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India at the Asian Games

2023-10-13T12:49:44Z

Profpremrajpushpakaran: /* Medals by sport */

{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox country at games
| NOC = IND
| NOCname = [[Indian Olympic Association]]
| oldcode =
| year =
| date =
| games = Asian Games
| location =
| competitors =
| sports =
| flagbearer =
| officials =
| gold = 183
| silver = 238
| bronze = 358
| rank = 5
| summerappearances =
* [[India at the 1951 Asian Games|1951]]
* [[India at the 1954 Asian Games|1954]]
* [[India at the 1958 Asian Games|1958]]
* [[India at the 1962 Asian Games|1962]]
* [[India at the 1966 Asian Games|1966]]
* [[India at the 1970 Asian Games|1970]]
* [[India at the 1974 Asian Games|1974]]
* [[India at the 1978 Asian Games|1978]]
* [[India at the 1982 Asian Games|1982]]
* [[India at the 1986 Asian Games|1986]]
* [[India at the 1990 Asian Games|1990]]
* [[India at the 1994 Asian Games|1994]]
* [[India at the 1998 Asian Games|1998]]
* [[India at the 2002 Asian Games|2002]]
* [[India at the 2006 Asian Games|2006]]
* [[India at the 2010 Asian Games|2010]]
* [[India at the 2014 Asian Games|2014]]
* [[India at the 2018 Asian Games|2018]]
* [[India at the 2022 Asian Games|2022]]
| winterappearances =
* [[India at the 1986 Asian Winter Games|1986]]
* [[India at the 1990 Asian Winter Games|1990]]
* [[India at the 1996 Asian Winter Games|1996]]
* [[India at the 1999 Asian Winter Games|1999]]
* [[India at the 2003 Asian Winter Games|2003]]
* [[India at the 2007 Asian Winter Games|2007]]
* [[India at the 2011 Asian Winter Games|2011]]
* ''[[India at the 2017 Asian Winter Games|2017]]''
| seealso =
| website =
}}

'''[[India]]''' is a member of the South Asian Zone of the [[Olympic Council of Asia]] (OCA), and has participated in the [[Asian Games]] since their inception in [[1951 Asian Games|1951]]. The [[Indian Olympic Association]], established in 1927, and recognised in the same year by the [[International Olympic Committee]], is the [[National Olympic Committee]] for India.<ref name="Countries ">{{cite web | url=http://www.olympic.org/india | title=Countries – India | publisher=olympic.org. International Olympic Committee | access-date=2 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919154023/https://www.olympic.org/india | archive-date=19 September 2016 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://olympics.com/en/news/india-at-asian-games-history-medals|title=India at Asian Games: A storied history and why PT Usha is jewel in the crown|access-date=8 April 2023}}</ref>

India was one of the first five founding members of the [[Asian Games Federation]] on 13 February 1949, in New Delhi; the organisation was disbanded on 26 November 1981 and replaced by the Olympic Council of Asia.<ref name="la84foundation_1951 Games">{{cite web | url=http://www.la84foundation.org/OlympicInformationCenter/OlympicReview/1951/BDCE25/BDCE25j.pdf | title=The First Asian Games Championships will be held in March 1951 at New Delhi | publisher=la84foundation.org. LA84 Foundation | access-date=9 January 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207105509/http://www.la84foundation.org/OlympicInformationCenter/OlympicReview/1951/BDCE25/BDCE25j.pdf | archive-date=7 December 2010 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://ocasia.org/Council/History.aspx | title=Council – OCA History | publisher=ocasia.org. Olympic Council of Asia | access-date=12 January 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216112714/http://www.ocasia.org/Council/History.aspx | archive-date=16 February 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Membership of Olympic Council of Asia==
India is a member of the South Asian Zone of the Olympic Council of Asia, the governing body of all the sports in Asia, recognized by the International Olympic Committee as the continental association of Asia.<ref name="NOCS">{{cite web | url=http://ocasia.org/NOCs/Index.aspx | title=NOCs | publisher=ocasia.org. Olympic Council of Asia | access-date=9 January 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110160409/http://www.ocasia.org/NOCs/Index.aspx | archive-date=10 January 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.olympic.org/ioc-governance-national-olympic-committees | title=National Olympic Committees | publisher=olympic.org. International Olympic Committee | access-date=3 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202104540/http://www.olympic.org/ioc-governance-national-olympic-committees | archive-date=2 February 2012 | url-status=live }}</ref>{{Ref label|A|a|a}} Being a member of South Asian Zone, India also participates in the [[South Asian Games]], sub-regional Games for South Asia.<ref name="SAF">{{cite web | url=http://ocasia.org/Game/GamesL1.aspx?GPCode=7 | title=Games – South Asian Games | publisher=ocasia.org. Olympic Council of Asia | access-date=9 January 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304170041/http://www.ocasia.org/Game/GamesL1.aspx?GPCode=7 | archive-date=4 March 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

The Olympic Council of Asia organises five major continental-level multi-sport events: the Asian Summer Games (which are commonly known as the Asian Games), Asian Winter Games, Asian Indoor-Martial Arts Games, Asian Beach Games, and Asian Youth Games. Before 2009, [[Asian Indoor Games|Indoor]] and [[Asian Martial Arts Games|Martial Arts]] were two separate events for indoor and martial arts sports respectively. However, the OCA has since amalgamated them into a single event, the [[Asian Indoor-Martial Arts Games]], which was debuted in [[2013 Asian Indoor-Martial Arts Games|2013]] in [[Incheon]], South Korea.<ref name="games">{{cite web | url=http://ocasia.org/Game/Index.aspx | title=Games | publisher=ocasia.org. Olympic Council of Asia | access-date=9 January 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111231045017/http://www.ocasia.org/Game/Index.aspx | archive-date=31 December 2011 | url-status=dead }}</ref> As a member of OCA, India is privileged to participate in all these multi-sport events.

==Hosted games==
[[New Delhi]], the national capital of India, has hosted the Asian Games on two occasions: the inaugural [[1951 Asian Games]] and the [[1982 Asian Games]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://ocasia.org/Game/GamesL1.aspx?GPCode=1 | title=Games – Asian Games – Past and future Asian Games | publisher=ocasia.org. Olympic Council of Asia | access-date=1 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306170415/http://www.ocasia.org/game/GamesL1.aspx?GPCode=1 | archive-date=6 March 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Asian Games==
{{See also|Asian Games|Asian Games medal count}}

===Medals by Games===
:''*Red border color indicates tournament was held on home soil.''

India is one of the only seven countries that have competed in all the editions of the Asian Games.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/asian-games-2014/story/indias-history-at-17th-asian-games-2014-incheon-south-korea-292041-2014-09-11|title=India at Asian Games|access-date=18 May 2023}}</ref> The other six are [[Indonesia at the Asian Games|Indonesia]], [[Japan at the Asian Games|Japan]], the [[Philippines at the Asian Games|Philippines]], [[Sri Lanka at the Asian Games|Sri Lanka]], [[Singapore at the Asian Games|Singapore]] and [[Thailand at the Asian Games|Thailand]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/asian-games|title=What is 'Asian Games'|access-date=18 May 2023}}</ref> India has won at least one gold medal at every Asian Games, and always ranked within the top 10 nations of the medal table except in the [[1990 Asian Games]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://olympics.com/en/news/india-at-asian-games-history-medals|title=India at Asian Games: A storied history and why PT Usha is jewel in the crown|access-date=18 May 2023}}</ref> After completing the [[2018 Asian Games]], India's medal count is as follows:

A tabular form of the details of the medals won by India is as follows:
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-top:0; text-align:center;"
|-

!Games
!Host Nations
!style="width:4em;"|Rank

!{{gold medal}}
!{{silver medal}}
!{{bronze medal}}
!style="width:4em;"|Total
|-style="border: 3px solid red"
|align=left|[[1951 Asian Games|1951 New Delhi]]<ref name="Asiad winners">{{cite web | url=http://www.olympic.ind.in/images/AGMedalTally.pdf | title=Medal Winners – Asian Games | publisher=olympic.ind.in. Indian Olympic Association | access-date=3 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310101912/http://www.olympic.ind.in/images/AGMedalTally.pdf | archive-date=10 March 2012 | url-status=live }}</ref> ||{{flagIOC2|IND|Asian Games}}|| bgcolor=silver| '''2''' || 15 || 16 || 20 || 51
|-
|align=left| [[1954 Asian Games|1954 Manila]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|PHI|Asian Games}}|| 5 || 5 || 4 || 8 || 17
|-
|align=left| [[1958 Asian Games|1958 Tokyo]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|JPN|Asian Games}}|| 7 || 5 || 4 || 4 || 13
|-
|align=left| [[1962 Asian Games|1962 Jakarta]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|INA|Asian Games}}||bgcolor=cc9966|3 || 10 || 13 || 10 || 33
|-
|align=left| [[1966 Asian Games|1966 Bangkok]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|THA|Asian Games}}|| 5 || 7 || 3 || 11 || 21
|-
|align=left| [[1970 Asian Games|1970 Bangkok]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|THA|Asian Games}}|| 5 || 6 || 9 || 10 || 25
|-
|align=left| [[1974 Asian Games|1974 Tehran]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|IRI|Asian Games}}|| 7 || 4 || 12 || 12 || 28
|-
|align=left| [[1978 Asian Games|1978 Bangkok]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|THA|Asian Games}}|| 6 || 11 || 11 || 6 || 28
|-style="border: 3px solid red"
|align=left| [[1982 Asian Games|1982 New Delhi]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|IND|Asian Games}}|| 5 || 13 || 19 || 25 || 57
|-
|align=left| [[1986 Asian Games|1986 Seoul]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|KOR|Asian Games}}|| 5 || 5 || 9 || 23 || 37
|-
|align=left| [[1990 Asian Games|1990 Beijing]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|CHN|Asian Games}}|| 11 || 1 || 8 || 14 || 23
|-
|align=left| [[1994 Asian Games|1994 Hiroshima]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|JPN|Asian Games}}|| 8 || 4 || 3 || 16 || 23
|-
|align=left| [[1998 Asian Games|1998 Bangkok]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|THA|Asian Games}}|| 9 || 7 || 11 || 17 || 35
|-
|align=left| [[2002 Asian Games|2002 Busan]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|KOR|Asian Games}}|| 7 || 11 || 12 || 13 || 36
|-
|align=left| [[2006 Asian Games|2006 Doha]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|QAT|Asian Games}}|| 8 || 10 || 17 || 26 || 53
|-
|align=left| [[2010 Asian Games|2010 Guangzhou]]||{{flagIOC2|CHN|Asian Games}}|| 6 || 14 || 17 || 34 || 65
|-
|align=left| [[2014 Asian Games|2014 Incheon]]<ref name="Asiad winners" /> ||{{flagIOC2|KOR|Asian Games}}|| 8 || 11 || 9 || 37|| 57
|-
|align=left| [[2018 Asian Games|2018 Jakarta & Palembang]] ||{{flagIOC2|INA|Asian Games}}|| 8 || 16 || 23 || 31 || 70
|-
|align=left| [[2022 Asian Games|2022 Hangzhou]] ||{{flagIOC2|CHN|Asian Games}}||4||28||38||41||107
|-
|align=left| ''[[2026 Asian Games|2026 Aichi–Nagoya]]'' ||{{flagIOC2|JPN|Asian Games}}|| colspan=5 rowspan=3| ''Future event''
|-
|align=left| ''[[2030 Asian Games|2030 Doha]]'' ||{{flagIOC2|QAT|Asian Games}}
|-
|align=left| ''[[2034 Asian Games|2034 Riyadh]]'' ||{{flagIOC2|KSA|Asian Games}}
|-
! Total !! !! 5 !! 183 !! 239 !! 357 !! 779
|}{{clear}}

===Medals by sport===
Note: Board Games included Chess, Go, Bridge and Xiangqi.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!style="width:8em"| Sport
!style="width:4em"| Rank

