[2009 ICC World Twenty20|2009]]
|-
| {{cr|ENG}} || [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || [[English cricket team in India in 2012–13|2012]] || [[Kingsmead cricket ground, Durban|Sahara Stadium, Kingsmead]], [[Durban]], South Africa || [[2007 ICC World Twenty20|2007]]
|-
| {{cr|HKG}} || rowspan=2 colspan=2 align=center|YTP || [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || [[2022 Asia Cup|2022]]
|-
| {{cr|IRE}} || [[Trent Bridge]], [[Nottingham]], England || [[2009 ICC World Twenty20|2009]]
|-
| {{cr|NAM}} || [[Arun Jaitley Stadium]], [[New Delhi]], India || [[2026 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2026]] || [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || [[2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2021]]
|-
| {{cr|NED}} || [[Narendra Modi Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India || [[2026 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2026]] || [[Sydney Cricket Ground]], [[Sydney]], Australia || [[2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2022]]
|-
| {{cr|NEP}} || colspan=2 align=center|YTP || [[Zhejiang University of Technology Cricket Field]], [[Hangzhou]], China || [[2022 Asian Games|2023]]
|-
| {{cr|NZ}} || [[Arun Jaitley Stadium]], [[New Delhi]], India || [[New Zealand cricket team in India in 2017–18|2017]] || [[Eden Park]], [[Auckland]], New Zealand || [[Indian cricket team in New Zealand in 2018–19|2019]]
|-
| {{cr|OMN}} || colspan=2 align=center|YTP || [[Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium]], [[Abu Dhabi]], UAE || [[2025 Asia Cup|2025]]
|-
| {{cr|PAK}} || [[Sardar Patel Stadium, Motera|Sardar Patel Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India || [[Pakistani cricket team in India in 2012–13|2012]] || [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || [[2007 ICC World Twenty20|2007]]
|-
| {{cr|SCO}} || colspan=2 align=center|YTP || [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], UAE || [[2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2021]]
|-
| {{cr|RSA}} || rowspan=2|[[Punjab Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Mohali]], India || [[South African cricket team in India in 2019–20|2019]] || [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || [[Indian cricket team in South Africa in 2006-07|2006]]
|-
| {{cr|SRI}} || [[Sri Lankan cricket team in India in 2009–10|2009]] || [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || [[Indian cricket team in Sri Lanka in 2008–09|2009]]
|-
| {{cr|UAE}} || colspan=2 align=center|YTP || [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh || [[2016 Asia Cup|2016]]
|-
| {{cr|USA}} || [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || [[2026 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2026]] || [[Nassau County International Cricket Stadium]], [[New York (state)|New York]], United States || [[2024 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2024]]
|-
| {{cr|WIN}} || [[Eden Gardens]], [[Kolkata]], India || [[West Indian cricket team in India in 2018–19|2018]] || [[Queen's Park Oval]], [[Port of Spain]], Trinidad and Tobago || [[Indian cricket team in West Indies in 2011|2011]]
|-
| {{cr|ZIM}} || [[M. A. Chidambaram Stadium]], [[Chennai]], India || [[2026 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2026]] || [[Harare Sports Club]], [[Harare]], Zimbabwe || [[Indian cricket team in Zimbabwe in 2010|2010]]
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 26 February 2026<ref>{{cite web |title=Records / India / T20I matches / T20I Records |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=start;result=1;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=team;view=results |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=8 February 2026}}</ref>
|}

=== Winning every match in a Tournament ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col |Tournament
! scope=col style="text-align:center"|Matches
! scope=col |Host
! scope=col style="text-align:center"|Season
|-
| Asia Cup || 5 || {{cr|Bangladesh}} || [[2016 Asia Cup|2016]]
|-
|World Cup
|8
|{{cr|USA}} and {{cr|West Indies}}
|[[2024 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2024]]
|- class="sortbottom"
|-
| Asia Cup || 7 || {{cr|UAE}} || [[2025 Asia Cup|2025]]
|-
| colspan="4" | Last updated: 29 September 2025<ref name="whitewash" />
|}

=== Winning every match in a series ===
In a bilateral series winning all matches is referred to as [[whitewash (sport)|whitewash]]. Only series with more than one match are considered. India have recorded 16 such series victories.<ref name="whitewash">{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/335433.html|title= Records – T20i – Team Records – Whitewashes |access-date=2 March 2022}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col |Opposition
! scope=col style="text-align:center"|Matches
! scope=col |Host
! scope=col style="text-align:center"|Season
|-
| {{cr|ZIM}} || 2 || {{cr|ZIM}} || 2010
|-
| {{cr|AUS}} || 3 || {{cr|AUS}} || 2016
|-
| {{cr|SRI}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2017
|-
| {{cr|IRE}} || 2 || {{cr|IRE}} || 2018
|-
| {{cr|WIN}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2018
|-
|{{cr|WIN}} || 3 || {{Flagicon|USA}} [[United States|USA]] / {{Flagicon|GUY}} [[Guyana]] || 2019
|-
| {{cr|SRI}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2020
|-
| {{cr|NZ}} || 5 || {{cr|NZ}} || 2020
|-
| {{cr|NZ}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2022
|-
| {{cr|WIN}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2022
|-
| {{cr|SRI}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2022
|-
| {{cr|IRE}} || 2 || {{cr|IRE}} || 2022
|-
| {{cr|IRE}} || 2 || {{cr|IRE}} || 2023
|-
| {{cr|AFG|2013}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2024
|-
| {{cr|SL}} || 3 || {{cr|SL}} || 2024
|-
| {{cr|BAN}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2024
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan="4" | Last updated: 12 October 2024<ref name="whitewash" />
|}

=== Losing every match in a series ===

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col |Opposition
! scope=col style="text-align:center"|Matches
! scope=col |Host
! scope=col style="text-align:center"|Season
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|NZ}} || rowspan=3|2 || {{cr|NZ}} || 2008/09
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|IND}} || 2012
|-
|{{cr|AUS}} || 2018/19
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last updated: 8 August 2022<ref name="whitewash" />
|}

===Team scoring records===

====Most runs in an innings====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Score
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
|scope=row style=text-align:center; |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|297/6}}
| {{cr|Bangladesh}}|| [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium]], [[Hyderabad]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|October|12}}
|-
|scope=row style=text-align:center; |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|283/1}}
|{{cr|South Africa}} || [[Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa ||{{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|November|15}}
|-
|scope=row style=text-align:center; |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|271/5}}
|{{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Greenfield International Stadium]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|January|31}}
|-
|scope=row style=text-align:center; |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|260/5}}
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|22}}
|-
|scope=row style=text-align:center; |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|256/4}}
| {{cr|Zimbabwe}}|| [[M. A. Chidambaram Stadium]], [[Chennai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|February|26}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 26 February 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest innings totals |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest_innings_totals.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

====Fewest runs in an innings====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Score
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|74}}
| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2008|February|1}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|79}}
| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Nagpur]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|15}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|81/8}}
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|July|29}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|92}}
| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[Barabati Stadium]], [[Cuttack]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2015|October|5}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|101}}
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|9}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 5 November 2021<ref name="India T20I Records – Lowest Totals">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Lowest innings totals |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest_innings_totals.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

====Most runs conceded in an innings====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Score
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|246/7}}
| {{cr|ENG}}|| [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|March|5}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|245/6}}
| {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[Central Broward Park]], [[Lauderhill]], United States || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|August|27}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|227/3}}
| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|4}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|225}}
| {{cr|NZ}} || [[Greenfield International Stadium]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|January|31}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|225/5}}
| {{cr|Australia}} || [[Assam Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|November|28}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 5 March 2026<ref name="India T20I Records – Highest Totals Conceded">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest Full innings totals |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/opposition/team-highest-innings-totals/india-6/twenty20-internationals-3 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

====Fewest runs conceded in an innings====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Score
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|57}}
| {{cr|UAE}}|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|September|10}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|66}}
| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Narendra Modi Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|February|1}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|70}}
| {{cr|Ireland}}|| [[Malahide Cricket Club Ground]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|June|29}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|74}}
| {{cr|RSA}}|| [[Barabati Stadium]], [[Cuttack]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|December|9}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|80}}
| {{cr|England}}|| [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|September|23}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 9 December 2025<ref name="India T20I Records – Lowest Totals Conceded">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Lowest Full innings totals |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest_innings_totals.html?class=3;id=6;type=opposition |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

====Most runs aggregate in a match====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Aggregate
! scope=col | Scores
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|499/14}}
| {{cr|IND}} (253/7) v {{cr|ENG}} (246/7) || [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|March|5}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|496/15}}
| {{cr|India}} (271/5) v {{cr|New Zealand}} (225/10) || [[Greenfield International Stadium]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|January|31}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|489/10}}
| {{cr|West Indies}} (245/6) v {{cr|India}} (244/4)|| [[Central Broward Park]], [[Lauderhill]], United States || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|August|27}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|461/13}}
| {{cr|India}} (297/6) v {{cr|Bangladesh}} (164/7)|| [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium]], [[Hyderabad]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|October|12}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|458/6}}
| {{cr|India}} (237/3) v {{cr|South Africa}} (221/3) || [[Assam Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|2}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 5 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest match aggregates |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest_match_aggregates.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=28 October 2022}}</ref>
|}

====Fewest runs aggregate in a match====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Aggregate
! scope=col | Scores
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|117/11}}
| {{cr|UAE}} (57/10) v {{cr|India}} (60/1)|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|September|10}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|128/11}}
| {{cr|India}} (67/5) v {{cr|New Zealand}} (61/6)|| [[Greenfield International Stadium]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|November|7}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|149/11}}
| {{cr|India}} (74) v {{cr|Australia}} (75/1)|| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2008|February|1}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|163/11}}
| {{cr|India}} (81/8) v {{cr|Sri Lanka}} (82/3)|| [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|July|29}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|163/10}}
| {{cr|United Arab Emirates}} (81/9) v {{cr|India}} (82/1)|| [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|3}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 10 September 2025<ref name="India T20I Records – Lowest Match Aggregate">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Lowest match aggregates |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest_match_aggregates.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

===Result records===
A T20I match is [[result (cricket)|won]] when one side has scored more [[run (cricket)|runs]] than the runs scored by the opposing side during their [[innings]]. If both sides have completed both their allocated innings and the side that fielded last has the higher aggregate of runs, it is known as a win by runs. This indicates the number of runs that they had scored more than the opposing side. If the side batting last wins the match, it is known as a win by [[Wicket#Dismissing a batsman|wickets]], indicating the number of wickets that were still to fall.<ref name="result">{{cite web |title=Law 16 – The Result |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the-result |publisher=[[Marylebone Cricket Club]] |access-date=29 December 2018 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229231840/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the-result|archive-date=29 December 2018}}</ref>

====Greatest win margins (by runs)====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 168 runs
| {{cr|NZL}}|| [[Narendra Modi Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|February|01}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 150 runs
| {{cr|ENG}} || [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|February|02}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 143 runs
| {{cr|IRE}}|| [[Malahide Cricket Club Ground]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|June|29}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 135 runs
| {{cr|RSA}}|| [[Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|November|15}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 133 runs
| {{cr|BAN}}|| [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium]], [[Hyderabad]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|October|12}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 02 February 2025<ref name="Largest victories">{{cite web |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/largest_margins.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |title=India Records – T20I – Largest Victories |access-date=9 August 2020 |work= ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>
|}

====Greatest win margins (by balls remaining)====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Balls remaining
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 93
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 9 wickets|| {{cr|UAE}} || rowspan=2|[[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|September|10}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 81
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 8 wickets|| {{cr|SCO}}|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|November|5}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 64
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 9 wickets|| {{cr|BAN}}|| [[Zhejiang University of Technology Cricket Field]], [[Hangzhou]], China|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|October|6}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 60
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 8 wickets|| {{cr|NZ}}|| [[Assam Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|January|25}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 59
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 9 wickets|| {{cr|UAE}}|| [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|3}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 25 January 2026<ref name="Largest victories" />
|}

====Greatest win margins (by wickets)====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 10 wickets
| rowspan=2|{{cr|ZIM}}|| rowspan=2|[[Harare Sports Club]], [[Harare]], Zimbabwe || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|June|20}}
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|July|13}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=7| 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=7| 9 wickets
| {{cr|SL}}|| [[ACA–VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|14}}
|-
| {{cr|UAE}}|| [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|3}}
|-
| {{cr|AUS}}|| [[JSCA International Stadium Complex]], [[Ranchi]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|October|7}}
|-
| {{cr|NAM}}|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|November|8}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|WIN}}|| [[Central Broward Park]], [[Lauderhill]], United States || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|August|12}}
|-
| {{cr|BAN}}|| [[Zhejiang University of Technology Cricket Field]], [[Hangzhou]], China || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|October|6}}
|-
| {{cr|UAE}}|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|September|10}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last updated: 10 September 2025<ref name="Largest victories"/>
|}

====Highest successful run chases====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Score
! scope=col | Target
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align="center" rowspan=2| 1
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | {{sort|1|209/8}}
! rowspan="2" align="center" | 209
| {{cr|Australia}} || [[ACA–VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|November|23}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | {{sort|1|209/3}}
| {{cr|New Zealand}} || [[Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh International Cricket Stadium]], [[Raipur]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|January|23}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|209/4}}
! align="center" | 208
| {{cr|West Indies}} || [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium]], [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|December|6}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|211/4}}
! align="center" | 207
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Inderjit Singh Bindra Stadium]], [[Mohali]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|December|12}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|204/4}}
! align="center" | 204
| {{cr|New Zealand}} || [[Eden Park]], [[Auckland]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2020|January|24}}
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 23 January 2026<ref name="India T20I Records – Highest successful run chases">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest successful run chases |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_fielding_first=2;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=target;result=1;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=team;view=innings |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=23 November 2023}}</ref>
|}

====Narrowest win margins (by runs)====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center rowspan=2 | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 1 Run
| {{cr|RSA}}|| [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|October|2}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|BAN}}|| [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|23}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 2 Runs
| {{cr|SL}}|| [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|January|3}}
|-
| {{cr|IRE}}|| [[Malahide Cricket Club Ground]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|August|18}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 3 Runs
| {{cr|ZIM}}|| [[Harare Sports Club]], [[Harare]], Zimbabwe || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|June|20}}
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 4 January 2023<ref name="Smallest victories">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Smallest victories |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/smallest_margins.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=28 October 2022}}</ref>
|}

====Narrowest win margins (by balls remaining)====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Balls remaining
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center rowspan=4| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=4| 0
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 7 wickets|| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[Sydney Cricket Ground]], [[Sydney]], Australia|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|January|31}}
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4 wickets|| {{cr|Bangladesh}}|| [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|March|18}}
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 6 wickets|| {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[M. A. Chidambaram Stadium]], [[Chennai]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|November|11}}
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4 wickets|| {{cr|Pakistan}}|| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|23}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=4 | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=4 | 1
| scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=3| 6 wickets|| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2006|December|1}}
|-
| {{cr|Australia}} || [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium]], [[Hyderabad]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|September|25}}
|-
| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Ekana Cricket Stadium]], [[Lucknow]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|January|29}}
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 2 wickets|| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[ACA–VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|November|23}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 23 November 2023<ref name="Smallest victories" />
|}

====Narrowest win margins (by wickets)====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 2 wickets
| {{cr|AUS}}|| [[ACA–VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|November|23}}
|-
| {{cr|ENG}}|| [[M.A. Chidambaram Stadium]], [[Chennai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|January|25}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 3 wickets
| {{cr|SL}}|| rowspan=2|[[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|February|10}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=3| 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=3| 4 wickets
| {{cr|BAN}} || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|March|18}}
|-
| {{cr|WIN}}|| [[Central Broward Park]], [[Lauderhill]], United States || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|August|3}}
|-
| {{cr|PAK}}|| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|23}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 25 January 2025<ref name="Smallest victories"/>
|}

====Greatest loss margins (by runs)====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 80 runs
| {{cr|NZL}}|| [[Wellington Regional Stadium]], [[Wellington]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|6}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 76 runs
| rowspan=2|{{cr|SA}}|| [[Narendra Modi Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|February|22}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 51 runs
| [[Maharaja Yadavindra Singh International Cricket Stadium]], [[New Chandigarh]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|December|11}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 50 runs
|{{cr|NZL}}|| [[ACA–VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|January|28}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 49 runs
| {{cr|AUS}}|| [[Kensington Oval]], [[Bridgetown]], Barbados || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2010|May|7}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|RSA}}|| [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|4}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 22 February 2026<ref name="Largest defeats">{{cite web |title=Records – India – Largest defeats |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/largest_margins.html?class=3;id=6;type=opposition |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

====Greatest loss margins (by balls remaining)====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Balls remaining
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 52
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 9 wickets|| rowspan=2|{{cr|Australia}}|| rowspan=2|[[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2008|February|1}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 40
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4 wickets|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|October|31}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 33
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 7 wickets|| {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|July|29}}
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 8 wickets|| {{cr|New Zealand}} || [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|October|31}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 31
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 9 wickets|| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|September|28}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 31 October 2025<ref name="Largest defeats" />
|}

====Greatest loss margins (by wickets)====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margins
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Most recent venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 10 wickets
||{{cr|Pakistan}}|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|October|24}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
||{{cr|England}}|| [[Adelaide Oval]], [[Adelaide]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|November|10}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=4| 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=4| 9 wickets
| rowspan=2|{{cr|Australia}}|| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2008|February|1}}
|-
|| [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|September|28}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[Sabina Park]], [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]], Jamaica || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|July|9}}
|-
| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|September|22}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 20 April 2023<ref name="Largest defeats"/>
|}

====Narrowest loss margins (by runs)====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 1 run
| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[M. A. Chidambaram Stadium]], [[Chennai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|September|11}}
|-
| {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[Central Broward Park]], [[Lauderhill]], United States || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|August|27}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 2 runs
| {{cr|Zimbabwe}}|| [[Harare Sports Club]], [[Harare]], Zimbabwe || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|June|18}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 3 runs
| rowspan=2|{{cr|England}}|| [[Lord's]], [[London]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|June|14}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
|| [[Edgbaston Cricket Ground]], [[Birmingham]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2014|September|7}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref name="Smallest defeats">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Smallest defeats |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/smallest_margins.html?class=3;id=6;type=opposition |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=1 September 2019}}</ref>
|}

====Narrowest loss margins (by balls remaining)====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Balls remaining
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center rowspan=5| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=5| 0
| scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2 | 5 wickets|| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Wellington Regional Stadium]], [[Wellington]], New Zealand|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|February|27}}
|-
|| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium]], [[Gros Islet]], Saint Lucia|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2010|May|11}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 6 wickets|| {{cr|England}}|| [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|December|22}}
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 3 wickets||rowspan=2|{{cr|Australia}}|| [[ACA–VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|24}}
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 5 wickets|| [[Assam Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|November|28}}
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 28 November 2023<ref name="Smallest defeats" />
|}

====Narrowest loss margins (by wickets)====

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 2 wickets
| {{cr|WIN}}|| [[Providence Stadium]], [[Georgetown, Guyana|Georgetown]], Guyana || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|August|6}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2|2
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 3 wickets
| {{cr|AUS}}|| [[ACA–VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|24}}
|-
| {{cr|RSA}}|| [[St George's Park Cricket Ground]], [[Gqeberha]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|November|10}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=4|4
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=4| 4 wickets
| {{cr|SL}}|| [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|July|28}}
|-
| {{cr|RSA}}|| [[Barabati Stadium]], [[Cuttack]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|June|12}}
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|AUS}}|| [[Inderjit Singh Bindra Stadium]], [[Mohali]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|September|20}}
|-
| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|October|31}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 31 October 2025<ref name="Smallest defeats"/>
|}

====Tied matches====
A [[Result (cricket)#Tie|tie]] can occur when the scores of both teams are equal at the conclusion of play, provided that the side batting last has completed their innings.<ref name="result"/>
There have been 44 [[List of tied Twenty20 Internationals|ties]] in T20Is history with India involved in 7 such games.<ref name="T20I results summary"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| scope=row | {{cr|PAK}} || [[Kingsmead Cricket Ground]], [[Durban]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2007|September|14}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| scope=row rowspan=3| {{cr|NZL}} || [[Seddon Park]], [[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2020|January|29}}
|-
|| [[Wellington Regional Stadium]], [[Wellington]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2020|January|31}}
|-
|| [[McLean Park]], [[Napier, New Zealand|Napier]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|November|22}}
|-
| scope=row | {{cr|AFG|2013}} || [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bengaluru]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|January|17}}
|-
| scope=row rowspan=2| {{cr|SL}} || [[Pallekele International Cricket Stadium]], [[Pallekele]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|July|30}}
|-
| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|September|26}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=3 | Last updated: 26 September 2025<ref name="Smallest defeats"/>
|}

== Batting records ==

=== Most career runs ===
A [[run (cricket)|run]] is the basic means of [[scoring (cricket)|scoring]] in cricket. A run is scored when the batsman hits the [[cricket ball|ball]] with his [[cricket bat|bat]] and with his partner runs the length of {{convert|22|yards|metres}} of the [[cricket pitch|pitch]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Law 18 – Scoring runs |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/scoring-runs |publisher=Marylebone Cricket Club |access-date=29 December 2018 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229232041/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/scoring-runs|archive-date=29 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most career runs |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/282827.html |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4,231
| [[Rohit Sharma]] || align=center | 159 || align=center | 151 || 2007–2024
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4,188
| [[Virat Kohli]] || align=center | 125 || align="center" | 117 || 2010–2024
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 3,272
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 113 || align="center" | 107 || 2021–2026
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 2,288
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 138 || align="center" | 109 || 2016–2026
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 2,265
| [[KL Rahul]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 72 || align=center | 68 || 2016–2022
|-
| align="center" |6
! style="text-align: center;" |1,759
| [[Shikhar Dhawan]] || align="center" |68 || align="center" |66 || 2011–2021
|-
| align="center" |7
! style="text-align: center;" |1,617
|[[MS Dhoni]] || align="center" |98 || align="center" |85 || 2006–2019
|-
| align="center" |8
! style="text-align: center;" |1,605
|[[Suresh Raina]] || align="center" |78 || align="center" |66 || 2006–2018
|-
| align="center" |9
! style="text-align: center;" |1,438
|[[Abhishek Sharma]]{{dagger}}|| align="center" |46 || align="center" |45 || 2024–2026
|-
| align="center" |10
! style="text-align: center;" |1,399
|[[Sanju Samson]]{{dagger}}|| align="center" |62 || align="center" |54 || 2015–2026
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="6" | Last Updated: 08 March 2026<ref name="India T20I Records – Most career runs">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most career runs |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=23 October 2022}}</ref>
|}

=== Fastest runs getter ===

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! scope="col" style="text-align:center;"|Runs
! scope="col" style="text-align:center;"|Batsman
! scope="col" style="text-align:center;"|Innings
! scope="col" style="text-align:center;"|Record Date
! scope="col" |Reference
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 1,000
|rowspan=2|[[Virat Kohli]]
|27
|2 October 2015
|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/925247.html |title=Records. Twenty20 Internationals. Batting records. Fastest to 1000 runs |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=25 October 2022}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 2,000
|rowspan=2|56
|3 July 2018
|rowspan=2|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/1213211.html |title=Records. Twenty20 Internationals. Batting records. Fastest to 2000 runs |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=25 October 2022}}</ref>
|-
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]
|12 December 2023
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 3,000
|rowspan=2| [[Virat Kohli]]
|81
|14 March 2021
|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/1335852.html |title=Records. Twenty20 Internationals. Batting records. Fastest to 3000 runs |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=25 October 2022}}</ref>
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4,000
|107
|10 November 2022
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=HowSTAT! T20 Internationals – Fastest Batsmen to 2000 Runs |url=http://howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Batting/BattingFastestXRuns_T20.asp |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240507200940/http://howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Batting/BattingFastestXRuns_T20.asp |archive-date=2024-05-07 |access-date=2025-12-30 |website=www.howstat.com |language=en}}</ref>
|}

=== Most runs in each batting position ===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style=text-align:center;
|-
! scope="col" |Batting position
! scope="col" |Batsman
! scope="col" |Innings
! scope="col" |Runs
! scope="col" |Average
! scope="col" |Career Span
! scope="col" |Ref
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Opener
| [[Rohit Sharma]] || 124 || 3,750 || 32.60 || 2009–2024
| <ref>{{Cite web|title=Batting records {{!}} Twenty20 Internationals {{!}} Cricinfo Statsguru {{!}} ESPNcricinfo.com|url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=2;batting_positionmin1=1;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;team=6;template=results;type=batting|website=Cricinfo|access-date=2026-01-31}}</ref>
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 3
| [[Virat Kohli]] || 80 || 3,076 || 53.96 || 2011–2024
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=3;batting_positionmin1=3;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 3{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 4
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || 63 || 2,122 || 40.80 || 2021–2026
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=4;batting_positionmin1=4;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 4{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 5
| rowspan=2|[[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || 52 || 1,258 || 32.25 || 2016–2026
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=5;batting_positionmin1=5;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 5{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 6
| 32 || 675 || 29.34 || 2016–2026
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=6;batting_positionmin1=6;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 6{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 7
| rowspan=2|[[Axar Patel]]{{dagger}} || 28 || 352 || 23.46 || 2015–2025
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=7;batting_positionmin1=7;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 7{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 8
| 15 || 111 || 11.10 || 2015–2026
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=8;batting_positionmin1=8;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 8{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 9
| [[Ravichandran Ashwin]] || 4 || 57 || 28.50 || 2012–2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=9;batting_positionmin1=9;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 9{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2|Number 10
| [[Umesh Yadav]] || 1 || rowspan=2|20 || – || 2012–2022
| rowspan=2|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=10;batting_positionmin1=10;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 10{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
| [[S. Sreesanth]] || 3 || 20.00 || 2007–2008
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 11
| [[Mohammed Siraj]]{{dagger}} || 2 || 12 || – || 2017–2024
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=11;batting_positionmin1=11;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 11{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 5 March 2026
|}

=== Most runs against each team ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope="col" |Opposition
! scope="col" |Runs
! scope="col" |Batsman
! scope="col" |Matches
! scope="col" |Innings
! scope="col" |Career Span
! scope="col" |Ref
|-
| {{cr|AFG|2013}}
! 225
| rowspan=2|{{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || align=center| 6 || align=center| 5 || 2012–2024 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=40;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against Afghanistan |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| {{cr|AUS}}
! 794
| align=center| 23 || align=center| 22 || 2012–2024 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=2;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against Australia |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| {{cr|BAN}}
! 477
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || align=center| 13 || align=center| 13 || 2009–2024 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=25;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against Bangladesh |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|ENG}}
! 648
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || align=center| 21 || align=center| 21 || 2011–2024 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=1;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against England |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|HK}}
! 68
| {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}}{{dagger}} || align=center|1 || align=center|1 || 2022–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=19;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against Hong Kong |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|IRE}}
! 201
|{{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || align=center|4 || align=center|4 || 2009–2024 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=29;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against Ireland |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|NAM}}
! 61
|[[Ishan Kishan]]†
| align="center" | 1 || align=center| 1 || 2026–2026 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=28;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against Namibia |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|NEP}}
! 100
| {{sortname|Yashasvi|Jaiswal}}{{dagger}} || align=center|1 || align=center|1 || 2023–2023 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=32;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against Nepal |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2023-10-03}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|NED}}
! 85
| rowspan=2|{{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}}{{dagger}} || align=center|2 || align=center|2 || 2022–2026 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=15;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against Netherlands |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|NZ}}
! 526
| align="center" | 14 || align="center" | 14 || 2021–2026 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=5;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against New Zealand |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|OMA}}
! 56
| {{sortname|Sanju|Samson}} || align=center| 1 || align=center| 1 || 2025–2025 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=37;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against Oman |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|PAK}}
! 492
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || align=center| 11 || align=center| 11 || 2012–2024 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=7;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against Pakistan |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|SCO}}
! 50
| {{sortname|KL|Rahul}}{{dagger}} || align=center| 1 || align=center| 1 || 2021–2021 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=30;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against Scotland |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|SL}}
! 411
| rowspan="2" |{{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}}
| align="center" | 19 || align="center" | 17 || 2009–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=8;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against Sri Lanka |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|UAE}}
! 39
| align=center| 1 || align=center| 1 || 2016–2016 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=27;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against United Arab Emirates |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|SA}}
! 497
|[[Tilak Varma]]†|| align="center" | 11 || align="center" | 11 || 2023–2026 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=3;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against South Africa |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|USA}}
! 134
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 2 || align="center" | 2 || 2024–2026 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=11;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against United States of America |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| {{cr|WIN}}
! 693
| [[Rohit Sharma]] || align=center| 22 || align=center| 22 || 2009–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=4;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against West Indies |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|ZIM}}
! 179
| [[Abhishek Sharma]]{{dagger}} || align="center" | 6 || align="center" | 5 || 2024–2026 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=9;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Against Zimbabwe |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=7 | Last updated: 26 February 2026
|}

=== Highest individual score ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 135
|[[Abhishek Sharma]] || {{cr|ENG}} || [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|February|02}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 126*
| [[Shubman Gill]] || {{cr|NZL}}|| [[Narendra Modi Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|February|01}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 123*
| [[Ruturaj Gaikwad]] || {{cr|AUS}}|| [[Assam Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|November|28}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 122*
| [[Virat Kohli]] || rowspan=2|{{cr|AFG}}|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|September|08}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 121*
|[[Rohit Sharma]] || [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|January|17}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 02 February 2025<ref name="India T20I Records – Highest individual score">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest individual score |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Highest individual score in each batting position ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" |Batting position
! scope="col" |Batsman
! scope="col" |Score
! scope="col" |Opposition
! scope="col" |Ground
! scope="col" |Date
! scope="col" |Ref
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Opener
| [[Abhishek Sharma]] || 135 || {{cr|ENG}} || [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || 2 February 2025
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=2;batting_positionmin1=1;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Opener |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 3
| [[Tilak Varma]] || 120* || {{cr|SA}} || [[Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || 15 November 2024
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=3;batting_positionmin1=3;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 3{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 4
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]] || 117 || {{cr|ENG}} || [[Trent Bridge]], [[Nottingham]], England || 10 July 2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=4;batting_positionmin1=4;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 4{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 5
| [[Manish Pandey]] || 79* || {{cr|SA}} || [[Centurion Park]], [[Centurion, South Africa|Centurion]], South Africa || 21 February 2018
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=5;batting_positionmin1=5;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 5{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 6
| [[Rinku Singh (cricketer)|Rinku Singh]] || 69* || {{cr|AFG|2013}} || [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || 17 January 2024
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=6;batting_positionmin1=6;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 6{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 7
| [[Axar Patel]] || 65 || {{cr|SL}} || [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || 5 January 2023
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=7;batting_positionmin1=7;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 7{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| Number 8
| [[Krunal Pandya]] || 26* || {{cr|NZ}} || [[Seddon Park]], [[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]], New Zealand || 10 February 2019
| rowspan=2|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=8;batting_positionmin1=8;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 8{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
| [[Shivam Mavi]] || 26 || rowspan=2|{{cr|SL}} || [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || 5 January 2023
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 9
| [[Irfan Pathan]] || 33* || [[R.Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || 10 February 2009
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=9;batting_positionmin1=9;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 9{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 10
| [[Umesh Yadav]] || 20* || {{cr|SA}} || [[Holkar Cricket Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || 4 October 2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=10;batting_positionmin1=10;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 10{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 11
| [[Mohammed Siraj]] || 7* || {{cr|PAK}} || [[Nassau County International Cricket Stadium]], [[New York (state)|New York]], United States || 9 June 2024
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=11;batting_positionmin1=11;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics. Most Runs. Number 11{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 02 February 2025
|}

=== Highest score against each opponent ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Opposition !! Player !! Score !! Date
|-
| {{cr|AFG|2013}} ||[[Virat Kohli]]|| 122* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|September|8}}
|-
| {{cr|AUS}} || [[Ruturaj Gaikwad]] || 123* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|November|28}}
|-
| {{cr|BAN}} || [[Sanju Samson]] || 111 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|October|12}}
|-
| {{cr|ENG}} || [[Abhishek Sharma]] || 135 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|February|02}}
|-
| {{cr|HKG}} || [[Suryakumar Yadav]] || 68* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|August|31}}
|-
| {{cr|IRE}} || [[Deepak Hooda]] || 104 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|June|28}}
|-
| {{cr|NAM}} || [[Ishan Kishan]] || 61 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|February|12}}
|-
| {{cr|NEP}} || [[Yashasvi Jaiswal]] || 100 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|October|3}}
|-
| {{cr|NED}} || [[Shivam Dube]] || 66 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|February|18}}
|-
| {{cr|NZL}} || [[Shubman Gill]] || 126* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|February|01}}
|-
| {{cr|OMN}} || [[Sanju Samson]] || 56 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|September|19}}
|-
| {{cr|PAK}} || [[Virat Kohli]] || 82* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|23}}
|-
| {{cr|SCO}} || [[K. L. Rahul]] || 50 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|November|5}}
|-
| {{cr|RSA}} || [[Tilak Varma]] || 120* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|November|15}}
|-
| {{cr|SRI}} || rowspan=2|[[Rohit Sharma]] || 118 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|22}}
|-
| {{cr|UAE}} || 39 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|3}}
|-
| {{cr|USA}} || [[Suryakumar Yadav]] || 84* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|February|07}}
|-
| {{cr|WIN}} || [[Rohit Sharma]] || 111* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|November|6}}
|-
| {{cr|ZIM}} || [[Abhishek Sharma]] || 100 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|July |07}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 18 February 2026<ref name="India T20I Records – Highest individual score"/>
|}

=== Highest career average ===
A batsman's [[batting average (cricket)|batting average]] is the total number of runs they have scored divided by the number of times they have been dismissed.<ref>{{cite book|first=M. A.|last=Pervez |title=A Dictionary of Cricket |publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2001|page=7|isbn=978-81-7370-184-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwYsHe-F-IUC&pg=PA7}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Average
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Not out
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align="center" | 1
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 48.69
| [[Virat Kohli]]|| align="center" | 117 || align="center" | 31 || align="center" | 4,188 || 2010–2024
|-
| align="center" | 2
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 44.83
| [[Tilak Varma]]{{dagger}}|| align="center" | 46 || align="center" | 15 || align="center" | 1,390 || 2023–2026
|-
| align="center" | 3
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 44.31
| [[Manish Pandey]]|| align="center" | 33 || align="center" | 17 || align="center" | 709 || 2015–2020
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 39.56
| [[Ruturaj Gaikwad]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 20 || align=center | 4 || align=center | 633 || 2021–2024
|-
| align="center" | 5
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 39.11
| [[Rinku Singh (cricketer)|Rinku Singh]]† || align="center" | 33 || align="center" | 16 || align="center" | 665 || 2023–2026
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Qualification: 20 innings. Last Updated: 08 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest career average |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/highest_career_batting_average.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=29 September 2025}}</ref>
|}

=== Highest average in each batting position ===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! scope="col" |Batting position
! scope="col" |Batsman
! scope="col" |Innings
! scope="col" |Runs
! scope="col" |Average
! scope="col" |Career Span
! scope="col" |Ref
|-
!scope="row" | Opener
| rowspan="2" | [[Virat Kohli]]|| 17 || 551
! 36.73
| 2011–2024
|<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=2;batting_positionmin1=1;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;qualmin1=10;qualval1=innings;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Highest Average. Opener |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 3
| 80 || 3,076
! 53.96
| 2023–2026
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=3;batting_positionmin1=3;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;qualmin1=10;qualval1=innings;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Highest Average. Number 3 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 4
|[[Tilak Varma]]†
| 14 || 490
! 54.44
| 2023–2025
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=4;batting_positionmin1=4;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advced;orderby=batting_average;qualmin1=10;qualval1=innings;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Highest Average. Number 4 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 5
| [[Manish Pandey]] || 15 || 357
! 51.00
| 2016–2020
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=5;batting_positionmin1=5;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;qualmin1=10;qualval1=innings;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Highest Average. Number 5 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 6
| [[Rinku Singh (cricketer)|Rinku Singh]]† || 11 || 195
! 65.00
| 2023–2026
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=6;batting_positionmin1=6;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;qualmin1=10;qualval1=innings;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Highest Average. Number 6 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 7
| [[MS Dhoni]] || 10 || 132
! 44.00
| 2011–2018
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=7;batting_positionmin1=7;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;qualmin1=10;qualval1=innings;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Highest Average. Number 7 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 8
| [[Ravichandran Ashwin]] || 13 || 110
! 22.00
| 2011–2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=8;batting_positionmin1=8;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;qualmin1=10;qualval1=innings;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Highest Average. Number 8 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 9
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] || 11 || 28
! 5.60
| 2012–2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=9;batting_positionmin1=9;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;qualmin1=10;qualval1=innings;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Highest Average. Number 9 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 10
| [[S. Sreesanth]] || 3 || 20
! 20.00
| 2007–2008
|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=10;batting_positionmin1=10;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Highest Average. Number 10 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 11
| [[Mohammed Siraj]]{{dagger}} || 2 || 12
! 12.00
| 2017–2024
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=11;batting_positionmin1=11;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics. Highest Average. Number 11 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-class="sortbottom"
| colspan="7" style="text-align:left;" |''Qualification: Minimum 10 innings batted at position.'' Last updated: 12 February 2026
|}

=== Most half-centuries ===
A half-century is a score of between 50 and 99 runs. Statistically, once a batsman's score reaches 100, it is no longer considered a half-century but a century.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Half centuries
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 38
| [[Virat Kohli]] || align=center | 117 || 2010–2024
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 32
| [[Rohit Sharma]] || align=center | 151 || 2007–2024
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 25
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align="center" | 107 || 2021–2026
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 22
| [[KL Rahul]]{{dagger}} || align="center" |68 || 2016–2022
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 11
| [[Shikhar Dhawan]] || align=center | 66 || 2011–2021
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan="5" | Last Updated: 15 February 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most half-centuries |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_fifties_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

=== Most centuries ===
A [[century (cricket)|century]] is a score of 100 or more runs in a single innings.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Centuries
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Period
|- bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 5
| [[Rohit Sharma]] || align=center | 151 || 2007–2024
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 107 || 2021–2026
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 3
| [[Sanju Samson]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 54 || 2015–2026
|-
| align=center rowspan=3| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=3| 2
| [[Abhishek Sharma]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 45 || 2024–2026
|-
| [[Tilak Varma]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 46 || 2023–2026
|-
| [[KL Rahul]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 68 || 2016–2022
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan="5" | Last Updated: 18 February 2026<ref name="India T20I Records – Most centuries">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most centuries |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=hundreds;team=6;template=results;type=batting |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

=== Most Sixes ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Sixes
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 205
| [[Rohit Sharma]] || align=center | 151 || 2007–2024
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 179
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 107 || 2021–2026
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 126
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 109 || 2016–2026
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 124
| [[Virat Kohli]] || align=center | 117 || 2010–2024
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 99
| [[KL Rahul]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 68 || 2016–2022
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan="5" | Last Updated: 08 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most sixes |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=sixes;team=6;template=results;type=batting |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

=== Most Fours ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Fours
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 383
| [[Rohit Sharma]] || align=center | 151 || 2007–2024
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 369
| [[Virat Kohli]] || align=center | 117 || 2010–2024
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 297
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 107 || 2021–2026
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 191
| [[Shikhar Dhawan]] || align=center | 66 || 2011–2021
|-
| [[KL Rahul]] || align=center | 68 || 2016–2022
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan="5" | Last Updated: 08 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most fours |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=fours;team=6;template=results;type=batting |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

=== Highest strike rates ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Strike rate
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Balls Faced
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 190.46
| {{sortname|Abhishek|Sharma}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 1,438 || align="center" | 755 || 2024–2026
|-
| align="center" | 2
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 164.31
| {{sortname|Yashasvi|Jaiswal}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" | 723 || align="center" | 440 || 2023–2024
|-
| align="center" | 3
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 162.94
| {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" | 3,272 || align="center" | 2,008 || 2021–2026
|-
| align="center" | 4
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 156.83
| {{sortname|Sanju|Samson}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" | 1,399 || align="center" | 892 || 2015–2026
|-
| align="center" | 5
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 155.73
| {{sortname|Rinku|Singh|dab=cricketer}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" | 665 || align="center" | 427 || 2023–2026
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Qualification= 250 balls faced. Last updated: 08 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest strike rate |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/highest_career_strike_rate.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

=== Highest strike rates in an inning ===
[[Yuvraj Singh]] during his innings of 58 of 18 balls which included [[Boundary (cricket)#Six sixes in an over|six sixes]] in an over off [[Stuart Broad]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/content/records/305877.html |title=Twenty20 matches-Fastest fifties |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=20 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/content/records/284095.html |title=One-Day Internationals-Fastest fifties |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=20 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/content/records/284096.html |title=Test matches-Fastest fifties |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=20 December 2010}}</ref> and Dinesh Karthik with his innings of 29* off 8 balls against Bangladesh in the final of the [[2018 Nidahas Trophy]] hold the top position for an India player in this list.<ref name="Highest Strike Rate in an inning">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Highest Strike Rate in an Inning |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/284190.html |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Strike rate
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Balls Faced
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| rowspan="2" align="center" | 1
! rowspan="2" scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 362.50
| {{sortname|Yuvraj|Singh}} || align="center" | 58 || align="center" | 16 || {{cr|England}} || [[Kingsmead cricket ground, Durban|Sahara Stadium, Kingsmead]], [[Durban]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2007|September|19}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{sortname|Dinesh|Karthik}} || align=center | 29* || align=center | 8 || {{cr|Bangladesh}} || [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|March|18}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 355.55
| {{sortname|Hardik|Pandya}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 32* || rowspan="2" align="center" | 9 || {{cr|Ireland}} || [[Malahide Cricket Club Ground]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|June|29}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 344.44
| [[Rinku Singh (cricketer)|Rinku Singh]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 31* ||{{cr|Australia}} || [[Greenfield International Stadium]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|November|26}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 340.00
| [[Abhishek Sharma]]{{dagger}} || align="center" | 68* || align=center | 20 ||{{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Assam Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|January|25}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=8 | Last Updated: 25 January 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest strike rate in an Inning |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/highest_strike_rate_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Most runs in a calendar year ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Year
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 1,164
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]† || align="center" | 31 || align=center| 31 || {{sort|2022|2022}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 859
| {{sortname|Abhishek|Sharma}}† || align="center" | 21 || align=center | 21 || {{sort|2025|2025}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 781
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || align=center | 20 || align=center | 20 || {{sort|2022|2022}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 733
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]† || align="center" | 18 || align=center | 17 || {{sort|2023|2023}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 689
| {{sortname|Shikhar|Dhawan}} || align=center | 18 || align=center | 17 || {{sort|2018|2018}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 19 December 2025<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most runs in a year |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=5;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=year |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Most runs in a tournament ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Series
|-
| align="center" |1
! style="text-align: center;" |321
| [[Sanju Samson]]{{dagger}} || align="center" |5 || align="center" |5 || {{sort|2026|[[2026 Men's T20 World Cup]]}}
|-
| align="center" | 2
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 319
| [[Virat Kohli]]|| align="center" | 6|| align="center" | 6 || {{sort|2014|[[2014 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
| align="center" |3
! style="text-align: center;" |317
| [[Ishan Kishan]]{{dagger}} || align="center" |9 || align="center" |9 || {{sort|2026|[[2026 Men's T20 World Cup]]}}
|-
| align="center" | 4
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 314
| [[Abhishek Sharma]]{{dagger}} || align="center" | 7 || align="center" | 7 || {{sort|2025|[[2025 Asia Cup]]}}
|-
| align="center" | 5
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 296
| [[Virat Kohli]]|| align="center" | 6|| align="center" | 6|| {{sort|2022|[[2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup]]}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most runs in a series |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_series.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Most ducks ===
A [[duck (cricket)|duck]] refers to a batsman being dismissed without scoring a run.<ref name="glossary">{{cite news |first=Martin|last=Williamson |title=A glossary of cricket terms |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/239756.html |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Ducks
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 12
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || align=center | 151 || 2007–2024
|-
| rowspan="3" align="center" | 2
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 7
| {{sortname|Sanju|Samson}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 54 || 2015–2026
|-
| {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" | 107 || 2021–2026
|-
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || align=center | 117 || 2010–2024
|-
| align="center" | 5
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 6
| {{sortname|Abhishek|Sharma}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" |45 || 2024–2026
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan="5" | Last Updated: 08 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most ducks |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_ducks_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

==Bowling records==

=== Most career wickets ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align="center" | 1
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 127
| {{sortname|Arshdeep|Singh}}{{dagger}} || align="center" | 84 || align="center" | 83 || 2022–2026
|-
| align="center" | 2
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 121
| {{sortname|Jasprit|Bumrah}}{{dagger}} || align="center" | 95 || align="center" | 92 || 2016–2026
|-
| align="center" | 3
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 114
| {{sortname|Hardik|Pandya}}{{dagger}} || align="center" | 138 || align="center" | 125 || 2016–2026
|-
| align="center" |4
! style="text-align: center;" |97
| {{sortname|Axar|Patel}}{{dagger}} || align="center" |94 || align="center" |88 || 2015–2026
|-
| align="center" | 5
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 96
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}} || align="center" | 80 || align="center" | 79 || 2016–2023
|-
| align="center" | 6
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 95
| {{sortname|Kuldeep|Yadav}}{{dagger}} || align="center" | 54 || align="center" | 52 || 2017–2026
|-
| align="center" |7
! style="text-align: center;" |90
| {{sortname|Bhuvneshwar|Kumar}} || align="center" |87 || align="center" |86 || 2012–2022
|-
| align="center" |8
! style="text-align: center;" |73
| {{sortname|Varun|Chakravarthy}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" |45 || align="center" |43 || 2021–2026
|-
| align="center" |9
! style="text-align: center;" |72
| {{sortname|Ravichandran|Ashwin}} || align="center" |65 || align="center" |65 || 2010–2022
|-
| align="center" |10
! style="text-align: center;" |64
| {{sortname|Ravi|Bishnoi}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" |44 || align="center" |44 || 2022–2026
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="6" | Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref name="India T20I Records – Most career wickets">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Bowling Most Wickets Career |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/team/bowling-most-wickets-career/india-6/twenty20-internationals-3 |access-date=20 September 2025 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]]}}</ref>
|}

=== Most wickets against each team ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" |Opposition
! scope="col" |Wickets
! scope="col" |Bowler
! scope="col" |Matches
! scope="col" |Innings
! scope="col" |Span
! scope="col" |Ref
|-
| {{cr|AFG|2013}}
! 8
| [[Arshdeep Singh]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 5 || align=center| 5 || 2022–2024 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=40;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against Afghanistan |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|AUS}}
! 20
| [[Jasprit Bumrah]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 18 || align=center| 17 || 2016–2025 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=2;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against Australia |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|BAN}}
! 10
| [[Washington Sundar]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 10 || align=center| 10 || 2018–2024 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=25;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against Bangladesh |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| |{{cr|ENG}}
! 21
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 21 || align=center| 20 || 2017–2026 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=1;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against Bangladesh |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=4|{{cr|HK}}
! rowspan=4| 1
| [[Ravindra Jadeja]] || align=center rowspan=4|1 || align=center rowspan=4|1 || rowspan=4|2022–2022 || rowspan=4|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=19;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against Hong Kong |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]{{dagger}}
|-
| [[Arshdeep Singh]]{{dagger}}
|-
| [[Avesh Khan]]{{dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|IRE}}
! 8
| [[Jasprit Bumrah]]{{dagger}} || align=center|4 || align=center|4 || 2018–2024 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=29;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against Ireland |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=4|{{cr|NAM}}
! rowspan=4| 3
| [[Ravindra Jadeja]] || align=center rowspan=3| 1 || align=center rowspan=3| 1 || rowspan=2|2021–2021 || rowspan=4|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=28;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wicket. Against Namibia |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| [[Ravichandran Ashwin]]{{dagger}}
|-
| [[Varun Chakravarthy]]{{dagger}} || 2026–2026
|-
| [[Jasprit Bumrah]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 2 || align=center | 2 || 2021–2026
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|NEP}}
! rowspan=2| 3
| [[Ravi Bishnoi]]{{dagger}} || align=center rowspan=2|1 || align=center rowspan=2|1 || rowspan=2|2023–2023 || rowspan=2|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=15;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against Nepal |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2023-10-03}}</ref>
|-
| [[Avesh Khan]]{{dagger}}
|-
|{{cr|NED}}
! 3
| [[Varun Chakravarthy]]{{dagger}} || align=center |1 || align=center |1 || 2026–2026 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=15;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against Netherlands |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|NZ}}
! 17
| [[Jasprit Bumrah]]{{dagger}} || align="center" | 15 || align="center" | 15 || 2016–2026 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=5;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against New Zealand |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=4|{{cr|OMN}}
! rowspan=4| 1
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || align=center rowspan=4|1 || align=center rowspan=4|1 || rowspan=4|2025–2025 || rowspan=4|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=37;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against Oman |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2025-09-19}}</ref>
|-
| [[Harshit Rana]]{{dagger}}
|-
| [[Kuldeep Yadav]]{{dagger}}
|-
| [[Arshdeep Singh]]{{dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|PAK}}
! 17
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 10 || align="center" | 9 || 2016–2026 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=7;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against Pakistan |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|SCO}}
! rowspan=2| 3
| [[Mohammad Shami]]{{dagger}} || align=center rowspan=2| 1 || align=center rowspan=2| 1 || rowspan=2|2021–2021 || rowspan=2|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=30;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against Scotland |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| [[Ravindra Jadeja]]
|-
| {{cr|RSA}}
! 25
| [[Arshdeep Singh]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 15 || align="center" | 15 || 2022–2026 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=3;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against South Africa |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|SL}}
! 23
| [[Yuzvendra Chahal]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 13 || align=center| 13 || 2017–2023 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=8;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against Sri Lanka |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|UAE}}
! 4
| [[Kuldeep Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 1 || align=center| 1 || 2025–2025 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=27;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against United Arab Emirates |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|USA}}
! 6
| [[Arshdeep Singh]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 2 || align="center" | 2 || 2024–2026 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=11;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against United States of America |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|WIN}}
! 17
| [[Kuldeep Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 9 || align=center| 9 || 2017–2023 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=4;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against West Indies |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=3|{{cr|ZIM}}
! rowspan=3|8
| [[Mukesh Kumar (cricketer)|Mukesh Kumar]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 3 || align=center| 3 || 2024–2024 || rowspan=3|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=9;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics. Most Wickets. Against Zimbabwe |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| [[Washington Sundar]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 5 || align=center| 5 || 2024–2024
|-
| [[Axar Patel]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 7 || align=center| 7 || 2015–2026
|-
| colspan=7 | Last updated: 8 March 2026
|}

=== Best figures in an innings ===
[[Bowling analysis|Bowling figures]] refers to the number of the wickets a bowler has taken and the number of runs conceded.<ref>{{cite web |title=Definition: bowling analysis |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bowling%20analysis |work=[[Merriam-Webster]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=3 December 2017 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904012227/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bowling%20analysis|archive-date=4 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Best bowling figures in an innings |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283204.html |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Figures
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|6/7}}
| {{sortname|Deepak|Chahar}} || {{cr|Bangladesh}}|| [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Nagpur]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|November|10}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|6/25}}
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}} || {{cr|England}}|| [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|February|1}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|5/4}}
| {{sortname|Bhuvneshwar|Kumar}} || {{cr|Afghanistan}}|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|September|08}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| {{sort|3|5/17}}
| {{sortname|Kuldeep|Yadav}} ||rowspan=2|{{cr|South Africa}}|| [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|December|14}}
|-
| {{sortname|Varun|Chakravarthy}} || [[St George's Park Cricket Ground]], [[Gqeberha]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|November|10}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 10 November 2024<ref name="Best Bowling Figures">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Best bowling figures in an innings |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/best_figures_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Best figures in an innings – progression of record ===

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Figures
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
! 2/10
| {{sortname|Ajit|Agarkar}}|| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2006|December|1}}
|-
! 3/37
| {{sortname|Irfan|Pathan}}|| {{cr|England}}|| rowspan=2|[[Kingsmead Cricket Ground]], [[Durban]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2007|September|19}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
! 4/13
| {{sortname|R. P.|Singh}}|| {{cr|South Africa}}|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2007|September|20}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
! 4/8
| {{sortname|Ravichandran|Ashwin}}|| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[ACA-VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|14}}
|-
! 6/25
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}}|| {{cr|England}}|| [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|February|1}}
|-
! 6/7
| {{sortname|Deepak|Chahar}}|| {{cr|Bangladesh}}|| [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Nagpur]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|November|10}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref name="Best Bowling Figures"/>
|}

=== Best Bowling Figure against each opponent ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Opposition !! Player !! Figures !! Date
|-
| {{cr|AFG|2013}} || [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] || 5/4 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|September|8}}
|-
| {{cr|AUS}} || [[Ravichandran Ashwin]] ||4/11 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2014|March|30}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|BAN}} || [[Deepak Chahar]] ||6/7 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|November|10}}
|-
| {{cr|ENG}} || [[Yuzvendra Chahal]] ||6/25 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|February|1}}
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|HKG}} || [[Ravindra Jadeja]] || rowspan=2|1/15 || rowspan=2|{{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|August|31}}
|-
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]
|-
| {{cr|IRE}} || [[Zaheer Khan]] ||4/19 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|June|10}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|NAM}} || [[Ravindra Jadeja]] ||3/16 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|November|8}}
|-
| {{cr|NEP}} || [[Ravi Bishnoi]] || 3/24 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|October|3}}
|-
| {{cr|NED}} || [[Varun Chakravarthy]] || 3/14 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|February|18}}
|-
| {{cr|NZ}} || [[Arshdeep Singh]]|| 5/51 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|January|31}}
|-
| {{cr|OMN}} || [[Kuldeep Yadav]] || 1/23 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|September|19}}
|-
| {{cr|PAK}} || [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] || 4/26 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|August|28}}
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|SCO}} || [[Ravindra Jadeja]] || rowspan=2|3/15 || rowspan=2|{{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|November|5}}
|-
| [[Mohammad Shami]]
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|RSA}} || [[Kuldeep Yadav]] || rowspan=2|5/17 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|December|14}}
|-
| [[Varun Chakravarthy]] || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|November|10}}
|-
| {{cr|SL}} || [[Ravichandran Ashwin]] ||4/8 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|14}}
|-
| {{cr|UAE}} || [[Kuldeep Yadav]] || 4/7 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|September|10}}
|-
| {{cr|USA}} || [[Arshdeep Singh]] || 4/9 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|June|12}}
|-
| {{cr|WIN}} || [[Ravi Bishnoi]] ||4/16 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|August|7}}
|-
| {{cr|ZIM}} || [[Barinder Sran]] ||4/10 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|June|20}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan="4" | ''Last updated: 18 February 2026''<ref name="Best Bowling Figures" />
|}

=== Best career average ===
A bowler's [[bowling average]] is the total number of runs they have conceded divided by the number of wickets they have taken.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Average
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Overs
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 13.74
| {{sortname|Kuldeep|Yadav}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 95 || align="center" | 1,306 || align="center" | 187.5 || 2017–2026
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 16.61
| {{sortname|Varun|Chakravarthy}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 73 || align="center" | 1,213 || align="center" | 160.3 || 2021–2026
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 18.08
| {{sortname|Jasprit|Bumrah}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 121 || align="center" | 2,188 || align="center" | 335.4 || 2016–2026
|-
| align="center" | 4
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 19.51
| {{sortname|Ravi|Bishnoi}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" | 64 || align="center" | 1,249 || align="center" | 168.4 || 2022–2026
|-
| align="center" | 5
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 19.70
| {{sortname|Arshdeep|Singh}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" | 127 || align="center" | 2,502 || align="center" | 293.2 || 2022–2026
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Qualification: 500 balls. Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref name="India T20I Records – Best career average">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Best career average |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=bowling_average;qualmin1=500;qualval1=balls;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Best career economy rate ===
A bowler's [[economy rate (cricket)|economy rate]] is the total number of runs they have conceded divided by the number of [[over (cricket)|overs]] they have bowled.<ref name="glossary"/>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Economy rate
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Overs
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 6.20
| {{sortname|Harbhajan|Singh}} || align=center | 633 || align=center | 102.0 || 2006–2016
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 6.51
| {{sortname|Jasprit|Bumrah}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 2,188 || align="center" | 335.4 || 2016–2026
|-
| align="center" | 3
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 6.90
| {{sortname|Ravichandran|Ashwin}} || align="center" | 1,672 || align="center" | 242.0 || 2010–2022
|-
| align="center" | 4
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 6.95
| {{sortname|Kuldeep|Yadav}}{{dagger}} || align="center" | 1,306 || align="center" | 187.5 || 2017–2026
|-
| align="center" | 5
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 6.96
| {{sortname|Bhuvneshwar|Kumar}} || align="center" | 2,079 || align="center" | 298.3 || 2012–2022
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan="6" | Qualification: 500 balls. Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Best career economy rate |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=economy_rate;qualmin1=500;qualval1=balls;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

=== Best career strike rate ===
A bowler's [[strike rate]] is the total number of [[delivery (cricket)|balls]] they have bowled divided by the number of wickets they have taken.<ref name="glossary"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Strike rate
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Overs
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 11.86
| {{sortname|Kuldeep|Yadav}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 95 || align="center" | 187.5 || 2017–2026
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 13.19
| {{sortname|Varun|Chakravarthy}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 73 || align="center" | 160.3 || 2016–2026
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 13.85
| {{sortname|Arshdeep|Singh}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 127 || align="center" | 293.2 || 2022–2026
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 15.33
| {{sortname|Shardul|Thakur}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 33 || align=center | 84.2 || 2018–2022
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 15.81
| {{sortname|Ravi|Bishnoi}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 64 || align="center" | 168.4 || 2022–2026
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan="6" | Qualification: 500 balls. Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref name="India T20I Records – Best career strike rate">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Best career strike rate |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/team/bowling-best-career-strike-rate/india-6/twenty20-internationals-3 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Most four-wickets (& over) hauls in an innings ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Four-wicket hauls
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Overs
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 5
| {{sortname|Kuldeep|Yadav}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 52 || align="center" | 187.5 || align="center" | 95 || 2017–2026
|-
| {{sortname|Bhuvneshwar|Kumar}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 86 || align=center | 298.3 || align="center" | 90 || 2012–2022
|-
| align=center rowspan=4| 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan="4" |3
|{{sortname|Varun|Chakravarthy}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" | 43 || align="center" | 160.3 || align="center" | 73 || 2021–2026
|-
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" |79 || align="center" | 294.0 || align="center" | 96 || 2016–2023
|-
| {{sortname|Arshdeep|Singh}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" |83 || align="center" |293.2 || align="center" |127 || 2022–2026
|-
| {{sortname|Hardik|Pandya}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" | 125 || align="center" | 370.5 || align="center" | 114 || 2016–2026
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan="7" | Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref name="India T20I Records – Most four-wickets-in-an-innings">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Best career strike rate |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/team/bowling-most-4wi-career/india-6/twenty20-internationals-3 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Best economy rates in an inning ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Economy
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Overs
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2 | {{sort|1|1.00}}
| rowspan=2|{{sortname|Bhuvneshwar|Kumar}} || align=center | 4 || align=center | 4 || align=center | 5 || {{cr|AFG|2013}} || [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|September|8}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 3 || align=center | 3 || align=center | 0 || rowspan=2|{{cr|WIN}} || [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2014|March|23}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|1.33}}
| {{sortname|Deepak|Chahar}} || align=center | 4 || align=center | 3 || [[Providence Stadium]], [[Providence, Guyana|Providence]], Guyana || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|August|6}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|1.50}}
| {{sortname|Harshal|Patel}} || align=center | 2 || align=center | 3 || align=center | 1 || {{cr|RSA}} || [[Niranjan Shah Stadium]], [[Rajkot]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|June|17}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|1.75}}
| {{sortname|Jasprit|Bumrah}} || align=center | 4 || align=center | 7 || align=center | 3 || {{cr|AFG|2013}} || [[Kensington Oval]], [[Bridgetown]], Barbados || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|June|20}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=9 | Qualification: 12 balls bowled. Last Updated: 20 June 2024<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Best economy rates in an innings |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/best_economy_rate_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Best strike rates in an inning ===
The best strike rate in an inning, when a minimum of 4 wickets are taken by the player, is by [[Steve Tikolo]] of Kenya during his spell of 4/2 in 1.2 overs against Scotland during the [[2013 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier]] at [[ICC Academy]], [[Dubai]], UAE.<ref>{{cite news |title=Best strike rates in an inning |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283886.html |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Strike rate
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Balls
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|3.25}}
| {{sortname|Kuldeep|Yadav}} || align=center | 4 || align=center | 7 || align=center | 13 || {{cr|UAE}} || [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|September|10}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|3.33}}
| {{sortname|Deepak|Chahar}} || align=center | 6 || align=center | 7 || align=center | 20 || {{cr|Bangladesh}} || [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Nagpur]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|November|10}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|3.40}}
| {{sortname|Kuldeep|Yadav}} || align=center | 5 || align=center | 17 || align=center | 17 || {{cr|South Africa}} || [[Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|December|14}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| {{sort|4|4.00}}
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}} ||align=center | 6 || align=center | 25 || align=center | 24 || {{cr|England}} || [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|February|1}}
|-
| [[Ravi Bishnoi]] || align=center | 4 || align=center | 16 || align=center | 16 || {{cr|West Indies}} || [[Lauderhill]], [[Florida]], West Indies || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|August|7}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=9 | Last Updated: 10 September 2025<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Best strike rates in an innings |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/best_strike_rate_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Most runs conceded in a match ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Figures
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Overs
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! 68
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 0/68
| [[Prasidh Krishna]] || align=center rowspan=5| 4 || {{cr|AUS}} || [[Assam Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|November|28}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 2
! rowspan=2|64
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 0/64
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}} || {{cr|RSA}} || [[Centurion Park]], [[Centurion, Gauteng|Centurion]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|February|21}}
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 1/64
| {{sortname|Varun|Chakravarthy}}|| {{cr|ENG}}|| [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|March|5}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! 62
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 2/62
| [[Arshdeep Singh]] || {{cr|RSA}}|| [[Assam Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|2}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! 58
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 0/58
| [[Jasprit Bumrah]] || {{cr|NZ}} || [[Greenfield International Stadium]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|January|31}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=8 | Last updated: 5 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most runs conceded in a match |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/most_runs_conceded_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Most wickets in a calendar year ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Year
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 37
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] || align=center | 32 || align=center | 31 || {{sort|2022|2022}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 36
| [[Arshdeep Singh]] || align=center | 18 || align=center | 18 || {{sort|2024|2024}}
|-
| [[Varun Chakravarthy]] || align=center | 20 || align=center | 18 || {{sort|2025|2025}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 33
| [[Arshdeep Singh]] || align=center rowspan=2| 21 || align=center rowspan=2| 21|| {{sort|2022|2022}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 28
| {{sortname|Jasprit|Bumrah}} || {{sort|2016|2016}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 19 December 2025<ref name="India T20I Records – Most wickets in a calendar year">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most wickets in a calendar year |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=wickets;size=10;team=6;template=results;type=bowling;view=year |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Most wickets in a tournament ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Series
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 17
| {{sortname|Kuldeep|Yadav}}|| align=center | 7 || {{sort|2025|[[2025 Asia Cup]]}}
|-
| {{sortname|Arshdeep|Singh}}|| align=center rowspan=2| 8 || rowspan=2|{{sort|2024|[[2024 Men's T20 World Cup]]}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 15
| {{sortname|Jasprit|Bumrah}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=3| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=3| 14
| {{sortname|Varun|Chakravarthy}}|| align=center | 5 || {{sort|2025|[[English cricket team in India in 2024–25|England in India in 2025]]}}
|-
| {{sortname|Jasprit|Bumrah}}|| align=center | 8 || rowspan=2|{{sort|2026|[[2026 Men's T20 World Cup]]}}
|-
| {{sortname|Varun|Chakravarthy}}|| align=center | 9
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref name="India T20I Records – Most wickets in a series">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most wickets in a series |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/most_wickets_series.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Hat-trick ===
In [[cricket]], a '''hat-trick''' occurs when a bowler [[Dismissal (cricket)|takes three wickets]] with consecutive [[Delivery (cricket)|deliveries]]. The deliveries may be interrupted by an [[over (cricket)|over]] bowled by another bowler from the other end of the [[Cricket pitch|pitch]] or the other team's [[innings]], but must be three consecutive deliveries by the individual bowler in the same match. Only [[wickets#Dismissing a batsman|wickets]] attributed to the bowler count towards a hat-trick; run outs do not count.<ref name="Hatricks" />

{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1"
|-
!S. No
! Bowler
! Against
! class="unsortable" | Wickets
! Venue
! Date
! Ref.
|-
| 1
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | [[Deepak Chahar]]
| {{cr|BAN}}
|
* [[Shafiul Islam]] ([[caught|c]] [[KL Rahul]])
* [[Mustafizur Rahman]] ([[caught|c]] [[Shreyas Iyer]])
* [[Aminul Islam (cricketer, born 1999)|Aminul Islam]] ([[Bowled|b]])
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Nagpur]]
| 10 November 2019
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/19312/scorecard/1187015/india-vs-bangladesh-3rd-t20i-bangladesh-in-india-2019-20 |title=3rd T20I (N), Bangladesh tour of India at Nagpur, Nov 10 2019 |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=10 November 2019}}</ref>
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=8 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref name="Hatricks">{{cite news |title=Hatricks |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283738.html |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

==Wicket-keeping records==
The [[wicket-keeper]] is a specialist [[fielding (cricket)|fielder]] who stands behind the [[stump (cricket)|stumps]] being guarded by the batsman on [[strike (cricket)|strike]] and is the only member of the fielding side allowed to wear gloves and leg pads.<ref>{{cite web |title=Law 27 – The wicket-keeper |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the-wicket-keeper |publisher=Marylebone Cricket Club |access-date=29 December 2018 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229232954/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the-wicket-keeper|archive-date=29 December 2018}}</ref>

=== Most career dismissals ===
A wicket-keeper can be credited with the dismissal of a batsman in two ways, [[caught]] or [[stumped]]. A fair catch is taken when the [[cricket ball|ball]] is caught fully within the field of play without it bouncing after the ball has touched the striker's [[cricket bat|bat]] or glove holding the bat,<ref name="Law 33">{{cite web |title=Law 33 – Caught |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/caught |publisher=Marylebone Cricket Club |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref><ref name="Law 5">{{cite web |title=Law 5 – The Bat |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the-bat |publisher=Marylebone Cricket Club |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref> Laws 5.6.2.2 and 5.6.2.3 state that the hand or the glove holding the bat shall be regarded as the ball striking or touching the bat while a stumping occurs when the wicket-keeper puts down the wicket while the batsman is out of his [[crease (cricket)|ground]] and not attempting a run.<ref>{{cite web |title=Law 39 – Stumped |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/stumped |publisher=Marylebone Cricket Club |access-date=17 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank !! scope=col | Dismissals !! scope=col | Player !! scope=col | Matches !! scope=col | Innings !! scope=col | Catches !! scope=col | Stumpings !! scope=col | Dis/Inn !! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 91
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}}|| align=center | 98 || align=center | 97 || align=center | 57 || align=center | 34 || align=center | 0.938 || 2006–2019
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 49
| {{sortname|Rishabh|Pant}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 76 || align=center | 62 || align=center | 38 || align=center | 11 || align=center | 0.790 || 2017–2024
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 37
| {{sortname|Sanju|Samson}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 62 || align="center" | 44 || align="center" | 30 || align="center" | 7 || align=center | 0.840 || 2015–2026
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 27
| {{sortname|Dinesh|Karthik}} || align=center | 59 || align=center | 19 || align=center | 19 || align=center | 8 || align=center | 1.421 || 2006–2022
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 14
| {{sortname|Ishan|Kishan}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 45 || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | 9 || align=center | 5 || align="center" | 0.666 || 2021–2026
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=9 | Last updated: 8 March 2026<ref name="wicket-keeper">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most wicket-keeper career dismissals |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/keeping/most_dismissals_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Most career catches ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Catches
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 57
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}}|| align=center | 98|| align=center | 97|| 2006–2019
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 38
| {{sortname|Rishabh|Pant}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 76 || align=center | 62 || 2017–2024
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 30
| {{sortname|Sanju|Samson}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 62 || align="center" | 44 || 2015–2026
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 19
| {{sortname|Dinesh|Karthik}}|| align=center | 59 || align=center | 19 || 2006–2022
|-
| align=center rowspan="2" |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan="2" |9
| {{sortname|Jitesh|Sharma}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" | 16 || align="center" | 14 || 2023–2025
|-
| {{sortname|Ishan|Kishan}}{{dagger}}|| align="center" | 45 || align="center" | 21 || 2021–2026
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref name="Indian T20I Records - Wicket Keeper Catches">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most wicket-keeper career catches |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/keeping/most_catches_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Most career stumpings ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Stumpings
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Period
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 34 ♠
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}}|| align=center | 98|| align=center | 97|| 2006–2019
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 11
| {{sortname|Rishabh|Pant}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 76 || align=center | 62 || 2017–2024
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 8
| {{sortname|Dinesh|Karthik}} || align=center | 59 || align=center | 19 || 2006–2022
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 7
| {{sortname|Sanju|Samson}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 62 || align="center" | 44 || 2015–2026
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 5
| {{sortname|Ishan|Kishan}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 45 || align="center" | 21 || 2021–2026
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref name="Indian T20I Records - Wicket Keeper Stumpings">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most wicket-keeper career stumpings |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/team/keeping-most-stumpings-career/india-6/twenty20-internationals-3 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

|}

=== Most dismissals in an innings ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Dismissals
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 5
| rowspan=4|{{sortname|MS|Dhoni}}|| {{cr|England}}|| [[Bristol County Ground]], [[Bristol]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|July|8}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=5| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=5| 4
|| {{cr|Afghanistan|2013}}|| [[Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium]], [[Gros Islet]], Saint Lucia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2010|May|1}}
|-
|| {{cr|Pakistan}}|| [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|September|30}}
|-
|| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Barabati Stadium]], [[Cuttack]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|20}}
|-
| {{sortname|Dinesh|Karthik}}|| {{cr|England}}|| [[Rose Bowl (cricket ground)|Rose Bowl]], [[Southampton]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|July|7}}
|-
| {{sortname|Jitesh|Sharma}}|| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[Barabati Stadium]], [[Cuttack]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2025|December|9}}
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 9 December 2025<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most dismissals in an innings by a wicket-keeper |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/keeping/most_dismissals_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Most dismissals in a series ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Dismissals
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Series
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 14
| {{sortname|Rishabh|Pant}}|| align=center | 8 || align=center | 8 || {{sort|2024|[[2024 ICC Men's T20 World Cup]]}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 8
| rowspan="2" |{{sortname|MS|Dhoni}}|| align="center" | 5|| align="center" | 5|| {{sort|2016|[[2016 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
| rowspan="4" align="center" | 3
! rowspan="4" scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 7
| align="center" |3 || rowspan="2" align="center" |3 || {{sort|2018|[[Indian cricket team in England in 2018|India in England in 2018]]}}
|-
|{{sortname|Jitesh|Sharma}}
| align="center" |4 || [[South African cricket team in India in 2025–26|South Africa in India in 2025]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |{{sortname|MS|Dhoni}}
| rowspan="2" align="center" |5 || rowspan="2" align="center" |5 || {{sort|2010|[[2010 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
| {{sort|2016|[[2016 Asia Cup]]}}
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 19 December 2025<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most dismissals in a series by a wicket-keeper |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/keeping/most_dismissals_series.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

==Fielding records==

=== Most career catches by a fielder ===
[[Caught]] is one of the nine methods a batsman can be [[dismissal (cricket)|dismissed]] in cricket.{{efn|In 2017, ''The Laws of Cricket'' were amended, reducing the methods of dismissals from ten to nine, with [[handled the ball]] now covered as part of [[obstructing the field]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The new cricket rule changes coming into effect from September 28 |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/20822607/the-new-cricket-rule-changes-coming-effect-september-28 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |date=26 September 2017 |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>}} The majority of catches are caught in the [[slip (cricket)|slips]], located behind the batsman, next to the wicket-keeper, on the [[off side]] of the field. Most slip fielders are [[Batting order (cricket)|top order]] batsmen.<ref>{{cite book|first1=S.|last1=Giridhar|first2=V. J.|last2= Raghunath|year=2014 |title=Mid-Wicket Tales: From Trumper to Tendulkar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IPwjBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|page=2|isbn=978-81-321-1738-4 |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|first=Mike|last=Selvey|author-link=Mike Selvey |title=The greatest slip catcher |url=http://www.thecricketmonthly.com/story/863595/the-greatest-slip-catcher|magazine=The Cricket Monthly |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |date=May 2015 |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Catches
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Ct/Inn
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 65
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || align=center | 159 || align=center | 159 || align=center | 0.408 || 2007–2024
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 64
| {{sortname|Hardik|Pandya}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 138 || align="center" | 137 || align="center" | 0.467 || 2016–2026
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 58
| {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 113 || align="center" | 111 || align="center" | 0.522 || 2021–2026
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 54
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || align=center | 125 || align=center | 124 || align=center | 0.435 || 2010–2024
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 42
| {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}}|| align=center | 78 || align=center | 78 || align=center | 0.538 || 2006–2018
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref name="India T20I records - Most career catches by a non-wicket-keeper">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most career catches by a non-wicket-keeper |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/fielding/most_catches_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}
{{notelist}}

=== Most catches in an innings ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Dismissals
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| rowspan="2" align=center | 1
! rowspan="2" scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 4
| {{sortname|Ajinkya|Rahane}}|| {{cr|ENG}}|| [[Edgbaston Cricket Ground]], [[Birmingham]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2014|September|7}}
|-
| {{sortname|Rinku|Singh|dab=cricketer}}† || {{cr|NZL}} || [[ACA–VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|January|28}}
|-
| align="center" | 3
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 3
| colspan="4" |13 players on 18 occasions
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="6" | Last Updated: 28 January 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most dismissals in an innings by a non-wicket-keeper |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/fielding/most_catches_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Most catches in a series ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Catches
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Series
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 8
| {{sortname|Tilak|Varma}} || align=center | 9|| align=center | 9|| {{sort|2026|[[2026 Men's T20 World Cup]]}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 7
| {{sortname|Rinku|Singh|dab=cricketer}} || align="center" |5 || align="center" |5 || [[New Zealand cricket team in India in 2025–26|New Zealand in India in 2026]]
|-
| align=center rowspan=5| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=5| 6
| {{sortname|Hardik|Pandya}} || align=center | 3|| align=center | 3|| {{sort|2017|[[Sri Lankan cricket team in India in 2017-18|Sri Lanka in India in 2017-18]]}}
|-
| {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}} || align=center rowspan=2| 5|| align=center rowspan=2| 5|| {{sort|2012|[[2012 World Twenty20]]}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{sortname|Rinku|Singh|dab=cricketer}} || {{sort|2024|[[Indian cricket team in Zimbabwe in 2024|India in Zimbabwe in 2024]]}}
|-
| {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}} || align=center | 6|| align=center | 6|| {{sort|2022|[[2022 Men's T20 World Cup]]}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{sortname|Shivam|Dube}} || align=center | 9|| align=center | 9|| {{sort|2026|[[2026 Men's T20 World Cup]]}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most catches in a series by a non-wicket-keeper |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/fielding/most_catches_series.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

==Other records==
=== Most career matches ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Wkts
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 159
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || align=center | 4,231 || align="center" | 1 || 2007–2024
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 138
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 2,288 || align="center" | 114 || 2016–2026
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 125
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || align=center | 4,188 || align=center | 4 || 2010–2024
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 113
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 3,272 || align="center" | 2 || 2021–2026
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 98
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}} || align=center | 1,617 || align=center | – || 2006–2019
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most career matches |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/individual/most_matches_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

=== Most consecutive career matches ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 45*
| {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}}† || 2024–2026
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 43
| {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}} || 2009–2014
|-
| align="center" | 3
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 39
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}} || 2015–2018
|-
| align="center" | 4
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 34
| {{sortname|Abhishek|Sharma}}† || 2024–2026
|-
| align="center" | 5
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 32
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || 2017–2019
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=4 | Last updated: 8 March 2026<ref>{{Cite web |title=T20I matches {{!}} Individual records (captains, players, umpires) {{!}} Most consecutive matches for a team {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/most-consecutive-matches-for-a-team-283482 |access-date=2026-01-28 |website=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |language=en}}</ref>
|}

=== Most matches as captain ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Player
! Won
! Lost
! Tied
! NR
! Win %
! Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 72
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}} || 41 || 28 || 1 || 2 || 56.94 || 2007–2016
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 62
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || 49 || 12 || 1 || 1 || 79.03 || 2017–2024
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 52
| {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}}{{dagger}} || 40 || 8 || 2 || 2 || 76.92 || 2023–2026
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 50
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || 30 || 16 || 2 || 2 || 60.00 || 2017–2021
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 16
| {{sortname|Hardik|Pandya}}{{dagger}} || 10 || 5 || 1 || 0 || 62.50 || 2022–2023
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=9 | Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most matches as captain |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/individual/most_matches_as_captain.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 September 2025}}</ref>
|}

=== Most matches won as a captain ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! Won
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! Lost
! Tied
! NR
! Win %
! Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 49
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || 62 || 12 || 1 || 1 || 79.03 || 2017–2024
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 41
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}} || 72 || 28 || 1 || 2 || 56.94 || 2007–2016
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 40
| {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}}{{dagger}} || 52 || 8 || 2 || 2 || 76.92 || 2023–2026
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 30
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || 50 || 16 || 2 || 2 || 60.00 || 2017–2021
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; |10
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || 16 || 5 || 1 || 0 || 62.50 || 2022–2023
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=9 | Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most matches won as a captain |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/individual/most_matches_as_captain.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=20 September 2025}}</ref>
|}

=== Most man of the match awards ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | M.O.M
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 17
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 113 || 2021–2026
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 16
| [[Virat Kohli]] || align=center | 125 || 2010–2024
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 14
| [[Rohit Sharma]] || align=center | 159 || 2007–2024
|-
| align=center rowspan=3| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=3| 8
| [[Axar Patel]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 94 || 2015–2026
|-
| [[Jasprit Bumrah]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 95 || 2015–2026
|-
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 138 || 2016–2026
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 8 March 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most M.O.M awards |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=awards_match;team=6;template=results;type=allround;view=awards |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Most man of the series awards ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | M.O.S
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 6
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 107 || 2021–2026
|-
| [[Virat Kohli]] || align=center | 125 || 2010–2024
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 3
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 132 || 2016–2025
|-
| align=center rowspan=8| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=8| 2
| [[Varun Chakravarthy]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 39 || 2021–2025
|-
| [[Abhishek Sharma]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 39 || 2024–2025
|-
| [[Washington Sundar]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 58 || 2017–2025
|-
| [[Yuzvendra Chahal]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 80 || 2016–2023
|-
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] || align=center | 87 || 2012–2022
|-
| [[Jasprit Bumrah]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 89 || 2016–2026
|-
| [[Axar Patel]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 90 || 2015–2026
|-
| [[Rohit Sharma]] || align=center | 159 || 2007–2024
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 15 February 2026<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most M.O.S awards |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=awards_series;team=6;template=results;type=allround;view=awards |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Youngest players on debut ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Age
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|18 years and 80 days}}
| {{sortname|Washington|Sundar}} || {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|24}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|19 years and 120 days}}
| {{sortname|Rishabh|Pant}} || {{cr|England}} || [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|February|1}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|19 years and 152 days}}
| {{sortname|Ishant|Sharma}} || {{cr|Australia}} || [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2008|February|1}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|20 years and 2 days}}
| {{sortname|Rahul|Chahar}} || {{cr|West Indies}} || [[Providence Stadium]], [[Providence, Guyana|Providence]], Guyana || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|August|6}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|20 years and 4 days}}
| {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}} || {{cr|South Africa}} || [[Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2006|December|1}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Youngest players on debut|url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;debut_or_last=1;filter=advanced;orderby=age;orderbyad=reverse;team=6;template=results;type=allround;view=match|work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Oldest Players on debut ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Age
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|38 years and 232 days}}
| {{sortname|Rahul|Dravid}} || {{cr|England}} || [[Old Trafford Cricket Ground]], [[Manchester]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2011|August|31}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|33 years and 221 days}}
| {{sortname|Sachin|Tendulkar}} || {{cr|South Africa}} || [[Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2006|December|1}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|31 years and 309 days}}
| [[Rahul Tripathi]] || {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|January|5}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|31 years and 177 days}}
| {{sortname|Sreenath|Aravind}} || {{cr|South Africa}} || [[Himachal Pradesh Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Dharamshala]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2015|October|2}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|31 years and 44 days}}
| {{sortname|Stuart|Binny}} || {{cr|Zimbabwe}} || [[Harare Sports Club]], [[Harare]], Zimbabwe || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2015|July|17}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 5 January 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Oldest players on debut|url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;debut_or_last=1;filter=advanced;orderby=age;team=6;template=results;type=allround;view=match|work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Oldest Players ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Age
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|38 years and 232 days}}
| {{sortname|Rahul|Dravid}} || {{cr|ENG}} || [[Old Trafford Cricket Ground]], [[Manchester]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2011|August|31}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|38 years and 186 days}}
| {{sortname|Ashish|Nehra}} || {{cr|NZL}} || [[Arun Jaitley Stadium]], [[Delhi]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|November|1}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|37 years and 235 days}}
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}} || {{cr|AUS}} || [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|27}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|37 years and 154 days}}
| [[Dinesh Karthik]] || {{cr|BAN}} || [[Adelaide Oval]], [[Adelaide]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|November|2}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|37 years and 60 days}}
| [[Rohit Sharma]] || {{cr|RSA}} || [[Kensington Oval]], [[Bridgetown]], Barbados || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|June|29}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 29 June 2024<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Oldest Players |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;debut_or_last=2;filter=advanced;orderby=age;team=6;template=results;type=allround;view=match |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

==Partnership records==
In cricket, two batsmen are always present at the [[Crease (cricket)|crease]] batting together in a partnership. This partnership will continue until one of them is [[Dismissal (cricket)|dismissed]], [[Substitute (cricket)#Retired hurt (or not out)|retires]] or the innings comes to a close.