!{{gold medal}}
!{{silver medal}}
!{{bronze medal}}
!style="width:4em"| Total
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Athletics pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Athletics at the Asian Games|Athletics]]
|align=center bgcolor=cc9966| 3 ||align=center| 85 ||align=center| 102 ||align=center| 96 ||align=center| 283
|-
|align=left| [[File:Shooting pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Shooting at the Asian Games|Shooting]]
|align=center| 6 ||align=center| 16 ||align=center| 30 ||align=center| 34 ||align=center| 80
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Wrestling pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Wrestling at the Asian Games|Wrestling]]
|align=center| 7 ||align=center| 11 ||align=center| 15 ||align=center| 39 ||align=center| 65
|-
|-style="background:#E9D66Bc
|align=left| [[Image:Kabaddi pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Kabaddi at the Asian Games|Kabaddi]]
|align=center bgcolor=gold|1 ||align=center| 11 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 13
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Tennis pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Tennis at the Asian Games|Lawn Tennis]]
|align=center| 5 ||align=center| 10 ||align=center| 7 ||align=center| 17 ||align=center| 34
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Boxing pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Boxing at the Asian Games|Boxing]]
|align=center| 8 ||align=center| 9 ||align=center| 17 ||align=center| 36 ||align=center| 62
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Archery pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Archery at the Asian Games|Archery]]
|align=center bgcolor=cc9966| 3 ||align=center| 6 ||align=center| 6 ||align=center| 7 ||align=center| 19
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Field hockey pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Field hockey at the Asian Games|Field hockey]]
|align=center bgcolor=cc9966|3 || align="center" | 5 ||align=center| 11 ||align=center| 7 ||align=center| 23
|-
|align=left| [[File:Cue sports pictogram.svg|20px|alt=|link=]] [[Cue sports at the Asian Games|Cue Sports]]
|align=center bgcolor=cc9966|3 ||align=center| 5 ||align=center| 4 ||align=center| 6 ||align=center| 15
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Equestrian pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Equestrian at the Asian Games|Equestrian]]
|align=center bgcolor=cc9966| 3 ||align=center| 4 ||align=center| 3 ||align=center| 7 ||align=center| 14
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Squash pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Squash at the Asian Games|Squash]]
|align=center bgcolor=cc9966|3 ||align=center| 3 ||align=center| 4 ||align=center| 11 ||align=center| 18
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Golf pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Golf at the Asian Games|Golf]]
|align=center| 5 ||align=center| 3 ||align=center| 4 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 7
|-
|align=left| [[File:Chess pictogram.svg|20px|alt=|link=]] [[Board games at the Asian Games|Board games]]
|align=center bgcolor=silver|2 ||align=center| 3 ||align=center| 3 ||align=center| 4 ||align=center| 10
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Rowing pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Rowing at the Asian Games|Rowing]]
|align=center| 6 ||align=center| 2 ||align=center| 7 ||align=center| 19 ||align=center| 28
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Diving pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Diving at the Asian Games|Diving]]
|align=center bgcolor=cc9966|3 ||align=center| 2 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 2 ||align=center| 5
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Football pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Football at the Asian Games|Football]]
|align=center| 6 ||align=center| 2 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 3
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Cricket pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Cricket at the Asian Games|Cricket]]
|align=center bgcolor=silver|2 ||align=center| 2 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 2
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Sailing pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Sailing at the Asian Games|Sailing]]
|align=center| 10 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 8 ||align=center| 14 ||align=center| 23
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Badminton pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Badminton at the Asian Games|Badminton]]
|align=center| 7 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 2 ||align=center| 10 ||align=center| 13
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Swimming pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Swimming at the Asian Games|Swimming]]
|align=center| 14 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 2 ||align=center| 6 ||align=center| 9
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Water polo pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Water polo at the Asian Games|Water polo]]
|align=center| 5 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 3
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Weightlifting pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Weightlifting at the Asian Games|Weightlifting]]
|align=center| 19 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 5 ||align=center| 9 ||align=center| 14
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Wushu pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Wushu at the Asian Games|Wushu]]
|align=center| 14 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 2 ||align=center| 8 ||align=center| 10
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Cycling pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Cycling at the Asian Games|Cycling]]
|align=center| 17 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 2 ||align=center| 3
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Volleyball pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Volleyball at the Asian Games|Volleyball]]
|align=center| 5 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 2 ||align=center| 3
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Kurash pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Kurash at the Asian Games|Kurash]]
|align=center| 8 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 2
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Judo pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Judo at the Asian Games|Judo]]
|align=center| 17 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 5 ||align=center| 5
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Inline speed skating pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Roller sports at the Asian Games|Roller sports]]
|align=center| 7 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 4 ||align=center| 4
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Table tennis pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Table tennis at the Asian Games|Table tennis]]
|align=center| 11 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 3 ||align=center| 3
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Sepaktakraw pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Sepaktakraw at the Asian Games|Sepaktakraw]]
|align=center|11 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 2 ||align=center| 2
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Canoeing pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Canoeing at the Asian Games|Canoeing]]
|align=center| 11 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 2 ||align=center| 2
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Gymnastics pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Gymnastics at the Asian Games|Gymnastics]]
|align=center| 13 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 1
|-
|align=left| [[Image:Taekwondo pictogram.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] [[Taekwondo at the Asian Games|Taekwondo]]
|align=center| 24 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 0 ||align=center| 1 ||align=center| 1
|-
! Total !! 5 !! 183 !! 238 !! 358 !! 779
|}{{clear}}

==Asian Winter Games==
{{See also|Asian Winter Games|Asian Winter Games medal count}}

===Medals by Games===
India has sent athletes to every celebration of the Asian Winter Games. Through the last revision of the Games in [[Astana]] and [[Almaty]] in [[2011 Asian Winter Games|2011]], India has never won a medal in the Winter Games.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://ocasia.org/Game/NocsMedalCount.aspx?GPCode=2 | title=Asian Winter Games Medal Count | publisher=ocasia.org. Olympic Council of Asia | access-date=2 February 2012 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Asian Para Games==
{{See also|Asian Para Games|All-time Asian Para Games medal table}}

===Medals by Games===
India's count is as follows:

A tabular form of the details of the medals won by India is as follows:
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-top:0em; text-align:center; font-size:100%;"
!Games
!Host Nations
!style="width:4em;"|Rank

!{{gold medal}}
!{{silver medal}}
!{{bronze medal}}
!style="width:4em;"|Total
|-
|align=left| [[2010 Asian Para Games|2010 Guangzhou]] || {{flagIOC2|CHN|Asian Games}} || 15 || 1 || 4 || 9 || 14
|-
|align=left| [[2014 Asian Para Games|2014 Incheon]] || {{flagIOC2|KOR|Asian Games}} || 15 || 3 || 14 || 16 || 33
|-
|align=left| [[2018 Asian Para Games|2018 Jakarta]] || {{flagIOC2|INA|Asian Games}} || '''9''' ||'''15''' || '''24''' || '''33''' || '''72'''
|-
|align=left| [[2022 Asian Para Games|2022 Hangzhou]] || {{flagIOC2|CHN|Asian Games}} || colspan=5| ''Future event''
|-
!colspan=2| Total !! 11 !! 19 !! 42 !! 58 !! 119
|}

==Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games==
{{See also|Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games|Asian Indoor Games}}

===Medals by Games===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-top:0em; text-align:center; font-size:100%;"
!Games
!Host Nation
!style="width:4em;"|Rank

!{{gold medal}}
!{{silver medal}}
!{{bronze medal}}
!style="width:4em;"|Total
|-
!colspan=7|'''Asian Indoor Games'''
|-
|align=left| [[2005 Asian Indoor Games|2005 Bangkok]]<ref name="Indoor ">{{cite web | url=http://www.olympic.ind.in/images/AsianIndoorGames.pdf | title=Medal Winners – Asian Indoor Games | publisher=olympic.ind.in. Indian Olympic Association | access-date=2 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116070053/http://www.olympic.ind.in/images/AsianIndoorGames.pdf | archive-date=16 November 2011 | url-status=live }}</ref> || {{flagIOC2|THA|Asian Games}} || '''5''' || 7 || 3 || 8 || 18
|-
|align=left| [[2007 Asian Indoor Games|2007 Macau]] || {{flagIOC2|CHN|Asian Games}} || 6 || '''9''' || 9 || 10 || 28
|-
|align=left| [[2009 Asian Indoor Games|2009 Hanoi]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://ocasia.org/Game/MWinner.aspx?AMWCode=34&GCode=3 | title=Vietnam 2009 – Overall medal standings | publisher=ocasia.org. Olympic Council of Asia | access-date=2 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616233205/http://ocasia.org/Game/MWinner.aspx?AMWCode=34&GCode=3 | archive-date=16 June 2010 | url-status=dead }}</ref> || {{flagIOC2|VIE|Asian Games}}|| 7 || 6 || 9 || '''25''' || '''40'''
|-
!colspan=7|'''Asian Martial Arts Games'''
|-
|align=left| [[2009 Asian Martial Arts Games|2009 Bangkok]] || {{flagIOC2|THA|Asian Games}} || 10 || 3 || 7 || 23 || 33
|-
!colspan=7|'''Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games'''
|-
|align=left| [[2013 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games|2013 Incheon]] || {{flagIOC2|KOR|Asian Games}} || 12 || 2 || 3 || 5 || 10
|-
|align=left| [[2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games|2017 Ashgabat]] || {{flagIOC2|TKM|Asian Games}} || 11 || '''9''' || '''12''' || 19 || '''40'''
|-
|align=left| [[2021 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games|2021 Bangkok–Chonburi]]|| {{flagIOC2|THA|Asian Games}} || colspan=5 rowspan=2 | ''Future event''
|-
|align=left| [[2025 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games|2025 Riyadh]] || {{flagIOC2|KSA|Asian Games}}
|-
! colspan=2| Total !! 9 !! 36 !! 43 !! 90 !! 169
|}

==Asian Beach Games==
{{See also|Asian Beach Games}}

===Medals by Games===
India has participated in both the editions of the Asian Beach Game. In the [[2008 Asian Beach Games|2008 Games]], India won a total of five medals, including three gold, and ranked seventh in the final medal table.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.olympic.ind.in/images/AsianBeachGames.pdf | title=Medal Winners – Asian Beach Games | publisher=olympic.ind.in. Indian Olympic Association | access-date=2 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116065555/http://www.olympic.ind.in/images/AsianBeachGames.pdf | archive-date=16 November 2011 | url-status=live }}</ref> Three gold medals were won by India in the [[2010 Asian Beach Games]] in [[Muscat]], Oman, earning the country sixth place in the medal table.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.sports.gov.pk/Participation/2nd_Asian_Beach_Games_2010.html | title=2nd Asian Beach Games – Medal Tally of 2nd Asian Beach Games | publisher=sports.gov.pk. Pakistan Sport Board | access-date=1 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204122101/http://www.sports.gov.pk/Participation/2nd_Asian_Beach_Games_2010.html | archive-date=4 February 2012 | url-status=live }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-top:0; text-align:center;"
|-
!Games
!Host Nations
!style="width:4em;"|Rank

!{{gold medal}}
!{{silver medal}}
!{{bronze medal}}
!style="width:4em;"|Total
|-
|align=left| [[2008 Asian Beach Games|2008 Bali]] || {{flagIOC2|INA|Asian Games}} || 7 || '''3''' || 0 || 2 || 5
|-
|align=left| [[2010 Asian Beach Games|2010 Muscat]] || {{flagIOC2|OMA|Asian Games}} || '''6''' || '''3''' || 0 || 1 || 4
|-
|align=left| [[2012 Asian Beach Games|2012 Haiyang]] || {{flagIOC2|CHN|Asian Games}} || '''6''' || 2 || 0 || 1 || 3
|-
|align=left | [[2014 Asian Beach Games|2014 Phuket]] || {{flagIOC2|PHI|Asian Games}} || 20 || 2 || 1 || 7 || 10
|-
|align=left | [[2016 Asian Beach Games|2016 Da Nang]] || {{flagIOC2|VIE|Asian Games}} || 16 || 2 || '''4''' || '''18''' || '''24'''
|-
|align=left | ''[[2020 Asian Beach Games|2023 Sanya]]'' || {{flagIOC2|CHN|Asian Games}} || colspan=5| ''Future event''
|-
! colspan=2| Total !! 11 !! 12 !! 5 !! 29 !! 46
|}

==Asian Youth Games==
{{See also|Asian Youth Games}}

===Medals by Games===
Indian athletes competed in the inaugural [[2009 Asian Youth Games|Asian Youth Games]] in Singapore. Indian competitors earned medals in only two sports— [[Athletics at the 2009 Asian Youth Games|athletics]] and [[Swimming at the 2009 Asian Youth Games|swimming]]. Four of the five gold medals came from athletics and one came from the swimming competition. Aaron Agnel Dsouza was the only multiple medal winner. Dsouza won a gold in the 200 m freestyle and a bronze in the 100 m freestyle.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.olympic.ind.in/images/1STASIAN.pdf | title=Medal Winners – 1st Asian Youth Games | publisher=olympic.ind.in. Indian Olympic Association | access-date=2 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116065255/http://www.olympic.ind.in/images/1STASIAN.pdf | archive-date=16 November 2011 | url-status=live }}</ref> India's membership in IOC was suspended when the 2013 games took place so Indian athletes competed in the event as independent athletes.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-top:0; text-align:center;"
|-
!Games
!Host nation
!style="width:4em;"|Rank

!{{gold medal}}
!{{silver medal}}
!{{bronze medal}}
!style="width:4em;"|Total
|-
|align=left| [[2009 Asian Youth Games|2009 Singapore]] || {{flagIOC2|SIN|Asian Games}} || '''7''' || '''5''' || 3 || 3 || 11
|-
|align=left| [[2013 Asian Youth Games|2013 Nanjing]] || {{flagIOC2|CHN|Asian Games}} || 10 || 3 || '''4''' || '''7''' || '''14'''
|-
|align=left| ''[[2021 Asian Youth Games|2021 Shantou]]'' || {{flagIOC2|CHN|Asian Games}} || colspan=5| ''Cancelled''
|-
!colspan=2| Total !! 6 !! 8 !! 7 !! 10 !! 25
|}

==See also==

*[[India at the Olympics]]
*[[India at the Paralympics]]
*[[India at the World Games]]
*[[India at the Commonwealth Games]]
*[[India at the Lusofonia Games]]
*[[India at the South Asian Games]]

==Notes and references==
===Notes===
{{refbegin}}
*{{Note label|A|a|a}} The [[National Olympic Committees]] are all members of the Association of National Olympic Committees (ANOC), which is also split among five continental associations: [[Association of National Olympic Committees of Africa]], [[Pan American Sports Organization]], [[Olympic Council of Asia]], [[European Olympic Committees]], and [[Oceania National Olympic Committees]].
{{Refend}}

===References===
{{Reflist}}

{{Nations at the Asian Games}}
{{National sports teams of India}}

[[Category:India at the Asian Games| ]]

Raththam

2023-10-09T03:00:07Z

Profpremrajpushpakaran: Created page with ''''''Raththam''''' is a 2023 Indian Tamil-language crime-thriller film written and directed by C. S. Amudhan. The film stars Vijay Antony, Mahima Nambiar, Nandita Swetha and Remya Nambeesan. {{Infobox film | name = | image = | image_size = | alt = | caption = Theatrical release poster | director = C. S. Amudhan | producer = {{ubl|Kamal Bohra | G. Dhanan...'