=== Highest partnerships by wicket ===
A wicket partnership describes the number of runs scored before each wicket falls. The first wicket partnership is between the opening batsmen and continues until the first wicket falls. The second wicket partnership then commences between the [[not out]] batsman and the number three batsman. This partnership continues until the second wicket falls. The third wicket partnership then commences between the not out batsman and the new batsman. This continues down to the tenth wicket partnership. When the tenth wicket has fallen, there is no batsman left to partner so the innings is closed.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Wicket
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col colspan=2| Players
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
! align=center rowspan=2| {{sort|01|1st Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 165 || {{sortname|K. L.|Rahul}} || {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || {{cr|SL}} || [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|22}}
|-
| {{sortname|Yashasvi|Jaiswal}} || {{sortname|Shubman|Gill}} || {{cr|WIN}} || [[Central Broward Park]], [[Lauderhill]], USA || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|August|12}}
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
! align=center | {{sort|02|2nd Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 210* || {{sortname|Sanju|Samson}} || {{sortname|Tilak|Varma}} || {{cr|RSA}} || [[Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|November|15}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|03|3rd Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 137 || {{sortname|Ishan|Kishan}} || {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}} || {{cr|NZL}} || [[Greenfield International Stadium]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2026|January|31}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|04|4th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 141* || {{sortname|Ruturaj|Gaikwad}} || {{sortname|Tilak|Varma}} || {{cr|AUS}} || [[Assam Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|November|28}}
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
! align=center | {{sort|05|5th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 190* || {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || {{sortname|Rinku|Singh|dab=cricketer}} || {{cr|AFG|2013}} || [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bengaluru]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|January|17}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|06|6th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 91 || {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}} || {{sortname|Axar|Patel}} || {{cr|SL}} || [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|January|5}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|07|7th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 63* || {{sortname|Dinesh|Karthik}} || {{sortname|Krunal|Pandya}} || rowspan=2|{{cr|NZ}} || [[Seddon Park]], [[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|10}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|08|8th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 61 || {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}} || {{sortname|Harbhajan|Singh}} || [[Lancaster Park]], [[Christchurch]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|February|25}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|09|9th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 48 || {{sortname|Deepak|Chahar}} || {{sortname|Umesh|Yadav}} || {{cr|RSA}} || [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|4}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|010|10th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 17* || {{sortname|S.|Sreesanth}} || {{sortname|R.P.|Singh}} || {{cr|NZ}} || [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2007|September|16}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 31 January 2026<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/India/engine/records/fow/highest_partnerships_by_wicket.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |title=India/Records/T20I matches/Highest partnerships by wicket |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Highest partnerships by runs ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Wicket
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col colspan=2| Players
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
| align=center | {{sort|05|2nd Wicket}}
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 210*
| {{sortname|Sanju|Samson}} || {{sortname|Tilak|Varma}} || {{cr|SA}} || [[Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|November|15}}
|-
| align=center | 2
| align=center | {{sort|05|5th Wicket}}
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 190*
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || {{sortname|Rinku|Singh|dab=cricketer}} || {{cr|AFG}} || [[M.Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bengaluru]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|January|17}}
|-
| align=center | 3
| align=center rowspan=2| {{sort|04|2nd Wicket}}
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 176
| rowspan=2|[[Sanju Samson]] || [[Deepak Hooda]] || {{cr|IRE}} || [[Malahide]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|June|28}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 173
| {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}}|| {{cr|BAN}} || [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium]], [[Hyderabad]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2024|October|12}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 5
| align=center rowspan=2| {{sort|01|1st Wicket}}
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 165
| {{sortname|K. L.|Rahul}} || {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|22}}
|-
| {{sortname|Yashasvi|Jaiswal}} || {{sortname|Shubman|Gill}} || {{cr|West Indies}} || [[Central Broward Park]], [[Lauderhill]], USA || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|August|12}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 15 November 2024<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest partnerships by runs |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/fow/highest_partnerships_for_any_wicket.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

===Highest overall partnership runs by a pair===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:centre;"
|-
! scope="col"| Rank
! scope="col"| Runs
! scope="col"| Innings
! scope="col" colspan=2| Players
! scope="col"| Highest
! scope="col"| Average
! scope="col"| 100
! scope="col"| 50
! scope="col"| T20I career span
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope="row" | 1,897
| 42 || [[KL Rahul]] ||rowspan=3|[[Rohit Sharma]] || 165 || 46.26 || 5 || 10 || 2016–2022
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope="row" | 1,743
| 52 || [[Shikhar Dhawan]] || 160 || 33.51 || 4 || 7 || 2013–2019
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope="row" | 1,350
| 42 ||rowspan=2|[[Virat Kohli]] || 138 || 32.14 || 3 || 5 || 2010–2024
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope="row" | 1,015
| 27 || [[KL Rahul]] || 119 || 39.03 || 2 || 6 || 2017–2022
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope="row" | 730
| 23 || [[MS Dhoni]] || [[Yuvraj Singh]] || 102* || 38.42 || 1 || 5 || 2007–2017
|-class="sortbottom"
| scope="row" colspan=10 | ''An asterisk (*) signifies an unbroken partnership (i.e. neither of the batsmen was dismissed before either the end of the allotted overs or the required score being reached).'' Last updated: 30 June 2024<ref>{{cite web|url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;team=6;template=results;type=fow|title=Records–Twenty20 Internationals–Partnership records–Highest overall partnership runs by a pair–ESPNcricinfo|publisher=ESPN| work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=7 October 2022}}</ref>
|}

==See also==

*[[List of Twenty20 International records]]
*[[List of Twenty20 International cricket hat-tricks]]
*[[List of Test cricket records]]
*[[List of One Day International cricket records]]
*[[List of India Test cricket records]]
*[[List of India One Day International cricket records]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Portal bar|India|Cricket|Sports|World|2000s}}
{{India national cricket team}}
{{Cricket records}}
{{Cricket in India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:India Twenty20 International cricket records}}
[[Category:Twenty20 International cricket records and statistics]]
[[Category:Lists of Indian cricket records and statistics|Twenty20 International cricket records]]

Ram Singh (Fiji)

2026-03-20T12:09:11Z

QuyenStobie2: stub

{{Short description|Early 20th-century Fiji Indian businessman}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
'''Babu Ram Singh''' was a [[Indians in Fiji|Fiji Indian]] who had come to [[Fiji]] under the [[Indian indenture system|indenture system]] and was one of the few people who, after indenture, prospered and made an attempt to help his less fortunate ex-indentured brethren. Babu Ram Singhs surviving Business, [[Fiji Rubber Stamp Co Ltd]] is still under operation in Mark Street, [[Suva]], and is looked after by his children.

== Successful businessman ==
There were few roads in Fiji around 1900 and the main form of transportation was by boat. Ram Singh saw this as a business opportunity, acquired a launch and started providing passenger and cargo facilities to communities living along the coasts of the islands of Fiji and along the banks of its numerous rivers.<ref>{{cite book | last = Sanadhya | first = Totaram| title = My twenty-one years in the Fiji Islands | publisher = Fiji Museum| year = 1991 | isbn = 982-208-003-4}}</ref>

== Leadership through Indian Imperial Association ==
Ram Singh was one of the founding members of the Indian Imperial Association of Fiji (IIA) and together with [[Totaram Sanadhya]] was instrumental in persuading [[Mahatma Gandhi]] to send an Indian lawyer, [[Manilal Doctor]], to Fiji. Manilal arrived in 1912 and took up the leadership of the IIA, as president and Ram Singh became its Secretary.<ref>{{cite book | last = Gillion | first = K.L.| title = Fiji's Indian Migrants: A history to the end of indenture in 1920 | publisher = Oxford University Press| year = 1962 | isbn = 0-19-550452-6 }}</ref>
The [[Indian Imperial Association of Fiji]] (I.I.A.) came into existence in Fiji on 2 June 1918. The association contained mainly educated Fiji Indians. It sent petitions to the Government seeking review of marriage law, an end to the death penalty and representation into the Legislative Council. The aim of the association was to ‘watch the interests of and to assist in the general improvement of the Indian community in Fiji’. As president of the I.I.A., Manilal Doctor wrote to [[Mahatma Gandhi]], other Indian leaders and the [[British Labour Party]] on the sad plight of Indian indentured labourers in Fiji. C.F. Andrews and W.W. Pearson were dispatched to Fiji to enquire into the complaints. Manilal Doctor made submissions for their report, published on 29 February 1916, which reported on the deplorable living conditions of the indentured labourers and their lack of access to education and medical facilities.

Ram Singh remained an active member of the IIA and in 1919 joined in the campaign to stop the resumption of the indenture system. Ram Singh and Manilal Doctor organised a conference, of Fiji Indians, in [[Suva]] on 26 December 1919, which passed resolutions highlighting the difficulties being faced by Indians in Fiji. The Government tried to ignore the IIA, but it led to the strike of Indian labourers which began on 15 January 1920. As a result of the strike, Manilal was deported from Fiji and the IIA collapsed. In 1924, Ram Singh tried to revive the IIA as the Indian Association of Fiji, with representatives from all sections of the Indian community and with the aims of moral social educational and political uplift of the Indians. The IIA made representations to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, but was ignored and became ineffective.<ref>{{cite book | last = Gillion | first = K.L.| title = The Fiji Indians: Challenge to European Dominance 1920 – 1946| publisher = Australian National University Press| year = 1977 | isbn = 0-7081-1291-9}}</ref>

== Member of Arya Samaj in Fiji ==
Ram Singh was a member of the Arya Samaj in Fiji. He was the printer and publisher of the Hindi language newspaper, ''Fiji Samachar'' and together with [[Vishnu Deo]] (who was the editor) was involved in conflict with other sections of the Indian community as a result of which he was sued for [[libel]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Gillion | first = K.L.| title = The Fiji Indians: Challenge to European Dominance 1920 – 1946| publisher = Australian National University Press| year = 1977 | isbn = 0-7081-1291-9}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Indian Imperial Association]]
* [[Arya Samaj in Fiji]]
* ''[[Fiji Samachar]]''

== References ==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Ram}}
[[Category:Arya Samajis in Fiji]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to Fiji]]
[[Category:Fijian businesspeople]]

Phoenicia

2026-03-19T18:27:41Z

QuyenStobie2: Refined content and updated sections

{{Split|Phoenicians|date=September 2025}}
{{Short description|Ancient Semitic maritime civilization}}
{{Redirect|Phoenicians|3=Phoenicia (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Phoenicia
| native_name =
| common_name = Phoenicia
| life_span = {{circa|2500}} – 64 BC
| flag_s1 =
| today =
| image_map = Phoenicia map-en.svg
| image_map_caption = Phoenicia and its major cities
| capital = None; dominant cities were [[Byblos]], [[Sidon]], and [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]{{sfn|Aubet|2001|pp=18, 44}}
| common_languages = [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]]
| religion = [[Canaanite religion]]
| demonym = Phoenicians
| government_type = [[City-state]]s ruled by [[Monarchy|kings]], with varying degrees of [[oligarchy]] or [[plutocracy]]; oligarchic [[republic]] in [[Carthage]] after {{circa|480 BC}}<ref>''Carthage and the Carthaginians'', [[R. Bosworth Smith]], p. 16</ref>
| title_leader = Major kings of Phoenician cities
| leader1 = [[Abishemu of Byblos|Abishemu I]]
| year_leader1 = {{circa|1800 BC}}
| leader2 = [[Hiram I]]
| year_leader2 = 969–936 BC
| leader3 = [[Pygmalion of Tyre]]
| year_leader3 = 820–774 BC
| era = [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]] to [[Classical antiquity]]
| year_start = 2500 BC<ref name="Bentley-2000">{{cite book|first1=Jerry H. |last1=Bentley|first2=Herbert F. |last2=Ziegler|title=Traditions & Encounters: From the Beginnings to 1500|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1qtiYjVlmDgC|year=2000|publisher=McGraw Hill|isbn=978-0-07-004949-9}}</ref>
| event1 = [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] becomes dominant city-state under the reign of [[Hiram I]]
| date_event1 = 969 BC
| event2 = [[Carthage]] founded (in Roman accounts by [[Dido]])
| date_event2 = 814 BC
| event_end = [[Phoenicia under Roman rule|Roman annexation]]
| year_end = 64 BC
| p1 = Canaanites
| p2 = Hittite Empire
| p3 = Egyptian Empire
| s1 = Roman Republic
}}
'''Phoenicians''' were an [[Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples|ancient Semitic people]] who inhabited city-states in [[Canaan]] along the [[Levant|Levantine]] coast of the [[eastern Mediterranean]], primarily in present-day [[Lebanon]] and parts of coastal [[Syria]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malaspina |first=Ann |year=2009 |title=Lebanon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pfop0v79y7gC&q=phoenicia+lebanon&pg=PA19 |location=New York, USA |publisher=Infobase Publishing |pages=18–20 |isbn=978-1-4381-0579-6}}</ref> Their [[Maritime history|maritime]] civilization expanded and contracted over time, with its cultural core stretching from [[Arwad]] to [[Mount Carmel]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meir Edrey |title=Phoenician Identity in Context: Material Cultural Koiné in the Iron Age Levant |publisher=Ugarit-Verlag – Buch- und Medienhandel Münster |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-86835-282-5 |series=Alter Orient und Altes Testament |volume=469 |location=Germany |pages=23–24}}</ref> Through trade and colonization, the Phoenicians extended their influence across the Mediterranean, from [[Cyprus]] to the [[Iberian Peninsula]], leaving behind thousands of [[Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions|inscriptions]].

The Phoenicians emerged directly from the [[Bronze Age]] [[Canaanites]], and their cultural traditions survived the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]], continuing into the [[Iron Age]] with little interruption. They referred to themselves as ''Canaanites'' and their land as ''Canaan'', though the territory they occupied was smaller than that of earlier Bronze Age Canaan.{{sfn|Gates|2011|pp=189–190}} The name ''Phoenicia'' is a Greek [[Endonym and exonym|exonym]] that did not correspond to a unified native identity.{{sfn|Quinn|2017|p=xviii}}{{sfn|Lehmann|2024|p=75}} Modern scholarship generally views the distinction between ''Canaanites'' and ''Phoenicians'' after {{Circa|1200 BC}} as artificial.{{sfn|Gates|2011|pp=189–190}}{{sfn|Quinn|2017|p=16–24}}

Renowned for seafaring and trade, the Phoenicians established one of antiquity's most extensive maritime networks, active for over a millennium. This network facilitated exchanges among [[Cradle of civilization|cradles of civilization]] such as [[Mesopotamia]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], and [[Ancient Greece|Greece]]. They founded colonies and trading posts throughout the Mediterranean; among these, [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]] in North Africa developed into a major power by the 7th century BC.

Phoenician society was organized into independent [[city-state]]s, notably [[Byblos]], [[Sidon]], and [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]].{{sfn|Aubet|2001|p=17}} Each retained political autonomy, and there is no evidence of a shared national identity.{{sfn|Quinn|2017|pp=201–203}} While [[king]]ship was common, powerful merchant families likely exercised influence through [[oligarchies]]. The Phoenician cities flourished most in the 9th century BC, but subsequently declined under the expansion of empires such as the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]] and [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]]. Their influence nevertheless endured in the western Mediterranean until the Roman [[Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)|destruction of Carthage]] in the mid-2nd century BC.

Long regarded as a "lost" civilization due to the absence of native historical accounts, the Phoenicians became better understood only after the discovery of [[Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions|inscriptions]] in the 17th and 18th centuries. Since the mid-20th century, archaeological research has revealed their significance in the ancient world.{{sfn|Markoe|2000|pp=10–12}} Their most enduring legacy is the development of the [[Phoenician alphabet|earliest verified alphabet]], derived from the [[Proto-Sinaitic script]],{{sfn|Coulmas|1996}} which spread across the Mediterranean and gave rise to the [[Greek alphabet]], which in turn gave rise to the [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] and [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic scripts]], as well as influencing [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]] and [[Arabic script|Arabic]] writing systems.{{sfn|Markoe|2000|page=111}}{{sfn|Fischer|2004|p=153}} They also contributed innovations in [[shipbuilding]], navigation, industry, agriculture, and governance. Their commercial networks played a foundational role in the economic and cultural development of classical Mediterranean civilization.{{sfn|Niemeyer|2004|pp=245–250}}<ref>Scott, John C. (2018) "[https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2047&context=ccr The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World]", Comparative Civilizations Review: Vol. 78 : No. 78, Article 4.</ref>

==Etymology==
Being a society of independent city-states, the Phoenicians apparently did not have a term to denote the land of Phoenicia as a whole;<ref>Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. In ''Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History''. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–2024. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/phoe/hd_phoe.htm "The Phoenicians (1500–300 BC)"]. (October 2004)</ref> instead, demonyms were often derived from the name of the city a person hailed from (e.g., ''Sidonian'' for [[Sidon]], ''Tyrian'' for [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], etc.) There is no evidence that the peoples living in the area denoted as ''Phoenicia'' identified as "Phoenicians" or shared a common identity, although they may have referred to themselves as "Canaanites".{{sfn|Killebrew|2022|p=42}} Krahmalkov reconstructs the [[Honeyman inscription]] (dated to {{circa|900}} BC by [[William F. Albright]]) as containing a reference to the Phoenician homeland, calling it ''Pūt'' ([[Phoenician language|Phoenician]]: 𐤐𐤕).<ref name=Honeyman>Honeyman, A. M. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/4241651 The Phoenician Inscriptions of the Cyprus Museum]" Iraq, vol. 6, no. 2, 1939, pp. 104–108 [106-107], number 8.</ref>{{sfn|Krahmalkov|2001|pp=1–2}}

Furthermore, as late as the first century BC, a distinction appears to have been made between 'Syrian' and 'Phoenician' people, as evidenced by the epitaph of [[Meleager of Gadara]]: 'If you are a Syrian, Salam! If you are a Phoenician, Naidius! If you are a Greek, Chaire! (Hail), and say the same yourself.'<ref>Linda Jones Hall, ''Roman Berytus: Beirut in late antiquity'' (2004), p 131.</ref>

Obelisks at [[Karnak]] contain references to a "land of ''[[wikt:fnḫw|fnḫw]]''", ''fnḫw'' being the plural form of ''fnḫ'', the Ancient Egyptian word for 'carpenter'. This "land of carpenters" is generally identified as Phoenicia, given that Phoenicia played a central role in the lumber trade of the Levant.<ref>James P. Allen (2010) ''Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs'', 2nd edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-51796-6}}, p. 345.</ref> As an [[exonym]], ''fnḫw'' was evidently loaned into Greek as {{lang|grc|φοῖνιξ}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|phoînix}}'', which meant variably 'Phoenician person', '[[Tyrian purple]], [[crimson]]' or '[[date palm]]'. [[Homer]] used it with each of these meanings.<ref>{{cite web |title=Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, φοῖνιξ |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=foi=nic |access-date=2017-02-03 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> The word is already attested in [[Linear B]] script of [[Mycenaean Greek]] from the 2nd millennium BC, as ''po-ni-ki-jo''. In those records, it means 'crimson' or 'palm tree' and does not denote a group of people.{{sfn|Quinn|2017|page=48}} The name ''Phoenicians'', like [[Latin]] ''{{lang|la|Poenī}}'' (adj. ''{{lang|la|poenicus}}'', later ''{{lang|la|pūnicus}}''), comes from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|Φοινίκη}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|Phoiníkē}}''. According to Krahmalkov, ''[[Poenulus]]'', a Latin comedic play written in the early 2nd century BC, appears to preserve a [[Punic]] term for the Phoenician/Punic language which may be reconstructed as ''Pōnnīm'',{{sfn|Krahmalkov|2001|pp=1–4}} a point disputed by Joseph Naveh, a professor of West Semitic [[epigraphy]] and [[palaeography]] at the [[Hebrew University]].<ref name="Naveh2001">{{cite journal |last1=Naveh |first1=Joseph |title=Review of A Phoenician–Punic Grammar (Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section One: The Near and Middle East 54) |journal=Israel Exploration Journal |date=2001 |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=113–115 |jstor=27926965 |issn=0021-2059 |quote=Krahmalkov found that in the Punic text of Plautus's ''Poenulus'' the Phoenician/Punic language is called ''ponnim''. In order to corroborate this Krahmalkov emends parts of Psalms 45:12-14 and reads:השתחוי לו בת צר // כבדה בת מלך פנימה 'Show him respect, O daughter of Tyre, // Honor him, O daughter of the King the Phoenicians (Ponnima!)' Krahmalkov's eagerness for innovative readings results sometimes in nonsense.}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|Phoenician history}}

Since little has survived of Phoenician records or [[Phoenician-Punic literature|literature]], most of what is known about their origins and history comes from the accounts of other civilizations and inferences from their material culture excavated throughout the Mediterranean. The scholarly consensus is that the Phoenicians' period of greatest prominence was 1200 BC to the end of the Persian period (332 BC).<ref>{{Harvnb|Jigoulov|2021|p=13}}</ref>

It is debated among historians and archaeologists whether Phoenicians were actually distinct from the broader group of Semitic-speaking peoples known as [[Canaan]]ites.<ref name="Scott-2018">{{cite journal |last=Scott |first=John C |date=2018 |title=The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/ccr/vol78/iss78/4 |journal=Comparative Civilizations Review |volume=78 |issue=78}}</ref>{{sfn|Quinn|2017|pp=24, 204}} Historian Robert Drews believes the term "Canaanites" corresponds to the ethnic group referred to as "Phoenicians" by the ancient Greeks;<ref>{{cite journal |last=Drews |first=Robert |date=1998 |title=Canaanites and Philistines |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030908929802308104 |journal=Journal for the Study of the Old Testament |volume=23 |issue=81 |pages=39–61 |doi=10.1177/030908929802308104 |s2cid=144074940|url-access=subscription }}</ref> archaeologist Jonathan N. Tubb argues that "[[Ammon]]ites, [[Moabites]], [[Israelites]], and Phoenicians undoubtedly achieved their own cultural identities, and yet ethnically they were all Canaanites", "the same people who settled in farming villages in the region in the 8th millennium BC".{{sfn|Tubb|1998|pp=13–14}} Brian R. Doak states that scholars use "Phoenicians" as a short-hand for "Canaanites living in a set of cities along the northern Levantine coast who shared a language and material culture in the Iron I–II period and who also developed an organized system of colonies in the western Mediterranean world".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doak |first=Brian R. |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/33589/chapter/288065678 |title=Ancient Israel's Neighbors |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-069063-2}}</ref>

The Phoenician [[Early Bronze Age]] is largely unknown.<ref name="Jig2021_18">{{harvnb|Jigoulov|2021|p=18}}</ref> The two most important sites are [[Byblos]] and Sidon-Dakerman (near Sidon), although, as of 2021, well over a hundred sites remain to be excavated, while others that have been are yet to be fully analysed.<ref name="Jig2021_18" /> The [[Middle Bronze Age]] was a generally peaceful time of increasing population, trade, and prosperity, though there was competition for natural resources.<ref name="Jig2021_20" /> In the [[Late Bronze Age]], rivalry between Egypt, the Mittani, the Hittites, and Assyria had a significant impact on Phoenician cities.<ref name="Jig2021_20">{{harvnb|Jigoulov|2021|pp=18–9}}</ref>

===Origins===
{{Main|Canaan|Retjenu|Prehistory of the Levant}}

The Canaanite culture that gave rise to the Phoenicians apparently developed ''in situ'' from the earlier [[Ghassulian]] [[chalcolithic]] culture. The Ghassulian culture itself developed from the [[nomadic pastoralism|Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex]], which in turn developed from a fusion of their ancestral [[Natufian culture|Natufian]] and [[Harifian]] cultures with [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] (PPNB) farming cultures. These practiced the [[domestication of animals]] during the [[8.2 kiloyear event]], which led to the [[Neolithic Revolution]] in the [[Levant]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Zarins |first=Juris |year=1992 |chapter=Pastoral Nomadism in Arabia: Ethnoarchaeology and the Archaeological Record—A Case Study |editor-first=O. |editor-last=Bar-Yosef |editor2-first=A. |editor2-last=Khazanov |title=Pastoralism in the Levant |location=Madison |publisher=Prehistory Press |isbn=0-9629110-8-9 }}</ref> The Late Bronze Age state of [[Ugarit]] is considered Canaanite,{{sfn|Tubb|1998|p=73}} even though the [[Ugaritic|Ugaritic language]] does not belong to the [[Canaanite languages]] proper,<ref>{{Cite book |first=Roger |last=Woodard |year=2008 |title=The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-68498-9 }}</ref><ref name="Naveh-1987">
{{Cite book |first=Joseph |last=Naveh |year=1987 |chapter=Proto-Canaanite, Archaic Greek, and the Script of the Aramaic Text on the Tell Fakhariyah Statue |editor1-last=Miller |title=Ancient Israelite Religion |publisher=Fortress Press |display-editors=etal |isbn=0-8006-0831-3 |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/ancientisraelite00unse }}. {{harvp|Coulmas|1996}}.</ref> and some of the texts on clay tablets discovered there indicate that the inhabitants of Ugarit did not consider themselves Canaanites.{{sfn|Tubb|1998|pp=16, 72}}

The fourth-century BC Greek historian [[Herodotus]] claimed that the Phoenicians had migrated from the [[Erythraean Sea]] around 2750 BC and the first-century AD geographer [[Strabo]] reports a claim that they came from Tylos and Arad ([[Bahrain]] and [[Muharraq]]).<ref>Herodotos ''Histories'' 1.1, 2.44 & 7.89; Strabo, ''Geography'' 16.3.4.</ref><ref name="Bowersock, G.W.-1986">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hmbc9evgB0C&pg=PA401 |title=Bahrain Through The Ages – the Archaeology |publisher=Routledge |year=1986 |isbn=0-7103-0112-X |chapter=Tylos and Tyre. Bahrain in the Graeco-Roman World |editor-last2=Rice |editor-first2=Michael |author=Bowersock, G.W. |editor-last1=Khalifa |editor-first1=Haya Ali |pages=401–2 }}</ref><ref name="Rice, Michael-1994">{{cite book|title=The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf|publisher=Routledge|year=1994|isbn=0-415-03268-7 |author=Rice, Michael|page=20}}</ref><ref name="R. A. Donkin-1998">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=leHFqMQ9mw8C&pg=PA48 |title=Beyond Price: Pearls and Pearl-fishing: Origins to the Age of Discoveries, Volume 224 |page=48 |author=R. A. Donkin|isbn=0-87169-224-4 |year=1998 |publisher=American Philosophical Society }}</ref> Some archaeologists working on the [[Persian Gulf]] have accepted these traditions and suggest a migration connected with the collapse of the [[Dilmun civilization]] {{circa|1750}} BC.<ref name="Bowersock, G.W.-1986"/><ref name="Rice, Michael-1994"/><ref name="R. A. Donkin-1998"/> However, most scholars reject the idea of a migration; archaeological and historical evidence alike indicate millennia of population continuity in the region, and recent genetic research indicates that present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population.<ref name="Habercetera">{{cite journal |title=Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |year=2017 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.06.013 |pmid=28757201|doi-access=free |last1=Haber |first1=Marc |last2=Doumet-Serhal |first2=Claude |last3=Scheib |first3=Christiana |last4=Xue |first4=Yali |last5=Danecek |first5=Petr |last6=Mezzavilla |first6=Massimo |last7=Youhanna |first7=Sonia |last8=Martiniano |first8=Rui |last9=Prado-Martinez |first9=Javier |last10=Szpak |first10=Michał |last11=Matisoo-Smith |first11=Elizabeth |last12=Schutkowski |first12=Holger |last13=Mikulski |first13=Richard |last14=Zalloua |first14=Pierre |last15=Kivisild |first15=Toomas |last16=Tyler-Smith |first16=Chris |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=274–282 |pmc=5544389 }}</ref>

===Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)===
The first known account of the Phoenicians relates the conquests of Pharaoh [[Thutmose III]] (1479–1425 BC), including the subjugation of those the Egyptians called ''[[wikt:fnḫw|Fenekhu]]'' ('carpenters').{{sfn|Bresciani|1997|p=233}} The Egyptians targeted the coastal cities such as Byblos, Arwad, and Ullasa for their crucial geographic and commercial links with the interior (via the [[Nahr al-Kabir]] and the [[Orontes River|Orontes rivers]]). The cities provided Egypt with access to Mesopotamian trade and abundant stocks of the region's [[Cedrus libani|native cedarwood]], of which there was no equivalent in the Egyptian homeland.{{Sfn|Markoe|2000|pp=1–19}} [[Thutmose IV]] himself visited Sidon, where the purchase of lumber from Lebanon was arranged.{{sfn|Bryan|2000|p=79}}

By the mid-14th century BC, the Phoenician city-states were considered "favored cities" by the Egyptians. Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos were regarded as the most important. The Phoenicians had considerable autonomy, and their cities were reasonably well developed and prosperous. Byblos was the leading city; it was a center for bronze-making and the primary terminus of trade routes for precious goods such as [[tin]] and [[lapis lazuli]] from as far east as [[Afghanistan]]. Sidon and Tyre also commanded the interest of Egyptian governmental officials,{{sfn|Cohen|2000|p=94}} beginning a pattern of commercial rivalry that would span the next millennium.

The [[Amarna letters]] report that from 1350 to 1300 BC, neighboring [[Amorites]] and [[Hittites]] were capturing Phoenician cities, especially in the north. Egypt subsequently lost its coastal holdings from Ugarit{{sfn|Murnane|2000|p=110}} in northern Syria to Byblos near central Lebanon.

===Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC)===
Sometime between 1200 and 1150 BC, the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]] severely weakened or destroyed most civilizations in the region, including those of the Egyptians and the Hittites. The Phoenicians were able to survive and navigate the challenges of the crisis, and by 1230 BC city-states such as Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos maintained political independence, asserted their maritime interests, and enjoyed economic prosperity.
The period sometimes described as a "Phoenician renaissance" had begun, and by the end of the 11th century BC, an alliance formed between Tyre and Israel had created a new geopolitical status quo in the Levant. Commercial maritime activity now involved not just mercantilism, but colonization as well, and Phoenician expansion into the Mediterranean was well under way.{{sfn|Stieglitz|1990|pp=9, 11}} The Phoenician city-states during this time were Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, Aradus, Beirut, and Tripoli. They filled the power vacuum caused by the Late Bronze Age collapse and created a vast mercantile network.<ref name="Scott-2018" />

The recovery of the Mediterranean economy can be credited to Phoenician mariners and merchants, who re-established long-distance trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia in the 10th century BC.<ref name="Bentley-1999">{{cite journal|first=Jerry H.|last=Bentley|title=Sea and Ocean Basins as Frameworks for Historical Analysis|journal=Geographical Review|volume= 89|issue=2|year=1999|pages=215–219|doi=10.1111/j.1931-0846.1999.tb00214.x |bibcode=1999GeoRv..89..215B }}</ref>

Early in the [[Iron Age]], the Phoenicians established ports, warehouses, markets, and settlements all across the Mediterranean and up to the southern Black Sea. Colonies were established on [[Cyprus]], [[Sardinia]], the [[Balearic Islands]], [[Sicily]], and [[Malta]], as well as the coasts of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barnes|first=William H.|title=Studies in the Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel|location=Atlanta|publisher=Scholars Press|year=1991|pages=29–55}}</ref> Phoenician [[hacksilver]] dated to this period bears lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain, indicating the extent of Phoenician trade networks.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chamorro|first1=Javier G.|year=1987|title=Survey of Archaeological Research on Tartessos|journal=American Journal of Archaeology|volume=91|issue=2|pages=197–232|doi=10.2307/505217|jstor=505217|s2cid=191378720 }}</ref>

By the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the richest and most powerful Phoenician city-state, particularly during the reign of [[Hiram I]] ({{circa|969–936}} BC). The expertise of Phoenician artisans sent by Hiram I of Tyre in significant construction projects during the reign of [[Solomon]], the King of Israel, is alluded to in the Hebrew Bible,{{sfn|Gates|2011|pp=189–190}} although the reliability of this biblical history is disputed by some scientific researchers in modern times.{{sfn|Na'aman|2019|p=75}}

During the rule of the priest [[Ithobaal I|Ithobaal]] (887–856 BC), Tyre expanded its territory as far north as Beirut and into part of Cyprus; this unusual act of aggression was the closest the Phoenicians ever came to forming a unitary territorial state. Once his realm reached its largest territorial extent, Ithobaal declared himself "King of the Sidonians", a title that would be used by his successors and mentioned in both Greek and Jewish accounts.{{sfn|Boyes|2012|p=33}}

The Late Iron Age saw the height of Phoenician shipping, mercantile, and cultural activity, particularly between 750 and 650 BC. The Phoenician influence was visible in the "orientalization" of Greek cultural and artistic conventions.<ref name="Scott-2018" /> Among their most popular goods were fine textiles, typically dyed with [[Tyrian purple]]. Homer's ''[[Iliad]]'', which was composed during this period, references the quality of Phoenician clothing and metal goods.<ref name="Scott-2018" />

===Foundation of Carthage===
{{Main|Carthage|Ancient Carthage|History of Carthage|Punic Wars}}

Carthage was founded by Phoenicians coming from Tyre, probably to provide an anchorage and supplies to the Tyrian merchants in their voyages.{{sfn|Warmington|1960|pp=24}} The city's name in [[Punic language|Punic]], {{lang|phn-Latn|Qart-Ḥadašt}} {{nowrap|({{script|Phnx|𐤒𐤓𐤕 𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕}})}}, means 'New City'.{{sfn|Charles-Picard|Picard|1968|pp=28–35}} There is a tradition in some ancient sources, such as [[Philistus|Philistos of Syracuse]], for an "early" foundation date of around 1215 BC—before the [[Trojan War|fall of Troy]] in 1180 BC. However, [[Timaeus (historian)|Timaeus]], a Greek historian from Sicily {{circa|300}} BC, places the foundation of Carthage in 814 BC, which is the date generally accepted by modern historians.{{sfn|Lancel|1995|pp=20–23}} Legend, including [[Virgil]]'s [[Aeneid]], assigns the founding of the city to Queen [[Dido]]. Carthage would grow into a multi-ethnic empire spanning North Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia, but would ultimately be destroyed by Rome in the [[Punic Wars]] (264–146 BC). It was eventually rebuilt as a Roman city by [[Julius Caesar]] in the period from 49 to 44 BC, with the official name ''Colonia Iulia Concordia Carthago''.<ref name="Hoyos2020">{{cite book |last1=Hoyos |first1=Dexter |title=Carthage: A Biography |year=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-32816-5 |page=88 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DGwJEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT88}}</ref>

===Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)===
{{Main|Phoenicia under Assyrian rule|Phoenicia under Babylonian rule}}

[[File: Assyrian - Fragments of Bands from a Gate - Walters 542335 - View A.jpg|thumb|Two bronze fragments from an [[Assyria]]n palace gate depicting the collection of tribute from the Phoenician cities of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and [[Sidon]] (859–824 BC). British Museum.]]

As mercantile city-states concentrated along a narrow coastal strip of land, the Phoenicians lacked the size and population to support a large military. Thus, as neighboring empires began to rise, the Phoenicians increasingly fell under the sway of foreign rulers, who to varying degrees circumscribed their autonomy.{{sfn|Woolmer|2021|pp=49–50}}

The Assyrian domination of Phoenicia began with King [[Shalmaneser III]]. He rose to power in 858 BC and began a series of campaigns against neighboring states. Although he did not invade Phoenicia and maintained good relations with the Phoenician cities,{{sfn|Aubet|2008|p=184}} he demanded tribute from the "kings of the seacoast", a group which probably included the Phoenician city-states.{{sfn|Woolmer|2021|p=44}} According to Aubet, Tyre, Sidon, Arwad and Byblos paid tribute in bronze and bronze vessels, tin, silver, gold, ebony and ivory.{{sfn|Aubet|2008|p=184}} Initially, they were not annexed outright—they were allowed a certain degree of freedom.{{sfn|Hodos|2011|p=25}} This changed in 744 BC with the ascension of [[Tiglath-Pileser III]]. By 738 BC, most of the Levant, including northern Phoenicia, was annexed;{{sfn|Faust|2021|p=37}}{{sfn|Bunnens|2022|p=67}} only Tyre and Byblos, the most powerful city-states, remained tributary states outside of direct Assyrian control.{{sfn|Elayi|2018|p=149}}

Tyre, Byblos, and Sidon all rebelled against Assyrian rule. In 721 BC, [[Sargon II]] besieged Tyre and crushed the rebellion. His successor [[Sennacherib]] suppressed further rebellions across the region. During the seventh century BC, Sidon rebelled and was destroyed by [[Esarhaddon]], who enslaved its inhabitants and built a new city on its ruins. By the end of the century, the Assyrians had been weakened by successive revolts, which led to their destruction by the [[Median empire|Median Empire]].{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

The Babylonians, formerly vassals of the Assyrians, took advantage of the empire's collapse and rebelled, quickly establishing the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] in its place. Phoenician cities revolted several times throughout the reigns of the first Babylonian kings: [[Nabopolassar]] (626–605 BC) and his son [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] ({{circa|605}} – {{circa|562}} BC). Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre, his siege commonly having been thought to have lasted thirteen years, although the city was not destroyed and suffered little damage. The consensus opinion in contemporary Phoenician historiography is that the thirteen-year siege began soon after the conquest of Jerusalem in 587 BC, and lasted from 585 BC through 573 BC. Among the writings of ancient historians, this detail about the length of Nebuchadnezzar's supposed thirteen-year siege of Tyre in the early sixth century BC can be found only in Josephus' first century writings, recorded almost 700 years after the date of the purported event. Helen Dixon proposes that the putative 'thirteen-year' siege was more likely several small-scale interventions in the region, or a limited blockade between the land-side city and its port.{{sfn|Dixon|2022|pp=165–170}}

===Persian period (539–332 BC)===
{{Main|Achaemenid Phoenicia}}

[[File: Construction of Xerxes Bridge of boats by Phoenician sailors.jpg|thumb|Phoenicians build [[pontoon bridge]]s for [[Xerxes I of Persia]] during the [[second Persian invasion of Greece]] in 480 BC (1915 drawing by A. C. Weatherstone).]]

In 539 BC, [[Cyrus the Great]], king and founder of the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]], took Babylon.<ref name="Katzenstein-1979">{{cite journal|last=Katzenstein|first=Jacob|title=Tyre in the Early Persian Period (539-486 B.C.E.)|journal=The Biblical Archaeologist|volume=42|issue=1|year=1979|page=31|doi=10.2307/3209545|jstor=3209545|s2cid=165757132}}</ref> As Cyrus began consolidating territories across the Near East, the Phoenicians apparently made the pragmatic calculation of "[yielding] themselves to the Persians".<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/3A*.html#19 Herodotus, ''The Histories'', III.19]</ref> Most of the Levant was consolidated by Cyrus into a single [[satrap]]y (province) and forced to pay a yearly tribute of 350 [[Talent (measurement)|talents]], which was roughly half the tribute that was required of Egypt and Libya.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/3D*.html#91 Herodotus, ''The Histories'', III.91]</ref>

The Phoenician area was later divided into four vassal kingdoms—Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos—which were allowed considerable autonomy. Unlike in other areas of the empire, there is no record of Persian administrators governing the Phoenician city-states. Local Phoenician kings were allowed to remain in power and given the same rights as Persian satraps (governors), such as hereditary offices and the minting of coinage.<ref name="Katzenstein-1979" />

[[File: Coin of Abdashtart I, Achaemenid Phoenicia (2).jpg|thumb|[[Achaemenid]]-era coin of [[Abdashtart I]] of Sidon, who is seen at the back of the chariot, behind the Persian King]]
The Phoenicians remained a core asset to the Achaemenid Empire, particularly for their prowess in maritime technology and navigation;<ref name="Katzenstein-1979" /> they furnished the bulk of the Persian fleet during the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] of the late fifth century BC.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/5D*.html#109 Herodotus, ''The Histories'', V.109]</ref> Phoenicians under [[Xerxes I]] built the [[Xerxes Canal]] and the pontoon bridges that allowed his forces to cross into mainland Greece.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/7A*.html#23 Herodotus, ''The Histories'', VII.23]</ref> Nevertheless, they were harshly punished by Xerxes following his defeat at the [[Battle of Salamis]], which he blamed on Phoenician cowardice and incompetence.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/8B*.html#90 Herodotus, ''The Histories'', VIII.90]</ref>

In the mid-fourth century BC, King [[Tennes]] of Sidon led a failed rebellion against [[Artaxerxes III]], enlisting the help of the Egyptians, who were subsequently drawn into a war with the Persians.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/16C*.html|title=LacusCurtius • Diodorus Siculus — Book XVI Chapters 40‑65|website=penelope.uchicago.edu|access-date=2020-04-20}}</ref> The resulting destruction of Sidon led to the resurgence of Tyre, which remained the dominant Phoenician city for two decades until the arrival of Alexander the Great.

===Hellenistic period (332–152 BC)===
Phoenicia was one of the first areas to be conquered by [[Alexander the Great]] during his [[Wars of Alexander the Great|military campaigns across western Asia]]. Alexander's main target in the Persian Levant was Tyre, now the region's largest and most important city. It capitulated after a roughly [[Siege of Tyre (332 BC)|seven month siege]], during which some of its non-combatant citizens were sent to Carthage.{{sfn|Millar|2006|p=58}} Tyre's refusal to allow Alexander to visit its temple to [[Melqart]], culminating in the killing of his envoys, led to a brutal reprisal: 2,000 of its leading citizens were [[Crucifixion|crucified]] and a puppet ruler was installed. The rest of Phoenicia easily came under his control, with Sidon surrendering peacefully.<ref name="Stockwell-2010" />

[[File: A naval action during the siege of Tyre by Andre Castaigne (1898-1899).jpg|thumb|A naval action during [[Alexander the Great]]'s [[Siege of Tyre (332 BC)|Siege of Tyre]] (332 BC). Drawing by [[André Castaigne]], 1888–89.]]
Alexander's empire had a [[Hellenization]] policy, whereby Hellenic culture, religion, and sometimes language were spread or imposed across conquered peoples. However, Hellenization was not enforced most of the time and was just a language of administration until his death. This was typically implemented in other lands through the founding of new cities, the settlement of a Macedonian or Greek urban elite, and the alteration of native place names to Greek. However, there was no organized Hellenization in Phoenicia, and with one or two minor exceptions, all Phoenician city-states retained their native names, while Greek settlement and administration appears to have been very limited.{{sfn|Millar|2006|p=66}}

The Phoenicians maintained cultural and commercial links with their western counterparts. [[Polybius]] recounts how the Seleucid King [[Demetrius I Soter|Demetrius I]] escaped from Rome by boarding a Carthaginian ship that was delivering goods to Tyre.{{sfn|Millar|2006|p=58}} The adaptation to Macedonian rule was probably aided by the Phoenicians' historical ties with the Greeks, with whom they shared some mythological stories and figures; the two peoples were even sometimes considered "relatives".

When Alexander's empire collapsed after his death in 323 BC, the Phoenicians came under the control of the largest of its successors, the [[Seleucids]]. The Phoenician homeland was repeatedly contested by the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] of Egypt during the forty-year [[Syrian Wars]], coming under Ptolemaic rule in the third century BC. The Seleucids reclaimed the area the following century, holding it until the mid-first 2nd century BC. Under their rule, the Phoenicians were allowed a considerable degree of autonomy and self-governance.

During the [[Seleucid Dynastic Wars]] (157–63 BC), the Phoenician cities were mainly self-governed. Many of them were fought for or over by the warring factions of the Seleucid royal family. Some Phoenician regions were under Jewish influence, after the Jews revolted and succeeded in defeating the Seleucids in 164 BC. A significant portion of the Phoenician diaspora in North Africa thus converted to Judaism in the late millennium BC.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Feldman |first1=Louis H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pACJYw0bg3QC&pg=PA195 |title=Studies in Hellenistic Judaism |date=1996 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-10418-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Rives, 1995 p.220</ref><ref name="Selzer1984">{{cite book |last1=Selzer |first1=Claudia |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: The late Roman-Rabbinic period |year=1984 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor1-last=Davies |editor1-first=William David |page=69 |language=en |chapter=The Jews in Carthage and Western North Africa, 66-235 CE |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BjtWLZhhMoYC&pg=PA68}}</ref> The Seleucid Kingdom was seized by [[Tigranes the Great]] of [[Armenia]] in 74/73 BC, ending the Hellenistic influence on the Levant.{{sfn|Wright|2011|p=128}}{{sfn|Hoover|2007|p=298}}

==Demographics==
The people now known as Phoenicians were a group of [[ancient Semitic-speaking peoples]] that emerged in the [[Levant]] in at least the third millennium BC.<ref name="Scott-2018" /> Phoenicians did not refer themselves as "Phoenicians" but rather are thought to have broadly referred to themselves as "Kenaʿani", meaning '[[Canaanites]]'. Phoenicians identified themselves specifically with the name of the city they hailed from (e.g., ''Sidonian'' for [[Sidon]], ''Tyrian'' for [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], etc.). {{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}{{Failed verification|date=April 2025|reason=couldnt verify this part in quick shallow inspection of the previous source.}}

===Genetic studies===
[[File:Osman Hamdi Bey. Crâne du roi Tabnit (№ 1). 2 sides. Paris, 1892.jpg|thumb|Skull of King [[Tabnit]] of Sidon (reigned {{circa|549 BC}} – {{circa|539 BC}}), now in the [[Istanbul Archaeology Museums]]]]
{{See also||Canaan#Genetic studies|Lebanese people#Genetics}}
A 2008 study led by [[Pierre Zalloua]] found that six subclades of [[Haplogroup J-M172]] (J2)—thought to have originated between the [[Caucasus Mountains]], [[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Levant]]—were of a "Phoenician signature" and present amongst the male populations of coastal Lebanon as well as the wider Levant (the "Phoenician Periphery"), followed by other areas of historic Phoenician settlement, spanning Cyprus through to Morocco. This deliberate sequential sampling was an attempt to develop a methodology to link the documented historical expansion of a population with a particular geographic genetic pattern or patterns. The researchers suggested that the proposed genetic signature stemmed from "a common source of related lineages rooted in [[Lebanon]]".<ref name="Zalloua 2008">{{cite journal |last=Zalloua |first=Pierre A.|author-link=Pierre Zalloua |title=Identifying Genetic Traces of Historical Expansions: Phoenician Footprints in the Mediterranean |journal=[[American Journal of Human Genetics]] |year=2008 |volume=83 |issue=5 |pages=633–642 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.10.012 |pmid=18976729 |pmc=2668035|display-authors=et al.}}</ref> Another study in 2006 found evidence for the genetic persistence of Phoenicians in the Spanish island of [[Ibiza]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tomàs |first1=Carme|title=Differential maternal and paternal contributions to the genetic pool of Ibiza Island, Balearic Archipelago |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=2006 |volume=129 |issue=2 |pages=268–278 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.20273 |pmid=16323196 |bibcode=2006AJPA..129..268T }}</ref>

In 2016, the rare [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|U5b2c1]] maternal haplogroup was identified in the DNA of a 2,500-year-old male skeleton excavated from a Punic tomb in Tunisia. The lineage of this "Young Man of Byrsa" is believed to represent early gene flow from [[Iberia]] to the [[Maghreb]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matisoo-Smith |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Gosling |first2=Anna L. |last3=Boocock |first3=James |last4=Kardailsky |first4=Olga |last5=Kurumilian |first5=Yara |last6=Roudesli-Chebbi |first6=Sihem |date=25 May 2016 |title=A European Mitochondrial Haplotype Identified in Ancient Phoenician Remains from Carthage, North Africa |journal=[[PLoS ONE]] |volume=11 |issue=5 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0155046 |display-authors=et al. |article-number=e0155046 |pmid=27224451 |pmc=4880306|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1155046M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

According to a 2017 study published by the ''[[American Journal of Human Genetics]]'', present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a [[Canaan]]ite-related population, which therefore implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least the [[Bronze Age]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Harb|first1=Marc|display-authors=etal|date=July 2017|title=Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences|url=|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=101|issue=2|pages=274–282|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.06.013|pmc=5544389|pmid=28757201}}</ref><ref name=latimes/> More specifically, the research of geneticist Chris Tyler-Smith and his team at the [[Sanger Institute]] in Britain, who compared "sampled ancient DNA from five [[Canaanite people]] who lived 3,750 and 3,650 years ago" to modern people, revealed that 93 percent of the genetic ancestry of people in Lebanon came from the [[Canaanites]] (the other 7 percent was of a [[Eurasian steppe]] population).<ref name=latimes>{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-canaanite-lebanese-genetics-20170727-story.html |title=The DNA of ancient Canaanites lives on in modern-day Lebanese, genetic analysis shows |last=Abed |first=Mira |work=Los Angeles Times |date=27 July 2017 |access-date=5 August 2021 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809223800/https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-canaanite-lebanese-genetics-20170727-story.html|archive-date=Aug 9, 2021}}</ref>

One 2018 study of mitochondrial lineages in Sardinia concluded that the Phoenicians were "inclusive, multicultural and featured significant female mobility", with evidence of indigenous [[Sardinians]] integrating "peacefully and permanently" with Semitic Phoenician settlers. The study also found evidence suggesting that south Europeans may have likewise settled in the area of modern Lebanon.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 January 2018 |title=Ancient Phoenician life was mixed and multicultural |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/biology/ancient-phoenician-life-was-mixed-and-multicultural |access-date=2020-04-25 |website=Cosmos Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

In a 2020 study published in the ''American Journal of Human Genetics'', researchers have shown that there is substantial genetic continuity in Lebanon since the [[Bronze Age]] interrupted by three significant admixture events during the [[Iron Age]], [[Phoenicia under Hellenistic rule|Hellenistic]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period. In particular, the Phoenicians can be modeled as a mixture of the [[Canaan#Genetic studies|local Bronze Age population]] (63–88%) and a population coming from the North, related to ancient [[Anatolia]]ns or ancient [[Southeast Europe|South-Eastern Europeans]] (12–37%). The results show that a [[Western Steppe Herders|Steppe-like ancestry]], typically found in Europeans, appears in the region starting from the Iron Age.<ref name="doi_10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.05.008">{{cite journal|last1=Haber|first1=Marc|last2=Nassar|first2=Joyce|last3=Almarri|first3=Mohamed A.|last4=Saupe|first4=Tina|last5=Saag|first5=Lehti|last6=Griffith|first6=Samuel J.|last7=Doumet-Serhal|first7=Claude|last8=Chanteau|first8=Julien|last9=Saghieh-Beydoun|first9=Muntaha|last10=Xue|first10=Yali|last11=Scheib|first11=Christiana L.|year=2020|title=A Genetic History of the Near East from an aDNA Time Course Sampling Eight Points in the Past 4,000 Years|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=107|issue=1|pages=149–157|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.05.008|pmc=7332655|pmid=32470374|last12=Tyler-Smith|first12=Chris}}</ref>

A 2022 analysis of maternal haplogroups from ancient samples from Punic sites of [[Motya]] and [[Marsala|Lilibeo]] in Sicily, indicates that the Sicilian Phoenicians shared genetic similarities with Bronze Age samples from the Iberian Peninsula, Sardinia and Italy, and are not particularly close to other Phoenicians from Sardinia and the Iberian islands. The Phoenicians in Motya shared lesser genetic similarities with samples from Bronze Age Levant.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Modi |first1=Alessandra |last2=Vizzari |first2=Maria Teresa |last3=Catalano |first3=Giulio |last4=Boscolo Agostini |first4=Rajiv |last5=Vai |first5=Stefania |last6=Lari |first6=Martina |last7=Vergata |first7=Chiara |last8=Zaro |first8=Valentina |last9=Liccioli |first9=Lucia |last10=Fedi |first10=Mariaelena |last11=Barone |first11=Serena |last12=Nigro |first12=Lorenzo |last13=Lancioni |first13=Hovirag |last14=Achilli |first14=Alessandro |last15=Sineo |first15=Luca |date=2022-09-09 |title=Genetic structure and differentiation from early bronze age in the mediterranean island of sicily: Insights from ancient mitochondrial genomes |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=13 |article-number=945227 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2022.945227 |pmid=36159977 |pmc=9500526 |doi-access=free |issn=1664-8021}}</ref>

A genetic study published in ''[[Nature Communications]]'' in April 2025 examined the remains of 196 individuals from 14 sites traditionally identified as Phoenician and [[Punic people|Punic]] in the central and western Mediterranean. The results suggest that during the earlier stages of the Phoenician colonization, the Punic demographic expansion was primarily driven by the spread of people with Sicilian-Aegean ancestry, while Levantine Phoenicians made little to no genetic contribution to Punic settlements in the central and western Mediterranean. The [[North Africa|North African]] ancestry became widespread only after 400 BCE in the Punic world, suggesting that expanding [[Carthaginian empire|Carthaginian influence]] facilitated this spread. However, this was a minority contributor of ancestry in all of the sampled sites, including in Carthage itself.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ringbauer |first1=Harald |last2=Salman-Minkov |first2=Ayelet |last3=Regev |first3=Dalit |last4=Olalde |first4=Iñigo |last5=Peled |first5=Tomer |last6=Sineo |first6=Luca |last7=Falsone |first7=Gioacchino |last8=van Dommelen |first8=Peter |last9=Mittnik |first9=Alissa |last10=Lazaridis |first10=Iosif |last11=Pettener |first11=Davide |last12=Bofill |first12=Maria |last13=Mezquida |first13=Ana |last14=Costa |first14=Benjamí |last15=Jiménez |first15=Helena |date=23 April 2025 |title=Punic people were genetically diverse with almost no Levantine ancestors |journal=Nature |volume=643 |issue=8070 |pages=139–147 |doi=10.1038/s41586-025-08913-3 |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=12226237 |pmid=40269169 |bibcode=2025Natur.643..139R }}</ref>

==Economy==

===Trade===
{{See also|Phoenicians and wine}}
[[File:Phoenician trade routes (eng).svg|thumb|Major Phoenician trade networks ({{circa|1200–800}} BC)]]
The Phoenicians served as intermediaries between the disparate civilizations that spanned the Mediterranean and Near East, facilitating the exchange of goods and knowledge, culture, and religious traditions. Their expansive and enduring trade network is credited with laying the foundations of an economically and culturally cohesive Mediterranean, which would be continued by the Greeks and especially the Romans.<ref name="Bentley-1999" />

[[File:0675 - Phoenician glass necklace - Museo Archeologico, Cagliari - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, November 11 2016.jpg|thumb|Phoenician faces. Glass from Olbia, 4th century BC. The bold pools of color and detailed hair give a Greek impression.]]
Phoenician ties with the Greeks ran deep. The earliest verified relationship appears to have begun with the [[Minoan civilization]] on Crete (1950–1450 BC), which together with the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean civilization]] (1600–1100 BC) is considered the progenitor of classical Greece.<ref>{{cite book|first=Fernand|last=Braudel|title=Memory and Mediterranean|translator-first=Sian|translator-last=Reynolds|location=New York|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|year=2001|pages=112–113}}</ref> Archaeological research suggests that the Minoans gradually imported Near Eastern goods, artistic styles, and customs from other cultures via the Phoenicians.{{cn|date=September 2025}}

The Phoenicians were known for trading beer across their colonies around the Mediterranean, particularly along the North African coast.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rhodes |first1=Christine P. |title=Encyclopedia of Beer |date=23 September 2014 |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |isbn=978-1-4668-8195-2 }}</ref> The trade expanded to regions beyond the Mediterranean, including the Basque Country, where it is believed that beer brewing was introduced by the Phoenicians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=ohannes Heinrich |first1=August Ebrard |title=Apologetics, Or, The Scientific Vindication of Christianity |date=1887 |publisher=Harvard University |page=401 |edition=2 }}</ref>{{bsn|reason=Information from 1887 is practically certain to be out of date.|date=February 2025}}

To Egypt the Phoenicians sold logs of cedar for significant sums,{{sfn|Cunliffe|2008|pp=241–242}} and [[wine]] beginning in the eighth century. The wine trade with Egypt is vividly documented by shipwrecks discovered in 1997 in the open sea {{convert|50|km|-1}} west of [[Ashkelon|Ascalon]], Israel.<ref>{{cite book |first=L. E. |last=Stager |chapter=Phoenician shipwrecks in the deep sea |title=Sea routes: From Sidon to Huelva: Interconnections in the Mediterranean, 16th–6th c. BC |year=2003 |pages=233–248 |publisher=Museum of Cycladic Art |isbn=978-960-7064-40-0 }}</ref> Pottery kilns at [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and [[Sarepta]] produced the large terracotta jars used for transporting wine. From Egypt, the Phoenicians bought [[Nubia]]n gold.

[[File:MuseoArqueologicoCadiz-P1050192.JPG|thumb|Phoenician [[Sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] found in Cádiz, Spain, thought to have been imported from the Phoenician homeland around Sidon.<ref>A. B. Freijeiro, R. Corzo Sánchez, Der neue anthropoide Sarkophag von Cadiz. In: Madrider Mitteilungen 22, 1981.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lapuente |first1=P. |last2=Rodà |first2=I. |last3=Gutiérrez Garcia-M |first3=A. |last4=Brilli |first4=M. |title=Addressing the controversial origin of the marble source used in the Phoenician anthropoid sarcophagi of Gadir (Cadiz, Spain) |journal=Archaeometry |date=June 2021 |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=467–480 |doi=10.1111/arcm.12623|bibcode=2021Archa..63..467L |s2cid=225150177 |url=http://zaguan.unizar.es/record/108415 }}</ref> Archaeological Museum of Cádiz.]]

From elsewhere, they obtained other materials, perhaps the most crucial being [[silver]], mostly from [[Sardinia]] and the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. Tin for making [[bronze]] "may have been acquired from [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] by way of the Atlantic coast of southern Spain; alternatively, it may have come from northern Europe ([[Cornwall]] or [[Brittany]]) via the [[Rhone valley]] and coastal [[Marseille|Massalia]]".{{sfn|Markoe|2000|p=103}} [[Strabo]] states that there was a highly lucrative Phoenician trade with Britain for tin via the [[Cassiterides]], whose location is unknown but may have been off the northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hawkes|first=Christopher|title=Britain and Julius Caesar|journal=Proceedings of the British Academy|issue=63|year=1977|pages=124–192}}</ref>

===Industry===
[[File: Phoenician - Bowl with Hunting Scene - Walters 57705.jpg|thumb|[[Phoenician metal bowls|Phoenician metal bowl]] with hunting scene (8th century BC). The clothing and hairstyle of the figures are Egyptian. At the same time, the subject matter of the central scene conforms with the [[Mesopotamia]]n theme of combat between man and beast. Phoenician artisans frequently adapted the styles of neighboring cultures.]]
Phoenicia lacked considerable natural resources other than its [[cedrus|cedar]] wood. Timber was probably the earliest and most lucrative source of wealth; neither Egypt nor Mesopotamia had adequate wood sources. Unable to rely solely on this limited resource, the Phoenicians developed an industrial base manufacturing a variety of goods for both everyday and luxury use.<ref name="Scott-2018" /> The Phoenicians developed or mastered techniques such as [[Glass production|glass-making]], engraved and [[Repoussé and chasing|chased]] metalwork (including bronze, iron, and gold), ivory carving, and woodwork.<ref name="Markoe-1990b" />

The Phoenicians were early pioneers in mass production, and sold a variety of items in bulk. They set up trade networks to market their glassware and became its leading source in antiquity, shipping flasks, beads, and other glass objects across the Mediterranean in their vessels.{{sfn|Herm|1975|p=80}} Excavations of colonies in Spain suggest they also used the [[potter's wheel]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Karl|last1=Moore|first2=David|last2=Lewis|title=Birth of the Multinational|location=Copenhagen|publisher=Copenhagen Business School Press|year=1999|page=85}}</ref> Their exposure to a wide variety of cultures allowed them to manufacture goods for specific markets.<ref name="Markoe-1990b">{{cite journal|last1=Markoe|first1=Glenn|last2= McGovern|first2=Patrick E.|title=A Nation of Artisans|journal=Archaeology|volume=43|issue=2|date=March 1990|pages=32–33|jstor=41765806}}</ref> The ''Iliad'' suggests Phoenician clothing and metal goods were highly prized by the Greeks.<ref name="Scott-2018" /> Specialized goods were designed specifically for wealthier clientele, including ivory reliefs and plaques, carved [[Tridacna|clam]] shells, sculpted amber, and finely detailed and painted ostrich eggs.

====Tyrian purple====
[[File:Contemporary portrayal of a toga picta.jpg|thumb|An [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] tomb ({{circa|350}} BC) depicting a man wearing an all-purple ''[[toga picta]]'']]
The most prized Phoenician goods were fabrics dyed with [[Tyrian purple]], which formed a major part of Phoenician wealth. The violet-purple dye derived from the [[hypobranchial gland]] of the ''[[Murex]]'' marine snail, once profusely available in coastal waters of the eastern Mediterranean Sea but now exploited to local extinction. Phoenicians may have discovered the dye as early as 1750 BC.<ref>{{cite book|last=St. Clair|first=Kassia|year=2016|title=The Secret Lives of Colour|location=London|publisher=John Murray|pages=162–164}}</ref> The Phoenicians established a second production center for the dye in [[Mogador]], in present-day [[Morocco]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Phoenicians: A Captivating Guide to the History of Phoenicia and the Impact Made by One of the Greatest Trading Civilizations of the Ancient World|year=2019|isbn=978-1-64748-205-3|page=60|last1= History|first1= Captivating|publisher=Captivating History }}</ref>

The Phoenicians' exclusive command over the production and trade of the dye, combined with the labor-intensive extraction process, made it very expensive. Tyrian purple subsequently became associated with the upper classes. It soon became a [[status symbol]] in several civilizations, most notably among the Romans. Assyrian tribute records from the Phoenicians include "garments of brightly colored stuff" that most likely included Tyrian purple. While the designs, ornamentation, and embroidery used in Phoenician textiles were well-regarded, the techniques and specific descriptions are unknown.<ref name="Markoe-1990b" />

====Mining====
Mining operations in the Phoenician homeland were limited; iron was the only metal of any worth. The first large-scale mining operations by Phoenicians probably occurred in Cyprus, principally for copper. Sardinia may have been colonized almost exclusively for its mineral resources; Phoenician settlements were concentrated in the southern parts of the island, close to sources of copper and lead. Piles of [[scoria]] and copper ingots, which appear to predate Roman occupation, suggest the Phoenicians mined and processed metals on the island. The Iberian Peninsula was the richest source of numerous metals in antiquity, including gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead.{{sfn|Rawlinson|1889|p=313}} The output of silver during the Phoenician and Carthaginian occupation there was enormous.{{sfn|Rawlinson|1889|p=314}} The Carthaginians relied on slave labor almost exclusively in their mining operations, and according to Rawlinson, because they likely continued the established practices of their predecessors in Iberia, the Phoenicians themselves probably also used slave labor.{{sfn|Rawlinson|1889|pp=317–318}}

====Viticulture====
The most notable agricultural product was wine, which the Phoenicians helped propagate across the Mediterranean.<ref name="History & Culture-2020">{{Cite web|date=2020-09-14|title=2,600-year-old wine 'factory' unearthed in Lebanon|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/09/2600-year-old-wine-factory-unearthed-lebanon/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200915071559/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/09/2600-year-old-wine-factory-unearthed-lebanon/|archive-date=September 15, 2020|access-date=2020-09-15|website=History & Culture|language=en}}</ref> The [[Vitis vinifera|common grape vine]] may have been domesticated by the Phoenicians or Canaanites, although it most likely arrived from [[Transcaucasia]] via trade routes across [[Mesopotamia]] or the [[Black Sea]]. Vines grew readily in the coastal Levant, and wine was exported to Egypt as early as the [[Old Kingdom]] period (2686–2134 BC). Wine played an important part in [[Phoenician religion]], serving as the principal beverage for offerings and sacrifice.<ref name="History & Culture-2020" /> An excavation of a small Phoenician town south of Sidon uncovered a wine factory used from at least the seventh century BC, which is believed to have been aimed for an overseas market.<ref name="History & Culture-2020" /> To prevent [[oxidation]] of their contents, amphorae were sealed with a disk plug made of pinewood and a mixture of resin and clay.{{sfn|Woolmer|2021|p=163}}

The Phoenicians established vineyards and wineries in their colonies in North Africa, Sicily, France, and Spain,<ref name="History & Culture-2020" /> and may have taught [[winemaking]] to some of their trading partners. The ancient Iberians began producing wine from local grape varieties following their encounter with the Phoenicians. Iberian cultivars subsequently formed the basis of most western European wine.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sechrist|first=Robert|title=Planet of the Grapes: A Geography of Wine|pages=6–7}}</ref>

====Shipbuilding====
[[File:Mazarron I.jpg|alt=Image of a fragment of an old ship|thumb|[[Mortise and tenon]] joinery in the [[Phoenician shipwrecks of Mazarrón|Mazarron 1]] Phoenician shipwreck. Phoenicians pioneered the pegged mortise and tenon joinery, which came to be known as [[Phoenician joint]]s]]

As early as 1200 BC, texts from Ugarit suggest that Canaanite merchant ships were capable of carrying cargoes weighing up to 450 tons. During the first millennium BC, the cargo capacity of Phoenician merchant ships ranged between 100 and 500 tons.{{Sfn|Aubet|2001|p=174}} The Phoenicians pioneered the use of locked [[mortise and tenon]] joints, known as [[Phoenician joint]]s, to secure the planking of ship hulls underwater.{{Sfn|McGrail|2001|p=134}}{{Sfn|Pomey|2010|p=134}} This method involved cutting mortises into adjoining planks and inserting wooden tenons to join them, which were then secured with [[dowel]]s. Examples of this technique include the [[Uluburun shipwreck]] (c. 1320 BC){{Sfn|Mark|2005|p=35}}{{Sfn|Bass|1989|p=27}} and the [[Cape Gelidonya|Cape Gelidonya shipwreck]] (c. 1200 BC).{{Sfn|Bass|Throckmorton|Taylor|Hennessy|1967|pp=50–51}}{{Sfn|Bass|2012|p=300}} The innovation spread across the Mediterranean and influenced Greek and Roman shipbuilding,{{Sfn|Sleeswyk|1980|p=244}}{{Sfn|Bass|2006|p=14}} with the Romans referring to it as ''coagmenta punicana''.{{sfn|Sleeswyk|1980|pp=243–244}}{{Sfn|Cato|1934|loc=Chapter XVIII, 9}}

The Phoenicians were possibly the first to introduce the [[bireme]]. [[Fernand Braudel]] cites the bas-relief carvings on the [[Assyrian sculpture#Palace reliefs|walls of the palace]] of [[Nineveh]] which depict the Tyrian fleet fleeing the port of Tyre before the city was attacked by Sennacherib c. 700 BC. The Phoenicians sailed their biremes close to shore and only in fair weather.{{sfn|Braudel|2011|p=150}} They have also been credited with developing the [[trireme]] by scholars such as Lucien Basch. Referring to archaeological evidence of ships depicted in the Nineveh relief, [[cylinder seals]], and Phoenician coins, he argues that the trireme was invented in Sidon around 700 BC and later adopted by the Greeks.{{sfn|Papalas|1997|p=259}} The classicist [[J. S. Morrison]], a student of the trireme, quotes [[Thucydides]]' statement that ''triereis'', or triremes, were said to have been built first at Corinth in Greece. Although he allows that Phoenicians of 701 BC were credited by the sculptor of the Nineveh relief with one type of the vessel, interpreted by Morrison as having three banks of oarsmen on each side in three tiers with the uppermost tier unmanned,{{sfn|Morrison|Coates|Rankov|2000|p=34}} he argues that there is no good reason why Thucydides' account should not be believed.{{sfn|Morrison|Coates|Rankov|2000|p=36}} The trieme was regarded as the most advanced vessel in the ancient Mediterranean world.{{sfn|van den Eijnde|2019|p=52}}{{multiple image
| image1 = AssyrianWarship.jpg|
| caption1 = Warship with two rows of oars, in relief from [[Nineveh]] ({{circa|700}} BC)
| image2 = Eastern Antiquities in the Louvre - Room 4, 05.JPG
| caption2 = The [[Assyrian Timber Transportation relief|Timber Transportation relief]] at the Louvre
| footer = Two Assyrian representations of ships, which could represent Phoenician vessels
}}The Phoenicians developed several other maritime inventions. The [[amphora]], a type of container used for both dry and liquid goods, was an ancient Phoenician invention that became a standardized measurement of volume for close to two thousand years. The remnants of self-cleaning artificial harbors have been discovered in Sidon, Tyre, Atlit, and Acre.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Arad|last=Haggi|title=Report on Underwater Excavation at the Phoenician Harbour, Atlit, Israel|journal=International Journal of Nautical Archaeology|issue=39|year=2010|page=283}}</ref> The first example of [[admiralty law]] also appears in the Levant.<ref>{{cite book|first=Shelley|last=Wachsmann|title=Seagoing Ships & Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant|location=College Station, TX|publisher=Texas A & M University Press|year=1998|pages=300, 51, 323–325, 332}}</ref> The Phoenicians continued to contribute to cartography into the Iron Age.{{sfn|Woolmer|2021|p=84}}

In 2014, a {{convert|12|m|0}} long [[Gozo Phoenician shipwreck|Phoenician trading ship]] was found near [[Gozo]] island in Malta. Dated 700 BC, it is one of the oldest wrecks found in the Mediterranean. Fifty amphorae, used to contain wine and oil, were scattered nearby.<ref>{{Cite report|url=https://honorfrostfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/GAMBIN-Report-2017_frost.pdf|title=Between east and west – The Phoenician shipwreck off Gozo |last=Gambin |first=Timmy |date=October 2017|publisher=University of Malta|access-date=6 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106133857/https://honorfrostfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/GAMBIN-Report-2017_frost.pdf|archive-date=6 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/news/2700-year-old-phoenician-shipwreck-discovered|title=2,700-Year-Old Phoenician Shipwreck Discovered|last=Klein|first=Christopher|website=HISTORY|language=en|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.seeker.com/2700-year-old-phoenician-shipwreck-discovered-1769022411.html|title=2,700-Year-Old Phoenician Shipwreck Discovered |last=Lorenzi|first=Rossella |work=Seeker|date=28 August 2014}}</ref>

==Important cities and colonies==
{{Main|List of Phoenician cities}}

[[File: Griechischen und phönizischen Kolonien.jpg|thumb|Map of Phoenician (yellow labels) and Greek (red labels) colonies around 8th to 6th century BC (with German legend)]]

The Phoenicians were not a nation in the political sense. However, they were organized into independent city-states that shared a common language and culture. The leading city-states were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. Rivalries were expected, but armed conflict was rare.

Numerous other cities existed in the Levant alone, many probably unknown, including Beiruta (modern [[Beirut]]) Ampi, Amia, Arqa, [[Baalbek]], Botrys, Sarepta, and [[Tripolis (region of Phoenicia)|Tripolis]]. From the late tenth century BC, the Phoenicians established commercial outposts throughout the Mediterranean, with Tyre founding colonies in Cyprus, Sardinia, Iberia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Malta, and North Africa. Later colonies were established beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, particularly on the Atlantic coast of Iberia. The Phoenicians may have explored the Canary Islands and the British Isles.<ref name="Scott-2018" /> Phoenician settlement was primarily concentrated in Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, northwest Africa, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia.

===Phoenician colonization===
{{see also|Phoenician settlement of North Africa}}

[[File:Murs Mozia.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the ancient Phoenician city of [[Motya]], [[Sicily]], present-day [[Italy]]]]

To facilitate their commercial ventures, the Phoenicians established numerous colonies and trading posts along the coasts of the Mediterranean. Phoenician city states generally lacked the numbers or even the desire to expand their territory overseas. Few colonies had more than 1,000 inhabitants; only Carthage and some nearby settlements in the western Mediterranean would grow larger.<ref>{{cite book|first=Mogens Herman|last=Hansen|title=A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation|publisher=Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab|year=2000|isbn=978-87-7876-177-4|pages=601–602|chapter=Conclusion: The Impact of City-State Cultures on World History|access-date=5 April 2013|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8qvY8pxVxcwC}}</ref> A major motivating factor was competition with the Greeks, who began expanding across the Mediterranean during the same period.<ref name="ClineGraham2011">{{cite book|author1=Eric H. Cline|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1eRb5h7ATbsC|title=Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam|author2=Mark W. Graham|date=27 June 2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-88911-7|page=70|access-date=24 February 2013}}</ref> Though largely peaceful rivals, their respective settlements in Crete and Sicily did clash intermittently.<ref name="SacksMurray2009">{{cite book|author1=David Sacks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yyrao0dadqAC|title=Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World|author2=Oswyn Murray|author3=Lisa R. Brody|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1020-2|page=76|access-date=3 March 2013}}</ref>

The earliest Phoenician settlements outside the Levant were on [[Cyprus]] and [[Crete]], gradually moving westward towards [[Corsica]], the [[Balearic Islands]], [[Sardinia]], and [[Sicily]], as well as on the European mainland in [[Cádiz]] and [[Málaga]].<ref name="WaldmanMason2006">{{cite book|first1=Carl|last1=Waldman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kfv6HKXErqAC|title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples|first2=Catherine|last2=Mason|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4381-2918-1|page=586|access-date=23 February 2013}}</ref> The first Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean were along the northwest African coast and on [[Sicily]], [[Sardinia]] and the [[Balearic Islands]].<ref name="Smith2008">{{cite book|first=Richard L.|last=Smith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=986da1QR_wkC|title=Premodern Trade in World History|date=31 July 2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-89352-4|page=65|access-date=3 March 2013}}</ref> Tyre led the way in settling or controlling coastal areas.<ref name="Naylor2009">{{cite book|first=Phillip Chiviges|last=Naylor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a1jfzkJTAZgC|title=North Africa: A History from Antiquity to the Present|date=1 July 2009|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-77878-8|page=25|access-date=23 February 2013}}</ref>

Phoenician colonies were fairly autonomous. At most, they were expected to send annual tribute to their mother city, usually in the context of a religious offering. However, in the seventh century BC the western colonies came under the control of Carthage,<ref name="SwartzDumett1980">{{cite book|first1=B. K.|last1=Swartz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8_Z5N0gmNlsC|title=West African Culture Dynamics: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives|first2=Raymond E.|last2=Dumett|date=1 January 1980|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-080068-5|page=236|access-date=17 February 2013}}</ref><ref name="GarnseyWhittaker2007">{{cite book|first1=P. D. A.|last1=Garnsey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=01c6sUSS24oC|title=Imperialism in the Ancient World: The Cambridge University Research Seminar in Ancient History|first2=C. R.|last2=Whittaker|date=15 February 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-03390-9|page=80|access-date=22 February 2013}}</ref> which was exercised directly through appointed magistrates.<ref name="Roberts20042">{{cite book|author=P. Roberts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Krh7n9AyS40C|title=HSC Ancient History|date=1 October 2004|publisher=Pascal Press|isbn=978-1-74125-179-1|page=64|access-date=17 February 2013}}</ref> Carthage continued to send annual tribute to Tyre for some time after its independence.

==Society and culture==
Since very little of the Phoenicians' writings have survived, much of what is known about their culture and society comes from accounts by contemporary civilizations or inferences from archaeological discoveries.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} The Phoenicians had much in common with other Canaanites, including language, religion, social customs, and a monarchical political system centered around city-states. Their culture, economy, and daily life were heavily centered on commerce and maritime trade. Their propensity for seafaring brought them into contact with many other civilizations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://press.princeton.edu/ideas/all-at-sea-the-maritime-lives-of-the-ancient-phoenicians|title=All at sea: The maritime lives of the ancient Phoenicians|website=press.princeton.edu}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=September 2024}}

===Politics and government===
[[File: King Hiram Of Tyre.jpg|thumb|Tomb of [[Hiram I|King Hiram I of Tyre]], located in the village of [[Hanaouay]], in southern Lebanon]]
The Phoenician city-states were highly independent, competing with each other. Formal alliances between city-states were rare. The relative power and influence of city-states varied over time. [[Sidon]] was dominant between the 12th and 11th centuries BC and influenced its neighbors. However, by the tenth century BC, [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] rose to become the most powerful city.

At least in its earlier stages, Phoenician society was highly stratified and predominantly [[Monarchy|monarchical]]. Hereditary kings usually governed with absolute power over civic, commercial, and religious affairs. They often relied upon senior officials from the noble and merchant classes; the [[priesthood]] was a distinct class, usually of royal lineage or leading merchant families. The King was considered a representative of the gods and carried many obligations and duties concerning religious processions and rituals. Priests were thus highly influential and often became intertwined with the royal family.

Phoenician kings did not commemorate their reign through sculptures or monuments. Their wealth, power, and accomplishments were usually conveyed through ornate sarcophagi, like that of [[Ahiram sarcophagus|Ahiram]] of [[Byblos]]. The Phoenicians kept records of their rulers in tomb inscriptions, which are among the few primary sources still available. Historians have determined a clear line of succession over centuries for some city-states, notably Byblos and Tyre.

Starting as early as 15th century BC, Phoenician leaders were "advised by councils or assemblies which gradually took greater power".<ref name="Stockwell-2010" /> In the sixth century BC, during the period of [[Phoenicia under Babylonian rule|Babylonian rule]], Tyre briefly adopted a system of government consisting of a pair of judges with authority roughly equivalent to the [[Roman consul]], known as {{lang|la|sufetes}} ([[shophet]]s), who were chosen from the most powerful noble families and served short terms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crawley Quinn |first1=Josephine |title=In Search of the Phoenicians |chapter=A New Phoenician World |year=2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=153–175 |doi=10.2307/j.ctvc77kkd.13 |jstor=j.ctvc77kkd.13 |isbn=978-0-691-19596-4 }}</ref><ref name="Stockwell-2010">{{cite journal|first=Stephen|last=Stockwell|author-link=Stephen Stockwell|title=Before Athens: Early Popular Government in Phoenician and Greek City States|journal=Geopolitics, History, and International Relations|issue=2|year=2010|pages=128–129}}</ref>

[[File: Phoenician Merchants and Traders.jpg|thumb|19th-century depiction of Phoenician sailors and merchants. The importance of trade to the Phoenician economy led to a gradual sharing of power between the King and assemblies of merchant families.]]
In the fourth century BC, when the armies of Alexander the Great approached Tyre, they were met not by its King but by representatives of the commonwealth of the city. Similarly, historians at the time describe the "inhabitants" or "the people" of Sidon making peace with Alexander.<ref name="Stockwell-2010" /> When the Macedonians sought to appoint a new king over Sidon, the citizens nominated their candidate.<ref name="Stockwell-2010" />

===Law and administration===
After the King and council, the two most important political positions in virtually every Phoenician city-state were governor and commander of the army. Details regarding the duties of these offices are sparse. However, it is known that the governor was responsible for collecting taxes, implementing decrees, supervising judges, and ensuring the administration of law and justice. As warfare was rare among the most mercantile Phoenicians, the army's commander was generally responsible for ensuring the defense and security of the city-state and its hinterlands.

[[File:PhoenicianStela-4cBC-Tyre-NationalMuseumOfBeirut 03102019RomanDeckert.jpg|thumb|[[Stela]] from Tyre with Phoenician inscriptions ({{circa}} 4th century BC). National Museum of Beirut.]]
The Phoenicians had a system of courts and judges that resolved disputes and punished crimes based on a semi-codified body of laws and traditions. Laws were implemented by the state and were the responsibility of the ruler and certain designated officials. Like other Levantine societies, laws were harsh and biased, reflecting the social stratification of society. The murder of a commoner was treated as less severe than that of a nobleman, and the upper classes had the most rights; the wealthy often escaped punishment by paying a fine. Free men of any class could represent themselves in court and had more rights than women and children, while slaves had no rights. Men could often deflect punishment to their wives, children, or slaves, even having them serve their sentence in their place. Lawyers eventually emerged as a profession for those who could not plead their case.

As in neighboring societies at the time, penalties for crimes were often severe, usually reflecting the principle of reciprocity; for example, the killing of a slave would be punished by having the offender's slave killed. Imprisonment was rare, with fines, exile, punishment, and execution the main remedies.

===Military===
As with most aspects of Phoenician civilization, there are few records of their military or approach to warfare. Compared to most of their neighbors, the Phoenicians generally had little interest in conquest and were relatively peaceful.<ref>{{cite book|first1=James B.|last1=Pritchard|title=Introduction to The Sea Traders|first2=Maitland A.|last2=Edey|location=New York|publisher=Time-Life Books|date=1974|page=7}}</ref> The wealth and prosperity of all their city-states rested on foreign trade, which required good relations and a certain degree of mutual trust. They also lacked the territory and agricultural base to support a population large enough to raise an army of conquest.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} Instead, each city had an army commander in charge of a defensive garrison. However, the specifics of the role, or city defense, are unknown.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

===Language===
{{Main|Phoenician language|Punic}}

The [[Phoenician language]] was a member of the [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]] branch of the [[Northwest Semitic languages]]. Its descendant language spoken in the [[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginian Empire]] is termed [[Punic language|Punic]]. Punic was still spoken in the fifth century AD and known to St. [[Augustine of Hippo]].

====Alphabet====
{{Main|Phoenician alphabet}}

[[File:Ahiram_sarcophag_from_Biblos_XIII-XBC.jpg|right|thumb|Sarcophagus of [[Ahiram]], which bears the oldest inscription of the Phoenician alphabet. [[National Museum of Beirut]].]]

Around 1050 BC,<ref name="Naveh-1987" /> the Phoenicians developed a script for writing [[Phoenician language|their own language]]. The Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet consists of 22 letters, all [[consonant]]s (and is thus strictly an [[abjad]]).{{sfn|Fischer|2004|p=101}} It is believed to be a continuation of the [[Proto-Sinaitic script|Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script]] attested in the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]] and in Canaan in the [[Late Bronze Age]].<ref name=Cross1980>{{cite journal |first= Frank Moore |last= Cross |title= Newly Found Inscriptions in Old Canaanite and Early Phoenician Scripts |journal= Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |year= 1980 |volume= 238 |issue= 238 (Spring, 1980) |publisher= The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The American Schools of Oriental Research |pages= 1–20 |doi= 10.2307/1356511 |jstor= 1356511 |s2cid= 222445150 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Millard |first=A. R. |year=1986 |title=The Infancy of the Alphabet |journal=World Archaeology |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=390–398 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1986.9979978 }}</ref> Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to [[Anatolia]], North Africa, and Europe.<ref name="Scott-2018" /><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Beck | first1 = Roger B. | last2 = Black| first2 =Linda |first3=Larry S. |last3=Krieger|first4= Phillip C.|last4= Naylor|first5= Dahia Ibo|last5= Shabaka | title = World History: Patterns of Interaction | publisher = McDougal Littell | year = 1999 | location = Evanston, IL | url =https://archive.org/details/mcdougallittellw00beck| url-access = registration | isbn = 978-0-395-87274-1 }}</ref> The name ''Phoenician'' is by convention given to inscriptions beginning around 1050 BC, because [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and other [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite dialects]] were largely indistinguishable before that time.<ref name="Naveh-1987" />{{sfn|Markoe|2000|page=111}} Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus and other locations, as late as the early centuries of the Christian era.

The alphabet was adopted and modified by the Greeks probably in the eighth century BC. This most likely did not occur in a single instance but via the drawn out process of long-term commercial exchange.{{sfn|Moscati|1965}} According to Alessandro Pierattini, the Apollo sanctuary at [[Eretria#Temple of Apollo Daphnephoros|Eretria]] is considered one of the places where the Greeks might have first adopted the Phoenician alphabet.{{sfn|Pierattini|2022|p=66}} The legendary Phoenician hero [[Cadmus]] is credited with bringing the alphabet to Greece, but it is more plausible that Phoenician immigrants brought it to [[Crete]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Jeffery|first=L. H.|year=1976|title=The Archaic Greece: The Greek city-states 700–500 BC|publisher=Ernest Benn Ltd & Tonnbridge}}</ref> whence it gradually diffused northwards.

===Art===
{{See also|Phoenician metal bowls|Nimrud ivories}}
Phoenician art was largely centered on ornamental objects, particularly jewelry, pottery, glassware, and reliefs. Large sculptures were rare; figurines were more common. Phoenician goods have been found from Spain and Morocco to Russia and Iraq; much of what is known about Phoenician art is based on excavations outside Phoenicia proper. Phoenician art was highly influenced by many cultures, primarily Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. Greek inspiration was particularly pronounced in pottery, while Egyptian themes were most reflected in bronze and ivory work.{{sfn|Frankfort|1954|p=188}}

Phoenician art also differed from its contemporaries in its continuance of [[Bronze Age]] conventions well into the [[Iron Age]], such as terracotta masks.<ref name="Markoe-1990a">{{cite journal|first=Glenn E.|last=Markoe|title=The Emergence of Phoenician Art|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|issue=279|date=August 1990|pages=13–26|doi=10.2307/1357205|jstor=1357205|s2cid=163353156}}</ref> Phoenician artisans were known for their skill with wood, ivory, bronze, and textiles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/phoe/hd_phoe.htm|title=The Phoenicians (1500–300 B.C.)|website=www.metmuseum.org|date=October 2004 |access-date=2020-04-19}}</ref> In the [[Old Testament]], a craftsman from Tyre is commissioned to build and decorate the legendary [[Solomon's Temple]] in Jerusalem, which "presupposes a well-developed and highly respected craft industry in Phoenicia by the mid-tenth century BC".<ref name="Markoe-1990a" /> The ''[[Iliad]]'' mentions the embroidered robes of [[Priam]]'s wife, Hecabe, as "the work of Sidonian women" and describes a mixing bowl of [[Repoussé and chasing|chased silver]] as "a masterpiece of Sidonian craftsmanship".{{sfn|Woolmer|2021|p=145}}{{sfn|Cunliffe|2017|p=305}} The Assyrians appeared to have valued Phoenician ivory work in particular, collecting vast quantities in their palaces.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/325564|title=Furniture plaque carved in high relief with two Egyptianizing figures flanking a volute tree, c. 9th–8th century B.C.|website=www.metmuseum.org|access-date=2020-04-19}}</ref>

Phoenician art appears to have been indelibly tied to Phoenician commercial interests.<ref name="Markoe-1990b" /> They have crafted goods to appeal to particular trading partners, distinguishing not only different cultures but even socioeconomic status classes.<ref name="Markoe-1990b" />

<gallery widths="170" heights="170">
File: Phoenician, Iraq, Nimrud, 9th-8th Century BC - Decorative Plaque- Man; and Griffin in Combat - 1968.45 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Decorative plaque which depicts a fighting of man and [[griffin]]; 900–800 BC; [[Nimrud ivories]]; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] (Ohio, US)
File:Oinochoe MET DP279075.jpg|Oinochoe; 800–700 BC; terracotta; height: 24.1 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City, US)
File: Glass face bead MET DP121044.jpg|Face bead; mid-4th–3rd century BC; glass; height: 2.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File: Pair of gold earrings with four relief faces MET sf19992896ab2.jpg|Earring from a pair, each with four relief faces; late fourth–3rd century BC; gold; overall: 3.5 x 0.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
</gallery>

===Women===
[[File:FemaleFigurines-Tyre-IronAge-II NationalMuseumOfBeirut 06102019.jpg|thumb|Female figurines from Tyre ({{circa|1000–550}} BC). National Museum of Beirut.]]
Women in Phoenicia took part in public events and religious processions, with depictions of banquets showing them casually sitting or reclining with men, dancing, and playing music.{{sfn|Holst|2011|page=31}} In most contexts, women were expected to dress and behave more modestly than men; female figures are almost always portrayed as clothed from head to feet, with the arms sometimes covered as well.

Although they rarely had political power, women took part in community affairs, including in the popular assemblies that emerged in some city-states.{{sfn|Holst|2011|page=44}} At least one woman, Unmiashtart, is recorded to have ruled Sidon in the fifth century BC. The two most famous Phoenician women are political figures: [[Jezebel]], portrayed in the Bible as the wicked princess of Sidon, and [[Dido]], the semi-legendary founder and first queen of Carthage. In [[Virgil]]'s epic poem, the ''[[Aeneid]]'', Dido is described as having been the co-ruler of Tyre, using cleverness to escape the tyranny of her brother Pygmalion and to secure an ideal site for Carthage.

==Religion==
{{Main|Canaanite religion}}

{{See also|Sanchuniathon}}
[[File: Baal Ugarit Louvre AO17330.jpg|thumb|Figure of [[Ba'al]] with raised arm, 14th–12th century BC, found at ancient [[Ugarit]] (''Ras Shamra'' site), a city at the far north of the Phoenician coast. [[Louvre|Musée du Louvre]].]]

The religious practices and beliefs of Phoenicians were generally common to those of their neighbors in [[Canaanite religion|Canaan]], which in turn shared characteristics common throughout the [[Ancient Semitic religions|ancient Semitic world]].{{sfn|Moscati|1957|loc=e.g., p. 40 & 113}}{{sfn|Smith|1956|pp=1–15}} Religious rites were primarily for city-state purposes; payment of taxes by citizens was considered in the category of religious sacrifices.{{sfn|Gaster|1965|pp=113–143, 114–5}} The Phoenician sacred writings known to the ancients have been lost.{{sfn|Harden|1962|pp=83–4}}

Several Canaanite practices are alleged in ancient sources and mentioned by scholars, such as [[temple prostitution]]{{sfn|Brandon|1970|pages=512–513}} and [[child sacrifice]].{{sfn|Brandon|1970|page=448}} Special sites known as "[[Tophet]]s" were allegedly used by the Phoenicians "to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire", and are condemned in the Hebrew Bible, particularly in [[Jeremiah]] 7:30–32, and in [[Books of Kings|2nd Kings]] 23:10 and 17:17. Notwithstanding differences, cultural and religious similarities persisted between the ancient Hebrews and the Phoenicians.{{Sfn|Brandon|1970|page=173}} Biblical traditions state that the [[Tribe of Asher]] lived amongst local Phoenicians,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asher |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Asher-Hebrew-tribe |website=Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nisan |first=Mordechai |date=2015 |title=Identities and Peoples in History: Speculating on Ancient Mediterranean Mysteries |url=https://ejournals.bc.edu/index.php/levantine/article/view/9158/8253 |journal=The Levantine Review |volume=4 |issue=2 |via=Boston College}}</ref> and that [[David]] and [[Solomon]] gave Phoenicia full political autonomy due to their supremacy in shipping and trade.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stern |first=E. |date=1990 |title=New Evidence from Dor for the First Appearance of the Phoenicians along the Northern Coast of Israel |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |issue=279 |pages=27–34 |doi=10.2307/1357206 |jstor=1357206 }}</ref>

[[Canaanite religion|Canaanite religious mythology]] does not appear as elaborate as their Semitic cousins in Mesopotamia. In Canaan the supreme god was called [[El (god)|El]] (𐤀𐤋, 'god').{{sfn|Brandon|1970|page=258 ("El")}} The son of El was [[Baal]] (𐤁𐤏𐤋, 'master', 'lord'), a powerful [[Dying-and-rising deity|dying-and-rising]] [[thunder god]].{{sfn|Brandon|1970|pp=315, 28, 124}} Other gods were called by royal titles, such as [[Melqart]], meaning 'king of the city',{{sfn|Moscati|1957|pp=113–4}} or [[Adonis]] for 'lord'.{{sfn|Brandon|1970|pp=29–30}} Such epithets may often have been merely local titles for the same deities.{{sfn|Brandon|1970|p=124}}

The Semitic pantheon was well-populated; which god became primary evidently depended on the exigencies of a particular city-state.{{sfn|Brandon|1970|pp=173, 501}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Carlyon|first=Richard|title=A Guide to the Gods|publisher=Quill Books|location=New York|year=1981|pages=311–333}}</ref> Melqart was prominent throughout Phoenicia and overseas, as was [[Astarte]], a fertility goddess with regal and matronly aspects.

Religious institutions in Tyre called {{lang|phn|marzeh}} (𐤌𐤓𐤆𐤄, 'place of reunion'), did much to foster social bonding and "kin" loyalty. {{lang|phn|Marzeh}} held banquets for their membership on festival days, and many developed into elite [[fraternity|fraternities]]. Each {{lang|phn|marzeh}} nurtured congeniality and community through a series of ritual meals shared among trusted kin in honor of deified ancestors.{{sfn|Markoe|2000|p=120}} In Carthage, which had developed a complex republican system of government, the {{lang|phn|marzeh}} may have played a role in forging social and political ties among citizens; Carthaginians were divided into different institutions that were solidified through communal feasts and banquets. Such festival groups may also have composed the voting cohort for selecting members of the city-state's [[History of Punic era Tunisia#Constitution of State|Assembly]].{{sfn|Warmington|1960|p=148}}{{sfn|Smith|1956|pp=33–43}}

The Phoenicians made votive offerings to their gods, namely in the form of figurines and pottery vessels.<ref name="The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com-2020">{{Cite web|title=Long-lost Phoenician figurines could reveal secrets to ancient cult|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/figurines-forgotten-in-haifa-for-decades-tell-tale-of-phoenician-cult-641482|access-date=2020-09-11|website=[[The Jerusalem Post]]|date=8 September 2020 |issn=0792-822X}}</ref> Figurines and votive fragments have been found in ceremonial ''[[favissa]]e'', underground storage spaces for sacred objects, in the temples grounds of the [[Temple of the Obelisks]] in Byblos,<ref name="SteinerKillebrew2014">{{cite book |last1=Steiner |first1=Margreet L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5H4fAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT465 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: C. 8000-332 BCE |last2=Killebrew |first2=Ann E. |publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-921297-2 |pages=465–}}</ref> the [[Phoenician sanctuary of Kharayeb]] in the hinterland of Tyre,{{Sfn|Khalil|Oggiano|2021|p=332}} and the [[Temple of Eshmun]] north of Sidon,<ref name="JCL">{{Cite book |last=Gibson |first=John Clark Love |title=Textbook of Syrian Semitic inscriptions |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-19-813199-1 |volume=3 |location=Oxford |page=115}}</ref> among others. Votive gifts were also recovered all over the Mediterranean, often spanning centuries between them, suggesting they were cast into the sea to ensure safe travels.<ref name="The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com-2020" /> Since the Phoenicians were predominantly a seafaring people, some sources have speculated that many of their rituals were performed at sea or aboard ships. However, the specific nature of these practices is unknown. On land they were renowned temple builders, perhaps inspiring elements of the architecture of the First Temple, the Temple of Solomon. According to [[William G. Dever]], an archaeologist and scholar of the Old Testament, described features of the Solomonic Temple such as its longitudinal tripartite plan, fine furnishings, and elaborate decorative motifs were clearly inspired by Phoenician examples.{{Sfn|Dever|2008|p=97}}<gallery>
File:Phoenician statuettes.jpg|Votive deposit from the [[Temple of the Obelisks]], a [[Bronze Age]] temple in the [[World Heritage Site]] of [[Byblos]]
File:Terracotta Figurines of the Iron Age.jpg|Iron Age [[terracotta]] figurines from the [[Phoenician sanctuary of Kharayeb]]
File:HellenisticFigurineDuckBearer TyreLebanon NationalMuseumOfBeirut RomanDeckert25122019.jpg|Fourth century BC votive figurine from the Phoenician sanctuary of Kharayeb
File:Votive statue from eshmun.jpg|The [[Baalshillem Temple Boy]], a 5th century BC royal votive gift from the [[Temple of Eshmun]]
File:Votive statue Eshmun.jpg|A head of a child, fifth century BC, from the Temple of Eshmun
File:Phoenician Prayer to Isis, Rabat, Malta.jpg|Phoenician prayer to [[Isis]] on papyrus with illustration, from [[Rabat, Malta|Rabat]], [[Malta]].
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Maronites]]
* [[Names of the Levant]]
* [[Phoenicianism]]
* [[Punic people]]
* [[Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas]]

==References==

===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}

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** {{Cite journal |last1=Khalil |first1=Wissam |last2=Oggiano |first2=Ida |date=2021 |title=معبد الخرايب من الحقبتين الفينيقيّة والهلنستيّة في الرّيف المتاخم لمدينة صور (لبنان) |trans-title=The sanctuary of Kharayeb: a temple from the Phoenician and Hellenistic eras in the rural outskirts of the city of Tyre, Lebanon. |url=https://jguaa.journals.ekb.eg/article_176371.html |journal=مجلة الإتحاد العام للآثاريين العرب |language=ar |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=331–344 |doi=10.21608/jguaa.2021.71462.1181 |s2cid=236348108 |issn=2536-9822|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Killebrew |first1=Ann E. |editor1-last=López-Ruiz |editor1-first=Carolina |editor2-last=Doak |editor2-first=Brian R. |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Phoenician and Punic Mediterranean |year=2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-765442-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GOXgEAAAQBAJ |chapter=Canaanite Roots, Proto-Phoenicia, and the Early Phoenician Period: ca. 1300–1000 BCE}}
* {{cite book |last1=Krahmalkov |first1=Charles R. |title=A Phoenician-Punic Grammar |year=2001 |publisher=Brill |url=https://archive.org/details/charles-r.-krahmalkov-a-phoenician-punic-grammar/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book |last=Lancel |first=Serge |author-link=Serge Lancel |year=1995 |trans-title=Carthage. A History |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |title=(Original ed. in French: ''Carthage''. Paris: Librairie Artheme Fayard 1992)}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lehmann |first1=Gunnar |editor1-last=Koch |editor1-first=Ido |editor2-last=Lipschits |editor2-first=Oded |editor3-last=Sergi |editor3-first=Omer |title=From Nomadism to Monarchy?: Revisiting the Early Iron Age Southern Levant |year=2024 |publisher=Penn State Press |isbn=978-1-64602-269-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vvwUEQAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=McGrail |first=Sean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rLkRDAAAQBAJ |title=Boats of the World: From the Stone Age to Medieval Times |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-814468-7 |location=New York, NY |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mark |first=Samuel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mDQwngvaIvMC&q=Homeric+Seafaring |title=Homeric Seafaring |date=2005 |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |isbn=978-1-60344-594-8 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Markoe |first=Glenn E. |year=2000 |title=Peoples of the Past: Phoenicians |location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-22614-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smPZ-ou74EwC&pg=PA13}}
* {{cite book|last=Millar|first=Fergus|title=The Phoenician Cities: A Case-Study of Hellenisation|chapter=The Phoenician Cities|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=2006|pages=32–50 |doi=10.5149/9780807876657_millar.8 |jstor=10.5149/9780807876657_millar.8 |isbn=978-0-8078-3030-7|chapter-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807876657_millar.8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Morrison |first1=J. S. |last2=Coates |first2=J. F. |last3=Rankov |first3=N. B. |title=The Athenian Trireme: The History and Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek Warship |year=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56456-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wVT71_6zLygC&pg=PA36}}
* {{cite book |last=Moscati |first=Sabatino |year=1957 |title=Ancient Semitic Civilizations |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.6873 |location=London, England |publisher=Elek Books}}
* {{cite book |last=Moscati |first=Sabatino |year=1965 |title=The World of the Phoenicians |location=New York, NY |publisher=Frederick A. Praeger}}
* {{cite book |last1=Murnane |first1=William J. |editor1-last=Cohen |editor1-first=Raymond |editor2-last=Westbrook |editor2-first=Raymond |title=Amarna Diplomacy: The Beginnings of International Relations |date=2000 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-6199-4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hTOB-u4jplUC |chapter=Imperial Egypt and the Limits of Power}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Na'aman |first1=Nadav |title=Hiram of Tyre in the Book of Kings and in the Tyrian Records |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |date=April 2019 |volume=78 |issue=1 |page=75 |doi=10.1086/701707}}
* {{cite book |last1=Niemeyer |first1=Hans Georg |editor1-last=Schnegg |editor1-first=Kordula |title=Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World: Means of Transmission and Cultural Interaction: Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Symposium of the Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project, Held in Innsbruck, Austria, October 3rd-8th 2002 |date=2004 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |isbn=978-3-515-08379-9 |pages=245–254 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNYAd5SE_44C&pg=PA245 |chapter=The Phoenicians and the Birth of a Multinational Mediterranean Society}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Papalas |first1=Anthony J. |title=The Development of the Trireme |journal=The Mariner's Mirror |date=January 1997 |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=259–271 |doi=10.1080/00253359.1997.10656646}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pierattini |first1=Alessandro |title=The Origins of Greek Temple Architecture |year=2022 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-60297-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdCIEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite conference |last=Pomey |first=Patrice |date=2010 |title=Introduction 3 |trans-title=Introduction 3 - Technological transfers in Mediterranean naval architecture from Antiquity to modern times: technical identity and cultural identity. Proceedings of the Istanbul Round Table 19–22 May 2007 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/anatv_1013-9559_2010_act_20_1_1140 |conference=Transferts technologiques en architecture navale méditerranéenne de l'Antiquité aux temps modernes: identité technique et identité culturelle. Actes de la Table Ronde d'Istanbul 19–22 mai 2007 |language=fr |journal=Varia Anatolica |publisher=Institut Français d'Études Anatoliennes |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=131–136}}
* {{cite book |last=Quinn |first=Josephine Crawley |year=2017 |title=In Search of the Phoenicians |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-8911-2 |author-link=Josephine Crawley Quinn}}
* {{cite book |author-link=George Rawlinson |last=Rawlinson |first=George |title=The History of Phoenicia |year=1889 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofphoenic00rawl/mode/2up}}
* Röllig, W. (1995), [http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/volltexte/2011/1102 Phoenician and the Phoenicians in the context of the Ancient Near East], in S. Moscati (ed.), I Fenici ieri oggi domani : ricerche, scoperte, progetti, Roma, p. 203–214
* {{Cite journal |last=Sleeswyk |first=A. W. |date=1980-08-01 |title=Phoenician joints, coagmenta punicana |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1095-9270.1980.tb01303.x |journal=International Journal of Nautical Archaeology |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=243–244 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-9270.1980.tb01303.x |bibcode=1980IJNAr...9..243S |issn=1057-2414|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=W. Robertson |author-link=William Robertson Smith |title=Lectures on the Religion of the Semites |orig-date=A. & C. Black, Edinburgh, 1889 |publisher=Meridian Library |location=New York |year=1956}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stieglitz |first1=Robert R. |title=The Geopolitics of the Phoenician Littoral in the Early Iron Age |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |date=August 1990 |volume=279 |issue=279 |pages=9–12 |doi=10.2307/1357204|jstor=1357204 }}
* {{cite book |last=Tubb |first=Johnathan N. |url=https://archive.org/details/canaanites00tubb |title=Canaanites |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8061-3108-5 |series=British Museum People of the Past |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last1=van den Eijnde |first1=Floris |title=Empires of the Sea: Maritime Power Networks in World History |year=2019 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-40767-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2AP1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA52 |chapter=The First Athenian Empire? Athenian Overseas Interests in the Archaic Period}}
* {{cite book |last=Warmington |first=Brian H. |year=1960 |title=Carthage |url=https://archive.org/details/carthage0000warm/ |publisher=Praeger}}
* {{cite book |last1=Woolmer |first1=Mark |title=A Short History of the Phoenicians: Revised Edition |year=2021 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-15394-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srU-EAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wright |first1=Nicholas L. |editor1-last=Erickson |editor1-first=Kyle |editor2-last=Ramsey |editor2-first=Gillian |title=Selucid Dissolution: The Sinking of the Anchor |year=2011 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/download/5643821/Seleucid_dissolution.pdf |chapter=The Last days of a Seleucid city: Jebel Khalid on the Euphrates and its Temple}}

{{refend}}
{{div col end}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite thesis |last=Carayon |first=Nicolas |title=Les ports phéniciens et puniques. Géomorphologie et infrastructures |date=17 May 2008 |degree=Ph.D. |publisher=[[Marc Bloch University]] |url=https://theses.hal.science/tel-00283210 |place=Strasbourg |language=fr |trans-title=Phoenician and Punic ports. Geomorphology and infrastructures}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Cioffi |first=Robert |date=3 January 2019 |title=A Palm Tree, a Colour and a Mythical Bird (review of ''In Search of the Phoenicians'' by Josephine Quinn) |url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v41/n01/robert-l.-cioffi/a-palm-tree-a-colour-and-a-mythical-bird |magazine=London Review of Books |pages=15–16 |language=en |volume=41 |issue=1 |issn=0260-9592}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cross |first=Frank Moore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-eOycxXAoHMC |title=Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-674-09175-7 |location=Cambridge, Mass}}
* {{Cite book |last=Thiollet |first=Jean-Pierre |author-link=Jean-Pierre Thiollet |title=Je m'appelle Byblos |date=2005 |publisher=Éd. H&D |isbn=978-2-914266-04-8 |series=Collection Histoire & découvertes |location=Milon-la-Chapelle}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Todd |first1=Malcolm |author-link1=Malcolm Todd (archaeologist) |title=The South West to AD 1000 |last2=Fleming |first2=Andrew |publisher=Longman |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-582-49273-8 |series=A Regional history of England |location=London; New York |postscript=,}} for a critical examination of the evidence of Phoenician trade with the South West of the U.K.
* {{Cite thesis |last=da Silva |first=Diógenes Henrique Carvalho Veras |title=La literatura sobre fenicios en el territorio brasileño: orígenes y razones |trans-title=Literature on Phoenicians in Brazilian territory: origins and reasons |date=14 October 2016 |degree=Ph.D. |publisher=Universidad Complutense de Madrid |url=https://eprints.ucm.es/id/eprint/39468 |language=es |hdl=20.500.14352/21232}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Soren |first1=David |url=https://archive.org/details/carthageuncoveri00sore |title=Carthage: Uncovering the Mysteries and Splendors of Ancient Tunisia |last2=Ben Khader |first2=Aicha Ben Abed |last3=Slim |first3=Hédi |publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]] |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-671-66902-7 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Phoenicia
|viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03szw8l BBC Radio4 – ''In Our Time'': The Phoenicians (audio archive)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090110073346/http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArticleDetails.aspx?ID=69741&MID=123&PID=2 The quest for the Phoenicians in South Lebanon] (archived 10 January 2009)
* [https://www.omniglot.com/writing/phoenician.htm Phoenician Alphabet]
* {{cite web|url=https://aeon.co/essays/phoenicia-an-imaginary-friend-to-nations-in-need-of-ancestors|title=Phoenicia: An imaginary friend to nations in need of ancestors|work=Josephine Quinn, associate professor in ancient history at Worcester College, [[University of Oxford]]|editor=Sam Haselby|publisher=Aeon}}

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Danava (Hinduism)

2026-03-18T10:20:30Z

QuyenStobie2: reworked information and fixed typos

{{short description|Race in Hindu mythology}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| name = Danavas
| member_of =
| image = Matsya slaying a demon Wellcome V0050546.jpg
| alt = 
| caption = [[Matsya]] slays a danava called Hayagriva
| other_names =
| hiro =
| Old_Norse =
| script_name = [[Devanagari]]
| script = दानव
| affiliation = 
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| planet = 
| mantra =
| mantra benefits =
| weapon = 
| battles =
| artifacts = 
| animals =
| symbol = 
| adherents =
| height =
| age =
| tree =
| day =
| color = 
| number =
| consort = 
| parents = [[Danu (Asura)|Danu]] and [[Kashyapa]]
| siblings =
| offspring = 
| predecessor =
| army =
| mount =
| texts = [[Mahabharata]], [[Rig Veda]], [[Natyashastra]]
| gender =
| Greek_equivalent =
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| equivalent1_type =
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| festivals =
| nirvana =
}}
{{Hinduism}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}

In [[Hinduism|Hindu mythology]], the '''danavas''' are a race descending from [[Kashyapa]] and his wife [[Danu (Asura)|Danu]], a daughter of the progenitor god, [[Daksha]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2009-04-11 |title=Danava, Dānava, Dānavā: 22 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/danava |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref> It is mentioned that there are one hundred danavas.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2019-01-28 |title=Story of Danu |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/compilation/puranic-encyclopaedia/d/doc241520.html |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

== Origin ==
The danavas are a mythological race of [[asura]]s, the half-brothers to the [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] and daityas that are found in a range of Hindu texts. The danavas are a part of a larger group of the asuras, and are typically portrayed as opposed to the Hindu deities. However, historically, their role in Hinduism is varied and at times, the distinction between the danavas and Hindu deities is complex and they are difficult to distinguish from one another.

=== Etymology ===
The name ''danavas'' stems from the mother's name: [[Danu (Asura)|Danu]]. Both danavas and Danu are derived from the Vedic word ''Da'' meaning 'to give.' [[Ananda Coomaraswamy]] suggests this word connotes generosity.<ref>Coomaraswamy, A. (1935). Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic Ontology. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 55(4), 373–419</ref> Another interpretation of their name is associated with Danu's relationship with her first son (and demon), [[Vritra]]. In Indian mythology, in an attempt to deceive the Vedic god [[Indra]], Vritra hides away in the primordial water or blessed water from him. In this myth, Danu herself is embodied as being the primordial water in which he hides in. The names of Danu and danavas as well as the individual names given to many of the sons of Danu differ across Vedic and Puranic literature, causing confusion as to where their etymological origins lie.<ref>Kinsley, D. (1988). 'Goddesses in Vedic Literature' Hindu Goddesses : Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition. (Pp.6-18) University of California Press.</ref>

=== Story ===
The [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] exiled the danavas from [[Svarga]] during the ''[[Satya Yuga]]''. After the exile, the danavas are held to have taken refuge in the Vindhya range.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Dānava#cite_note-12 |title=Dānava |work=Hindupedia}}</ref>

=== Genealogy ===
The genealogical history of asuras is laid out in a range of texts, most notably in the [[Mahabharata]]. The genealogy of the demons or asuras begins with Brahma's six sons. One son, [[Marichi]], fathered Kashyapa, who married thirteen of Daksha's daughters, including [[Diti]] and Danu. [[Diti]] and Danu's children are among the most well-known demons in Hindu mythology. Diti's children are known as the [[daitya]]s and Danu's offspring are known as the danavas.

The names of danavas and the [[daityas]] are irregularly found and depicted throughout early Vedic literature such as the Rig Veda along with the Mahabharata. The Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism states, "... in the Mahābhārata Vṛtra is the son of Danāyu, (and) the Ṛigveda ([[Rigveda 1.32|1.32.9]]) speaks of Vṛtra as the son of Danu."<ref>Rodrigues, Hillary. 'Asuras, Daityas, Dānavas, Rākṣasas, Piśācas, Bhūtas, Pretas, and so Forth.' Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism Online. Ed. Knut A.Jacobsen et al. Brill Reference Online. Web. 11 Sept. 2020.</ref> However, in books 2-7 of the Rig Veda, Vrta is not considered an asura or demon, and there is no mention of Danu or the danavas at all.<ref>Hale, W. E. (1986). Asura in the Atharva Veda. ÁSURA-in early vedic religion. (Pp.100-119). Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.</ref>

{{Tree list}}
* Brahma
** Marici
*** Kashyapa
**** Danu
***** Ashva
***** Ashvagiri
***** Ashvagriva
***** Ashvapati
***** Ashvasanku
***** Ashvasiras
***** Ayumukha
***** Danayu
***** Dirghajibha
*****Ekacakra
***** Ekaksha
***** Gaganamurdhana
***** Gavisthar
***** Hara
***** Hayagriva
***** Isrpa
***** Kabandha
***** Kapata (or Vegavat)
***** Kabila
***** Karambha
***** Kesin
***** Ketumat
***** Kupatha
***** Maydanav
***** Mrtapa
***** Naraka
***** Nichandra
***** Nikumbha
***** Pralambha
***** Puloman
***** Rambha
***** Salabha
***** Sankara
***** Sankusiras
***** Sarabha
***** Satha
***** Satrutpana
***** Swarbhanu
***** Tuhundra
***** Viprachitti
***** Vritra
{{Tree list/end}}

At other times, the genealogical roots of the demons are not emphasised. Demons are sometimes depicted as ancestral, deceased beings who had been mistreated in their human lifetime by relatives who had not performed the proper and correct funeral rites for these beings in their human form.<ref>Jain, P., Sherma, R., & Khanna, M. (2019). Hinduism and Tribal Religions. Springer
Netherlands</ref>

==Physical appearance==
The daityas and the danavas share the same physical features and characteristics as their counterparts, the devas. In Hindu religion, the power of Maya or the power of magic(sometimes attributed to illusion) is possessed by both good and evil supernatural beings. The power of illusion allows beings to change their physical form.<ref>O'flaherty, W. D., & Doniger, W. (1980). God, Demons and Men. The origins of evil in Hindu Religion (pp.57-212) (No. 6). Univ of California Press.</ref> Despite their extensive role in certain texts, there are not many examples of the physical characteristics of the danavas in their own right or even in conjunction with devas in literature and art.

==Literature==
The extensive research into the supernatural beings of Hinduism focuses on their ambiguity. Both good and bad supernatural beings demonstrate malevolent, powerful, yet merciful personalities. Therefore, at times, it is difficult to discern between the roles of oppositional beings. This is particularly evident in earlier Vedic literature where there is not an emphasis on the oppositional qualities of these beings. In many myths or hymns, they perform identical actions to one another. Subsequently, the danavas's role is hardly distinguished or mentioned in Vedic literature. O'Flaherty and Doniger state that in later literature like the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', these beings are slowly considered a part of "... two separate castes; each has his own job to do – the gods to encourage sacrifice, the demons to destroy it – but there is no immorality in the demons; they are merely doing their job, a destructive one..."<ref>O'flaherty, W. D., & Doniger, W. (1980). God, Demons and Men</ref> While, in the earlier Vedic period, themes of caste-based structures of worship were not prominent.

== Myths ==
===Natyashastra===
In the Natyashastra, the danavas are depicted as evil demons, meddling with dancers. Particularly, in the first chapter of the Natyashastra, the danavas freeze and stop the performance of the dancers during an important event dedicated to the Hindu deities. Angering the deities, the danavas are attacked and defeated by [[Indra]] and an enclosed, safe dance arena is created for the dancers. Afterwards, dance-dramas depicting the defeat of the danavas are performed at the arena and anger the demons further. The danavas protestations are reserved for Brahma, the god of creation. Brahma advises the danavas that dance drama allows participants and viewers to become divine or a part of the gods in unison. Therefore, some scholars interpret Brahma's reply as the important role dance plays in worship.<ref>McCulloch, Ann (2002). In/Stead Retrospective Issue 3: Bharatnatyam, the Technique of
Story Performing! Double dialogues. Double Dialogues, Canterbury, Vic Retrieved from:
http://www.doubledialogues.com/article/bharatnatyam-the-technique-of-story-performing/</ref>

=== Indra–Vritra Story===
The Indra–Vritra Story is the only known story that contains a prominent son of Danu, a member of the danavas. These myths are what later cement the rivalry of the devas and asuras. The struggle between Indra and [[Vritra]] act as a, "cosmogonic myth" as it discusses the birth of ''sat'' ('order') from ''asat'' ('chaos').<ref>Rodrigues, Hillary. 'Asuras, Daityas, Dānavas, Rākṣasas, Piśācas, Bhūtas, Pretas, and so Forth'. Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism Online. Ed. Knut A. Jacobsen et al. Brill Reference Online. Web. 11 Sept. 2020.</ref>

===Mayasura===
[[Mayasura]], also called Maya Danava, is a prominent member of the danavas and is extensively found throughout the Mahabharata. He was a popular architect and rival to the architect to the gods, [[Vishvakarma]]. He is also known for being the father-in-law to [[Ravana]], a prominent antagonist in Hindu mythology. He wrote the Surya Siddhanta. However, he is most known for his architecture. In the Sabha Parva of the Mahabharata, Maya danava built the '[[Mayasabha]]', or the palace of illusions for the Pandava brothers. Here, Mayasura asked Arjuna for guidance and advised he wished to build something of value for him and the Pandavas. After [[Arjuna]] and Vaisampayana discuss what should be built, [[Krishna]] advised Maya to build a godlike palace. As translated by Ganguli, Krishna contemplates and announces what he desires. Maya is referred to being the son of [[Diti]], despite being addressed as Maya danava during the entirety of Book 2.{{Blockquote|Krishna, the Lord of the universe and the Creator of every object, having reflected in his mind, thus commanded Maya,—'Let a palatial sabha (meeting hall) as thou choosest, be built (by thee), if thou, O son of Diti, who art the foremost of all artists, desirest to do good to Yudhishthira the just. Indeed, build thou such a palace that persons belonging to the world of men may not be able to imitate it even after examining it with care, while seated within. And, O Maya, build thou a mansion in which we may behold a combination of godly, asuric and human designs.<ref>{{cite wikisource |The Mahabharata= |Book 2 Sabha Parva, Section 1 = |last= Ganguli|first= Kisari Mohan |author-link= |date= 1883–1896}}</ref>}}

Elsewhere, Mayasura built [[Tripura (mythology)|Tripura]], also known as the three cities of gold, silver and iron. He also built the city of Lankapuri in [[Lanka]].

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Asura]]
*[[Bhagavata Purana]]
*[[Daitya]]
*[[Danaïdes]]
*[[Danube]] River Danu-be
*[[Denyen]]
*[[Dewi Danu]]
*[[Kalakeyas]]
*[[Kukulkan]]
*[[List of Asuras]]
*[[Nāga]]
*[[Nivatakavacha]]
*[[Rakshasa]]
*[[Tribe of Dan]]
*[[Tuatha Dé Danann]]

{{colend}}

==Notes==

{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Danavas}}

[[Category:Danavas| ]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures in Hindu mythology]]

List of districts of Maharashtra

2026-03-16T11:19:46Z

QuyenStobie2: reworked layout for consistency

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{EngvarB|date=November 2023}}
[[Maharashtra]] is an [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] that was formed on 1 May 1960 with 26 initial [[District (India)|districts]]. Since then, 11 additional districts have been created, the most recent of which is Palghar district. The state currently has 36 districts. These districts are grouped into six administrative divisions shown below.

[[File:Maharashtra Divisions Eng.svg|425px|thumb|Maharashtra with all of its districts|alt=|center]]

== All divisions in Maharashtra ==

Maharashtra is divided into 36 districts, which are grouped into six divisions.<ref name="MH_DIST">{{cite web |title=Districts |website=Maharashtra government website |url=https://www.maharashtra.gov.in/Site/1529/Districts |access-date=27 October 2025}}</ref>

===Regions===
Geographically, historically, politically, and according to cultural sentiments, Maharashtra has five main regions:

* [[Konkan]] ([[Konkan division]])
* [[Paschim Maharashtra]], also known as [[Desh, Maharashtra|Desh]] ([[Pune division]])
* [[North Maharashtra]] ([[Nashik Division]]) - contains [[Khandesh]]{{efn|[[Nashik]] and [[Ahmednagar]] districts do not culturally belong to Khandesh region. Culturally, Nashik and Ahmednagar districts share a pattern called Gangathadi. [[North Maharashtra]] is the geographical region representing all four districts except [[Ahmednagar District|Ahmednagar]].}}
* [[Marathwada]] ([[Aurangabad division]])
* [[Vidarbha]] ([[Nagpur division|Nagpur]] and [[Amravati division|Amravati]] divisions) - formerly [[Central Provinces and Berar]]{{efn|Amravati division used to be a separate region of [[Central Provinces and Berar]] as [[Berar Province|Berar division]], known as "Varhad" in Marathi, before becoming part of Vidarbha division of Maharashtra.}}

===Divisions===
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; text-align:left;"
|-
! Name of division (headquarters) || Region || Districts || Largest city
|-
|[[Pune division]] (HQ: [[Pune]]) || [[Desh region|Desh]] ||
{{columns-list|*[[Sangli district|Sangli]]
*[[Satara district|Satara]]
*[[Solapur district|Solapur]]
*[[Kolhapur district|Kolhapur]]
*[[Pune district|Pune]]}}
||[[Pune]]
|-bgcolor=#edf3fe
| [[Amravati division]] (HQ: [[Amravati]]) || [[Vidarbha]] ([[Berar Province|Varhad]]) ||
{{columns-list|*[[Akola district|Akola]]
*[[Amravati district|Amravati]]
*[[Buldhana district|Buldhana]]
*[[Yavatmal district|Yavatmal]]
*[[Washim district|Washim]]}}
||[[Amravati]]
|-bgcolor=#edf3fe
| [[Aurangabad division]] (HQ: [[Aurangabad]])
| [[Marathwada]] ||
{{columns-list|*[[Aurangabad district, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]]
*[[Beed district|Beed]]
*[[Jalna district|Jalna]]
*[[Osmanabad district|Osmanabad]]
*[[Nanded district|Nanded]]
*[[Latur district|Latur]]
*[[Parbhani district|Parbhani]]
*[[Hingoli district|Hingoli]]}}
|| [[Aurangabad ]]
|-
| [[Nagpur division]] (HQ: [[Nagpur]]) || [[Vidarbha]] ||
{{columns-list|*[[Bhandara district|Bhandara]]
*[[Chandrapur district|Chandrapur]]
*[[Gadchiroli district|Gadchiroli]]
*[[Gondia district|Gondia]]
*[[Nagpur district|Nagpur]]
*[[Wardha district|Wardha]]}}
|| [[Nagpur]]
|-bgcolor=#edf3fe
| [[Nashik division]] (HQ: [[Nashik]]) || [[North Maharashtra]] ([[Khandesh]]) ||
{{columns-list|*[[Ahmednagar district|Ahmednagar]]
*[[Dhule district|Dhule]]
*[[Jalgaon district|Jalgaon]]
*[[Nandurbar district|Nandurbar]]
*[[Nashik district|Nashik]]
}}
|| [[Nashik]]
|-
| [[Konkan division]] (HQ: [[Mumbai]]) || [[Konkan division|Konkan]] ||
{{columns-list|*[[Mumbai City district]]
*[[Mumbai Suburban district]]
*[[Thane district|Thane]]
*[[Palghar district|Palghar]]
*[[Raigad district|Raigad]]
*[[Ratnagiri district|Ratnagiri]]
*[[Sindhudurg district|Sindhudurg]]}}
|| [[Mumbai]]

|}
{{notelist}}

==Districts==

The table below lists important geographic and demographic parameters for all 36 districts. Population data are extracted from the 2011 Census of India.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right" border=1 width=100%
|-
!No || Name || Code || Formed || Headquarters || Administrative division || Area (km2)
!Population (2011 Census)|| % of state Population || [[Population Density|Density]] (per km2) || [[Urban area|Urban]] (%) || [[Literacy]] (%) || [[human sex ratio|Sex ratio]] || Tehsils || class="unsortable" | Source
|-
| 1 || [[Ahmednagar district|Ahmednagar]] || AH || 1 May 1960 || [[Ahmednagar]] || [[Nashik division|Nashik]] || 17,048
| 4,543,159
| 4.04% || 234.77 || 19.67 || 79.05 || 941 || 14 || [http://ahmednagar.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 2||[[Akola district|Akola]] || AK || 1 May 1960 || [[Akola]] || [[Amravati division|Amravati]] || 5,428
| 1,813,906
| 1.61% || 300.78 || 53.23 || 88.05 || 938 || 7 || [http://akola.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 3||[[Amravati district|Amravati]] || AM || 1 May 1960 || [[Amravati]] || [[Amravati division|Amravati]] || 12,235
| 2,888,445
| 2.57% || 206.40 || 34.50 || 87.38 || 838 || 14 || [http://amravati.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 4||[[Aurangabad district, Maharashtra|Aurangabad ]] ||AU|| 1 May 1960 || [[Aurangabad ]] || [[Aurangabad division|Aurangabad ]] || 10,100
| 3,701,282
| 3.29% || 286.83 || 37.53 || 79.08 || 924 || 9 || [https://aurangabad.gov.in/ district website]
|-
| 5||[[Beed district|Beed]] || BI || 1 May 1960 || [[Beed]] || [[Aurangabad division|Aurangabad ]] || 10,693
| 1,200,334
| 1.07% || 207.04 || 17.91 || 76.99 || 936 || 11 || [http://beed.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 6||[[Bhandara district|Bhandara]] || BH || 1 May 1960 || [[Bhandara district|Bhandara]] || [[Nagpur division|Nagpur]] || 3,717
|2,585,049
| 2.30% || 305.58 || 15.44 || 83.76 || 982 || 7 || [http://bhandara.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 7||[[Buldhana district|Buldhana]] || BU || 1 May 1960 || [[Buldhana]] || [[Amravati division|Amravati]] || 9,661
|2,586,258
| 2.30% || 230.63 || 21.2 || 83.40 || 946 || 13 || [http://buldhana.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 8||[[Chandrapur district|Chandrapur]] || CH || 1 May 1960 || [[Chandrapur]] || [[Nagpur division|Nagpur]] || 11,443
| 2,204,307
| 1.96% || 193.65 || 32.11 || 80.01 || 948 || 15 || [http://chanda.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 9||[[Dhule district|Dhule]] || DH || 1 May 1960 || [[Dhule]] || [[Nashik division|Nashik]] || 7,195
| 2,050,862
| 1.83% || 211.83 || 26.11 || 72.80 || 944 || 4 || [http://dhule.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 10||[[Gadchiroli district|Gadchiroli]] || GA || 26 August 1982 || [[Gadchiroli]] || [[Nagpur division|Nagpur]] || 14,412
| 1,072,942
| 0.95% || 67.33 || 6.93 || 74.36 || 976 || 12 || [http://gadchiroli.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 11||[[Gondia district|Gondia]] || GO || 1 May 1999 || [[Gondia]] || [[Nagpur division|Nagpur]] || 5,234
| 1,322,507
| 1.18% || 247.81 || 11.95 || 84.95 || 1005 || 8 || [http://gondia.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 12||[[Hingoli district|Hingoli]] || HI || 1 May 1999 || [[Hingoli]] || [[Aurangabad division|Aurangabad ]] || 4,526
| 1,177,345
| 1.05% || 218.11 || 15.2 || 78.17 || 953 || 5 || [http://hingoli.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 13||[[Jalgaon district|Jalgaon]] || JG || 1 May 1960 || [[Jalgaon]] || [[Nashik division|Nashik]] || 11,765
| 4,229,917
| 3.76% || 312.79 || 71.4 || 78.20 || 932 || 15 || [http://jalgaon.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 14||[[Jalna district|Jalna]] || JN || 1 May 1981 || [[Jalna, Maharashtra|Jalna]] || [[Aurangabad division|Aurangabad ]] || 7,687
| 1,959,046
| 1.74% || 211.82 || 19.09 || 71.52 || 952 || 8 || [http://jalna.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 15||[[Kolhapur district|Kolhapur]] || KO || 1 May 1960 || [[Kolhapur]] || [[Pune division|Pune]] || 7,685
| 3,876,001
| 3.45% || 457.44 || 29.65 || 81.51 || 949 || 12 || [http://kolhapur.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 16||[[Latur district|Latur]] || LA ||16 August 1982|| [[Latur]] || [[Aurangabad division|Aurangabad ]]
|| 7,157
| 2,454,196
| 2.18% || 282.19 || 23.57 || 77.26 || 935 || 10 || [http://latur.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 17||[[Mumbai City district|Mumbai City]]|| MC || 1 May 1960 || [[Mumbai]]|| [[Konkan division|Konkan]] || 157
| 3,085,411
| 2.75% || 49,140.9 || 100 || 89.21 || 777 || 0 || [http://mumbaicity.gov.in district website]
|-
| 18||[[Mumbai Suburban district|Mumbai Suburban]] || MU || 1 October 1990 || [[Bandra]] || [[Konkan division|Konkan]] || 446
| 9,356,962
| 8.33% || 23,271 || 100 || 89.91 || 822 || 3 || [http://mumbaisuburban.gov.in/ district website]
|-
| 19|| [[Nagpur district|Nagpur]] || NG || 1 May 1960 || [[Nagpur]] || [[Nagpur division|Nagpur]] || 9,892
| 4,653,570
| 4.14% || 409.36 || 64.33 || 88.39 || 933 || 14 || [http://nagpur.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 20|| [[Nanded district|Nanded]] || ND || 1 May 1960 || [[Nanded]] || [[Aurangabad division|Aurangabad ]] || 10,528
| 3,361,292
| 2.99% || 275.98 || 28.29 || 75.45 || 942 || 16 || [http://nanded.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 21|| [[Nandurbar district|Nandurbar]] || NB || 1 July 1998 || [[Nandurbar]] || [[Nashik division|Nashik]] || 5,955
| 1,648,295
| 1.47% || 260 || 15.5 || 64.38 || 975 || 6 || [http://nandurbar.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 22|| [[Nashik district|Nashik]] || NS || 1 May 1960 || [[Nashik]] || [[Nashik division|Nashik]] || 15,582
| 6,107,187
| 5.43% || 321.56 || 38.8 || 82.31 || 927 || 15 || [http://nashik.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 23|| [[Osmanabad district|Osmanabad]] || OS || 1 May 1960 || [[Osmanabad]] || [[Aurangabad division|Aurangabad]] || 7,569
| 1,657,576
| 1.48% || 197.89 || 17.0 || 78.44 || 924 || 8 || [https://osmanabad.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 24|| [[Palghar district|Palghar]] || PL || 1 August 2014 || [[Palghar]] || [[Konkan division|Konkan]] || 5,344
| 2,990,116|| 2.66% || 562 || 50 || N.A. || 900 || 8 ||[https://palghar.gov.in/ district website]
|-
| 25|| [[Parbhani district|Parbhani]] || PA || 1 May 1960 || [[Parbhani]] || [[Aurangabad division|Aurangabad ]] || 6,251
| 1,836,086
| 1.63% || 244.4 || 31.8 || 73.34 || 958 || 9 || [http://parbhani.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 26 ||[[Pune district|Pune]] || PU || 1 May 1960 || [[Pune]] || [[Pune division|Pune]] || 15,643
| 9,429,408
| 8.39% || 461.85 || 58.1 || 86.15 || 919 || 14 || [http://pune.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 27|| [[Raigad district|Raigad]] || RG || 1 May 1960 || [[Alibag]] || [[Konkan division|Konkan]] || 7,152
| 2,634,200
| 2.34% || 308.89 || 24.2 || 83.14 || 976 || 15 || [http://raigad.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 28|| [[Ratnagiri district|Ratnagiri]] || RT || 1 May 1960 || [[Ratnagiri]] || [[Konkan division|Konkan]] || 8,208
| 1,615,069
| 1.44% || 206.72 || 11.3 || 82.18 || 1,136 || 9 || [http://ratnagiri.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 29|| [[Sangli district|Sangli]] || SN || 1 May 1960 || [[Sangli]] || [[Pune division|Pune]] || 8,578
| 2,822,143
| 2.51% || 301.18 || 24.5 || 81.48 || 957 || 10 || [http://sangli.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 30|| [[Satara district|Satara]] || ST || 1 May 1960 || [[Satara (city)|Satara]] || [[Pune division|Pune]] || 10,480
| 3,003,741
| 2.67% || 266.77 || 14.2 || 82.87 || 995 || 11 || [https://web.archive.org/web/20140516190446/http://satara.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 31|| [[Sindhudurg district|Sindhudurg]] || SI || 1 May 1981 || [[Oros, Sindhudurg|Oros]] || [[Konkan division|Konkan]] || 5,207
| 849,651
| 0.76% || 166.86 || 9.5 || 85.56 || 1,079 || 8 || [http://sindhudurg.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 32|| [[Solapur district|Solapur]] || SO || 1 May 1960 || [[Solapur district|Solapur]] || [[Pune division|Pune]] || 14,895
| 4,317,756
| 3.84% || 259.32 || 31.8 || 77.02 || 935 || 11 || [http://solapur.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 33|| [[Thane district|Thane]] || TH || 1 May 1960 || [[Thane]] || [[Konkan division|Konkan]] || 4,214
| 8,070,032
| 7.18% || 850.71 || 72.58 || 84.53 || 858 || 7 || [http://thane.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 34|| [[Wardha district|Wardha]] || WR || 1 May 1960 || [[Wardha]] || [[Nagpur division|Nagpur]] || 6,310
| 1,300,774
| 1.16% || 195.03 || 25.17 || 86.99 || 936 || 8 || [http://wardha.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 35|| [[Washim district|Washim]] || WS || 1 July 1998 || [[Washim]] || [[Amravati division|Amravati]] || 5,150
| 1,197,160
| 1.07% || 275.98 || 17.49 || 83.25 || 939 || 6 || [http://washim.nic.in/ district website]
|-
| 36|| [| [[Yavatmal district|Yavatmal]] || YTL || 1 May 1960 || [[Yavatmal]] || [[Amravati division|Amravati]] || 13,582
| 2,772,348
| 2.47% || 152.93 || 18.6 || 82.82 || 951 || 16 || [http://yavatmal.nic.in/ district website]
|-
! '''Maharashtra''' || - || - || - || - || - || '''{{formatnum:307129}}'''
! '''112,374,333'''|| 100% || '''314.42''' || '''42.43''' || '''77.27''' || '''922''' || - || -
|}

==Proposed districts==

In 2018, then Chief Minister [[Devendra Fadnavis]] constituted a committee under leadership of Chief secretary. The committee has proposed 22 new districts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marathi |first=TV9 |date=28 January 2020 |title=राज्यात नव्या 22 जिल्ह्यांचा प्रस्ताव, लातूरमधून उदगीर, नाशिकमधून मालेगाव, कळवण, तर नगरमध्ये 3 जिल्ह्यांचं नियोजन |url=https://www.tv9marathi.com/latest-news/proposal-of-22-new-districts-in-maharashtra-173327.html |access-date=18 March 2023 |website=TV9 Marathi |language=mr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=कल्याण, मीरा-भाईंदर, महाडसह २२ नव्या जिल्ह्यांची निर्मिती होणार? |url=https://maharashtratimes.com/maharashtra/mumbai-news/proposal-of-creation-22-new-districts-in-maharashtra/articleshow/73702559.cms |access-date=18 March 2023 |website=Maharashtra Times |language=mr}}</ref> Earlier in 2015, former ministers has demanded formation of new districts, they were Katol (Nagpur), Chimur(Chandrapur), Pusad (Yavatmal), Khamgaon (Buldhana), Achalpur (Amravati), and Aheri (Gadchiroli).<ref>{{Cite news |agency=Press Trust of India |date=1 September 2015 |title=Former minister demands creation of 22 new districts in Maharashtra |work=Business Standard India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/raut-demands-creation-of-22-new-districts-in-maharashtra-115090100206_1.html |access-date=18 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=टीम |first=एबीपी माझा वेब |date=29 January 2020 |title=लातूरनंतर महाराष्ट्रातील 'या' जिल्ह्यांमधून विभाजनाची मागणी |url=https://marathi.abplive.com/news/maharashtra/new-districts-demand-in-maharashtra-state-736711 |access-date=18 March 2023 |website=marathi.abplive.com |language=mr}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Sr.
No.
! Proposed district
! Existing district
|-
|1
|[[Kalwan]]
|rowspan="2"|Nashik
|-
|2
|[[Malegaon]]
|-
|3
|[[Mira Bhayandar]]
| rowspan="3" |Thane
|-
|4
|[[Navi Mumbai]]
|-
|5
|[[Kalyan]]
|-
|6
|[[Pusad]]
|Yavatmal
|-
|7
|[[Achalpur]]
|Amravati
|-
|8
|[[Sakoli]]
|Bhandara
|-
|9
|[[Chimur]]
|Chandrapur
|-
|10
|[[Aheri, Gadchiroli|Aheri]]
|Gadchiroli
|-
|11
|[[Bhusawal]]
|Jalgaon
|-
|12
|[[Udgir]]
|Latur
|-
|13
|[[Ambajogai]]
|Beed
|-
|14
|[[Kinwat]]
|Nanded
|-
|15
|[[Mandesh]]
|Satara
|-
|16
|[[Shivneri]]
| rowspan="2" |Pune
|-
|17
|[[Baramati]]
|-
|18
|[[Jawhar]]
|Palghar
|-
|19
|[[Mandangad]]
|Ratnagiri
|-
|20
|[[Mahad]]
|Raigad
|-
|21
|[[Sangamner]]
| rowspan="3" |Ahmednagar
|-
|22
|[[Shirdi]]
|-
|23
|[[Shrirampur]]
|-
|24
|[[Khamgaon]]
|Buldhana
|-
|25
|[[Katol]]
| rowspan="2" |Nagpur
|-
|26
|[[Parseoni]]
|}

==See also==
*[[Tehsils in Maharashtra]]

==References==
<references />
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100111052456/http://www.censusindiamaps.net/page/India_WhizMap/IndiaMap.htm Census of India]

{{Maharashtra}}
{{Districts of India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Districts of Maharashtra, List of}}
[[Category:Districts of Maharashtra| ]]
[[Category:Maharashtra-related lists]]
[[Category:Lists of districts in India|Maharashtra]]

Ferry

2026-03-07T14:36:54Z

QuyenStobie2: fixed issues

{{Short description|Ship to carry people and goods on water}}
{{redirect|Ferryman|other uses|Ferry (disambiguation)|and|Ferryman (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Admiralty law}}
[[File:DFDS Transmanche Ferry loading at Newhaven Harbour.jpg|alt=Large roll-on roll-off ferry carrying passengers and vehicles across open water|thumb|Passenger and vehicle ferry in coastal waters]]
A '''ferry''' is a [[boat]] or [[ship]] that transports passengers, and occasionally vehicles and cargo, across a body of water. A small passenger ferry with multiple stops, like those in [[Venice]], [[Italy]], is sometimes referred to as a [[water bus|water taxi or water bus]].

Ferries form a part of the [[public transport]] systems of many waterside cities and islands, allowing direct transit between points at a [[capital cost]] much lower than [[bridge]]s or [[tunnel]]s. Ship connections of much larger distances (such as over long distances in water bodies like the [[Baltic Sea]]) may also be called ferry services, and many carry vehicles.

==History==
The profession of the ferryman is embodied in [[Greek mythology]] in [[Charon (mythology)|Charon]], the boatman who transported souls across the [[River Styx]] to the [[Greek underworld|Underworld]].

Speculation that a pair of [[ox]]en propelled a ship having a water wheel can be found in 4th century Roman literature "''Anonymus De Rebus Bellicis''". The concept was refined to use horses turning a capstan or a treadmill; this was a precursor to steam to drive paddlewheel boats. These were known as [[Team boat|team boats]]. An example was the ''[[Experiment (horse-powered boat)|Experiment]]'', which was used on Lake Champlain in 19th-century America.

In 1850 the roll-on roll-off (ro-ro) ferry, ''Leviathan'' designed to carry freight wagons efficiently across the Firth of Forth in Scotland started to operate between Granton, near Edinburgh, and Burntisland in Fife. The vessel design was highly innovative and the ability to move freight in great quantities and with minimal labour signalled the way ahead for sea-borne transport, converting the ro-ro ferry from an experimental and marginal ship type into one of central importance in the transport of goods and passengers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bruce |first1=Peter |last2=Dawson |first2=Philip |title=The Ferry – A drive through history |publisher=Ferry Publications |location=Isle of Man |page=9}}</ref>

In 1871, the world's first car ferry crossed the [[Bosphorus]] in Istanbul. The iron steamship, named ''Suhulet'' (meaning 'ease' or 'convenience') was designed by the general manager of Şirket-i Hayriye (Bosporus Steam Navigation Company), Giritli Hüseyin Haki Bey and built by the [[Greenwich]] shipyard of [[Maudslay, Sons and Field]].<ref>{{Cite web |author=Mary Mills |date=2013-08-09 |title=MAUDSLAY SON AND FIELD'S GREENWICH SHIPYARD |url=https://greenwichpeninsulahistory.wordpress.com/2013/08/09/maudslay-son-and-fields-greenwich-shipyard/ |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=Greenwich Peninsula History |language=en}}</ref> It weighed 157 tons, was {{convert|155|ft|m|abbr=off|sp=us}} long, {{convert|27|ft|m|abbr=off|sp=us}} wide and had a draft of {{convert|9|ft|m|abbr=off|sp=us}}. It was capable of travelling up to 6 knots with the side wheel turned by its 450-horsepower, single-cylinder, two-cycle steam engine. Launched in 1872, Suhulet's unique features consisted of a symmetrical entry and exit for horse carriages, along with a dual system of hatchways. The ferry operated on the Üsküdar-Kabataş route, which is still serviced by modern ferries today.

==Notable services==
===Asia===
In [[Hong Kong]], [[Star Ferry]] carries passengers across [[Victoria Harbour]]. Other carriers ferry travelers between Hong Kong Island and outlying islands like [[Cheung Chau]], [[Lantau Island]] and [[Lamma Island]].

In the [[Philippines]], the [[Philippine Nautical Highway System]] forms the backbone of the nationwide transport system by integrating [[port]]s with [[highway]] systems; the system has three main routes. Another known ferry service is the [[Pasig River Ferry Service]], which is the only water-based transportation in [[Metro Manila]]. This system cruises the [[Pasig River]].

==== Bangladesh ====
{{transcluded section|source=Transport in Bangladesh|part=yes}}
{{#section-h:Transport in Bangladesh|Ferries}}

====India====
India's [[Roll-on/roll-off|ro-ro]] ferry service between [[Ghogha]] and [[Dahej]] was inaugurated on 22 October 2017. It aims to connect [[South Gujarat]] and [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] currently separated by {{convert|360|km|mi}} of roadway to {{convert|31|km|mi}} of ferry service. It is a part of the larger [[Sagar Mala project]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/why-gujarats-ro-ro-ferry-is-a-revolutionary-step-for-indian-economy/articleshow/61170437.cms|title=Why Gujarat's Ro-Ro ferry is a revolutionary step for Indian economy|date=22 October 2017|newspaper=[[The Economic Times]]|access-date=2017-10-22|archive-date=22 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022193528/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/why-gujarats-ro-ro-ferry-is-a-revolutionary-step-for-indian-economy/articleshow/61170437.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Water transport in Mumbai]] consists of ferries, hovercraft, and catamarans, operated by various government agencies as well as private entities. The [[Kerala State Water Transport Department]] (SWTD), operating under the Ministry of Transport, [[Government of Kerala]], [[India]] regulates the inland navigation systems in the Indian state of [[Kerala]] and provides inland water transport facilities. It stands for catering to the passenger and cargo traffic needs of the inhabitants of the waterlogged areas of the Districts of [[Alappuzha]], [[Kottayam]], [[Kollam]], [[Ernakulam]], [[Kannur]] and [[Kasargode]]. SWTD ferry service is also one of the most affordable modes to enjoy the beauty of the scenic [[Kerala backwaters]].

Ferry operates between [[Port Blair]], [[Havelock Island|Havelock]] and [[Neil Island|Neil Islands]] in the [[Andaman Islands]] while Boat Operates For [[Ross Island, South Andaman district|Ross Island]], North Bay, Elephanta Beach, Red Skin, Jolly Bouy. Ferries and [[Catamaran|catamarans]] are operated by Green Ocean, Makruzz, ITT Majestic, Nautika.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aggregated ferry availability for Andaman Islands was first brought online by ferrybooking.in allowing tourists and travellers to know about ferry schedule, seat availability and make reservations online before arriving to Andaman Islands for Port blair to Havelock, Havelock to Neil and Neil to Port Blair ferry routes |url=https://ferrybooking.in |website=ferrybooking.in}}</ref>

[[File:KWM Boat.jpg|thumb|Kochi Water Metro]]

The [[Kochi Water Metro]] is a public water transport system serving the [[Kochi]] metropolitan area in the Indian state of [[Kerala]]. It operates as an extension of the city’s urban transit network and the [[Kochi Metro]], linking the mainland with surrounding islands through a series of scheduled ferry routes. Managed by [[Kochi Metro Rail Limited]], the system employs battery-powered electric boats and includes multiple terminals across the Kochi backwaters. The service was inaugurated in April 2023 and represents one of the first organized water metro projects in India designed for regular commuter use.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-04-24 |title=Kochi Water Metro sails into third year with patronage of 4 million commuters |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kochi-water-metro-sails-into-third-year-with-patronage-of-4-million-commuters/article69487355.ece |access-date=2025-10-13 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-10-11 |title=Water Metro to change the face of West Kochi, says CM |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/water-metro-to-change-the-face-of-west-kochi-says-cm/article70152027.ece |access-date=2025-10-13 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

====Indonesia====
As the largest archipelagic country, Indonesia has several ferry routes which is managed mostly by PT. ASDP Indonesia Ferry (Persero) and several private companies. [[ASDP Indonesia Ferry]] or ASDP is a state-owned company engaged in the business of integrated ferry and port services and waterfront tourist destinations. ASDP operates a ferry fleet of more than 160 units handling more than 300 routes in 36 ports throughout Indonesia.

====Japan====
{{Further|List of ferry operators in Japan}}
Japan used to rely heavily on ferries for passenger and goods transportation among the four main islands of [[Hokkaido]], [[Honshu]], [[Shikoku]] and [[Kyushu]]. However, as highway and railway bridges and undersea tunnels (such as the [[Seikan Tunnel]] and [[Honshū–Shikoku Bridge Project]]) have been constructed, the ferry transportation has recently become for short-distance sightseeing passengers with or without car, and for long-distance truck drivers hauling goods.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2355.html |title=Domestic Ferries (JapanGuide.com), 2023) |access-date=8 June 2023 |archive-date=9 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509143642/https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2355.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.jlc-ferry.jp/en/ |title=Japan Long Course Ferry Service Association |access-date=8 June 2023 |archive-date=8 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608204506/http://www.jlc-ferry.jp/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.japan-experience.com/plan-your-trip/to-know/traveling-japan/japan-ferry |title=Ferries in Japan |access-date=8 June 2023 |archive-date=8 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608204509/https://www.japan-experience.com/plan-your-trip/to-know/traveling-japan/japan-ferry |url-status=live }}</ref>
<gallery mode=packed heights="150px">
File:Yawatahama ferry.jpg|The number of actual seats has traditionally been very limited like on this Japanese passenger ferry, with larger spaces dedicated to [[tatami]] or [[broadloom]] areas where passengers can sit or lie down (on [[Shikoku]] and [[Kyushu]] ferry, 2014).
File:On Yamagawa-Nejime Ferry - Inside the ferry Nankyu (2023).jpg|Inside a short distance ferry, the {{ill|Yamagawa-Nejime Ferry|ja|}}, [[Kagoshima, Japan]] (2023)
File:東九フェリー船内バイク駐輪機.jpg|Long-distance ferries are also used by motorcyclists.(Ocean Tokyu Ferry, 2019)
File:オーシャン東九フェリー船内.jpg|A second-class cabin on the ferry connecting Tokyo and Kitakyushu. A simple bed with curtains.(Ocean Tokyu Ferry, 2019)
</gallery>

====Malaysia====
[[File:Raja Tun Uda Ferry Terminal in George Town, Penang 2025.jpg|thumb|A catamaran off the [[Raja Tun Uda Ferry Terminal]] in [[George Town, Penang|George Town]], [[Penang]] {{Circa|2025}}]]
The [[States and federal territories of Malaysia|Malaysian state]] of [[Penang]] is home to the [[Penang ferry service|oldest ferry service in the country]]. The first regular ferry service operating across the [[Penang Strait]] between George Town and Province Wellesley (now [[Seberang Perai]]) was launched in 1894 by Quah Beng Kee and his brothers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cheah |first=Jin Seng |title=Penang 500 Early Postcards |publisher=Editions Didier Millet |year=2013 |isbn=9789671061718 |page=31}}</ref> The iconic yellow double-deck [[Roll-on/roll-off|roll-on/roll-off (RORO) ferries]] were introduced in 1957. Between 1959 and 2002, a total of 15 vessels were commissioned for the service.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jeremy Tan |date=29 Nov 2023 |title=Nostalgia of voyages past for Penang's iconic ferries |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/metro/metro-news/2023/11/29/nostalgia-of-voyages-past |access-date=5 Jan 2025 |work=[[The Star (Malaysia)|The Star]]}}</ref>

Currently operated by Penang Port Sdn Bhd, the ferry service has evolved over the decades.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Opalyn Mok |date=1 Jan 2021 |title=Curious commuters marvel at fast boats replacing iconic ferries to cross Penang channel |url=https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2021/01/01/curious-commuters-marvel-at-fast-boats-replacing-iconic-ferries-to-cross-pe/1936464 |access-date=25 Jan 2025 |work=[[Malay Mail]]}}</ref> The RORO ferries were retired in 2021, with speedboats temporarily replacing them.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ferrarese |first=Marco |date=8 Aug 2021 |title=Beloved Penang ferries given new life as tourist attractions after being withdrawn from service |url=https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/travel/article/3143993/beloved-penang-ferries-given-new-life-tourist |access-date=5 Jan 2025 |work=[[South China Morning Post]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=24 Jul 2024 |title=Iconic Penang ferry sinks in Butterworth |url=https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2024/07/24/iconic-penang-ferry-sinks-in-butterworth/ |access-date=5 Jan 2025 |work=[[Free Malaysia Today]]}}</ref> In 2023, these speedboats were succeeded by four newly-built catamarans, which now serve only passengers and motorcyclists. These catamarans operate between the [[Raja Tun Uda Ferry Terminal]] in George Town and the [[Sultan Abdul Halim Ferry Terminal]] in Seberang Perai.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McIntyre |first=Ian |date=8 Dec 2023 |title=Penang Port to launch first sunset cruise on spanking new ferry |url=https://www.thevibes.com/articles/lifestyles/100306/penang-port-to-launch-first-sunset-cruise-on-spanking-new-ferry |access-date=5 Jan 2025 |work=The Vibes}}</ref>

=== Russian Federation ===

Due to the geographical features of Russia, it has a large number of both sea and river ferry crossings. Car ferries operate from the continental part of Russia to Sakhalin, Kamchatka and Japan. The Ust-Luga – Kaliningrad ferry also runs, until February 2022 ferries also ran from St. Petersburg to different cities of the Baltic Sea. Before the construction of the Kerch Bridge, there was a ferry across the Kerch Strait, whose service was resumed after the [[2022 Crimean Bridge explosion|Kerch bridge explosion]].
There are also more than 100 ferry crossings on different rivers in Russia. These are usually symmetrical through ferries with two ramps for quick entry and exit of cars. For some categories of car owners, these ferries may be free if there is no alternative crossing of the river.

===Europe===

==== Scotland ====
In Scotland, ferry services form a vital part of the national transport network, connecting the mainland with more than sixty inhabited islands and linking remote peninsulas to the rest of the country. [[Caledonian MacBrayne]] (CalMac), operating under contract with [[Transport Scotland]], runs the largest network, serving communities across the west coast and the Hebrides. A range of smaller operators, including local authorities and private companies, provide additional river, coastal, and inter-island services. Ferries have long played an important role in Scotland’s transport history, and they remain essential today for residents, freight, and tourism owing to the country’s rugged coastline and widely dispersed island communities.

==== England ====
The busiest seaway in the world, the [[English Channel]], connects England and mainland Europe, with ships sailing from the English ports of [[Dover]], [[Newhaven, East Sussex|Newhaven]], Poole,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.phc.co.uk/|title=Independent Regulators of Poole Harbour | Poole Harbour Commissioners|date=16 November 2017|access-date=31 July 2020|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806104123/https://www.phc.co.uk/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Portsmouth]] and [[Plymouth]] to French ports, such as [[Calais]], [[Dunkirk]], [[Dieppe, Seine-Maritime|Dieppe]], [[Roscoff]], [[Cherbourg-Octeville]], [[Caen]], [[St Malo]] and [[Le Havre]]. The busiest ferry route to France is the Dover to Calais crossing with approximately 9,168,000 passengers using the service in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.franceferrybooker.co.uk/news/ferry-to-france-statistics|title=Ferry to France Statistics – Passenger Numbers – France Ferry Booker|date=18 November 2019 |access-date=18 November 2019|archive-date=30 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230110614/https://www.franceferrybooker.co.uk/news/ferry-to-france-statistics|url-status=live}}</ref> Ferries from England also sail to Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain and Ireland. Some ferries carry mainly tourist traffic, but most also carry freight, and some are exclusively for the use of freight lorries. In England, car-carrying ferries are sometimes referred to as [[RORO]] (roll-on, roll-off) for the ease by which vehicles can board and leave.

==== Denmark ====
The busiest single ferry route in terms of the number of departures is across the northern part of [[Øresund]], between [[Helsingborg]], [[Scania]], [[Sweden]] and [[Elsinore]], [[Denmark]]. Before the [[Øresund bridge]] was opened in July 2000, car and "car and train" ferries departed up to seven times every hour (every 8.5 minutes). This has since been reduced, but a car ferry still departs from each harbor every 15 minutes during daytime.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hhferries.se/|title=in Swedish, "Vi seglar var 15:e minut" means "We sail every 15 minutes"|website=Hhferries.se|access-date=27 January 2018|archive-date=3 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203034459/http://hhferries.se/|url-status=live}}</ref> The route is around {{convert|2.2|nmi}} and the crossing takes 22 minutes. Today, all ferries on this route are constructed so that they do not need to turn around in the harbors. This also means that the ferries lack [[Stem (ship)|stems]] and sterns, since the vessels sail in both directions. Starboard and port-side are dynamic, depending on the direction the ferry sails. Despite the short crossing, the ferries are equipped with restaurants (on three out of four ferries), cafeterias, and kiosks. Passengers without cars often make a double or triple return journey in the restaurants; for this, a single journey ticket is sufficient. Passenger and bicycle passenger tickets are inexpensive compared with longer routes.

==== Baltic Sea ====
Large [[cruiseferry|cruiseferries]] sail in the [[Baltic Sea]] between [[Finland]], [[Åland]], [[Sweden]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]]. In many ways, these ferries are like [[cruise ship]]s, but they can also carry hundreds of cars on car decks. Besides providing passenger and car transport across the sea, [[Baltic Sea cruiseferries]] are a popular tourist destination unto themselves, with multiple restaurants, nightclubs, bars, shops and entertainment on board. [[Helsinki]] was the busiest international passenger ferry port in the world in 2017 with over 11.8 million passengers whilst the second business international ferry port, Dover, had 11.7 million passengers. The Helsinki-[[Tallinn]] route alone accounted for nine million passengers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://yle.fi/a/3-10026577|title=in Finnish, "Helsinki nousi maailman vilkkaimmaksi matkustajasatamaksi"; YLE|date=17 January 2018|access-date=10 October 2023|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404231111/https://yle.fi/a/3-10026577|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2022 the port of Helsinki had almost 8 million passengers, of which 6.3 million travelled between Helsinki and Tallinn.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lansivayla.fi/paikalliset/5689834|title=in Finnish "Laivamatkustus tuplaantui Helsingin satamissa – risteilyalukset olivat poikkeus"; Länsiväylä|date=30 January 2023|access-date=10 October 2023|archive-date=25 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325100313/https://www.lansivayla.fi/paikalliset/5689834|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally many smaller ferries operate on domestic routes in Finland, Sweden and Estonia.

The south-west and southern parts of the Baltic Sea has several routes mainly for heavy traffic and cars. The ferry routes of [[Rødby]]-[[Puttgarden]], [[Trelleborg]]-[[Rostock]], [[Trelleborg]]-[[Travemünde]], [[Trelleborg]]-[[Świnoujście]], [[Gedser]]-[[Rostock]], [[Gdynia]]-[[Karlskrona]], and [[Ystad]]-[[Świnoujście]] are all typical ''transports'' ferries. On the longer of these routes, simple cabins are available. Some of these routes previously also carried trains, but since 2020 these trains are instead routed around the Baltic via the [[Great Belt fixed link]] and [[Jutland]].

==== Turkey ====
In [[Istanbul]], ferries connect the European and Asian shores of [[Bosphorus]], as well as [[Princes' Islands]] and nearby coastal towns. In 2014, [[İDO]] transported 47 million passengers, the largest ferry system in the world.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/may/28/istanbul-ferries-future-transport-new-york-london|title=Istanbul shows ferries have a future|first=Stephen|last=Starr|date=28 May 2015|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=27 January 2018|archive-date=28 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180128132733/https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/may/28/istanbul-ferries-future-transport-new-york-london|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Italy ====
[[File:Kayakers-Venice-20050524-018.jpg|thumb|The [[Rialto]] water taxi station in Venice, Italy]]
The largest ferry system in [[Italy]] is in [[Venice]]. The city's ''water taxis'' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''taxi d'acqua'') provide service all around the city's [[Canal|canals]]. They can carry up to 10 people.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Venezia Taxi |url=https://veneziataxi.it/en/ |access-date=2024-10-24 |website=Venezia Taxi |language=en-US}}</ref> They operate on a series of lines that stop at different locations around Venice.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maddy |date=2023-08-20 |title=Venice Water Taxi: Everything You Need To Know (2024) |url=https://www.venicetraveltips.com/venice-water-taxi/ |access-date=2024-10-24 |website=Venice Travel Tips |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==== Sweden ====
The world's shortest ferry line is the [[Ferry Lina]] in [[Töreboda]], [[Sweden]]. It takes around 20–25 seconds and is hand powered.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-05-22|title=Göta Canal {{!}} 190 kilometres of boats, bikes and shrimp sandwiches|url=https://scanmagazine.co.uk/gota-canal-2/|access-date=2020-07-04|website=Scan Magazine|language=en-GB|archive-date=4 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704213219/https://scanmagazine.co.uk/gota-canal-2/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Martinez|first=Helena|title=Färjan Lina|url=https://toreboda.se/Toreboda-kommun/Kultur--fritid/Turism/Farjan-Lina.html|access-date=2020-07-04|website=toreboda.se – Töreboda kommun|language=sv|archive-date=4 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704213410/https://toreboda.se/Toreboda-kommun/Kultur--fritid/Turism/Farjan-Lina.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

<gallery mode=packed heights="150px">
File:Silja Symphony Kustaanmiekka.jpg|{{MS|Silja Symphony}} leaving [[Helsinki]] via the Kustaanmiekka strait to the [[Baltic Sea]].
File:HSF Festos Palace wisnia6522.jpg|Ro-Pax ''[[MV Festos Palace|Festos Palace]]'' in [[Port of Piraeus|Piraeus]], Greece
File:Road ferry Merisilta.jpg|A road ferry between [[Oulu]] and the [[Hailuoto Island]] on the [[Bothnian Bay]]
</gallery>

<gallery mode=packed heights="200px">
File:Bridge and deck of Gullbritt.jpg|alt=|M/S ''Gullbritt'' in the [[Gullmarn|Gullmar Fjord]] close to [[Lysekil]], [[Sweden]]. Sweden has many of these yellow ferries that are run by the [[Swedish Transport Administration]]. Almost all of them are free of charge.
</gallery>

===North America===

==== Canada ====
Due to the numbers of large freshwater lakes and length of shoreline in Canada, various provinces and territories have ferry services.