{{Short description|2023 Indian crime-thriller film}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Raththam
| image = Raththam.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[C. S. Amudhan]]
| producer = {{ubl|Kamal Bohra
| G. Dhananjayan
| Pradeep B
| Pankaj Bohra}}
| writer = C. S. Amudhan
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on =
| starring = {{plainlist|
* [[Vijay Antony]]
* [[Mahima Nambiar]]
* [[Nandita Swetha]]
* [[Remya Nambeesan]]
}}
| narrator =
| music = [[Kannan (composer)|Kannan Narayanan]]
| cinematography = [[Gopi Amarnath]]
| editing = [[T. S. Suresh]]
| studio = Infiniti Film Ventures
| distributor =
| released = {{film date|2023|10|6|df=yes}}
| runtime = 144 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| budget = 
| gross =
}}
'''''Raththam''''' ({{translation|Blood}}) is a 2023 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[crime-thriller film]] written and directed by [[C. S. Amudhan]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Raththam teaser: Venkat Prabhu, Vetrimaaran, Pa Ranjith unite for Vijay Antony starrer |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/raththam-teaser-venkat-prabhu-vetrimaaran-pa-ranjith-8308505/lite/ |website=The Indian Express |access-date=7 October 2023 |language=en |date=6 December 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129030551/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/raththam-teaser-venkat-prabhu-vetrimaaran-pa-ranjith-8308505/lite/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The film stars [[Vijay Antony]], [[Mahima Nambiar]], [[Nandita Swetha]] and [[Remya Nambeesan]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Raththam To Irugapatru, 4 Tamil Movies Set To Hit Theatres This Friday |url=https://www.news18.com/amp/movies/raththam-to-irugapatru-4-tamil-movies-set-to-hit-theatres-this-friday-8603053.html |website=News18 |access-date=7 October 2023 |language=en |date=4 October 2023 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007200249/https://www.news18.com/amp/movies/raththam-to-irugapatru-4-tamil-movies-set-to-hit-theatres-this-friday-8603053.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The film was released on October 6, 2023, and received mixed reviews from critics.<ref>{{cite web |title=Raththam Review - An interesting core but the film remains passable at best! |url=https://www.moviecrow.com/News/32534/raththam-review---an-interesting-core-but-the-film-remains-passable-at-best/amp |website=www.moviecrow.com |access-date=7 October 2023 |language=en |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007193619/https://www.moviecrow.com/News/32534/raththam-review---an-interesting-core-but-the-film-remains-passable-at-best/amp |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{No plot|date= October 2023}}

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Vijay Antony]] as Ranjith Kumar
* [[Mahima Nambiar]] as Sangeetha
* [[Nandita Swetha]] as Madhumitha
* [[Remya Nambeesan]]
* [[Nizhalgal Ravi]] as Rathnam Pandian
* [[Uday Mahesh]] as K. Jayaraj
* Aravinth Sundar as Chezhiyan
* Jagan Krishnan
* [[Misha Ghoshal]]
* [[John Mahendran]]
* [[O. A. K. Sundar]]
* Boys Rajan
}}

== Production ==
In April 2021, C. S. Amudhan announced that he was collaborating with Vijay Antony on a thriller film.<ref>{{cite web |title=CS Amudhan teams up with Vijay Antony for thriller |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2021/apr/15/cs-amudhan-teams-up-with-vijay-antony-for-thriller-23965.amp |website=Cinema Express |access-date=7 October 2023 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007193618/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2021/apr/15/cs-amudhan-teams-up-with-vijay-antony-for-thriller-23965.amp |url-status=live }}</ref> The production of the film started in November 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vijay Antony's next film commences with puja |url=https://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay?newsID=897765 |website=www.daijiworld.com |access-date=7 October 2023 |language=en |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007193618/https://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay?newsID=897765 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Vijay Antony wraps up first shooting schedule for his next untitled movie |url=https://www.timesofindia.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vijay-antony-wraps-up-first-shooting-schedule-for-his-next-untitled-movie/amp_articleshow/88222393.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=7 October 2023}}</ref> On January 23, 2022, the title of the film was revealed as ''Raththam'', and the first look poster was also released on the same day.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vijay Antony's crime thriller with CS Amudhan titled Ratham |url=https://www.timesofindia.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vijay-antonys-crime-thriller-with-cs-amudhan-titled-ratham/amp_articleshow/89078218.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=7 October 2023}}</ref> The film was produced by Kamal Bohra, G. Dhananjayan, Pradeep B and Pankaj Bohra under the banner Infiniti Film Ventures.<ref>{{cite web |title=Trailer of Raththam is out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2023/sep/09/trailer-ofraththam-is-out-47490.amp |website=Cinema Express |access-date=7 October 2023 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007200249/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2023/sep/09/trailer-ofraththam-is-out-47490.amp |url-status=live }}</ref> The production house has already previously collaborated with Vijay Antony on the films ''[[Kodiyil Oruvan]]'' and ''[[Kolai (film)|Kolai]]''. The film was shot in [[Chennai]], [[Kolkata]], [[Spain]] and [[Thailand]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Vijay Antony's Ratham shooting wrapped up with Thailand schedule |url=https://www.timesofindia.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vijay-antonys-ratham-shooting-wrapped-up-with-thailand-schedule/amp_articleshow/94760367.cms |website=The Times of India |access-date=7 October 2023 |date=10 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Vijay Antony's Ratham shooting in Kolkata wrapped; team heads to Spain next |url=https://www.timesofindia.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vijay-antonys-ratham-shooting-in-kolkata-wrapped-team-heads-to-spain-next/amp_articleshow/90458369.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=7 October 2023}}</ref> The filming wrapped up around mid-2022.<ref>{{cite web |title=Shooting of CS Amudhan-Vijay Antony's Ratham wrapped up |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2022/jun/29/shooting-of-cs-amudhan-vijay-antonys-ratham-wrapped-up-32409.amp |website=Cinema Express |access-date=7 October 2023 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007151032/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2022/jun/29/shooting-of-cs-amudhan-vijay-antonys-ratham-wrapped-up-32409.amp |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Vijay Antony's Ratham completes the shooting schedule in India |url=https://www.timesofindia.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vijay-antonys-ratham-completes-the-shooting-schedule-in-india/amp_articleshow/90722155.cms |website=The Times of India |access-date=7 October 2023 |date=8 April 2022}}</ref> The cinematography of the film was by [[Gopi Amarnath]], and the editing was handled by [[T. S. Suresh]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Raththam: Details of Vijay Antony Starrer |url=https://www.moviecrow.com/News/32525/raththam-vijay-antony-censor-runtime-tamil-movie |website=Movie Crow |access-date=7 October 2023}}</ref>

== Music ==
The music for the film was composed by [[Kannan (composer)|Kannan Narayanan]]<ref>{{cite web |title='Oru Naal' song from Ratham out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2023/sep/15/oru-naal-song-from-ratham-out-47646.amp |website=[[Cinema Express]] |access-date=7 October 2023 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007193623/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2023/sep/15/oru-naal-song-from-ratham-out-47646.amp |url-status=live }}</ref> in his fourth collaboration with director [[C. S. Amudhan]] after the films ''[[Thamizh Padam]]'', ''[[Rendavathu Padam]]'', and ''[[Tamizh Padam 2]]''.
{{Infobox album
| name = Raththam
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Kannan (composer)|Kannan Narayanan]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2023
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 8:03
| language = Tamil
| label = [[Saregama|Saregama Tamil]]
| producer = [[Kannan (composer)|Kannan Narayanan]]
| chronology = [[Kannan (composer)|Kannan Narayanan]]
| prev_title = [[Thalaikoothal (film)|Thalaikoothal]]
| prev_year = 2023
| next_title =
| next_year =
| misc =
}}
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Raththam Title Track
| length1 = 4:03
| lyrics1 = [[Yugabharathi]]
| extra1 = [[Vijay Prakash]]
| title2 = Oru Naal
| length2 = 4:00
| lyrics2 = [[Arivu]]
| extra2 = [[Vijay Antony]], Arivu
| total_length = 8:03
}}

== Release ==
The film was initially scheduled to release on September 28, 2023, but was postponed. Later, it was released on October 6, 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vijay Antony's Raththam release postponed |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2023/sep/12/vijay-antonys-raththam-release-postponed-47573.html |website=[[Cinema Express]] |access-date=7 October 2023 |language=en |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007151042/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2023/sep/12/vijay-antonys-raththam-release-postponed-47573.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Home media ===
The post-theatrical streaming rights to the film have been acquired by [[Amazon Prime Video]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Raththam: THIS leading OTT platform bags the digital rights of Vijay Antony's crime drama |url=https://www.ottplay.com/amp/news/raththam-this-leading-ott-platform-bags-the-digital-rights-of-vijay-antonys-crime-drama/8168a90249786 |website=www.ottplay.com |access-date=7 October 2023 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007151045/https://www.ottplay.com/amp/news/raththam-this-leading-ott-platform-bags-the-digital-rights-of-vijay-antonys-crime-drama/8168a90249786 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Reception ==
Janani K of ''[[India Today]]'' gave it 2 out of 5 stars and wrote, "''Raththam'' could have been a good crime thriller had there been some great moments that would wow the audience."<ref>{{cite web |title=Raththam Review: Vijay Antony's film fails to make the most of semi-decent ideas |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/raththam-review-vijay-antonys-film-fails-to-make-the-most-of-semi-decent-ideas-2445578-2023-10-06 |website=India Today |access-date=7 October 2023 |language=en |archive-date=2023-10-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007002548/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/raththam-review-vijay-antonys-film-fails-to-make-the-most-of-semi-decent-ideas-2445578-2023-10-06 |url-status=live }}</ref> M. Suganth of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave the film 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote, "A crime drama with good ideas and bland execution."<ref>{{cite web |title=Raththam Movie Review : A crime drama with good ideas and bland execution |url=https://www.timesofindia.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/raththam/movie-review/104209338.cms |website=The Times of India |access-date=7 October 2023 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007151055/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/etmoviereviewajax.cms?msid=104184709&type=moviereview&detailid=99561253 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Sudhir Srinivasan of ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' gave the film a mixed review and noted that "It’s a film that’s refreshing in its presentation of journalism and its faith in the transformative powers of good journalism."<ref>{{cite web |title='Raththam' movie review: This journo procedural has its moments |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2023/oct/07/raththam-movie-review-this-journo-procedural-has-its-moments-2621477.html |website=The New Indian Express |access-date=7 October 2023 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007151035/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2023/oct/07/raththam-movie-review-this-journo-procedural-has-its-moments-2621477.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Gopinath Rajendran of ''[[The Hindu]]'' gave the film a mixed review and noted that "CS Amudhan's thriller, starring Vijay Antony, suffers from a bland treatment despite having an intriguing plot."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rajendran |first1=Gopinath |title=‘Raththam’ movie review: Insipid writing leaves this thriller with some novel ideas in cold blood |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/raththam-movie-review-insipid-writing-leaves-this-thriller-with-some-novel-ideas-in-cold-blood/article67389304.ece |website=The Hindu |access-date=7 October 2023 |language=en-IN |date=6 October 2023 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007021149/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/raththam-movie-review-insipid-writing-leaves-this-thriller-with-some-novel-ideas-in-cold-blood/article67389304.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