On Canada's west coast, [[BC Ferries]] operates the third largest ferry service in the world. Travellers are carried from various points on the [[ British Columbia]] mainland to destinations such as [[Vancouver Island]], the [[Gulf Islands]] and [[Haida Gwaii]]. In 2015, BC Ferries carried more than 8 million vehicles and 20 million passengers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bcferries.com/files/AboutBCF/AR/BCFS_AnnualReport_2015-2016.pdf|title=Annual Report 2015–2016 : British Columbia Ferry Service Inc. & B. C. Ferry Authority|website=Bcferries.com|access-date=27 January 2018|archive-date=11 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111010311/http://www.bcferries.com/files/AboutBCF/AR/BCFS_AnnualReport_2015-2016.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Other operations include the [[Seabus]], a part of Vancouver's [[Translink (British Columbia)|public transit system]] which crosses [[Burrard Inlet]], and [[False Creek Ferries]], a privately operated service that operates in and around [[False Creek]]. Multiple [[List of inland ferries in British Columbia|inland ferries]] also operate across various lakes and rivers throughout the province.

The east coast has been home to numerous inter- and intra-provincial ferry and coastal services, including a large network operated by the federal government under [[CN Marine]] and later [[Marine Atlantic]]. Private and publicly owned ferry operations in eastern Canada include Marine Atlantic, serving the island of [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], as well as [[Bay Ferries]], [[Northumberland Ferries]], [[Coopérative de transport maritime et aérien|CTMA]], [[Coastal Transport]], and [[Société des traversiers du Québec|STQ]]. Canadian waters in the [[Great Lakes]] once hosted numerous ferry services, but these have been reduced to those offered by [[Owen Sound Transportation Company]] and several smaller operations. There are also several commuter passenger ferry services operated in major cities, such as [[Metro Transit (Halifax)|Metro Transit]] in [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], and [[Toronto Island ferries]] in Toronto. There is also the [[Société des traversiers du Québec]].

==== United States ====

The largest ferry system in the United States is the public [[Washington State Ferries]] system in the [[Pacific Northwest]], which has ten routes on [[Puget Sound]] and around the [[San Juan Islands]].<ref name="AP-Washington">{{cite news |date=22 August 2014 |title=Breakdowns accelerate concerns about 'fragile' Washington ferry system |url=https://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/2014/08/breakdowns_accelerate_concerns.html |work=[[The Oregonian]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=10 January 2026}}</ref> In 2025, the system carried 20.1{{nbsp}}million total passengers and 9.4{{nbsp}}million vehicles aboard its 21 vessels, which are able to carry up to 1,793 passengers and 202 vehicles on a single trip.<ref name="Washington-Ridership">{{cite web |date=5 January 2026 |title=Washington State Ferries – Traffic Statistics Rider Segment report, Jan 1, 2025 thru Dec 31, 2025 |url=https://wsdot.wa.gov/sites/default/files/2026-01/WashingtonStateFerries-TrafficStatistics-2025Annual.pdf |publisher=Washington State Department of Transportation |accessdate=10 January 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=September 2025 |title=WSDOT Ferries Division Fleet Guide |url=https://wsdot.wa.gov/sites/default/files/2025-09/WSF-FleetGuide-September2025.pdf |publisher=Washington State Ferries |accessdate=10 January 2026}}</ref> The ferries serve commuters in the [[Seattle metropolitan area]] as well as tourist and recreational traffic.<ref name="AP-Washington"/> They are integrated into the [[State highways in Washington|state highway system]] and operated by the [[Washington State Department of Transportation]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bernstein |first1=Jeri |last2=Gavin |first2=Sharon |last3=Rhodes |first3=Diane |date=13 May 2020 |title=Sustaining a marine highway system in Washington State |url=https://www.roadsbridges.com/bridges/article/10652725/sustaining-a-marine-highway-system-in-washington-state |work=[[Roads & Bridges]] |accessdate=10 January 2026}}</ref> The region also has a number of passenger-only services that are operated by other public agencies as well as private companies. [[Kitsap Transit]] operates local foot ferries within its local area and "[[Kitsap Fast Ferries|fast ferries]]" to Seattle that carried 1.2{{nbsp}}million passengers in 2024.<ref>{{cite news |last=Deshais |first=Nicholas |date=24 January 2025 |title=WA sees bump in ferry riders with help from county-run boats |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/transportation/wa-sees-bump-in-ferry-riders-with-help-from-county-run-boats/ |work=[[The Seattle Times]] |accessdate=10 January 2026}}</ref>

Due to the North Carolina coast's geography, consisting of numerous sounds, inlets, tidal arms, and islands, ferry transportation is essential in the region. The state operates twelve routes, eight of which are under the oversight of the North Carolina Department of Transportation Ferry Division, three of which are under the direct oversight of the North Carolina Department of Transportation, and one of which is under the oversight of the North Carolina Division of Parks and Recreation.<ref>{{cite web |title=NC Ferry Routes |url=https://www.ncdot.gov/travel-maps/ferry-tickets-services/routes/Pages/default.aspx |publisher=NCDOT}}</ref> Three of the Ferry Division routes are tolled, and all ferry routes operated by the North Carolina Department of Transportation carry both vehicles and pedestrians, although certain vessels only carry pedestrians and cyclists. The National Park Service additionally works with private companies to offer ferry service to locations such as Cape Lookout and Portsmouth.<ref>{{cite web |title=National Park Ferries |url=https://www.nps.gov/subjects/transportation/water.htm |publisher=NPS}}</ref>

The [[Alaska Marine Highway|Alaska Marine Highway System]] provides service between [[Bellingham, Washington]], and various towns and villages throughout Southeast and Southwest Alaska, including crossings of the [[Gulf of Alaska]]. AMHS provides access to many small communities with no road connection or airport.

The [[Staten Island Ferry]] in [[Transportation in New York City|New York City]], sailing between the boroughs of [[Manhattan]] and [[Staten Island]], is the nation's single busiest ferry route by passenger volume. Unlike riders on many other ferry services, Staten Island Ferry passengers do not pay any fare to ride it. New York City also has a network of smaller ferries, or ''water taxis'', that shuttle commuters along the [[Hudson River]] from locations in [[New Jersey]] and Northern [[Manhattan]] down to the midtown, downtown and Wall Street business centers. Several ferry companies also offer service linking midtown and lower Manhattan with locations in the boroughs of [[Queens]] and [[Brooklyn]], crossing the city's [[East River]]. New York City Mayor [[Bill de Blasio]] announced in February 2015 that city would begin an expanded Citywide Ferry Service, and launched as [[NYC Ferry]] in 2017, linking heretofore relatively isolated communities such as [[Manhattan]]'s [[Lower East Side]], [[Soundview, Bronx|Soundview]] in [[The Bronx]], [[Astoria, Queens|Astoria]] and [[Rockaway, Queens|the Rockaways]] in [[Queens]] and such [[Brooklyn]] neighborhoods as [[Bay Ridge, Brooklyn|Bay Ridge]], [[Sunset Park, Brooklyn|Sunset Park]], and [[Red Hook, Brooklyn|Red Hook]] with existing ferry landings in [[Lower Manhattan]] and [[Midtown Manhattan]]. A second expansion phase connected [[Staten Island]] to the West Side of Manhattan, and added a stop in Throgs Neck, in the Bronx. NYC Ferry is now the largest passenger fleet in the United States.

The [[New Orleans]] area also has many ferries that carry both vehicles and pedestrians. Most notable is the Algiers Ferry, which has been in continuous operation since 1827 and is one of the oldest operating ferries in North America.
In New England, vehicle-carrying ferry services between mainland [[Cape Cod]] and the islands of [[Martha's Vineyard]] and [[Nantucket]] are operated by [[The Woods Hole, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket Steamship Authority]], which sails year-round between [[Woods Hole]] and [[Vineyard Haven]] as well as [[Hyannis, Massachusetts|Hyannis]] and [[Nantucket]]. Seasonal service is also operated from Woods Hole to [[Oak Bluffs]] during the summer and fall. As there are no bridges or tunnels connecting the islands to the mainland, The Steamship Authority ferries in addition to being the only method for transporting private cars to or from the islands, also ferry heavy freight and supplies, such as construction materials and fuel, competing with tug and barge companies. Additionally, [[Hy-Line Cruises]] operates high-speed catamaran service from Hyannis to both islands, and several smaller operations run seasonal passenger-only service primarily geared towards tourist [[day-tripper]]s from other mainland ports, including [[New Bedford, MA|New Bedford]], (New Bedford Fast Ferry) [[Falmouth, MA|Falmouth]], (Island Queen ferry and Falmouth Ferry) and [[Harwich, MA|Harwich]] (Freedom Cruise Line). Ferries also bring riders and vehicles across [[Long Island Sound]] to such [[Connecticut]] cities as [[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]] and [[New London, Connecticut|New London]], and to [[Block Island]] in [[Rhode Island]] from points on [[Long Island]].

Transbay commuting in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] was primarily ferry-based until bridges were built from the 1920s to the 1960s. Prior to the bridges, car ferries were popular. Large trains were also moved across the water on ferries, reducing the time to go around the rivers and bay. By the 1970s, ferries were primarily used by tourists with [[Golden Gate Ferry]], an organization under the ownership of the same governing body as the [[Golden Gate Bridge]], left as the sole commute operator. The [[1989 Loma Prieta earthquake]] prompted the restoration of service to the [[East Bay]]. The modern ferry network is primarily under the authority of [[San Francisco Bay Ferry]], connecting with cities as far as [[Vallejo, California|Vallejo]]. Tourist excursions are also offered by [[Blue & Gold Fleet]] and [[Red & White Fleet]]. A ferry serves [[Angel Island (California)|Angel Island]] (which also accepts private craft). [[Alcatraz]] is served exclusively by ferry service administered by the [[National Park Service]].
{{main|Ferries of San Francisco Bay}}

Until the completion of the [[Mackinac Bridge]] in the 1950s, ferries were used for vehicle transportation between the [[Lower Peninsula of Michigan|Lower]] and the [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan|Upper Peninsulas]] of [[Michigan]], across the [[Straits of Mackinac]] in the United States. Ferry service for [[bicycles]] and passengers continues across the straits for transport to [[Mackinac Island]], where motorized vehicles are almost completely prohibited. This crossing is made possible by two ferry lines [[Shepler's Ferry]] and [[Star Line Ferry|Mackinac Island Ferry Company (formerly Star Line)]].

A ferry service runs between [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]] and [[Muskegon, Michigan]] operated by [[Lake Express]]. Another ferry [[SS Badger]] operates between [[Manitowoc, Wisconsin]] and [[Ludington, Michigan]]. Both cross [[Lake Michigan]].

Numerous additional inland ferry routes exist in the United States, such as the [[Cave-In-Rock Ferry]] across the Ohio River, and the [[Tennessee State Route 147|Benton-Houston Ferry]] across the Tennessee River.

==== Mexico ====
Mexico has ferry services run by [[Baja Ferries]] that connect [[La Paz, Baja California Sur|La Paz]] located on the Baja California Peninsula with [[Mazatlán]] and [[Topolobampo]]. Passenger ferries also run from [[Playa del Carmen]] to the island of [[Cozumel]].
<gallery mode=packed heights="150px">
File:Spirit of vi 3.jpg|{{MV|Spirit of Vancouver Island}} en route to [[Tsawwassen Ferry Terminal|Tsawwassen]] from [[Swartz Bay Ferry Terminal|Swartz Bay]]. Route 1 is [[BC Ferries]] busiest route.
File:MV Suquamish leaving Mukilteo (Feb. 2020).jpg|{{MV|Suquamish}} sailing from [[Mukilteo, Washington|Mukilteo]] to [[Clinton, Washington|Clinton]], one of ten routes served by [[Washington State Ferries]].
File:LeConte Kennicott 30.jpg|Alaska Marine Highway System ferries [[MV LeConte|MV ''LeConte'']] and [[MV Kennicott|MV ''Kennicott'']] near [[Juneau, Alaska]]
</gallery>

===South America===
There are several ferries in South America.

[[Chacao Channel]] has ferry lines.

===Oceania===

==== Australia ====
In Australia, two [[Spirit of Tasmania]] ferries carry passengers and vehicles {{convert|450|km}} across [[Bass Strait]], the body of water that separates [[Tasmania]] from the Australian mainland, often under turbulent sea conditions. These run overnight but also include day crossings in peak time. Both ferries are based in the northern Tasmanian port city of [[Devonport, Tasmania|Devonport]] and sail to [[Geelong]]. Before Geelong this ferry used to sail to [[Melbourne]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ferrygogo.com/geelong-tasmania-one-month-after/|title=Geelong-Tasmania One Month After|date=23 November 2022 |access-date=2 December 2022|archive-date=2 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202092157/https://ferrygogo.com/geelong-tasmania-one-month-after/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://geelongport.com.au/news/geelongport-welcomes-spirit-of-tasmania-to-geelong/|title=GeelongPort welcomes Spirit of Tasmania to Geelong|date=23 October 2022 |access-date=2 December 2022|archive-date=2 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202092147/https://geelongport.com.au/news/geelongport-welcomes-spirit-of-tasmania-to-geelong/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The double-ended Freshwater-class ferry cuts an iconic shape as it makes its way up and down Sydney Harbour [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]] between [[Manly, New South Wales|Manly]] and [[Circular Quay]].

==== New Zealand ====
In New Zealand, ferries connect [[Wellington]] in the [[North Island]] with [[Picton, New Zealand|Picton]] in the [[South Island]], linking New Zealand's two main islands. The route is {{convert|92|km}}, and is run by two companies – government-owned [[Interislander]], and independent [[Strait Shipping|Bluebridge]], who say the trip takes three and half hours.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.greatjourneysofnz.co.nz/interislander/experience/the-journey-cook-strait/|title=The Journey|website=Great Journeys of New Zealand|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-10|archive-date=21 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221005649/https://www.greatjourneysofnz.co.nz/interislander/experience/the-journey-cook-strait/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

<gallery mode=packed heights="150px">
File:Devonport-Spirit-Of-Tasmania-2008.jpg|{{MS|Spirit of Tasmania II}} at port in [[Devonport, Tasmania|Devonport]], Australia.
File:Sydney Ferry Freshwater.jpg|The Manly Ferry '[[MV Freshwater]]'
</gallery>

==Types==
Ferry designs depend on the length of the route, the passenger or vehicle capacity required, speed requirements and the water conditions the craft must deal with.

===Double-ended===
[[File:Ferrytobermory.jpg|thumb|Ferry in Ontario (Manitoulin Island) vehicles load via the front and back of the ferry opening hull]]
Double-ended ferries have interchangeable bows and sterns, allowing them to shuttle back and forth between two [[Ferry terminal|terminals]] without having to turn around. Well-known double-ended ferry systems include the [[BC Ferries]], the [[Staten Island Ferry]], [[Washington State Ferries]], [[Star Ferry]], several ferries on the [[North Carolina Ferry System]], and the [[Lake Champlain Transportation Company]]. Most Norwegian fjord and coastal ferries are double-ended vessels. All [[Marine Atlantic|ferries]] from southern [[Prince Edward Island]] to the mainland of Canada were double-ended. This service was discontinued upon completion of the [[Confederation Bridge]]. Some ferries in [[Sydney Ferries|Sydney, Australia]] and [[BC Ferries|British Columbia]] are also double-ended. Many double-ended ferries are also constructed in Greece, in the shipyards of Perama and Salamis. Greek double-ended ferries are exported to other countries, such as Russia, where they are popular for short distance routes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Αμφίπλωρα οχηματαγωγά ferries: Το εθνικό μας προϊόν που δίνει ανάσα σε Πέραμα και Σαλαμίνα |url=https://nautilia.gr/eidiseis/aktoploia/amfiplora-ochimatagoga-ferries-ethniko-mas-proion-pou-dini-anasa-se-perama-ke-salamina/ |website=Nautilia.gr |date=8 February 2017 |publisher=Nautilia News |access-date=13 June 2025}}</ref>

In 2008, BC Ferries launched the first of the [[Coastal-class ferry|Coastal-class ferries]], which at the time were the world's largest double enders. These were surpassed as the world's largest double-enders when [[P&O Ferries]] launched their first double-ender, called the [[P&O Pioneer]], which entered service in June 2023 replacing Pride of Kent.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.niferry.co.uk/first-new-po-ferries-dover-ship-floated-out-in-china/|title=First new P&O Ferries Dover ship floated out in China|publisher=NI Ferry|date=2022-01-08|access-date=8 January 2022|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108002716/https://www.niferry.co.uk/first-new-po-ferries-dover-ship-floated-out-in-china/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Hydrofoil===
[[Hydrofoil]]s have the advantage of higher cruising speeds, succeeding [[hovercraft]] on some English Channel routes where the ferries now compete against the Eurotunnel and [[Eurostar]] trains that use the [[Channel Tunnel]]. Passenger-only hydrofoils also proved a practical, fast and relatively economical solution in the [[Canary Islands]], but were recently replaced by faster [[catamaran]] "high speed" ferries that can carry cars. Their replacement by the larger craft is seen by critics as a retrograde step given that the new vessels use much more fuel and foster the inappropriate use of cars<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atan.org/en/costas/fast/milenium.htm|title=ATAN official web page: Fast Ferries – pointless gas-guzzlers|website=Atan.org|access-date=27 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303170528/http://www.atan.org/en/costas/fast/milenium.htm|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> in islands already suffering from the impact of mass tourism.

===Hovercraft===
[[File:SRN4 Hovercraft Mountbatten Class.jpg|thumb|Mark 3 [[SR.N4]] hovercraft, [[Port Dover|Dover]]]]
[[Hovercraft]] were developed in the 1960s and 1970s to carry cars. The largest was the massive [[SR.N4]] which carried cars in its centre section with ramps at the bow and stern between England and France. The hovercraft was superseded by catamarans which are nearly as fast and are less affected by sea and weather conditions. Only one service now remains, a foot passenger service between [[Portsmouth]] and the [[Isle of Wight]] run by [[Hovertravel]]. From 1984 to 1994 [[Scandinavian Airlines]] to operated a hovercraft service between [[Malmö]] and [[Copenhagen Airport]] as a connecting "flight" for passengers from southern Sweden. The service was replaced by a regular boat in 1994 and by the [[Öresund bridge]] in 2000.

===Catamaran===
[[File:Hsc manannan.png|thumb|[[Incat]] built [[Catamaran]] [[HSC Manannan|HSC ''Manannan'']] entering [[Douglas, Isle of Man]]]]
Since 1990 high speed [[catamaran]]s have revolutionised ferry services, replacing [[hovercraft]], [[hydrofoils]] and conventional monohull ferries. In the 1990s there were a variety of builders, but the industry has consolidated to two builders of large vehicular ferries between 60 and 120 metres. [[Incat]] of [[Hobart]], Tasmania favours a [[Wave-piercing hull]] to deliver a smooth ride, while [[Austal]] of [[Perth]], Western Australia builds ships based on [[Small-waterplane-area twin hull|SWATH]] designs. Both these companies also compete in the smaller river ferry industry with a number of other ship builders.

[[Stena Line]] once operated the largest catamarans in the world, the [[High-speed Sea Service|Stena HSS]] class, between the United Kingdom and Ireland. These [[water jet (propulsion)|waterjet]]-powered vessels, displaced 19,638 tonnes, accommodating 375 passenger cars and 1,500 passengers. Other examples of these super-size catamarans are found in the [[Condor Ferries]] fleet with the Condor Voyager and Rapide.

===Roll-on/roll-off===
[[File:Pont-Aven Car Deck.JPG|thumb|Lorries preparing to unload from the ''[[MV Pont-Aven|Pont-Aven]]'', the [[Brittany Ferries]] flagship]]
[[File:Britanny Ferries Armoruque ferry.jpg|alt=Large roll-on/roll-off ferry MV Armorique (Brittany Ferries) berthed at a port with a small service boat alongside.|thumb|Brittany Ferries Armorique ferry]]
[[Roll-on/roll-off]] ferries (RORO) are large conventional ferries named for the ease by which vehicles can board and leave.

=== Cruiseferry / RoPax ===
A [[cruiseferry]] is a ship that combines the features of a [[cruise ship]] with a roll-on/roll-off ferry. They are also known as [[RoPax]] for their combined Roll on/Roll Off and passenger design.

===Fast RoPax ferry===
[[File:Superfast XI.jpg|thumb|[[MS Superfast XI|MS ''Superfast XI'']]]]
Fast [[Roll-on/roll-off#ROPAX|RoPax ferries]] are conventional ferries with a large garage intake and a relatively large passenger capacity, with conventional diesel propulsion and propellers that sail over {{convert|25|kn|km/h mph|0}}. Pioneering this class of ferries was [[Attica Group]], when it introduced Superfast I between Greece and Italy in 1995 through its subsidiary company [[Superfast Ferries]].

===Turntable ferry===
[[File:Skye ferry scotland.jpg|thumb|right|Turntable ferry [[MV Glenachulish|MV ''Glenachulish'']] operating between [[Glenelg, Highland|Glenelg]] on the Scottish mainland, and [[Kylerhea]] on the [[Skye|Isle of Skye]]. Built in 1969, she is the last manually operated turntable ferry in the world.]]
This type of ferry allows vehicles to load from the "side". The vehicle platform can be turned. When loading, the platform is turned sideways to allow sideways loading of vehicles. Then the platform is turned back, in line with the vessel, and the journey across water is made.

===Pontoon ferry===

[[File:Ferry.dartmouth.750pix.jpg|thumb|The Lower [[Kingswear]] to [[Dartmouth, Devon|Dartmouth]] ferry, [[Devon]], England. The [[Pontoon (boat)|pontoon]] carries eight cars and is towed across the [[River Dart]] by a small tug. Two ropes connect the tug to the pontoon.]]
[[Pontoon (boat)|Pontoon]] ferries and [[flat-bottomed boat]]s such as [[Punt (boat)|punt]]s carry passengers and vehicles across rivers and lakes and are widely used in less-developed countries with large rivers where the cost of bridge construction is prohibitive. One or more vehicles are carried on such ferries with [[Drawbridge|ramps]] at either end for vehicles or animals to board. [[#Cable ferry|Cable ferries]] are usually pontoon ferries. In the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany many such small cable ferries exist and are called [[pünte]]s.

===Train ferry===
{{main|Train ferry}}

[[File:101031 Italie sud 128.jpg|thumb|Train and car ferry between Calabria and Sicily, Italy]]
A train ferry is a ship designed to carry railway vehicles. Typically, one level of the ship is fitted with railway tracks, and the vessel has a door at either or both of the front and rear to give access to the [[Wharf|wharves]].

===Foot ferry===
Foot ferries are small craft used to ferry foot passengers, and often also cyclists, over rivers. These are either self-propelled craft or cable ferries. Such ferries are for example to be found on the lower [[Schelde|River Scheldt]] in [[Belgium]] and in particular the [[Netherlands]]. Regular foot ferry service also exists in the capital of the Czech Republic, Prague, and across the [[Yarra River]] in Melbourne, Australia at [[Newport, Victoria|Newport]]. Restored, expanded ferry service in the [[Port of New York and New Jersey]] uses boats for pedestrians only.

The UK has a variety of historic foot ferries such as the Butley Foot Ferry across [[Butley Creek]] which dates back to 1383.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-03-09 |title=The people keeping our historic foot ferries afloat |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-68428422 |access-date=2024-03-10 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Four Foot Ferries of The Suffolk Coast |url=https://www.thesuffolkcoast.co.uk/four-foot-ferries-of-the-suffolk-coast |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=www.thesuffolkcoast.co.uk |language=en}}</ref>
===Cable ferry===
{{Main article|Cable ferry|Reaction ferry}}

[[File:Small Mannum Ferry.jpg|thumb|One of several self-propelled cable ferries that cross the lower reaches of the [[Murray River]] in South Australia]]
Very short distances may be crossed by a [[cable ferry|cable or chain ferry]], which is usually a pontoon ferry (see above), where the ferry is propelled along and steered by cables connected to each shore. Sometimes the cable ferry is human powered by someone on the boat. [[Reaction ferry|Reaction ferries]] are cable ferries that use the perpendicular force of the current as a source of power. Examples of a current propelled ferry are the four Rhine ferries in [[Basel]], Switzerland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.faehri.ch/|title=Fähri Verein Basel|website=Faehri.ch|access-date=27 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706231810/http://www.faehri.ch/|archive-date=6 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Cable ferries may be used in fast-flowing rivers across short distances. With an ocean crossing of approximately 1900 metres, the cable ferry between Vancouver Island and Denman Island in British Columbia; is the longest one in the world.

Free ferries operate in some parts of the world, such as in [[Amsterdam]], Netherlands (across the [[IJ (Amsterdam)|IJ]] waterway); along the [[Murray River]] in [[South Australia]], and across many lakes in [[British Columbia]]. Many cable ferries operate on lakes and rivers in Canada, among them a [[Reaction ferry|cable ferry]] that charges a toll operates on the [[Laval-sur-le-Lac–Île-Bizard Ferry|Rivière des Prairies]] between [[Laval-sur-le-Lac]] and [[Île Bizard]] in [[Quebec]], Canada. In Finland there were 40 road ferries (cable ferries) in 2009, on lakes, rivers and on sea between islands.

==Air ferries==
{{main|Air ferry}}

In the 1950s and 1960s, travel on an "air ferry" was possible—airplanes, often ex-military, specially equipped to take a small number of cars in addition to foot passengers. These operated various routes including between the United Kingdom and [[Continental Europe]]. Companies operating such services included [[Channel Air Bridge]], [[Silver City Airways]], and [[Corsairfly|Corsair]].

The term is also applied to any "ferrying" by air, and is commonly used when referring to airborne military operations.

==Docking==
[[File:Ferry loading.jpg|thumb|Drawbridge of the ferry lies on the [[ferry slip]]. This double sided ferry measures {{convert|74|x|17.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}, and carries 2000 passengers with 60 cars]]

Ferries often dock at specialized facilities designed to position the boat for loading and unloading, called a [[ferry slip]]. If the ferry transports road vehicles or railway carriages there will usually be an adjustable [[Inclined plane|ramp]] called an [[Linkspan|apron]] that is part of the [[Ferry slip|slip]]. In other cases, the [[Linkspan|apron ramp]] will be a part of the ferry itself, acting as a wave guard when elevated and lowered to meet a [[Slipway|fixed ramp]] at the terminus – a road segment that extends partially underwater or meet the [[ferry slip]].

==Records==
===Gross tonnage===
The world's [[Largest ferries of Europe|largest ferries are typically those operated in Europe]], with different vessels holding the record depending on whether length, gross tonnage or car vehicle capacity is the metric.

===Oldest===
The sole contender as oldest ferry in continuous operation is the [[Mersey Ferry]] from [[Liverpool]] to [[Birkenhead]], England. In 1150, the [[Birkenhead Priory|Benedictine Priory]] at [[Birkenhead]] was established. The monks used to charge a small fare to row passengers across the estuary.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merseyferries.co.uk/Content/AboutUs/2ndLevelNavigation.aspx |title=101 Interesting Facts |publisher=Mersey Ferries |access-date=30 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100904150644/http://www.merseyferries.co.uk/Content/AboutUs/2ndLevelNavigation.aspx |archive-date=4 September 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In 1330, [[Edward III]] granted a charter to the Priory and its successors for ever: "the right of ferry there... for men, horses and goods, with leave to charge reasonable tolls". However, there may have been a short break following the [[Dissolution of the monasteries]] after 1536.

On 11 October 1811, inventor [[John Stevens (inventor, born 1749)|John Stevens]]' ship the ''Juliana'', began operation as the first [[steam]]-powered ferry (service was between New York City, and [[Hoboken, New Jersey]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hobokenmuseum.org/history/the-stevens-family/steamboat-innovation|title=Hoboken Historical Museum – Steamboat Innovation|website=Hobokenmuseum.org|language=en-gb|access-date=2017-04-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507131104/https://www.hobokenmuseum.org/history/the-stevens-family/steamboat-innovation|archive-date=7 May 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The [[Elwell Ferry]], a [[cable ferry]] in [[North Carolina]], travels a distance of {{convert|110|yd|m}},<ref name="elkel">{{cite web
| title = Elwell Ferry, Kelly, NC
| publisher = Living in Style, August/September 2008, Christopher E. Nelson
| url = http://adserver1.harvestadsdepot.com/tnwsobsvr/ss/085850/074/074.shtml?074_001/074_001.shtml
}}{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> shore to shore, with a travel time of five minutes.<ref name="closed">{{cite web
| title = Elwell Ferry: When getting 'away' is closer than you think
| publisher = Star News Online, Jim Hanchett, 2 December 2005
| url = http://www.starnewsonline.com/article/20051205/COLUMNIST33/51202028?Title=Elwell-Ferry-When-getting-145-away-146-is-closer-than-you-think
| access-date = 23 October 2009
| archive-date = 7 March 2012
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120307144446/http://www.starnewsonline.com/article/20051205/COLUMNIST33/51202028?Title=Elwell-Ferry-When-getting-145-away-146-is-closer-than-you-think
| url-status = live
}}</ref>

===Largest networks===
* [[Waxholmsbolaget]] – 21 vessels serving around 300 ports of call in the [[Stockholm archipelago]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Waxholmsbolaget |url=https://waxholmsbolaget.se/visitor-information/plan/starting-points |website=Where to start |publisher=Waxholmsbolaget |access-date=10 June 2020 |archive-date=10 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610175912/https://waxholmsbolaget.se/visitor-information/plan/starting-points |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Ferries in Istanbul|Istanbul Ferry Network]] – 87 vessels serving 86 ports of call in and around the [[Bosporus]] of [[Istanbul, Turkey]].
* [[BC Ferries]] – 36 vessels serving 47 ports of call along the west coast of [[British Columbia, Canada]], carrying 22.3 million passengers annually.<ref name="bc ferries ar">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bcferries.com/investors/AR.html|title=Annual Reports {{!}} BC Ferries – British Columbia Ferry Services Inc.|website=www.bcferries.com|access-date=2019-08-20|archive-date=25 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825081745/http://www.bcferries.com/investors/AR.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Caledonian MacBrayne]] – 31 vessels serving 50 ports of call along the west coast of [[Scotland]], carrying 1.43 million passengers annually.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.calmac.co.uk/corporate/business-review|title=Business Review {{!}} CalMac Ferries|website=www.calmac.co.uk|access-date=2019-08-20|archive-date=20 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820223526/https://www.calmac.co.uk/corporate/business-review|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Sydney Ferries]] – 31 vessels serving 36 ports of call in [[Port Jackson]] (Sydney Harbour), carrying 15.3 million passengers annually.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.beyondthewharf.com.au/who-we-are/|title=Who we are – Transdev Sydney Ferries – Discover, Experience, Share, Sydney Harbour by Ferry|website=Transdev Sydney Ferries|language=en-AU|access-date=2019-08-20|archive-date=20 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820223910/http://www.beyondthewharf.com.au/who-we-are/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Washington State Ferries]] – 21 vessels serving 20 ports of call around [[Puget Sound]] of [[Washington (state)|Washington, United States]], carrying 20.1 million passengers annually.<ref name="Washington-Ridership"/>
* [[Metrolink Queensland]] – 21 vessels serving 26 ports of call along the [[Brisbane River]] in [[Brisbane, Australia]], carrying 2.7 million passengers annually.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.transdevbrisbane.com.au/about/transdev-in-brisbane/|title=Transdev in Brisbane|website=www.transdevbrisbane.com.au|access-date=2019-08-20|archive-date=23 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823053844/http://www.transdevbrisbane.com.au/about/transdev-in-brisbane|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Société des traversiers du Québec]]

===Busiest networks===
* Istanbul Ferry Network – 40 million passengers annually.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Şehir Hatları ® Tanıtım |url=https://www.sehirhatlari.istanbul/tr/kurumsal/hakkimizda-215 |access-date=2023-12-16 |website=www.sehirhatlari.istanbul |archive-date=16 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216123416/https://www.sehirhatlari.istanbul/tr/kurumsal/hakkimizda-215 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Washington State Ferries]] – 20.1 million passengers and 9.4 million vehicles annually.<ref name="Washington-Ridership"/>
* [[Staten Island Ferry]] in [[Transportation in New York City|New York City]] – 23.9 million passengers annually; busiest single-line ferry in the world.
* [[Gemeente Vervoerbedrijf#Ferries|Amsterdam GVB Ferries]] – 22.4 million passengers annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jaarverslag.gvb.nl/gvb-in-2020/leefbare-stad#ov-netwerk-en-dienstregeling|title=GVB Annual report 2019|website=jaarverslag.gvb.nl|access-date=28 May 2020|archive-date=18 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618141540/https://jaarverslag.gvb.nl/gvb-in-2020/leefbare-stad#ov-netwerk-en-dienstregeling|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[BC Ferries]] – 22.3 million passengers annually.<ref name="bc ferries ar" />
* [[Star Ferry]] in [[Hong Kong]] – 19.7 million passengers annually.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.starferry.com.hk/tc/operationalInfo|title=營運資料 | 天星小輪有限公司|access-date=17 February 2020|archive-date=3 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003054558/http://www.starferry.com.hk/tc/operationalInfo|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Fastest===
The gas turbine powered ''[[Luciano Federico L]]'' operated by Montevideo-based [[Buquebus]], holds the Guinness World Record for the fastest car ferry in the world, in service between [[Montevideo]], [[Uruguay]] and [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]]: its maximum speed, achieved in sea trials, was {{convert|60.2|kn|km/h mph}}.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Luciano Federico L –
| publisher = ship-technology.com
| url = http://www.ship-technology.com/projects/luciano/
| access-date = 4 June 2013
| archive-date = 2 June 2013
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130602044222/http://www.ship-technology.com/projects/luciano/
| url-status = live
}}</ref> It can carry 450 passengers and 52 cars along the {{convert|110|nmi|km mi|adj=on}} route.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amd.com.au/vessels/amd1130.php|title=AMD 1130 – "Luciano Federico L"|website=Amd.com.au|access-date=27 January 2018|archive-date=28 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180128074725/https://www.amd.com.au/vessels/amd1130.php|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Sustainability ==
[[File:Tallink Star in 2013.JPG|thumb|Fast [[Ro-Pax ferries]], like [[MS Star (2006)|MS ''Star'']], have notable CO2 emissions.]]
The contributions of ferry travel to climate change have received less scrutiny than land and air transport, and vary considerably according to factors like speed and the number of passengers carried. Average carbon dioxide emissions by ferries per passenger-kilometre seem to be {{convert|0.12|kg|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|author=Philippe Holthof|title='SOx and CO2 Emissions once again Hot Topic at Ferry Shipping Conference' : ''Ferry Shipping Conference 08: Building Bridges in the Industry''|url=http://www.shippax.se/back%CB%8Cknet/ext/file/fileredirect.asp?id=229&file=bilaga_konferens_maj08.pdf|website=Shippax.se|date=10 April 2009|page=3|access-date=27 January 2018|archive-date=25 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025185917/https://www.shippax.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, {{convert|18|kn|mph km/h|adj=mid|lk=in}} ferries between Finland and Sweden produce {{convert|0.221|kg|oz|abbr=on}} of CO2, with total emissions equalling a CO2 equivalent of {{convert|0.223|kg|oz|abbr=on}}, while {{convert|24|–|27|kn|mph km/h|adj=mid}} ferries between Finland and Estonia produce {{convert|0.396|kg|oz|abbr=on}} of CO2 with total emissions equalling a CO2 equivalent of {{convert|0.4|kg|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lipasto.vtt.fi/yksikkopaastot/henkiloliikennee/vesiliikennee/autolauttae.htm |title=Unit emissions of ferries and Ropax |website=LIPASTO |first=Kari |last=Makela |access-date=3 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719224329/http://lipasto.vtt.fi/yksikkopaastot/henkiloliikennee/vesiliikennee/autolauttae.htm |archive-date=19 July 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Alternative fuels===
{{See also|Electric boat}}
With the [[price of oil]] at high levels, and with increasing pressure from consumers for measures to tackle [[global warming]], a number of innovations for energy and the environment were put forward at the Interferry conference in [[Stockholm]]. According to the company [[Solar Sailor Holdings|Solar Sailor]], hybrid marine power and solar wing technology are suitable for use with ferries, private [[yacht]]s and even tankers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Interferry hears about green alternatives|url=http://www.tmcnet.com/usubmit/-interferry-hears-green-alternatives-/2007/10/05/2993389.htm|website=Tmcnet.com|access-date=27 January 2018|archive-date=6 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706202726/http://www.tmcnet.com/usubmit/-interferry-hears-green-alternatives-/2007/10/05/2993389.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Alternative fuels are becoming more widespread on ferries. The fastest passenger ferry in the world [[Buquebus]], runs on [[LNG]], while Sweden's [[Stena Line|Stena]] converted one of its ferries to run on both diesel and [[methanol]] in 2015.<ref>{{cite web |date=29 March 2022 |title=The World's First Methanol Ferry |url=https://www.stenaline.com/media/stories/the-worlds-first-methanol-ferry/ |access-date=2022-03-29 |website=Stena Line |language=en-gb |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408145507/https://www.stenaline.com/media/stories/the-worlds-first-methanol-ferry/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Both LNG and methanol reduce CO2 emissions considerably and replace costly diesel fuel.

Megawatt-class [[Battery electric vehicle|battery electric ferries]] operate in Scandinavia, with several more scheduled for operation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Plugging in Finland's first electric ferry – Marine Log|url=https://www.marinelog.com/coastal/ferries/video-plugging-in-finlands-first-electric-ferry/|date=20 November 2017|website=Marinelog.com|language=en-gb|access-date=2017-12-04|format=Video|archive-date=30 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730215806/https://www.marinelog.com/coastal/ferries/video-plugging-in-finlands-first-electric-ferry/|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2017, the world's biggest purely electric ferry was the {{ship|MF|Tycho Brahe}}, which operates on the [[Helsingør–Helsingborg ferry route]] across the [[Øresund]] between [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]]. The ferry weights 8414 tonnes, and has an electric storage capacity of more than 4 MWh.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Two massive ferries are about to become the biggest all-electric ships in the world|url=https://electrek.co/2017/08/24/all-electric-ferries-abb/|last=Lambert|first=Fred|date=2017-08-24|website=Electrek|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-08|archive-date=2 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200502185800/https://electrek.co/2017/08/24/all-electric-ferries-abb/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Since 2015, Norwegian ferry company [[Norled]] has operated e-ferry {{MV|Ampere||2}} on the Lavik-Opedal connection on the E39 north of Bergen.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.offshore-energy.biz/worlds-first-electric-car-ferry-enters-service/| title=World's First Electric Car Ferry Enters Service| publisher=World Maritime News| date=19 May 2015| access-date=21 June 2020| archive-date=22 June 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622111552/https://www.offshore-energy.biz/worlds-first-electric-car-ferry-enters-service/| url-status=live}}</ref> Further north on the Norwegian west coast, the connection between Anda and Lote will be the world's first route served only by e-ferries. The first of two ships, MF ''Gloppefjord'', was put into service in January 2018, followed by MF ''Eidsfjord''.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.vesselfinder.com/news/11803-Multi-Maritime-designed-battery-electric-ferries-MF-Gloppefjord-and-MF-Eidsfjord-named-in-Sandane| title=Multi Maritime-designed battery electric ferries MF Gloppefjord and MF Eidsfjord named in Sandane| author=Svetlana Modeva| publisher=VesselFinder| date=15 Mar 2018| access-date=21 June 2020| archive-date=31 July 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731071356/https://www.vesselfinder.com/news/11803-Multi-Maritime-designed-battery-electric-ferries-MF-Gloppefjord-and-MF-Eidsfjord-named-in-Sandane| url-status=live}}</ref> The owner, [[Fjord1]], has commissioned a further seven battery-powered ferries to be in operation from 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.electrive.com/2018/03/08/fjord-1-orders-seven-electric-ferries-havyard/|title=Fjord 1 orders seven electric ferries from Havyard – electrive.com|date=8 March 2018|work=electrive.com|access-date=2018-03-24|language=en-US|archive-date=24 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324223818/https://www.electrive.com/2018/03/08/fjord-1-orders-seven-electric-ferries-havyard/|url-status=live}}</ref> A total of 60 battery powered car ferries are expected to be operational in Norway by 2021.<ref>https://www.tu.no/artikler/i-2021-vil-norge-ha-60-ferger-med-batterier-na-ma-vegdirektoratet-finne-en-standardlosning-for-lading/414997 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607131613/https://www.tu.no/artikler/i-2021-vil-norge-ha-60-ferger-med-batterier-na-ma-vegdirektoratet-finne-en-standardlosning-for-lading/414997 |date=7 June 2019 }} WWW.TU.NO (In Norwegian).</ref>

[[File:E-ferry Ellen.2.JPG|thumb|{{ship|E-ferry|Ellen}}]]
Since 15 August 2019, [[Ærø Municipality]] have operated {{ship|E-ferry|Ellen}} between the southern [[Denmark|Danish]] ports of [[Fynshav]] and [[Søby]], on the island of [[Ærø]].<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.euronews.com/2019/08/20/world-s-largest-all-electric-ferry-sets-sail-in-denmark| title=World's largest all-electric ferry sets sail in Denmark| publisher=Euronews| date=21 August 2019| author=Alice Tidey| access-date=21 August 2020| archive-date=2 October 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002115517/https://www.euronews.com/2019/08/20/world-s-largest-all-electric-ferry-sets-sail-in-denmark| url-status=live}}</ref> The e-ferry is capable of carrying 30 vehicles and 200 passengers and is powered by a battery "with an unprecedented capacity" of {{convert|4.3|MWh|hph|abbr=on|lk=on}}. The vessel can sail up to {{convert|22|nmi|mi km}} between charges – seven times further than previously possible for an e-ferry. It will now need to prove it can provide up to seven return trips per day. The European Union, which supported the project, aims to roll out 100 or more of these ferries by 2030.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://e-ferryproject.eu/Home/Objectives| title=Objectives| publisher=E-ferry, an EU project under the H2020 Research and Innovation programme| access-date=21 August 2020| archive-date=8 August 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808155406/http://e-ferryproject.eu/Home/Objectives| url-status=live}}</ref>

A special feature is the Danish Udbyhøj cable ferry in [[Randers Fjord]] which has a land-based power supply by means of a retractable submarine cable.<ref>Jessica McCormick: ''[https://electrifynews.com/news/electric-ferry-never-needs-charging/ Electric Ferry Never Needs Charging]'', {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630010814/https://electrifynews.com/news/electric-ferry-never-needs-charging/ |date=30 June 2023 }}</ref>
{{Clear}}

== Accidents ==
{{Multiple image
| width =
| header = Examples of sunken ferries
| image1 = Herald of Free Enterprise after salvage.jpg
| width1 = 170
| image2 = MV Salem Express 1.jpg
| width2 = 150
| image3 = Princess of the Stars August 2008.jpg
| width3 = 170
| image4 = 2017 MV Sewol in Mokpo New Port.jpg
| width4 = 245
| footer = Images in Order of Appearance: {{MS|Herald of Free Enterprise}}, [[MV Salem Express|MV ''Salem Express'']], [[Sinking of MV Sewol|MV ''Sewol'']] and [[MV Princess of the Stars|MV'' Princess of the Stars'']]
| align = none
}}

The following notable maritime disasters involved ferries:
{{div col|colwidth=23em}}
* {{ship|TEV|Wahine}} – (10 April 1968) 53 deaths
* [[Sinking of Namyoung-Ho|MV ''Namyoug-Ho'']] (15 December 1970) 323–326 deaths
* [[MV George Prince ferry disaster|MV ''George Prince'']] (20 October 1976) 78 deaths
* {{MS|Herald of Free Enterprise}} – (6 March 1987) 193 deaths
* {{MV|Doña Paz}} – (20 December 1987) 4,386 deaths
* {{MV|Doña Marilyn}} – (24 October 1988) ≈400 deaths
* {{MS|Scandinavian Star}} – (7 April 1990) 159 deaths
* {{MV|Salem Express}} – (15 December 1991) 470–850 deaths
* {{MS|Empress of Australia}} – (23 August 1992) 30 deaths
* [[Sinking of the MS Jan Heweliusz|MS ''Jan Heweliusz'']] – (14 January 1993) 55 deaths
* [[Sinking of MV Seohae|MV ''Seohae'']] – (10 October 1993) 292 deaths
* [[Sinking of the MS Estonia|MS ''Estonia'']] – (28 September 1994) 852 deaths
* {{MV|Cebu City}} – (2 December 1994) 140 deaths
* {{MV|Bukoba}} – (21 May 1996) 894 deaths
* {{MV|Princess of the Orient}} – (18 September 1998) 150 deaths
* {{MS|Express Samina}} – (26 September 2000) 81 deaths
* {{MV|Le Joola}} – (26 September 2002) 1,863 deaths
* {{MV|Princess of the Stars}} – (21 June 2008) 814 deaths
* {{MV|Spice Islander I}} – (10 September 2011) 1,573 deaths
* {{MV|Rabaul Queen}} – (2 February 2012) 88–223 deaths
* {{MV|Skagit}} – (18 July 2012) 150 deaths
* {{MV|St. Thomas Aquinas}} – (16 August 2013) 137 deaths
* [[Sinking of MV Sewol|MV ''Sewol'']] – (16 April 2014) 304 deaths
* [[Sinking of MV Nyerere|MV ''Nyerere'']] – (20 September 2018) 228 deaths
{{div col end}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Transport}}

{{div col|colwidth=23em}}
* [[Chain boat]]
* [[Ferry slip]]
* [[Linkspan]]
* [[List of ferry operators]]
* [[Punt (boat)]]
* [[Pünte]]
* [[Sea tractor]]
* [[Team boat]]
* [[Transporter bridge]]
* [[Merchant Vessel]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite Americana|wstitle=Ferry|year=1920}}
* {{cite book|last1=Robins|first1=Nick|title=The Evolution of the British Ferry|date=1996|publisher=Ferry Publications|location=Kilgetty, Pembrokeshire|isbn=1871947316}}
* "''When Horses Walked on Water: Horse-Powered Ferries in Nineteenth-Century America''" (Smithsonian Institution Press; Kevin Crisman, co-authored with Arthur Cohn, executive director of the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum).
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikivoyage|Ferries}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZigDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA66 "Off Ferries, New And Old", May 1931, Popular Science]
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Ferry |short=x}}

{{ModernMerchantShipTypes}}
{{Public transport}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Boat types]]
[[Category:Ferries| ]]
[[Category:Ferry transport| ]]
[[Category:Ship types]]

Dicky Dolma

2026-03-06T15:55:39Z

QuyenStobie2: New A Info

{{short description|Indian mountaineer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2022}}
{{Infobox alpine ski racer
|name = Dicky Dolma
|image =
|image_size =
|caption =
|disciplines = [[Slalom skiing|Slalom]], [[giant slalom]], [[Super-G]]
|club =
|full_name =
|skis =
|boots =
|bindings =
|sponsor =
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1974|04|05|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Palchan]], [[Kullu district|Kullu]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], India
|height =
|weight =
|wcdebut =
|website =
|olympicteams =
|olympicmedals =
|olympicgolds =
|worldsteams =
|worldsmedals =
|worldsgolds =
|wcseasons =
|wcwins =
|wcpodiums =
|wcoveralls =
|wctitles =
|show-medals = no
|medals =
}}
'''Dicky Dolma''' (born 5 April 1974) is an Indian mountaineer and former alpine skier. She is known for being the youngest woman to summit Mount Everest up to that time at the age of 19 on 10 May 1993,<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2T7tIWSCmoC&pg=PA85 New Seasons Course Book 6, 2/E]'' By Manuja Sarita, Page 85</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mounteverest.net/story/Everest2005ChrisHarris,14Dec92004.shtml |title=Everest 2005: Chris Harris, 14 |access-date=2016-01-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205080541/http://www.mounteverest.net/story/Everest2005ChrisHarris,14Dec92004.shtml |archive-date=2016-02-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref> which occurred on the Indo-Nepal Everest Expedition.<ref name=eh>[http://www.everesthistory.com/climbers/dolma.htm EverestHistory.com: Dicky Dolma]</ref><ref name="fem">{{Cite news|url=https://www.femina.in/trending/achievers/read-the-success-story-of-indian-mountaineer-dicky-dolma-182574.html|title=Read The Success Story Of Indian Mountaineer Dicky Dolma|date=5 January 2021|website=femina.in|access-date=8 December 2024}}</ref>

==Career==
The Indo-Nepal Women's Everest Expedition was led by [[Bachendri Pal]] who was the first Indian woman to summit Mount Everest in 1984.<ref name=eh/> Dicky was also a skier and attended numerous sporting competitions including the 1989 All-India Open Auli Ski Festival and the Asian Winter Games in 1999.<ref name=eh/> She took ski training courses and basic mountaineering courses by the Manali Institute.<ref name=eh/> In the same expedition as Dicky Dolma, [[Santosh Yadav]] summited Mount Everest for the second time, the first woman to summit twice.<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oGVSvXuCsyUC&pg=SL1-PA274 Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates]'' - By S. B. Bhattacherje - Page A274</ref> Dolma came from [[Palchan]] Village near [[Manali, Himachal Pradesh|Manali]] of [[Himachal Pradesh]] state in [[India]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=PzduAAAAMAAJ&q=Dicky+Dolma&dq=Dicky+Dolma Punjab History Conference, Thirty-seventh Session, 18-20 March 2005](Google Books)</ref> She was also awarded the 1994 [[Tenzing Norgay National Adventure Award|National Adventure Award]].<ref name="t1994">{{cite press_release|title=National Adventure Awards Announced|url=http://pibarchive.nic.in/archive/ArchiveSecondPhase/EDUCATION/1995-JAN-DEC-MO-YOUTH-AFFAIRS-&-SPORTS-NO-9/PDF/YTH-1995-07-20_034.pdf|publisher=Press Information Bureau, India|accessdate=18 September 2020|date=20 July 1995}}</ref>

Previous record holders up to Dolma for youngest Woman to summit Everest (age at summiting):<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20020325084435/http://www.adventurestats.com/tables/everestage.htm Adventure Stats]}}</ref>
*[[Junko Tabei]], born 22 September 1939, summited 16 May 1975, age 35 years, 236 days
*[[Bachendri Pal]], born 25 April 1954, summited 23 May 1984, age 30 years, 28 days
*[[Sharon Wood]], born 18 May 1957, summited 20 May 1986, age 29 years, 2 days
*[[Lydia Bradey]], born 9 October 1961, summited 14 Oct 1988, age 27 years, 5 days
*[[Santosh Yadav]], born 10 October 1967, summited 12 May 1992, age 24 years, 215 days
*[[Kim Soon-Jo]], born 10 August 1970, summited 10 May 1993, age 22 years, 273 days
*Dicky Dolma, born 5 April 1974, summited 10 May 1993, age 19 years, 35 days

==See also==
*[[Chhurim]]
*[[Indian summiters of Mount Everest - Year wise]]
*[[Lhakpa Sherpa]]
*[[List of Mount Everest records]]
*[[List of Mount Everest records of India]]
*[[List of Mount Everest summiters by number of times to the summit]]
*[[List of 20th-century summiters of Mount Everest]]
*[[Malavath Purna]]
*[[Ming Kipa]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{sports links}}
*[http://www.everesthistory.com/climbers/dolma.htm Dicky Dolma] Everest History

{{Indian mountaineers}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dolma, Dicky}}
[[Category:1974 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian female mountain climbers]]
[[Category:Indian female alpine skiers]]
[[Category:Indian summiteers of Mount Everest]]
[[Category:People from Manali, Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Mountain climbers from Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Skiers from Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Tenzing Norgay National Adventure Award]]
[[Category:Alpine skiers at the 1999 Asian Winter Games]]

Kayyur incident

2026-03-05T08:31:44Z

QuyenStobie2: created some article initial version

{{short description|1941 communist uprising in British India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Kayyur Incident
| partof = Communist-led peasant uprisings in British India
| image =
| caption =
| date = March 28, 1941
|coordinates = {{coord|12.262641|N|75.188907|E|display=inline,title}}
| place = [[Kayyur]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Madras Presidency]] (present-day [[Kerala]], [[India]])
| result = Suppression of protest; execution of four communist activists
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Raj]]
| combatant2 = Peasants of Kayyur {{flagicon image|CPI-banner.svg}} [[Communist Party of India]]
| commander1 = British colonial police authorities Malabar Special Police
| commander2 = [[Madathil Appu]], [[Podora Kunjambu Nair]], [[Koithattil Chirukandan]], [[Pallikkal Abu Bakr]]
| strength1 = Unknown
| strength2 = Hundreds of local peasants
| casualties1 = 1 police constable drowned
| casualties2 = 4 executed, many arrested and tortured
| campaignbox =
}}
'''Kayyur incident''' also known as '''Kayyur uprising''' or '''Kayyur Revolt''' is a series of incidents that occurred in [[Kayyur]] village of present-day [[Kasaragod district]] during British rule in India. The peaceful farmers protest on 1941 March 28 turned violent and the mob accidentally killed a policeman. 61 were trialed for this violent deed and 4 persons were sentenced to death.

==Background==
[[Karnataka]] and Kasaragod district (which was part of [[South Canara]] earlier) were ruled by the [[Nayakas of Keladi|Ikkeri Nayakas]] and the subsequent [[Kingdom of Mysore]].<ref name="enmalayalam">{{cite web |script-title=ml:കയ്യൂര്‍ സമരം (ഒന്നാം ഭാഗം) |language=ml |website=EnMalayalam |url=http://www.enmalayalam.com/site/malayalam/topic/general/category/academic-papers/2011/09/2840-article |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424031124/http://www.enmalayalam.com/site/malayalam/topic/general/category/academic-papers/2011/09/2840-article |archive-date=2013-04-24 |date=24 April 2013}}</ref> These areas came under the control of the British after the defeat of [[Tipu Sultan]] in the [[Siege of Seringapatam (1799)|Battle of Srirangapatna]] in 1799.<ref name="enmalayalam"/> With the enactment of the Permanent Settlement Act by the British, the landlord-tenant system came into existence, which made a section of the landlords dependent on the British and began to exploit the common people.<ref name="enmalayalam"/>

As the Kasaragod region was part of the [[Dakshina Kannada|South Canara district]], the tenancy law which was compulsory in [[Malabar District|Malabar]] did not come into force in this area.<ref name="EMS">{{cite book |last1=Namboodiripad |first1=E. M. S. |title=History, Society, and Land Relations: Selected Essays |date=2010 |publisher=LeftWord Books |isbn=978-81-87496-92-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8yfF2EawlA8C&dq=kayyur+incident&pg=PA210 |language=en}}</ref> As a result, the tax levied here was higher than that imposed in the [[Malabar District|Malabar]] region.<ref name="enmalayalam"/> Since these areas were under the rule of the Nileshwaram dynasty, it was the Nileshwaram dynasty that collected taxes from the farmers and paid them to the British.<ref name="enmalayalam"/>

Socialist leaders like [[P. Krishna Pillai|P. Krishnapillai]], [[A. K. Gopalan|A.K.G.]] and Congress leader [[T. Subrahmanian Thirumump|T. S. Thirumumpu]] were at the forefront of organizing the farmers in the Kayyur region.<ref name=":0" /> The ''Karshaka Sangam'' (farmers' group) decided to protest against the tax collection like 'Vechu Kanal', 'Noori', 'Mukkal', 'Sheelakash' etc. imposed by the landlords on the farmers.<ref name="enmalayalam"/> One of the main demands of the farmers was that the Malabar Tenancy Act be enacted in [[Hosdurg taluk|Hosdurg]] as well.<ref name="EMS"/> As the first stage of the struggle, they decided to bring farmers from different parts in a procession and decided to file a petition against the collections to Nileswaram Raja, the landlord of the area, on 30 March 1941.<ref name="enmalayalam"/>

Those who decided to defeat the peasant struggle reported to the British authorities that the peasantry activists were going to 'set fire to the Nileswaram Kovilakam'.<ref name="enmalayalam"/> On 25 March 1941, during a march of agricultural workers in Kayyur, Nileshwaram Sub-Inspector Nicholas arrested peasant activists T. V. Kunjambhu and T. V. Kunhiraman.<ref name="enmalayalam"/> The district magistrate issued arrest warrants against K. P. Vellunga, Choorikkadan Krishnan Nair, Koithattil Chirukandan and Valappil Raman under the Defense of India Rule for anti-war activities.<ref name="enmalayalam"/>

The activities of communist leaders like [[E. K. Nayanar]], [[Subramanya Shenoy]] and [[A. V. Kunhambu]], who were secretly working in Kayyur region after the Morazha incident also helped in protests against landlords in the Kayyur region.<ref name="Mathrubhumi">{{Cite web|last=കെ.ബാലകൃഷ്ണന്‍|script-title=ml:കയ്യൂര്‍ സംഭവത്തിന് 75 വയസ്സ്|url=https://archives.mathrubhumi.com/kannur/kazhcha/1.956878|date=2016-03-28|website=Mathrubhumi|language=ml|access-date=6 June 2022|archive-date=3 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250603174123/https://archives.mathrubhumi.com/kannur/kazhcha/1.956878|url-status=live}}</ref> A demonstration was held on 12 March 1941, in Kayyur demanding the release of the accused in the Morazha case.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> Police took action following this. The policeman who came with the arrest warrant was assaulted and as a revenge police attacked villagers on 27 March.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> Several people, including Madathil Appu, were injured.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/>

==Incident on 1941 March 28==
The march started from various parts of Kayyur on the afternoon of the 28th against the police brutality on the 27th.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> Subbarayan, a specially deployed police officer in Kayyur, who led the attack the previous day, accidentally came to the front of a march.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> When people in the march planned to attack Subbarayan, the elders in the procession denied the attack and made him carry the flag and march in front.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> When Subbarayan started walking with the flag, he hit someone with a stick tied to the flag and tried to run away. But he saw another march ahead and he jumped into the Karyamcode (Thejaswini) river and drowned.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/>

==Aftermath==
Consequently, 61 including E. K. Nayanar and A. V. Kunhambu were tried for this violent deed and 5 persons were sentenced to death.<ref name="Deshabhimani">{{cite news |script-title=ml:കയ്യൂർ അനശ്വരതയുടെ കനൽമുദ്ര - പി കരുണാകരൻ എഴുതുന്നു |url=https://www.deshabhimani.com/articles/kayyur-martyrs/933787 |work=Deshabhimani |language=ml |archive-date=15 May 2021 |access-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515171045/https://www.deshabhimani.com/articles/kayyur-martyrs/933787 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nayanar was the third accused in the FIR though he was not present at the scene.<ref name="MacroScan">{{cite web |title=The Birth of Our Freedom |url=https://www.macroscan.org/cur/oct10/cur121010Freedom.htm |author=[[Prabhat Patnaik]] |date=2010-10-12 |website=www.macroscan.org |access-date=6 June 2022 |archive-date=3 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250603174108/https://www.macroscan.org/cur/oct10/cur121010Freedom.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Historian A Sreedharan Menon opined that the police had implicated E. K. Nayanar in the case.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |script-title=ml:തൂക്കുമരത്തിലും തോൽക്കാതെ... |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/special-pages/mathrubhumi-100-years/articles/kayyur-karivellur-morazha-kavumbazhi-protests-1.7345829 |access-date=2022-06-06 |website=Mathrubhumi |date=15 March 2022 |language=en |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407192351/https://www.mathrubhumi.com/special-pages/mathrubhumi-100-years/articles/kayyur-karivellur-morazha-kavumbazhi-protests-1.7345829 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nayanar later escaped from the trial as he could not be apprehended by the police.<ref name="MacroScan"/>

Although there was no evidence that any of the victims assaulted the police officer, the court ruled that all those present could be considered to have "intention to kill".<ref name="MacroScan"/> Since Choorikkadan Krishnan Nair was a minor, his death sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment.<ref name="Deshabhimani"/> The four comrades, Madathil Appu, Koithattil Chirukandan, Podora Kunjambu Nair, Pallikkal Aboobacker were hanged to death in Kannur central prison on 29 March 1943.<ref name="Deshabhimani"/>

===Those who were hanged===
Madathil Appu was born in 1917, the son of Ambati Anthithirian and Chirutha. Appu, who received only a basic education, entered active politics through organizations such as the [[Abhinav Bharat Society|Abhinav Bharat]], Yuvak sangh, [[Indian National Congress]] and the Karshakasangham (peasants union).<ref name="kunhambu">{{cite book|script-title=ml:കയ്യൂർ സമരചരിത്രം|last=V. V.|first=Kunhambu|language=ml|isbn=978-81-928126-1-8|year=2013}}</ref> On 26 March 1941, during a police search of a riverside tea shop, he was caught fighting with police while rescuing friends.<ref name="kunhambu"/>

Koithattil Chirukandan, born in 1922, was the 31st accused in the Kayyur case.<ref name="kunhambu"/> He was a member of the Congress movement, the Karshaka Sangh and the working committee of the Yuvak Sangh.<ref name="kunhambu"/> On 12 March 1941, Chirukandan led a procession of Congress volunteers asking where Comrade [[P. Krishna Pillai|Krishna Pillai]] was.<ref name="kunhambu"/> Chirukandan, who was arrested that day, was sentenced to two years in jail under the National Security Rule.<ref name="kunhambu"/>

Potora Kunjambu Nair was born in 1911 to Kuruvadan Chandan Nair and Podora Chiruthai Amma. After his primary education, he helped his father in his work. He entered politics in 1937 through the Indian National Congress.<ref name="kunhambu"/> He was a member of the Eleri Village Congress Committee, Abhinav Bharat Yuvak Sangham and Karshaka Sangham.<ref name="kunhambu"/> Kunjambu Nair was the 13th accused in the Kayyur case.<ref name="kunhambu"/>

Pallikkal Aboobacker was born in 1918 in [[Nileshwar]] in Kasaragod taluk.<ref name="kunhambu"/> He has been a farmer activist since 1938.<ref name="kunhambu"/> He joined the [[Communist Party of India]] in 1939.<ref name="kunhambu"/> He was the 51st accused in the Kayyur case.<ref name="kunhambu"/>

==Legacy==
Indian government has included Kayyur martyrs in the 5th volume of ''Dictionary of Martyrs, India's Freedom Struggle (1857-1947)'' published by the Indian ministry of culture and Indian Council of Historical Research.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dictionart of Martyrs, India's Freedom Struggle (1857-1947) |url=https://www.indiaculture.nic.in/sites/default/files/pdf/Martyrs_Vol_5_06_03_2019.pdf |publisher=Indian ministry of culture and Indian Council of Historical Research |archive-date=22 August 2021 |access-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822215007/http://www.indiaculture.nic.in/sites/default/files/pdf/Martyrs_Vol_5_06_03_2019.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Controversies==
The role of Communist leader and former Kerala chief minister E. K. Nayanar in the Kayyur incident is a matter of controversy for a long. It is believed that Nayanar was the third accused in the FIR though he was not present at the scene, and he escaped the trial as he could not be apprehended by the police.<ref name="MacroScan"/> Historian A Sreedharan Menon opined that the police had implicated E. K. Nayanar in the case. The authors of the book ''Nayanar: Kayyoorinte kapadamukham'' (meaning: Nayanar: Kayyur's Hypocrisy) say that they searched the history of the Kayyur struggle for over a year and that Nayanar's name is not even in any document or book about the incident, including the actual verdict of the Sessions Court in [[Mangalore]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=9 March 1998 |title=E.K. Nayanar's defence in Kayyur uprising controversy proves weak |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19980309-e.k.-nayanars-defence-in-kayyur-uprising-controversy-proves-weak-825920-1998-03-09 |access-date=2022-06-06 |magazine=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

In 2021, following the government's order to organize competitions of [[Independence Day (India)|Independence Day]] celebrations based on local history, the subject given in Kasargod district was the Kayyur incident.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |script-title=ml:വിവാദം |url=https://keralakaumudi.com/web-news/2021/08/NKNR0126168/1.html |access-date=2022-06-06 |website=Keralakaumudi |language=ml}}</ref> The KPSTA, a pro - Congress teachers' union, alleged that politics was behind the choice of the subject as there are many other freedom struggles in the district other than this peasant struggle.<ref name=":1" /> The authorities replied that the Kayyur incident, in which four people were hanged, was an unforgettable chapter in the [[Indian independence movement|national freedom struggle]] and that the issue was chosen because there was no greater sacrifice in the district than this.<ref name=":1" />

==Works on Kayyur incident==
[[Kannada]] writer [[Niranjana (writer)|Niranjana's]] ''Chirasmarane'' was based on the Kayyur incident.<ref>{{cite news |last1=S |first1=Bageshree |title=Niranjana's works will soon be available online |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/niranjanas-works-will-soon-be-available-online/article6564583.ece |work=The Hindu |date=5 November 2014 |language=en-IN}}</ref> Malayalam film director [[Lenin Rajendran]]'s 1986 movie ''[[Meenamasathile Sooryan]]'' was also based on the incident.<ref>{{cite news |title=Malayalam director Lenin Rajendran successfully straddled parallel, commercial cinema |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2019/jan/15/avante-garde-auteur-who-successfully-straddled-parallel-and-commercial-cinema-1925163.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203092110/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2019/jan/15/avante-garde-auteur-who-successfully-straddled-parallel-and-commercial-cinema-1925163.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 February 2019 |work=The New Indian Express}}</ref> [[P. V. K. Panayal]]'s novel ''Khanijam'' is also written in the context of Kayyur incident.<ref name="Keralaliterature">{{cite web |script-title=ml:പനയാല്‍. പി.വി.കെ |url=http://keralaliterature.com/malayalam-writers-%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%B4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8D/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8D-%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BF-%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF-%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86/ |website=Kerala Literature |date=14 October 2017 |access-date=6 January 2022 |archive-date=6 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106122551/http://keralaliterature.com/malayalam-writers-%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%82-%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%B4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8D/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8D-%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BF-%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF-%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Violence in India]]
[[Category:Communist Party of India]]
[[Category:Communist rebellions]]
[[Category:1941 in British India]]
[[Category:Malabar District]]
[[Category:Social movements in India]]
[[Category:Political uprisings in India]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1941]]
[[Category:Peasant revolts in India]]

Pendency of court cases in India

2026-03-05T03:06:20Z

QuyenStobie2:

{{Short description|none}}

'''Pendency of court cases in India''' is the delay in the disposal of cases (lawsuits), to provide [[justice]] to an aggrieved person or organisation, by judicial courts at all levels. In legal contexts, [[wikt:pendency|pendency]] is the state of a case that is [[wikt:pending|pending]]; that is, it has been opened but not concluded.

The judiciary in India works in hierarchy at three levels: federal or [[Supreme Court of India|supreme court]], state or [[High courts of India|high courts]], and [[District courts of India|district courts]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Department of Justice {{!}} India |url=https://doj.gov.in/ |access-date=2022-11-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> The court cases are categorised into two types: civil and criminal. In March 2026, the total number of pending cases at all levels went above 55.8 million, including over 180,000 court cases pending for more than 30 years in district and high courts.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Welcome to NJDG - National Judicial Data Grid |url=https://njdg.ecourts.gov.in/njdgnew/?p=main |access-date=2022-11-06 |website=njdg.ecourts.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Welcome to NJDG - National Judicial Data Grid for High Courts of India |url=https://njdg.ecourts.gov.in/hcnjdgnew/ |access-date=2022-11-06 |website=njdg.ecourts.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Justice delayed: Over 1 lakh cases in lower courts more than 30 years old |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/law/story/justice-delayed-cases-lower-courts-more-than-30-years-old-2004422-2022-09-24 |access-date=2022-11-06 |website=India Today |date=25 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> 49 million out of 55 million cases (i.e., more than 85% of cases) are pending in district courts alone.<ref name=":5" /> Government itself is the biggest litigant having 50% of the pending cases being sponsored by the state.<ref>{{Cite web |agency=Press Trust of India |date=2022-09-24 |title=Half of judiciary's problems due to state-sponsored litigation: NV Ramana |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/half-of-judiciary-s-problems-due-to-state-sponsored-litigation-nv-ramana-122092400332_1.html |access-date=2023-01-20 |website=www.business-standard.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=CJI terms govts as biggest litigants, says docket explosion due to executive, legislature |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/cji-terms-govts-as-biggest-litigants-says-docket-explosion-due-to-executive-legislature/articleshow/91203374.cms |access-date=2023-01-20}}</ref> Land and property disputes account for the largest set of pending cases. About 20% of all pending cases are related to land and property disputes, which is also 66% of all pending civil cases in India; and 25% of all cases decided by the Supreme Court involve land disputes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-21 |title=Understanding Land Conflict in India and Suggestions for Reform |url=https://cprindia.org/understanding-land-conflict-in-india-and-suggestions/ |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=CPR |language=en-US}}</ref>

India has one of the largest number of pending court cases in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India has world's largest backlog of court cases: PM |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/india-has-worlds-largest-backlog-of-court-cases-pm-399857 |access-date=2022-11-06 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref> Many judges and government officials have said that the pendency of cases is the biggest challenge before Indian judiciary.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-08-26 |title=Pendency of court cases 'huge challenge': Chief Justice N. V. Ramana |language=en-IN |newspaper=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/pendency-of-court-cases-huge-challenge-chief-justice-n-v-ramana/article65813803.ece |access-date=2022-11-06 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> According to a 2018 [[Niti Aayog]] strategy paper, at the then-prevailing rate of disposal of cases in the courts, it would take more than 324 years to clear the backlog.<ref>{{Cite web |title=44 million pending court cases: How did we get here? |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/trends/features/44-million-pending-court-cases-how-did-we-get-here-7792511.html |access-date=2022-11-06 |website=Moneycontrol |date=5 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref> At that time in 2018, the pending cases stood at 29 million. With the cases taking time in courts, it leads to delays in the delivery of justice for both victim and accused. In April 2022, a court in [[Bihar]] state acquitted a man of murder for lack of evidence after he spent 28 years in jail.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India's huge backlog of court cases delays justice: Experts |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/indias-huge-backlog-of-court-cases-delays-justice-experts/2638784 |access-date=2022-11-06 |website=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref>

Pendency of cases cost India more than 2% of GDP.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boehm |first1=Johannes |last2=Oberfield |first2=Ezra |title=Misallocation in the Market for Inputs: Enforcement and the Organization of Production |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |volume=135 |issue=4 |pages=2007–2058 |date=November 2020 |doi=10.1093/qje/qjaa020}}</ref> Rule of Law Index 2025, a country ranking published by the [[World Justice Project]], ranked India at 114 out of 143 countries in the civil justice, and 89 out of 143 countries in the criminal justice.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WJP Rule of Law Index |url=https://worldjusticeproject.org/rule-of-law-index |access-date=2025-10-28 |website=worldjusticeproject.org |language=en}}</ref> ''[[U.S News & World Report]]'' ranked India at 54 out of 89 countries with "Well-developed legal frameworks" in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=These Countries Have the Most Well-Developed Legal Frameworks |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/rankings/well-developed-legal-framework}}</ref>

A quasi-judicial system also exists in parallel to the judiciary which adjudicates specialized matters. They operate independently of the courts and they have huge pendency too. Some examples of the quasi-judicial bodies include Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission, Income-Tax Appellate Tribunal.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Tribunal System in India |url=https://prsindia.org/billtrack/prs-products/the-tribunal-system-in-india}}</ref>

== Causes of pendency ==

=== Too few judges and non-judicial staff ===
In 2022, the sanctioned number of judges in India was 21.03 judges per million population.<ref>{{Cite news |title=India has about 21 judges per million people |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/india-has-about-21-judges-per-million-people/articleshow/89481479.cms |access-date=2022-11-06}}</ref> The absolute sanctioned number of judges was 34 in Supreme Court, 1108 in high courts, and 24,631 in district courts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Poddar |first=Umang |title=India's lower courts are sitting on 4 crore cases. Filling judicial vacancies must be a priority |url=https://scroll.in/article/1028852/indias-lower-courts-are-sitting-on-4-crore-cases-filling-judicial-vacancies-must-be-a-priority |access-date=2022-11-06 |website=Scroll.in |date=6 August 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> The [[Law Commission of India|law commission of India]] and Justice V S Malimath Committee had recommended in the past to raise the number of judges to 50 judges per million population, or 20,000 population per judge.<ref>{{Cite web |last=SMSala |title=Pendency in Indian Judiciary |url=http://risingkashmir.com/-00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000 |access-date=2022-11-06 |website=Rising Kashmir }}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref><ref name=":0"/>

The sanctioned number of judges of the Supreme Court of India can be increased by the [[Parliament of India|Parliament]] passing a law.<ref name=":7"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Supreme Court Judges |url=https://pib.gov.in/pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1812352 |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref> The sanctioned number of judges of a High Court can be increased by the High Court making a recommendation and after it has been approved by the respective state government, its governor, the [[Chief Justice of India]] and the union government.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bench |first=Bar & |title=Central government approves increase in sanctioned Bench strength of Telangana High Court by 75 percent after intervention by CJI NV Ramana |url=https://www.barandbench.com/news/telangana-high-court-to-increase-sanctioned-bench-strength-by-75 |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=Bar and Bench - Indian Legal news |date=9 June 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-10 |title=Telangana High Court strength increased from 24 to 42 judges |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/telangana-high-court-strength-increased-24-42-judges-150402 |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref> The sanctioned number of district court judges can be increased by the respective high court after approval from the state government.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=State of Indian Judiciary 2023 |url=https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s3ec0490f1f4972d133619a60c30f3559e/documents/misc/state_of_the_judiciary.pdf}}</ref>

During All India Chief Justices Conference 2022, the officials promised to increase the sanctioned number of district court judges by 110% in a phased manner on the basis of weighted case disposal rate.<ref name=":12" />

=== Vacant judicial positions ===
Despite the sanctioned number of judges, courts in India have often not worked at full capacity due to vacant positions. In 2022, there were 14.4 judges per million population in India.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Gera |first=Ishaan |title=Only 14.4 Judges Per Million Population |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/special/only-14-4-judges-per-million-population/20220802.htm |access-date=2022-11-06 |website=Rediff |language=en}}</ref> It has changed marginally from 13.2 in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India: number of judges 2020 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1170564/india-number-of-judges/ |access-date=2022-11-06 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref> In comparison, there are 210 judges per million people in Europe and 150 in the United States.<ref name=":0" /> Non-judicial staff positions also remain vacant with some states having vacancy rates up to 25% in 2018–19.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=India Justice Report 2020 |url=https://www.tatatrusts.org/Upload/pdf/ijr-2020-overall-report-january-26.pdf |access-date=2022-11-07 |archive-date=2023-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123074254/https://www.tatatrusts.org/Upload/pdf/ijr-2020-overall-report-january-26.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Vacancies in courts keep on arising periodically due to retirement, resignation, demise, or elevation of judges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Understanding vacancies in the Indian judiciary |url=https://prsindia.org/theprsblog/understanding-vacancies-in-the-indian-judiciary |access-date=2022-11-14 |website=PRS Legislative Research |language=en-US}}</ref> The appointment of judges is a long process. Supreme Court judges are recommended for appointment by the Supreme Court collegium, consisting of the Chief Justice of India and the four remaining senior-most judges of the Supreme court.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Memorandum of procedure of appointment of Supreme Court Judges {{!}} Department of Justice {{!}} India |url=https://doj.gov.in/memorandum-of-procedure-of-appointment-of-supreme-court-judges/ |access-date=2022-11-14 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Article 124 of Indian Constitution |url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1164880/}}</ref> The names have to be approved by the union government before being appointed by the President.<ref name=":6" />

The high court judges are recommended for appointment by the High Court collegium consisting of the Chief Justice of the High Court, and two remaining senior-most judges of the high court.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Memorandum of procedure of appointment of High Court Judges {{!}} Department of Justice {{!}} India |url=https://doj.gov.in/memorandum-of-procedure-of-appointment-of-high-court-judges/ |access-date=2022-11-14 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Article 217 of Indian Constitution |url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1682952/}}</ref> The names have to be approved by the state government, the governor, the Chief Justice of India, and the union government before being appointed by the President.<ref name=":8" />

The union government and the state government are binding to abide by the suggestion of the Chief Justice of India, the Chief Justice of the High court and their collegium in the appointment of the judges.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":7" /> However, the rule is seldom followed in time and the union government would delay the appointment or return the names for appointment. As per rule, the union government must approve the appointments in 3–4 weeks if the collegium reiterates the names.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Not Acceptable': SC Slams Union Govt Over Delay in Clearing Collegium-Approved Judges |url=https://thewire.in/law/not-acceptable-sc-slams-union-govt-over-delay-in-clearing-collegium-approved-judges |access-date=2022-11-14 |website=The Wire}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=SC Collegium Sent 106 Names for Judges, 9 for CJs, but Centre Cleared Only 8 Names: CJI |url=https://thewire.in/law/sc-collegium-sent-106-names-for-judges-9-for-cjs-but-centre-cleared-only-8-names-cji |access-date=2022-11-14 |website=The Wire}}</ref>

The lack of coordination and cooperation is a major cause for the vacancy in the higher judiciary.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-05 |title=Faceoff: Centre objected but Supreme Court Collegium firm on 12 names for HCs |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/faceoff-centre-objected-but-supreme-court-collegium-firm-on-12-names-for-hcs-7489287/ |access-date=2022-11-14 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> In some cases, the appointment of judges has been delayed for 4 years due to the names pending with the union government for approval.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-31 |title=After 4 years of delay, Centre to clear appointment of Sadiq Wasim Nagral as judge of J&K High Court |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/centre-appointment-sadiq-wasim-nagral-judge-jammu-and-kashmir-high-court-7944915/ |access-date=2022-11-14 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

The district or lower court judge appointments in a state are made by the respective high court, the governor, and the State Public Service Commission.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Poddar |first=Umang |title=India's lower courts are sitting on 4 crore cases. Filling judicial vacancies must be a priority |url=https://scroll.in/article/1028852/indias-lower-courts-are-sitting-on-4-crore-cases-filling-judicial-vacancies-must-be-a-priority |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=Scroll.in |date=6 August 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> The exams are conducted for the appointment of the district judges and the civil judges. The examination for the civil judges appointment is conducted by the State Public Service Commission in 10 states only; while all other examination for the judge's appointment in a state jurisdiction is conducted by the High Court themselves. The examination and appointment process are not efficient. In 2018, Supreme Court noted that there was a mismatch in the number of posts vacant in the lower courts and the recruitment underway.<ref name=":9" /> In 2022, [[Bihar Public Service Commission]] took 30 months just to complete the examination.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bihar Public Service Commission Result |url=https://www.bpsc.bih.nic.in/Archive/2022/NB-2022-10-10-01.pdf}}</ref> The union government has proposed setting up AIJS ([[All India Judicial Service]]) to tackle vacancies in the lower judiciary by centralising the recruitment process.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-05 |title=Explained: Lower judiciary and centralised recruitment debate |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-lower-judiciary-centralised-recruitment-debate-7607709/ |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

Lower judiciary suffers also from not attracting and retaining talented judges, and lack of career progression. Many judges have been quitting the judiciary to go into private practice or join top private law firms, as it offers a lot more in terms of remuneration.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=Here is why there will be a lot of lower judiciary vacancies in the coming years Lawsikho Blog |url=https://lawsikho.com/blog/here-is-why-there-will-be-a-lot-of-lower-judiciary-vacancies-in-the-coming-years/ |access-date=2022-12-20 |website=lawsikho.com |date=3 November 2022 }}</ref> Many states have been criticised for the pay offered to lower court judges. Recommendations of the Judicial Pay Commission and the Supreme Court orders to increase the judges salary are not implemented by the states.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-11-25 |title=Judicial officers demand implementation of revised pay scale |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Tiruchirapalli/judicial-officers-demand-implementation-of-revised-pay-scale/article66184154.ece |access-date=2023-01-12 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In Delhi Judiciary exam 2019, 66 percent seats could not be filled as candidates were simply unable to score even the cut off marks.<ref name=":10" /> In Jammu and Kashmir judiciary exam 2019, not one candidate passed the district judge exam for the fourth consecutive time.<ref name=":9" /> In Tamil Nadu judiciary exam 2019, of around 3,500 lawyers appearing for the district judge examination, none passed.