Bharathy Singaravel of ''[[The News Minute]]'' gave it 3 out of 5 stars noting it was "an ode to the spirit of good journalism."<ref>{{cite web |title=Ratham review: Vijay Antony-CS Amudhan film is an ode to the spirit of good journalism |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/flix/ratham-review-vijay-antony-cs-amudhan-film-is-an-ode-to-the-spirit-of-good-journalism |website=[[The News Minute]] |access-date=7 October 2023 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007193623/https://www.thenewsminute.com/flix/ratham-review-vijay-antony-cs-amudhan-film-is-an-ode-to-the-spirit-of-good-journalism |url-status=live }}</ref> Thinkal Menon of ''[[OTTplay]]'' gave it 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote, "''Raththam'' is a pretty straightforward investigative drama that pivots around hate crimes in the country. There is a bit of everything in here — though it doesn’t work for the most part."<ref>{{cite web |title=Raththam Review: Investigative Drama Called For A Better Actor Than Vijay Antony |url=https://www.ottplay.com/amp/review/raththam-review-investigative-drama-called-for-a-better-actor-than-vijay-antony/1b5b3d2886417 |website=www.ottplay.com |access-date=7 October 2023 |archive-date=7 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007193627/https://www.ottplay.com/amp/review/raththam-review-investigative-drama-called-for-a-better-actor-than-vijay-antony/1b5b3d2886417 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt21370972}}

[[Category:2020s Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Indian thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian crime thriller films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Films shot in Spain]]
[[Category:Films shot in Thailand]]
[[Category:Films set in Chennai]]

United States v. Balsara

2023-10-08T02:13:29Z

Profpremrajpushpakaran:

{{Short description|Court case}}

'''''United States v. Balsara''''' (1910) was a case in which the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]] decided that [[Bhicaji Balsara]], a [[Parsis|Parsee]] Immigrant, was eligible for citizenship in the [[United States]]. This case served as an early [[Definitions of whiteness in the United States|racial prerequisite case]] that defined the definition of whiteness, where the court determined that people who were [[Caucasian race|caucasian]], under the racial thinking of the time, were white. In 1923, in the case of [[United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind]], the court dismissed the prior definition of "Caucasian" and, instead, adopted the standard of common understanding. The court determined that "White" referred to immigrants from Northern or Western Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Banks |first=Taunya Lovell |date=1998 |title=Both Edges of the Margin: Blacks and Asians in Mississippi Masala, Barriers to Coalition Building |url=https://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1325&context=fac_pubs |journal=Faculty Scholarship |pages=21}}</ref>

== Court Case ==
In 1906, Balsara filed a petition for citizenship under section 2169 of the United States Revised Statutes in 1906. In the case of Balsara'',171 Fed. Rep. 294 (1909)'', which was decided by the Circuit Court of New York, the initial presiding judge, [[Emile Henry Lacombe]], granted Balsara's petition under section 2169 of the United States Revised Statutes'''.'''<ref>In re Balsara, 171 F. 294, (S.D.N.Y, 1909)</ref> The statute states, regarding naturalization, that: “The provisions of this title shall apply to aliens being free white persons and to aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent.”<ref name=":0">United States v. Balsara, 180 F. 694, (2nd Cir. 1910)</ref>

As evidenced by the court's closing remarks, qualities such as high character and intelligence notably shaped the decision '''.'''<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Tehranian |first=John |date=2000 |title=Performing Whiteness: Naturalization Litigation and the Construction of Racial Identity in America |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/797505 |journal=The Yale Law Journal |volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=840 |doi=10.2307/797505 |jstor=797505 |via=JSTOR}}</ref> Given that Balsara displayed the qualities of a person of outstanding character and remarkable intelligence, the court made the choice to approve Balsara's [[naturalization]] request. Consequently, the court employed these qualities as the tie-breaker in a borderline case.<ref name=":1" />

After his petition was granted, The United States sought review of the decision of the Circuit Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. The United States contended that Balsara was not white within the meaning of the statute. Balsara attempted to be classified as a "free white person" within the meaning of the Revised Statutes, contending that he was a part of the "white race."<ref name=":0" />

== Background ==
A merchant and Parsee Immigrant from [[Mumbai|Bombay, India]], Bhicaji Balsara, who was a pure descendent of the Persian sect<ref>{{Cite news |date=May 29, 1910 |title=THE CASE OF BALSARA |pages=6}}</ref> arrived in the United States in 1900. He arrived in the United States as a cotton buyer for the [[Tata Group]] and married Louise D. Balsara in [[New York (state)|New York]]. The two purchased a house in [[Bergen County, New Jersey|Bergen, New Jersey]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhicaji F Balsara in the 1940 Census {{!}} Ancestry® |url=https://www.ancestry.com/1940-census/usa/New-Jersey/Bhicaji-F-Balsara_4kpjd4 |access-date=2023-09-28 |website=Ancestry.com |language=en}}</ref> He applied for U.S. citizenship based on section 2169 of the United States Revised Statutes in 1906. The case then reached The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.

Balsara was aided in his appeal by the minuscule [[Syrian Americans|Syrian-American]] community in [[New York (state)|New York]]. They enlisted the services of [[Louis Marshall]] and [[Max J. Kohler]], both of whom had previously assisted Syrian immigrants in their naturalization efforts.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Dhillon |first=Hardeep |date=2023 |title=The Making of Modern US Citizenship and Alienage: The History of Asian Immigration, Racial Capital, and US Law |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/law-and-history-review/article/making-of-modern-us-citizenship-and-alienage-the-history-of-asian-immigration-racial-capital-and-us-law/6563E350D8B5855520FEEFD4C76A0B0E |journal=Cambridge University Press |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=17}}</ref> Marshall and Kohler were actively engaged in endeavors to safeguard the rights of Jewish immigrants seeking naturalization, including efforts to prevent the [[United States Census Bureau|Census Bureau]] from introducing a separate racial classification like "Hebrew" that would have categorized [[Jews]] as non-White.<ref name=":2" />

== Arguments ==
The central question was whether Balsara, originally from India, was entitled to naturalization based on the specific racial criteria laid out in section 2169. The United States argued that Balsara did not qualify for naturalization because, in their view, Congress intended this privilege only for immigrants from [[England]], [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Germany]], [[Sweden]], [[France]], and [[Holland]], asserting that it was essential to consider and assess the historical context and the intent of Congress at the time when the relevant naturalization laws were enacted.<ref name=":0" /> The United States argued that because there were no documented instances of significant immigration to the United States from countries beyond those specifically listed (England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Germany, Sweden, France, and Holland) during the relevant historical period, it is reasonable to conclude that Congress intended naturalization to be applicable exclusively to immigrants from these specified nations.<ref name=":0" />

Balsara asserted that the expression "free white persons" should be construed within a racial framework rather than being tied to particular national backgrounds. He maintained that the statute sought to grant naturalization privileges to individuals affiliated with the white or Caucasian race, irrespective of their nation of birth.<ref name=":0" />

== Decision ==
The court upheld Balsara's position, asserting that the term "free white persons" should be construed as a reference to race rather than specific national origins.<ref name=":0" /> The court argued that the statute was intended to grant naturalization rights to individuals belonging to the white or Caucasian race, distinguishing them from individuals of other racial groups such as black, red, yellow, or brown races.<ref name=":0" />

The court reinforced this interpretation by referencing established legal precedents and authoritative opinions that had previously endorsed this perspective. They contended that although the Congressmen of 1790 may not have possessed in-depth knowledge of ethnological classifications and had not used the term "Caucasian race," the legislative purpose remained evident: to encompass individuals of the white race within the scope of naturalization eligibility, regardless of their particular national backgrounds.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:1910 in case law]]
[[Category:United States nationality law]]
[[Category:United States Court of Appeals case articles without infoboxes]]

Sejm

2023-05-02T20:36:45Z

Profpremrajpushpakaran: Wrote an enlightening manuscript.

{{Short description|Lower house of Poland's national legislature}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = Sejm of the Republic of Poland
| native_name = ''Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej''
| transcription_name =
| legislature = [[9th term Sejm and 10th term Senate of Poland|9th term]]
| coa_pic =Sejm RP logo and wordmark.svg
| coa_res = 200px
| house_type=Lower house
| body=Polish parliament
| foundation = 1493 ([[Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland|historical]]) 1921 ([[History of Poland (1918–1939)|contemporary]])
| leader1_type = [[Marshal of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland|Marshal of the Sejm]]
| leader1 = [[Elżbieta Witek]]
| party1 = [[Prawo i Sprawiedliwość|PiS]]
| election1 = 9 August 2019
| leader2_type = [[Deputy Marshal of the Sejm of the Republic of Poland|Deputy Marshal of the Sejm]]
| leader2 = [[Małgorzata Gosiewska]], [[Prawo i Sprawiedliwość|PiS]] [[Ryszard Terlecki]], [[Prawo i Sprawiedliwość|PiS]] [[Małgorzata Kidawa-Błońska]], [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|PO]] [[Włodzimierz Czarzasty]], [[The Left (Poland)|NL]] [[Piotr Zgorzelski]], [[Polish Coalition|PSL]]
| members = 460 deputies ''(231 majority)''
| party2 =
| election2 =
| structure1 = 10th_Term_of_the_Polish_Sejm_June_2023.png
| structure1_res = 250px
| political_groups1 = '''[[Second Cabinet of Mateusz Morawiecki|Government]] (229)'''
{{collapsible list
| titlestyle = font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;
| title = {{color box|{{party color|Law and Justice}}}} [[United Right (Poland)|United Right]] (228)
| bullets = yes
| {{color box|{{party color|Law and Justice}}}} [[Law and Justice]] (194)
| {{color box|{{party color|United Poland}}}} [[Sovereign Poland]] (19)
| {{color box|{{party color|Republican Party (Poland)}}}} [[The Republicans (Poland)|The Republicans]] (8)
| {{color box|{{party color|OdNowa RP}}}} [[OdNowa RP|Renewal]] (5){{efn|[[Anna Dąbrowska-Banaszek]], [[Andrzej Gut-Mostowy]], [[Wojciech Murdzek]], [[Marcin Ociepa]], [[Grzegorz Piechowiak]]}}
| {{color box|{{party color|Independent politician}}}} [[Independent politician|Independent]] (2){{efn|[[Jadwiga Emilewicz]], [[Monika Pawłowska]]}}}}
{{color box|{{party color|Polish Affairs}}}} [[Polish Affairs]] (1){{efn|While Polish Affairs are not directly affiliated with United Right, and therefore not a part of the government, [[Agnieszka Ścigaj]] holds a ministerial position}}

'''[[Confidence and supply]] (4)'''

{{color box|{{party color|Polish Affairs}}}} [[Polish Affairs]] (2){{efn|[[Andrzej Sośnierz]], [[Zbigniew Girzyński]]}}
{{collapsible list
| titlestyle = font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;
| title = {{color box|{{party color|Independent politician}}}} [[Independent politician|Non-affiliated]] (2)
| bullets = yes
| {{color box|{{party color|Republican Party (Poland)}}}} [[The Republicans (Poland)|The Republicans]] (1){{efn|Even though The Republicans are a part of United Right, and therefore a part of the government, [[Łukasz Mejza]] has never joined the United Right parliamentary club and has not been a minister since 2021}}
| {{color box|{{party color|Independent politician}}}} [[Independent politician|Independent]] (1){{efn|Elected from Civic Coalition list, [[Zbigniew Ajchler]] has been a supporter of the government since being sworn in}}}}
'''[[Opposition (parliamentary)|Opposition]] (227)'''
{{collapsible list
| titlestyle = font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;
| title = {{color box|{{party color|Civic Coalition (Poland)}}}} [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|Civic Coalition]] (126)
| bullets = yes
| {{color box|{{party color|Civic Platform}}}} [[Civic Platform]] (106)
| {{color box|{{party color|Modern (political party)}}}} [[Modern (political party)|Modern]] (6)
| {{color box|{{party color|Polish Initiative}}}} [[Polish Initiative]] (4)
| {{color box|{{party color|The Greens (Poland)}}}} [[The Greens (Poland)|The Greens]] (4)
| {{color box|{{party color|Independent politician}}}} [[Independent politician|Independent]] (6)}}
{{collapsible list
| titlestyle = font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;
| title = {{color box|{{party color|The Left (Poland)}}}} [[The Left (Poland)|The Left]] (43)
| bullets = yes
| {{color box|{{party color|New Left (Poland)}}}} [[New Left (Poland)|New Left]] (37){{efn|Former [[Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)|Democratic Left Alliance]] and [[Spring (political party)|Spring]] MPs}}
| {{color box|{{party color|Left Together}}}} [[Left Together]] (6)}}
{{collapsible list
| titlestyle = font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;
| title = {{color box|{{party color|Polish People's Party}}}} [[Polish Coalition]] (24)
| bullets = yes
|{{color box|{{party color|Polish People's Party}}}} [[Polish People's Party]] (19)
|{{color box|#993333}} [[Centre for Poland]] (3){{efn|[[Radosław Lubczyk]], [[Ireneusz Raś]], [[Jacek Tomczak]]}}
|{{color box|{{party color|Union of European Democrats}}}} [[Union of European Democrats]] (1){{efn|[[Jacek Protasiewicz]]}}
|{{color box|{{party color|Independent politician}}}} [[Independent politician|Independent]] (1)}}
{{collapsible list
| titlestyle = font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;
| title = {{color box|{{party color|Confederation Liberty and Independence}}}} [[Confederation Liberty and Independence|Confederation]] (9)
| bullets = yes
|{{color box|{{party color|National Movement (Poland)}}}} [[National Movement (Poland)|National Movement]] (5){{efn| [[Robert Winnicki]], [[Krzysztof Bosak]], [[Krzysztof Tuduj]], [[Krystian Kamiński]], [[Michał Urbaniak (politician)|Michał Urbaniak]]}}
|{{color box|{{party color|KORWiN}}}} [[New Hope (Poland)|New Hope]] (3){{efn|[[Janusz Korwin-Mikke]], [[Konrad Berkowicz]], [[Stanisław Tyszka]]}}
|{{color box|{{party color|Confederation of the Polish Crown}}}} [[Confederation of the Polish Crown]] (1){{efn|[[Grzegorz Braun]]}}}}
{{color box|{{party color|Poland 2050}}}} [[Poland 2050]] (6){{efn|[[Michał Gramatyka]], [[Paulina Hennig-Kloska]], [[Joanna Mucha]], [[Mirosław Suchoń]], [[Paweł Zalewski]], [[Tomasz Zimoch]]}} 
{{color box|{{party color|Agreement (political party)}}}} [[Agreement (political party)|Agreement]] (4){{efn|[[Stanisław Bukowiec]], [[Jarosław Gowin]], [[Iwona Michałek]], [[Magdalena Sroka]]}} 
{{color box|#50247B}} [[Wolnościowcy]] (3){{efn|[[Artur Dziambor]] [[Jakub Kulesza]], [[Dobromir Sośnierz]]}} 
{{color box|{{party color|Kukiz'15}}}} [[Kukiz'15]] (3){{efn|[[Paweł Kukiz]], [[Jarosław Sachajko]], [[Stanisław Żuk]]}} 
{{collapsible list
| titlestyle = font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;
| title ={{color box|{{party color|Democratic Left Association}}}} [[Democratic Left Association]] (3)
| bullets = yes
|{{color box|{{party color|Polish Socialist Party}}}} [[Polish Socialist Party]] (2){{efn|[[Andrzej Rozenek]] and [[Joanna Senyszyn]] are also members of the Democratic Left Association}}
|{{color box|{{party color|Democratic Left Association}}}} [[Democratic Left Association]] (1){{efn|[[Robert Kwiatkowski]]}}}}
{{collapsible list
| titlestyle = font-weight:normal;background:transparent;text-align:left;
| title ={{color box|{{party color|Independent politician}}}} [[Independent politician|Non-affiliated]] (6)
| bullets = yes
|{{color box|{{party color|German Minority Electoral Committee}}}} [[German Minority Electoral Committee|German Minority]] (1){{efn|[[Ryszard Galla]]}}
|{{color box|{{party color|Good Movement}}}} [[Good Movement]] (1){{efn|[[Paweł Szramka]]}}
|{{color box|{{party color|Independent politician}}}} [[Independent politician|Independent]] (4){{efn|[[Hanna Gill-Piątek]], [[Wojciech Maksymowicz]], [[Michał Wypij]], [[Karolina Pawliczak]]}}}}
| committees1 =
| committees2 =
| voting_system1 = {{longitem|[[Open list|Open-list]] [[proportional representation]] in [[Electoral districts of Poland|41 constituencies]] (5% national [[election threshold]]{{sup|a}})}}
| last_election1 = [[2019 Polish parliamentary election|13 October 2019]]
| next_election1 = [[2023 Polish parliamentary election|2023]]
| session_room = Zgromadzenie Narodowe 4 czerwca 2014 Kancelaria Senatu 01.JPG
| session_res = 240px
| meeting_place = The [[Sejm and Senate Complex of Poland|Sejm and Senate Complex]], [[Warsaw]]
| website = {{URL|sejm.gov.pl}}
| footnotes = {{sup|a}} 8% for coalitions, 5% countywide not nationwide for ethnic minority electoral committees
}}

The '''Sejm''' (English: {{IPAc-en|s|eɪ|m}} {{respell|Seym}}, Polish: {{IPAc-pl|AUD|Pl-Sejm-2.ogg|s|e|j|m}}), officially known as the '''Sejm of the Republic of Poland''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej''), is the [[lower house]] of the [[bicameralism|bicameral]] [[parliament of Poland]].

The Sejm has been the highest governing body of the [[Third Polish Republic]] since the [[Polish People’s Republic|transition of government]] in 1989. Along with the [[upper house]] of parliament, the [[Senate of Poland|Senate]], it forms the national [[legislature]] in [[Poland]] known as [[Parliament of Poland#National Assembly|National Assembly]] ({{lang-pl|Zgromadzenie Narodowe}}). The Sejm is composed of 460 [[Member of parliament|deputies]] (singular ''deputowany'' or ''poseł'' – "envoy") elected every four years by a [[Universal suffrage|universal ballot]]. The Sejm is presided over by a [[Speaker of parliament|speaker]] called the "Marshal of the Sejm" (''Marszałek Sejmu'').

In the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]], the term "''Sejm''" referred to an entire two-[[Chambers of parliament|chamber]] parliament, comprising the Chamber of Deputies ({{lang-pl|Izba Poselska}}), the [[Senate of Poland|Senate]] and the King. It was thus a three-estate parliament. The 1573 [[Henrician Articles]] strengthened the assembly's jurisdiction, making Poland a [[elective monarchy|constitutional elective]] monarchy. Since the [[Second Polish Republic]] (1918–1939), "''Sejm''" has only referred to the lower house of parliament.

== History == 

=== Kingdom of Poland ===
{{Main|Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland}}
[[File:The_First_Sejm_1182.jpg|thumb|left|The first Sejm in Łęczyca. Recording of laws. A.D. 1180]]

''Sejm'' (an ancient [[Lechitic languages|Proto-Lechitic]] word meaning "gathering" or "meeting") traces its roots to the King's Councils – ''[[wiec]]e'' – which gained authority during the time of [[Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth|Poland's fragmentation]] (1146-1295). The 1180 Sejm in [[Łęczyca]] (known as the 'First Polish parliament') was the most notable, in that it established laws constraining the power of the ruler. It forbade arbitrary sequestration of supplies in the countryside and takeover of bishopric lands after the death of a bishop. These early ''Sejm''s only convened at the King's behest.

Following the 1493 ''Sejm'' in [[Piotrków Trybunalski|Piotrków]], it became a regularly convening body, to which indirect elections were held every two years. The [[bicameral system]] was also established; the ''Sejm'' then comprised two chambers: the ''Senat'' (Senate) of 81 bishops and [[Offices in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth#Senatorial offices|other dignitaries]]; and the Chamber of Deputies, made up of 54 envoys elected by smaller local ''sejmik'' ([[Sejmik|assemblies of landed nobility]]) in each of the Kingdom's provinces. At the time, Poland's nobility, which accounted for around 10% of the state's population (then the highest amount in Europe), was becoming particularly influential, and with the eventual development of the [[Golden Liberty]], the ''Sejm'''s powers increased dramatically.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web |url=http://opis.sejm.gov.pl/en/historiasejmu.php |title=Poznaj Sejm |website=opis.sejm.gov.pl |access-date=16 June 2013}}</ref>

===Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth===
{{Main|Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth}}
[[File:Kazimierz Wojniakowski, Uchwalenie Konstytucji 3 Maja.jpg|thumb|left|In 1791, the "[[Great Sejm|Great ''Sejm'']]" or [[Four-Year Sejm|Four-Year ''Sejm'']] of 1788–1792 and Senate adopted the [[May 3rd Constitution]] at the [[Royal Castle, Warsaw|Royal Castle in Warsaw]]]] Over time, the envoys in the [[lower chamber]] grew in number and power as they pressed the king for more privileges. The ''Sejm'' eventually became even more active in supporting the goals of the privileged classes when the King ordered that the landed nobility and their estates (peasants) be drafted into [[Pospolite ruszenie|military service]].
{{Politics of Poland}}
The [[Union of Lublin]] in 1569, united the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385-1569)|Kingdom of Poland]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] as one single state, the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], and thus the ''Sejm'' was supplemented with new envoys from among the [[Lithuanian nobility]]. The Commonwealth ensured that the state of affairs surrounding the three-estates system continued, with the ''Sejm'', Senate and King forming the estates and supreme deliberating body of the state. In the first few decades of the 16th century, the Senate had established its precedence over the ''Sejm''; however, from the mid-1500s onwards, the ''Sejm'' became a very powerful representative body of the ''[[szlachta]]'' ("middle nobility"). Its chambers reserved the final decisions in legislation, taxation, [[budget]], and [[treasury]] matters (including military funding), [[foreign policy]], and the [[Ennoblement|confirment of nobility]].

The 1573 [[Warsaw Confederation]] saw the nobles of the ''Sejm'' officially sanction and guarantee [[religious tolerance]] in Commonwealth territory, ensuring a refuge for those fleeing the ongoing [[Protestant reformation|Reformation]] and [[Counter-Reformation]] wars in Europe.

Until the end of the 16th century, [[unanimity]] was not required, and the [[majority voting|majority-voting]] process was the most commonly used system for voting. Later, with the rise of the [[Polish magnate]]s and their increasing power, the [[unanimity]] principle was re-introduced with the institution of the nobility's right of ''[[liberum veto]]'' ([[Latin]]: "free [[veto]]"). Additionally, if the envoys were unable to reach a unanimous decision within six weeks (the time limit of a single session), deliberations were declared void and all previous acts passed by that ''Sejm'' were annulled. From the mid-17th century onward, any objection to a ''Sejm'' resolution, by either an envoy or a senator, automatically caused the rejection of other, previously approved resolutions. This was because all resolutions passed by a given session of the ''Sejm'' formed a whole resolution, and, as such, was published as the annual "constituent act" of the ''Sejm'', e.g. the "''[[Anno Domini]]'' 1667" act. In the 16th century, no single person or small group dared to hold up proceedings, but, from the second half of the 17th century, the ''liberum veto'' was used to virtually paralyze the ''Sejm'', and brought the Commonwealth to the brink of collapse.

The ''liberum veto'' was abolished with the adoption of the [[Constitution of 3 May 1791]], a piece of legislation which was passed as the "Government Act", and for which the ''Sejm'' required [[Great Sejm|four years to propagate and adopt]]. The constitution's acceptance, and the possible long-term consequences it may have had, is arguably the reason for which the powers of [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg Austria]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]] and [[Prussia]] then decided to [[Partitions of Poland|partition the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], thus putting an end to over 300 years of Polish parliamentary continuity. It is estimated that between 1493 and 1793, a ''Sejm'' was held 240 times, the total debate-time sum of which was 44 years.<ref name=autogenerated1/>

===Partitions===
After the fall of the [[Duchy of Warsaw]], which existed as a [[Napoleon]]ic [[client state]] between 1807 and 1815, and its short-lived [[Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw|''Sejm'' of the Duchy of Warsaw]], the [[Sejm of Congress Poland|''Sejm'' of Congress Poland]] was established in [[Congress Poland]] of the Russian Empire; it was composed of the king (the Russian emperor), the upper house (Senate), and the lower house (Chamber of Deputies). Overall, during the period from 1795 until the re-establishment of Poland's sovereignty in 1918, little power was actually held by any Polish legislative body and the occupying powers of Russia, Prussia (later united [[German Empire|Germany]]) and Austria propagated legislation for their own respective formerly-Polish territories at a national level.<ref name="autogenerated1" /><gallery widths="240" heights="119">
File:Jan_Matejko_-_Upadek_Polski_(Reytan).jpg|[[Tadeusz Rejtan]] tries to prevent the legalisation of the [[Partitions of Poland|first partition of Poland]] by preventing the members of the ''Sejm'' from leaving the chamber (1773). [[Rejtan (painting)|Painting]] by [[Jan Matejko]]
</gallery>

====Congress Poland====
{{Main|Sejm of Congress Poland}}
The Chamber of Deputies, despite its name, consisted not only of 77 envoys (sent by local assemblies) from the hereditary nobility, but also of 51 [[Chamber of Deputies|deputies]], elected by the non-noble population. All deputies were covered by [[Parliamentary immunity]], with each individual serving for a term of office of six years, with third of the deputies being elected every two years. Candidates for deputy had to be able to [[Literacy|read and write]], and have a certain amount of wealth. The legal voting age was 21, except for those citizens serving in the military, the personnel of which were not allowed to vote. Parliamentary sessions were initially convened every two years, and lasted for (at least) 30 days. However, after many clashes between liberal deputies and conservative government officials, sessions were later called only four times (1818, 1820, 1826, and 1830, with the last two sessions being secret). The ''Sejm'' had the right to call for votes on [[Common law|civil]] and [[Administrative law|administrative]] legal issues, and, with permission from the king, it could also vote on matters related to the [[fiscal policy]] and the military. It had the right to exercise control over government officials, and to file [[petition]]s. The 64-member Senate on the other hand, was composed of ''[[voivode]]s'' and ''[[Castellan|kasztelan]]s'' (both types of provincial governors), Russian envoys, diplomats or princes, and nine bishops. It acted as the Parliamentary Court, had the right to control "citizens' books", and had similar [[Legislature|legislative]] rights as did the Chamber of Deputies.<ref name="autogenerated1" />

====Germany and Austria-Hungary====
In the [[Free City of Cracow]] (1815–1846), a unicameral Assembly of Representatives was established, and from 1827, a unicameral [[Sejm of the Grand Duchy of Posen|provincial ''sejm'']] existed in the [[Grand Duchy of Poznań]]. Poles were elected to and represented the majority in both of these legislatures; however, they were largely powerless institutions and exercised only very limited power. After numerous failures in securing legislative sovereignty in the early 19th century, many Poles simply gave up trying to attain a degree of independence from their foreign master-states. In the [[Austrian partition]], a relatively powerless [[Sejm of the Estates|''Sejm'' of the Estates]] operated until the time of the [[Revolutions of 1848|Spring of Nations]]. After this, in the mid to late 19th century, only in autonomous [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] (1861–1914) was there a unicameral and functional National ''Sejm'', the [[Sejm of the Land|''Sejm'' of the Land]]. It is recognised today as having played a major and overwhelming positive role in the development of Polish national institutions.