=== Inadequate funding ===
Except the Supreme Court which is funded by the central government, all the expenses of the High Court and the District Courts in a state are funded by the respective state government. As of 2018, 92% of all expenditure on the judiciary was borne by the states.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Suresh |first=Nileena |date=2022-02-22 |title=Explained: How The Union Budget Funds India's Justice System |url=https://www.indiaspend.com/explainers/how-the-union-budget-funds-indias-justice-system-804821 |access-date=2022-11-06 |website=www.indiaspend.com |language=en}}</ref> This includes salary of judges, non-judicial staff and all operation costs. In 2019, India spent 0.08% of its GDP on the judiciary.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=India Justice Report 2019 |url=https://www.tatatrusts.org/upload/pdf/judiciary-backgrounder.pdf |access-date=2022-11-06 |archive-date=2022-09-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905142750/https://www.tatatrusts.org/upload/pdf/judiciary-backgrounder.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> All states and union territories allocated less than 1% of its annual budget on the judiciary, except Delhi with 1.9%.<ref name=":1" /> There is no guideline for the state expenditure on the judiciary to ensure higher efficiency of the judiciary.<ref name=":1" />

In comparison, United States spends 2% of its annual budget on judiciary.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Criminal Justice Expenditures: Police, Corrections, and Courts |url=https://www.urban.org/policy-centers/cross-center-initiatives/state-and-local-finance-initiative/state-and-local-backgrounders/criminal-justice-police-corrections-courts-expenditures |access-date=2022-11-24 |website=Urban Institute |date=30 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Lack of infrastructure ===
District or lower courts are prone to lack of infrastructure. In 2022, there were only 20,143 court halls and 17,800 residential units for judicial officers available to use against the sanctioned strength of 24,631 lower court judges.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Sahoo |first=Niranjan |date=2022-07-20 |title=Indian judiciary is crying for basic infrastructure. Here's what Centre & states need to do |url=https://theprint.in/opinion/indian-judiciary-is-crying-for-basic-infrastructure-heres-what-centre-states-need-to-do/1046393/ |access-date=2022-11-06 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref> Only 40% of the lower court buildings have fully functional toilets with some having no provisions for regular cleaning. Lower courts also suffer from the lack of digital infrastructure, video conferencing rooms, and video connectivity to jails and officers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Singh |first=Soibam Rocky |date=2021-12-06 |title=Judicial infrastructure, a neglected case |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/judicial-infrastructure-a-neglected-case/article37859686.ece |access-date=2022-11-06 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Development of the infrastructure facilities for judiciary rests with the State Governments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Judicial Infrastructure Authority of India |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/www.pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1807611 |access-date=2022-11-06 |website=www.pib.gov.in}}</ref> In 2021, Chief Justice N V Ramana had proposed to set up NJIAI (National Judicial Infrastructure Authority of India) to perform administrative work of the judiciary including infrastructure development.<ref name=":2" /> In comparison, there are similar body within Judiciary in other countries, for example, Administrative Office of the United States Courts in US.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Agency |url=https://www.usgovernmentmanual.gov/Agency?EntityId=nbKrEPzeztc=&ParentEId=+klubNxgV0o=&EType=jY3M4CTKVHY= |access-date=2022-11-09 |website=www.usgovernmentmanual.gov}}</ref>

=== Abuse of legal procedure ===
Court cases proceed as per rules described in CrPC ([[Code of Criminal Procedure (India)|Code of Criminal Procedure]]) and CPC ([[Code of Civil Procedure (India)|Code of Civil Procedure]]). CrPC and CPC have been criticised for being archaic. Though amendments were made to CPC in 1999 and 2002, which fixed 30-90 days time limit for different rules in the CPC, and allowed maximum three adjournments. However, Supreme Court of India struck down these amendments in 2005, citing their inherent powers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ranjan |first=Brajesh |title=What causes judicial delay? Judgments diluting timeframes in Code of Civil Procedure worsen the problem of adjournments |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/toi-edit-page/what-causes-judicial-delay-judgments-diluting-timeframes-in-code-of-civil-procedure-worsen-the-problem-of-adjournments/ |access-date=2023-12-10 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Adjournments and non-compliance of rules have been used as tools to delay the proceedings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Frequent adjournments leading to pendency of cases at consumer courts: Experts |url=https://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay?newsID=970859 |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=www.daijiworld.com |language=en}}</ref> Lawyers unrestrictedly argue with unrelated oral arguments and submit impractical, long written pleadings to waste time and delay the proceedings.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Buried in Words: Supreme Court Struggles with Long Submissions |url=https://www.scobserver.in/journal/buried-in-words-supreme-court-struggles-with-long-submissions/ |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=Supreme Court Observer |language=en-US}}</ref>

In contrast, while hearing a case in October 2022, Supreme Court of India concluded the hearing in only 8 days after it set the time limits for arguments, and allowed no repetitions.<ref name=":3" /> In 2023, Supreme Court of India while expressing concern, again recommended the time limits in CPC to avoid delay in the proceedings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pendency of cases: Supreme Court issues directions for speedy disposal of civil cases |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/law/story/pendency-of-cases-supreme-court-issues-directions-for-speedy-disposal-of-civil-cases-2452787-2023-10-23 |access-date=2023-12-10 |website=India Today |date=23 October 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

In CrPC, one rule does not allow criminal cases to proceed if either an accused or a witness is not present before the court.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhaumik |first=Aaratrika |date=2022-05-06 |title='Archaic Law': Calcutta HC Recommends Amendments To CrPC To Allow Trial In Absentia Of An Absconding Accused To Secure Rights Of Sexual Abuse Victims |url=https://www.livelaw.in/news-updates/calcutta-hc-recommends-amendments-to-crpc-to-allow-trial-in-absentia-of-an-absconding-accused-to-secure-rights-of-sexual-abuse-victims-198480 |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=www.livelaw.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=March 25, 2019 |title='Judges say HC stay, absconding accused reasons behind cases pending for decades' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/over-3-crore-cases-pending-in-indian-courts-oldest-case-traced-to-1914/articleshow/68550897.cms |access-date=2022-11-09 |newspaper=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Varghese |first=Hannah M. |date=2022-01-14 |title=Must Prove Accused Is Absconding With No Immediate Prospect For Arrest To Record Witness Deposition U/S 299 CrPC: Kerala High Court |url=https://www.livelaw.in/news-updates/kerala-high-court-299-crpc-witness-statement-must-prove-accused-absconding-with-no-immediate-prospect-for-arrest-189452 |access-date=2022-11-09 |website=www.livelaw.in |language=en}}</ref> This rule alone accounts for the delay in over 60% of all pending criminal cases, as per NJDG in November 2022.<ref name=":5" />

Corruption and apathy of officials helps in the aiding and abetting abuse of the legal procedure.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-24 |title=Official apathy delays the case that may put an end to the pendency of criminal appeals in India – The Leaflet |url=https://theleaflet.in/official-apathy-delays-the-case-that-may-put-an-end-to-the-pendency-of-criminal-appeals-in-india/ |access-date=2022-11-09 |website=theleaflet.in |language=en-US}}</ref> Judges have been investigated and dismissed for involvement in corruption.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CBI Files Corruption Case Against Former High Court Judge SN Shukla |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/cbi-files-corruption-case-against-former-high-court-judge-sn-shukla-3805098 |access-date=2024-10-09 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-02-10 |title=Gujarat high court upholds judge's dismissal, says 'no mercy for corrupt officers' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/gujarat-high-court-upholds-judges-dismissal-no-mercy-for-corrupt-officers/articleshow/107566992.cms |access-date=2024-10-09 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-06 |title='Post comes with great responsibility': Madhya Pradesh High Court upholds dismissal of corruption-accused judge |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/post-comes-with-great-responsibility-high-court-upholds-dismissal-of-corruption-accused-judge-9497227/ |access-date=2024-10-09 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-06 |title=Ludhiana Civil Judge Suspended for Corruption and Indiscipline After Vigilance Probe - Law Trend |url=https://lawtrend.in/ludhiana-civil-judge-suspended-for-corruption-and-indiscipline-after-vigilance-probe/ |access-date=2024-10-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> Investigation officials have been caught [[tampering with evidence]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-27 |title=Pune crash: Teen's blood sample was thrown in dustbin, 2 doctors arrested |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/pune-porsche-crash-forensic-department-head-doctor-arrested-for-tampering-with-evidence-blood-samples-changed-2544194-2024-05-27 |access-date=2024-10-09 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> An influential politician was acquitted of the assault charges despite the available video evidence.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BJP Leader Acquitted In Case Of Assault On Madhya Pradesh Official With Bat |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/bjp-leader-akash-vijayvargiya-acquitted-in-case-of-assault-on-madhya-pradesh-official-with-bat-6526702 |access-date=2024-10-09 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref> Prison rules have been changed to provide bail to selective political persons.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-25 |title=Bihar government tweaks jail rules, sets free murder convict-politician Anand Mohan |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/bihar-government-jail-rules-free-murder-convict-politician-anand-mohan-8574385/ |access-date=2024-10-09 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dera chief seeks parole again; poll panel questions reasoning |date=29 September 2024 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/dera-chief-seeks-parole-again-poll-panel-questions-reasoning-101727550109071.html}}</ref>

Singapore, which derived its civil procedure code from the English Law similar to India, used to have delays of upto 10 years in the disposal of civil cases in the 1990's. These delays were largely due to the abuse of civil procedure by the contesting parties. However, after the judicial reforms, the delays became negligible and Singapore now ranks among the top countries with civil and criminal justice system.<ref>{{Cite web |title=JUDICIAL REFORM: RESHAPING THE CIVIL JUSTICE SYSTEM IN SINGAPORE |url=https://www.judiciary.gov.sg/docs/default-source/news-docs/j20-paper---judicial-reform---justice-steven-chong-(singapore).pdf}}</ref>

Parliament of India has passed three new laws in 2024, [[Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita]], [[Bharatiya Sakshya Act, 2023]], and [[Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita]] which replaced the CrPC, [[Indian Evidence Act, 1872|Indian Evidence Act]], and Indian Penal Code respectively. The union government claims that the new laws will provide justice in criminal cases within 3 years.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-02-25 |title=New laws replacing IPC, CrPC to come into effect on July 1 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/new-laws-replacing-ipc-crpc-to-come-into-effect-on-july-1/articleshow/107974501.cms |access-date=2024-04-07 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

=== Ineffective executive and legislative ===
The disputes and complaints which arise are not resolved by the executive government to the satisfaction of the aggrieved individual and in a fair manner. Laws passed by the legislative may have deficiencies and loopholes. The ineffectiveness of the legislative and the executive administration has led to the docket explosion of cases in the courts. Judges have criticised that the executive and the legislative are not using their full potential which is leading to bad governance and hence putting the burden on the courts.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-30 |title=By not doing job, executive and legislature are burdening courts: CJI Ramana |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/chief-justice-of-india-n-v-ramana-burden-on-courts-executive-7894766/ |access-date=2024-01-18 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Govts biggest litigants, docket explosion due to exec, legislature: CJI |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/cji-terms-govts-as-big-litigants-says-docket-explosion-due-to-legislature-122043000382_1.html}}</ref>

== Statistics by state ==
Courthall shortfall is calculated as lack of courthalls as percentage of the total sanctioned strength of the judges.<ref name=":4" /> A negative percentage means courthalls are in excess. Case clearance rate (CCR) is cases disposed in a year as a percentage of new cases filed in the same year.<ref name=":4" /> CCR of less than 100 means case pendency will increase, CCR equal to 100 means case pendency will remain same, CCR of more than 100 means case pendency will decrease. NA: Not Available. (Source: India Justice Report, 2022).<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=India Justice Report 2022 |url=https://indiajusticereport.org/files/IJR_2022_Full_Report.pdf}}</ref>

Majority of court cases disposed each year includes magisterial cases (crimes for which prison is 3 years or less), and miscellaneous criminal and bail applications.<ref name=":5" />
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center"
|+
!State/UT
!Average High Court Case Pendency (in Years) (2022)
!Average District Court Case Pendency (in Years) (2020)
!Budget per capita on judiciary (Rs.) (2022–23)<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=India Justice Report 2025 |url=https://indiajusticereport.org/files/IJR%202025_Full%20report_English.pdf}}</ref>
!Population per High Court Judge (in Thousand) (2025)<ref name=":13" />
!Population per District Court Judge (in Thousand)(2025)<ref name=":13" />
!Courthall shortfall (%) (2022)<ref name=":11" />
!Case clearance rate of High Court (2024)<ref name=":13" />
!Case clearance rate of District Court (2024)<ref name=":13" />
|- bgcolor="#ffdead"
|[[India]]
|5.47
|3.18
|182
|1871
|69
|14.7
|94
|96
|-
|[[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] (UT)
|9.89
|NA
|498
|2335
|NA
|NA
|100
|153
|-
|[[Andhra Pradesh]]
|7.48
|2.20
|187
|1784
|94
| - 4.0
|104
|96
|-
|[[Arunachal Pradesh]]
|3.61
|NA
|280
|1729
|48
|36.6
|91
|113
|-
|[[Assam]]
|3.61
|2.60
|118
|1729
|78
|13.4
|91
|84
|-
|[[Bihar]]
|4.96
|5.66
|101
|3836
|84
|20.2
|96
|95
|-
|[[Chandigarh]] (UT)
|6.75
|1.30
|746
|1241
|41
| - 3.3
|107
|81
|-
|[[Chhattisgarh]]
|4.08
|2.00
|135
|1929
|66
| 2.7
|113
|100
|-
|[[Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu]] (UT)
|NA
|NA
|62
|1931
|241
| - 14.3
|83
|88
|-
|[[Delhi]] (UT)
|NA
|2.40
|780
|582
|27
|32.5
|90
|78
|-
|[[Goa]]
|NA
|2.62
|NA
|1931
|39
| - 6.0
|83
|108
|-
|[[Gujarat]]
|4.90
|4.40
|177
|2288
|61
| 1.1
|95
|103
|-
|[[Haryana]]
|6.75
|1.70
|337
|1241
|56
|27.7
|107
|112
|-
|[[Himachal Pradesh]]
|3.10
|2.20
|379
|628
|47
|13.7
|92
|91
|-
|[[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] (UT)
|5.71
|5.40
|235
|940
|49
|38.2
|95
|90
|-
|[[Jharkhand]]
|6.60
|3.80
|154
|2528
|79
|4.6
|129
|103
|-
|[[Karnataka]]
|5.23
|2.98
|203
|1398
|59
|14.3
|88
|94
|-
|[[Kerala]]
|6.50
|2.70
|313
|802
|67
|5.8
|103
|113
|-
|[[Ladakh]] (UT)
|5.71
|NA
|332
|940
|27
|47.1
|95
|93
|-
|[[Lakshadweep]] (UT)
|6.50
|NA
|356
|802
|17
|0.0
|103
|93
|-
|[[Madhya Pradesh]]
|NA
|2.90
|158
|2686
|52
|24.0
|88
|101
|-
|[[Maharashtra]]
|NA
|4.10
|250
|1931
|66
| - 7.3
|83
|87
|-
|[[Manipur]]
|3.38
|2.50
|236
|820
|66
|33.9
|79
|103
|-
|[[Meghalaya]]
|2.09
|3.70
|246
|852
|60
|46.5
|92
|107
|-
|[[Mizoram]]
|3.61
|2.50
|458
|1729
|28
|35.4
|91
|61
|-
|[[Nagaland]]
|3.61
|3.50
|204
|1729
|94
|11.8
|91
|90
|-
|[[Odisha]]
|6.05
|5.65
|184
|2603
|55
|16.9
|101
|93
|-
|[[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] (UT)
|6.38
|NA
|NA
|1215
|66
| - 38.5
|105
|108
|-
|[[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
|6.75
|1.50
|343
|1241
|43
|14.9
|107
|103
|-
|[[Rajasthan]]
|5.46
|3.40
|197
|2508
|63
|15.9
|86
|104
|-
|[[Sikkim]]
|1.85
|0.90
|966
|234
|30
| 28.6
|86
|103
|-
|[[Tamil Nadu]]
|6.38
|3.00
|214
|1215
|75
|9.3
|105
|100
|-
|[[Telangana]]
|6.85
|2.50
|238
|1281
|86
| - 3.1
|102
|96
|-
|[[Tripura]]
|0.99
|2.57
|336
|844
|38
|32.8
|111
|101
|-
|[[Uttar Pradesh]]
|11.34
|6.20
|125
|3043
|88
|25.4
|78
|97
|-
|[[Uttarakhand]]
|3.58
|2.80
|265
|1484
|43
|21.1
|75
|101
|-
|[[West Bengal]]
|9.89
|5.80
|NA
|2335
|114
|17.6
|100
|64
|}

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Judiciary of India]]
[[Category:Law of India]]
[[Category:Supreme Court of India]]
[[Category:High courts of India]]
[[Category:District Courts of India]]

Omkara (2004 film)

2026-03-03T21:45:59Z

QuyenStobie2: done

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Omkara
| image = Omkara (2004 film).jpg
| alt = 
| caption = DVD Cover
| director = Shivamani
| producer = Company Films
| screenplay = Shivamani
| story = Shivamani
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Upendra (actor)|Upendra]]
*[[Preeti Jhangiani]]
*[[Rahul Dev]]
*[[Rangayana Raghu]]
*[[Shwetha Menon]]
}}
| music = [[Gurukiran]]
| cinematography = Mathew Rajan
| editing = S. Manohar
| studio = R. S. Productions
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2004|09|18|df=yes}}
| runtime = 165 minutes
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Omkara''''' is a 2004 Indian [[Kannada]]-language [[crime thriller film]] starring [[Upendra (actor)|Upendra]] and [[Preeti Jhangiani]]. It Is remake of bollywood 1988 film [[Tezaab]] with a different climax.The film was written and directed by Shivamani and produced by Company Films under the banner of R. S. Productions and has music by [[Gurukiran]].<ref name="gandhadagudi1">{{cite web |url=http://wiki.gandhadagudi.com/index.php?title=Omkara |title=Omkara – GGpedia |publisher=Wiki.gandhadagudi.com |accessdate=2012-07-01 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426215506/http://wiki.gandhadagudi.com/index.php?title=Omkara |archivedate=26 April 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ''Omkara'' was Upendra's first gangster film and was based on the connection between film industries and the [[Organised crime in India|Mumbai underworld mafia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.viggy.com/english/current_omkara.asp |title='Omkara' – yet another film by Upendra |publisher=Viggy.com |year=2004 |accessdate=2012-07-01 |archive-date=26 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426201630/http://www.viggy.com/english/current_omkara.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> The film got an all-time record opening in its first week<ref name="Sify">{{cite news|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/bangalore-box-office-oct-1-to-4-news-kannada-kkfvHpabgiisi.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211155241/http://www.sify.com/movies/bangalore-box-office-oct-1-to-4-news-kannada-kkfvHpabgiisi.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 February 2017|title=Bangalore box-office (Oct 1 to 4)|work=Sify|date=5 October 2004|accessdate=8 February 2017}}</ref> however became an above average grosser.<ref name="chakpak1">{{cite web |url=http://www.chakpak.com/content/news/preeti-jhangiani-returns-sandalwood |title=Preeti Jhangiani returns to Sandalwood |publisher=Chakpak |date=2012-06-06 |accessdate=2012-07-01 |archive-date=22 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022111543/http://www.chakpak.com/content/news/preeti-jhangiani-returns-sandalwood |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Cast==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Upendra (actor)|Upendra]] as Sathya
* [[Preeti Jhangiani]] as Divya
* [[Rahul Dev]] as a Mumbai underworld kingpin
* [[Rangayana Raghu]] as Divya's father
* [[Sadhu Kokila]]
* [[Bank Janardhan]]
* [[Bullet Prakash]]
* [[Vaijanath Biradar]]
* [[Mimicry Dayanand]]
* [[Nagashekar]]
* Sadashiva Brahmavar
* Adarsha
* Vijayasarathi
* [[Shwetha Menon]] in a cameo appearance
{{colend}}

==Production==
The filming was held at Bangalore, Mangalore, Kasergod, Mumbai and Switzerland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.screenindia.com/fullstory.php?content_id=8358|title=Dubbing for Omkaara|website=Screen|access-date=9 August 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040619080941/http://www.screenindia.com/fullstory.php?content_id=8358|archive-date=19 June 2004|date=11 June 2004}}</ref>
==Soundtrack==
The film's soundtrack has seven songs composed by [[Gurukiran]] collaborating with [[Upendra (actor)|Upendra]] for the sixth time. Upendra, Gurukiran, Kaviraj and [[V. Manohar]] penned the lyrics.<ref name="gandhadagudi1"/>
{{Infobox album
|name = Omkara
|type = soundtrack
|alt =
|cover =
|released = 2004
|recorded =
|venue =
|studio =
|genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
|length = 26:02
|label = Akash Audio
|language = [[Kannada]]
|producer = [[Gurukiran]]
|prev_title = [[Apthamithra]]
|prev_year = 2004
|next_title = [[Maurya (2004 film)|Maurya]]
|next_year = 2004
}}

{{tracklist
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length =
| title1 = Otthu Otthu Otu Otthu
| lyrics1 = [[Upendra (actor)|Upendra]], [[V. Manohar]]
| extra1 = [[Upendra (actor)|Upendra]], [[Shamitha Malnad]]
| length1 = 5:35
| title2 = Abbabba Eeke
| lyrics2 = [[Kaviraj (lyricist)|Kaviraj]]
| extra2 = [[Gurukiran]], [[Chaitra H. G.]]
| length2 = 5:05
| title3 = Bhalo Bhashi Bengalili
| lyrics3 = Upendra
| extra3 = [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]], [[Kavita Krishnamurthy]]
| length3 = 5:40
| title4 = Sootu Bootu
| lyrics4 = [[Gurukiran]]
| extra4 = Gurukiran
| length4 = 4:34
| title5 = Goli Maaro
| lyrics5 = Kaviraj
| extra5 = Gurukiran, Chaitra H. G.
| length5 = 5:09
}}

==Reception==

===Critical reception===
''Omkara'' received mixed reviews upon release.{{Cn|date=April 2024}} Indiaglitz gave the film a very positive review by saying, "Omkara is a film made on a large canvas and can be compared to any non-Kannada film in terms of richness and presentation. The film has excellent production values, a big-star cast and all the commercial ingredients in right proportion to make it an attractive proposition for today's youngsters. Upendra excels in the role and his delivery of the lines is once again superb. His dialogues have been a major attraction in all his films and "Omkaara" is no exception."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/onkaara-review-hindi-movie-7878|title=Onkaara Malayalam Movie Review|date=28 June 2005|work=India Glitz|accessdate=25 April 2014|archive-date=16 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716220340/https://www.indiaglitz.com/onkaara-review-hindi-movie-7878|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Sify'' wrote "The redeeming features of this film are Upendra’s regular gimmicks, Gurukiran’s peppy music, Mathew’s eye catching photography and excellent mass elements that will satisfy the superstar’s fans. His lengthy and punchy dialogues receives applaud. The graphics used further lead to electrifying elements. Director Shivamani has followed the usual racy narration in ‘Omkaara’".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sify.com/movies/kannada/review.php?id=13577589&ctid=5&cid=2427|work=Sify|access-date=30 September 2023|title=Omkara|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041221210431/http://sify.com/movies/kannada/review.php?id=13577589&ctid=5&cid=2427|archive-date=21 December 2004}}</ref>

===Box office===
''Omkara'' collected all-time record in first week all over Karnataka. Besides the theatre rent the film collected {{INR}}1.75 crore from 200 shows a day in Karnataka with 55 prints. ''Omkara'' also had great opening in the Telugu and Tamil belts.<ref name="Sify"/> But the film failed to live up to expectations and turned out to be just a moderate success at the box office.<ref name="chakpak1"/><ref>{{cite web |last=Bhat |first=Sriram |url=http://kannada.oneindia.in/movies/news/2012/07/upendra-om-prakash-rao-upcoming-movie-trivikrama-066326.html |title=ಉಪೇಂದ್ರ, ಓಂ ಪ್ರಕಾಶ್ ರಾವ್ ಜೋಡಿಯ ತ್ರಿವಿಕ್ರಮ- upendra om prakash rao upcoming movie trivikrama – Oneindia Kannada |publisher=Oneindia |date=2012-07-03 |access-date=2012-07-11 |archive-date=21 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021033707/http://kannada.oneindia.in/movies/news/2012/07/upendra-om-prakash-rao-upcoming-movie-trivikrama-066326.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Omkara (2004 Film)}}
[[Category:2004 films]]
[[Category:2004 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:2004 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Gurukiran]]
[[Category:Indian gangster films]]

Durai Vaiko

2026-03-01T17:59:10Z

QuyenStobie2: New Post.

{{Short description|Indian businessman and politician (born 1972)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Durai Vaiko
| image = Durai Vaiko.png
| birth_name = Durai Vaiyapuri
| caption =
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| term_start = 4 June 2024
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Su. Thirunavukkarasar]]
| constituency = [[Tiruchirappalli Lok Sabha constituency|Tiruchirappalli]]
| office2 = Principal Secretary of [[Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]]
| term_start2 = 20 October 2021
| term_end2 =
| predecessor2 = [[Vaiko]]
| office3 = Leader of MDMK Parliamentary Party in [[Lok Sabha]]
| term_start3 = 4 June 2024
| term_end3 =
| predecessor3 = [[A. Ganeshamurthy]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1972|4|2}}
| birth_place = India
| education = MBA
| occupation = [[Social activist]], [[Politician]]
| party = [[Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]]
| website =
| parents = [[Vaiko]], Renugadevi Ammal
| spouse = Geetha
| children = 2
|source=https://sansad.in/ls/members/biographyM/5828?from=members
}}
'''Durai Vaiko ''' (born 2 April 1972) is an Indian politician of the [[Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] party (MDMK). He was appointed as the MDMK principal secretary of the party, and leads internet campaigns for MDMK.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elections.tn.gov.in/GETNLS2014/Star%20Campaigners.pdf|website=Elections.tn.gov|publisher=Election commission of India|title=List of Campaigners|access-date=6 August 2015|archive-date=23 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923235056/http://www.elections.tn.gov.in/GETNLS2014/Star%20Campaigners.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=16th LokSabha- Election Campaign|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/GE2014/StarCampaigner/MDMK_Tamilnadu.pdf|website=Election commission of India|publisher=MDMK}}</ref> His political career began when his father contested the [[Lok Sabha]] election from [[Virudhunagar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Virudhunagar]] constituency in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|title=Vaiko's son rides into political limelight with bike rally|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/news/Vaikos-son-rides-into-political-limelight-with-bike-rally/articleshow/34015945.cms?|access-date=6 August 2015|agency=Times of India}}</ref>

In June 2024, he was elected as Member of the Lok Sabha from [[Tiruchirappalli Lok Sabha constituency|Tiruchirappalli]] constituency.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2024/Jun/05/outsider-durai-vaiko-seals-victorywith-over-50-per-cent-of-votes-in-tiruchy|title=‘Outsider’ Durai Vaiko seals victory with over 50 per cent of votes in Tiruchy|first=D. Vincent|last=Arockiaraj|date=5 June 2024|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref name="Inheritors {{!}} Next-gen netas2">{{cite news|title=Inheritors {{!}} Next-gen netas|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/18th-lok-sabha-the-debutants/story/20240722-inheritors-next-gen-netas-2565854-2024-07-13|accessdate=25 March 2025|publisher=India Today|date=13 July 2024|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250325141549/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/18th-lok-sabha-the-debutants/story/20240722-inheritors-next-gen-netas-2565854-2024-07-13|archivedate=25 March 2025|language=en}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Durai Vaiko is the son of [[Vaiko]], founder of MDMK. He graduated with an MBA. He married Geetha on 29 November 1998.<ref>{{cite news|title=Shooting from the lip|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/Shooting-from-the-lip/articleshow/17266904.cms|access-date=6 August 2015|agency=Times of India}}</ref>

==Philanthropy==
In 2021, during the second wave of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India]], Durai Vaiko set up COVID information centres in Ezhayirampannai, Alankulam, Sathirpati, Padandhal and [[Sattur]] in [[Virudhunagar District]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vikatan.com/news/tamilnadu/vaikos-son-durai-vaiyapuri-helped-a-covid-symptomsman-by-admitting-govt-hospital|title=சாத்தூர்: மூச்சுத்திணறல்; கொரோனா அறிகுறி! - முதியவரை தானே மருத்துவமனைக்கு அழைத்துச் சென்ற துரை வைகோ|date=17 May 2021 |agency=Vikatan, Tamil}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vaiko, Durai}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam politicians]]
[[Category:1972 births]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Politicians from Tiruchirappalli]]
[[Category:India MPs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance candidates in 2024 Indian general election]]

Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Children's Literature

2026-02-27T08:43:41Z

QuyenStobie2:

{{Short description|Literary award}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}

The '''Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Children's Literature''' (also known as '''Sree Padmanabhaswamy Award for Children’s Literature''') is an award given every year by the [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]] (Kerala Literary Academy) to [[Malayalam]] writers for writing [[children's literature]] of literary merit. It is one of the [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award#Awards|twelve categories]] of the [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award]].{{hsp}}<ref>[http://www.keralasahityaakademi.org/sp/Writers/ksa/Awards/Mal_Awards.htm "Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130426134403/http://www.keralasahityaakademi.org/sp/Writers/ksa/Awards/Mal_Awards.htm |date=26 April 2013 }} (in Malayalam). [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]]. Retrieved 28 April 2014.</ref><ref>[http://kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3065&Itemid=2379 "Literary Awards"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618062155/http://kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3065&Itemid=2379 |date=2012-06-18 }}. [[Government of Kerala]]. Retrieved 28 April 2014.</ref>

==Awardees==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Book !! Writer !! Image !! Ref.
|-
|1959 || ''Mudanthanaya Muyal'' || C. A. Kittunni || || rowspan=45| <ref name="Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Children's Literature">{{cite web |title=Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Children's Literature |url=http://www.keralasahityaakademi.org/sp/Writers/ksa/Awards/Endowments/Award_Balasahityam.htm |publisher=[[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]] |access-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091212/http://www.keralasahityaakademi.org/sp/Writers/ksa/Awards/Endowments/Award_Balasahityam.htm |archive-date=27 March 2019 |language=ml}}</ref>
|-
|1960 || ''Anakkaran'' || [[Karoor Neelakanta Pillai]] ||
|-
|1961 || ''Vikritiraman'' || [[P. Narendranath]] ||
|-
|1962 || ''Tiruvonam'' || Tiruvalla Kesava Pillai ||
|-
|1963 || ''Gandhi Kathakal'' || A. P. Parameswaran Pillai ||
|-
|1964 || ''Nadunarunnu'' || [[G. Kamalamma]]||
|-
|1965 || ''Gosayi Paranja Katha'' || [[Lalithambika Antharjanam]] ||
|-
|1966 || ''Kuttikalude Indrapastam'' || Umayanalloor Balakrishna Pillai ||
|-
|1967 || ''Kadinte Katha'' || C. S. Nair ||
|-
|1968 || ''Dr. Carvel'' || P. Sreedharan Pillai ||
|-
|1969 || ''Mali Bhagavatam'' || [[Mali Madhavan Nair]] ||
|-
|1970 || ''Tolstoy Farm'' || K. Bheeman Nair ||
|-
|1971 || ''Lucky Star Turlin Shirt'' || L. I. Justin Raj ||
|-
|1972 || ''Urulaykupperi'' || [[Murkot Kunhappa]] ||
|-
|1973 || ''Khedda'' || Jose Kunnappally ||
|-
|1974 || ''Rasatantra Kathakal'' || [[S. Sivadas]] || [[File:SivadasDSC 0609.JPG|80px]]
|-
|1975 || ''Kunhayante Kusrutikal'' || V. P. Mohammed ||
|-
|1976 || ''Prakriti Sastram Kuttikalkku'' || P. T. Bhaskara Panicker ||
|-
|1977||''Aksharathettu''||[[Kunjunni Mash]]||[[File:Kunhunnimash.jpg|80px]]
|-
|1978 || ''Vayuvinte Katha'' || Dr. T. R. Sankunni ||
|-
|1979 || ''Mithayippoti'' || [[Leela Nambudiripad|Sumangala]] ||
|-
|1980 || ''Doore Doore Doore'' || P. R. Madhava Panicker ||
|-
|1981 || ''Pyramidinte Nattil'' || M. P. Parameswaran ||
|-
|1982 || ''Muthu Mazha'' || Kilimanoor Viswambharan ||
|-
|1983|| ''Unnikkuttanum Kathakaliyum'' ||[[T. K. D. Muzhappilangad]]||[[File:T.K.D. muzhappilangad.jpg|80px]]
|-
|1984 || ''Evoorinte Bala Sahitya Kritikal'' || Evoor Parameswaran ||
|-
|1985 || ''Oru Koottam Urumbukal'' || [[G. Sankara Pillai]] || [[File:Shankarapillai.jpg|80px]]
|-
|1986 || ''Minnu'' || [[Lalitha Lenin]] || [[File:Lalitha_Lenin.jpg|80px]]
|-
|1987 || ''Avar Nalu Per'' || [[N. P. Mohammed]] ||
|-
|1988 || ''Aruth Kattala'' || E. A. Karunakaran Nair ||
|-
|1989 || ''Kannan Kakkayude Kaushalangal'' || [[Muhamma Ramanan]] ||
|-
|1990 || ''Pokkuveyilettal Ponnakum'' || C. G. Santhakumar ||
|-
|1991 || ''Appuppan Tadiyude Swarga Yatra'' || [[Sippy Pallippuram]] || [[File:Sippy_Pallippuram.jpg|80px]]
|-
|1992 || ''Tentulli'' || [[Kalamandalam Kesavan]] ||
|-
|1993 || ''2 + 1 = 2'' || K. K. Vasu ||
|-
|1994 || ''Albutha Neerali'' || [[K. V. Ramanadhan]] || [[File:K_V_Ramanathan.jpg|80px]]
|-
|1995 || ''Kiniyude Katha'' || A. Vijayan ||
|-
|1996 || ''Pujyathinte Katha'' || [[Palliyara Sreedharan]] || [[File:Palliyarasreedharanatksicl.jpg|80px]]
|-
|1997 || ''Bahumanyanaya Padusha'' || [[N. P. Hafiz Mohamad]] || [[File:NP_Hafis_Mohammed_2.jpg|80px]]
|-
|1998 || ''Kambili Kuppayam'' || [[Malayath Appunni]] ||
|-
|1999 || ''Kuttikalude EMS'' || K. T. Gopi ||
|-
|2000 || ''Swarna Thakkol'' || [[Kiliroor Radhakrishnan]] || [[File:Kiliroor_Radhakrishnan_10.jpg|80px]]
|-
|2001 || ''Chirikkatha Kutty'' || Gangadharan Chengaloor ||
|-
|2002 || ''Chakravartiye Urumbu Thinnunnu'' || [[K. Thayat]] ||
|-
|2003 || ''Penangunni'' || [[Kureepuzha Sreekumar]] || [[File:Kureepuzha_Sreekumar.jpg|80px]]
|-
|2004 || ''Makkachi Kathakal'' || C. R. Das || [[File:CR_Das.jpg|80px]] || rowspan=3 | <ref name="Children's Literature 1959 – 2006">{{cite web |title=Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Children's Literature |url=http://www.keralasahityaakademi.org/ml_aw13.htm |publisher=[[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]] |access-date=21 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106042311/http://www.keralasahityaakademi.org/ml_aw13.htm |archive-date=6 November 2012 |language=ml}}</ref>
|-
|2005 || ''50 Eureka Kathakal'' || Kesavan Vellikulangara ||
|-
|2006 || ''Chithrasalabhangalude Veedu'' || [[Priya A. S.]] || [[File:Priya_A_S.jpg|80px]]
|-
|2007 || ''Pustaka Kalikal'' || [[S. Sivadas]] || [[File:SivadasDSC 0609.JPG|80px]] || rowspan=4 | <ref>{{cite web |title=ബാലസാഹിത്യം / ശ്രീപത്മനാഭസ്വാമി സമ്മാനം |url=http://www.keralaculture.org/malayalam/balasahityam-awards/459 |publisher=Department of Cultural Affairs, Government of Kerala |access-date=16 February 2023 |language=ml}}</ref>
|-
|2008 || ''Chiruthakuttiyum Mashum'' || K. Pappootti ||
|-
|2009 || ''Muyalchevi'' || A. Vijayan ||
|-
|2010 || ''Nadannu Theeratha Vazhikal'' || [[Sumangala]] ||
|-
|[[2011 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2011]] || ''Gandhijiyude Athmakatha Kuttikalkku'' || K. Radhakrishnan || || <ref name=2011award>[http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/sahitya-akademi-awards-announced/article3715418.ece "Sahitya Akademi awards announced"]. ''The Hindu''. 2 August 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2014.</ref>
|-
|[[2012 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2012]] || ''Kuttipattalathinte Kerala Paryadanam'' || [[N. P. Hafiz Mohamad]] || [[File:NP_Hafis_Mohammed_2.jpg|80px]] ||
|-
|[[2013 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2013]] || ''Unnikalkku Noottiyettu Gurudeva Kathakal'' || [[Sippy Pallippuram]] || [[File:Sippy_PallipuramDSC_0057.JPG|80px]] || <ref>{{cite press release |author= |title=2013 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards |url=http://www.keralasahityaakademi.org/pdf/Akademi%20Award%20-%202013_final.pdf |location=[[Trichur]] |publisher=[[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]] |date=19 December 2014 |access-date=12 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613132951/http://www.keralasahityaakademi.org/pdf/Akademi%20Award%20-%202013_final.pdf |archive-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
|[[2014 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2014]] || ''Aanathookkam Velli'' || M. Sivaprasad || || <ref>{{cite press release |author= |title=2014 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards |url=http://www.keralasahityaakademi.org/pdf/Akademi%20Award%20-%202014_new.pdf |location=[[Trichur]] |publisher=[[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]] |date=29 February 2016 |access-date=12 April 2018}}</ref>
|-
|[[2015 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2015]] || ''Sunny Cherukkanum Sangeetha Pengalum'' || [[Ezhacherry Ramachandran]] || [[File:EzhacheryDSC_0116.jpg|80px]] || <ref>{{cite press release |author= |title=2015 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards |url=http://www.keralasahityaakademi.org/pdf/08-08-2016/Award2015.pdf |location=[[Trichur]] |publisher=[[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]] |date=28 March 2017 |access-date=12 April 2018}}</ref>
|-
|[[2016 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2016]] || ''Samoohyapaatam'' || K. T. Baburaj || || <ref>{{cite press release |author= |title=2016 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards |url=http://www.keralasahityaakademi.org/pdf/07-01-2018/Award_2016_new.pdf |location=[[Trichur]] |publisher=[[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]] |date=21 February 2018 |access-date=12 April 2018}}</ref>
|-
| [[2017 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2017]] || ''Kurukkan Mashinte School'' || [[V. R. Sudheesh]] || [[File:Vr_sudheesh.jpg|80px]] || <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2019/01/23/kerala-sahitya-akademi-award-v-j-james-nireeswaran.html |title=Kerala Sahitya Akademi award goes to V J James's 'Nireeswaran' |newspaper=[[Malayala Manorama]] |date=23 January 2019 |accessdate=31 July 2022}}</ref>
|-
| [[2018 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2018]] || ''Kunjunniyude Yathrapusthakam'' || S. R. Lal || || <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/akademi-fellowships-for-mukundan-sankara-pillai/article30369408.ece |title=Akademi fellowships for Mukundan, Sankara Pillai |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=22 December 2019 |accessdate=31 July 2022}}</ref>
|-
| [[2019 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2019]] || ''Hisaga'' || K. R. Viswanathan || || <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/kerala-sahitya-akademi-fellowships-for-p-valsala-nvp-unithiri/article33843100.ece |title=Kerala Sahitya Akademi fellowships for P. Valsala, N.V.P. Unithiri |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=15 February 2021 |accessdate=31 July 2022}}</ref>
|-
| [[2020 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2020]] || ''Perumazhayathe Kunjithalukal'' || [[Priya A. S.]] || [[File:Priya_A_S.jpg|80px]] || <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/akademi-fellowship-for-sethu-perumbadavam/article35960287.ece |title=Akademi fellowship for Sethu, Perumbadavam |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=17 August 2021 |accessdate=31 July 2022}}</ref>
|-
| [[2021 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2021]] || ''Avar Moovarum Oru Mazhavillum'' || [[Raghunath Paleri]] || || <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/state-sahitya-akademi-fellowships-for-vaisakhan-kp-sankaran/article65689827.ece |title=State Sahitya Akademi fellowships for Vaisakhan, K.P. Sankaran |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=27 July 2022 |accessdate=31 July 2022}}</ref>
|-
| [[2022 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2022]] || ''Chakkaramambazham'' || [[K. Sreekumar]] || [[File:K. Sreekumar 05.jpg|80px]]|| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/features/books/kerala-sahitya-akademi-awards-announced-v-shinilal-s-sambarkkakranthi-wins-best-novel-1.8688660 |title=Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards announced, V Shinilal's 'Sambarkkakranthi' best novel |newspaper=Mathrubhumi |date=30 June 2023 |access-date=30 June 2023}}</ref>
|-
| [[2023 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2023]] || ''Penkuttiyum Koottarum'' || [[Gracy (writer)|Gracy]] || || <ref name="2023 Award">{{Cite news |title=Kerala Sahitya Akademi fellowships announced |language= |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2024/Jul/26/kerala-sahitya-akademi-fellowships-announced |newspaper=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=26 July 2024 |access-date=14 August 2024}}</ref>
|-
| [[2024 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2024]] || ''Ammamanamulla Kanivukal'' || [[E. N. Sheeja]] || || <ref name="2024 Award">{{Cite news |title=K.V. Ramakrishnan, Ezhacheri Ramachandran selected for Kerala Sahitya Akademi fellowships |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kv-ramakrishnan-ezhacheri-ramachandran-selected-for-kerala-sahitya-akademi-fellowships/article69740893.ece |access-date=23 November 2025 |newspaper=The Hindu |date=26 June 2025}}</ref>
|}

==References==
<references />
{{Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award}}
{{Malayalam Literature |state=collapsed}}
[[Category:Awards established in 1977]]
[[Category:Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards]]
[[Category:Malayalam literary awards]]
[[Category:Children's literary awards]]
[[Category:Indian children's literature]]
[[Category:1977 establishments in Kerala]]

The Tuskegee Airmen

2026-02-25T23:37:30Z

QuyenStobie2: fix lead for consistency and improved wording

{{Short description|1995 American television film}}
{{about|1995 film|the article about the World War II flyers|Tuskegee Airmen|other uses|Tuskegee Airmen (disambiguation)}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2026}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Tuskegee-airmen-DVDcover.jpg
| caption = DVD Cover art
| genre = Drama History War
| director = [[Robert Markowitz]]
| executive_producer = [[Frank Price]]
| producer = Bill Carraro
| teleplay = {{Plainlist|
* [[Trey Ellis]]
* [[Ron Hutchinson (screenwriter)|Ron Hutchinson]]
* [[Paris Qualles]]
}}
| story = {{Plainlist|
* [[T. S. Cook]]
* Robert Wayland Williams
}}
| starring = [[Laurence Fishburne]] [[Allen Payne]] [[Malcolm-Jamal Warner]] [[Courtney B. Vance]] [[Andre Braugher]] [[Christopher McDonald]] [[Daniel Hugh Kelly]] [[Mekhi Phifer]] [[John Lithgow]] [[Cuba Gooding Jr.]]
| cinematography = [[Ron Orieux]]
| editor = David Beatty
| music = [[Lee Holdridge]]
| company = [[HBO Films|HBO Pictures]] Price Entertainment
| network = [[HBO]]
| released = {{start date|1995|8|26}}
| runtime = 106 minutes
| country = United States
| language = English
| budget = $8.5 million (estimated)
}}

'''''The Tuskegee Airmen''''' is a 1995 [[HBO]] television movie based on the exploits of an actual groundbreaking unit, the first African-American combat pilots in the [[United States Army Air Corps]], who fought in [[World War II]]. The film was directed by [[Robert Markowitz]] and stars [[Laurence Fishburne]], [[Cuba Gooding Jr.]], [[John Lithgow]], [[Courtney B. Vance]], [[Andre Braugher]], [[Malcolm-Jamal Warner]], [[Allen Payne]], and [[Mekhi Phifer]].

==Plot==
{{Long plot|date=July 2023}}
During World War II, Hannibal "Iowa" Lee Jr. travels by train to [[Tuskegee, Alabama]] for military flight training, as part of a group of African-American [[flight cadet]] candidates that includes Billy "A-Train" Roberts, Walter Peoples III, and Lewis Johns. Colonel Noel Rogers, the base commander, Major Sherman Joy, director of training, and Second Lieutenant Glenn, a Black pilot, brief the cadets. Rogers speaks on the honor of earning pilots' wings while Major Joy reflects the majority view of white America that African-Americans aren't suitable to serve as military pilots. The trainees discover that many of them are college educated and Walter Peoples vows he will be the top pilot of the group.

Major Joy has the cadets retake the flight exam they took to qualify for the program. Learning Peoples has a commercial pilot license, Joy takes Peoples up in a [[Boeing-Stearman Model 75|PT-17]] training aircraft and tries to intimidate him with dangerous maneuvers, but Peoples' resolve is not broken. Major Joy explains the retesting to Colonel Rogers, stating his belief the cadets may have cheated to get in the program. Rogers informs Joy that no one scored less than a 95% on the retests.

The cadets begin practical flight training in the PT-17 training aircraft with instructor pilots. Cadet Johns and his instructor are killed when Johns fails to recover from a stall. The crash shakes Cadet Leroy Cappy and others voluntarily leave the program. Cadets Lee and Peoples convince Cappy to stay and the cadets advance to solo flying. Major Joy lets Cadet Lee make several solo flights. When Lieutenant Glenn instructs on air combat, he reveals he had fought in the [[Battle of Britain]] with the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]], downing three Germans and making him the only Army Air Corps officer on the base with combat experience.

Peoples and Lee solo in the [[North American T-6 Texan|AT-6 Texan]] training plane, and Peoples wins a mock dogfight against Lee. Peoples celebrates with unauthorized aerobatic maneuvers and he's removed from the training program. Peoples pleads for forgiveness to Colonel Rogers and Major Joy to no avail, and to avoid going home in disgrace, Peoples commandeers an AT-6 and kills himself by deliberately crashing it. The cadets argue about Major Joy's tactics. Roberts states that Joy set out to break Peoples and effectively murdered him. Cappy sides with Roberts and feels Major Joy will eventually fail all of them. Lee however refuses to let Major Joy talk him into quitting or derail his dreams of flying.

The cadets graduate with commissions as second lieutenants in the Army Air Corps but aren't deployed to the [[European theatre of World War II|European theatre]] due to racist concerns by Congressmen. [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] intervenes, inspecting the base and flying with Lee. The ensuing positive press coverage prompts their deployment to North Africa as the 99th Pursuit Squadron. They're relegated to ground-attack missions, until a chance encounter with [[Messerschmitt Bf 109]]s shows the Black pilots are capable of successfully engaging in air to air combat. Cappy breaks formation and shoots down one of the Germans, but Cappy is killed in the battle.

A congressional hearing of the House Armed Services Committee hears evidence regarding the Tuskegee Airmen experiment, including charges of incompetence and medical studies claiming that "Negroes are incapable of handling complex machinery." The commanding officer, [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.|Benjamin O. Davis]] persuades the committee their information is largely false, and the 99th Pursuit Squadron joins three new squadrons out of Tuskegee to form the all-black [[332d Expeditionary Operations Group|332nd Fighter Group]], under his command.

The 332nd deploys to [[Foggia Airfield Complex|Ramitelli]], Italy, to fly escort missions for [[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress]] heavy bombers, which are experiencing heavy losses. Lee and Billy Roberts sink a [[destroyer]] and rescue a straggling B-17. When the bomber's pilot and co-pilot travel to Ramitelli to thank them, the B-17 Captain Butler refuses to believe that black pilots saved them. Roberts is shot down on a later mission while Lee is awarded the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] for sinking the destroyer and promoted to captain. The Tuskegee Airmen are specifically requested for escort for a raid on Berlin when Captain Butler learns that no heavy bombers are lost when the Tuskegee airmen are assigned as escorts.

==Cast==
{| class="wikitable"
! Actor !! Role
|-
| [[Laurence Fishburne]] || Captain Hannibal "Iowa" Lee Jr.<ref name="credits">[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114745/fullcredits " 'The Tuskegee Airmen' (1995) Full credits."] ''IMDb''. Retrieved: January 3, 2010.</ref>
|-
| [[Allen Payne]] || Cadet Walter Peoples
|-
| [[Malcolm-Jamal Warner]] || Lieutenant Leroy Cappy
|-
| [[Courtney B. Vance]] || Second Lieutenant Glenn
|-
| [[Andre Braugher]] || Colonel [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.]]
|-
| [[Christopher McDonald]] || Major Sherman Joy
|-
| [[Daniel Hugh Kelly]] || Colonel Rogers
|-
| [[John Lithgow]] || Senator Conyers
|-
| [[Cuba Gooding Jr.]] || Lieutenant Billy "A-Train" Roberts
|-
| [[Mekhi Phifer]] || Cadet Lewis Johns
|-
|[[Vivica A. Fox|Vivica Fox]]
|Charlene
|-
|[[Ben Guillory|Bennet Guillory]]
|Hannibal's father
|-
|[[Tim Kelleher (actor)|Tim Kelleher]]
|B-17 Lieutenant Wesley
|-
|[[Ed Lauter]]
|General [[John D. Stevenson (United States Air Force general)|Stevenson]]
|-
|[[Janet MacLachlan]]
|Hannibal's mother
|-
| [[Rosemary Murphy]] || [[Eleanor Roosevelt]]
|-
|[[Marco Perella]]
|Colonel Sirca
|-
|[[Ned Vaughn]]
|B-17 Captain Butler
|}

==Production==
[[File:Tuskegee Airmen 332nd Fighter Group pilots ppmsca13245u.jpg|thumb|left|Robert W. Williams (left) and other Tuskegee Airmen at a briefing in [[Foggia Airfield Complex|Ramitelli, Italy]] (March 1945)]]
[[File:Tuskegee Airmen Red Tail Mustang.jpg|thumb|Screenshot from the film]]

[[Ottumwa, Iowa]], native, Captain Robert W. Williams, a wartime pilot in the U.S. Army Air Corps' "332nd Fighter Group", the all African-American combat unit trained at Moton Field in Tuskegee, Alabama, wrote a manuscript years earlier, and worked with screenwriter [[T. S. Cook]] to create a screenplay originally intended for a feature-film project. The plot combined fact and fiction to create an essentially historically accurate drama. Linking up with [[Frank Price]], owner of Price Productions in 1985 finally gained some traction for the project, and when financing was eventually obtained nearly 10 years later, Williams stayed on as co-executive producer with Price as executive producer.<ref name="Variety">Scott, Tony.[https://www.variety.com/review/VE1117910076.html?categoryid=32&cs=1&p=0 " 'The Tuskegee Airmen' review."] ''Variety.com.''. Retrieved: January 3, 2010.</ref>
Originally intended as a [[HBO]] made-for-TV project, the network invested more into the production, a reputed $8.5 million (the largest investment in a telefilm project to date) striving for historical accuracy.<ref name="Variety"/> Although most of the lead characters were fictitious composites of real pilots, the inclusion of [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] and General [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.|Benjamin "B.O." Davis]] was based on actual events.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070518100415/http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/tuskegee-airmen.htm "The Tuskegee Airmen."] ''Eleanore Roosevelt National Historic Site Hyde Park, New York''. Retrieved: March 20, 2010.</ref> When Roosevelt visited [[Sharpe Field|Tuskegee Army Air Field]] in 1941, she insisted on flying with [[C. Alfred "Chief" Anderson]], the first African American to earn his pilot's license and the first flight instructor of the [[Civilian Pilot Training Program]] organized at the [[Tuskegee University|Tuskegee Institute]]. She had the photograph of her in a training aircraft with a black pilot at the controls widely circulated. Other than some differences in physical appearance and profile, Andre Braugher's portrayal of "B.O." Davis and his role as the commanding officer pointedly was an accurate depiction of the unit's first commander's personality and character.

Location shooting took place at [[Fort Chaffee Maneuver Training Center|Fort Chaffee]], right outside of [[Fort Smith, Arkansas]]. The barracks had been used in the filming of ''[[Biloxi Blues]]'' (1988), another wartime story. The principal photography also used locations at [[Juliette, Georgia]] and [[Muskogee, Oklahoma]], as well as studio work in [[Los Angeles]]. A collection of period aircraft including [[North American T-6 Texan]]s and [[North American P-51 Mustang]]s was representative of the many types flown by the Tuskegee Airmen. A few authentic P-51 fighter aircraft in appropriate "red tail" colors were employed in the aerial sequences.

In addition, some period gun-ciné films were also used,<ref name="Variety"/> as were sequences from the films, ''[[Memphis Belle (film)|Memphis Belle]]'' (1990) and ''[[Battle of Britain (film)|Battle of Britain]]'' (1969). The producers also borrowed a technique used in ''Memphis Belle'' by using cutout silhouettes of aircraft to make more aircraft parked at the various airfields apparent. One example of period dialogue that was faithful to the times was Hannibal Lee Jr. (another fictitious composite) singing: "Straighten up..." finished by Billy Roberts (fictional character): "...and fly right." (The catchphrase was derived from the 1944 top-40 hit record, [[1944 in country music|"Straighten Up and Fly Right"]] by the King Cole Trio led by [[Nat King Cole]].)<ref name="Quotes">[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114745/quotes " 'The Tuskegee Airmen' (1995) Quotes."] ''IMDb''. Retrieved: January 3, 2010.</ref>

==Reception==
Although originally released on cable, the HBO feature was shown on multiple repeats and eventually was released as a limited feature in selected theaters. In 2001, a home video/DVD version was also released in both formats. The transfer was done in 1.78:1 aspect ratio, which exactly fills a 16x9 display, and is anamorphically enhanced.<ref>[https://www.dvdverdict.com/reviews/tuskegee.php " 'The Tuskegee Airmen'."] ''DVD Verdict''. Retrieved: January 3, 2010.</ref>

Criticism of the movie was generally focused on clichéd dialogue and slow, stagy scenes, but the overall impression by the public was mostly favorable.

===Awards and nominations===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Award
! Category
! Nominee(s)
! Result
! Ref.
|-
| {{center|1995}}
| colspan="2"| [[List of Peabody Award winners (1990–1999)#1995|Peabody Awards]]
| [[HBO Films|HBO Pictures]] and Price Entertainment
| {{won}}
| align="center"| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://peabodyawards.com/award-profile/the-tuskegee-airmen/ |title=The Tuskegee Airmen |publisher=[[Peabody Awards]] |access-date=October 19, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="21"| {{center|1996}}
| [[American Cinema Editors#Eddie Awards|American Cinema Editors Awards]]
| [[American Cinema Editors Award for Best Edited Miniseries or Motion Picture for Television|Best Edited Motion Picture for Non-Commercial Television]]
| David Beatty
| {{nom}}
| align="center"| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000017/1996/1/?ref_=ev_eh |title=Nominees/Winners |publisher=[[IMDb]] |access-date=April 3, 2019}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3"| [[18th CableACE Awards|CableACE Awards]]
| colspan="2"| Movie or Miniseries
| {{nom}}
| align="center" rowspan="3"| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-09-11-ca-42502-story.html |title=CableACE Nominations Are Dominated by HBO |last=Margulies |first=Lee |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=September 11, 1996 |access-date=September 6, 2015}}</ref>
|-
| Actor in a Movie or Miniseries
| [[Laurence Fishburne]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| Supporting Actor in a Movie or Miniseries
| [[Andre Braugher]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[48th Directors Guild of America Awards|Directors Guild of America Awards]]
| [[Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Miniseries or TV Film|Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Dramatic Specials]]
| [[Robert Markowitz]]
| {{nom}}
| align="center"| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dga.org/Awards/History/1990s/1995.aspx?value=1995 |title=48th DGA Awards |publisher=[[Directors Guild of America Awards]] |access-date=October 19, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| [[53rd Golden Globe Awards|Golden Globe Awards]]
| [[Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film|Best Actor in a Miniseries or Motion Picture Made for Television]]
| Laurence Fishburne
| {{nom}}
| align="center"| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.goldenglobes.com/tv-show/tuskegee-airmen |title=The Tuskegee Airmen |publisher=[[Golden Globe Awards]] |access-date=October 19, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4"| [[NAACP Image Awards]]
| colspan="2"| [[NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Television Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special|Outstanding Television Movie or Mini-Series]]
| {{won}}
| align="center" rowspan="4"|
|-
| rowspan="3"| [[NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actor in a Television Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special|Outstanding Actor in a Television Movie or Mini-Series]]
| Andre Braugher
| {{nom}}
|-
| Laurence Fishburne
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Cuba Gooding Jr.]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="10"| [[48th Primetime Emmy Awards|Primetime Emmy Awards]]
| [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie|Outstanding Made for Television Movie]]
| [[Frank Price]], Robert Wayland Williams, Bill Carraro, and Carol Bahoric
| {{nom}}
| align="center" rowspan="10"| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.emmys.com/shows/tuskegee-airmen |title=The Tuskegee Airmen |publisher=[[Academy of Television Arts & Sciences]] |access-date=October 19, 2023}}</ref>
|-
| [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie|Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Special]]
| Laurence Fishburne
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie|Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Special]]
| Andre Braugher
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie|Outstanding Writing for a Miniseries or a Special]]
| [[Paris Qualles]], [[Trey Ellis]], [[Ron Hutchinson (screenwriter)|Ron Hutchinson]], Robert Wayland Williams, and [[T. S. Cook]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Casting for a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie|Outstanding Casting for a Miniseries or a Special]]
| [[Robi Reed|Robi Reed-Humes]]
| {{won}}{{efn|Tied with Mary Colquhoun for ''[[Truman (1995 film)|Truman]]''.}}
|-
| [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Picture Editing for a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie|Outstanding Editing for a Miniseries or a Special – Single Camera Production]]
| David Beatty
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Limited or Anthology Series, Movie or Special (Original Dramatic Score)|Outstanding Music Composition for a Miniseries or a Special]]
| [[Lee Holdridge]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Limited or Anthology Series, Movie or Special|Outstanding Sound Editing for a Miniseries or a Special]]
| G. Michael Graham, Joe Melody, Anton Holden, Bob Costanza, Tim Terusa, Mike Dickeson, Mark Steele, Darren Wright, Michael Lyle, Gary Macheel, John K. Adams, Richard Steele, Mark Friedgen, Billy B. Bell, Kristi Johns, Stan Jones, Mark Heyes, Jill Schachne, and Tim Chilton
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie|Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Miniseries or a Special]]
| Veda Campbell, [[Wayne Artman]], [[Robert L. Harman]], and [[Nick Alphin]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects|Outstanding Special Visual Effects]]
| Michael Muscal, Fred Cramer, Ray McIntyre Jr., and David Fiske
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[2nd Screen Actors Guild Awards|Screen Actors Guild Awards]]
| [[Actor Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie|Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries]]
| Laurence Fishburne
| {{nom}}
| align="center"| <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sagawards.org/awards/nominees-and-recipients/2nd-annual-screen-actors-guild-awards |title=The 2nd Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards |publisher=[[Screen Actors Guild Awards]] |access-date=October 19, 2023}}</ref>
|}{{Notelist}}

==Historical accuracy==
Besides the character of [[Colonel]] [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.]] (who is actually among the attendees during the wing-pinning ceremony scene) played by [[Andre Braugher]], no other actual real-life Tuskegee Airmen were portrayed in this film. Other featured Tuskegee Airmen characters are composites of the men with whom Williams served.

At one point, the character Lewis Johns ([[Mekhi Phifer]]) recites "[[Strange Fruit]]" to the other recruits in their barracks. "Strange Fruit" is a song recorded by [[Billie Holiday]] in 1939, inspired by a poem by [[Abel Meeropol]] after he witnessed the [[lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith]].

At the end, the film details the unit's accomplishments: 66 of the 450 Tuskegee Airmen died in battle, they engaged and defeated [[Messerschmitt Me 262]]s, the first operational jet fighters, and they were awarded a total of 850 medals over the course of the war. The credits also note (inaccurately, but a common belief of the time) that the 332nd never lost a single bomber to enemy fighters. This claim is a source of [[Tuskegee Airmen#Controversy over escort record|historical controversy]]. The statement was repeated for many years and not challenged because of the esteem of the Tuskegee Airmen. However, Air Force records and eyewitness accounts later showed that at least 25 bombers were lost to enemy fire.<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-04-01-tuskegee-airmen_N.htm "Report: Tuskegee Airmen lost 25 bombers."] ''USA Today'', April 1, 2007. Retrieved: April 1, 2007.</ref><ref>''Ex-Pilot Confirms Bomber Loss, Flier Shot down in 1944 was Escorted by Tuskegee Airmen''. ''Washington Post'', December 17, 2006, p. A18.</ref> This was, however, still an excellent loss-to-enemy fire ratio; the average for other P-51 fighter groups of the Fifteenth Air Force was 46 bombers lost.<ref>Haulman, Dr. Daniel L. (2013). [http://www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-130905-006.pdf "Misconceptions About the Tuskegee Airmen"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192052/http://www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-130905-006.pdf |date=29 October 2013 }}, afhra.af.mil; retrieved 26 February 2019.</ref>

==See also==
* ''[[Fly (play)|Fly]]'', a 2009 play about the Tuskegee Airmen
* ''[[Red Tails]]'', the 2012 George Lucas film on the 332nd Fighter Group
* [[Wilfred DeFour]]
* [[James Clayton Flowers]]
* [[George Hardy (Tuskegee Airman)|George Hardy]]
* [[James H. Harvey]]
* [[Harry Stewart Jr.]]

==References==
{{reflist|group=N}}
;Citations
{{Reflist|30em}}
;Bibliography
{{refbegin}}
* Ambrose, Stephen Edward. ''The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys who Flew the B-24s over Germany''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001. {{ISBN|0-7432-0339-9}}.
* Broadnax, Samuel L. ''Blue Skies, Black Wings: African American Pioneers of Aviation''. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 2007. {{ISBN|0-275-99195-4}}.
* Bucholtz, Chris and Laurier, Jim. ''332nd Fighter Group - Tuskegee Airmen''. London: Osprey Publishing, 2007. {{ISBN|1-84603-044-7}}.
* Cotter, Jarrod. "Red Tail Project." ''Flypast No. 248'', March 2002.
* Holway, John B. ''Red Tail, Black Wings: The Men of America's Black Air Force''. Las Cruces, New Mexico: Yuca Tree Press, 1997. {{ISBN|1-881325-21-0}}.
* McKissack, Patricia C. and Fredrick L. ''Red Tail Angels: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II''. New York: Walker Books for Young Readers, 1996. {{ISBN|0-8027-8292-2}}.
* Thole, Lou. "Segregated Skies." ''Flypast No, 248'', March 2002.
* ''The Tuskegee Airmen'' (VHS/DVD). New York: HBO Home Video (Release date: 23 January 2001.)
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|The Tuskegee Airmen}}
*{{IMDb title|id=0114745|title=The Tuskegee Airmen}}

{{NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Television Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special}}
{{Robert Markowitz}}
{{Tuskegee Airmen articles}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tuskegee Airmen, The}}
[[Category:1995 television films]]
[[Category:1995 films]]
[[Category:1995 American films]]
[[Category:African-American films]]
[[Category:African-American war films]]
[[Category:American films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Eleanor Roosevelt]]
[[Category:Films about the United States Army Air Forces]]
[[Category:Films directed by Robert Markowitz]]
[[Category:Films scored by Lee Holdridge]]
[[Category:Films set in Alabama]]
[[Category:Films set in Italy]]
[[Category:Films set in the 1940s]]
[[Category:Films about race and ethnicity]]
[[Category:HBO Films films]]
[[Category:Peabody Award–winning broadcasts]]
[[Category:Tuskegee Airmen]]
[[Category:World War II aviation films]]
[[Category:World War II films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Films about the North African campaign]]

Mud (village)

2026-02-23T17:27:23Z

QuyenStobie2:

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Mud
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name = Mudh, Muth
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline = File:Mudh Village Pin Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7094.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Mud village above Pin river, Jun '18
| pushpin_map = India Himachal Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates = {{Coord|31|57|33|N|78|01|57|E|type:city_region:IN-HP|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts in India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Lahaul and Spiti district|Lahaul and Spiti]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of tehsils of Himachal Pradesh|Tehsil]]
| subdivision_name3 = Spiti
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Panchayati raj in India|Panchayat]]
| governing_body = Gram Panchayat, Sagnam
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 0.776
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 213
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| population_footnotes =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type =
| postal_code = 172117
| registration_plate =
| website =
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi]]
| demographics1_title2 = Native
| demographics1_info2 = [[Spiti Bhoti]]
}}

'''Mud''' (also known as '''Mudh''' and '''Muth''') is a small village in the cold desert region of [[Spiti Valley|Spiti]] in [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[India]]. Located at an altitude of {{cvt|3810|m|ft}} on the left bank of the Pin River, a right bank tributary of the [[Spiti River]], the village is nestled at the base of the Parbati range that towers almost vertically {{cvt|1600|m|ft}} above. Mud is near the boundary of the [[Pin Valley National Park]] and is a convenient base for treks in the park, and to the neighbouring districts of Kullu and Kinnaur. It is the last village on the Spiti side of the Pin Parbati trek to [[Kullu Valley|Kullu]] and the Pin Bhaba trek to [[Kinnaur district|Kinnaur]].

Mud became famous among geologists in the 1860s when the Moravian geologist [[Ferdinand Stoliczka]] discovered a major geological formation in the Himalayas that he named the ''Muth Succession'', after Mud. This spurred many geologists to do fieldwork in the Pin Valley. The [[#Geology|Muth Formation]], as it is now known, has a thickness of {{cvt|258-300|m|ft}}. Consisting of white [[quartz arenite]], it is resistant to weathering and readily visible.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Fuchs |first=G. |date=Jun 1982 |title=The Geology of the Pin valley in Spiti, H. P., India |journal=Jahrbuch der Geologischen Bundesanstalt |volume=124 |issue=2 |pages=325–359}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Mudh Tara Up Pin Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7086.jpg|right|thumb|View up the Pin valley from Mud]]

Mud was mentioned by [[Ferdinand Stoliczka]] in a paper in the ''Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India'', 1866. Stoliczka was a Moravian paleontologist who joined the Geological Survey of India in 1862. He made Mud the base for his fieldwork on the geology of the [[Western Himalayas]] and named an important geological rock layer stretching from [[Kashmir]] through [[Spiti District|Spiti]] to [[Nepal]] in the Western Himalayas, calling it the Mudh (Mud) Series.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Stoliczka |first=F. |date=1866 |title=Geological Sections across the Himalayan Mountains from Wangtu Bridge on the River Sutlej to Sungdo on the Indus, with an account of the formations in Spiti, accompanied by a revision of all known fossils from that district |journal=Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India |publisher=[[Geological Survey of India]] |volume=V |pages=1–154}}</ref> This remote village at the upper end of the [[Pin Valley National Park|Pin River Valley]], surrounded by inhospitable mountains, thus attained prominence.

Spurred by Stoliczka's publication, other geologists visited Mud for fieldwork during the remainder of the 19th century. These included C. L. Griesbach (1880s), C. Diener (1890s), and H. H. Hayden (1899). Their research and publications confirmed the prominence of Mud in geology. Hayden renamed the Mudh Series to the Mudh Formation, a name that is still in use today.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hayden |first=H.H. |date=1904 |title=The Geology of Spiti, with Parts of Bashahr and Rupshu |journal=Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India |publisher=[[Geological Survey of India]] |publication-place=Calcutta |volume=XXXVI, Part I |issue=I |pages=1–129}}</ref> G. Fuchs wrote: "The pioneering work by Stoliczka, Griesbach, Von Krafft, Dlener, and Hayden has made Spiti famous as a classical geological area of the Himalaya, particularly of the Tethys or Tibetan Zone."<ref name=":2" />

After a gap of many decades after Hayden's 1899 visit, in July – September 1978, an Indo-Austrian expedition led by G. Fuchs ([[Geological Survey of Austria]]) and D.K. Bhatt ([[Geological Survey of India]]) did fieldwork on the Mudh Formation in Mud and nearby places.<ref name=":2" /> In 1997–98, Erich Draganits, a PhD student at the [[University of Vienna]] did his fieldwork in Mud.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Draganits |first1=Erich |last2=Braddy |first2=Simon J. |last3=Briggs |first3=Derek E.G. |date=Apr 2001 |title=A Gondwanan Coastal Arthropod Ichnofauna from the Muth Formation (Lower Devonian, Northern India): Paleoenvironment and Tracemaker Behavior |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3515525 |journal=PALAIOS |publisher=[[Society for Sedimentary Geology]] |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=126–147 |doi=10.1669/0883-1351(2001)016<0126:AGCAIF>2.0.CO;2 |jstor=3515525 |bibcode=2001Palai..16..126D |s2cid=54836908 |access-date=3 July 2022 |archive-date=3 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703095629/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3515525 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Subsequently, Indian geologists Parcha and Pandey from the [[Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology]], [[Dehradun]], visited in about 2011.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Parcha |first1=S.K. |last2=Pandey |first2=Shivani |date=Sep 2011 |title=Devonian Ichnofossils from the Farakah Muth Section of the Pin Valley, Spiti Himalaya |journal=Journal Geological Society of India |publisher=[[Geological Society of India]] |publication-place=Bangalore |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=263–270|doi=10.1007/s12594-011-0082-8 |bibcode=2011JGSI...78..263P |s2cid=129814827 }}</ref> These recent studies succeeded in firmly establishing the origins and age of the Mudh Formation.

==Geography==
[[File:Mudh Towering Range Pin Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7095.jpg|thumb|right|Rock strata towering {{cvt|1600|m|ft}} above Mud]]

Mud is located on the left bank of the Pin River, which is a right bank tributary of the [[Spiti River]]. The village is at the base of the towering Pin Parbati range that separates Spiti from [[Kullu district]]. It is the first inhabited place encountered by travelers coming from [[Kullu Valley|Kullu valley]] via the Pin Parbati Pass and from [[Kinnaur district|Kinnaur]] via the [[Pin Bhaba pass|Pin Bhaba Pass]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pin Parbati trekking route |url=https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/8171221#map=9/32.1630/77.8986&layers=C |url-status=live |access-date=5 Jul 2021 |website=[[OpenStreetMap]] |archive-date=10 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710083120/https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/8171221#map=9/32.1630/77.8986&layers=C }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Kapadia |first=Harish |title=Trekking and Climbing in the Indian Himalaya |publisher=[[Stackpole Books]] |year=2001 |isbn=0811729532 |location=Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania |pages=127–134}}</ref> The village is at a distance of {{cvt|48|km|mi|abbr= }} from [[Kaza, Himachal Pradesh|Kaza, Spiti]]. This is the route on [[National Highway 505 (India)|NH-505]] from [[Manali, Himachal Pradesh|Manali]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kaza-Mud route |url=https://www.openstreetmap.org/directions?engine=fossgis_osrm_car&route=32.2244%2C78.0723%3B31.9590%2C78.0324#map=11/32.0919/78.1080&layers=C |url-status=live |access-date=4 Jul 2021 |website=[[OpenStreetMap]] |archive-date=10 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710013730/https://www.openstreetmap.org/directions?engine=fossgis_osrm_car&route=32.2244,78.0723%3B31.9590,78.0324#map=11/32.0919/78.1080&layers=C }}</ref> From [[Tabo, Himachal Pradesh|Tabo]], en route on [[National Highway 505 (India)|NH-505]] from [[Shimla]], the distance is {{cvt|65|km|mi}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tabo-Mud route |url=https://www.openstreetmap.org/directions?engine=fossgis_osrm_car&route=32.0940%2C78.3837%3B31.9590%2C78.0324#map=11/32.0418/78.2096&layers=C |url-status=live |access-date=4 Jul 2021 |website=[[OpenStreetMap]] |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185256/https://www.openstreetmap.org/directions?engine=fossgis_osrm_car&route=32.0940,78.3837%3B31.9590,78.0324#map=11/32.0418/78.2096&layers=C }}</ref> The village covers an area of {{cvt|77.6|ha|acre}}.<ref name="CensusLnSA">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=District Census Handbook: Lahul & Spiti, Himachal -- Village and Town Directory |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Himachal Pradesh, Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt of India |year=2011 |isbn= |series=3 Part XII A |location= }}</ref>{{rp|page=252}}

===Climate===
Spiti is a cold desert region with an annual rainfall of about {{cvt|17|cm|in}}.<ref name="Kapadia99">{{Cite book |last=Kapadia |first=H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lOzHDG7NfooC&dq=harish+kapadia+spiti&pg=PA9 |title=Spiti: Adventures in the Trans-Himalaya |date=1999 |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=978-81-7387-093-4 |language=en |access-date=2 September 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902090203/https://books.google.com/books?id=lOzHDG7NfooC&dq=harish+kapadia+spiti&pg=PA9 |url-status=live }}</ref>
The weather is mild from April to October. From May to June, the temperatures range between {{Cvt|15-20|C|F}}. During the winter, the temperature may drop to {{Cvt|-20|C|F}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=Spiti Valley: Weather |url=https://himachaltourism.gov.in/destination/spiti-valley/ |access-date=2 Sep 2022 |website=Himachal Tourism |publisher=Department of Tourism and Civil Aviation, Government of Himachal Pradesh |archive-date=4 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804230328/https://himachaltourism.gov.in/destination/spiti-valley/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Geology===
[[Spiti valley|Spiti]] is a high-altitude semi-desert. Over millennia, the [[Spiti River]] and its tributaries such as the Pin River, have cut deep gorges in the sedimentary strata uplifted during the formation of the [[Himalayas]]. With little rain or snow there is not much weathering of the steep valley sides. As vegetation is sparse, the rock strata in the steep cliffs are easily visible to the geologist, without excavation or drilling. These favourable conditions for observation attracted geologists to the Pin Valley starting with [[Ferdinand Stoliczka|Stoliczka]] in the 1860s. In the mountain sides near Mud, Stoliczka identified a number of layers or successions, one of which he named as the ''Muth succession''.<ref name=":3" /> This was later renamed as the ''Muth System'' by Hayden (1908) and as the ''Muth Formation'' by Srikantia (1981).<ref name=":4" /> Other formations, visible near Mud, that occur above and below the Muth Formation are given in the table.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible floatleft"
|+[[Geological formation|Stratigraphic Formations]] in the [[Western Himalayas]]
!Formation
![[Geologic time scale|Geologic Era]] ([[Myr|mya]])
!Dated Fossils
([[Myr|mya]])
|-
|Kuling
|[[Permian]] (299–252)
|
|-
|Lipak
|[[Late Devonian]] (387–359)
|387.7–382.7<ref name=":2" />
|-
|'''Muth'''
|'''[[Early Devonian]] (419–393)'''
|
|-
|Pin
|[[Late Ordovician]] – [[Late Silurian]]
|433–423<ref name=":2" />
|-
|Thango
|[[Ordovician|Early – Late Ordovician]]
|
|-
|Haimanta
|[[Late Proterozoic]] – [[Middle Cambrian]]
|
|}

The Muth Formation is readily observed in the Farakah Section, north-west of Mud village.<ref name=":4" /> It is also very well exposed in [[Zanskar]], [[Lahaul and Spiti district|Lahaul]], [[Lahaul and Spiti district|Spiti]], [[Kinnaur district|Kinnaur]], [[Garhwal division|Garhwal]] and in the [[Nepal|Nepal Himalayas]]. It consists mostly of hard, white or slightly greenish [[quartz arenite]] {{cvt|258|to|300|m|ft}} thick, with an {{cvt|11|to|15|m|ft}} thick layer of [[Dolomite (rock)|dolomite]] near the top. The white colour and resistance to weathering make it easy to observe.<ref name=":2" />

It exhibits [[Current-bedding|current bedding]], [[ripple marks]] and burrows. These indicate that it originated from coastal sediments deposited in a wave-dominated [[barrier island]] system in the [[Tethys Sea]]. The sedimentary rock was transformed by [[Metamorphic rock|metamorphosis]] into quartz during the [[Tectonics|tectonic]] collision.<ref name=":5" />

The quartz arenite rock strata were formed under high temperatures and/or pressures. Hence, body fossils did not survive. Only [[Trace fossil|inchnofossils]] (i.e. fossil traces such as burrows and tracks), are found. The neighbouring formations, Pin (lower, i.e. older) and Lipak (upper, i.e. younger), have body fossils that are accurately dated. The trace fossils in the Mudh Formation and the dates of the neighbouring formations have been used to approximately date the Mudh Formation to the [[Early Devonian]] (419 – 393 mya).<ref name=":2" />

==Demographics and amenities==
[[File:Yellow-billed chough Pin Valley Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7201.jpg|right|thumb|Yellow-billed chough near Mud]]

The population as of the 2011 Census was 213 (females: 113 (53%), males: 100 (47%)), with 45 households.<ref name="CensusLnSA"/><ref name="CensusLnSB">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=District Census Handbook: Lahul & Spiti, Himachal -- Village and Town Wise Primary Census Abstract (PCA) |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Himachal Pradesh, Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt of India |year=2011 |isbn= |series=3 Part XII B |location= }}</ref>{{rp|page=98}} The literacy rate among females is 54% and among males is 81%. The majority of the population are Scheduled Tribes comprising 96.2%, while Scheduled Castes comprise 1.88%.<ref name="CensusLnSB" />{{Rp|page=99}} The language spoken in Spiti is [[Spiti Bhoti|Bhoti]].<ref name="CensusLnSA" />{{rp|page=62}}

Mud is a village in the Sagnam [[Gram panchayat|Gram Panchayat]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=List of PRIs |url=https://hppanchayat.nic.in/PDF/Names%20of%20Gram%20Panchyats%203226%20Final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031102635/https://hppanchayat.nic.in/PDF/Names%20of%20Gram%20Panchyats%203226%20Final.pdf |archive-date=31 October 2020 |access-date=25 Jan 2021 |website=Panchayati Raj Department, HP Govt }}</ref> A government primary and middle school caters to children of the village.<ref name="CensusLnSA" />{{rp|page=252}} The village has a branch post office. The nearest full-service sub post office including international speed post is located at Sagnam, a distance of {{cvt|14|km|mi}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Himachal Pradesh |first=Lahul and Spiti |title=Locate Post Office |url=https://www.indiapost.gov.in/vas/pages/LocatePostOffices.aspx |url-status=live |access-date=4 Jul 2021 |website=[[India Post]] |archive-date=1 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210701053308/https://www.indiapost.gov.in/vas/pages/locatepostoffices.aspx }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sagnam-Mud Route |url=https://www.openstreetmap.org/directions?engine=fossgis_osrm_car&route=32.0316%2C78.0575%3B31.9590%2C78.0324#map=13/31.9996/78.0472&layers=C |url-status=live |access-date=4 Jul 2021 |website=[[OpenStreetMap]] |archive-date=10 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710012613/https://www.openstreetmap.org/directions?engine=fossgis_osrm_car&route=32.0316,78.0575%3B31.9590,78.0324#map=13/31.9996/78.0472&layers=C }}</ref>

==Places of interest==
[[File:Map Mudh Pin Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7077.jpg|thumb|right|Trekking routes from Mud]]

Mud is a convenient base for visiting the [[Pin Valley National Park]]. Trails from Mud head north and west to the National Park, west to [[Kullu district]] via the [[Pin Parbati Pass]], and south to [[Kinnaur district]] via the [[Bhaba pass|Pin Bhaba Pass]].