In the second half of the 19th century, Poles were able to become members of the parliaments of Austria, Prussia and Russia, where they formed Polish Clubs. Deputies of Polish nationality were elected to the Prussian ''Landtag'' from 1848, and then to the [[German Empire]]'s ''[[Reichstag (German Empire)|Reichstag]]'' from 1871. Polish Deputies were members of the Austrian State Council (from 1867), and from 1906 were also elected to the Russian Imperial State ''Duma'' (lower chamber) and to the State Council (upper chamber).<ref name=autogenerated1 />

===Second Polish Republic===
After the [[First World War]] and re-establishment of Polish independence, the convocation of parliament, under the democratic electoral law of 1918, became an enduring symbol of the new state's wish to demonstrate and establish continuity with the 300-year Polish parliamentary traditions established before the time of the partitions. Maciej Rataj emphatically paid tribute to this with the phrase: "There is Poland there, and so is the ''Sejm''".

During the [[interwar period]] of Poland's independence, the first [[1919 Polish legislative election|Legislative ''Sejm'' of 1919]], a Constituent Assembly, passed the [[Small Constitution of 1919]], which introduced a [[parliamentary republic]] and proclaimed the principle of the ''Sejm'''s [[sovereignty]]. This was then strengthened, in 1921, by the [[March Constitution of Poland|March Constitution]], one of the most democratic European constitutions enacted after the end of World War I. The constitution established a political system which was based on [[Montesquieu]]'s doctrine of separation of powers, and which restored the bicameral ''Sejm'' consisting of a chamber of deputies (to which alone the name of "''Sejm''" was from then on applied) and the Senate. In 1919, [[Roza Pomerantz-Meltzer]], a member of the [[Zionism|Zionist]] party, became the first woman ever elected to the ''Sejm''.<ref>{{cite book |title=God's Playground: A History of Poland |last=Davies |first=Norman |year=1982 |publisher=Columbia University Press |page=302}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870-1933/39 |last=Strauss |first=Herbert Arthur |year=1993 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |page=985}}</ref>

The legal content of the March Constitution allowed for ''Sejm'' supremacy in the system of state institutions at the expense of the executive powers, thus creating a parliamentary republic out of the Polish state. An attempt to strengthen executive powers in 1926 (through the August Amendment) proved too limited and largely failed in helping avoid legislative grid-lock which had ensued as a result of too-great parliamentary power in a state which had numerous diametrically-opposed political parties sitting in its legislature. In 1935, the parliamentary republic was weakened further when, by way of, [[Józef Piłsudski]]'s [[May Coup (Poland)|May Coup]], the president was forced to sign the [[Polish Constitution of 1935|April Constitution of 1935]], an act through which the head of state assumed the dominant position in legislating for the state and the Senate increased its power at the expense of the ''Sejm''.

On 2 September 1939, the ''Sejm'' held its final pre-war session, during which it declared Poland's readiness to defend itself against invading German forces. On 2 November 1939, the President dissolved the ''Sejm'' and the Senate, which were then, according to plan, to resume their activity within two months after the end of the Second World War; this, however, never happened. During wartime, the National Council (1939–1945) was established to represent the legislature as part of the [[Polish Government in Exile]]. Meanwhile, in [[Nazi-occupied Poland]], the Council of National Unity was set up; this body functioned from 1944 to 1945 as the parliament of the [[Polish Underground State]]. With the cessation of hostilities in 1945, and subsequent rise to power of the Communist-backed [[Provisional Government of National Unity]], the [[Second Polish Republic]] legally ceased to exist.<ref name=autogenerated1 /><gallery widths="220" heights="169">
File:Dubois w Sejmie. 1-A-849-4.jpg|[[Stanisław Dubois]] speaking to envoys and diplomats in the ''Sejm'', 1931
File:Beck przemówienie.jpg|[[Józef Beck]], Minister of Foreign Affairs, delivers his famous Honour Speech in the ''Sejm'', 5 May 1939.
</gallery>

===Polish People's Republic===
The ''Sejm'' in the [[Polish People's Republic]] had 460 deputies throughout most of its history. At first, this number was declared to represent one deputy per 60,000 citizens (425 were elected in 1952), but, in 1960, as the population grew, the declaration was changed: The constitution then stated that the deputies were representative ''of'' the people and could be recalled ''by'' the people, but this article was never used, and, instead of the "[[five-point electoral law]]", a non-proportional, "four-point" version was used. Legislation was passed with [[majority voting]].

Under the [[Constitution of the Polish People's Republic|1952 Constitution]], the Sejm was defined as "the highest organ of State authority" in Poland, as well as "the highest spokesman of the will of the people in town and country." On paper, it was vested with great lawmaking and oversight powers. For instance, it was empowered with control over "the functioning of other organs of State authority and administration," and ministers were required to answer questions posed by deputies within seven days.<ref name=PolandConstitutionChapter3>[http://libr.sejm.gov.pl/tek01/txt/kpol/e1952a-r3.html Chapter 3] of 1952 Constitution</ref> In practice, it did little more than rubber-stamp decisions already made by the Communist [[Polish United Workers Party]] and its executive bodies.<ref name=cs>[http://countrystudies.us/poland/80.htm Poland: a country study]. [[Library of Congress]] Federal Research Division, December 1989.</ref> This was standard practice in nearly all Communist regimes due to the principle of [[democratic centralism]].

The ''Sejm'' voted on the [[budget]] and on the periodic [[Planned economy|national plans]] that were a fixture of communist economies. The ''Sejm'' deliberated in sessions that were ordered to convene by the [[State Council of Poland|State Council]].

The ''Sejm'' also chose a ''[[Presidium|Prezydium]]'' ("presiding body") from among its members. The ''Prezydium'' was headed by the speaker, or [[Marshal of the Sejm|Marshal]], who was always a member of the [[United People's Party (Poland)|United People's Party]]. In its preliminary session, the ''Sejm'' also nominated the [[Prime Minister of Poland|Prime Minister]], the [[Council of Ministers of Poland]], and members of the State Council. It also chose many other government officials, including the head of the [[Supreme Audit Office (Poland)|Supreme Chamber of Control]] and members of the [[State Tribunal of Poland|State Tribunal]] and the [[Constitutional Tribunal of Poland|Constitutional Tribunal]], as well as the [[Polish Ombudsman|Ombudsman]] (the last three bodies of which were created in the 1980s).

When the Sejm was not in session, the State Council had the power to issue decrees that had the force of law. However, those decrees had to be approved by the Sejm at its next session.<ref name=PolandConstitutionChapter3/> In practice, the principles of democratic centralism meant that such approval was only a formality.

The [[Senate of Poland|Senate]] was abolished by the [[1946 Polish people's referendum|referendum]] in 1946, after which the ''Sejm'' became the sole legislative body in Poland.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> Even though the ''Sejm'' was largely subservient to the Communist party, one deputy, Romuald Bukowski (an independent) voted against the imposition of martial law in 1982.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/22/obituaries/romuald-bukowski-polish-legislator-64.html|title=Romuald Bukowski; Polish Legislator, 64|author=The Associated Press|work=The New York Times|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

===Third Polish Republic===
After the [[Revolutions of 1989|end of communism]] in 1989, the Senate was reinstated as the second house of a bicameral [[National Assembly of Poland|national assembly]], while the ''Sejm'' remained the first house. The ''Sejm'' is now composed of 460 deputies elected by [[proportional representation]] every four years.

Between 7 and 19 deputies are elected from each constituency using the [[d'Hondt method]] (with one exception, in 2001, when the [[Sainte-Laguë method]] was used), their number being proportional to their constituency's population. Additionally, a threshold is used, so that candidates are chosen only from parties that gained at least 5% of the nationwide vote (candidates from ethnic-minority parties are exempt from this threshold).<ref name=autogenerated1 />

<gallery class="center">
Image:Sejm RP.jpg|The ''Sejm'' building in [[Warsaw]]
File:PolskiSejm007.jpg|The ''Sejm'''s main hall
File:Sala posiedzen Sejmu.JPG|Sessions chamber in the ''Sejm''
File:Sejm Plenary Hall viewed from the rostrum.JPG|Sessions chamber viewed from the rostrum
File:Sejm cross.JPG|[[Sejm cross|''Sejm'' cross]]
File:PolskiSejm010.jpg|Column hall in the ''Sejm''
</gallery>

== Historical composition of the Sejm ==
=== [[Second Polish Republic|Second Republic]] (1918-1939) ===
{| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="border:solid #000000 1px;font-size:95%;"
|-
| colspan="2" |
{| width="100%" style="font-size:90%;"
| width="40" |
|{{legend|{{party color|Christian Union of National Unity}}|[[Popular National Union|ZLN]]/[[Christian Union of National Unity|ChZJN]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie"}}|[[Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie"|PSL "W"]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Polish People's Party "Piast"}}|[[Polish People's Party "Piast" (1913–1931)|PSL "P"]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Polish Socialist Party}}|[[Polish Socialist Party|PPS]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Polish United Party}}|[[Polish United Party|PZL]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|National Workers' Union (Poland)}}|[[National Workers' Union (Poland)|NZR]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Catholic People's Party (Poland)}}|[[Catholic People's Party (Poland)|SKL]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Polish People's Party "Left"}}|[[Polish People's Party "Left"|PSL "L"]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|National Workers' Party}}|[[National Workers' Party|NPR]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Communist Party of Poland}}|[[Communist Party of Poland|KPP]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government}}|[[Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government|BBWR]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Polish Christian Democratic Party}}|Catholic Bloc}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Peasant Party (Poland)}}|[[Peasant Party (Poland)|SCh]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Centrolew}}|[[Centrolew]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|National Party (Poland)}}|[[National Party (Poland)|SN]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Camp of National Unity}}|[[Camp of National Unity|OZN]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Bloc of National Minorities}}|[[Bloc of National Minorities|Minorities]]}}
|{{legend|#0038b8|Jews}}
|{{legend|{{party color|German Minority Electoral Committee}}|[[German Minority Electoral Committee|Germans]]}}
|{{legend|#ffd700|Ukrainians}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Independent politician}}|Others/Independent}}
|}
|-
| width="40" | [[1919 Polish legislative election|1919]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Christian Union of National Unity}}; width: 35.53%"|140
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie"}}; width: 14.97%"| 59
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party "Piast"}}; width: 11.68%"| 46
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish Socialist Party}}; width: 8.88%"| 35
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish United Party}}; width: 8.88%"| 35
| style="background-color: {{party color|National Workers' Union (Poland)}}; width: 8.12%"| 32
| style="background-color: {{party color|Catholic People's Party (Poland)}}; width: 4.57%"| 18
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party "Left"}}; width: 3.05%"| 12
| style="background-color: #0038b8; width: 2.79%"| 11
| style="background-color: {{party color|German Minority Electoral Committee}}; width: 0.51%"| 2
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 1.02%"| {{font color|#000000|4}}
|}
|-
| [[1922 Polish legislative election|1922]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Christian Union of National Unity}}; width: 36.71%"|163
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie"}}; width: 11.04%"| 49
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party "Piast"}}; width: 15.77%"| 70
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish Socialist Party}}; width: 9.23%"| 41
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party "Left"}}; width: 0.45%"| 2
| style="background-color: {{party color|National Workers' Party}}; width: 4.05%"| 18
| style="background-color: {{party color|Communist Party of Poland}}; width: 0.45%"| 2
| style="background-color: {{party color|Bloc of National Minorities}}; width: 14.86%"| 66
| style="background-color: #0038b8; width: 4.05%"| 18
| style="background-color: #ffd700; width: 1.13%"| 5
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 2.25%"| {{font color|#000000|10}}
|}
|-
| [[1928 Polish legislative election|1928]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Christian Union of National Unity}}; width: 8.56%"| 38
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie"}}; width: 9.01%"| 40
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish Socialist Party}}; width: 14.41%"| 64
| style="background-color: {{party color|National Workers' Party}}; width: 2.48%"| 11
| style="background-color: {{party color|Communist Party of Poland}}; width: 1.13%"| 5
| style="background-color: {{party color|Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government}}; width: 28.15%"|125
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish Christian Democratic Party}}; width: 7.66%"| 34
| style="background-color: {{party color|Peasant Party (Poland)}}; width: 5.86%"| 26
| style="background-color: {{party color|Bloc of National Minorities}}; width: 12.39%"| 55
| style="background-color: #0038b8; width: 1.35%"| 6
| style="background-color: #ffd700; width: 3.83%"| 17
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 5.18%"| {{font color|#000000|23}}
|}
|-
| [[1930 Polish legislative election|1930]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government}}; width: 56.08%"|249
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish Christian Democratic Party}}; width: 3.15%"| 14
| style="background-color: {{party color|Centrolew}}; width: 17.79%"| 79
| style="background-color: {{party color|National Party (Poland)}}; width: 14.19%"| 63
| style="background-color: {{party color|Bloc of National Minorities}}; width: 1.13%"| 5
| style="background-color: #0038b8; width: 1.58%"| 7
| style="background-color: #ffd700; width: 4.73%"| 21
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 1.35%"| {{font color|#000000|6}}
|}
|-
| [[1935 Polish legislative election|1935]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government}}; width: 87.86%"|181
| style="background-color: {{party color|Bloc of National Minorities}}; width: 12.14%"| 25
|}
|-
| [[1938 Polish legislative election|1938]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Camp of National Unity}}; width: 78.85%"|164
| style="background-color: #0038b8; width: 2.40%"| 5
| style="background-color: #ffd700; width: 8.65%"| 18
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 10.10%"| {{font color|#000000|21}}
|}
|}