The Pin Valley is a cold desert with alpine pasture or dry alpine scrub forest. Located at a high altitude with the upper reaches being largely unexplored, the area is home to several endangered species including the [[snow leopard]]. About 20 species of birds and animals are found in the [[National park|National Park]], some of which may be seen in the Pin valley near Mud. These include [[Ibex]], [[Spiti Horse|Chhumurthi horse]], [[Bharal]], [[Red fox]], [[Marten]], [[Weasel]], [[Pika]], [[Snowcock|Snow Cock]], [[Bearded vulture]], [[Chukar partridge|Chukor]], [[Golden eagle|Golden Eagle]], [[Griffon vulture|Griffon]], [[Alpine chough|Yellow-billed Chough]], Raven etc.<ref name=":0" />

Mud has two Buddhist nunneries, meditation caves and shelters. These belong to the [[Nyingma]]pa school, the oldest of the four major schools of [[Tibetan Buddhism]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Buddhist Trail in Himachal: A Travel Guide |publisher=Good Earth Publications |year=2006 |isbn=9788187780335|editor-last=Mitra|editor-first=Swati}}</ref> These are located on the Killung Nala, a small stream that meets the Pin River at Mud.<ref name=":1" />

Mud is the last village on the trekking trails to the [[Kullu district|Kullu valley]] and to [[Kinnaur district]]. Both routes start along the left bank of the Pin River. After about {{cvt|12|km|mi}} the trail reaches Chhochhden Camp at the confluence of 3 nallahs. The ruins of Lyungti Khar, a fort built by the Kullu Rajas, is nearby. One trail heads west towards the [[Pin Parbati Pass]] (elev. {{cvt|5,319|m|ft}} and down the Parbati valley to [[Manikaran]] and [[Kullu]]. This trek usually takes 5 to 7 days.<ref name=":1" />

The other trail continues south from Chhochhden Camp to the [[Bhaba pass|Pin Bhaba Pass]] (elev. {{cvt|4,890|m|ft}} and on to Kaphnu in Kinnaur, a total distance of {{cvt|50|km|mi}}. Kaphnu is {{cvt|18|km|mi}} from [[National Highway 5 (India)|NH 5]] which runs along the Satluj River to [[Shimla]]. This trek takes 4 to 5 days for the {{cvt|50|km|mi}} distance. Harish Kapadia reported that local people traveling to Shimla for business or studies would prefer the short trek over the Pir Bhaba Pass to the uncertain {{cvt|254|km|mi}} road journey via Tabo.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mud, Spiti - Wangtu, Kinnaur route |url=https://www.openstreetmap.org/directions?engine=fossgis_osrm_car&route=31.9590%2C78.0324%3B31.5482%2C78.0052#map=10/31.8105/78.3229&layers=C |url-status=live |access-date=6 Jul 2021 |website=[[OpenStreetMap]] |archive-date=10 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710014306/https://www.openstreetmap.org/directions?engine=fossgis_osrm_car&route=31.9590,78.0324%3B31.5482,78.0052#map=10/31.8105/78.3229&layers=C }}</ref>

==Transport==
During the summer, public buses and private vans ply regularly from [[Kaza]] to Mikkim and Mud in the Pin valley. During the winter, buses do not ply to the Pin valley. Then, the approach to Mud is via private vehicle and foot from Attargo bridge off [[National Highway 505 (India)|NH-505]], a distance of {{cvt|33|km|mi}}.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=District Lahaul and Spiti |first=Tourism |title=Pin Valley National Park |url=https://hplahaulspiti.nic.in/pin-valley-national-park/ |url-status=live |access-date=4 Jul 2021 |website=[[Lahaul and Spiti district]] |archive-date=30 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430092236/https://hplahaulspiti.nic.in/pin-valley-national-park/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NH-505 Attargo bridge-Mud Route |url=https://www.openstreetmap.org/directions?engine=fossgis_osrm_car&route=32.1243%2C78.1626%3B31.9590%2C78.0324#map=12/32.0456/78.0967&layers=C |url-status=live |access-date=4 Jul 2021 |website=[[OpenStreetMap]] |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183545/https://www.openstreetmap.org/directions?engine=fossgis_osrm_car&route=32.1243,78.1626%3B31.9590,78.0324#map=12/32.0456/78.0967&layers=C }}</ref>

In early 2022, the [[Government of Himachal Pradesh]] approved construction of a new road connecting the [[Satluj Valley]], [[Kinnaur District]] to the [[Spiti Valley]] via Mud. The new {{cvt|72|km|mi}} road will run from Kafnu ([[National Highway 5 (India)|NH-5]]) in Kinnaur to Mud, connecting to [[National Highway 505 (India)|NH-505]] near Atargu Bridge on the [[Spiti river]]. The new bypass will reduce the {{cvt|460|km|mi}} distance from [[Shimla]] to [[Kaza]] by {{cvt|105|km|mi}}. This will open up the [[Pin Valley National Park]], Mud and the [[Spiti Valley]] to tourism.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Manta |first=Dipender |date=8 Feb 2022 |title=Bypass to cut Shimla-Kaza distance by 105 km |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)]] |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/himachal/bypass-to-cut-shimla-kaza-distance-by-105-km-367677 |access-date=12 Feb 2022 |archive-date=12 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212050926/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/himachal/bypass-to-cut-shimla-kaza-distance-by-105-km-367677 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Accommodation==
There are a few home stays in Mud, the oldest being Tara House Home Stay.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tara House Home Stay |url=https://www.tripadvisor.in/Hotel_Review-g3783101-d2481742-Reviews-Tara_House_Home_Stay-Lahaul_and_Spiti_District_Himachal_Pradesh.html |url-status=live |access-date=4 Jul 2021 |website=Tripadvisor.in |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184324/https://www.tripadvisor.in/Hotel_Review-g3783101-d2481742-Reviews-Tara_House_Home_Stay-Lahaul_and_Spiti_District_Himachal_Pradesh.html }}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="180">
File:Road Mudh Pin Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7071.jpg|Road from Kaza entering Mud Village
File:Nyingma Monastery Mudh Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7065.jpg|Nyingma Monastery, Mud Village, Spiti, Himachal Pradesh
File:Pin Valley Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7092.jpg|View Down the Pin Valley to Mud Village
File:Right Bank Pin Mudh Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7114.jpg|Right bank of Pin River looking towards Mud Village
File:Hikers Pin To Mudh Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7183.jpg|Hikers approach Mud Village on Left Bank of Pin River
File:Horses in a field in Mudh, Himachal Pradesh, India.jpg|Chhumurthi Horses in a field in Mud Village
File:Yellow Wildflowers Pin Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7097.jpg|Yellow Wildflowers, Sparse Alpine Vegetation, Pin Valley, Spiti, Himachal Pradesh, June 2018
File:White Wildflowers Pin Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7109.jpg|White Wildflowers, Sparse Alpine Vegetation, Pin Valley, Spiti, Himachal Pradesh, June 2018
File:Brandts Mtn Finch Pin Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7179.jpg|Brandt's Mountain Finch, Pin Valley, Spiti, Himachal Pradesh, June 2018
File:Pea Plants Mudh Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7222.jpg|Field of Pea Plants in Mud Village, Spiti, Himachal Pradesh, June 2018
File:Map Passes Trails Kullu Spiti Himachal Jun18 D72 7078.jpg|Map Passes Trails from Mud Village, Spiti to Kullu via the Pin Parbati Pass
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Bhaba pass|Pin Bhaba Pass]]
* [[Pin Parbati Pass]]
* [[Pin Valley National Park]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://hplahaulspiti.nic.in/ Lahaul and Spiti District website]
* {{Commons category inline|Mud village, Spiti}}

[[Category:Villages in Lahaul and Spiti district]]

Rajeshwari Chatterjee

2026-02-21T07:53:11Z

QuyenStobie2: done

{{Short description|Indian scientist (1922–2010)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rajeshwari Chatterjee
| image = Rajeshwari_Chatterjee_image.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1922|1|24}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2010|9|3|1922|1|22|df=y}}
| death_place =
| other_names =
| alma_mater = {{ubl|[[University of Michigan]]|[[Indian Institute of Science]]|[[Mysore University]]}}
| occupation = Professor, scientist
| known_for =
}}
'''Rajeshwari Chatterjee''' (24 January 1922 – 3 September 2010)<ref name=Jayaram>{{cite news|title=The nuts and bolts of a superachiever|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/04/18/stories/2002041800540200.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030701073631/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/04/18/stories/2002041800540200.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 July 2003|access-date=15 March 2014|date=18 April 2002|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|author=A. Jayaram}}</ref><ref name="On her own terms">{{cite news|author=D.P. Sen Gupta|date=1 October 2010|title=On her own terms|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/on-her-own-terms/article805338.ece|access-date=15 March 2014|newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref> was an Indian scientist and an academic. She was the first woman engineer from [[Karnataka]] and described herself as an engineering-scientist.<ref name=Jayaram /> During her tenure at the [[Indian Institute of Science]] (IISc), [[Bangalore]], Chatterjee was a professor and later chairperson of the department of Electrical Communication Engineering.<ref name="On her own terms"/>

== Early life and education ==
Rajeshwari Chatterjee was born on 24 January 1922 in Karnataka. She had her primary education in a "special English school" founded by her grandmother, Kamalamma Dasappa, one of the first women graduates from Mysore and who was very active in the field of education, especially for widows and deserted wives.<ref name="auto1" /> After her school finals, Chatterjee was tempted to take up History but eventually chose physics and mathematics. She studied in [[Central College of Bangalore]] and earned B.Sc. (Hons) and M.Sc. degrees in mathematics.<ref name=Jayaram /> In both these exams she ranked first in [[Mysore University]]. She received the [[Krishnaraja Wodeyar III|Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar]] Award, the M.T. Narayana Iyengar Prize and the Walters Memorial Prize respectively for her performances in the B.Sc. and M.Sc. examinations.<ref name="thebetterindia.com">{{Cite web|date=2017-07-27|title=All You Need to Know About Late Rajeshwari Chatterjee, One of India's First Women Engineers|url=https://www.thebetterindia.com/109876/things-to-know-rajeshwari-chatterjee-first-woman-achiever-posthumous-award/|access-date=2020-06-20|website=The Better India|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 1943, after her M.Sc., Chatterjee joined the [[Indian Institute of Science]] (IISc), Bangalore as a Research Student in the then Electrical Technology Department in the area of Communication.<ref name="hackers">{{Cite web|last1=hackers|last2=artists|last3=designers|last4=engineers!|title=Remembering Rajeswari Chatterjee, IISc's First Woman Engineer – Connect with IISc|url=https://connect.iisc.ac.in/2017/05/rememberinm-rajeswari-chatterjee-iiscs-first-woman-engineer/|access-date=2020-06-20|language=en-GB}}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

She approached physicist [[C. V. Raman|C.V. Raman]] to work under him. Some sources say that Raman refused to take her, stating that Rajeshwari had no degrees in physics,<ref name="auto">{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/On-her-own-terms/article15764097.ece|title=On her own terms|last1=Gupta|first1=D. p Sen|date=2010-10-01|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-01-20|last2=Gupta|first2=D. p Sen|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> while others say that he was averse to the idea of having women students.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://connect.iisc.ac.in/2017/05/remembering-rajeswari-chatterjee-iiscs-first-woman-engineer/|title=Remembering Rajeswari Chatterjee, IISc's First Woman Engineer – Connect with IISc|website=connect.iisc.ac.in|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-01-20}}</ref>

After the Second World War, an interim government was set up in India to transfer power from the British to Indians, which offered scholarships to bright young scientists to study abroad. Chatterjee applied for a scholarship in the field of electronics and its applications, and in 1946, she was selected as a "bright student" by the Government of Delhi and given a scholarship to go abroad to pursue higher studies. Chatterjee chose to study in [[University of Michigan]], [[Ann Arbor, Michigan|Ann Arbor]] in the United States.<ref name="auto1" /> In the 1950s, it was very difficult for Indian women to go abroad to pursue higher education. But Chatterjee was determined to do so. In July 1947, one month before [[Independence Day (India)|India's independence]], she started her journey to the USA on a converted troop ship [[USNS Marine Adder|SS Marine Adder]] and reached there after 30 days.<ref name="auto"/>

In the US, she was admitted to the [[University of Michigan]] and obtained her master's degree from the Department of Electrical Engineering. Then following the guidelines of the contract she had with the Government of India, she underwent an eight months' practical training in the Division of Radio Frequency Measurements at the [[National Bureau of Standards]] in Washington, D.C. After the completion of the training she went back to the University of Michigan in 1949 on a Barbour scholarship and resumed her studies.<ref name="auto1" /> In early 1953, she obtained her Ph.D. degree under the guidance of Professor [[William Gould Dow]] and successfully completed her dissertation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rajeswari Chatterjee {{!}} ECE Bicentennial Alumni Awards|url=http://ece.umich.edu/alumni/awards/bicentennial/chatterjee.html|access-date=2020-06-20|website=ece.umich.edu|archive-date=22 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622113909/http://ece.umich.edu/alumni/awards/bicentennial/chatterjee.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Career in India ==
[[File:Statue of Rajeshwari Chatterjee.jpg|thumb|Statue of Rajeshwari Chatterjee, Birla Industrial & Technological Museum, Kolkata, West Bengal, India]]
In 1953, after obtaining her PhD degree, she returned to India and became a faculty member at the [[Indian Institute of Science|IISc]] Department of Electrical Communication Engineering, later saying that she taught "[[electromagnetic theory]], [[Vacuum tube|electron tube]] circuits, microwave technology, and radio engineering".<ref name=auto1/> That same year, she married [[Sisir Kumar Chatterjee]], who was a faculty member of the same college.<ref name=auto1/> After their marriage, she and her husband built a microwave research laboratory and began research in the field of [[Microwave Engineering]], the first such research in India.<ref name="thebetterindia.com"/>

In the same period, Chatterjee was selected for the position of chairman in the Department of Electrical Communication Engineering. Over her lifetime, she mentored 20 PhD students, wrote over 100 research papers, and authored seven books.<ref name=Jayaram/> She taught classes in electromagnetic theory, electron tube circuits, microwave technology and radio engineering.<ref name="medium.com">{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/sci-illustrate-stories/dr-rajeshwari-chatterjee-c2f701bc8b5e|title="Rajeshwari Chatterjee"|last=Chaudhary|first=R|date=7 July 2019 }}</ref>

Following her retirement from the IISc in 1982,<ref name=Jayaram/> she worked on social programs, including the Indian Association for Women's Studies.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ias.ac.in/public/Resources/Initiatives/Women_in_Science/Contributors/rajeshwarichatt.pdf|title=Lucky to be where I am, Rajeshwari Chatterjee|last=Shashikala|first=K}}</ref> She also preferred to call herself an "engineering-scientist", as she did not work in industry like most engineers.<ref name="medium.com"/>

== Publications ==
* ''Elements of Microwave Engineering''
* ''Antenna Theory And Practice''
* ''A Thousand Streams: A Personal History''
* ''Dielectric And Dielectric Loaded Antennas''
* ''Advanced Microwave Engineering: Special Advanced Topics''
* ''Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam: The Whole World Is But One Family: Real Stories of Some Women and Men of India''
* ''Antennas for Information Super Skyways: An Exposition on Outdoor and Indoor Wireless Antenna'', co-authored by Perambur S. Neelakanta<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/453527.Rajeswari_Chatterjee|title=Rajeswari Chatterjee|website=www.goodreads.com|access-date=2018-01-20}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Rajeshwari's father, B.M. Shivaramajah, was an advocate in [[Nanjangud]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/04/18/stories/2002041800540200.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020820113227/http://thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/04/18/stories/2002041800540200.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2002-08-20|website=[[The Hindu]]|title=The nuts and bolts of a superachiever|date=2002-04-18|access-date=2018-01-20}}</ref> Her grandmother, Kamalamma Dasappa, was one of the first women graduates in the erstwhile state of Mysore.<ref name="auto1"/> Rajeswari married Sisir Kumar Chatterjee, a faculty of IISc in 1953. The couple had a daughter Indira Chatterjee, who is now a professor of electrical and biomedical engineering at the [[University of Nevada, Reno|University of Nevada]], Reno, U.S.<ref name="hackers"/>

== Awards ==
For her contribution and works in the field of Microwave engineering, she won many awards. Some of the notable awards and honours are—<ref name="auto1" />
* Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar Award for first rank in the BSc (Hons)
* M T Narayana Iyengar prize and the Waters Memorial prize for the first rank in M.Sc.
* Mountbatten prize for the best paper from the Institute of Electrical and Radio Engineering (UK)
* J.C Bose Memorial prize for the best research paper from the Institution of Engineers
* Ramlal Wadhwa Award for the best research and teaching work from the Institute of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers.
Chatterjee received a posthumous award in 2017 from the Indian [[Ministry of Women and Child Development]], when she was named as one of "the first women achievers of India" for her work in microwave engineering and antennae engineering.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Staff Reporter |date=2017-07-26 |title=Posthumous honour for pioneer researcher Rajeshwari Chatterjee |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/posthumous-honour-for-pioneer-researcher-rajeshwari-chatterjee/article19364956.ece |access-date=2024-08-25 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chatterjee, Rajeshwari}}
[[Category:1922 births]]
[[Category:2010 deaths]]
[[Category:Articles created or expanded during Women's History Month (India) - 2014]]
[[Category:Indian women academics]]
[[Category:Bengali physicists]]
[[Category:University of Mysore alumni]]
[[Category:University of Michigan College of Engineering alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women scientists]]
[[Category:Engineers from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Indian Institute of Science alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women physicists]]
[[Category:Women scientists from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Women educators from Karnataka]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women engineers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian engineers]]
[[Category:Indian expatriate academics in the United States]]

Rishabh Sinha

2026-02-10T03:04:17Z

QuyenStobie2: minor cleanup

{{Short description|Indian actor}}
{{BLP sources|date=September 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rishabh Sinha
| image = Rishabh sinha big boss.jpg
| image_size =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| occupation = Actor
| known_for = ''[[Bigg Boss (Hindi season 9)|Bigg Boss 9]]'' ''[[MTV Splitsvilla]]'' ''[[Qubool Hai]]''
}}

'''Rishabh Sinha''' is an Indian actor. He is known for playing the role of Ayaan Ahmed Khan in ''[[Qubool Hai]]'', participating in ''[[MTV Splitsvilla]]'' and ''[[Bigg Boss (Hindi season 9)|Bigg Boss 9]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Rishabh-out-of-Qubool-Hai/articleshow/19677122.cms|title=Rishabh out of Qubool Hai|website=[[The Times of India]] |date=23 April 2013 }}</ref> He also played a negative role in the movie [[Kaanchi: The Unbreakable]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/subhash-ghai-back-with-kaanchi/|title=Subhash Ghai back with 'Kaanchi'|date=7 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Rishabh-Sinha-First-runner-up-of-Bigg-Boss-9/photostory/50699279.cms | title=Rishabh Sinha: First runner-up of Bigg Boss 9 | work=[[The Times of India]] | date=23 January 2016 | accessdate=27 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/bigg-boss-9-wild-card-contestants-rishabh-sinha-digangana-suryavanshis-rivalry-increase-trp-652939|title='Bigg Boss 9': Wild card contestants Rishabh Sinha and Digangana Suryavanshi's rivalry to increase TRP ratings|date=2 November 2015|work=International Business Times, India Edition}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/bigg-boss-9-here-s-why-rishabh-sinha-is-the-perfect-wild-card/story-ZpsgVIVPxOQZkg8hxYXwzO.html|title=Bigg Boss 9: Here's why Rishabh Sinha is the perfect wild card|work=hindustantimes.com|date=2 November 2015}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" | Language
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Abbr|Refs|Reference(s)}}
|-
|2014
| ''[[Kaanchi: The Unbreakable]]''
|Sushant Kakra
|rowspan="2"|[[Hindi Cinema|Hindi]]
|
|-
|2020
|''[[Unlock (2020 film)|Unlock]]''
|Anubhav
|
|}

=== Television ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Abbr|Ref|Reference(s)}}
|-
|2012
|''[[MTV Splitsvilla|MTV Splitsvilla 5]]''
|Contestant
|(4th place)
|
|-
|2014
|''[[MTV Splitsvilla|MTV Splitsvilla 7]]''
|Contestant
|(10th place)
|
|-
|2012–13
|''[[Qubool Hai]]''
|Ayaan Ahmed Khan
|
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-sizzling-dostana-romantic-male-jodis-and-unusual-female-pairs-on-tv-in-2013-1943075|title=Sizzling Dostana: Romantic male jodis and unusual female pairs on TV in 2013|date=31 December 2013}}</ref>
|-
|2015–16
|''[[Bigg Boss (Hindi season 9)|Bigg Boss 9]]''
|Contestant
|(1st runner-up)
|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://movies.ndtv.com/television/bigg-boss-day-22-rishabh-sinha-drama-king-1239181|title=Bigg Boss Day 22: Rishabh Sinha, Drama King|work=NDTVMovies.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abplive.in/television/bigg-boss-nau-wild-card-entry-rishabh-sinha-hopes-to-win-with-killer-strategy-238105|title='Bigg Boss Nau' wild card entry Rishabh Sinha hopes to win with 'killer' strategy|work=ABP Live|date=November 2015|access-date=3 November 2015|archive-date=30 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130081319/http://www.abplive.in/television/bigg-boss-nau-wild-card-entry-rishabh-sinha-hopes-to-win-with-killer-strategy-238105|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama person|rishab-sinha}}
* {{IMDb name|id=5410410}}

{{Bigg Boss}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sinha, Rishabh}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1988 births]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]

{{India-screen-actor-stub}}

Jyothi Yarraji

2026-01-29T01:26:48Z

QuyenStobie2: created some article basic info

{{short description|Women Indian hurdler}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2025}}

{{Infobox sportsperson
| name = Jyothi Yarraji
| sport = [[Track and field]]
| event = [[100 metre hurdles|100 m hurdles]], [[60 metre hurdles|60 m hurdles]], [[200 metres|200 m]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1999|8|28}}
| birth_place = [[Visakhapatnam]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India
| alma_mater = [[Acharya Nagarjuna University]]
| height = 1.76 m
| pb = ''[[100 m hurdles]]'': 12.78 '''{{AthAbbr|NR|Indian}}''' ([[Athletics at the 2021 Summer World University Games|2021]])
| medaltemplates = {{MedalSport|Women's [[Sport of athletics|athletics]]}} [[File:Athletics pictogram.svg|30px]]
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Games]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2022 Asian Games|2022 Hangzhou]]|[[Athletics at the 2022 Asian Games – Women's 100 metres hurdles|100 m hurdles]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Athletics Championships|Asian Championships]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2023 Asian Athletics Championships|2023 Bangkok]]|[[2023 Asian Athletics Championships – Women's 100 metres hurdles|100 m hurdles]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2025 Asian Athletics Championships|2025 Gumi]]|[[2025 Asian Athletics Championships – Women's 100 metres hurdles|100 m hurdles]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2023 Asian Athletics Championships|2023 Bangkok]]|[[2023 Asian Athletics Championships – Women's 200 metres|200 m]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Indoor Athletics Championships|Asian Indoor Championships]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2024 Asian Indoor Athletics Championships|2024 Tehran]]|[[2024 Asian Indoor Athletics Championships|60 m hurdles]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2023 Asian Indoor Athletics Championships|2023 Astana]]|[[2023 Asian Indoor Athletics Championships|60 m hurdles]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[FISU World University Games|World University Games]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2021 Summer World University Games|2021 Chengdu]]|[[Athletics at the 2021 Summer World University Games – Women's 100 metres hurdles|100 m hurdles]]}}
}}

'''Jyothi Yarraji''' (born 28 August 1999) is an Indian [[track and field]] athlete who specializes in [[100 metres hurdles|100 m hurdles]]. She is the [[List of Indian records in athletics|national record]] holder in 100 m hurdles. Yarraji is a two-time Asian champion, having won gold medals in the 100m hurdles at the [[2023 Asian Athletics Championships – Women's 100 metres hurdles|2023]] and [[2025 Asian Athletics Championships – Women's 100 metres hurdles|2025]] editions of the [[Asian Athletics Championships|Asian Championships]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sportstar |first=Team |date=2025-05-29 |title=Asian Athletics Championships 2025: Jyothi Yarraji defends 100m hurdles gold, sets new competition record |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/athletics/jyothi-yarraji-wins-100m-hurdles-gold-asian-athletics-championships-2025-korea-timings-results/article69633745.ece |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=Sportstar |language=en}}</ref> She also won a silver medal in the 100m hurdles at the [[2022 Asian Games]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-10-01 |title=Asian Games: Jyothi wins silver in 100m hurdles after Chinese officials attempt to get her disqualified |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/sports/asian-games-jyothi-wins-silver-in-100m-hurdles-after-chinese-officials-attempt-to-get-her-disqualified/articleshow/104089960.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-05-30 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> She is the first Indian woman to compete in the [[Athletics at the 2024 Summer Olympics – Women's 100 metres hurdles|100 m hurdles]] at the Olympics, representing India at the [[2024 Summer Olympics|2024 Paris Olympics]].

== Early life ==
Jyothi was born in a middle class family on 28 August 1999 in [[Visakhapatnam]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Nag |first=Utathya |date=2023-10-15 |title=Jyothi Yarraji: India's rising star who overcame the hurdle of luck |url=https://olympics.com/en/news/who-is-jyothi-yarraji-india-100m-hurdles-women-record |access-date=2024-01-12 |website=www.olympics.com |archive-date=7 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807152815/https://olympics.com/en/news/who-is-jyothi-yarraji-india-100m-hurdles-women-record |url-status=live }}</ref> Her father Suryanarayana is a security guard and her mother works as a domestic help. She did her schooling at the Port High School in Visakhapatnam. She did her undergraduation from a college affiliated to [[Acharya Nagarjuna University]].<ref name=":0" />

Later, she joined the [[Sports Authority of India]] hostel in [[Hyderabad]] and trained for two years under coach Olympian N Ramesh, who also received the [[Dronacharya Award]].<ref name=":0" /> Later, she moved to [[Guntur]] to join the Centre of Excellence. From 2019 onwards, she has been training under British coach James Hillier at the Reliance Athletics High-Performance Centre in [[Bhubaneswar]].<ref name=":0" />

== Career ==
COVID-19 and her back injury saw that she took part in virtually no events in 2021, but she came back strongly in 2022. She represented India at the [[2022 Commonwealth Games]] in the [[Athletics at the 2022 Commonwealth Games – Women's 100 metres hurdles|100 m hurdles]] and was a part of the Indian [[Athletics at the 2022 Commonwealth Games – Women's 4 × 100 metres relay|4 x 100 m relay]] team that came fourth in the finals. At the 2022 edition of India's National Games, she won the Gold in both 100 metres and 100 metres hurdles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sarangi |first=Y. B. |date=2022-10-04 |title=National Games: Jyothi Yarraji, Ram Baboo hog limelight as athletics events conclude |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/athletics/national-games-jyothi-yarraji-ram-baboo-hog-limelight-athletics-events-conclude-athletics-results/article65970379.ece |access-date=2022-10-13 |website=sportstar.thehindu.com |language=en |archive-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013151059/https://sportstar.thehindu.com/athletics/national-games-jyothi-yarraji-ram-baboo-hog-limelight-athletics-events-conclude-athletics-results/article65970379.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> On 17 October 2022, she became the first Indian woman hurdler to clock below 13 seconds becoming the second best Asian in the 100 metres women's hurdles in the year and the 11th best Asian ever.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-17 |title=Yarraji creates new record, first Indian woman to run sub-13s hurdles |url=https://www.espn.in/athletics/story/_/id/34817069/jyothi-yarraji-creates-new-record-first-indian-woman-run-sub-13-seconds-hurdles |access-date=2022-10-18 |website=ESPN |language=en |archive-date=18 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018032330/https://www.espn.in/athletics/story/_/id/34817069/jyothi-yarraji-creates-new-record-first-indian-woman-run-sub-13-seconds-hurdles |url-status=live }}</ref> At the 2022 Indian Open Nationals, she was adjudged the best athlete among women.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Navneet |title=Tajinderpal Singh Toor and Jyothi Yarraji are the best athletes of the National Open Athletics Championships |url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/athletics/news-tajinderpal-singh-toor-jyothi-yarraji-best-athletes-national-open-athletics-championships |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=www.sportskeeda.com |date=19 October 2022 |language=en-us |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021045101/https://www.sportskeeda.com/athletics/news-tajinderpal-singh-toor-jyothi-yarraji-best-athletes-national-open-athletics-championships |url-status=live }}</ref>

Jyothi's career highlight came when she won the silver medal in the 100m hurdles in the [[2022 Asian Games]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Asian Games 2023: Disqualified Jyothi Yarraji wins silver in women's 100m hurdles after incredible drama |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/asian-games-2023/story/asian-games-2023-jyothi-yarraji-controversy-the-2443084-2023-10-01 |access-date=2024-01-12 |website=India Today |date=October 2023 |language=en |archive-date=12 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240112121535/https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/asian-games-2023/story/asian-games-2023-jyothi-yarraji-controversy-the-2443084-2023-10-01 |url-status=live }}</ref> Initially she was disqualified for a false start along with a Chinese athlete but was later allowed take the start. In the end after a review, Chinese athlete [[Wu Yanni]] was disqualified and the Indian promoted to silver medal.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-10-19 |title=Jyothi Yarraji on silver medal upgrade at Asian Games: This medal has taught me a lot |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/off-the-field/jyothi-yarraji-on-silver-medal-upgrade-at-asian-games-this-medal-has-taught-me-a-lot/articleshow/104551083.cms |access-date=2024-01-12 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=12 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240112121650/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/off-the-field/jyothi-yarraji-on-silver-medal-upgrade-at-asian-games-this-medal-has-taught-me-a-lot/articleshow/104551083.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> In early 2023, she broke the national record for indoor [[60 metres hurdles]] five times, apart from winning the Silver in the [[2023 Asian Indoor Athletics Championships|2023 Asian Indoor Championships]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-15 |title=No hurdle too high for Jyothi Yarraji |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/sports/others/no-hurdle-too-high-for-jyothi-yarraji-101676475340813.html |access-date=2023-05-03 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en |archive-date=3 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503102911/https://www.hindustantimes.com/sports/others/no-hurdle-too-high-for-jyothi-yarraji-101676475340813.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In June 2025 she was in Taipei where she won one of six gold medals taken by Indian athletes at the Taiwan open.<ref>{{Cite web |last=indiatribune |date=2025-06-08 |title=Athletics: Jyothi Yarraji wins in 12.99s as India claims six gold in Taiwan Open |url=https://www.indiatribune.com/athletics-jyothi-yarraji-wins-in-1299s-as-india-claims-six-gold-in-taiwan-open |access-date=2025-06-11 |website=India Tribune - Chicago - |language=en}}</ref> In July 2025, Yarraji suffered a knee injury during training and underwent ACL surgery, ruling her out of the [[2025 World Athletics Championships|2025 World Championships]] and the remainder of the season.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2025-07-14 |title=Asian Champion Jyothi Yarraji undergoes ACL surgery, out of World Championships |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/athletics/story/asian-champion-jyothi-yarraji-undergoes-acl-surgery-out-of-world-championships-2755599-2025-07-14 |access-date=2025-08-12 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{sports links}}

{{Footer Asian Champions women's 100 metres hurdles}}
{{Footer Asian Indoor Champions women's 60 metres hurdles}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yarraji, Jyothi}}
[[Category:1999 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian women hurdlers]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Visakhapatnam]]
[[Category:Athletes from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2024 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Olympic athletes for India]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2022 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Asian Games silver medalists for India]]
[[Category:Asian Games athletes for India]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2022 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2022 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games athletes for India]]
[[Category:FISU World University Games bronze medalists for India]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2021 Summer Universiade]]
[[Category:Universiade bronze medalists in athletics (track and field)]]
[[Category:World Athletics Championships athletes for India]]
[[Category:Asian Athletics Championships winners]]
[[Category:Asian Athletics Championships medalists]]
[[Category:Asian Indoor Athletics Championships winners]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Arjuna Award]]
[[Category:Asian Games silver medalists in athletics (track and field)]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportswomen]]

Portuguese maritime exploration

2026-01-28T00:42:14Z

QuyenStobie2: done

{{Short description|none}}
[[File:1502 Cantino.jpg|thumb|420px|right|The [[Cantino planisphere]], made by an anonymous cartographer in 1502, shows the world as it was understood by Europeans after their great explorations at the end of the fifteenth century.]]

'''Portuguese maritime explorations''' resulted in numerous territories and maritime routes recorded by the Portuguese on journeys during the 15th and 16th centuries. Portuguese sailors were at the vanguard of European exploration, chronicling and mapping the coasts of Africa and Asia, then known as the [[East Indies]], Canada and Brazil (the [[West Indies]]), in what became known as the [[Age of Discovery]].

Methodical expeditions started in 1419 along the coast of West Africa under the sponsorship of prince [[Henry the Navigator]], whence [[Bartolomeu Dias]] reached the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and entered the Indian Ocean in 1488. Ten years later, in 1498, [[Vasco da Gama]] led the first fleet around Africa to the [[Indian subcontinent]], arriving in [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] and starting a maritime route from Portugal to India. Portuguese explorations then proceeded to southeast Asia, where they reached Japan in 1542, forty-four years after their first arrival in India.<ref name="O'Brien2002">{{cite book|author=Patrick Karl O'Brien|title=Atlas of World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA118|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-521921-0|page=118}}</ref> In 1500, the Portuguese nobleman [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] became the first European [[Discovery of Brazil|to discover Brazil]].<ref name="PageSonnenburg2003">{{cite book|author1=Melvin Eugene Page|author2=Penny M. Sonnenburg|title=Colonialism: an International, Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia. N-Z. Vol. 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qFTHBoRvQbsC&pg=PA92|year=2003|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-335-3|page=92}}</ref>

==History==

===Origins===

In 1297, King [[Dinis of Portugal]] took personal interest in the development of exports and organized that of surplus foreign production to European countries. On May 10, 1293, he instituted a maritime insurance fund for Portuguese traders living in the [[County of Flanders]], which were to pay certain sums according to tonnage, accrued to them when necessary. Wine and dried fruits from [[Algarve]] were sold in Flanders and England, salt from [[Setúbal]] and [[Aveiro, Portugal|Aveiro]] was a profitable export to northern Europe, and leather and [[kermes (dye)|kermes]], a scarlet dye, were also exported. Portugal imported armor and munitions, fine clothes, and several manufactured products from Flanders and Italy.<ref>A. R. de Oliveira Marques, Vitor Andre, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aq08DHChiGwC&pg=PP1 "Daily Life in Portugal in the Late Middle Ages"], p.9, Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1971, {{ISBN|0-299-05584-1}}</ref>

In 1317, King Dinis made an agreement with [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] merchant sailor [[Manuel Pessanha]] (Pessagno), appointing him first [[Admiral]] with trade privileges with his homeland in return for twenty warships and crews, with the goal of defending the country against Muslim pirate raids, thus laying the basis for the [[Portuguese Navy]] and establishment of a Genoese merchant community in Portugal.<ref>Diffie, Bailey (1977), [https://books.google.com/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580], p. 210, University of Minnesota Press. {{ISBN|0-8166-0782-6}}</ref> Forced to reduce their activities in the Black Sea, the [[Republic of Genoa]] had turned to North Africa for trade in wheat and olive oil and a search for gold – navigating also into the ports of [[Bruges]] (Flanders) and England. Genoese and Florentine communities were established in Portugal, which profited from the enterprise and financial experience of these rivals of the [[Republic of Venice]].{{cn|date=October 2022}}

In the second half of the fourteenth century outbreaks of [[bubonic plague]] led to severe depopulation: the economy was extremely localized in a few towns, and migration from the country led to the abandonment of agricultural land and an increase in rural unemployment. Only the sea offered opportunities, with most people settling in fishing and trading areas along the coast.<ref>M. D. D. Newitt, [https://books.google.com/books?id=vpteLQcx6J4C&pg=PP1 "A history of Portuguese overseas expansion, 1400–1668"], p.9, Routledge, 2005, {{ISBN|0-415-23979-6}}</ref> Between 1325 and 1357 [[Afonso IV of Portugal]] granted public funding to raise a proper [[trade|commercial]] fleet and ordered the first maritime explorations, with the help of [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]], under command of admiral Manuel Pessanha. In 1341 the [[Canary Islands]], already known to Genoese seafarers, were officially rediscovered under the patronage of the Portuguese king, but in 1344 Castile disputed ownership of them, further propelling the Portuguese naval efforts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Butel |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GL83BE8oVcwC&pg=PP1 |title=The Atlantic |date=2002-03-11 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-01044-0 |language=en}}</ref> The first victims of slave raids by Portuguese and Spanish were the [[Guanches]] of the Canary Islands, a people of Berber origin, who put up fierce resistance but were reduced to near extinction by pillaging and enslavement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thornton |first=John |title=Africa and Africans in the making of the Atlantic world, 1400-1800 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |pages=28–29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide : Genocide in the Ancient, Medieval and Premodern Worlds |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2023 |volume=I |pages=594–595}}</ref>

===Atlantic exploration (1418–1488)===
[[File:Henry the Navigator1.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Prince [[Henry the Navigator]], generally credited as the driving force behind Portuguese maritime exploration.]]

In 1415, the Portuguese occupied the North African city of [[Ceuta]] to gain a foothold in Morocco and control shipping through the Strait of Gibraltar. They also hoped to extend [[Christianity]] and provide an outlet for Portuguese nobles looking to gain riches and honor in war. Among the participants of the action was the young Prince [[Henry the Navigator]]. Appointed governor of the [[Order of Christ (Portugal)|Order of Christ]] in 1420, while personally holding profitable monopolies on resources in Algarve, he took the lead role in encouraging Portuguese maritime exploration until his death in 1460.<ref>[[#refDiffie|Diffie]], p. 56</ref> He invested in sponsoring voyages down the coast of [[Mauritania]], gathering a group of merchants, shipowners, and other stakeholders interested in new opportunities for maritime trade. Later his brother Prince [[Infante Peter, Duke of Coimbra|Pedro]] granted him a [[royal monopoly]] of all profits from trading within the areas discovered.

In 1418, two of Henry's captains, [[João Gonçalves Zarco]] and [[Tristão Vaz Teixeira]] were driven by a storm to [[Porto Santo Island|Porto Santo]] an uninhabited island off the coast of Africa which may have been known to Europeans since the 14th century. In 1419 Zarco and Teixeira made a landfall on [[Madeira]]. They returned with [[Bartolomeu Perestrelo]], and Portuguese settlement of the islands began. There, wheat and later sugarcane were cultivated, as in Algarve, by the Genoese, becoming profitable activities. This helped both them and Prince Henry become wealthier.

A Portuguese attempt to capture [[Grand Canary]], one of the nearby [[Canary Islands]], which had been partially settled by Spaniards in 1402 was unsuccessful and met with protestations from Castile.<ref>[[#refDiffie|Diffie]], p. 57–58</ref> Although the exact details are uncertain, [[cartography|cartographic]] evidence suggests the [[Azores]] were probably discovered in 1427 by Portuguese ships sailing under Henry's direction, and settled in 1432, suggesting that the Portuguese were able to navigate at least {{convert|745|mi|km|-1}} from the Portuguese coast.<ref>[[#refDiffie|Diffie]], p. 60</ref>

At around the same time as the unsuccessful attack on the Canary Islands, the Portuguese began to explore the North African coast. Sailors feared what lay beyond [[Cape Bojador]] at the time, as Europeans did not know what lay beyond on the African coast, and did not know whether it was possible to return once it was passed. Henry wished to know how far the Muslim territories in Africa extended, and whether it was possible to reach the source of the lucrative tran-Saharan caravan gold trade and perhaps to join forces with the long-lost Christian kingdom of [[Prester John]] that was rumoured to exist somewhere to the east.<ref name="ReferenceB">Rafiuddin Shirazi, Tazkiratul Mulk.</ref><ref>[[#refAnderson|Anderson]], p. 50</ref>

In 1434, one of Prince Henry's captains, [[Gil Eanes]], passed this obstacle. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to probe further along the coast.<ref>[[#refDiffie|Diffie]], p. 68</ref> Within two decades of exploration, Portuguese ships had bypassed the [[Sahara]]. Westward exploration continued over the same period: [[Diogo de Silves]] discovered the Azores island of [[Santa Maria Island|Santa Maria]] in 1427 and in the following years Portuguese mariners discovered and settled the rest of the Azores.
[[File:Caravel Boa Esperanca Portugal.jpg|thumb|right|The [[caravel]] was an existing ship type that was prominent in Portuguese exploration from about 1440<ref name="Elbl 1994">{{cite book |last1=Elbl|first1=Martin |editor1-last=Gardiner |editor1-first=Robert |editor2-last=Unger |editor2-first=Richard W |title=Cogs, Caravels and Galleons : the sailing ship, 1000–1650 |date=1994 |publisher=Conway Maritime Press |location=London |isbn=0851775608 |chapter=The Caravel and the Galleon}}</ref>]]
Henry suffered a serious setback in 1437 after [[Battle of Tangier (1437)|the failure of an expedition to capture Tangier]], having encouraged his brother, King [[Edward of Portugal|Edward]], to mount an overland attack from Ceuta. The Portuguese army was defeated and only escaped destruction by surrendering [[Ferdinand the Holy Prince|Prince Ferdinand, the king's youngest brother]].<ref>[[#refAnderson|Anderson]], p. 44</ref> After the defeat at Tangier, Henry retired to [[Sagres (Vila do Bispo)|Sagres]] on the southern tip of Portugal where he continued to direct Portuguese exploration until his death in 1460.

In 1443, [[Prince Pedro, Duke of Coimbra|Prince Pedro]], Henry's brother, granted him the monopoly of navigation, war, and trade in the lands south of [[Cape Bojador]]. Later this monopoly would be backed by the [[Papal bull]]s ''[[Dum Diversas]]'' (1452) and ''[[Romanus Pontifex]]'' (1455), granting Portugal a trade monopoly for the newly discovered countries.<ref name="Daus">{{cite book |last=Daus |first=Ronald |title=Die Erfindung des Kolonialismus |publisher=Peter Hammer Verlag |year=1983|location=Wuppertal/Germany|pages=33 |isbn=3-87294-202-6}}</ref>

The [[caravel]], an existing ship type, was used in exploration from about 1440. It had a number of advantageous characteristics. These included shallow draft, which was suitable for approaching unknown coasts, and an efficient combination of hull shape (including a rudder attached to the sternpost, unlike some other contemporary types with side-mounted steering oars) and [[lateen]] rig, which gave a fast-sailing vessel which had better [[Windward and leeward|windward]] sailing ability than other vessels of the time.{{r|Elbl 1994}}

Portuguese navigators reached ever more southerly [[latitude]]s, advancing at an average rate of one degree a year.<ref>[[#refRussellWood|Russell-Wood]], p. 9</ref> [[Senegal]] and [[Cape Verde Peninsula]] were reached in 1445. In the same year, the first overseas ''[[feitoria]]'' (trading post) was established under Henry's direction, on the island of [[Arguin]] off the coast of [[Mauritania]]. It was created to attract Muslim traders and monopolize the business in the routes traveled in North Africa, starting the chain of Portuguese ''feitorias'' along the coast. In 1446, [[Álvaro Fernandes]] pushed on almost as far as present-day [[Sierra Leone]], and the [[Gulf of Guinea]] was reached in the 1460s.

====Exploration after Prince Henry====
[[File:Caopillar.JPG|thumb|110px|left|An illustration of the [[padrão]] [[Diogo Cão]] erected at Cape St. Mary, [[Angola]].]]
As a result of the first meager returns of the African explorations, in 1469 king [[Afonso V of Portugal|Afonso V]] granted the monopoly of trade in part of the [[Gulf of Guinea]] to merchant [[Fernão Gomes]], for an annual payment of 200,000 [[Portuguese real|real]]s. Gomes was also required to explore {{convert|100|league|km}} of the coast each year for five years.<ref name="rt">{{cite web| url = http://www.thornr.demon.co.uk/kchrist/discpde.html| title = Discoveries After Prince Henry| access-date = 2006-12-24| last = Thorn| first = Rob}}</ref> He employed explorers [[João de Santarém]], [[Pedro Escobar]], [[Lopes Gonçalves|Lopo Gonçalves]], [[Fernão do Pó]], and [[Pedro de Sintra]], and exceeded the requirement. Under his sponsorship, Portuguese explorers crossed the equator into the Southern Hemisphere and found the islands in the Gulf of Guinea, including [[São Tomé and Príncipe]].<ref name="marinha">{{cite web| url = http://www.marinha.pt/extra/revista/ra_fev1999/pag21.html| title = O Contrato de Fernão Gomes| access-date = 2006-12-24| last = Semedo| first = J. de Matos| language = pt| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131203020748/http://www.marinha.pt/extra/revista/ra_fev1999/pag21.html| archive-date = 2013-12-03| url-status = dead}}</ref>

In 1471, Gomes' explorers reached [[Elmina]] on the Gold Coast (present day [[Ghana]]), and discovered a thriving overland gold trade between the natives and visiting Arab and Berber traders. Gomes established his own trading post there, which became known as “A Mina” ("The Mine"). Trade between Elmina and Portugal grew in the next decade.<ref name="ghana">{{cite web| url = http://www.ghanatourism.gov.gh/regions/highlight_detail.asp?id=&rdid=116#| title = Castelo de Elmina| access-date = 2006-12-24| publisher = Governo de Gana| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070305003001/http://www.ghanatourism.gov.gh/regions/highlight_detail.asp?id=&rdid=116| archive-date = 2007-03-05}}</ref> In 1481, the recently crowned [[John II of Portugal|João II]] decided to build [[São Jorge da Mina]] fort (Elmina Castle) and factory to protect this trade, which was then held again as a royal monopoly.

In 1482, [[Diogo Cão]] discovered the mouth of the [[Congo River]]. In 1486, Cão continued to [[Cape Cross]], in present-day [[Namibia]], near the [[Tropic of Capricorn]].

[[File:Iberian_mare_clausum_claims.svg|thumb|Iberian ''[[mare clausum]]'' claims during the [[Age of Discovery]].]]

In 1488, [[Bartolomeu Dias]] rounded the [[Cape of Good Hope]] near the southern tip of Africa, disproving the view that had existed since [[Ptolemy]] that the Indian Ocean was separate from the Atlantic. Also at this time, [[Pêro da Covilhã]] reached India via Egypt and [[Yemen]], and visited Madagascar. He recommended further exploration of the southern route.<ref>[[#refAnderson|Anderson]], p. 59</ref>

As the Portuguese explored the coastlines of Africa, they left behind a series of [[Padrão|padrões]], stone crosses inscribed with the Portuguese coat of arms marking their claims,<ref>[[#refNewitt|Newitt]], p. 47</ref> and built forts and trading posts. From these bases, the Portuguese engaged profitably in the slave and gold trades. Portugal enjoyed a virtual monopoly of the [[Atlantic slave trade]] for over a century, exporting around 800 slaves annually. Most were brought to the Portuguese capital Lisbon, where it is estimated black Africans came to constitute 10 percent of the population.<ref>[[#refAnderson|Anderson]], p. 55</ref>

====Tordesillas division of the world (1492)====
[[Image:Spain and Portugal.png|thumb|right|The 1494 [[Tordesilhas Treaty|Tordesillas Treaty]] [[meridian (geography)|meridian]] dividing the world between Portugal and Castille/Spain (purple) and the [[Moluccas]] [[antimeridian]] (green), set at the [[Treaty of Zaragoza]], 1529]]
In 1492, [[Christopher Columbus]]'s discovery for Spain of the [[New World]], which he believed to be Asia, led to disputes between the Spanish and Portuguese. These were eventually settled by the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] in 1494 which divided the world outside of Europe in an exclusive [[duopoly]] between the Portuguese and the Spanish, along a north–south [[Meridian (geography)|meridian]] 370 [[League (unit)|leagues]], or {{convert|970|mi|km|-1}}, west of the Cape Verde islands. However, as it was not possible at the time to correctly measure [[longitude]], the exact boundary was disputed by the two countries until 1777.<ref>[[#refDiffie|Diffie]], p. 174</ref>

The completion of these negotiations with Spain is one of several reasons proposed by historians for why it took nine years for the Portuguese to follow up on Dias's voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, though it has also been speculated that other voyages were, in fact, taking place in secret during this time.<ref>[[#refDiffie|Diffie]], p. 176</ref><ref>[[#refBoxer1969|Boxer]], p. 36</ref> Whether or not this was the case, the long-standing Portuguese goal of finding a sea route to Asia was finally achieved in a ground-breaking voyage commanded by [[Vasco da Gama]].

====Reaching India and Brazil (1497–1500)====
{{main|Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India|Discovery of Brazil}}

[[Image:Gama route 1.svg|left|thumb|The route followed in Vasco da Gama's first voyage (1497–1499)]]
Vasco da Gama's squadron left Portugal on 8 July 1497, consisting of four ships and a crew of 170 men. It rounded the Cape and continued along the coast of Southeast Africa, where a local pilot was brought on board who guided them across the Indian Ocean, reaching [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] in western India in May 1498.<ref>[[#refScammell|Scammell]], p. 13</ref> After some conflict, da Gama got an ambiguous letter for trade with the [[Zamorin]] of Calicut, leaving there some men to establish a trading post.

Vasco da Gama's voyage to Calicut was the starting point for deployment of Portuguese ''feitoria'' posts along the east coast of Africa and in the Indian Ocean.<ref>Scammell, G.V. (1997). The First Imperial Age, European Overseas Expansion c. 1400–1715. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-09085-7}}.</ref> Shortly after, the [[Casa da Índia]] was established in Lisbon to administer the royal monopoly of navigation and trade. Exploration soon lost private support, and took place under the exclusive patronage of the Portuguese Crown.

The second voyage to India was dispatched in 1500 under [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]]. While following the same south-westerly route across the Atlantic Ocean as da Gama (to take advantage of the most favorable winds), Cabral made landfall on the Brazilian coast. This was probably an accidental discovery, but it has been speculated that the Portuguese secretly knew of Brazil's existence and that it lay on their side of the Tordesillas line.<ref>[[#refMcAlister|McAlister]], p. 75</ref> Cabral recommended to the Portuguese King that the land be settled, and two follow-up voyages were sent in 1501 and 1503. The land was found to be abundant in ''pau-brasil'', or [[brazilwood]], from which it later inherited its name, but the failure to find gold or silver meant that for the time being Portuguese efforts were concentrated on India.<ref>[[#refMcAlister|McAlister]], p. 76</ref>

===Indian Ocean explorations (1497–1542)===
[[Image:Portuguese Carracks off a Rocky Coast.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The carrack ''[[Santa Catarina do Monte Sinai]]'' and other Portuguese Navy ships in the 16th century.]]
The aim of Portugal in the Indian Ocean was to ensure the monopoly of the [[spice trade]]. Taking advantage of the rivalries that pitted Hindus against Muslims, the Portuguese established several forts and trading posts between 1500 and 1510. In [[East Africa]], small [[Islamic]] states along the coast of [[Mozambique]], [[Kilwa Kisiwani|Kilwa]], [[Barawa|Brava]], [[Sofala]] and [[Mombasa]] were destroyed, or became either subjects or allies of Portugal. [[Pêro da Covilhã]] had reached [[Ethiopia]] (via the Indian Ocean coast in [[Somalia]], traveling secretly overland, as early as 1490;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bethencourt |first1=Francisco |last2=Curto |first2=Diogo Ramada |year=2007 |title=Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400–1800 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=142 |isbn=978-0-521-84644-8 }}</ref> a diplomatic mission reached the ruler of that nation on October 19, 1520.

In 1500, the second fleet to India (which also made landfall in Brazil) explored the East African coast in [[Southeast Africa]], where [[Diogo Dias]] discovered the island that he named St. Lawrence, later known as [[Madagascar]]. This fleet, commanded by [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]], arrived at [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] in September, where the first trade agreement in India was signed. For a short time a Portuguese factory was installed there, but it was attacked by Muslims on December 16 and several Portuguese, including the scribe [[Pero Vaz de Caminha]], died. After bombarding Calicut as a retaliation, Cabral went to rival [[Kochi, India|Kochi]].
[[Image:Vascodagama.JPG|thumb|right|180px|[[Vasco da Gama]] lands in [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] on May 20th 1498.]]
Profiting from the rivalry between the Maharaja of [[Kochi]] and the [[Zamorin]] of Calicut, the Portuguese were well received and seen as allies, getting a permit to build a [[Fort Kochi|fort (Fort Manuel)]] and a trading post that was the first European settlement in India. There in 1503 they built the [[St. Francis Church, Kochi|St. Francis Church]].<ref name="Kochi1">{{cite web | url = http://www.holidaysinkerala.org.uk/pilgrim-centers/st-francis-kochi.html | title = St. Francis Church | access-date = 2008-02-21 | publisher = Wonderful Kerala}}</ref><ref name="Ayub">{{cite book |editor-last=Ayub |editor-first=Akber |title=Kerala: Maps & More, Fort Kochi |date=2006 |edition=2006 |pages=20–24 |publisher=Stark World Publishing |location=Bangalore |isbn=81-902505-2-3 }}</ref> In 1502 Vasco da Gama took the island of Kilwa on the coast of Tanzania, where in 1505 the first fort of Portuguese East Africa was built to protect ships sailing in the East Indian trade.

In 1505, king [[Manuel I of Portugal]] appointed [[Francisco de Almeida]] first [[Viceroy]] of [[Portuguese India]] for a three-year period, starting the Portuguese government in the east, headquartered at Kochi. That year the Portuguese conquered [[Kannur]] where they founded [[St. Angelo Fort]]. The Viceroy's son [[Lourenço de Almeida]] arrived in [[Ceylon]] (modern Sri Lanka), where he discovered the source of [[cinnamon]]. Finding it divided into seven rival kingdoms, he established a defense pact with the [[kingdom of Kotte]] and extended the control in coastal areas, where in 1517 was founded the fortress of Colombo.<ref name="cs1">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/8.htm |title=European Encroachment and Dominance:The Portuguese |access-date=2006-12-02 |work=Sri Lanka: A Country Study}}</ref>

In 1506, a Portuguese fleet under the command of [[Tristão da Cunha]] and [[Afonso de Albuquerque]], conquered [[Socotra]] at the entrance of the [[Red Sea]] and [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]] in 1507, having failed to conquer [[Ormuz]], following a strategy intended to close those entrances into the Indian Ocean. That same year, fortresses were built in the Island of Mozambique and Mombasa on the Kenyan coast. [[Madagascar]] was partly explored by [[Tristão da Cunha]] and in the same year [[Mauritius]] was discovered.

In 1509, the Portuguese won the sea [[Battle of Diu (1509)|Battle of Diu]] against the combined forces of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Sultan [[Beyazid II]], the [[Gujarat Sultanate|Sultan of Gujarat]], the [[Mamluk|Mamlûk Sultan of Cairo]], the Samoothiri Raja of [[Kozhikode]], the [[Venetian Republic]], and the [[Ragusan Republic]] (Dubrovnik). The Portuguese victory was critical for its strategy of control of the Indian Ocean: the Turks and Egyptians withdrew their navies from India, leaving the seas to the Portuguese, setting its trade dominance for almost a century, and greatly assisting the growth of the Portuguese Empire. It also marked the beginning of European colonial dominance in Asia. A second [[Siege of Diu (1538)|Battle of Diu]] in 1538 finally ended Ottoman ambitions in India, and confirmed Portuguese hegemony in the Indian Ocean.

Under the government of Albuquerque, [[Goa]] was taken from the [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Bijapur sultanate]] in 1510 with the help of Hindu [[privateer]] [[Timoji]]. Coveted for being the best port in the region, mainly for the commerce in Arabian horses for the [[Deccan sultanates]], it allowed the Portuguese to move on from their initial guest stay in Cochin. Despite constant attacks, Goa became the seat of the Portuguese government, under the name of [[Portuguese India|''Estado da India'' (State of India)]], with the conquest triggering compliance of neighbor kingdoms: [[Gujarat]] and Calicut sent embassies, offering alliances and grants to fortify. Albuquerque began that year in Goa the first Portuguese [[Mint (coin)|mint]] in India, taking the opportunity to announce the achievement.<ref>{{cite book |first=Teotonio R. |last=De Souza |title=Goa Through the Ages: An Economic History |page=220 |issue=6 |series=Goa University publication series |year=1990 |isbn=81-7022-226-5 }}</ref><ref>Indo-Portuguese Issues [http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/pm_indoportuguese.aspx Indo-Portuguese Issues]</ref>

====Southeast Asia expeditions====
[[File:Asia oceania anonymous c1550.jpg|left|thumb|Anonymous map c.1550 of Eastern Africa, Asia and Western Oceania]]
In April 1511 Albuquerque sailed to [[Malacca]] in modern-day Malaysia,<ref>{{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M. C. |year=1991 |title=A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300 |edition=2nd |location=London |publisher=MacMillan |page=23 |isbn=0-333-57689-6 }}</ref> the most important eastern point in the trade network, where Malay met Gujarati, Chinese, Japanese, Javanese, Bengali, Persian and Arabic traders, described by [[Tomé Pires]] as invaluable. The port of Malacca became then the strategic base for Portuguese trade expansion with China and Southeast Asia, under the Portuguese rule in India with its capital at [[Goa]]. To defend the city a strong fort was erected, called the "A Famosa", where one of its gates still remains today. Learning of Siamese ambitions over Malacca, Albuquerque immediately sent [[Duarte Fernandes]] on a diplomatic mission to the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|kingdom of Siam]] (modern Thailand), where he was the first European to arrive, establishing amicable relations between the two kingdoms.<ref name="Donald Frederick Lach p.520">{{cite book |first1=Donald Frederick |last1=Lach |first2=Edwin J. |last2=Van Kley |title=Asia in the Making of Europe |pages=520–521 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-226-46731-7 }}</ref> In November that year, getting to know the location of the so-called "[[Maluku Islands|Spice Islands]]" in the Moluccas, Albuquerque sent an expedition to find them. Led by [[António de Abreu]], the expedition arrived in early 1512. Abreu went by Ambon, while his deputy commander [[Francisco Serrão]] advanced to [[Ternate]], where a Portuguese fort was allowed. That same year, in Indonesia, the Portuguese took [[Makassar]], reaching [[Timor]] in 1514. Departing from Malacca, [[Jorge Álvares]] came to southern China in 1513. This visit followed the arrival in [[Guangzhou]], where trade was established. Later a trading post at [[Macau]] would be established.
[[File:Henry the Navigator.jpg|right|260px|thumb|[[Padrão dos Descobrimentos|Monument to the Portuguese Discoveries]] in [[Belém, Lisbon]], Portugal.]]
The Portuguese empire expanded into the Persian Gulf as Portugal contested control of the spice trade with the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In 1515, [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] conquered the [[Huwala]] state of [[Ormus|Hormuz]] at the head of the Persian Gulf, establishing it as a vassal state. [[Aden]], however, resisted Albuquerque's expedition in that same year, and another attempt by Albuquerque's successor [[Lopo Soares de Albergaria]] in 1516. [[Bahrain]] was captured in 1521, when a force led by [[António Correia (admiral)|António Correia]] defeated the [[Jabrid]] King, [[Muqrin ibn Zamil]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Juan |last=Cole |title=Sacred Space and Holy War |url=https://archive.org/details/sacredspaceholyw00cole |url-access=limited |publisher=IB Tauris |year=2007 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sacredspaceholyw00cole/page/n45 37] |isbn=978-1-86064-736-9 }}</ref> In a shifting series of alliances, the Portuguese dominated much of the southern Persian Gulf for the next hundred years. The [[island of Mozambique]] became a strategic port on the regular maritime route linking Lisbon to Goa, and [[Fort São Sebastião (Mozambique)|Fort São Sebastião]] and a hospital were built there. In the Azores, the Armada of the Islands protected ships from the Indies en route to Lisbon.

In 1525, after [[Fernão de Magalhães]]'s expedition (1519–1522), Spain under Charles V sent an expedition to colonize the [[Moluccas islands]], claiming that they were in his zone of the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], since there was not a set limit to the east. Led by [[Loaísa expedition|García Jofre de Loaísa]], the expedition reached the Moluccas, docking at [[Tidore]]. Conflict with the Portuguese already established in nearby Ternate was inevitable, starting nearly a decade of skirmishes. An agreement was reached only with the [[Treaty of Zaragoza (1529)]], which gave the Moluccas to Portugal and the Philippines to Spain.

In 1530, [[John III of Portugal|John III]] organized the colonization of [[Colonial Brazil|Brazil]] around 15 ''capitanias hereditárias'' ("hereditary captainships"), that were given to anyone who wanted to administer and explore them, to overcome the need to defend the territory, since an expedition under the command of [[Gonçalo Coelho]] in 1503 had found the French making incursions on the land. That same year, there was a new expedition from [[Martim Afonso de Sousa]] with orders to patrol the whole Brazilian coast, banish the French, and create the first colonial towns: [[São Vicente, Brazil|São Vicente]] on the coast, and [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]] near the edge of the inland plateau (''planalto'') and the [[Serra do Mar]]. From the 15 original captainships, only two, [[Pernambuco]] and São Vicente, prospered. With permanent settlement came the establishment of the sugar cane industry and its intensive labor demands which were met with [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] and later African slaves.

In 1534, Gujarat was occupied by the [[Mughals]] and the Sultan [[Bahadur Shah of Gujarat]] was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Bassein (1534)]] with the Portuguese, establishing an alliance to regain the country, giving in exchange [[Daman, Daman and Diu|Daman]], [[Diu, India|Diu]], [[Mumbai]], and [[Vasai|Bassein]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetindi00sari_2 |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetindi00sari_2/page/726 726] |first=Sarina |last=Singh |title=India |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2003 |isbn=1-74059-421-5 }}</ref> In 1538 the fortress of Diu was again surrounded by Ottoman ships. Another siege failed in 1547, putting an end to Ottoman ambitions and confirming Portuguese hegemony.
[[File:Elefante Portugues.jpg|thumb|261x261px|Portuguese ruler of Pegu riding an Elephant.]]
In 1542 Jesuit missionary [[Francis Xavier]] arrived in Goa at the service of King [[John III of Portugal]], in charge of an [[Apostolic Nunciature]]. At the same time [[Francisco Zeimoto]], [[António Mota]], and other traders arrived in [[Japan]] for the first time. According to [[Fernão Mendes Pinto]], who claimed to be in this journey, they arrived at [[Tanegashima]], where the locals were impressed by European [[Firearms of Japan|firearms]], which would be immediately made by the Japanese on a large scale.<ref>{{cite book |first=Arnold |last=Pacey |title=Technology in world civilization: a thousand-year history |location=Cambridge |publisher=MIT Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-262-66072-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/technologyinworl0000pace }}</ref> In 1557 the Chinese authorities allowed the Portuguese to settle in [[Macau]] through an annual payment, creating a warehouse in the triangular trade between China, Japan and Europe. In 1570 the Portuguese bought a Japanese port where they founded the city of [[Nagasaki]],<ref>{{cite book |first=Yosaburō |last=Takekoshi |title=The Economic Aspects of the History of the Civilization of Japan |location=London |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-32379-7 }}</ref> thus creating a trading center that for many years was the port from Japan to the world.

Portugal established trading ports at far-flung locations like [[Goa]], [[Ormuz]], [[Portuguese Malacca|Malacca]], [[Kochi, India|Kochi]], the [[Maluku Islands]], [[Colonial Macau|Macau]], and [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]]. Guarding its trade from both European and Asian competitors, Portugal dominated not only the trade between Asia and Europe, but also much of the trade between different regions of Asia, such as India, Indonesia, China, and Japan. [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionaries, such as the [[Francis Xavier]], followed the Portuguese to spread [[Christianity]] to Asia with mixed success.

===Cartographic history===

====Map of Portuguese exploration and discoveries (1415–1543)====
[[File:Portuguese discoveries and explorations.version4.edited.jpg|alt=|center|thumb|800x800px|Portuguese exploration and discoveries: first arrival places and dates; main Portuguese [[spice trade]] routes in the [[Indian Ocean]] (blue); [[Portuguese empire|territories claimed]] during the reign of [[King John III of Portugal|King John III]] (c. 1536) (green); Main Factories (orange)]]

==Portuguese nautical science==
{{excerpt|Portuguese nautical science}}

== Chronology ==
*1147—Voyage of the Adventurers. Just before the [[siege of Lisbon]] by [[Afonso I of Portugal]], a Muslim expedition left in search of legendary islands offshore. They were never heard from again.<ref name="Hamidullah">Mohammad Hamidullah (Winter 1968). "Muslim Discovery of America before Columbus", ''Journal of the Muslim Students' Association of the United States and Canada'' '''4''' (2): 7–9 [https://web.archive.org/web/20100104091751/http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=646]</ref>
*1336—Possibly the first expedition to the [[Canary Islands]] with additional expeditions in 1340 and 1341, though this is disputed.<ref>B. W. Diffie, ''Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415 -1580'', Minneapolis, [[University of Minnesota Press]], p. 28.</ref>
*1412—[[Henry the Navigator|Prince Henry, the Navigator]] orders the first expeditions to the African Coast and Canary Islands.
*1415—[[Conquest of Ceuta]] (North Africa)
*1419—[[João Gonçalves Zarco]] and [[Tristão Vaz Teixeira]] discovered [[Porto Santo island]], in the Madeira group.
*1420—The same sailors and [[Bartolomeu Perestrelo]] discovered the island of [[Madeira]], which began to be colonized at once.
*1422—Cape Nao, the limit of Moorish navigation, is passed as the African Coast is mapped.
*1427—[[Diogo de Silves]] discovered the Azores, which was colonized in 1431 by [[Gonçalo Velho Cabral]].
*1434—[[Gil Eanes]] sailed round Cape Bojador, thus destroying the legends of the ‘Dark Sea’.
*1434—the 32 point compass-card replaces the 12 points used until then.
*1435—Gil Eanes and [[Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia]] discovered Garnet Bay (Angra dos Ruivos) and the latter reached the Gold River (Rio de Ouro).
*1441—[[Nuno Tristão]] reached [[Ras Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]].
*1443—Nuno Tristão penetrated the Arguim Gulf. [[Prince Pedro, Duke of Coimbra|Prince Pedro]] granted Henry the Navigator the monopoly of navigation, war and trade in the lands south of [[Cape Bojador]].
*1444—[[Dinis Dias]] reached Cape Green (Cabo Verde).
*1445—[[Álvaro Fernandes]] sailed beyond Cabo Verde and reached Cabo dos Mastros (Cape Naze).
*1446—Álvaro Fernandes reached the northern Part of Portuguese Guinea (Guinea-Bissau).
*1452—[[Diogo de Teive]] discovers the Islands of [[Flores Island (Azores)|Flores]] and [[Corvo Island|Corvo]].
*1455—Papal bull ''[[Romanus Pontifex]]'' confirmed the Portuguese explorations and declares that all lands and waters south of Bojador and cape Non ([[Cape Chaunar]]) belong to the kings of Portugal.
*1456—Luis [[Cadamosto]] discovers the first Cape Verde Islands.
*1458—Three capes discovered and named along the [[Grain Coast]]: ([[Grand Cape Mount]], [[Cape Mesurado]] and [[Cape Palmas]]).
*1460—Death of Prince Henry, the Navigator. His systematic mapping of the Atlantic, reached [[8th parallel north|8° N]] on the African Coast and [[40th meridian west|40° W]] in the Atlantic ([[Sargasso Sea]]) in his lifetime.
*1461—Diogo Gomes and [[António de Noli]] discovered more of the [[Cape Verde Islands]].
*1461—Diogo Afonso discovered the western islands of the Cabo Verde group.
*1471—[[João de Santarém]] and [[Pedro Escobar]] crossed the [[Equator]]. The southern hemisphere was discovered, requiring the sailor to use a new constellation to guide them, the [[Southern Cross]]. The discovery of the islands of [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] is also attributed to these same sailors.
* 1479—[[Treaty of Alcáçovas]] establishes Portuguese control of the Azores, Guinea, ElMina, Madeira and Cape Verde Islands and Castilian control of the Canary Islands.
* 1482—[[Diogo Cão]] reached the estuary of the [[Zaire]] (Congo) and placed a landmark there. Explored 150 km upriver to the [[Yellala Falls]].
*1484—Diogo Cão reached [[Walvis Bay]], south of [[Namibia]].
*1487—[[Afonso de Paiva]] and [[Pero da Covilhã]] traveled overland from Lisbon in search of the Kingdom of [[Prester John]] ([[Ethiopia]]).
*1488—[[Bartolomeu Dias]], crowning 50 years of effort and methodical expeditions, rounded the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and entered the [[Indian Ocean]]. They had found the "Flat Mountain" of Ptolemy's Geography.
*1489/92—South Atlantic Voyages to map the winds
*1490—Columbus leaves for Spain after his father-in-law's death.
*1492—First exploration of the [[Indian Ocean]].
*1494—The [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] between Portugal and Spain divided the world into two parts, Spain claiming all non-Christian lands west of a north–south line 370 leagues west of the Azores, Portugal claiming all non-Christian lands east of that line.
*1495—Voyage of [[João Fernandes Lavrador|João Fernandes]], the Farmer, and [[Pêro de Barcelos|Pedro de Barcelos]] to [[Greenland]]. During their voyage they discovered the land to which they gave the name of [[Labrador]] (lavrador, farmer)
*1494—First boats fitted with cannon doors and topsails.
*1498—[[Vasco da Gama]] led the first fleet around Africa to India, arriving in [[Kozhikode|Calicut]].
*1498—[[Duarte Pacheco Pereira]] explores the South Atlantic and the South American Coast North of the [[Amazon River]].
*1500—[[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] [[Discovery of Brazil|discovered Brazil]] on his way to India.
*1500—[[Gaspar Corte-Real]] made his first voyage to Newfoundland, formerly known as Terras Corte-Real.{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}
*1500—[[Diogo Dias]] discovered an island they named after St Lawrence after the saint on whose feast day they had first sighted the island later known as [[Madagascar]].
*1502— Returning from India, Vasco da Gama discovers the [[Amirante Islands]] ([[Seychelles]]).
*1502—[[Miguel Corte-Real]] set out for New England in search of his brother, Gaspar. [[João da Nova]] discovered [[Ascension Island]]. [[Fernão de Noronha]] discovered the island which still bears his name.
*1503—On his return from the East, [[Estêvão da Gama (c.1470)|Estêvão da Gama]] discovered [[Saint Helena|Saint Helena Island]].
*1505—[[Gonçalo Álvares]] in the fleet of the first viceroy sailed south in the Atlantic to were "water and even wine froze" discovering an island named after him, modern [[Gough Island]].
*1505—[[Lourenço de Almeida]] made the first Portuguese voyage to [[Portuguese Ceylon|Ceylon]] ([[Sri Lanka]]) and established a settlement there.<ref>{{Nuttall}}</ref>
*1506—Tristão da Cunha discovered the island that bears his name. Portuguese sailors landed on [[Madagascar]].
*1509—The [[Bay of Bengal]] crossed by [[Diogo Lopes de Sequeira]]. On the crossing he also reached [[Malacca]].
*1511— [[Duarte Fernandes]] is the first European to visit the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Kingdom of Siam]] (Thailand), sent by [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] after the conquest of Malaca.<ref name="Donald Frederick Lach p.520"/>
*1511–12 – João de Lisboa and Estevão de Fróis discovered the "Cape of Santa Maria" ([[Punta Del Este]]) in the [[Rio de La Plata|River Plate]], exploring its estuary (in present-day [[Uruguay]] and [[Argentina]]), and traveled as far south as the [[Gulf of San Matias]] at 42ºS (penetrating {{convert|300|km|0|abbr=on}} "around the Gulf"). [[Christopher de Haro]], the financier of the expedition along with D. Nuno Manuel, bears witness of the news of the "White King" and "people of the mountains", the [[Inca empire]] – and the "axe of silver" (''rio do "machado de prata''") obtained from the [[Charrúa]] Indians and offered to king [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]].<ref>[http://biblio.wdfiles.com/local--files/schuller-1915-nova/schuller_1915_nova.pdf Newen Zeytung auss Presillg Landt]</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bethell |first=Leslie |title=The Cambridge History of Latin America |volume=1, Colonial Latin America |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |location=Cambridge |pages=257}}[https://books.google.com/books?id=_w0kAPYQ5xMC&q=1511]</ref>
*1512— [[António de Abreu]] discovered [[Timor]] island and reached [[Banda Islands]], [[Ambon Island]] and [[Seram]]. [[Francisco Serrão]] reached the [[Moluccas]].
*1512—[[Pedro Mascarenhas]] discover the island of [[Diego Garcia]], he also encountered the [[Mauritius]], although he may not have been the first to do so; expeditions by [[Diogo Dias]] and [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] in 1507 may have encountered the islands. In 1528 [[Diogo Rodrigues]] named the islands of Réunion, Mauritius, and Rodrigues the [[Mascarene Islands]], after Mascarenhas.
*1513—The first European trading ship to touch the coasts of China, under [[Jorge Álvares]] and [[Rafael Perestrello]] later in the same year.
*1514–1531— António Fernandes's voyage and discoveries in 1514–1515,<ref>[http://www.rhodesia.nl/rhodesiana/volume19.pdf] Rhodesiana: ''The Pioneer Head''</ref> [[Sancho de Tovar]] from 1515 onwards, and Vicente Pegado (1531), among others, in several expeditions and contacts, are the first Europeans ever to contemplate and to describe the ruins of [[Great Zimbabwe]] and those regions (then referred to by the Portuguese as [[Monomotapa]]).
*1517—[[Fernão Pires de Andrade]] and [[Tomé Pires]] were chosen by [[Manuel I of Portugal]] to sail to China to formally open relations between the Portuguese Empire and the [[Ming Dynasty]] during the reign of the [[Zhengde Emperor]].
*1519–1521—[[Fernão de Magalhães]]'s expedition at the service of the King [[Charles I of Spain]] and German "Holy Roman" Emperor, in search of a westward route to the "Spice Islands" (Maluku Islands) became the first known expedition to sail from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific Ocean (then named "peaceful sea" by Magellan; the passage being made via the Strait of Magellan), and the first to cross the Pacific. Besides Magellan, also participated in the trip Diogo and [[Duarte Barbosa]], [[João Serrão]], Álvaro de Mesquita (Magellan's nephew), the pilots João Rodrigues de Carvalho and [[Estêvão Gomes]], [[Enrique of Malacca|Henrique of Malacca]], among others. Many of them cross almost all longitudes or all longitudes reaching the Philippines, Borneo and the Moluccas, because they had previously visited India, Mallacca, the [[Indonesian Archipelago]] or the Moluccas (1511–1512), like Ferdinand Magellan in the [[7th Portuguese India Armada (Almeida, 1505)|7th Portuguese India Armada]] under the command of [[Francisco de Almeida]] and on the expeditions of [[Diogo Lopes de Sequeira]], Afonso de Albuquerque and his other voyages, sailing eastward from Lisbon (as Magellan in 1505), and then later, in 1521, sailing westward from Seville, reaching that longitude and region once again and then proceeding still further west.
*1525—[[Aleixo Garcia]] explored the Rio de la Plata in service to Spain as a member of the expedition of [[Juan Díaz de Solís]] in 1516. Solís had left Portugal towards Castile (Spain) in 1506 and would be financed by Christopher de Haro, who had served Manuel I of Portugal until 1516. Serving Charles I of Spain after 1516, Haro believed that Lisboa and Frois had discovered a major route in the Southern New World to west or a ''strait'' to Asia two years earlier. Later (when returning and after a shipwreck on the coast of Brazil), from Santa Catarina, [[Brazil]], and leading an expedition of some European and 2,000 [[Guaraní people|Guaraní Indians]], Aleixo Garcia explored [[Paraguay]] and [[Bolivia]] using the trail network Peabiru. Aleixo Garcia was the first European to cross the [[Gran Chaco|Chaco]] and even managed to penetrate the outer defenses of the [[Inca Empire]] on the hills of the [[Andes]] (near [[Sucre]]), in present-day Bolivia. He was the first European to do so, accomplishing this eight years before [[Francisco Pizarro]].
{{main|Theory of the Portuguese discovery of Australia}}
*1525—[[Exploration of the Pacific|Diogo da Rocha]] and his pilot [[Gomes de Sequeira]] reached [[Sulawesi|Celebes]] and were blown off course and driven three hundred leagues in a direction constantly towards the east and to ''Ilhas de Gomes de Sequeira'' – most probably the [[Palau Island]] or [[Yap]], ([[Caroline Islands]]) according to the geographical notes, distance traveled and physical description of the natives in ''Décadas da Ásia'' of [[João de Barros]], or, according to the alleged existence of gold mentioned by the natives, other descriptions of the people and if they were to south and east in one or two voyages made by Gomes de Sequeira (According to the different interpretations of the Chronicles of Barros, Castanheda and Galvão), raises also the hypothesis of [[Cape York Peninsula]] in [[Australia]], maybe one of the [[Prince of Wales Islands]]. In Gastald's map a group of islands named ''Insul de gomes des queria'' lie in about 8 degrees of south latitude and in the longitude of the Northern Territory of Australia. In the same map the ''Apem insul'' seems to correspond with either [[Adi Island]] or the [[Aru Islands]]. The {{lang|pt|Ins des hobres blancos}} (''Islands of the White Men'') correspond, as far as locality is concerned, to the Arru (Aru) Islands. It would appear then that Gomes de Sequeira's Islands, which are the south-easternmost of those represented, must correspond with the Timor Laut group. In the same year, according to the voyages to the ''Banda'' Islands mentioned on ''Decadas'' and according to contemporaneous cartographers, [[Martim Afonso de Melo]] (Jusarte) and Garcia Henriques explored the [[Tanimbar Islands]] (the archipelago labelled "''aqui invernou Martim Afonso de Melo''" and "''Aqui in bernon Martin Afonso de melo''" [Here wintered Martin Afonso de Melo]) and probably the Aru Islands (the two archipelagos and the navigator mentioned in the maps of Lázaro Luís, 1563, Bartolomeu Velho, {{circa|1560}}, Sebastião Lopes, {{circa|1565}} and also in the 1594 map of the East Indies entitled ''Insulce Molucoe'' by the Dutch cartographer Petrus Plancius and in the map of ''Nova Guinea'' of 1600).
*1526—Discovery of [[New Guinea]] by [[Jorge de Meneses]]
*1528—[[Diogo Rodrigues]] explores the [[Mascarene]] islands, that he names after his countryman [[Pedro Mascarenhas]], he explored and named the islands of [[Réunion]], [[Mauritius]], and [[Rodrigues (island)|Rodrigues]]<ref>José Nicolau da Fonseca, ''Historical and Archaeological Sketch of the City of Goa'', Bombay : Thacker, 1878, pp. 47–48. Reprinted 1986, Asian Educational Services, {{ISBN|81-206-0207-2}}.</ref>
*1529—[[Treaty of Saragossa]] divides the eastern hemisphere between Spain and Portugal, stipulating that the dividing line should lie 297.5 leagues or 17° east of the Moluccas.
*1542–43—[[Fernão Mendes Pinto]], [[António Mota]] and [[Francisco Zeimoto]] reached [[Japan]].
*1542—The coast of [[California]] explored by [[João Rodrigues Cabrilho]] on behalf of Spain.
*1557—[[Macau]] given to Portugal by the [[Emperor of China]] as a reward for services rendered against the [[Pirate|pirates]] who infested the [[South China Sea]].
*1559—The Nau ''São Paulo'' commanded by Rui Melo da Câmara (was part of the Portuguese India Armada commanded by Jorge de Sousa) discovered [[Île Saint-Paul]] in the South Indian Ocean. The island was mapped, described and painted by members of the crew, among them the Father Manuel Álvares and the chemist Henrique Dias (Álvares and Dias calculated the correct latitude 38° South at the time of discovery). The Nau São Paulo, who also carried women and had sailed from Europe and had scale in Brazil, would be the protagonist of a dramatic and moving story of survival after sinking south of Sumatra.
*1560—[[Gonçalo da Silveira]], Jesuit missionary, travelled up the [[Zambezi River]], on his expedition to the capital of the [[Monomotapa]] which appears to have been the [[N'Pande]] kraal, close by the [[M'Zingesi River]], a southern tributary of the Zambezi. He arrived there on 26 December 1560.
*1586—[[António da Madalena]], a [[Capuchin friar]], was one of the first [[Western world|Western]] visitors to [[Angkor]] (now Cambodia).
*1602–1606—[[Bento de Góis]], a [[Jesuit]] [[missionary]], was the first known European to travel overland from India to China, via [[Afghanistan]] and the [[Pamir Mountains|Pamirs]].
*1606—[[Pedro Fernandes de Queirós]] discovered [[Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)|Henderson Island]], the [[Ducie Island]] and the islands later called the [[New Hebrides]] and now the nation of [[Vanuatu]]. Queirós landed on a large island which he took to be part of the southern continent, and named it ''La Austrialia del Espiritu Santo'' (The Australian Land of the Holy Spirit), for King [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]](II), or Australia of the Holy Spirit (''Australia do Espírito Santo'') of the ''southern'' continent.
*1626—[[Estêvão Cacella]], Jesuit missionary, traveled through the [[Himalayas]] and was the first European to enter [[Bhutan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/collections/journals/jbs/pdf/JBS_01_01_01.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2010-02-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829083514/http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/collections/journals/jbs/pdf/JBS_01_01_01.pdf |archive-date=2008-08-29 }} FATHER ESTEVAO CACELLA'S REPORT ON BHUTAN IN 1627.</ref>
*1636–1638—[[Pedro Teixeira]] went from [[Belém do Pará]] up the [[Amazon River]] and reached [[Quito]], Ecuador, in an expedition of over a thousand men. So Teixeira's expedition became the first simultaneously to travel up and down the Amazon River.
*1648–1651—[[António Raposo Tavares]] with 200 whites from [[São Paulo]] and over a thousand Indians travelled for over {{Convert|10,000|km}}, in the biggest expedition ever made in the Americas, following the courses of the rivers, most notably the [[Paraguay River]], to the [[Andes]], the Grande River, the [[Mamoré River]], the [[Madeira River]] and the [[Amazon River]]. Only Tavares, 59 whites and some Indians reached [[Belém]] at the mouth of the Amazon River.

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{portal|Oceans}}
*{{cite book | first=David | last=Abernethy | title=The Dynamics of Global Dominance, European Overseas Empires 1415–1980 | publisher=Yale University Press| year=2000 | isbn=0-300-09314-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC | ref=refAbernethy}}
*{{cite book | first=James Maxwell | last=Anderson|title=The History of Portugal | publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group | year=2000 | isbn=0-313-31106-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UoryGn9o4x0C | ref=refAnderson}}
*{{cite book| first =Charles Ralph|last =Boxer |title=The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415–1825|publisher=Hutchinson|year=1969|isbn=0-09-131071-7|author-link=C. R. Boxer|ref=refBoxer1969|url=https://archive.org/details/portugueseseabor0000boxe| url-access =registration}}
*{{cite book| first = James |last= Boyajian | title=Portuguese Trade in Asia Under the Habsburgs, 1580–1640|year=2008|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-8754-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C0lrDYYzMyAC|ref=refBoyajian}}
*{{cite book| first=Kenneth Gordon |last=Davies|title=The North Atlantic World in the Seventeenth Century|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=1974|isbn=0-8166-0713-3|ref=refDavies|url=https://archive.org/details/northatlanticwor04kgda| url-access=registration }}
*{{cite book| first = Bailey|last = Diffie|title = Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=1977|isbn=0-8166-0782-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IjBfEorbZWAC&pg=PP1|ref=refDiffie}}
*{{cite book| first = Bailey|last = Diffie|title = Prelude to empire: Portugal overseas before Henry the Navigator|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|year=1960|isbn=0-8032-5049-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IjBfEorbZWAC|ref=refDiffie2}}
*{{cite book| first = James | last = Lockhart|title = Early Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil | publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1983|isbn=0-521-29929-2|url=https://archive.org/details/earlylatinameric00lock| url-access = registration |ref=refLockhart}}
*{{cite book| first =Lyle | last=McAlister|title=Spain and Portugal in the New World, 1492–1700|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=1984|isbn=0-8166-1216-1|ref=refMcAlister|url=https://archive.org/details/spainportugalinn0000mcal| url-access =registration }}
*{{cite book| first =Malyn D.D.|last =Newitt|title=A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400–1668|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=0-415-23979-6|ref=refNewitt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpteLQcx6J4C}}
*{{cite book| first=A.J.R.|last=Russell-Wood|title=The Portuguese Empire 1415–1808|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=1998|isbn=0-8018-5955-7|ref=refRussellWood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JTVH7PZU1hUC}}
*{{cite book| first=Geoffrey Vaughn|last=Scammell|title=The First Imperial Age, European Overseas Expansion c.1400–1715|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|isbn=0-415-09085-7|ref=refScammell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5DGygQdNp0C}}

{{Portuguese overseas empire}}
{{Inventions}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Portuguese exploration in the Age of Discovery|.]]
[[Category:Portuguese history timelines|Discoveries]]
[[Category:Lists of inventions or discoveries]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Portugal|Discoveries]]
[[Category:Maritime history of Portugal|Discoveries]]
[[Category:Portuguese Empire|Discoveries]]
[[Category:History of science and technology in Portugal]]

Kangra Lok Sabha constituency

2026-01-27T06:24:45Z

QuyenStobie2: created some stub needs work...

{{Short description|Lok Sabha constituency in Himachal Pradesh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = LS
| name = Kangra {{Small|HP-1}}
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Lok Sabha constituencies/2019/Himachal Pradesh/Kangra.map}}
| map_caption = Interactive Map Outlining Kangra Lok Sabha constituency
| established = 1952
| mp = [[Rajeev Bhardwaj]]
| party = {{Party index link|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
| state = [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| reservation = None
| assembly_cons = 17: [[Churah (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Churah]], [[Chamba (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Chamba]], [[Dalhousie (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Dalhousie]], [[Bhattiyat (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Bhattiyat]], [[Nurpur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Nurpur]], [[Indora (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Indora]], [[Fatehpur, Himachal Pradesh Assembly constituency|Fatehpur]], [[Jawali (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Jawali]], [[Jawalamukhi (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Jawalamukhi]], [[Jaisinghpur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Jaisinghpur]], [[Sullah (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Sullah]], [[Nagrota, Himachal Pradesh Assembly constituency|Nagrota]], [[Kangra (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Kangra]], [[Shahpur, Bihar Assembly constituency|Shahpur]], [[Dharamshala (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Dharamshala]], [[Palampur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Palampur]] and [[Baijnath (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Baijnath]]
}}

'''Kangra Lok Sabha constituency''' is one of the four [[Lok Sabha]] (parliamentary) constituencies in [[Himachal Pradesh]] state in northern [[India]].<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://upload.indiacode.nic.in/showfile?actid=AC_CEN_3_20_00030_200233_1517807324510&type=order&filename=Delimitation%20Order,2008.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |date=26 November 2008 |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref><ref name="ceo">{{cite web|url=http://ceohimachal.nic.in/BKGROUND/PC%20wise%20Result%20of%20H.P.pdf|title=Parliamentary Constituency Wise Result of H.P. of Lok Sabha Elections-2009|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Himachal Pradesh website|access-date=5 November 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721163528/http://ceohimachal.nic.in/BKGROUND/PC%20wise%20Result%20of%20H.P.pdf|archive-date=21 July 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Assembly segments==
Kangra Lok Sabha constituency presently comprised the following 17 [[Vidhan Sabha]] (legislative assembly) segments:<ref name="ceo"/>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!No
!Name
!District
!Member
! colspan="2" |Party
! colspan="2" |2024 Lead
|-
|1
|[[Churah Assembly constituency|Churah]] (SC)
| rowspan="4" |[[Chamba district|Chamba]]
|[[Hans Raj (politician)|Hans Raj]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=17}}
|-
|3
|[[Chamba Assembly constituency|Chamba]]
|Niraj Nayyar
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|4
|[[Dalhousie Assembly constituency|Dalhousie]]
|Dhavinder Singh
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|5
|[[Bhattiyat Assembly constituency|Bhattiyat]]
|[[Kuldeep Singh Pathania]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|6
|[[Nurpur Assembly constituency|Nurpur]]
| rowspan="13" |[[Kangra district|Kangra]]
|Ranbir Singh
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|7
|[[Indora Assembly constituency|Indora]] (SC)
|[[Malender Rajan]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=5}}
|-
|8
|[[Fatehpur, Himachal Pradesh Assembly constituency|Fatehpur]]
|[[Bhawani Singh Pathania]]
|-
|9
|[[Jawali Assembly constituency|Jawali]]
|[[Chander Kumar]]
|-
|12
|[[Jawalamukhi Assembly constituency|Jawalamukhi]]
|Sanjay Rattan
|-
|13
|[[Jaisinghpur Assembly constituency|Jaisinghpur]] (SC)
|[[Yadvinder Goma]]
|-
|14
|[[Sullah Assembly constituency|Sullah]]
|[[Vipin Singh Parmar]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|15
|[[Nagrota, Himachal Pradesh Assembly constituency|Nagrota]]
|Raghubir Singh Bali
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|16
|[[Kangra Assembly constituency|Kangra]]
|[[Pawan Kumar Kajal]]
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|17
|[[Shahpur, Himachal Pradesh Assembly constituency|Shahpur]]
|Kewal Singh Pathania
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|18
|[[Dharamshala Assembly constituency|Dharamshala]]
|Sudhir Sharma
|{{Party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|19
|[[Palampur Assembly constituency|Palampur]]
|[[Ashish Butail]]
|{{Party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|20
|[[Baijnath Assembly constituency|Baijnath]] (SC)
|Kishori Lal
|-
|}

== Members of Parliament ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Name<ref name="election1977">{{cite web |title=General Election, 1977 (Vol I, II) |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4116-general-election-1977-vol-i-ii/ |access-date=31 December 2021 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref><ref name="election1999">{{cite web |title=General Election, 1999 (Vol I, II, III) |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4125-general-election-1999-vol-i-ii-iii/ |access-date=31 December 2021 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref><ref name="election2004">{{cite web |title=General Election 2004 |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/files/file/4126-general-election-2004-vol-i-ii-iii/ |access-date=22 October 2021 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref><ref name="election2009" /><ref name="election2014" /><ref name="election2019" />
! colspan="2" | Party
|-
|[[1951–52 Indian general election|1952]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Hem Raj]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=6}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[1957 Indian general election|1957]]
|-
|Daljit Singh
|-
|[[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Hem Raj]]
|-
|[[1967 Indian general election|1967]]
|-
|[[1971 Indian general election|1971]]
|[[Vikram Chand Mahajan]]
|-
|[[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
|[[Kanwar Durga Chand]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
|[[Vikram Chand Mahajan]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
|[[Chandresh Kumari Katoch]]
|-
|[[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
|[[Shanta Kumar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
|D. D. Khanoria
|-
|[[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
|[[Sat Mahajan]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Shanta Kumar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
|-
|[[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
|[[Chander Kumar]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
|[[Rajan Sushant]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=4}}
|-
|[[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
|[[Shanta Kumar]]
|-
|[[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|[[Kishan Kapoor]]
|-
|[[2024 Indian general election in Himachal Pradesh|2024]]
|[[Rajeev Bhardwaj]]
|}

==Election results==
===2024===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Indian general elections]]: Kangra<ref name="2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Kangra">{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |title=2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Kangra |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/ConstituencywiseS081.htm |access-date=22 July 2024 |date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240722105622/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/ConstituencywiseS081.htm |archive-date=22 July 2024}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Rajeev Bhardwaj]]
|votes = 6,32,793
|percentage = 61.03
|change = {{decrease}}10.09
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=[[Anand Sharma]]|votes=3,80,898|percentage=36.74|change={{increase}}12.15}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=Rekha Chaudhary|votes=7,753|percentage=0.75|change={{decrease}}0.13}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = [[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|candidate = Adv Sanjay Sharma
|votes = 2,319
|percentage = 0.22
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = [[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|candidate = Dr Kehkar Singh
|votes = 2,178
|percentage = 0.21
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=None of the above|candidate=[[None of the Above]]|votes=6,372|percentage=0.61|change={{decrease}}0.51}}
{{Election box majority||votes=2,51,895|percentage=24.29|change={{decrease}}23.14}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=10,38,678|percentage=68.15|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing = {{decrease}}10.99
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2019===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Indian general elections]]: Kangra<ref name=election2019>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/1551-general-election-2019-including-vellore-pc/ |title=General Election 2019 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 22 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Kishan Kapoor]]
|votes = 7,25,218
|percentage = 72.02
|change = {{increase}}14.96
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Pawan Kajal
|votes = 2,47,595
|percentage = 24.59
|change = {{decrease}}11.20
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Dr. Kehar Singh
|votes = 8,866
|percentage = 0.88
|change = {{increase}}0.14
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = [[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|candidate = Dr. Sanjiv Guleria
|votes = 4,573
|percentage = 0.45
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = [[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|candidate = Prem Chand Vishwakarma
|votes = 2,371
|percentage = 0.24
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|votes = 11,327
|percentage = 1.12
|change = {{increase}}0.03
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 4,77,623
|percentage = 47.43
|change = {{increase}}26.16
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 10,06,989
|percentage = 70.55
|change = {{increase}}7.03
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing = {{increase}}14.96
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2014===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general elections]]: Kangra<ref name=election2014>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/files/file/2857-constituency-wise-detailed-result/ |title=General Election 2014 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 22 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Shanta Kumar]]
|votes = 4,56,163
|percentage = 57.06
|change = {{increase}}8.37
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Chander Kumar]]
|votes = 2,86,091
|percentage = 35.79
|change = {{decrease}}9.76
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate = [[Rajan Sushant|Dr. Rajan Sushant]]
|votes = 24,430
|percentage = 3.06
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Lal Hussain
|votes = 5,949
|percentage = 0.74
|change = {{decrease}}1.19
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = [[Independent (politician)|IND.]]
|candidate = Bhupinder Mehra
|votes = 5,585
|percentage = 0.70
|change = {{increase}}0.70
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above|None of the Above]]
|votes = 8,704
|percentage = 1.09
|change = {{increase}}1.09
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 1,70,072
|percentage = 21.27
|change = {{increase}}18.13
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 7,99,445
|percentage = 63.52
|change = {{increase}}8.37
}}{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing = {{increase}}8.37
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2009===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Indian general elections]]: Kangra<ref name=election2009>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/98-general-election-2009/ |title=General Election 2009 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 22 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Rajan Sushant|Dr. Rajan Sushant]]
|votes = 3,22,254
|percentage = 48.69
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Chander Kumar]]
|votes = 3,01,475
|percentage = 45.55
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Col. Narinder Singh Pathania
|votes = 12,745
|percentage = 1.93
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = [[Independent (politician)|IND.]]
|candidate = Roshan Lal
|votes = 8,283
|percentage = 1.25
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Lok Janshakti Party
|candidate = Keshab
|votes = 7,720
|percentage = 1.17
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 20,779
|percentage = 3.14
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 6,61,847
|percentage = 55.15
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2004===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" |Party
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Candidate Name
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Votes
! colspan="1" rowspan="1" |Votes %
|-
|bgcolor="{{Party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|'''[[Indian National Congress|INC]]'''
|'''Chander Kumar'''
|'''314,555'''
|'''49.1%'''
|-
|bgcolor="{{Party color|Bharatiya Janta Party}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Janta Party|BJP]]
|Shanta Kumar
|296,764
|46.3%
|-
|bgcolor="{{Party color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}" |
|[[Bahujan Samaj Party|BSP]]
|Lt. Col. Shakti Chand Chaudhary (Retd.)
|10,860
|1.7%
|-
|bgcolor="{{Party color|Independent}}" |
|[[Independent politician|IND]]
|Fakir Chand
|10,594
|1.7%
|-
|bgcolor="{{Party color|Samajwadi Party}}" |
|[[Samajwadi Party|SP]]
|Roshan Rana
|7,092
|1.1%
|-
|bgcolor="{{Party color|Independent}}" |
|[[Independent politician|IND]]
|Dhani Ram
|3,312
|0.5%
|-
| colspan="3" |Majority
| 17,791
|2.8%
|-
| colspan="3" |'''Turnout'''
| 6,40,345
|62.0%
|}

===General elections 1999===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1999 Indian general elections]]: Kangra}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Shanta Kumar]]
|votes = 3,25,066
|percentage = 58.80%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Sat Mahajan]]
|votes = 2,24,324
|percentage = 40.58%
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 1,00,742
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 5,52,860
|percentage = 59.57%
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 1998===
{{Election box begin | title= [[1998 Indian general election]]: Kangra}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Shanta Kumar]]
|votes = 3,34,684
|percentage = 52.65%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Sat Mahajan]]
|votes = 2,75,449
|percentage = 43.33%
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 59,235
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 6,35,730
|percentage = 71.71%
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 1996===
{{Election box begin | title= [[1996 Indian general election]]: Kangra}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Sat Mahajan]]
|votes = 2,63,817
|percentage = 49.64%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Shanta Kumar]]
|votes = 2,26,293
|percentage = 42.58%
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 37,524
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 5,31,429
|percentage = 61.23%
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 1991===
{{Election box begin | title= [[1991 Indian general election]]: Kangra}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = D. D. Khanoria
|votes = 1,74,457
|percentage = 41.01%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Chandresh Kumari]]
|votes = 1,63,641
|percentage = 38.46%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Dal
|candidate = Suresh Chaudhary
|votes = 75,905
|percentage = 17.84%
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 10,816
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 4,25,434
|percentage = 55.83%
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 1989===
{{Election box begin | title= [[1989 Indian general election]]: Kangra}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Shanta Kumar]]
|votes = 2,35,147
|percentage = 46.33%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Chandresh Kumari]]
|votes = 1,75,943
|percentage = 34.66%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Dal
|candidate = Vijai Singh Mankotia
|votes = 74,983
|percentage = 14.77%
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 59,204
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 5,07,577
|percentage = 69.58%
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 1984===
{{Election box begin | title= [[1984 Indian general election]]: Kangra}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Chandresh Kumari]]
|votes = 2,32,287
|percentage = 62.45%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Sarvan Kumar
|votes = 1,14,854
|percentage = 30.88%
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 37,524
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 3,71,954
|percentage = 67.09%
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 1980===
{{Election box begin | title= [[1980 Indian general election]]: Kangra}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Vikram Chand Mahajan]]
|votes = 1,48,946
|percentage = 45.25%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Party
|candidate = Sarvan Kumar Chaudhari
|votes = 1,14,854
|percentage = 30.88%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Party (Secular)
|candidate = [[Kanwar Durga Chand]]
|votes = 25,727
|percentage = 7.82%
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 30,930
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 3,29,129
|percentage = 63.99%
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 1977===
{{Election box begin | title= [[1977 Indian general election]]: Kangra}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Party
|candidate = [[Kanwar Durga Chand]]
|votes = 1,57,832
|percentage = 53.17%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress (R)
|candidate = [[Vikram Chand Mahajan]]
|votes = 1,18,828
|percentage = 40.03%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India
|candidate = Bansi Ram
|votes = 15,709
|percentage = 5.29%
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 39,004
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 2,96,836
|percentage = 63.96%
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress (R)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 1971===
{{Election box begin | title= [[1971 Indian general election]]: Kangra}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress (R)
|candidate = [[Vikram Chand Mahajan]]
|votes = 1,11,276
|percentage = 65.97%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Jan Sangh
|candidate = Sarvan Kumar Chaudhari
|votes = 40,388
|percentage = 23.94%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India
|candidate = Paras Ram
|votes = 11,249
|percentage = 6.67%
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 30,930
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,68,680
|percentage = 42.57%
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress (R)
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 1967===
{{Election box begin | title= [[1967 Indian general election]]: Kangra}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Hem Raj]]
|votes = 44,262
|percentage = 33.03%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Jan Sangh
|candidate = Sarvan Kumar Chaudhari
|votes = 38,860
|percentage = 29.00%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = M. Ram
|votes = 21,073
|percentage = 15.73%
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 5,402
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,34,001
|percentage = 54.22%
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Kangra district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Himachal Pradesh}}
{{coord|32.1|76.3|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kangra (Lok Sabha Constituency)}}
[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Kangra district]]
[[Category:Chamba district]]

2011 Karnataka State Film Awards

2026-01-26T17:00:39Z

QuyenStobie2:

{{Short description|Annual Indian film awards ceremony}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2017}}

The '''[[Karnataka State Film Awards]] 2011''', presented by the [[Government of Karnataka]], honoured the best of [[Cinema of Karnataka|Kannada Cinema]] releases in the year 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/kannada/news-interviews/Karnataka-State-Film-Awards-2010-11-winners/articleshow/18966690.cms |title=Karnataka State Film Awards 2010-11 winners - Times of India |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518070059/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-14/news-interviews/37712086_1_second-best-film-basanth-kumar-patil-sunil-kumar-desai |archive-date=18 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Lifetime achievement award==

{|class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|-
!style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Name of Award
!style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Awardee(s)
!style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Awarded As
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|{{*}}'''[[Dr. Rajkumar Award]]''' {{*}}'''[[Puttanna Kanagal Award]]''' {{*}}'''[[Dr. Vishnuvardhan Award]]'''
|{{*}}[[Hamsalekha]] {{*}}[[D. Rajendra Babu]] {{*}}[[Anant Nag]]
|{{*}}Music Director,Lyricist {{*}}Director {{*}}Actor
|}

== Jury ==

A committee headed by '''[[Sunil Kumar Desai]]''' was appointed to evaluate the feature films awards.

== Film awards ==
{|class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|-
!style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Name of Award
!style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Film
!style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Producer
!style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Director
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Film|First Best Film]]'''
|''[[Prasad (2012 film)|Prasad]]''
|[[Ashok Kheny]]
|Manoj K. Sathi
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Film|Second Best Film]]'''
|''[[Koormavatara]]''
|{{•}}Amrutha Patil {{•}}Basant Kumar Patil
|[[Girish Kasaravalli]]
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Film|Third Best Film]]'''
|''[[Allide Nammane Illi Bande Summane]]''
|Roopa Sourav
|Gopi Peenya
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Social film|Best Film Of Social Concern]]'''
|''Sarasammana Samaadhi''
|{{•}}Amrutha Patil {{•}}Basant Kumar Patil
|[[K. N. T. Sastry]]
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Children film|Best Children Film]]'''
|''[[Kamsale Kaisale]]''
|{{•}}Mahesh Nanjaiah {{•}}Nagini Bharana
|[[T. S. Nagabharana]]
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Regional film|Best Regional Film]]'''
|''[[Ujwadu]]'' ([[Konkani language]])
|{{•}}K. J. Dhananjaya {{•}}Anuradha
|Kasaragod Chinna
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Family Entertainer|Best Entertaining Film]]'''
|''[[Saarathi]]''
|K. V. Sathya Prakash
|Dinakar S. Thoogudeep
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
| '''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Debut Film of Newcomer Director|Best Debut Film Of Newcomer Director]]'''
|''[[Sidlingu]]''
|T. P. Siddaraju
|[[Vijaya Prasad]]
|}

== Other awards ==
{|class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|-
!style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Name of Award
!style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Film
!style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Awardee(s)
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Director|Best Direction]]'''
|''[[Prasad (2012 film)|Prasad]]''
|Manoj K. Sathi
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]]'''
|''[[Prasad (2012 film)|Prasad]]''
|[[Arjun Sarja]]
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]'''
|''[[Bhagirathi (film)|Bhageerathi]]''
|[[Bhavana (Kannada actress)|Bhavana]]
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]'''
|''[[Kamsale Kaisale]]''
|[[Sridhar (Kannada actor)|Shridhar]]
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]'''
|''[[Sidlingu]]''
|[[Girija Lokesh]]
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Child Actor (Male)|Best Child Actor]]'''
|''[[Prasad (2012 film)|Prasad]]''
|Sankalp
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Child Actor (Female)|Best Child Actress]]'''
|''Bannada Kode''
|Suhasini
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Direction]]'''
|''[[Sidlingu]]''
|[[Anoop Seelin]]
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]]'''
|''[[Ball Pen (film)|Ball Pen]]'' ("Saavira Kiranava Chelli")
|Adithya Rao
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer|Best Female Playback Singer]]'''
|''[[Bhagirathi (film)|Bhageerathi]]'' ("Beru Ondu Kade")
|[[Archana Udupa]]
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Cinematographer|Best Cinematography]]'''
|''[[Koormavatara]]''
|[[G. S. Bhaskar]]
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Editor|Best Editing]]'''
|''[[Allide Nammane Illi Bande Summane]]''
|B. S. Kemparaju
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Lyricist|Best Lyrics]]'''
|''[[Bhagirathi (film)|Bhageerathi]]'' (All Songs)
|[[Baraguru Ramachandrappa]]
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Art Direction|Best Art Direction]]'''
|''[[Saarathi]]''
|Eshwari Kumar
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Story|Best Story Writer]]'''
|''[[Koormavatara]]''
|Kum. Veerabhadrappa
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Screenplay|Best Screenplay]]'''
|''[[I Am Sorry Mathe Banni Preethsona]]''
|Ravindra H. P. Das
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Dialogue|Best Dialogue Writer]]'''
|''Allide Nammane Illi Bande Summane''
|Gopi Peenya
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
|'''[[Karnataka State Jury's Special Award|Jury's Special Award]]'''
|''[[Saarathi]]''
|Rajan (For Special Graphic Effects)
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Karnataka State Film Awards}}

[[Category:Karnataka State Film Awards]]

Kulhanamau

2026-01-16T07:33:58Z

QuyenStobie2: cleanup

{{Short description|Village in Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh}}
{{moresources|date=July 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}

'''Kulhanamau''' is a village in [[Jaunpur district|Jaunpur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]].<ref name="EC Data">{{Cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/archive/se2002/pollupd/ac/states/s24/acnstcand239.htm|title=State Elections 2002|access-date=30 August 2010|publisher=[[Government of India]]|year=2002|author=Election Commission of India|work=List of Contesting Candidates|format=Text/HTML}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Jaunpur district}}
{{Coord missing|Uttar Pradesh}}

[[Category:Villages in Jaunpur district]]

{{Jaunpur-geo-stub}}

MD (Homeopathy)

2026-01-13T02:51:08Z

QuyenStobie2: new initial info needs work

{{Short description|Indian post-graduate homeopathic degree}} '''PhD''' is the highest degree in [[homoeopathy]]. Awarded after a minimum of 3 years and a maximum of 8 years in 6 streams as of now in India. Most Homoeopaths who are academics are pursuing PhD. Regulated by the [[Ministry of Ayush|Ministry of AYUSH]]. Central Council of Homoeopathy was dissolved permanently and Ministry of AYUSH manages all streams of medicine in India except Allopathy.
'''MD (Homoeopathy)''' is the three-year post-graduate degree in homeopathy offered by many universities in India. The course is regulated by the [[Central Council of Homeopathy]].<ref>{{cite web|title=National Institute of Homeopathy|url=http://www.nih.nic.in/pages/view/39/101-md-(homoeopathy)-course|website=NIH|accessdate=7 April 2018}}</ref> There are 38 colleges in India offering both [[Bachelor of Homeopathic Medicine and Surgery|bachelors]] and post-graduate courses in homeopathy, and two exclusive PG colleges conducting MD courses in homeopathy. There are seven specializations offered in MD homeopathy course : Organon of Medicine with Homeopathic Philosophy, Homoeopathic Materia Medica, Repertory, Practice of Medicine, Homoeopathic Pharmacy, Pediatrics and [[Psychiatry]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Course Details : National Health Portal of India|url=https://www.nhp.gov.in/course-details_mtl|website=www.nhp.gov.in|publisher=NHP - Government of India|accessdate=7 April 2018|language=en}}</ref> In order to get admission for the MD (Homeopathy) course, the candidate should have passed [[Bachelor of Homeopathic Medicine and Surgery]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Homeopathic education]]
[[Category:Academic degrees of India]]
[[Category:Medical degrees]]
[[Category:Medical education in India]]

The Vina Player

2026-01-12T03:53:25Z

QuyenStobie2: New the details needs work

{{Short description|1937 painting by Amrita Sher-Gil}}
{{Infobox artwork
| title = The Vina Player
| other_language_1 =
| other_title_1 =
| other_language_2 =
| other_title_2 =
| wikidata =
| image = The Vina Player (cropped).jpg
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption = A woman playing [[Veena]] to another woman
| artist = [[Amrita Sher-Gil]]
| year = 1937
| completion_date = 
| catalogue =
| medium = oil on canvas
| movement =
| subject = Veena, women
| height_metric = 
| width_metric =
| length_metric =
| diameter_metric =
| height_imperial = 
| width_imperial =
| length_imperial =
| diameter_imperial =
| dimensions =
| dimensions_ref =
| metric_unit = cm 
| imperial_unit = in 
| weight =
| designation =
| condition =
| museum = [[Lahore Museum]]
| city = Lahore, Pakistan
| coordinates = 
| owner =
| accession =
| preceded_by = 
| followed_by = 
| module =
| website = 
}}
The '''''Vina Player''''' (1937) is an [[oil on canvas]] painting by Hungarian-Indian artist [[Amrita Sher-Gil]]. It was number five of her 33 paintings [[Amrita Sher-Gil's paintings at Lahore (1937)|displayed at her solo exhibition]] in the ballroom at [[Faletti's Hotel]] in [[Lahore]], [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]], held from 21 to 27 November 1937. Sher-Gil's mother's favourite, it was initially not for sale, but then acquired by the [[Lahore Museum]], through the encouragement of art critic [[Charles Fabri]] and the then museum's curator [[K. N. Sitaram]].<ref name=Sundaram2010.418>{{harvnb|Sundaram|2010b| pp= 418–424}}</ref><ref name=Dalmia.2013.104>{{harvnb|Dalmia|2013|p= 104}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of paintings by Amrita Sher-Gil]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{Cite book |last=Dalmia|first=Yashodhara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj3mlgEACAAJ |title=Amrita Sher-Gil: A Life |date=2013 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=Gurugram |isbn=978-0-14-342026-2 |language=en}}
*{{cite book |last1=Sundaram |first1=Vivan |title=Amrita Sher-Gil: A Self-Portrait in Letters and Writings |ref={{harvid|Sundaram|2010a}} |date=2010 |publisher=Tulika Books |location=New Delhi |volume=1|pages=1–417|isbn=978-81-89487-59-1}}
*{{cite book |last1=Sundaram |first1=Vivan |title=Amrita Sher-Gil: A Self-Portrait in Letters and Writings |ref={{harvid|Sundaram|2010b}}|date=2010 |publisher=Tulika Books |location=New Delhi |volume=2|pages=418–821|isbn=978-81-89487-59-1}}

{{Amrita Sher-Gil}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vina Player}}
[[Category:Paintings by Amrita Sher-Gil]]
[[Category:1937 paintings]]
[[Category:Oil paintings on canvas]]
[[Category:Musical instruments in art]]
[[Category:Paintings of women]]

{{1930s-painting-stub}}

Kerala model

2026-01-09T06:57:17Z

QuyenStobie2: corrected section to improve readability additionally and fixed typos

{{Short description|Developmental model adopted in Kerala}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{AI-generated|date=November 2025}}
[[File:2006 Human Development Index for India map by states, HDI data by GoI and UNDP India.svg|thumbnail|The [[Human Development Index]] of various Indian States as of 2006 (prepared by United Nations Development Programme).]]
The '''Kerala model''' refers to the practices adopted by the [[India]]n state of [[Kerala]] to further human development. It is characterised by results showing strong social indicators when compared to the rest of the country such as high [[literacy]] and [[life expectancy]] rates, highly improved access to [[Health care|healthcare]], and low [[infant mortality]] and [[Birth rate|birth rates]]. Despite having a lower per capita income, the state is sometimes compared to [[developed countries]].<ref name="Parayil-Intro">{{cite book
| last = Parayil
| first = Govindan
| editor = Govindan Parayil
| title = Kerala: The Development Experience: Reflections on Sustainability and Replicability
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=__Fbl-UwposC
| access-date = 16 January 2011
| year = 2000
| publisher = Zed Books
| location = London
| isbn = 1-85649-727-5
| chapter = Introduction: Is Kerala's Development Experience a Model?
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=__Fbl-UwposC&q=introduction&pg=PA1
}}
</ref> These achievements along with the factors responsible for such achievements have been considered characteristic results of the Kerala model.<ref name="Parayil-Intro" /><ref name="Oommen-Franke">{{cite book
| last = Franke
| first = Richard W.
|author2=Barbara H. Chasin
| editor = [[M. A. Oommen]]
| title = Rethinking Development: Kerala's Development Experience, Volume I
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lKq5A57tX1cC
| access-date = 16 January 2011
| year = 1999
| publisher = Institute of Social Sciences
| location = New Delhi
| isbn = 81-7022-764-X
| chapter = Is the Kerala Model Sustainable? Lessons from the Past, Prospects for the Future
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lKq5A57tX1cC&pg=PA118
}}
</ref>

{{Economic systems sidebar}}

Academic literature discusses the primary factors underlying the success of the Kerala model as its decentralization efforts, the political mobilization of the poor, and the active involvement of civil society organizations in the planning and implementation of development policies.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Banik |first=Dan |date=2011 |title=Poverty, Inequality, and Democracy: Growth and Hunger in India |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/444761 |journal=Journal of Democracy |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=90–104 |doi=10.1353/jod.2011.0049 |s2cid=153698245 |issn=1086-3214|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

More precisely, the Kerala model has been defined as:
*A set of high material [[quality of life]] indicators coinciding with low per-capita incomes, both distributed across nearly the entire population of Kerala.
*A set of [[Redistribution of income and wealth|wealth and resource redistribution]] programmes that have largely brought about the high material quality-of-life indicators.
*High levels of [[political participation]] and [[activism]] among ordinary people along with substantial numbers of dedicated leaders at all levels. Kerala's mass activism and committed cadre are able to function within a large democratic structure, which their activism has served to reinforce.

==History==
[[File:DrKNRaj.jpg|thumb|Research done by economist [[K. N. Raj]] played a pivotal role in the model's development.]]
The Kerala model originally differed from conventional development thinking which focuses on achieving high [[GDP]] growth rates, however, in 1990, [[Pakistani people|Pakistani]] economist [[Mahbub ul Haq]] changed the focus of [[development economics]] from [[national income]] accounting to people centered policies. To produce the [[Human Development Report]] (HDRs), Haq brought together a group of well-known development economists including: [[Paul Streeten]], [[Frances Stewart (economist)|Frances Stewart]], [[Gustav Ranis]], [[Keith Griffin (economist)|Keith Griffin]], Sudhir Anand, and [[Meghnad Desai]].<ref name="dawn">{{cite web
|url=http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/editorial/kerala-model-development-820
|title=Kerala Model & development
|publisher=Dawn.com
|access-date=17 July 2010
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413220725/http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/the-newspaper/editorial/kerala-model-development-820
|archive-date=13 April 2010
}}</ref><ref name="omantribune">{{cite web
|url = http://www.omantribune.com/index.php?page=news&id=64173&heading=India
|title = KN Raj passes away
|publisher = Oman Tribune
|access-date = 17 July 2010
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110715002039/http://www.omantribune.com/index.php?page=news&id=64173&heading=India
|archive-date = 15 July 2011
}}</ref>

[[File:UN Headquarters 2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Human Development Index]], which was introduced by the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (a branch of the United Nations Organisation), has become one of the most influential and widely used indices to measure human development across countries.]]
Economists have noted that despite low income rates, the state had high literacy rates, healthy citizens, and a politically active population. Researchers began to delve more deeply into what was going in the Kerala model, since human development indices seemed to show a standard of living which was comparable with life in developed nations, on a fraction of the income. The development standard in Kerala is comparable to that of many first world nations and is widely considered to be the highest in India at that time.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parayil|first=Govindan|date=December 1996|title=The 'Kerala model' of development: Development and sustainability in the Third World|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01436599615191|journal=Third World Quarterly|language=en|volume=17|issue=5|pages=941–958|doi=10.1080/01436599615191|pmid=12321040|issn=0143-6597|url-access=subscription}}</ref> However, the state's total debt has surged by 80% in five years, government plans to halve its plan size for 2024-25 budget.<ref>{{cite web | title=Cracks in state economy: Welfare's poster boy in red, Kerala halves development plan size | work=The Times of India | date=3 March 2025 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/cracks-in-state-economy-welfares-poster-boy-in-red-kerala-halves-development-plan-size/articleshow/118672194.cms }}</ref>

==Human Development Index==
The United Nations developed the [[Human Development Index]] (HDI) in 1990 as a composite statistic used to rank countries by level of "human development" and separate developed (high development), developing (middle development), and underdeveloped (low development) countries. The HDI is used in the United Nations Development Programme's annual Human Development Reports and is composed from data on life expectancy, education and per-capita GDP (as an indicator of Standard of living) collected at the national level using a formula. This index, which has become one of the most influential and widely used indices to compare human development across countries, gave the Kerala model international recognition since Kerala has consistently had scores comparable to developed countries since the HDI's inception.<ref name="hdi kerala chart">{{cite web |url=http://www.moneycontrol.com/news/wire-news/human-development-index-rose-21-per-cent-kerala-tops-chart_603650.html |title=Human Development Index rose 21 per cent; Kerala tops chart |date=21 October 2011 |publisher=[[CNBC]]}}</ref><ref name="hdi kerala">{{cite web |url=http://www.firstpost.com/india/hdi-in-india-rises-by-21-kerala-leads-gujarat-far-behind-114044.html |title=HDI in India rises by 21%: Kerala leads the race |date=21 October 2011 |publisher=FirstPost}}</ref>

In 2022, Kerala again tops the HDI among the major Indian states with a score of 0.758, according to the Global Data Lab.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sub-national HDI - Subnational HDI - Global Data Lab|url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/shdi/IND/?levels=1+4&interpolation=1&extrapolation=0&nearest_real=0|access-date=2021-09-13|website=globaldatalab.org}}</ref>

==Public health==
[[File:Calicut medical college view from inside.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Calicut Medical College]] in [[Kozhikode]]. Kerala has around 9,491 government and private medical institutions in the state, with a Population Bed ratio of 879, one of the highest in the country.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Hospitals in the Country |url=http://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1539877 |access-date=2021-09-14 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref>]]
[[File:Medical college Gate Thiruvananthapuram.jpg|thumb|Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram. Founded in 1951, it is the oldest Medical College in Kerala and one of the largest tertiary care hospitals in the state. During the 1950s Asian flu pandemic, it was the principal institute to isolate and research the virus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram|url=https://tmc.kerala.gov.in/tmc/about|access-date=2021-09-14|website=tmc.kerala.gov.in}}</ref>]]

=== History ===
Kerala's improved public health relative to other Indian states and countries with similar economic circumstances is founded on a long history of successful health-focused policies.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |last1=Madore |first1=Amy |last2=Rosenberg |first2=Julie |last3=Dreisbach |first3=Tristan |last4=Weintraub |first4=Rebecca |date=2018 |title=Positive Outlier: Health Outcomes in Kerala, India over Time |url=http://www.globalhealthdelivery.org/publications/positive-outlier-health-outcomes-kerala-india-over-time |access-date=2022-05-01 |website=www.globalhealthdelivery.org}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite web |date=2015-09-18 |title=Kerala, India: Decentralized governance and community engagement strengthen primary care |url=https://improvingphc.org/promising-practices/kerala |access-date=2022-05-01 |website=PHCPI |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519091832/https://improvingphc.org/promising-practices/kerala |url-status=dead }}</ref>

One of the first key strategies Kerala implemented was making vaccinations mandatory for public servants, prisoners, and students in 1879 prior to Kerala becoming a state, when it was composed of autonomous territories. Moreover, the efforts of missionaries in setting up hospitals and schools in underserved areas increased access to health and education services.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":20">{{Cite journal |last=Kutty |first=V R. |date=2000-03-01 |title=Historical analysis of the development of health care facilities in Kerala State, India |journal=Health Policy and Planning |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=103–109 |doi=10.1093/heapol/15.1.103|pmid=10731241 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Though class and [[Caste system in India|caste]] divisions were rigid and oppressive, a rise in subnationalism in the 1890s resulted in the development of a shared identity across class and caste groups and support for public welfare. Simultaneously, the growth in agriculture and trade in Kerala also stimulated government investment in transportation infrastructure. Thus, leaders in Kerala began increasing spending on health, education, and public transportation, establishing progressive social policies. By the 1950s, Kerala had a significantly higher life expectancy than neighboring states as well as the highest literacy rate in India.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Prerna |chapter=How Subnationalism promotes Social Development |title=How Solidarity Works for Welfare |year=2015 |pages=112–147 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9781107707177.004 |isbn=978-1-107-70717-7 }}</ref>

Once Kerala became a state in 1956, public scrutiny of schools and health care facilities continued to increase, along with residents' literacy and awareness of the necessity of access health services. Gradually, health and education became top priorities, which was unique to Kerala according to a local public health researcher.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bollini |first1=P. |last2=Venkateswaran |first2=C. |last3=Sureshkumar |first3=K. |date=2004 |title=Palliative Care in Kerala, India: A Model for Resource-Poor Settings |url=https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/76902 |journal=Oncology Research and Treatment |language=en |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=138–142 |doi=10.1159/000076902 |pmid=15138345 |s2cid=3018086 |issn=2296-5270|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The state's high minimum wages, road expansion, strong trade and labor unions, land reforms, and investment in clean water, sanitation, housing, access to food, public health infrastructure, and education all contributed to the relative success of Kerala's public health system.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":21">{{Cite book |last=Board. |first=Kerala (India). Bureau of Economic Studies. Kerala (India). Bureau of Economics and Statistics. Kerala (India). State Planning |title=Kerala; an economic review. |publisher=[Printed at the Govt. Press] |oclc=1779459}}</ref> In fact, declining mortality rates during this time period doubled the state's population,<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=body. |first=Kerala (India). State Planning Board, issuing |title=Economic review ... |oclc=5974255}}</ref> and immunization services, infectious disease care, health awareness activities, and antenatal and postnatal services became more widely available.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":21" /> In the 1970s, a decade before India initiated its national immunization program with [[World Health Organization|WHO]], Kerala launched an immunization program for infants and pregnant women.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite book |author=Thomas, M. Benson |title=Decentralisation and interventions in health sector: a critical inquiry into the experience of local self governments in Kerala |oclc=908377268}}</ref> In addition, smaller private medical institutions complemented the government's efforts to increase access to health services and provided specialized healthcare.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last=Commission. |first=India. Planning |title=Kerala development report |date=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-81-7188-594-7 |oclc=154667906}}</ref> As a result, life expectancy continued to increase in Kerala, though household income remained low.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Board. |first=Kerala (India). State Planning |title=Economic review, Kerala. |publisher=State Planning Board, Kerala |oclc=966447651}}</ref> Thus, the concept of the "Kerala model" was coined by development researchers in Kerala in the 1970s and the state received international recognition for its health outcomes despite a relatively low per capita income.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Centre for Development Studies |first=United Nations |title=Poverty, unemployment and development policy: a case study of selected issues with reference to Kerala |date=1975 |publisher=United Nations |oclc=875483852}}</ref>

In the mid-1970s to the early 1990s, a fiscal crisis caused the government to reduce spending on health and other social services. Reductions in federal health spending also affected Kerala's health budget.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":20" /> As a result, the quality and abilities of public healthcare facilities declined and residents protested.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Remittances to Kerala: Impact on the Economy |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/remittances-kerala-impact-economy |access-date=2022-05-01 |website=Middle East Institute |language=en}}</ref> Eventually, private health services began to take over, enabled by a lack of government regulation. In fact, by the mid-1980s, only 23% of households regularly utilized government health services, and from 1986 to 1996, private-sector growth significantly surpassed public-sector growth.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":20" /><ref name=":23" />

In 1996, Kerala began to decentralize public healthcare facilities and fiscal responsibilities to local self-governments by implementing the People's Campaign for Decentralized Planning in response to public distrust and national recommendations.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" /><ref name=":22" /> For instance, new budgetary allocations gave local governments control of 35 to 40% of the state budget. Moreover, the campaign emphasized improving care and access, regardless of income level, caste, tribe, or gender, reflecting a goal of not just effective but also equitable coverage.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":24">{{Cite journal |last1=Elamon |first1=Joy |last2=Franke |first2=Richard W. |last3=Ekbal |first3=B. |date=October 2004 |title=Decentralization of Health Services: The Kerala People's Campaign |journal=International Journal of Health Services |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=681–708 |doi=10.2190/4l9m-8k7n-g6ac-wehn |pmid=15560430 |s2cid=29112205 |issn=0020-7314}}</ref> A three-tier system of self-governance was established, consisting of 900 [[Panchayati raj|panchayats]] (villages), 152 blocks, and 14 districts.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":25">{{Cite journal |last=Varatharajan |first=D |date=2004-01-01 |title=Assessing the performance of primary health centres under decentralized government in Kerala, India |journal=Health Policy and Planning |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=41–51 |doi=10.1093/heapol/czh005 |pmid=14679284 |issn=1460-2237}}</ref> The current healthcare system arose from local self-governments supporting the construction of sub-centers, primary health centers that support five to six sub-centers and serve a village, and community health centers.<ref name=":19" /> The new system also allowed local self-governments to create hospital management committees and purchase necessary equipment.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":22" />

=== Present ===
The basis for the state's health standards is the state-wide infrastructure of primary health centers.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=MISSION AND VISION – dhs|url=https://dhs.kerala.gov.in/mission-and-vision/|access-date=2021-09-14|language=en-GB}}</ref> Under the current system, the primary health centers and sub-centers were brought under the jurisdiction of local self-governments to respond to local health needs and work more closely with local communities.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":25" /> As a result, health outcomes and access to healthcare services have improved.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":24" /> There are over 9,491 government and private medical institutions in the state, which have about 38000 beds for the total population, making the population to bed ratio 879—one of the highest in the country.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />

There is an active, state-supported nutrition programme for pregnant and new mothers and about 99% of child births are institutional/hospital deliveries,<ref name=":3" /> leading to infant mortality in 2018 being 7 per thousand,<ref name=":7" /> compared to 28 in India, overall<ref name=":8" /> and 18.9 for low- middle income countries generally.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mortality rate, neonatal (per 1,000 live births) - Low & middle income {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.NMRT?locations=XO|access-date=2021-09-14|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> The birth rate is 40 percent below that of the national average and almost 60 percent below the rate for impoverished countries in general. Kerala's birth rate is 14.1<ref name=":1" /> (per 1,000 people) and decreasing. India's rate is 17<ref name=":2" /> the rate of the U.S. is 11.4.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Birth rate, crude (per 1,000 people) - United States {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.CBRT.IN?locations=US|access-date=2021-09-14|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> [[Life expectancy]] at birth in Kerala is 77 years, compared to 70 years in India<ref name=":0" /> and 84 years in Japan,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Countries with highest life expectancy 2019|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/264725/ranking-of-the-20-countries-with-the-highest-life-expectancy/|access-date=2021-09-14|website=Statista|language=en}}</ref> one of the highest in the world. Female life expectancy in Kerala exceeds that of the male, similar to that in developed countries.<ref name="deepu">{{cite news
|url=http://www.ashanet.org/library/articles/kerala.199803.html
|publisher=Bill McKibben
|title=Kerala: A case study
}}</ref> Kerala's maternal mortality ratio is the lowest in India at 53 deaths per 100,000 live births.<ref name=":0" />

According to the [[India State Hunger Index]], in 2009, Kerala was one of the four states where hunger was only moderate. The hunger index score of Kerala was 17.66 and was second only to Punjab, the state with the lowest hunger index. The nationwide hunger index of India was 23.31.<ref>{{cite web |year=2008 |title=The India State Hunger Index: Comparisons of Hunger Across States |url=http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/cp/ishi08.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214141710/http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/cp/ishi08.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2009}}</ref> Despite the fact that Kerala has a relatively low dietary intake of 2,200 kilocalories per day, the infant-mortality rate and the percentage of the population facing severe undernutrition in Kerala is far lower than in other Indian states. In early 2000, more than a quarter of the population faced severe undernutrition in three states—Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh—though they had a higher average dietary intake than Kerala. Kerala's improved nutrition is primarily due to better healthcare access as well as greater equality in food distribution across different income groups and within families.<ref name=":9" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Public Health Infrastructure<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=State Health Profile|first=National Health Authority, Government of India|date=January 2021|title=State Health Profile-Kerala, National Health Authority, Government of India|url=https://pmjay.gov.in/sites/default/files/2021-01/Kerala-State-Health-Profile.pdf|website=pmjay.gov.in/}}</ref>
|Medical Colleges
|34
|-
|Hospitals
|1280
|-
|Community Health Centres<ref name=":6" />
|229
|-
|Primary Health Centres<ref name=":6" />
|933
|-
|Sub Centres
|5380
|-
|AYUSH Hospitals/Dispensary
|162/1473
|-
|Total Beds
|38004
|-
|Blood Banks
|169
|}

'''District-wise Hospital Bed Population Ratio as per the 2011'''<ref>{{Cite web|last=Government of Kerala|first=Health at a Glance 2018|date=2018|title=Health at a Glance, 2018- Department of Health, Government of Kerala|url=https://pmjay.gov.in/sites/default/files/2021-01/Kerala-State-Health-Profile.pdf|website=dhs.kerala.gov.in/}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!District
!Population Census(2011)
!Number of beds
!Population Bed Ratio
|-
|Alappuzha
|2127789
|3424
|621
|-
|Ernakulam
|3282388
|4544
|722
|-
|Idukki
|1108974
|1096
|1012
|-
|Kannur
|2523003
|2990
|844
|-
|Kasaragod
|1307375
|1087
|1203
|-
|Kollam
|2635375
|2388
|1104
|-
|Kottayam
|1974551
|2817
|701
|-
|Kozhikode
|3086293
|2820
|1094
|-
|Malappuram
|4112920
|2503
|1643
|-
|Palakkad
|2809934
|2622
|1072
|-
|Pathanamthitta
|1197412
|1948
|615
|-
|Thiruvananthapuram
|3301427
|4879
|677
|-
|Thrissur
|3121200
|3519
|887
|-
|Wayanad
|817420
|1367
|598
|-
|'''Total'''
|33406061
|38004
|879
|}

The Health Index, ranking the performance of the States and the Union Territories in India in Health sector, published in June 2019 by the NITI Ayong, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India and The World Bank has Kerala on top with an overall score of 74.01.Kerala has already achieved the SDG 2030 targets for Neonatal Mortality Rate, Infant Mortality Rate, Under-5 Mortality rate and Maternal Mortality Ratio.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Report on ranks of States and Union Territories, June 2019|first=Healthy States Progressive India|date=June 2019|title=Healthy States Progressive India- Report on the Ranks of States and Union Territories, June 2019|url=http://social.niti.gov.in/uploads/sample/health_index_report.pdf|website=social.niti.gov.in/|access-date=17 October 2021|archive-date=23 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623194642/http://social.niti.gov.in/uploads/sample/health_index_report.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Economist">{{cite web
|url=http://graphics.eiu.com/upload/QOD_main_final_edition_Jul12_toprint.pdf
|title=Kerala: the community model (Page No 24)
|publisher= The Economist
|access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref><ref name="Express">{{cite web
|url=http://newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/article182738.ece
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304220053/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/article182738.ece
|archive-date=4 March 2016
|title='The Economist' hails Kerala model
|publisher=The New Indian Express
|access-date=25 July 2010}}</ref>

The Economist has recognized the Kerala government for providing palliative care policy (it is the only Indian state with such a policy) and funding for community-based care programmes. Kerala pioneered [[universal health care]] through extensive public health services.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/jan/06/-sp-universal-healthcare-the-affordable-dream-amartya-sen|title=Universal healthcare: the affordable dream|date=6 January 2015|website=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1998/09/poor-but-prosperous/377206/|title=Poor but Prosperous|first=Akash|last=Kapur|date=1 September 1998|website=The Atlantic}}</ref> [[Hans Rosling]] also highlighted this when he said Kerala matches U.S. in health but not in economy and took the example of [[Washington, D.C.]] which is much richer but less healthy compared to Kerala.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ted.com/talks/hans_rosling_asia_s_rise_how_and_when/transcript|title=Transcript of "Asia's rise -- how and when"|first=Hans|last=Rosling|website=www.ted.com |date=23 November 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.utne.com/community/theenigmaofkerala/|title=The Enigma of Kerala|date=9 October 2007 }}</ref>

'''Key Health Development indicators-''' '''Kerala & India'''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Health Indicators
!Kerala
!India
|-
|Life expectancy at birth (Male)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=GBD India Compare {{!}} IHME Viz Hub|url=http://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-compare/india|access-date=2021-09-13|website=vizhub.healthdata.org}}</ref>
|74.39
|69.51
|-
|Life expectancy at birth (Female)<ref name=":0" />
|79.98
|72.09
|-
|Life expectancy at birth (Average)<ref name=":0" />
|77.28
|70.77
|-
|Birth rate (per 1,000 population)
|14.1<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Report 2018, Government of Kerala|first=Annual Vital Statistics|date=2019|title=ANNUAL VITAL STATISTICS REPORT – 2018, Vital Statistics Division Department of Economics & Statistics Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 2019|url=http://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/Vital_Statistics/data/vital_statistics_2018.pdf|website=www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in|access-date=17 October 2021|archive-date=2 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102023933/http://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/Vital_Statistics/data/vital_statistics_2018.pdf}}</ref>
|17.64<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Death rate, crude (per 1,000 people) - India {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.CDRT.IN?locations=IN|access-date=2021-09-13|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>
|-
|Death rate (per 1,000 population)
|7.47<ref name=":1" />
|7.26<ref name=":2" />
|-
|Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 population)
|7<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=Reserve Bank of India - Publications|url=https://m.rbi.org.in/Scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=19999|access-date=2021-09-13|website=m.rbi.org.in}}</ref>
|28<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) - India {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?locations=IN|access-date=2021-09-13|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>
|-
|Under 5-Mortality rate(per 1,000 live births)<ref name=":3" />
|10
|36
|-
|Maternal mortality ratio (per lakh live births)<ref name=":0" />
|53.49
|178.35
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Other Key SDG 3 Indicators<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=PARTNERSHIPS IN THE DECADE OF ACTION|first=SDG INDIA INDEX AND DASHBOARD 2020-2021|date=4 March 2021|title=SDG INDIA INDEX AND DASHBOARD 2020-2021-PARTNERSHIPS IN THE DECADE OF ACTION, NITI AYOG 2021|url=https://www.niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/SDG_3.0_Final_04.03.2021_Web_Spreads.pdf|website=www.niti.gov.in}}</ref>
!Indicators
!2020
!2019
|-
|Children in the age group 9–11 months Immunised(%)
|92
|
|-
|Notification rate of Tuberculosis per 1,00,000 population
|75
|71
|-
|HIV Incidence per 1,000 uninfected population
|0.02
|0.03
|-
|Suicide rate (per 1,00,000 population)
|24.30
|
|-
|Death rate due to road accidents per 1,00,000 population
|12.42
|
|-
|Institutional deliveries out of the total deliveries reported (%)
|99.90
|74
|-
|Monthly per capita out-of-pocket expenditure on health (%)
|17
|
|-
|Physicians, nurses and midwives per 10,000 population
|115
|112
|}

==Education==
[[File:Kulakkada GVHSS.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A government school in [[Kottarakara]] ]]
[[Pallikkoodam]], a school model started by Buddhists was prevalent in the [[Malabar District|Malabar region]], [[Kingdom of Cochin]], and Kingdom of [[Travancore]]. This model was later acquired by Christian missionaries and paved the way for an educational revolution in Kerala by making education accessible to all, irrespective of caste or religion. Christian missionaries introduced Western education methods to Kerala. Communities such as Ezhavas, Nairs and Dalits were guided by monastic orders (called [[ashrams]]) and Hindu saints and social reformers such as [[Sree Narayana Guru]], [[Sree Chattampi Swamikal]] and [[Ayyankali]], who exhorted them to educate themselves by starting their own schools. That resulted in numerous Sree Narayana schools and colleges, [[Nair Service Society]] schools. The teachings of these saints have also empowered the poor and backward classes to organize themselves and bargain for their rights. The [[Government of Kerala]] instituted the [[Aided School]] system to help schools with operating expenses such as salaries for running these schools.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=14 February 2020 |title=Kerala acts to rein in aided schools |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/editorials/2020/Feb/14/kerala-acts-to-rein-in-aided-schools-2103121.html |access-date=18 September 2024 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

Kerala had been a notable centre of [[Veda|Vedic]] learning, having produced one of the most influential Hindu philosophers, [[Adi Shankaracharya]]. The Vedic learning of the [[Nambudiri]]s is an unaltered tradition that still holds today, and is unique for its orthodoxy, unknown to other Indian communities. However, in feudal Kerala, though only the Nambudiris received an education in [[Veda]]s, other castes as well as women were open to receive education in [[Sanskrit]], mathematics and [[astronomy]], in contrast to other parts of India.{{citation needed|date=November 2018}} [[Tirunavaya]] was a centre of Vedic learning in early medieval period. [[Ponnani]] in Kerala was a global centre of [[Islam]]ic learning during the medieval period.

The upper castes, such as [[Nair]]s, [[Tamil Brahmin]], [[Ambalavasi]]s, [[St Thomas Christians]], as well as lower castes such as [[Ezhava]]s had a strong history of Sanskrit learning. In fact, many [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] physicians (such as [[Itty Achudan]]) were from the lower-caste [[Ezhava]] community and [[Muslim]] community (such as the father of renowned [[Mappila Paattu]] poet [[Moyinkutty Vaidyar]]). [[Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier]] was a prominent Ayurvedic physician. This level of learning by lower-caste people was not seen in other parts of India. Also, Kerala had been the site of the notable [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics|Kerala School]] which pioneered principles of mathematics and logic, and cemented Kerala's status as a place of learning. {{citation needed|date=November 2018}}

The prevalence of education was not only restricted to males. In pre-colonial Kerala, women, especially those belonging to the [[matrilineal]] [[Nair]] caste, received an education in Sanskrit and other sciences, as well as [[Kalaripayattu]], a martial art. This was unique to Kerala, but was facilitated by the inherent equality shown by Kerala society to females and males,{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} since Kerala society was largely matrilineal, as opposed to the rigid patriarchy in other parts of India which led to a loss of women's rights.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

===1800–1880: Missionary Contributions===
In the 19th century, Christian missionaries played a pivotal role in reshaping the educational landscape of Kerala. They introduced Western-style schooling and emphasized inclusive education, especially targeting marginalized communities such as women, lower‑caste groups, and tribal populations. These efforts laid the foundation for Kerala's later educational success.

====Basel German Evangelical Mission====
The [[Basel Evangelical Mission]], originating from Germany, initiated educational work in the [[Malabar District]] between 1806 and 1816, establishing numerous schools aiming to promote literacy and uplift disadvantaged communities.<ref>{{cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |title=A Survey of Kerala History |publisher=D C Books |year=2007}}</ref>

One of the mission's most eminent figures was [[Hermann Gundert]], who made significant contributions to Malayalam scholarship:
* Compiled the first comprehensive Malayalam grammar, ''Malayalabhaasha Vyakaranam''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gundert |first=Hermann |title=Malayala Bhaasha Vyakaranam |year=1859 |publisher=Basel Mission Press}}</ref>
* Authored the first Malayalam–English dictionary, published in 1872.<ref>{{cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |title=A Survey of Kerala History |publisher=D C Books |year=2007}}</ref>
* Established a lithographic press in 1846 near [[Tellicherry]], facilitating the wider dissemination of educational texts.<ref>{{cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |title=A Survey of Kerala History |publisher=D C Books |year=2007}}</ref>
* Launched the Malayalam periodical ''Keralopakari'' in 1874, which featured news, agricultural updates, and educational content.<ref>{{cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |title=A Survey of Kerala History |publisher=D C Books |year=2007}}</ref>

The Basel Mission schools admitted students from all castes—including [[Ezhava]]s, [[Pulaya]]s, and other socially marginalized communities—providing them with a path to literacy, vocational training, and social upliftment.<ref>{{cite book |last=Saradamoni |first=K. |title=Emergence of a Slave Caste: Pulayas of Kerala |publisher=Sage Publications |year=1980}}</ref>

====Church Missionary Society (CMS) and London Missionary Society (LMS)====
The [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS) and [[London Missionary Society]] (LMS) expanded education throughout central and southern Kerala:

* CMS missionaries such as Rev. [[Thomas Norton (missionary)|Thomas Norton]] and Rev. [[Thomas Dawson (missionary)|Thomas Dawson]] established schools in regions like [[Mavelikkara]], [[Tiruvalla]], [[Mallapally]], and [[Melukavu]].<ref>{{cite book |last=George |first=K. M. |title=Church Missionary Society and Education in Kerala |publisher=Christian Literature Society |year=1961}}</ref>
* LMS missionary Rev. [[Charles Mead]] worked in southern Travancore (1817–1873), initiating vocational and primary education programmes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Frykenberg |first=Robert Eric |title=Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008}}</ref>
* Mission schools welcomed students from oppressed communities such as Dalits and Ezhavas, challenging prevailing caste boundaries.<ref>{{cite book |last=Saradamoni |first=K. |title=Emergence of a Slave Caste: Pulayas of Kerala |publisher=Sage Publications |year=1980}}</ref>

Notably, [[Dorothea Baker]], wife of Rev. [[Henry Baker Jr.]], founded the first formal girls' school in [[Kottayam]] in 1819, later known as the *Baker Memorial Girls' School*. This pioneering initiative enabled education for girls—including those from lower-caste backgrounds—for the first time in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book |last=George |first=K. M. |title=Church Missionary Society and Education in Kerala |publisher=Christian Literature Society |year=1961}}</ref>

====Catholic Church Initiatives====
The [[Catholic Church]] also contributed significantly to educational access in the princely states of [[Travancore]] and [[Cochin]]:

* Archbishop [[Bernardine Baccinelli]] promoted the concept of establishing a school alongside every church, thus ensuring that both rural Catholic and tribal communities gained access to primary education.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zacharia |first=K. M. |title=Catholic Church and Education in Kerala |publisher=Kerala Historical Society |year=1992}}</ref>
* These churches typically admitted students from all social strata, fostering early forms of caste-integrated schooling.

A key figure was **Mother Eliswa**, a widowed nun who later founded the [[Third Order of the Discalced Carmelites]] (TOCD). She established one of Kerala's earliest convent schools for girls, explicitly focusing on **orphaned and lower-caste girls**, offering literacy, moral instruction, and vocational training (e.g. sewing and handicrafts).<ref>{{cite web |title=The Educational Mission of Mother Eliswa |url=http://tocd.in/mothereliswa |publisher=TOCD Archives |access-date=2025-07-12}}</ref>

These Catholic efforts complemented Protestant missionary activity, together weakening caste-based exclusion in educational institutions across Kerala.

===1880–1947: Travancore State Reforms===
The princely state of [[Travancore]] led a series of landmark educational reforms under the enlightened rule of Maharajas [[Visakham Thirunal Rama Varma]] and
Moolam Thirunal Rama Varma. A school for girls was established by the Maharaja in 1859, which was an act unprecedented in the Indian subcontinent. In colonial times, Kerala exhibited little defiance against the [[British Raj]]. However, they had mass protests for [[social mores|social causes]] such as rights for "[[untouchability|untouchables]]" and education for all. Popular protest to hold public officials accountable is a vital part of life in Kerala.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0517/p12s01-legn.html|title=How almost everyone in Kerala learned to read|website=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|year=2005}}</ref>
These state-driven reforms complemented the missionary efforts and created a robust educational infrastructure, helping Kerala emerge as one of the most literate regions in colonial India.

Key initiatives during this period included:
* Introduction of the '''grants-in-aid''' system to provide financial support to private and mission-run schools.
* Implementation of '''free primary education''' for socially and economically backward classes.
* Establishment of '''scholarships for foreign study''', enabling meritorious students from Kerala to pursue higher education abroad.
* Founding of major educational institutions such as:
** [[Victoria Medical School]], which laid the foundation for modern medical education in Kerala.
** [[Sanskrit College]], promoting classical education among upper-caste and Brahmin students.
** Schools dedicated to the education of '''girls''' and the '''reform of juveniles''', ensuring inclusion and rehabilitation.
* Promotion of '''technical and vocational education''' to meet the industrial and administrative needs of a modernizing state.
* Systematic '''categorization of schools''' into primary, upper primary, secondary, and collegiate levels, ensuring structured progression in education.

The following table shows the literacy rate of Kerala from 1951 to 2011, measured every decade:<ref name=":10">{{cite web
|url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/education/status.htm
|title=Education
|publisher=Kerala Government
|access-date=17 July 2010
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726215318/http://www.kerala.gov.in/education/status.htm
|archive-date=26 July 2010
}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Literacy
!Male
!Female
!Transgender/ Non-binary
|-
|1951
|47.18
|58.35
|36.43
|
|-
|1961
|55.08
|64.89
|45.56
|
|-
|1971
|69.75
|77.13
|62.53
|
|-
|1981
|78.85
|84.56
|73.36
|
|-
|1991
|89.81
|93.62
|86.17
|
|-
|2001
|90.92
|94.20
|87.86
|
|-
|-
|2011
|94.59
|97.10
|92.12
|84.61<ref>{{Cite web |title=TransGender/Others - Census 2011 India |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/transgender.php |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref>
|-
|}
The [[Kerala State Literacy Mission Authority]] (KSLMA) had set up "continuing education programmes for [[transgender]]s" (''Samanwaya'') to educate transgender people in Kerala who are ostracised by their family and society and "forced to go out of homes as they are harassed in schools, colleges and in society".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Continuing Education programme for Transgenders |url=https://literacymissionkerala.org/en/services/continuing-education-programme-for-transgenders/ |access-date=2023-04-15 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=18 transgenders clear higher secondary course via Kerala's Samanwaya programme |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2020/10/22/kerala-transgender-community-flying-colours.html |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=OnManorama}}</ref> The Social Justice Department of Kerala has various welfare programmes for transgender people like ''Yatnam''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Social Justice, Kerala |url=http://sjd.kerala.gov.in/scheme-info.php?scheme_id=MTgxc1Y4dXFSI3Z5 |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=sjd.kerala.gov.in}}</ref> which provides financial assistance for transgender students preparing for competitive exams, ''Varnam'' for distance education programmes, there are also other financial assistant programmes for hostel facility<ref>{{Cite web |title=Social Justice, Kerala |url=http://sjd.kerala.gov.in/scheme-info.php?scheme_id=IDE0OHNWOHVxUiN2eQ== |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=sjd.kerala.gov.in}}</ref> etc.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Social Justice, Kerala |url=http://sjd.kerala.gov.in/scheme-info.php?scheme_id=IDE3MXNWOHVxUiN2eQ== |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=sjd.kerala.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Social Justice, Kerala |url=http://sjd.kerala.gov.in/beneficiary-info.php?benef_sl=N3NWOHVxUiN2eQ== |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=sjd.kerala.gov.in |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601063138/http://sjd.kerala.gov.in/beneficiary-info.php?benef_sl=N3NWOHVxUiN2eQ== |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Social Justice, Kerala |url=http://sjd.kerala.gov.in/scheme-info.php?scheme_id=IDEzNnNWOHVxUiN2eQ== |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=sjd.kerala.gov.in}}</ref> Although these policies help some of the transgender people positively they still face disproportionate amount of discrimination in their daily life which makes it harder for these policies to have a meaningful impact on the transgender community.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kerala govt failed in implementing transgender policy: Amicus curiae report |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/kerala-govt-failed-in-implementing-transgender-policy-amicus-curiae-report-1884222-2021-12-04 |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=India Today |date=5 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ajith |first=Aishwarya |date=2022-10-09 |title=Slow But Steady: how Kerala's Transgender Policy has helped the Trans Community |url=https://publicpolicyindia.com/2022/10/10/slow-but-steady-how-keralas-transgender-policy-has-helped-the-trans-community/ |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=Public Policy India |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=R |first=Dr Poornima |date=2022 |title=Through the Cracks of the Gendered World: A Critical Analysis of Kerala's Transgender Policy |url=https://journalspoliticalscience.com/index.php/i/article/view/175 |journal=Journal of Polity and Society |language=en |volume=14 |issue=2 |issn=0976-0210}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-06-13 |title=Seven months in, Kerala's transgender policy still thicker on paper than in reality |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/seven-months-keralas-transgender-policy-still-thicker-paper-reality-44773 |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref>

== Gender ==
Kerala has the highest score on the [[Gender Development Index|Gender Development index]] in India, as demonstrated by the relatively high literacy rate, sex ratio, and mean age at marriage for women, as well as low fertility and infant mortality rates compared to the rest of the country.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kumar |first=B. Pradeep |date=2020-12-01 |title=Does Gender Status Translate into Economic Participation of Women? Certain Evidence from Kerala |journal=Shanlax International Journal of Economics |volume=1 |issue=9 |pages=50–56 |url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/104878/1/MPRA_paper_104878.pdf |language=en |location=Rochester, NY |doi=10.34293/economics.v9i1.3546 |ssrn=3785204|s2cid=229368586 }}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=Mitra |first1=Aparna |last2=Singh |first2=Pooja |date=December 2007 |title=Human Capital Attainment and Gender Empowerment: The Kerala Paradox |journal=Social Science Quarterly |volume=88 |issue=5 |pages=1227–1242 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6237.2007.00500.x |issn=0038-4941}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Parthiban |first=Dr Shahana A. M., Dr A. Sivakumar & Mr V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6AI1EAAAQBAJ&q=gender+equality+kerala |title=THE OPPORTUNITIES OF UNCERTAINTIES: FLEXIBILITY AND ADAPTATION NEEDED IN CURRENT CLIMATE Volume I (Social Science and ICT) |date=2021-06-25 |publisher=Lulu Publication |isbn=978-1-300-39724-3 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Chacko |first=Elizabeth |date=2003 |title=Marriage, Development, and the Status of Women in Kerala, India |journal=Gender and Development |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=52–59 |doi=10.1080/741954317 |issn=1355-2074 |jstor=4030640 |s2cid=71356583}}</ref> In fact, women in Kerala have played a crucial role in increasing the state's literacy rates, with the mobilization of educated, unemployed women making up two-thirds of volunteer teachers involved in the literacy drive during a 1990 campaign to eliminate illiteracy.<ref name=":11" /> The literacy gap between males and females in India is lowest in Kerala, with the female literacy rate just 5% lower than that of males.<ref name=":10" /> Moreover, as of 2021, the life expectancy for females is 79.98 years in Kerala compared to 72.09 years in India as a whole.<ref name=":0" /> The infant mortality rate is 7 per 1,000 live births in Kerala,<ref name=":7" /> as opposed to 28 in India.<ref name=":8" /> Another indicator of gender equality and women's health is the [[Maternal mortality in India|maternal mortality]] rate, which is 53.59 per 100,000 live births in Kerala and 178.35 in the rest of India.<ref name=":0" />

Historically, women in Kerala are thought to have possessed more autonomy relative to other Indian states, which is often attributed to its [[Matrilineality|matrilineal]] structure which ultimately changed into a [[Patrilineality|patrilineal]] system in the 20th century.<ref name=":14">{{Cite thesis |last=Håberg |first=Ingunn |date=2020 |title=Men: a missing factor in SDG 5? A study on gender equality in Kerala with a focus on men's attitudes towards women |type=MA |publisher=Oslo Metropolitan University |url=https://oda.oslomet.no/oda-xmlui/handle/10642/9195 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Erwér |first=Monica |title=Challenging the genderparadox: women's collective agency in the transformation of Kerala politics |date=2003 |publisher=Dept. of Peace and Development Research, Göteborg University |oclc=61115319}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jeffrey |first=Robin |title=Politics, Women and Well-Being: How Kerala Became 'a Model'. |date=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan Limited |isbn=978-1-349-12252-3 |oclc=1083463758}}</ref><ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Grover |first=Shalini |date=2015-05-04 |title=Women, Gender, and Everyday Social Transformation in India |journal=Gender & Development |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=387–390 |doi=10.1080/13552074.2015.1053296 |issn=1355-2074 |s2cid=141504763}}</ref> Matriliny, in which property was inherited collectively through the female line, was largely practiced by the Hindu Nair caste as well as some other upper-caste Hindus such as the Ezhavas and even some Muslims, who are exclusively patriarchal in other parts of India.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" /> However, Christian succession laws in the early 20th century in Kerala were severely restrictive against women. For instance, unmarried daughters could only claim between a quarter and a third of each son's share of paternal property, or 5,000 rupees, whichever was less, if the father died without making a will. In all other instances, daughters' inheritances were restricted to dowries. These laws were challenged when [[Mary Roy]], a [[Syrian Christianity in India|Syrian Christian]] woman who had not received a [[dowry]] sued her brother to gain equal access to their inheritance. She ultimately won the case and it was considered a landmark ruling for female succession. Beginning in the 1920s, the Hindu matriarchal system fragmented, especially once the Travancore Nayar Regulation Act of 1925 was passed, which was initiated by the British and began the transition to a strictly patriarchal structure.<ref name=":11" /> By the 1970s, the matrilineal system had virtually disappeared and the Kerala family organization became exclusively patrilineal and women's rights to property were significantly restricted.<ref name=":12" />

Though women in Kerala are highly educated, recent studies have called attention to the "gender paradox" in Kerala, in which despite the literacy and education of women in Kerala, they are still oppressed in similar or greater regards by the patriarchy relative to other Indian states.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":14" /> Societal and cultural norms are argued by scholars to continue to restrict women's freedoms and maintain their subservience to men both at home and in the labor market. High female unemployment rates, discrimination in the labor market, and elevated female suicide rates and gender-based violence, are all indicators of the "gender paradox" in Kerala.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":11" /> In addition, the persistence of the long-standing tradition of dowry across lines of caste, class, and religion, and the finding that women do about twenty times as much housework as men in Kerala suggest the restricted autonomy and oppression that Kerala women continue to face.<ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Simister |first=John |date=April 2011 |title=Assessing the 'Kerala Model': Education is Necessary but Not Sufficient |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/097317411100600101 |journal=Journal of South Asian Development |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–24 |doi=10.1177/097317411100600101 |issn=0973-1741 |s2cid=153551223|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Furthermore, economic participation and involvement of women is declining in Kerala, and male casual laborers receive almost double that of women.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pradeep Kumar |first=B |date=2020-12-01 |title=Does Gender Status Translate into Economic Participation of Women? Certain Evidence from Kerala |journal=Shanlax International Journal of Economics |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=50–56 |doi=10.34293/economics.v9i1.3546 |issn=2582-0192 |s2cid=229368586|doi-access=free }}</ref> However, some policies such as the [[National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005|Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme]] (MGNREGS) and [[Kutumbashree|Kudumbashree]] microenterprises have promoted female entrepreneurship, encouraged women's economic empowerment, and decreased gender disparities in Kerala, according to academic literature analyzing gender sensitive policies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ali |first1=Hyfa M. |last2=George |first2=Leyanna S. |date=2019-09-30 |title=A qualitative analysis of the impact of Kudumbashree and MGNREGA on the lives of women belonging to a coastal community in Kerala |journal=Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=2832–2836 |doi=10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_581_19 |issn=2249-4863 |pmc=6820395 |pmid=31681651 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== State policy ==
In 1957 Kerala elected a communist government headed by [[EMS Namboothiripad]], introduced the revolutionary [[Land reform in Kerala|Land Reform Ordinance]]. The land reform was implemented by the subsequent government, which had abolished [[tenancy]], benefiting 1.5 million poor households. This achievement was the result of decades of struggle by Kerala's peasant associations. In 1967 in his second term as [[List of chief ministers of Kerala|Chief Minister]], EMS again pushed for reform. The land reform initiative abolished tenancy and [[landlord]] exploitation, effective [[Rationing|public food distribution]] that provides subsidised rice to low-income households, protective laws for agricultural workers, pensions for retired agricultural laborers, and a high rate of government employment for members of formerly [[Indian caste system|lower-caste]] communities.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}

[[India]] is a multinational state home to provincial states with differing policies, and Kerala's place within this [[federalist]] system can be seen through analyses of its [[regime type]]. Two coalitions containing all-India parties have alternately been in power in Kerala—not dissimilar to the neighboring South Indian state of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. Kerala has a strong [[leftist]] movement presence that has contributed to changes in the traditional [[Caste|feudal-caste]] system in India. [[Democratization]] of the state has surrounded significant increases in components of [[welfare spending|welfare]] and has led to a large social transformation since the early 20th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chathukulam |first1=Jos |last2=Tharamangalam |first2=Joseph |date=January 2021 |title=The Kerala model in the time of COVID19: Rethinking state, society and democracy |journal=World Development |volume=137 |article-number=105207 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105207 |issn=0305-750X |pmc=7510531 |pmid=32989341}}</ref>

Kerala and [[Tamil Nadu]] have comparable increases in social development, albeit with Kerala to a much higher degree—yet Tamil Nadu has been ruled by Tamil [[Nationalism|nationalist]] parties for over half a century.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last=Oomen |first=T. K. |date=2009 |title=Development Policy and the Nature of Society: Understanding the Kerala Model |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=44 |issue=13 |pages=25–31 |jstor=40278657 |issn=0012-9976}}</ref> In comparison, [[West Bengal]] is seen as even stronger in terms of Leftist movement and governmental policy compared to Kerala yet is ranked far lower in disparities in rural areas, urban areas, [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|scheduled castes, and scheduled tribes]]. Further, there is hardly any per capita consumption expenditure and [[Literacy|literacy levels]] between Muslims and Hindus in Kerala—while Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and the country as a whole have relatively high levels of disparities among the two predominant religious groups.<ref name=":15" />

Interestingly enough, those political radicals involved in the original social integration movements in Kerala were politically conservative. Nonetheless, the social discrimination due to caste of the early 20th century contributed to the cultural revolt and [[political mobilization]] of depressed castes. It was the success of these movements that allowed for the creation of Leftist movements that elevates the social status of lower classes as a whole.<ref name="Véron 601–617">{{Cite journal |last=Véron |first=René |date=2001-04-01 |title=The "New" Kerala Model: Lessons for Sustainable Development |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X00001194 |journal=World Development |language=en |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=601–617 |doi=10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00119-4 |issn=0305-750X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Gaps in the Kerala Model==
=== Residual inequality ===
Kerala has had consistently high levels of development when compared to the rest of the country. The state has the highest record of per capita consumer expenditure, and this level has been progressively increasing since 1993.<ref name=":15" /> Kerala has now begun a high growth regime driven mainly by its service and construction industries. The all-India and statewise trend in the estimates of poverty headcount ratio (HCR) and [[Gini coefficient]] show that Kerala reduced its HCR by 10.3% between 1988-1993 and then again by another 12.2% in the 11 years proceeding until 2004–2005. Comparatively, [[Himachal Pradesh]]—which did not benefit from the same Gulf boom that Kerala did—reduced its post-reform [[rural poverty]] to a lower HCR of 10.9% in 2004–05. Moreover, though there was a marginal decline in the Gini coefficient for rural Kerala in 1993-1994 compared to previous years, there is a jump to 38.3% in 2004-2005—the highest figure compared to all-India figures and all other states. The urban Gini coefficient for Kerala in 2004-05 was 41%, second only to Chhattisgarh. Comparisons of scheduled tribes, castes, and religions also show growing income disparities, reflected by increasing incidence of suicides, family violence, gang activity, and alcoholism, among others.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last=Oommen |first=M. A. |date=2008 |title=Reforms and the Kerala Model |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=22–25 |jstor=40276897 |issn=0012-9976}}</ref>