=== [[Polish People's Republic|PRL]] (1945-1989) ===
{| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="border:solid #000000 1px;font-size:95%;"
|-
| colspan="2" |
{| width="100%" style="font-size:90%;"
| width="40" |
|{{legend|{{party color|Polish United Workers' Party}}|[[Polish Workers' Party|PPR]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Polish United Workers' Party}}|[[Polish United Workers' Party|PZPR]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Polish Socialist Party}}|[[Polish Socialist Party|PPS]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|United People's Party (Poland)}}|[[United People's Party (Poland)|SL/ZSL]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Polish People's Party "Nowe Wyzwolenie"}}|[[Polish People's Party "Nowe Wyzwolenie"|PSL "NW"]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Alliance of Democrats (Poland)}}|[[Alliance of Democrats (Poland)|SD]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Polish People's Party (1945–1949)}}|[[Polish People's Party (1945–1949)|PSL]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Independent politician}}|Independent}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Solidarity Citizens' Committee}}|[[Solidarity Citizens' Committee|KO "S"]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Labour Faction (1937)}}|[[Labour Faction (1937)|SP]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|PAX Association}}|[[PAX Association|PAX]]}}
|{{legend|#793415|{{ill|Christian-Social Union|lt=ChSS|pl|Chrześcijańskie Stowarzyszenie Społeczne}}}}
|{{legend|#4320DC|{{ill|Polish Catholic-Social Association|lt=PZKS|pl|Polski Związek Katolicko-Społeczny}}}}
|{{legend|#000000|[[Znak (association)|Znak]]}}
|}
|-
| width="40" | [[1947 Polish legislative election|1947]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish United Workers' Party}}; width: 25.68%"|114
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish Socialist Party}}; width: 26.13%"|116
| style="background-color: {{party color|United People's Party (Poland)}}; width: 24.55%"|109
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party "Nowe Wyzwolenie"}}; width: 1.58%"| 7
| style="background-color: {{party color|Alliance of Democrats (Poland)}}; width: 9.23%"| 41
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party (1945–1949)}}; width: 6.31%"| 28
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 0.68%"| {{font color|#000000|3}}
| style="background-color: {{party color|Labour Faction (1937)}}; width: 2.70%"| 12
|}
|-
| [[1952 Polish legislative election|1952]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish United Workers' Party}}; width: 64.24%"|273
| style="background-color: {{party color|United People's Party (Poland)}}; width: 21.18%"| 90
| style="background-color: {{party color|Alliance of Democrats (Poland)}}; width: 5.88%"| 25
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 8.71%"| {{font color|#000000|37}}
|}
|-
| [[1957 Polish legislative election|1957]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish United Workers' Party}}; width: 52.07%"|239
| style="background-color: {{party color|United People's Party (Poland)}}; width: 25.71%"|118
| style="background-color: {{party color|Alliance of Democrats (Poland)}}; width: 8.50%"| 39
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 12.64%"| {{font color|#000000|58}}
| style="background-color: #000000; width: 1.09%"| 5
|}
|-
| [[1961 Polish legislative election|1961]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish United Workers' Party}}; width: 55.65%"|256
| style="background-color: {{party color|United People's Party (Poland)}}; width: 25.43%"|117
| style="background-color: {{party color|Alliance of Democrats (Poland)}}; width: 8.48%"| 39
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 8.04%"| {{font color|#000000|37}}
| style="background-color: {{party color|PAX Association}}; width: 0.65%"| 3
| style="background-color: #793415; width: 0.65%"| 3
| style="background-color: #000000; width: 1.09%"| 5
|}
|-
| [[1965 Polish legislative election|1965]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish United Workers' Party}}; width: 55.43%"|255
| style="background-color: {{party color|United People's Party (Poland)}}; width: 25.43%"|117
| style="background-color: {{party color|Alliance of Democrats (Poland)}}; width: 8.48%"| 39
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 7.83%"| {{font color|#000000|36}}
| style="background-color: {{party color|PAX Association}}; width: 1.09%"| 5
| style="background-color: #793415; width: 0.65%"| 3
| style="background-color: #000000; width: 1.09%"| 5
|}
|-
| [[1969 Polish legislative election|1969]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish United Workers' Party}}; width: 55.43%"|255
| style="background-color: {{party color|United People's Party (Poland)}}; width: 25.43%"|117
| style="background-color: {{party color|Alliance of Democrats (Poland)}}; width: 8.48%"| 39
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 8.04%"| {{font color|#000000|37}}
| style="background-color: {{party color|PAX Association}}; width: 1.09%"| 5
| style="background-color: #793415; width: 0.43%"| 2
| style="background-color: #000000; width: 1.09%"| 5
|}
|-
| [[1972 Polish legislative election|1972]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish United Workers' Party}}; width: 55.43%"|255
| style="background-color: {{party color|United People's Party (Poland)}}; width: 25.43%"|117
| style="background-color: {{party color|Alliance of Democrats (Poland)}}; width: 8.48%"| 39
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 8.04%"| {{font color|#000000|37}}
| style="background-color: {{party color|PAX Association}}; width: 1.09%"| 5
| style="background-color: #793415; width: 0.43%"| 2
| style="background-color: #000000; width: 1.09%"| 5
|}
|-
| [[1976 Polish legislative election|1976]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish United Workers' Party}}; width: 56.74%"|261
| style="background-color: {{party color|United People's Party (Poland)}}; width: 24.57%"|113
| style="background-color: {{party color|Alliance of Democrats (Poland)}}; width: 8.04%"| 37
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 8.04%"| {{font color|#000000|37}}
| style="background-color: {{party color|PAX Association}}; width: 1.09%"| 5
| style="background-color: #793415; width: 0.43%"| 2
| style="background-color: #000000; width: 1.09%"| 5
|}
|-
| [[1980 Polish legislative election|1980]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish United Workers' Party}}; width: 56.74%"|261
| style="background-color: {{party color|United People's Party (Poland)}}; width: 24.57%"|113
| style="background-color: {{party color|Alliance of Democrats (Poland)}}; width: 8.04%"| 37
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 6.96%"| {{font color|#000000|32}}
| style="background-color: {{party color|PAX Association}}; width: 1.52%"| 7
| style="background-color: #793415; width: 1.09%"| 5
| style="background-color: #000000; width: 1.09%"| 5
|}
|-
| [[1985 Polish legislative election|1985]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish United Workers' Party}}; width: 53.26%"|245
| style="background-color: {{party color|United People's Party (Poland)}}; width: 23.04%"|106
| style="background-color: {{party color|Alliance of Democrats (Poland)}}; width: 7.61%"| 35
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent politician}}; width: 11.52%"| {{font color|#000000|53}}
| style="background-color: {{party color|PAX Association}}; width: 1.96%"| 9
| style="background-color: #793415; width: 1.52%"| 7
| style="background-color: #4320DC; width: 1.09%"| 5
|}
|-
| [[1989 Polish legislative election|1989]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish United Workers' Party}}; width: 37.61%"|173
| style="background-color: {{party color|United People's Party (Poland)}}; width: 16.52%"| 76
| style="background-color: {{party color|Alliance of Democrats (Poland)}}; width: 5.87%"| 27
| style="background-color: {{party color|Solidarity Citizens' Committee}}; width: 35.00%"|161
| style="background-color: {{party color|PAX Association}}; width: 2.17%"| 10
| style="background-color: #793415; width: 1.74%"| 8
| style="background-color: #4320DC; width: 1.09%"| 5
|}
|}

=== Third republic (since 1989) ===
{| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="border:solid #000000 1px;font-size:95%;"
|-
| colspan="2" |
{| width="100%" style="font-size:90%;"
| width="40" |
|{{legend|{{party color|Labour Union (Poland)}}|[[Labour Union (Poland)|UP]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)}}|[[Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)|SLD]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Palikot's Movement}}|[[Palikot's Movement|RP]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Solidarity (Polish trade union)}}|[[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|"S"]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Democratic Union (Poland)}}|[[Democratic Union (Poland)|UD]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Freedom Union (Poland)}}|[[Freedom Union (Poland)|UW]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Modern (political party)}}|[[Modern (political party)|.N]]}}
|{{legend|#808080|Others}}
|{{legend|{{party color|German Minority Electoral Committee}}|[[German Minority Electoral Committee|Germans]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Polish Beer-Lovers' Party}}|[[Polish Beer-Lovers' Party|PPPP]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Nonpartisan Bloc for Support of Reforms}}|[[Nonpartisan Bloc for Support of Reforms|BBWR]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Civic Platform}}|[[Civic Platform|PO]]/[[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Liberal Democratic Congress}}|[[Liberal Democratic Congress|KLD]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Civic Centre Alliance}}|[[Civic Centre Alliance|POC]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland}}|[[Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland|SRP]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Polish People's Party}}|[[Polish People's Party|PSL]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Peasants' Agreement}}|[[Peasants' Agreement|PL]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Kukiz'15}}|[[Kukiz'15|K'15]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Solidarity Electoral Action}}|[[Solidarity Electoral Action|AWS]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Confederation for an Independent Poland}}|[[Confederation for an Independent Poland|KPN]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Law and Justice}}|[[Law and Justice|PiS]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Catholic Election Action}}|[[Catholic Election Action|WAK]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|Confederation Liberty and Independence}}|[[Confederation Liberty and Independence|Konf]]}}
|{{legend|{{party color|League of Polish Families}}|[[League of Polish Families|LPR]]}}
|}
|-
| width="40" | [[1991 Polish parliamentary election|1991]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)}}; width: 13.04%"| 60
| style="background-color: {{party color|Solidarity (Polish trade union)}}; width: 5.87%"| 27
| style="background-color: {{party color|Democratic Union (Poland)}}; width: 13.49%"| 62
| style="background-color: #808080; width: 7.83%"| 36
| style="background-color: {{party color|German Minority Electoral Committee}}; width: 1.52%"| 7
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish Beer-Lovers' Party}}; width: 3.48%"| 16
| style="background-color: {{party color|Liberal Democratic Congress}}; width: 8.04%"| 37
| style="background-color: {{party color|Civic Centre Alliance}}; width: 9.57%"| 44
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party}}; width: 10.43%"| 48
| style="background-color: {{party color|Peasants' Agreement}}; width: 6.09%"| 28
| style="background-color: {{party color|Confederation for an Independent Poland}}; width: 10.00%"| 46
| style="background-color: {{party color|Catholic Election Action}}; width: 10.65%"| 49
|}
|-
| [[1993 Polish parliamentary election|1993]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Labour Union (Poland)}}; width: 8.91%"| 41
| style="background-color: {{party color|Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)}}; width: 37.17%"|171
| style="background-color: {{party color|Democratic Union (Poland)}}; width: 16.09%"| 74
| style="background-color: {{party color|German Minority Electoral Committee}}; width: 0.87%"| 4
| style="background-color: {{party color|Nonpartisan Bloc for Support of Reforms}}; width: 3.48%"| 16
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party}}; width: 28.70%"|132
| style="background-color: {{party color|Confederation for an Independent Poland}}; width: 4,78%"| 22
|}
|-
| [[1997 Polish parliamentary election|1997]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)}}; width: 35.65%"|164
| style="background-color: {{party color|Freedom Union (Poland)}}; width: 13.04%"| 60
| style="background-color: #808080; width: 1.30%"| 6
| style="background-color: {{party color|German Minority Electoral Committee}}; width: 0.43%"| 2
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party}}; width: 5.87%"| 27
| style="background-color: {{party color|Solidarity Electoral Action}}; width: 43,70%"|{{font color|#000000|201}}
|}
|-
| [[2001 Polish parliamentary election|2001]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Labour Union (Poland)}}; width: 3.47%"| 16
| style="background-color: {{party color|Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)}}; width: 43.49%"|200
| style="background-color: {{party color|German Minority Electoral Committee}}; width: 0.43%"| 2
| style="background-color: {{party color|Civic Platform}}; width: 14.13%"| 65
| style="background-color: {{party color|Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland}}; width: 11.52%"| 53
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party}}; width: 9.13%"| 42
| style="background-color: {{party color|Law and Justice}}; width: 9.57%"| 44
| style="background-color: {{party color|League of Polish Families}}; width: 8.26%"| 38
|}
|-
| [[2005 Polish parliamentary election|2005]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)}}; width: 11.96%"| 55
| style="background-color: {{party color|German Minority Electoral Committee}}; width: 0.43%"| 2
| style="background-color: {{party color|Civic Platform}}; width: 28.91%"|133
| style="background-color: {{party color|Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland}}; width: 12.17%"| 56
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party}}; width: 5.43%"| 25
| style="background-color: {{party color|Law and Justice}}; width: 33.70%"|155
| style="background-color: {{party color|League of Polish Families}}; width: 7.39%"| 34
|}
|-
| [[2007 Polish parliamentary election|2007]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)}}; width: 11.52%"| 53
| style="background-color: {{party color|German Minority Electoral Committee}}; width: 0.22%"| 1
| style="background-color: {{party color|Civic Platform}}; width: 45.43%"|209
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party}}; width: 6.74%"| 31
| style="background-color: {{party color|Law and Justice}}; width: 36.09%"|166
|}
|-
| [[2011 Polish parliamentary election|2011]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)}}; width: 5.87%"| 27
| style="background-color: {{party color|Palikot's Movement}}; width: 8.70%"| 40
| style="background-color: {{party color|German Minority Electoral Committee}}; width: 0.22%"| 1
| style="background-color: {{party color|Civic Platform}}; width: 45.00%"|207
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party}}; width: 6.09%"| 28
| style="background-color: {{party color|Law and Justice}}; width: 34.13%"|157
|}
|-
| [[2015 Polish parliamentary election|2015]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Modern (political party)}}; width: 6.09%"| 28
| style="background-color: {{party color|German Minority Electoral Committee}}; width: 0.22%"| 1
| style="background-color: {{party color|Civic Platform}}; width: 30.00%"|138
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party}}; width: 3.48%"| 16
| style="background-color: {{party color|Kukiz'15}}; width: 9.13%"| 42
| style="background-color: {{party color|Law and Justice}}; width: 51.09%"|235
|}
|-
| [[2019 Polish parliamentary election|2019]]
|
{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; color:white;"
| style="background-color: {{party color|Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)}}; width: 10.65%"| 49
| style="background-color: {{party color|German Minority Electoral Committee}}; width: 0.22%"| 1
| style="background-color: {{party color|Civic Platform}}; width: 29.13%"|134
| style="background-color: {{party color|Polish People's Party}}; width: 6.52%"| 30
| style="background-color: {{party color|Law and Justice}}; width: 51.09%"|235
| style="background-color: {{party color|Confederation Liberty and Independence}}; width: 2.39%"| 11
|}
|}