Even public provisioning of equitable access to healthcare and education, which are the foundation of the Kerala model, have decreased overall. The percentage of [[Public Spending|public spending]] on education to total government expenditure decreased from 29.28% in 1982–83 to 23.17% 1992-93 and 17.97% in 2005–06.<ref name="Véron 601–617"/> In terms of education, the educational expenditure size of 6% which Kerala followed in the 1960s and 70s declined to just over 4% in the 1980s and below that in 11 of the 16 years during the post-reform regime. While decline of public expenditure on education decreased during the pre-reform period (from 1980 to 1991) at a rate of 0.97% yearly, the post-reform period has seen an even sharper decline of 2.13% a year. With regard to public expenditure on health and family welfare, there too has been an equally sharp fall in spending, from 11.67% of [[State Domestic Product|state domestic product]] (SDP) to 1983–84 to 9.94% in 1989-90 and down to 6.36% in 2005–06. [[Social security]] entitlements as a percentage of SDP fell significantly too, while it was increasing at a rate of 1.83% in the pre-reform period it fell to 0.15% during the reform period. Under the current [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] regime there has been accelerated commercialization of the education and health sectors—which has altered the equity base of the Kerala model as a whole.<ref name=":15" /> For example, the proportion of students at [[Private schools|private unaided schools]] rose from 2.5% of the 5.9 million total student population in 1990–91 to 7.4% in 2005-06. This is coupled with a 7.5% of intake in government schools over the same time, and only those with the means to pay high fees can go to these private unaided schools.<ref name=":16" />

The [[Fishery|marine fishery sector]] in Kerala is an example of the extent to which disparities still exist despite the Kerala Model's emphasis placed on [[Equality of outcome|equality]]. Though fish and fisheries have a very significant place within Kerala as a whole, fishing communities in Kerala have not benefited from state's overall efforts at improving quality of life nor the increased value of output in the sector. Data from 1965 to 1975 indicate an eleven-fold increase in the value of output from Rs 68.5 million to 741.4 million in current prices.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal |last=Kurien |first=John |date=1995 |title=The Kerala Model: Its Central Tendency and the Outlier |journal=Social Scientist |volume=23 |issue=1/3 |pages=70–90 |doi=10.2307/3517892 |jstor=3517892 |issn=0970-0293}}</ref> However, a major deceleration in the rate of increase of value of output is observed from 1975 to 1985 where the level grew from Rs 741.4 million to just Rs 906.4 million as a result of declining fish harvests and prices. While the net state domestic product has increased by about 18% in the same decade, the fishery sector product has decreased by 20% in comparison. This can be seen in the 29% increase in the gap between per capita state domestic product and product per fisherperson between 1975–76 and 1984–85.<ref name=":17" /> [[Poverty]] is also prevalent in marine fishing communities that are often located on the geographical margins of the land who depend exclusive on the sea for their livelihood. These and other communities on the fringe of state borders have been left behind in the economic and socio-cultural progress that has been widely witnessed by the rest of the state. Poor [[quality of life]] and substandard conditions in marine fishing communities can be attributed specifically to the crowding of entire groups of people on the narrow strip of line along the length of Kerala's coastline: a total of 222 fishing villages along the state's 590 km coastline—none more than a half kilometer wide.<ref name=":16" /> [[Population density]] in marine fishing villages was measured to be around 2113 persons per square kilometer in 1981, compared to a state figure of 655 per square kilometer. Basic amenities such as electric lighting, access to running water, toilet facilities, etc. are also at far lower standards in these fishing villages when compared to the state as a whole. The lack of basic facilities and [[hygiene]] has led to rapid spread of [[contagious diseases]] in these areas which express high levels of respiratory and skin infections, diarrheal disorders and hook worm infections to state a few. Though the all-Kerala [[Infant Mortality Rate|infant mortality rate]] was 17 per 1000 live births in 1991, the corresponding rate is 85 per 1000 births in marine fishing communities. There is also a clear gender bias evidenced by the sex ratio of 972 females to 1000 males in these communities, compared to the all-Kerala 1084:1000 ratio of females to males. Thus, marine fishing communities clearly represent an outlier community that has faced restricted levels of capabilities while the state of Kerala has seen progress overall.<ref name=":17" />

=== Job opportunities and brain drain ===
Despite having high standards of human development, the Kerala model ranks low in terms of industrial and economic development. The high rate of education combined with a small job market in the region has resulted in a [[brain drain]], with many citizens migrating to other parts of the world, especially the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Gulf States]], for employment. A spike of young educated workers emigrating from Kerala occurred in the 1990s. The [[Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation]] attempted to reverse this trend by starting a number of construction projects that will provide 5 million jobs in 2011.<ref>{{cite web |title=Brain drain to brain gain |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-16140058 |website=BBC News |date=12 December 2011}}</ref> In 2023, there was a significant decrease in net migration to the Gulf States due to the worsening job market in these target countries, with many workers returning to Kerala;<ref>{{cite web |title=The Kerala migration story: Decline in migration to Gulf, over 40% emigrants are Muslim |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/kerala-mirgation-survey-findings-gulf-9398005/ |website=The Indian Express |language=en |date=18 June 2024}}</ref> many of them were distress returnees.<ref name="Kumar">{{cite web |last1=Kumar |first1=Dileep V. |title=Youth exodus: Kerala sees unprecedented rise in student emigration, sparks concerns of growing brain drain |url=https://thesouthfirst.com/kerala/youth-exodus-kerala-sees-unprecedented-rise-in-student-emigration-sparks-concerns-of-growing-brain-drain/ |website=The South First |language=en |date=15 June 2024}}</ref> However, the returnees face difficulties in reintegrating with the Kerala job market, as their skills were often not aligned with local needs. Due to financial difficulties, they also tend to accept immediate income over longer-term career growth, so they end up in low-paying jobs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why do Gulf returnees struggle to find jobs in Kerala? |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/why-finding-a-job-for-gulf-returnees-is-difficult-in-kerala-1.10350540 |website=English.Mathrubhumi |language=en |date=17 February 2025}}</ref>

The net decrease in worker migration has not reduced the overall emigration figure in 2023, however. Part of this is due to an unprecedented rise in students studying abroad, which accounted for 11.3% of the total emigration figure.<ref name="Kumar"/>

===Trade union influence and industrial challenges===

Kerala's industrial growth has often been hindered by aggressive trade union practices and left-wing political influence. Extortionary tactics like ''[[Nokku kooli|nookku kooli]]'', where unions demand payment for allowing work without providing labor, along with frequent strikes, have created a challenging business environment. Such practices have deterred investment and contributed to difficulties in generating local employment, exemplified by conflicts faced by companies like [[Anna Kitex Group|Kitex.]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Kerala's industrial growth hindered by labor unrest and political interference|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kitex-labor-issues/article30839454.ece|work=The Hindu|date=2020-02-14}}</ref>

==Opinions==
British Green activist [[Richard Douthwaite]] interviewed a person who remembers once saying that "in some societies, very high levels – virtually First World levels – of individual and public health and welfare are achieved at as little as sixtieth of US nominal GDP per capita and used Kerala as an example".<ref>{{cite book |author=Douthwaite R |title=The Growth Illusion: How Economic Growth has Enriched the Few, Impoverished the Many, and Endangered the Planet |publisher=New Society Publishers |year=1999 |pages=310–312 |isbn=0-86571-396-0 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZxJRc5_vbcC }}</ref>{{rp|310–312}} Richard Douthwaite states that Kerala "is far more sustainable than anywhere in Europe or North America".<ref>{{cite book |author=Heinberg R |title=Powerdown: Options And Actions for a Post-Carbon World |publisher=New Society Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=0-86571-510-6 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAx1Jmyvz5wC |page=105 }}</ref> Kerala's unusual socioeconomic and demographic situation was summarized by author and environmentalist [[Bill McKibben]]:<ref name="McKibben_2006">{{Harv|McKibben|1999}}.</ref>
:{|style="border:5px; border: thin solid #ddddff; background-color:#ddddff; margin:20px;" cellpadding="4"
|-
|Kerala, a state in India, is a bizarre anomaly among developing nations, a place that offers real hope for the future of the Third World. Though not much larger than Maryland, Kerala has a population as big as California's and a per capita annual income of less than $3000. But its infant mortality rate is very low, its literacy rate's among the highest on Earth, and its birthrate's below that of America's and falling faster. Kerala's residents live nearly as long as Americans or Europeans. Though mostly a land of paddy-covered plains, statistically Kerala stands out as the Mount Everest of social development; there's truly no place like it.<ref name="McKibben_2006" />
|}

Kerala continues to lead [[Low income|low-income areas]] compared to the rest of India. Recent criticisms of the Kerala Model suggest that Kerala is losing its lead within India. K. K. George cites figures indicating that Punjab spends more per capita on education and that both [[Rajasthan]] and [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] spend more per capita on health than Kerala. He also compares Kerala unfavorably with [[Maharashtra]], [[Haryana]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Nagaland]], Rajasthan, and [[Uttar Pradesh]] in pension payments to [[Extreme poverty|destitutes]]. These weaknesses should not be overlooked, but they remain minor compared with Kerala's continuing overall ability to deliver a high material quality of life to its people as the indicators show. Oommen and Anandaraj district-level profile (1996) found 9 of Kerala's 14 districts among the top 12 in all of India on a composite of [[literacy]], [[life expectancy]], and several economic variables. Kerala's lowest district of [[Malappuram district|Malappuram]] was 31st on a list of 372 districts.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Franke |first1=Richard |last2=Chasin |first2=Barbara |date=August 1999 |editor-last=Parayil |editor-first=Govindan |title=Is the Kerala Model Sustainable? Lessons from the Past: Prospects for the Future |url=https://msuweb.montclair.edu/~franker/KeralaPapers/ParayilBookdecconf.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530053528/https://msuweb.montclair.edu/~franker/KeralaPapers/ParayilBookdecconf.pdf |archive-date=30 May 2023 |access-date=2022-02-22 |website=montclair.edu |publisher=London: Zed Press |publication-place=The Kerala Model of Development: Perspectives on Development and Sustainability }}</ref>

[[Prabhat Patnaik]] argued that the "[[liberalisation]]-cum-[[structural adjustment]] package of the [[IMF|Fund]] and the [[World Bank|Bank]]" presents a philosophy that asserts that the working masses need to make sacrifices today for the sake of providing incentives to [[Capitalism|capitalists]] for higher growth, from which those same [[Workforce|workers]] would benefit later. This '[[Trickle-down economics|trickle down]]' effect emphasizes the means augmenting [[Supply-side economics|supply-side measures]] necessary for the success of the Kerala Model. The 'reforms' observed, then, are more of a reflection of the structural changes made by the [[Indian economy]] which has increased supply side [[incentive]]s for capitalists. This has led to a rise in the degree of [[Exploitation of labour|exploitation]] of the working people by cutting their so-called [[social wage]] and wrecking the internal balance of the production-structure, which should be taken into consideration when looking at the Kerala Model as a worthwhile example for other [[Third World|third world]] states. To Patnaik, an "important condition [...]for the adoption of a Kerala-type trajectory in any region" is that "the region itself" (or a larger region which contains that smaller region) has "an internally-balanced production-structure where it is self-sufficient in basic necessities". Since Structural adjustments "destroy the internal balance of the production-structure", Patnaik argued that sincere admirers of the Kerala model ought to "oppose the implementation of Fund-Bank-dictated economic 'reforms'[sic]".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Patnaik |first=Prabhat |date=1995 |title=The International Context and the "Kerala Model" |journal=Social Scientist |volume=23 |issue=1/3 |pages=37–49 |doi=10.2307/3517890 |jstor=3517890 |issn=0970-0293}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|title=Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus - 2019|publisher=P. V. Chandran, Managing Editor, Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited, Kozhikode|year=2018|location=Kozhikode|last=Chandran |first=VP|edition=Malayalam}}
* {{cite magazine |last=McKibben |first=Bill |title=Kerala, India |date=October 1999 |magazine=National Geographic Traveler |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/traveler/articles/1028kerala.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020413214205/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/traveler/articles/1028kerala.html |archive-date=13 April 2002}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20081011090100/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/01/09/stories/05092523.htm Amartya Sen and the "Kerala Model"]}}
* [http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_how-christian-missionaries-help-ended-slave-trade-in-kerala_1774963 "How Missionaries help ended slave trade in Kerala"]

{{Topics related to Kerala}}

[[Category:Amartya Sen]]
[[Category:Economy of Kerala]]
[[Category:Political-economic models]]

Niyati

2026-01-09T01:12:29Z

QuyenStobie2: info

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Niyati
| image = Odia Movie Niyati Poster.jpg

| alt =
| caption =
| director = Pinaki Srichandan
| producer = Premalata Routray [[Samaresh Routray]]
| writer = Pinaki Srichandan
| screenplay = Pinaki Srichandan
| story = Pinaki Srichandan
| based_on =
| narrator =
| starring = Sudhanshu Narayan Dash [[Divyadisha Mohanty]] [[Samaresh Routray]] [[Pupul Bhuyan]]
| music = Anurag Pattnaik
| cinematography = Akshaya Kumar Nayak
| editing = KD Sipun
| studio = [[Odiaone Entertainment|OdiaOne]]
| distributor = S3 Movies
| released = {{Film date|2023|07|21|df=yes}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = [[Odia language|Odia]]
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Niyati''''' is a 2023 Indian Odia-language Crime Thriller Film written and directed by Pinaki Srichandan in his Debut and released on 21 July 2023. The Movie Opened with Positive Appreciation From Audiences and Renowned Persons from Odia Film Industry.<ref>{{cite news |title=Niyati - Official Trailer {{!}} Entertainment - Times of India Videos |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/regional/oriya/niyati-official-trailer/videoshow/101643187.cms |access-date=23 July 2023 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=10 July 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Prameya8">{{cite news |title=ସାନୁଙ୍କ 'ନିୟତି' |url=https://moapi.prameyanews.com/prameya/document/pdf/3_95_1675842486681.jpg |access-date=11 February 2023 |work=[[Prameya]]|issue=ଭୁବନେଶ୍ୱର |date=8 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211054847/https://moapi.prameyanews.com/prameya/document/pdf/3_95_1675842486681.jpg |archive-date=11 February 2023 |page=22 |language=or |url-status=live}}</ref> It was produced by Premalata Routray and Samaresh Routray under S3 Movies banner.<ref name="କଥା ନିୟତିର">{{cite news |title=କଥା ନିୟତିର |url=https://dharitriepaper.in/viewmap/384590.jpg |access-date=18 February 2023 |work=[[Dharitri (newspaper)|Dharitri]] |issue=ଭୁବନେଶ୍ୱର |date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218034853/https://dharitriepaper.in/viewmap/384590.jpg |archive-date=18 February 2023 |page=7 |language=or |url-status=live}}</ref> Musician Anurag Patnaik composed all the songs in the movie.<ref>{{cite news |title='ନିୟତି' କାହାଣୀ |url=https://samajaepaper.in/epaperimages/19022023/19022023-md-sn-8/1822023214336102.jpg |access-date=19 February 2023 |work=[[The Samaja|Samaja]] |issue=ରବିବାର |date=19 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219162738/https://samajaepaper.in/epaperimages/19022023/19022023-md-sn-8/1822023214336102.jpg |archive-date=19 February 2023 |page=8 |language=or |url-status=live}}</ref> Sudhanshu Narayan Dash and Divya Mohanty played the lead role.<ref>{{cite news |title=Niyati Odia Movie Cast, Crew, Release Date, Poster, Information |url=https://www.odia360.com/2023/02/niyati-odia-movie-cast-crew-release.html |access-date=23 July 2023 |work=Odia360.Com |date=8 February 2023 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=ସୋନୁଙ୍କ ନିୟତି |url=https://sambadepaper.com/epaperimages/29012023/29012023-md-rv-8/0284829.jpg |access-date=11 February 2023 |work=[[Sambad]] (Sunday) |date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211155627/https://sambadepaper.com/epaperimages/29012023/29012023-md-rv-8/0284829.jpg |archive-date=11 February 2023 |page=8 |language=or |url-status=live}}</ref> Actors like Pupul Bhuyan, Samaresh Routray, Krishna Kar various roles in the movie.<ref>{{cite news |title=Niyati |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/oriya/movie-details/niyati/movieshow/101640092.cms |access-date=23 July 2023 |work=The Times of India |date=10 July 2023}}</ref>

==Cast==
* Sudhanshu Narayan Dash as Mohan Pattnaik
* [[Divya Mohanty]] as Radhika Pattnaik
* [[Samaresh Routray]] as ACP Tiger
* [[Pupul Bhuyan]] as Sadhana
* [[Krishna Kar]] as Kalia Bhai
* Bishan Balabhadra Satapathy as Kali
* Udit Guru as Bikash
* [[Subhranshu Nayak]] as Doctor
* Abhijit Patra as Ranajit
* Ankit Patnaik as Sandeep

== Release ==
This movie was released on 21 July 2023 in theaters and received appreciation from audiences and renowned peoples from the industry for its unique story and direction.<ref>{{cite news |title=Odia Movie Niyati: ମୁକ୍ତିଲାଭ କଲା ଓଡ଼ିଆ ଚଳଚ୍ଚିତ୍ର 'ନିୟତି' |url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/zeeodisha/entertainment/entertainment-news-odia-movie-niyati-release-today-all-over-odisha/1790007 |access-date=23 July 2023 |work=[[Zee News|Zee Odisha News]] |date=21 July 2023 |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-22 |title=Odia movie Niyati released across the state |url=https://odiacelebrity.com/odia-movie-niyati-released-across-the-state/ |access-date=2023-07-23 |website=Odia Celebrity |language=en-US}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt26493199}}
* [https://s3movies.com/films/niyati/ Niyati on S3 Movies]

[[Category:2023 films]]
[[Category:2020s Odia-language films]]
[[Category:2023 Indian films]]

Mukarram Jah

2026-01-04T19:20:31Z

QuyenStobie2: updated details

{{Short description|Titular Nizam of Hyderabad (1967–2023)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2014}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Mir Barakat Ali Khan
| title = Asaf Jah VIII
| image = Prince Of Hyderabad.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Mukarram Jah with his younger brother [[Muffakham Jah]]
| succession = 8th [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] ([[Titular ruler|titular]])
| reign = 24 February 1967 – 5 November 1971 (pretender 1971–2023)
| moretext =
| coronation = 6 April 1967
| reign-type =
| predecessor = [[Mir Osman Ali Khan|Mir Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII]]
| successor = Position abolished {{small|[[Azmet Jah]] (pretender)}}
| suc-type =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1933|10|06|df=y}}
| birth_place = Hilafet Palace, [[Nice]], [[French Third Republic|France]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2023|1|15|1933|10|6|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]]
| burial_date = 18 January 2023
| burial_place = [[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Makkah Masjid]], [[Hyderabad]], [[Telangana]], India
| spouse = [[Esra Birgen|Princess Esra Birgin]] (1959–1974; divorced) Aysha Simmons (1979–1989; widowed) [[Manolya Onur]] (1992–1997; divorced) Jameela Boularous (co-wife) (since 1992) Princess Ayesha Orchedi (co-wife) (since 1994)
| issue = {{plainlist|
*[[Azmet Jah|Azmet Jah, Crown Prince of Hyderabad]]
*Princess Shehryar
*Prince Alexander Azam Khan
*Price Mohammad Amzad Hussain Khan
*Prince Mohammad Umar Khan
*Princess Nilufer
*Princess Zairin}}
| house = [[Asaf Jahi dynasty|House of Asaf Jah]]
| father = [[Azam Jah]]
| mother = [[Dürrüşehvar Sultan]]
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
}}

'''Nizam Mir Barkat Ali Khan Siddiqi Mukarram Jah, Asaf Jah VIII''' (6 October 1933 – 15 January 2023), less formally known as '''Mukarram Jah''', was the [[Titular ruler|titular]] [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] between 1967 and 1971.<ref name="Zubrzycki">{{Citation | last = Zubrzycki | first = John | title = The Last Nizam: An Indian Prince in the Australian Outback | publisher = Pan Macmillan Australia Pty, Limited | year = 2006 | isbn = 1-4050-3722-9}}</ref> He was the head of the [[Asaf Jahi dynasty|House of Asaf Jah]] until he died in 2023.

Born as the eldest son of [[Azam Jah]] and [[Dürrüşehvar Sultan]], he was named successor to the title of [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] by his grandfather [[Mir Osman Ali Khan]]. Upon Osman's death in 1967, he became the titular Nizam. He lost his titles and the [[Privy Purse|privy purses]] in 1971 when the 26th Amendment to the Indian constitution was passed.

Jah subsequently moved to Australia, where he stayed at the [[Murchison House Station]]. While the prince remained in Australia, his palaces in Hyderabad were encroached upon and fell into disrepair. Numerous divorce settlements and failed business ventures led to the loss of the majority of his fortune. In 1996, he moved to Turkey where he remained until he died in 2023. Jah was buried in Hyderabad.

Jah chaired the [[H.E.H. the Nizam's Charitable Trust|H.E.H. The Nizam's Charitable Trust]] and Mukarram Jah Trust for Education & Learning (MJTEL) Mukarram Jah High School.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-12-20 |title=Nizam Mukarram Jah Trust for Education and Learning wins tax fight |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/131220/news-current-affairs/article/nizam-mukarram-jah-trust-education-and-learning-wins-tax-fight |access-date=2023-01-18 |website=Deccan Chronicle |language=en}}</ref>

==Biography==

=== Early life and education ===
Mukarram Jah was born to [[Azam Jah]], the son and heir of [[Osman Ali Khan]], the last reigning Nizam of Hyderabad state, by his wife [[Dürrüşehvar Sultan]], daughter of the last [[Ottoman Caliph|Caliph]] of the [[Ottoman dynasty]], [[Abdulmejid II]].<ref>{{Citation | title = Princess Durru Shehvar passes away | date = 9 February 2006 | url = http://www.hindu.com/2006/02/09/stories/2006020919300500.htm| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071025025100/http://www.hindu.com/2006/02/09/stories/2006020919300500.htm| url-status = dead| newspaper = [[The Hindu]] | archive-date = 25 October 2007}}</ref> His younger brother is [[Muffakham Jah]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nizam set to get possession of £35 million after London court rules in favour|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/692002-london-court-rules-in-favour-of-nizam-set-to-get-possession-of-35-million|access-date=2022-01-12|website=www.thenews.com.pk|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Convert Nizam's lands into parks, royal kin urges Telangana CM|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2021/jul/09/convert-nizams-lands-into-parks-royalkin-urges-telangana-cm-2327491.html|access-date=17 January 2022|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

Jah was educated in [[India]] at [[the Doon School]] in [[Dehradun]] and in [[England]] at [[Harrow School|Harrow]] and [[Peterhouse, Cambridge]]. He also studied at the [[London School of Economics]] and at the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Singh |first=Kishore |title=India's wealthiest man the country forgot |date=30 March 2007 |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/india-s-wealthiest-man-the-country-forgot-107033001010_1.html |newspaper=Business Standard}}</ref>

Jah stayed at [[Teen Murti Bhavan]] in New Delhi for a while and briefly served as an honorary aide-de-camp of [[Jawaharlal Nehru]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=K.S.S.SESHAN |date=2018-10-30 |title=The progressive princess of Hyderabad |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/princess-durru-shehvar-progressive-princess-of-hyderabad/article25368539.ece |access-date=2023-01-17 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He stated in 2010 that Nehru had wanted him to become his personal envoy or the Indian ambassador to a [[Muslim]] country.<ref>{{Citation |title=Nehru had big plans for me, says Mukarram Jah |date=14 March 2010 |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-14/hyderabad/28126361_1_chiran-palace-prince-mukarram-jah-prime-minister |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811050901/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-14/hyderabad/28126361_1_chiran-palace-prince-mukarram-jah-prime-minister |archive-date=11 August 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Nizam of Hyderabad ===
He became the titular Nizam of Hyderabad after the death of his grandfather in 1967.

=== Life in Australia and Turkey ===
In 1972, he visited Australia<ref name="MGAge">{{cite news |last1=Grattan |first1=Michelle |title=The Last Nizam |url=https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/books/the-last-nizam-20060812-ge2wkj.html |access-date=19 February 2023 |publisher=The Age |date=12 August 2006 |ref=MGAge}}</ref> and came across the [[Murchison House Station]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Murchison House Station, Western Australia |url=https://www.murchisonhousestation.com.au |website=Murchison House Station |access-date=17 February 2023}}</ref> a pastoral property of 350,000 acres on the west coast, near Kalbarri. He bought the farm and permanently moved to Australia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Janyala |first=Sreenivas |date=2023-01-17 |title=Trailed by history, the Last Nizam, who travelled continents, died away from 'home' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/mukarram-jah-last-nizam-hyderabad-history-travelled-continents-died-home-8386542/ |access-date=2023-01-18 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> He also purchased Havelock House,<ref>{{cite web |title=Havelock House |url=http://inherit.stateheritage.wa.gov.au/Public/Inventory/Details/21f2c0c0-8c36-4931-8a02-29f0b2890508 |website=Heritage Council of Western Australia |publisher=Government of Western Australia |access-date=18 February 2023}}</ref> a mansion in [[Perth]].

In 1996, he sold the farm and moved to [[Turkey]] shortly after.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Traub |first=Alex |date=2023-02-07 |title=Mukarram Jah, Heir to an Opulent Throne He Abandoned, Dies at 89 |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/07/world/asia/mukarram-jah-dead.html |access-date=2023-02-08 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

His two main palaces in Hyderabad, [[Chowmahalla Palace|Chowmahalla]] and [[Falaknuma Palace|Falaknuma]], have been restored and opened to the public, the former as a museum showcasing the era of the Nizams and the latter as a luxury hotel. The Taj Falaknuma Palace Hotel opened in February 2010, having been leased to the [[Taj Hotels Resorts and Palaces|Taj Group]], after some ten years of renovations.<ref>{{Citation | title = Taj Falaknuma Palace, Hyderabad - Opening February 2010 | date = February 2010 | url = http://www.tajgetaways.com/palaces/falaknuma/falaknuma.html | url-status = dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100322203715/http://www.tajgetaways.com/palaces/falaknuma/falaknuma.html | archivedate = 22 March 2010}}</ref>

Like his grandfather, Mukarram was the richest man in India until the 1980s. However, in the 1990s, he lost some assets to divorce settlements. His net worth is nevertheless estimated at $US 2 billion.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/g2/story/0,3604,497496,00.html Natwest Bank account freeze]</ref><ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5118720.stm Costliest divorce in India]</ref>

=== Death and funeral ===
Jah died on 15 January 2023, at the age of 89.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mukarram Jah, Eighth Nizam of Hyderabad, Passes Away |url=https://www.thequint.com/south-india/mukarram-jah-bahadur-eighth-nizam-hyderabad-passed-away-istanbul-esra-nawab-mir-barket-ali-khan-walashan |access-date=15 January 2023 |publisher=The Quint |date=15 January 2023}}</ref> Per Jah's wishes, his funeral took place in [[Hyderabad]] which was the former capital of [[Hyderabad State]] and of the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]], on 18 January 2023.

His remains were [[Lying in state|laid in state]] at the [[Chowmahalla Palace]], where family members and government officials paid their respects.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2023-01-17 |title=Last Nizam to be laid to rest with police honours |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/last-nizam-to-be-laid-to-rest-with-police-honours/article66387328.ece |access-date=2023-01-17 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In the evening of 18 January, he was buried at the [[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Mecca Masjid]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nanisetti |first=Serish |date=2023-01-18 |title=Mukarram Jah laid to rest in Mecca Masjid |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/mukarram-jah-laid-to-rest-in-mecca-masjid/article66397402.ece |access-date=2023-01-19 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Personal life==
=== Marriages ===
Mukarram Jah married five times. His first wife was a Turkish noblewoman, [[Princess Esra|Esra Birgin]] (b. 1936), and they married in 1959.<ref name="Zubrzycki"/><ref>{{Cite web | last = Guruswamy | first = Mohan | title = Books: The Last Nizam by John Zubrzycki. Picador India, Delhi, 2006. | work = City of Hope: a symposium on Hyderabad and its syncretic culture | date = May 2008 | url = http://www.india-seminar.com/2008/585/585_books.htm | accessdate = 30 December 2008}}</ref> Jah left his Hyderabad palace for a [[sheep station]] in the [[Australian outback]] and divorced his wife, who did not want to move with him.<ref name="dalrymple">{{Citation | last = Dalrymple | first = William | author-link = William Dalrymple (historian) | title = The lost world | newspaper = Guardian | date = 8 December 2007 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2007/dec/08/weekend.williamdalrymple}}</ref> In 1979, he married a former [[air hostess]] and employee of the [[BBC]], Helen Simmons (b. 1949 – d. 1989);<ref name="timesofindia060321"/><ref name="AWW19800312">{{cite journal |last1=Sandilands |first1=John |title=Nizam of Hyderabad marries Perth girl |journal=Australian Women's Weekly |date=12 March 1980 |pages=2–5 |access-date=19 February 2023 |url = https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/55462103/439864}}</ref> she converted to Islam and changed her name to Aysha. After her death, he married [[Manolya Onur]] (b. 1954 – d. 2017), a former [[Miss Turkey]] in 1992, and divorced her after a five-year marriage in 1997.<ref name="dalrymple"/><ref name="timesofindia060321">{{Citation | title = Turkish Beauty Fights for Justice | newspaper = The Times of India | date = 21 March 2006 | url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1457880,flstry-1.cms | url-status = dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100120080731/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1457880,flstry-1.cms | archivedate = 20 January 2010}}</ref><ref name="timesofindia060319">{{Citation | last = Shrivastava | first = Namita A | title = Princess diaries | newspaper = The Times of India | date = 19 March 2006 | url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1455717,prtpage-1.cms}}</ref>

He married Jameela Boularous (b. 1972), from Morocco, in 1992.<ref>{{Citation | title = Nizam lands in $7-lakh soup | newspaper = The Telegraph, Calcutta, India | date = 24 March 2006 | url = http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060324/asp/atleisure/story_6007307.asp| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060908142358/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060324/asp/atleisure/story_6007307.asp| url-status = dead| archive-date = 8 September 2006}}</ref> In 1994, he married<ref>{{Citation | last = Leonard | first = Karen Isaksen | title = Locating Home: India's Hyderabadis Abroad | publisher = Stanford University Press | year = 2007 | page = 111 | isbn = 978-0-8047-5442-2}}</ref> Princess Ayesha Orchedi (b. 1959), who is Turkish.<ref>{{Citation | last = Parasher | first = Paritosh | title = Nizam's descendant faces unpaid wages charge in Aussie court | newspaper = Indo-Asian News Service | date = 31 August 2001 | url = http://www.rediff.com/us/2001/aug/31aus.htm}}</ref>

[[File:AsafJah8-Nanny Bombay-1933.jpeg|thumb|right|Nanny carrying the prince from board after arrival in Bombay, 1934]]

[[File:Prince Of Hyderabad.jpg|thumb|right|Mukarram Jah with his younger brother [[Muffakham Jah]]]]

===Children===

By Esra Birgin, Mukarram Jah had one son and one daughter:
* [[Prince Azmat Jah|Walashan Nawab Sahibzada Mir Azmat Ali Khan Siddiqi Bayafendi Bahadur]] (b. 1960), also known as Azmat Jah, married in 1994 to Princess Begum Sahiba Zainab Naz Jah (née Zeynep Naz Guvendiren) and has one son, has worked as a cameraman.<ref name="dalrymple"/><ref name="thehindu">{{Citation | last = Farida | first = Syeda | title = I belong to a lot of countries | newspaper = The Hindu | date = 10 February 2005 | url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2005/02/10/stories/2005021001020100.htm | access-date = 30 December 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100306162714/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/mp/2005/02/10/stories/2005021001020100.htm | archive-date = 6 March 2010 | url-status = usurped }}</ref>
**Murad Jah
* [[Sahibzadi Shehkyar Unisa Begum]] (b. 1964), unmarried and without issue<ref name="ancestry.com">{{Cite web | last = Soszynski | first = Henry | title = HH Walashan Nawab Mir BEREKET ALI KHAN Mukarram Jah | publisher = Ancestry.com | date = 20 June 2005 | url = http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~royalty/turkey/i377.html | accessdate = 30 December 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160423005341/http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~royalty/turkey/i377.html | archive-date = 23 April 2016 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

By Helen Simmons, he had two sons:
* Walashan Nawab Sahibzada Mir Alexander Azam Khan Siddiqi Bayafendi Bahadur (b. 1979)<ref name="ancestry.com"/>
* Walashan Nawab Sahibzada Mir Mohammad Umar Khan Siddiqi Bayafendi Bahadur (1984-2004) deceased due to drug overdose<ref name="ancestry.com"/>

By Manolya Onur he had a daughter:
* Sahebzadi Nilufer Unisa Begum/Nilufer Elif Jah (b. 1992)<ref name="timesofindia060321"/>

By Jameela Boularous he had a daughter:
* Sahebzadi Zairin Unisa Begum (b. 1994)

==Full style==

''[[His Exalted Highness]]'' Prince Rustam-i-Dauran, Arustu-i-Zaman, Wal Mamaluk, Asaf Jah VIII, Muzaffar ul-Mamalik, Nizam ul-Mulk, Nizam ud-Daula, Nawab Mir Barakat 'Ali Khan Siddiqi Bahadur, Sipah Salar, Fath Jang, [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] and [[Berar Province|Berar]].

;Military titles
Honorary [[Lieutenant-General]]

==Palaces ==

The palaces he owned:
* [[Chowmahalla Palace]], Hyderabad.
* [[Falaknuma Palace]], Hyderabad.
* [[King Kothi Palace|Nazribagh Palace]], Hyderabad.
* [[Naukhanda palace|Naukhanda Palace]], Aurangabad.
* Chiraan Palace, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad.
* [[Purani Haveli]] Hyderabad (Mukarram Jah Trust for Education and Learning).

=== Complaint against Mukarram Jah===

Nawab [[Najaf Ali Khan]], another grandson of 7th Nizam, met the Police Commissioner of Hyderabad and submitted a complaint along with supporting documents alleging that Prince Mukarram Jah, his ex-wife [[Princess Esra]] (who also holds the General Power of Attorney (GPA) of Prince Mukarram Jah), his son [[Prince Azmat Jah]] and his brother Prince [[Muffakham Jah]] had used false documents in the UK High Court to lay claim over the £35 million Nizam’s Fund lying in NatWest Bank there.<ref>{{Cite news|date=17 November 2020|title=VII Nizam's grandson moves police against two cousins, two other kin|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/vii-nizams-grandson-moves-police-against-two-cousins-two-other-kin/article33118605.ece|access-date=6 May 2021|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Ancestry==

{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|ref={{cn|date=August 2020}}
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. '''Prince Mukarram Jah'''
|2= 2. [[Azam Jah]] (1907–1970)
|3= 3. [[Princess Durru Shehvar]] (1914–2006)
|4= 4. [[Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII]] (1886–1967)
|5= 5. Dulhan Pasha Begum Sahiba (1889–1955)
|6= 6. [[Abdülmecid II|Abdülmecid II, Caliph]] (1868–1944)
|7= 7. [[Mehisti Hanım|Atiya Mihisti]] (1892–1964)<ref>Harun Açba, ''Kadın efendiler: 1839-1924'' (2004) p.214-215</ref>
|8= 8. [[Mahbub Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VI]] (1866–1911)
|9= 9. Amat uz-Zahra un-nisa Begum Sahiba (d. 1929)
|10= 10. Nawab Mir Jahangir Ali Khan Bahadur, Jahangir Jang
|11=
|12= 12. [[Abdülaziz|Abdülaziz, Ottoman Sultan]] (1830–1876)
|13= 13. [[Hayranıdil Kadınefendi]] (1846–1895)
|14= 14. Hacımaf Bey Akalsba
|15= 15. Safiye Hanım
|16= 16. [[Afzal ad-Dawlah, Asaf Jah V]] (1827–1869)
|17= 17. Allah Rakhi Begum
|18= 18. [[Salar Jung I|Mukhtar ul-Mulk, Shuja ud-Daula, Nawab Mir Sir Tawab ‘Ali Khan, Salar Jung Bahadur]]
|19= 19. Preetamji Sahiba
|20= 20. Haidar ud-Daula, Nawab Mir Khushru Ali Khan Bahadur, Haidar Jang
|21= 21. Sahibzadi Rahat un-nisa Begum Sahiba (granddaughter of [[Nasir-ud-dawlah, Asaf Jah IV]])
|22=
|23=
|24= 24. [[Mahmud II|Mahmud II, Ottoman Sultan]] (1785–1839)
|25= 25. [[Sultana Pertevniyal|Valide Sultan Pertevniyal]] (1812–1883)
|26=
|27=
|28=
|29=
|30=
|31=
}}

==See also==
*[[H.E.H. the Nizam's Charitable Trust]]
*[[Mir Osman Ali Khan]]
*[[Mir Najaf Ali Khan]] - cousin of Mukarram Jah
*[[Hyderabad State|Kingdom of Hyderabad]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[Asaf Jahi dynasty]]|6 October|1933|15 January|2023}}
{{S-pre}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Osman Ali Khan, Asif Jah VII]]}}
{{s-tul|title=[[Nizam of Hyderabad]]|line=Titular|years=1967 – 1971|reason=[[Indian annexation of Hyderabad]]}}
{{s-non|reason=Title abolished by [[Privy_Purse_in_India#Abolition|26th Amendment]]}}
{{s-break}}
{{s-new|loss|reason=Recognition of title withdrawn}}
{{s-tul|title=[[Nizam of Hyderabad]]|line=Pretence|years=1971 – 2023|reason=[[Privy_Purse_in_India#Abolition|26th Amendment to the Constitution of India]]}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Azmet Jah]]}}
{{end}}

{{Hyderabad state}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jah, Mukarram}}
[[Category:1933 births]]
[[Category:2023 deaths]]
[[Category:The Doon School alumni]]
[[Category:Asaf Jahi dynasty]]
[[Category:Ottoman dynasty]]
[[Category:Hyderabadi Muslims]]
[[Category:People educated at Harrow School]]
[[Category:Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge]]

Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission

2025-12-23T19:22:48Z

QuyenStobie2: done

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox high court
| court_name = Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission
| native_name =
| established = 1986
| jurisdiction = [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
| location = Sector – 37A, Dakshin Road, Chandigarh.<ref name="psdr ref1">{{cite web |title=Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission |url=https://stateconsumercommission.punjab.gov.in/ |website=Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission |access-date=3 February 2022}}</ref>
| appealsto =
| terms = 3 years from the date of entering office or up to 65 years of age (whichever is earlier)
| website = https://stateconsumercommission.punjab.gov.in/
| chiefjudgetitle = President, Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission
| chiefjudgename = Hon'ble Justice Daya Chaudhary
| chiefjudgetitle2 =
| chiefjudgename2 =
}}

The '''Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission''' is an [[autonomous]], [[statutory]] and [[constitution]]al institution formed as a [[quasi-judicial body]] in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] under Section 24-B of the [[Consumer Protection Act, 1986]] to protect the rights of [[consumer]]s. It is a system of [[Alternative dispute resolution|alternate dispute resolution]] between conflicting parties during the process of [[trade]]. The president of the States Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission is appointed by the [[State governments of India|state government]] in consultation with the [[Chief justice|Chief Justice]] of state [[High courts of India|high court]].

== History and objective ==

Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission was formed to promote and protect the rights of consumers as per the Consumer Protection Act 1986.<ref name="scd ref17">{{cite news |title=Consumer Protection Act, 2019: Meaning and Key Features |url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/meaning-and-features-of-consumer-protection-act-2019-1578557665-1 |access-date=29 January 2022 |publisher=Jagranjosh |date=23 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="scd ref15">{{cite news |title=Consumer commission vacancies: SC warns of imposing exemplary costs on state govts for non-compliance {{!}} India News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/consumer-commission-vacancies-sc-warns-of-imposing-exemplary-costs-on-state-govts-for-non-compliance/articleshow/87631508.cms |access-date=28 January 2022 |work=The Times of India |date=10 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="scd ref8">{{cite news |title=No chambers or even staff washrooms — bleak state of India's consumer courts reaches SC |url=https://theprint.in/judiciary/no-chambers-or-even-staff-washrooms-bleak-state-of-indias-consumer-courts-reaches-sc/780705/ |access-date=27 January 2022 |publisher=ThePrint |date=14 December 2021}}</ref><ref name="scd ref5">{{cite news |title=Consumer cases in district levels drop 26% in 2020 |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/consumer-cases-in-district-levels-drop-26-in-2020/article37902841.ece |access-date=27 January 2022 |publisher=thehindubusinessline.com |date=8 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

== Composition ==

Following shall be the composition of Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission:<ref name="scd ref3">{{cite news |title=The Role Of Consumer Dispute Redressal Agencies - Academike |url=https://www.lawctopus.com/academike/consumer-dispute-redrsal-agencies/ |access-date=27 January 2022 |publisher=lawctopus.com |date=14 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="scd ref9">{{cite news |title=Consumer Protection Act and Medical Profession - Consumer Disputes Redressal Agencies |url=https://www.medindia.net/indian_health_act/consumer_protection_act_and_medical_profession_consumer_disputes_redressal_agencies.htm |access-date=27 January 2022 |publisher=medindia.net}}</ref>

# President and
# Not less than two members and not more than that presribed in State Act.

President will be appointed by state Government in consultation with the Chief Justice of state High Court. The eligibility for president is that he should be serving or served as Judge in any High Court. Members should be of 1. Not less than 35 years of age and 2. recognised university bachelor degree 3. With good ability, integrity and standing and with proficient experience of 10 years and expertise knowledge in subjects of [[accountancy]], [[law]], [[commerce]], [[economics]], industry, administration and public affairs and problem solving ability in same.

Also not more than fifty percent of members of committee should be from judicial background.

Hon'ble Justice Daya Chaudhary is the President of Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission.<ref name="psdr ref2">{{cite news |title=Justice Daya Chaudhary appointed as president of Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/punjab/justice-daya-chaudhary-appointed-as-president-of-punjab-state-consumer-disputes-redressal-commission-297339 |access-date=3 February 2022 |publisher=Tribuneindia News Service |date=3 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="psdr ref3">{{cite news |title=Justice Daya Chaudhary appointed President of Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission |url=https://legiteye.com/justice-daya-chaudhary-appointed-president-of-punjab-state-consumer-disputes-redressal-commission/ |access-date=3 February 2022 |publisher=legiteye.com |date=16 August 2021}}</ref>

== Levels and jurisdiction ==

Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission was formed for promoting and protecting the rights of consumers through three levels with the below mentioned jurisdiction:<ref name="scd ref2">{{cite news |title=Government notifies new rules for consumer commissions; national body's jurisdiction enhanced |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/government-notifies-new-rules-for-consumer-commissions-national-bodys-jurisdiction-enhanced/articleshow/88596171.cms |access-date=27 January 2022 |publisher=The Economic Times |date=30 December 2021}}</ref><ref name="scd ref1">{{cite news |title=District Consumer Forum is now District Commission; will hear cases of value up to ₹1 crore |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/district-consumer-forum-is-now-district-commission-will-hear-cases-of-value-up-to-1-crore/story-13pfET9A7TCnpHPkchnZ1O.html |access-date=27 January 2022 |publisher=Hindustan Times |date=16 September 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="scd ref6">{{cite news |title=NCDRC's ambit widened for faster disposal of plaints {{!}} India News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/ncdrcs-ambit-widened-for-faster-disposal-of-plaints/articleshow/88603193.cms |access-date=27 January 2022 |work=The Times of India |date=31 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="scd ref10">{{cite news |title=Central govt notifies new rules for enhancing consumer protection |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/central-govt-notifies-new-rules-for-enhancing-consumer-protection-121123100116_1.html |access-date=27 January 2022 |publisher=Business Standard India |date=31 December 2021}}</ref>
* '''District Commission''' (earlier referred to as '''District Forum''') can accept complaints from consumer if the value of goods or services is up to ₹1 crore (Earlier limit was ₹20 lakh).
* '''State Commission''' can accept complaints from consumer if the value of goods or services is more than ₹1 crore but less than ₹10 crores ( earlier limit was between ₹20 lakh and ₹1 crore).<ref name="psdr ref4">{{cite news |title=Punjab: Railway authorities told to pay Rs 22k to man harassed by delay in train arrival |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/punjab-railway-authorities-told-to-pay-rs-22k-to-man-harassed-by-delay-in-train-arrival-7610717/ |access-date=3 February 2022 |publisher=The Indian Express |date=7 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="psdr ref5">{{cite news |last1=Verma |first1=Sanjeev |title=Pay Rs 3 crore to flat owners: Punjab consumer panel to builder {{!}} Chandigarh News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/punjab-consumer-commission-directs-builder-to-pay-rs-3-crore-to-apartment-owners/articleshow/84250451.cms |access-date=3 February 2022 |work=The Times of India |date=9 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* '''National Commission''' can accept complaints from consumer if the value of goods or services is more than 10 crores.

== Filing complaints ==
{{main|E-Daakhil}}

Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission laid down below process of filing and resolving complaints:<ref name="scd ref11">{{cite news |title=New rules for consumer commissions: Government issues notification - All you need to know |url=https://www.zeebiz.com/india/news-new-rules-for-consumer-commissions-government-issues-notification-all-you-need-to-know-174930 |access-date=27 January 2022 |publisher=Zee Business |date=30 December 2021}}</ref><ref name="scd ref4">{{cite news |title=The State Commission, Under Consumer Protection Act |url=https://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/stco.htm |access-date=27 January 2022 |publisher=legalserviceindia.com}}</ref><ref name="scd ref14">{{cite news |title=Be it defective saree or tawa, consumers getting speedy justice via e-Daakhil: CCPA |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/be-it-defective-saree-or-tawa-consumers-getting-speedy-justice-via-e-daakhil-ccpa/articleshow/87926927.cms |access-date=28 January 2022 |publisher=The Economic Times |date=26 November 2021}}</ref>

Complaints can be filed electronically and examination of disputing parties is done through video-conferencing, which includes hearing and/or examination through any other mode. The time period for resolving dispute in case the complaint does not require analysis and testing of product quality is 3 months from the date of receipt of notice by the opposite party. However, if the complaint requires analysis or testing of product quality the time limit for resolving dispute is within 5 months. Complaints can be filed using [[E-Daakhil]] portal.

== Penalties and imprisonment ==
* Manufacturers and Service providers are made punishable as a criminal offence for giving misleading information or for wrong advertisement of product.
* Punishment may include fine of Rs 10 lakhs or imprisonment for 2 years or both.

== Investigative agency ==
* Violation of consumer rights or unfair trade practices is investigated by the Investigation wing headed by Director-General level position in [[Central Consumer Protection Authority]] (CCPA).

==Important terms==

Following are the important terms in Punjab State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission:<ref name="scd ref7">{{cite news |title=Changes in India's Consumer Protection Act 2019 |url=https://www.lawyer-monthly.com/2020/01/changes-in-indias-consumer-protection-act-2019/ |access-date=27 January 2022 |publisher=Lawyer Monthly {{!}} Legal News Magazine |date=31 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="scd ref13">{{cite news |title=State Commission Under Consumer Protection Act - Composition and Powers {{!}} Law column |url=https://www.lawcolumn.in/state-commission-under-consumer-protection-act-composition-and-powers/ |access-date=27 January 2022 |publisher=lawcolumn.in |date=20 June 2021}}</ref><ref name="scd ref16">{{cite news |title=National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission - NCDRC |url=https://www.legalserviceindia.com/calendars-causelists/NCDRC.htm |access-date=29 January 2022 |publisher=legalserviceindia.com}}</ref>
* As per the act "Goods" means anything purchased by consumers either in retail or wholesale from retailers or wholesalers. They can either be produced or manufactured.
* As per the act "services" means those which are in the form of "[[transport]], [[telephone]], [[electricity]], [[housing]], [[banking]], [[insurance]], [[medical treatment]] etc".
* As per the act consumer means " any person who buys any goods or hires or avails any services for a consideration which has already been paid or promised or partly paid and partly promised or under any system of deferred payment".
* Person includes anyone buying goods, either through online system or direct or offline, by way of teleshopping, or through mode of electronic includes direct selling or in a [[multi-level marketing]].
* Consumer does not include person buying or availing goods or services for resale or for any other commercial purpose.
* For the purpose of commission the terms are referred in [[Consumer Protection Act, 2019|Consumer Protection Act'2019]].

== Challenges ==
* The district, state and national level commissions face challenges of understaffing or non fulfillment of vacancies in time.<ref name="scd ref12">{{cite news |title=4 of 28 state consumer bodies at full strength, SC told, court says 'completely unacceptable' |url=https://theprint.in/judiciary/only-4-of-28-state-consumer-bodies-at-full-strength-sc-says-completely-unacceptable/714835/ |access-date=27 January 2022 |publisher=ThePrint |date=16 August 2021}}</ref><ref name="scd ref5" /><ref name="scd ref18">{{cite journal |title=THREE TIER MECHANISM OF CONSUMER DISPUTES REDRESSAL IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THEIR FUNCTIONING |journal=ResearchGate |date=2017 |volume=4 |issue=4 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349412457 |access-date=31 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
* The report prepared by senior advocate on the directions of [[Supreme Court of India]] found out many shortcomings in the offices of district and state consumer redressal bodies in many states of India. These include absence of storage rooms for case files, lack of member chambers for convenience of members hearing complaints, non availability of court rooms and washrooms in selective cases.<ref name="scd ref8" />

== See also ==
* [[National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission]]
* [[Odisha State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission|Odisha State Consumer Dispute Redressal Commission]]
* [[Andhra Pradesh State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission]]

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://stateconsumercommission.punjab.gov.in/ Official Website]


[[Category:Consumer Disputes Redressal Commissions of India]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Chandigarh]]

Ragamala paintings

2025-12-14T15:16:26Z

QuyenStobie2: quick fix content as per guidelines also and corrected details

{{Short description|Form of miniature painting}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
[[File:Bhairavi Ragini, Manley Ragamala, an album painting in gouache on paper.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Bhairavi (music)|Bhairavi Ragini]], folio from the Manley Ragamala. Probably [[Jaipur State|Amber]], c. 1610-1620. [[British Museum]]]]

'''Ragamala paintings''' are a form of [[Indian miniature painting]], a set of illustrative paintings of the ''Ragamala'' or "Garland of Ragas", depicting variations of the Indian musical modes called [[ragas]]. They stand as a classical example of the amalgamation of art, poetry and classical music in medieval India.

Ragamala paintings were created in most schools of Indian painting, starting in the 16th and 17th centuries, and are today named accordingly as Pahari Ragamala, Rajasthan or Rajput Ragamala, Deccan Ragamala, and Mughal Ragamala. It originated in Rajasthan.

In these painting each raga is personified by a colour, mood, a verse describing a story of a hero and heroine (nayaka and nayika), it also elucidates the season and the time of day and night in which a particular raga is to be sung; and finally most paintings also demarcate the specific Hindu deities attached with the raga, like Bhairava or Bhairavi to Shiva, Sri to Devi etc. The paintings depict not just the [[Ragas]], but also their wives, (''raginis''), their numerous sons (''ragaputra'') and daughters (''ragaputri'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=Collection {{!}} Art Gallery of NSW |url=https://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/collection/?view=detail&images=true&dept=asian/south/india&db=object&browse=asian/south/india/browse&id=27718 |access-date=2025-12-14 |website=www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au}}</ref>

The six principal ragas present in the Ragamala are Bhairava, Deepak, Sri, Malkaunsa, Megha and Hindola and these are meant to be sung during the six seasons of the year – summer, monsoon, autumn, early winter, winter and spring.

==History==
[[File:India, Sirohi - A page from a Ragamala series- Asavari Ragini - 2018.199 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|thumb|''[[Asavari|Asavari Ragini]]''. [[Sirohi State|Sirohi]], c. 1700. [[Cleveland Museum of Art]]]]
''[[Sangita Ratnakara]]'' is an important 12th century CE treatise on the classification of Indian Ragas, which for the first time mentions the presiding deity of each raga.<ref name=bombay>{{cite web|url=http://www.bombaymuseum.org/powm/jubilee/ragamala.htm|title=Ragamala Paintings}}</ref>
From the 14th century onwards, they were described in short verses in Sanskrit, for [[wikt:dhyana|dhyana]], 'contemplation', and later depicted in a series of paintings, called the Ragamala paintings.<ref>[http://www.wyastone.co.uk/nrl/world/raga/intro4.html Ragamala – wyastone.co.uk.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526051307/http://www.wyastone.co.uk/nrl/world/raga/intro4.html |date=26 May 2008 }}</ref>
Some of the best available works of Ragamala are from the 16th and 17th centuries, when the form flourished under royal patronage,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhairavi Ragini from the Manley Ragamala, an album painting in gouache on paper |url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/asia/b/bhairavi_ragini_from_the_manle.aspx |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20151024040056/http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/asia/b/bhairavi_ragini_from_the_manle.aspx |archive-date=2015-10-24 |access-date=2025-12-14 |website=British Museum |language=en-GB}}</ref> though by the 19th century, it gradually faded.

==Extant works==
[[File:Todi Ragini (SJM XXX-56).jpg|thumb|''[[Todi (raga)|Ragini Todi]]''. [[Mughal painting|Mughal]], c. 1750. [[Salar Jung Museum]]]]
In 1570, Kshemakarna, a priest of [[Rewa (princely state)|Rewa]] in Central India, compiled a poetic text on the Ragamala in [[Sanskrit]], which describes six principal Ragas—Bhairava, Malakoshika, Hindola, Deepak, Shri, and [[Megh (raga)|Megha]]—each having five Raginis and eight Ragaputras, except Raga Shri, which has six Raginis and nine Ragaputras, thus making a Ragamala family of 86 members<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-178083119.html|title=Bernoulli,* Daniel – Dictionary definition of Bernoulli,* Daniel – Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary}}</ref>

Most of the extant works of Ragamala are from Deccan style, where [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]] of [[Adil Shahi|Bijapur]], was himself also a fine painter and illustrator, though some Rajput style also exist of which the work of an artist of the 'Chawand' (a part of Mewar) school of painting, [[Sahibdin]], whose Ragamala (musical modes) series dated 1628, are now in [[National Museum of India|National Museum of India.]]<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-489526/ragamala Ragamala] [[Britannica.com]].</ref>

Ragamala sets discovered in Odisha are in the [[Pattachitra]] style, based on the ragas of [[Odissi music]] and show distinct iconography and raga groups from other regions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Patnaik |first=Kabichandra Dr. Kalicharan |title=Raga-Chitra |publisher=Odisi Kala Prakash |year=1966 |author-link=Kalicharan Pattnaik}}</ref>

==The Ragas in Ragamala==
Six are male (parent) ragas; the thirty raginis are their wives and the remaining forty-eight are their sons. These are listed is as follows:

*(1) '''Parent Raga: [[Bhairav (raga)|Bhairav raga]]'''
'''Wives''': [[Bhairavi (music)|Bhairavi]], Bilawali, Punyaki, Bangali, Aslekhi.
'''Sons''': Pancham, Harakh, Disakh, Bangal, Madhu, Madhava, Lalit, Bilaval.

*(2) '''Parent Raga: [[Malkaush|Malkaus raga]]'''
'''Wives''': Gaundkari, [[Devagandhari]], Gandhari, Seehute, [[Dhanasari|Dhanasri]]. '''Sons''': Maru, Mustang, Mewara, Parbal, Chand, Khokhat, Bhora, Nad.

*(3) '''Parent Raga: Hindol raga'''
'''Wives''': Telangi, Devkari, Basanti, Sindhoori, Aheeri.
'''Sons''': Surmanand, Bhasker, Chandra-Bimb, Mangalan, Ban, Binoda, [[Raga Basant|Basant]], Kamoda.

*(4) '''Parent Raga: Deepak raga'''
'''Wives''': Kachheli, Patmanjari, [[Todi (raga)|Todi]], Kamodi, Gujri.
'''Sons''': Kaalanka, Kuntal, Rama, Kamal, Kusum, Champak, Gaura, Kanra [36].

*(5) '''Parent Raga: [[Shree (Hindustani raga)|Sri raga]]'''
'''Wives''': Bairavi, Karnati, [[Gauri (raga)|Gauri]], [[Asavari]], Sindhavi.
'''Sons''': Salu, Sarag, Sagra, [[Raga Gond|Gaund]], Gambhir, Gund, Kumbh, Hamir.

*(6) '''Parent Raga: [[Megh (raga)|Megh]] raga'''
'''Wives''': [[Sorath raga|Sorath]], Gaundi-Malari, [[Raga Asa|Asa]], Gunguni, Sooho.
'''Sons''': Biradhar, Gajdhar, Kedara, Jablidhar, Nut, Jaldhara, Sankar, Syama.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Bhairavi Ragini.jpg|Bhairavi Ragini. Possibly [[Kingdom of Mewar|Mewar]], c. 1550. [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
File:Gauri Ragini, First Wife of Malkos Raga, Folio from a Ragamala, 1575-1600, LACMA.jpg|''[[Gauri (raga)|Gauri Ragini]]''. Probably [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate|Ahmadnagar]], c. 1575-1600. [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]]
File:1 Shaykh Husayn. Malkausik Raga Page from the Chunar Ragamala Manuscript, dated February 24, 1591, Metmuseum.jpg|''[[Malkauns|Malkausik Raga]]'', folio from the [[Chunar Ragamala]], dated February 24, 1591. Private collection, New York
File:Sahibdin 001.jpg|''Dipak Raga'', folio from the Chawand Ragamala by [[Nisardin|Nasiruddin]]. Mewar, 1605. G.K. Kanoria Collection
File:Indischer Maler um 1625 001.jpg|''Ragini Bhairavi''. [[Bundi State|Bundi]], c. 1625. [[Allahabad Museum]]
File:Nisaradi 001.jpg|''Lalit Ragini'', folio from the Ragamala painted by [[Sahibdin]]. Mewar, 1628. [[National Museum, New Delhi]]
File:Indischer Maler um 1650 (III) 001.jpg|''Hindola Raga''. [[Malwa]], c. 1650. [[Bharat Kala Bhavan]]
File:MET DP153180.jpg|''Kedar Ragini'', by [[Ruknuddin]]. [[Bikaner State|Bikaner]], c. 1690-1695. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
File:MET DP153192.jpg|''Vasanti Ragini''. [[Bilaspur State (princely state)|Bilaspur]], c. 1710. Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Raga Madhava, Folio from the Ragamala series.jpg|''Raga Madhava'', by the 2nd Master of the [[Shangri Ramayana]] series. Probably [[Bahu Fort|Bahu]], c. 1720. [[Rietberg Museum]]
File:Ragini Madhumadhavi - Girl flees from a storm.jpg|''Ragini Madhumadhavi'', by Jay Krishna. [[Malpura]], c. 1756. Rietberg Museum
File:The Musical Mode - Ragini Todi.jpg|''[[Todi (raga)|Ragini Todi]]''. Ascribed to a Master of the Second Generation after [[Nainsukh]], c. 1825-30. [[Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh]]
File:Two lovers, folio from a Ragamala album.jpg|''Two lovers'' (possibly Kodaba Raga). Pigment on cloth, in the technique closely resembling that used in [[Odisha]]n [[Pattachitra|pattachitras]]. Odisha, circa 1850. Private collection
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Moghul Ragamala: Painted Indian Melodies and the Poetry of Kshemakarna, by Ludwig V. Habighorst. Koblenz: Ragaputra Edition, 2006.
*Ragamala Paintings from India, the collection of Claudio Moscatelli, by Glynn, Skelton, Dallapiccola. Philip Wilson Publishers in association with Dulwich Picture Gallery Museum and Art Gallery London 2011

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ragamala}}
* [https://www.asavari.org/ragamala.html Ragamala, a study of Indian Ragas]
* [https://digital.library.cornell.edu/collections/ragamala Ragamala Paintings, Cornell University Digital Collections]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ragamala Paintings}}
[[Category:Ragas]]
[[Category:Hindustani ragas]]
[[Category:Collection of the Smithsonian Institution]]
[[Category:Indian painting]]
[[Category:Schools of Indian painting]]

K. K. S. Murthy

2025-12-09T23:48:41Z

QuyenStobie2:

{{Short description|Indian aero engineer and book seller}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}

'''K. K. S. Murthy''' (1929 – 17 February 2025) was an Indian aeronautics engineer and a book seller. He was the second-generation proprietor of the Select Book Shop in [[Bengaluru]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-02-19 |title=End of a chapter as Bengaluru’s beloved bookseller KKS Murthy dies at 95 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/end-of-a-chapter-as-bengalurus-beloved-bookseller-kks-murthy-dies-at-95/articleshow/118365986.cms |access-date=2025-02-19 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-12 |title=Select Bookshop: Bengaluru's Most Storied Bookseller |url=https://www.outlooktraveller.com/experiences/places-of-interest/bangalores-most-storied-bookseller |access-date=2025-02-19 |website=Outlook Traveller |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Murthy was brought up and lived in Bengaluru. He was the son of late K. B. K Rao, an advocate and a native of [[Kurnool]] in Andhra Pradesh who started a bookshop on the Museum Road in 1945.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Narrain |first=Aparna |date=2019-07-08 |title=Proprietor KKS Murthy on the legacy of the 74-year-old Select Bookshop |url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/proprietor-kks-murthy-on-the-legacy-of-the-74-year-old-select-bookshop/article28318287.ece |access-date=2025-02-19 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He worked as an engineer for 18 years at the [[Hindustan Aeronautics Limited]], before taking over the family book business. His wife died in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Murthy KKS, Select Bookshop owner, dies at 94 |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bengaluru/murthy-kks-select-bookshop-owner-dies-at-94-3409914 |access-date=2025-02-19 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> He did his aeronautical engineering at [[Indian Institute of Science]], Bengaluru.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Thakur |first=Aksheev |date=2017-06-24 |title=Urban Legend: Murthy, Bengaluru's keeper of the tale {{!}} Urban Legend: Murthy, Bengaluru's keeper of the tale |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/books-and-art/240617/urban-legend-murthy-bengalurus-keeper-of-the-tale.html |access-date=2025-02-19 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Career ==
He was an aeronautics engineer and after his stint at HAL, he took over the running of the family bookshop, the Select Book store in 1984 and gave it a face-lift after moving it to its present location, off [[Brigade Road]]. In 2021, a documentary was made on him, titled, ''Ayda Pustaka'' which means, 'the selected book'. His son, K. Sanjay, is running the shop after his death. The Book Shop has a rare collection of over 9,000 books, including some from the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 February 2025 |title=Bengaluru's beloved iconic 'Select Bookshop' owner, KKS Murthy, dies at 94 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/bengaluru-news/bengalurus-beloved-iconic-select-bookshop-owner-kks-murthy-passes-away-at-94-101739848094512.html |access-date=19 February 2025 |website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> It is known for its rare second-hand books. Famous author and historian [[Ramachandra Guha]] is a regular visitor to the shop for over 40 years and playwright [[Girish Karnad]] was also among the many, who frequently visited the shop. Author [[Ruskin Bond]] mentioned the Book store in his book, Confessions of a book lover.<ref name=":0" /> “Mr Bond wrote a letter to tell me what he was doing,” Murthy was quoted saying by [[Deccan Chronicle]].<ref name=":0" />

=== Death ===
Murthy died of age-related ailments on 17 February 2025 in Bengaluru.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-02-17 |title=K.K.S. Murthy of Select Book Shop dies at 95 in Bengaluru |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/kks-murthy-of-select-book-shop-dies-at-95-in-bengaluru/article69231432.ece |access-date=2025-02-19 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He ran the Select Book Shop and used to greet the regulars daily till three months before his death.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-18 |title=KKS Murthy of Bengaluru’s iconic Select Book Shop passes away at 95 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bangalore/kks-murthy-bengaluru-iconic-select-book-shop-passes-away-95-9842435/ |access-date=2025-02-19 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> His last rites were performed on Tuesday, 18 February 2025.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Murthy, K. K. S.}}
[[Category:1929 births]]
[[Category:2025 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Indian Institute of Science alumni]]
[[Category:Aeronautical engineers]]

First Vasantrao Naik ministry

2025-11-30T10:57:11Z

QuyenStobie2:

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox government cabinet
| cabinet_type = Ministry
| cabinet_number =
| jurisdiction = [[Maharashtra]]
| flag = File:Seal of Maharashtra.svg
| flag_border = true
| date_formed = 5 December 1963
| date_dissolved = 1 March 1967
| government_head = [[Vasantrao Naik]]
| government_head_title = Chief Minister
| deputy_government_head =
| deputy_government_head_title =
| state_head = [[Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit]] (1963-64) [[P. V. Cherian]] (1964-67)
| state_head_title = [[Governor of Maharashtra|Governor]]
| members_number =
| former_members_number =
| total_number = 24 14 Cabinet ministers (Incl. Chief Minister) 10 deputy ministers
| political_parties = [[Indian National Congress|Congress]]
| legislature_status = [[Majority government]]
| opposition_cabinet =
| opposition_party = [[Peasants and Workers Party of India|PWPI]] [[Bharatiya Jana Sangh|BJS]]
| opposition_leader = [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]]: [[Krishnarao Dhulap]] (PWPI)
 [[Maharashtra Legislative Council|Legislative Council]]: V. B. Gogate (BJS) (1963-66) Ramjeevan Choudhary (BJS) (1966-67)
| election = [[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
| last_election = [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| legislature_term =
| previous = [[Kannamwar ministry|Kannamwar]] [[P. K. Sawant ministry|Sawant]] (interim)
| successor = [[Second Vasantrao Naik ministry|V. Naik II]]
}}

'''[[Vasantrao Naik]]''' became the [[Chief Minister of Maharashtra|chief minister]] of [[Maharashtra]] on 5 December 1963.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mls.org.in/pdf2020/Margadarshika%20Parishishta-%20Chief%20Minister%20list.pdf |title=Chief Ministers (1937 to 2019) |website=[[Maharashtra Legislature]] |language=mr |access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> He succeeded [[P. K. Sawant]]'s [[P. K. Sawant ministry|interim government]] that had been sworn in after [[Marotrao Kannamwar]]'s death.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kannamwar cremated, Interim set-up |newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] |date=26 November 1963 |pages=1 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19631126&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=4 June 2021}}</ref> Naik's government served until [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1967 legislative elections]], after which Naik was sworn in for a second term.

==List of ministers==
The ministry consisted of 14 [[cabinet ministers]].<ref name=TOI>{{Cite news |title=Wankhede Is Finance Minister: Distribution Of Portfolios |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=5 December 1963 |pages=1 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/741151503 |access-date=5 July 2022|id={{ProQuest|741151503}} }}</ref>
{{Cabinet table start|hiderefcol=y}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = [[Chief Minister of Maharashtra|Chief Minister]]
*General Administration,
*Protocol
*Revenue,
*Planning,
*Information and Public Relations
*Forests
*Relief & Rehabilitation
*Dairy Development
*Ex. Servicemen Welfare
 Departments or portfolios not allocated to any minister
| minister1 = [[Vasantrao Naik]]
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*Home Affairs,
*Information Technology
*Minority Development and Waqfs
*Command Area Development
*Sanitation
| minister1 = [[Balasaheb Desai]]
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*Rural Development
*Horticulture
*Transport
*Food and Drug Administration
| minister1 = G. B. Khedkar
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*Agriculture,
*Parliamentary Affairs
*Medical Education
*Other Backward Classes
| minister1 = [[P. K. Sawant]]
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Cabinet Minister
*Public Health,
*Law and Judiciary
*Skill Development, Employment and Entrepreneurship
| minister1 = [[Shantilal Shah]]
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*Finance
*Public Works
*Sports and Youth Welfare
*Culture Affairs
| minister1 = [[S. K. Wankhede]]
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*Irrigation
*Power
*Urban Development
*Soil and Water Conservation
*Marketing
| minister1 = [[Shankarrao Chavan]]
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*Industries
*Mining Department
*Environment and Climate Change
*Disaster Management
*Marathi Language
| minister1 = [[Sadashiv Govind Barve]]
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*Food, Civil Supplies
*Housing
*Printing Presses
*Fisheries
*Small Savings
*Tourism
| minister1 = [[Homi J. H. Taleyarkhan]]
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Cabinet Minister
*Prohibition
*State Excise
*Ports Development
*Textiles
*Majority Welfare
| minister1 = D. S. Palaspagar
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Cabinet Minister
*Social Welfare
*Woman and Child Development
*Special Backward Classes Welfare
*Employment Guarantee
| minister1 = Nirmala Raje Bhosale
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Cabinet Minister
*Buildings
*Communications
*School Education
*Higher and Technical Education
| minister1 =
Madhukar Dhanaji Chaudhari
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*Cooperation
*Nomadic Tribesl Department
*Vimukta Jati
*Water Supply
*Khar Land Development
| minister1 = [[Keshavrao Sonawane]]
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*Labour
*Special Assistance
*Socially and Educationally Backward Classes
*Animal Husbandry Department
*Tribal Development
*Earthquake Rehabilitation
| minister1 = Narendra Mahipati Tidke
| minister1_termstart = 5 November 1963
| minister1_termend = 1 March 1967
| minister1_party = Indian National Congress
}}
{{Cabinet table end}}

===Deputy ministers===
The ministry also contained 10 deputy ministers:<ref name=TOI></ref>
* G. D. Patil
* N. N. Kailas
* [[Yashwantrao Mohite|Y. J. Mohite]]
* [[Vairale Madhusudan|M. A. Vairale]]
* R. A. Patil
* H. G. Vartak
* [[B. J. Khatal-Patil|B. J. Khatal]]
* [[Rafiq Zakaria]]
* K. P. Patil
* D. S. Jagtap

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Maharashtra state government ministries}}

[[Category:Indian National Congress state ministries of Maharashtra|Vasantrao I]]
[[Category:Maharashtra ministries|Vasantrao I]]
[[Category:Indian ministries established in 1963|Vasantrao I]]
[[Category:Indian ministries disestablished in 1967|Vasantrao I]]

Saahil Prem

2025-11-25T07:19:35Z

QuyenStobie2: new

{{Short description |Indian entertainer (born 20th century)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Notability|biography|date=June 2017}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=June 2017}}}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2016}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Saahil Prem
|image =
|birth_place = Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
|occupation = Actor, director, writer, DJ, composer
|education = [[St. Peter's School, Panchgani]]; [[Sheffield Hallam University]] (UK)}}
'''Saahil Prem''' (born 23 August) is an Indian [[Bollywood]] actor, director, writer, DJ and composer.

He is known for playing the lead opposite [[Sunny Leone]] in the film ''[[Ragini MMS 2]]'' (2014) and directing, writing and acting in one of India's first dance films ''[[Mad About Dance]]'' (2014).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Saahil-Prem-I-wrote-Mad-About-Dance-much-before-ABCD-came-out/articleshow/40373471.cms|title=Saahil Prem: I Wrote Mad About Dance Much Before ABCD Came Out|author=Saxena, Kashika|date=2014-08-19|work=The Times of India|accessdate=3 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/shah-rukh-khan-farah-khan-supports-saahil-prem-mad-about-dance-200625-2014-07-16|title=After SRK, Farah Khan Supports Saahil Prem's Mad About Dance |date=2014-07-16|work=[[India Today]]|access-date=2017-06-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author=Kapoor, Reena|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140721/entertainment-bollywood/article/farah-khan-all-praise-newbie-saahil-prem|title=Farah Khan All Praise for Newbie Saahil Prem|date=20 July 2014|work=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|access-date=3 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitalspy.com/bollywood/news/a585219/shah-rukh-khan-lends-support-to-saahil-prems-sheffield-dance-film/|title=Shah Rukh Khan Lends Support to Saahil Prem's Sheffield Dance Film|last=Baker|first=Steven|date=2014-07-20|publisher=Digital Spy|accessdate=2017-06-16}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Born in [[Chembur]], a suburb in central Mumbai, Saahil went to [[St. Peter's School, Panchgani|St. Peter's School]], a [[boarding school]] in [[Panchgani]]. He then attended [[Sheffield Hallam University]] in [[South Yorkshire]], England. He became the resident DJ for his university.

== Career ==
He moved to London where he took up residency at Mangos, one of the best Asian clubs in London.

After playing at clubs and events across Europe, Saahil moved to Mumbai and did a three-month acting course at [[Actor Prepares]]. He then joined the film director [[Vipul Shah]] as his assistant for the romance film ''[[Namastey London]]'' (2007).

He decided to start writing his dance film ''Mad About Dance'', which he also directed and acted in as the male lead opposite [[Amrit Maghera]]. He also played the lead opposite Sunny Leone in ''Ragini MMS 2'' (2014) from [[Balaji Motion Pictures]].

Saahil released his first single, a progressive track called "[https://itun.es/in/V6v2ab?i=1087987379 The Tour]" on [[iTunes]] and other digital platforms.

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
|-
| 2014
|''[[Mad About Dance]]''
|Aarav
|-
| 2014
| ''[[Ragini MMS 2]]''
|Satya
|-
| 2017
|''[[Sabaash Naidu|Shabhash Kundu]]''
|Kabir
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography|Film|India|London|Music|Yorkshire}}
* [[List of club DJs]]
* [[List of Indian actors]]
* [[List of Indian composers]]
* [[List of Indian film directors]]
* [[List of Indian writers]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|3912281}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Prem, Saahil}}
[[Category:20th-century births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian composers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male musicians]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian screenwriters]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian composers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male musicians]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male writers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian screenwriters]]
[[Category:Alumni of Sheffield Hallam University]]
[[Category:Club DJs]]
[[Category:DJs from London]]
[[Category:Film directors from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Indian DJs]]
[[Category:Indian expatriates in England]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Indian male film score composers]]
[[Category:Indian male screenwriters]]
[[Category:Male actors from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Musicians from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Mumbai]]

Rajon Ki Baoli

2025-11-24T11:15:46Z

QuyenStobie2: typo fix

{{Short description|Stepwell in New Delhi, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{coord|28|31|12.94|N|77|11|00.28|E|display=title}}
{{Infobox historic site
| name = Rajon ki Baoli Rajon-ki-Bain
| native_name =
| native_language =
| image = Rajon Ki Baoli - Delhi - 01.jpg
| caption = Rajon Ki Baoli, in 2020
| type = [[Stepwell]]
| mapframe = yes
| coordinates = {{Coord|28|31|13|N|77|11|00|E|type:landmark_region:IN_scale:100|display=inline}}
| location = [[Mehrauli Archaeological Park]], [[Delhi]], India
| area =
| height =
| built = {{Start date and age|1506|df=yes}}
|built_for=
|restored = {{Start date and age|2025|df=yes}}
|restored_by= [[Archaeological Survey of India|Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)]]
| architect =
| architecture = {{ubl|[[Indo-Islamic architecture|Indo-Islamic]]|[[Lodi dynasty|Lodi]]}}
| governing_body =
| owner =
| embedded = {{designation list | embed = yes
| designation1 = MANI
| designation1_offname = {{ubl|Rajon-ki-Bain with Mosque and Chhatri}}
| designation1_date =
| designation1_number = N-DL-152 }}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Rajon ki Baoli''' also referred as ''Rajon ki Bain'' is a famous [[stepwell]] in [[Mehrauli Archaeological Park]] of [[Delhi]], India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.india9.com/i9show/-Delhi/Rajon-Ki-Baoli-49004.htm|title=Rajon Ki Baoli|publisher=india9.com|access-date=16 June 2010}}</ref><ref name=exp2009>{{cite news |title=Well worth a visit |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/well-worth-a-visit/456832 | newspaper= [[Indian Express]]|date=10 May 2009 | first=Alokparna | last=Das | access-date=24 January 2019 }}</ref>

It was commissioned by [[Daulat Khan Lodi]] in 1506 CE, an administrator of the [[Lodi dynasty]] of the [[Delhi Sultanate]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/sun-stone-and-water-rajon-ki-baoli-mehrauli|title=Sun, stone and water: Rajon ki baoli, Mehrauli|website=www.indiawaterportal.org|access-date=2019-07-14}}</ref>

The [[enclosure]] of Rajon Ki Baoli includes a [[mosque]] and a [[tomb]].

The name Rajon Ki Baoli is derived from the 'Rajbirs' or 'Mistris' - the term used for masons. It got its name in early 20th century because of the masons that moved in permanently into the area.

From the North, the steps lead down to the water filled in the [[stepwell]] and, from the east and west sides the stepwell is enclosed by high walls. The walls have a narrow side to walk on and twelve [[pillars]] both sides that encased [[arch]]ed niches.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sun, stone and water: Rajon ki baoli, Mehrauli {{!}} India Water Portal|url=https://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/sun-stone-and-water-rajon-ki-baoli|access-date=2021-10-05|website=www.indiawaterportal.org}}</ref>

== Architecture ==
The monument gives its first impression of the [[medieval]] period. A courtyard surrounded by a [[veranda]]h with many beautiful [[pillars]], and the arches in the verandah are made in the typical north Indian fashion of that time. There is a [[stepwell]] at the center of the structure the steps leading to the stepwell are made in such a way that it gets cooler as it reaches down near the stepwell.<ref>{{Cite web|last=City|first=So|date=2020-06-15|title=Built During The Time Of Sikander Lodhi, Take A Peek Into The Royal Rajon Ki Baoli In Mehrauli|url=https://so.city/delhi/article/rajon-ki-baoli|access-date=2021-10-07|website=So City|language=en}}</ref>

== Location ==
The Rajon Ki Baoli is located in the Mehrauli Archaeological Park, Jamali Kamali in the Mehrauli area of South Delhi. The site is located near the Adham Khan's Tomb and Gandhak Ki Baoli.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Benanav |first1=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0LU7DwAAQBAJ&dq=Rajon+Ki+Baoli&pg=PT154 |title=Lonely Planet Rajasthan, Delhi & Agra |last2=Blasi |first2=Abigail |last3=Brown |first3=Lindsay |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-78701-233-2 |language=en}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Side walls, Rajon ki Baoli (Rajon ki Bain), Mehrauli Archaeological Park.jpg|Side walls of the Baoli
File:Rajon ki Baoli tomb, mosque and entrance gateway1.jpg|Facing the mosque and entrance, Rajon Ki Baoli
File:Rajon ki Baoli mosque interior.jpg|Facing the ''mihrab'' at Rajon Ki Baoli
File:Rajon ki Baoli arcade around well.jpg|Rajon ki Baoli arcade around the well
File:Rajon ki Baoli tomb and mosque.jpg|Tomb and Mosque at the ''baoli''

</gallery>

== Nearby ancient monuments ==

* [[Jamali Kamali Mosque and Tomb]], located in the Archaeological Village complex in [[Mehrauli]], [[Delhi]], [[India]].
*The [[Tomb of Balban|Tomb of Ghiyas ud din Balban]] is located in [[Mehrauli]], [[New Delhi]], [[India]].
*[[Tomb of Adham Khan|Adham Khan's Tomb]] (Hindi: आधम खान का मकबरा, Urdu: ادھم خان کا مزار‎, Bangla: আধম খানের সমাধি) is the 16th-century tomb of [[Adham Khan]], a general of the [[Mughal emperors|Mughal Emperor]] [[Akbar]].

==See also==
* [[History of Delhi]]
** [[Anangpur#Paleo|Paleolithic sites in & around Delhi]]
** [[Purana Qila#See_also|Forts and palaces of Delhi used as the capital]]
** [[Baolis of Mehrauli#Stepwells|Stepwells of Delhi]]

* [[Stepwell]]s of India
** [[Rani ki vav]], UNESCO heritage listed
** [[Stepwell#India|List of stepwells in India by states]]

* [[History of water supply and sanitation]]
** [[Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation|Water supply and sanitation in the Indus-Saraswati Valley Civilisation]]
** [[Johad#Similar|Ancient water conservation techniques]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category-inline|Rajon ki Baoli}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1516]]
[[Category:Mehrauli]]
[[Category:Monuments of National Importance in Delhi]]
[[Category:Stepwells in Delhi]]
[[Category:1516 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:Architecture of the Lodi dynasty]]