== Standing committees ==

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Administration and Internal Affairs
* Agriculture and Rural Development
* Liaison with Poles Abroad
* Constitutional Accountability
* Culture and Media
* Deputies' Ethics
* Economic Committee
* Education, Science and Youth
* Enterprise Development
* Environment Protection, Natural Resources and Forestry
* European Union Affairs
* Family and Women Rights
* Foreign Affairs
* Health
* Infrastructure
* Justice and Human Rights
* Legislative
* Local Self-Government and Regional Policy
* National and Ethnic Minorities
* National Defence
* Physical Education and Sport
* Public Finances
* Rules and Deputies' Affairs
* Social Policy
* Special Services
* State Control
* State Treasury
* Work
{{div col end}}

== Current standings ==
{{9th term Sejm and 10th term Senate of Poland}}

== See also ==
* [[Electoral districts of Poland (1935–39)]]
* [[Polish constitutional crisis, 2015]]

===Types of ''sejm''===

* [[Confederated sejm|Confederated ''sejm'']] {{smaller|(''Sejm skonfederowany'')}}
* [[Convocation sejm|Convocation ''sejm'']] {{smaller|(''Sejm konwokacyjny'')}}
* [[Coronation sejm|Coronation ''sejm'']] {{smaller|(''Sejm koronacyjny'')}}
* [[Election Sejm|Election ''sejm'']] {{smaller|(''Sejm elekcyjny'')}}
* [[National Assembly of the Republic of Poland]] {{smaller|(''Zgromadzenie Narodowe'')}}
* ''[[Sejmik]]''
** [[Voivodship sejmik|Voivodship ''sejmik'']] {{smaller|(''Sejmik wojewódzki'')}}

===Notable ''sejm''s===

* [[Silent Sejm|Silent ''Sejm'']] {{smaller|(''Sejm Niemy'' 1717)}}
* [[Convocation Sejm (1764)|Convocation ''Sejm'' (1764)]] {{smaller|(''Sejm konwokacyjny'')}}
* [[Repnin Sejm|Repnin ''Sejm'']] {{smaller|(''Sejm Repninowski'' 1767–1768)}}
* [[Partition Sejm|Partition ''Sejm'']] {{smaller|(''Sejm rozbiorowy'' 1773–1776)}}
* [[Great Sejm|Great ''Sejm'']] {{smaller|(''Sejm Wielki'' 1788–1792)}}
* [[Grodno Sejm|Grodno ''Sejm'']] {{smaller|(''Sejm grodzieński'' 1791)}}
* [[Silesian Sejm|Silesian ''Sejm'']] {{smaller|(''Sejm Śląski'' 1920–1939)}}
* [[Contract Sejm|Contract ''Sejm'']] {{smaller|(''Sejm Kontraktowy'' 1989)}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|40em}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|sejm.gov.pl/english.html}}
* [http://www.sejm.gov.pl/english/sejm/sejm.htm Description of the modern Sejm's role in the Polish political system]
* [http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/election.watch/europe/poland3.html CNN Election Watch]

{{Sejms}}
{{National lower houses}}

{{Coord|52.2252|N|21.0280|E|source:wikidata|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sejm Of The Republic Of Poland}}
[[Category:Sejm| ]]
[[Category:National lower houses|Poland]]

Term of office

2022-08-12T20:34:56Z

Profpremrajpushpakaran: Added a new addition to the platform.

{{Short description|Set length of time a person serves in an elected position}}
{{multiple issues|
{{More citations needed}}
{{Globalize|article|Anglophone|2name=[[English-speaking world|the English-speaking world]]}}
}}
A '''term of office''', '''electoral term''', or '''parliamentary term''' is the length of time a person serves in a particular [[elected office]]. In many jurisdictions there is a defined limit on how long terms of office may be before the officeholder must be subject to [[re-election]]. Some jurisdictions exercise [[term limit]]s, setting a maximum number of terms an individual may hold in a particular office.

==United Kingdom==
Being the origin of the [[Westminster system]], aspects of the [[United Kingdom]]'s system of government are replicated in many other countries.

===Monarch===
The [[Monarch of the United Kingdom|monarch]] serves as head of state until their death or [[abdication]].

===House of Commons===
{{See also|House of Commons of the United Kingdom}}
In the [[United Kingdom]] Members of Parliament (MPs) in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] are elected for the duration of the parliament. Following [[Dissolution of the Parliament of the United Kingdom|dissolution]] of the Parliament, a [[General elections (UK)|general election]] is held which consists of simultaneous elections for all seats. For most MPs this means that their terms of office are identical to the duration of the Parliament. An individual's term may be cut short by death or [[Resignation from the British House of Commons|resignation]]. An MP elected in a [[UK Parliamentary by-elections|by-election]] mid-way through a Parliament, regardless of how long they have occupied the seat, is not exempt from facing [[re-election]] at the next general election.

The [[Septennial Act 1715]] provided that a Parliament expired seven years after it had been summoned; this maximum period was reduced to five years by the [[Parliament Act 1911]]. Prior to the [[Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011]] parliaments had no minimum duration. Parliaments could be dissolved early by the monarch at the [[prime minister]]'s request. Early dissolutions occurred when the make-up of Parliament made forming government impossible (as occurred in [[October 1974 United Kingdom general election|1974]]), or, more commonly, when the incumbent government reasoned an early general election would improve their re-election chances (e.g. [[2001 United Kingdom general election|2001]]). The Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 mandated that Parliaments should last their full five years; early dissolution remained possible but under much more limited circumstances. However, the act was repealed in 2022 and replaced with the [[Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022]], which restored the pre-2011 constitutional situation.

Because the [[government of the United Kingdom|government]] and [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|prime minister]] are effectively [[Indirect election|indirectly elected]] through the Commons, the terms of Parliaments and MPs do not directly apply to offices of government, though in practice these are affected by changes in Parliament. While, strictly speaking, a prime minister whose incumbency spans multiple Parliaments only serves one, unbroken, term of office, some writers may refer to the different Parliaments as separate terms.<ref name="Thatcher 3terms">{{cite web|title=Margaret Thatcher|url=http://www.biography.com/people/margaret-thatcher-9504796|website=Biography.com|access-date=5 February 2016|quote="During her three terms…"|archive-date=4 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204135624/http://www.biography.com/people/margaret-thatcher-9504796|url-status=live}}</ref>

===House of Lords===
[[Hereditary peer]]s and [[life peers]] retain membership of the [[House of Lords]] for life, though members can resign or be expelled. [[Lords Spiritual]] hold membership of the House of Lords until the end of their time as bishops, though a senior bishop may be made a life peer upon the end of their bishopric (e.g. [[George Carey]], made ''Baron Carey of Clifton'' the day after he ceased being [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]).

===Devolved administrations===
The [[devolution|devolved administrations]] in [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]] are variations on the system of government used at [[Westminster]].

The office of the leader of the devolved administrations has no numeric term limit imposed upon it. However, in the case of the [[Scottish Government]] and the [[Welsh Government]] there are fixed terms for which the [[legislatures]] can sit. This is imposed at five years. Elections may be held before this time but only if no administration can be formed, which has not happened yet.

===Other elected offices===
Offices of [[Local government in the United Kingdom|local government]] other regional elected officials follow similar rules to the national offices discussed above, with persons elected to fixed terms of a few years.

==United States==

===Federal===
{{main|Federal government of the United States}}
In the [[United States]], the [[president of the United States]] is elected indirectly through the [[United States Electoral College]] to a four-year term, with a [[term limit]] of two terms (totaling eight years) or a maximum of ten years if the president acted as president for two years or less in a term where another was elected as president, imposed by the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution]], ratified in 1951.

The [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] also serves four-year terms but without any term limit. [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Representatives]] serve two-year terms. [[United States Senate|U.S. Senators]] serve six-year terms.

[[Federal judges]] have different terms in office. [[Article I and Article III tribunals|Article I judges]]; such as those that sit on the [[United States bankruptcy court]]s, [[United States Tax Court]], and [[United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces]], and certain other [[United States federal courts|federal courts]] and other forms of [[United States administrative law|adjudicative bodies]] serve limited terms: The Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces for 15 years, bankruptcy courts for 14. However, the majority of the federal judiciary, Article III judges (such as those of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]], [[United States court of appeals|courts of appeal]], and [[United States district court|federal district courts]]), serve for life.

===State and territories===
{{main|State governments of the United States}}
The terms of office for officials in state governments varies according to the provisions of [[State constitution (United States)|state constitutions]] and [[state law]].

The term for [[state governor]]s is four years in all states but [[Vermont]] and [[New Hampshire]]; the [[Governor of Vermont|Vermont]] and [[Governor of New Hampshire|New Hampshire governors]] serve for two years.

The [[National Conference of State Legislatures]] reported in January 2007 that among [[State legislature (United States)|state legislatures]]:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncsl.org/programs/legismgt/about/numoflegis.htm |title=Number of Legislators, Terms of Office, Next Election |publisher=Webarchive.loc.gov |accessdate=2022-03-08 |archive-date=2009-04-29 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090429232858/http://www.ncsl.org/programs/legismgt/about/numoflegis.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*44 states had terms of office for the [[lower house]] of the state legislature (often termed the state House of Representatives) at two years. Five ([[Alabama House of Representatives|Alabama]], [[Louisiana House of Representatives|Louisiana]], [[Maryland House of Delegates|Maryland]], [[Mississippi House of Representatives|Mississippi]], and [[North Dakota House of Representatives|North Dakota]]) had terms of office at four years. (The [[Nebraska Legislature]] is an exception and has a [[Unicameralism|unicameral legislature]] with members elected for four years.)
*37 states had terms of office for the [[upper house]] of the state legislature (often termed the state Senate) at four years. Twelve ([[Arizona Senate|Arizona]], [[Connecticut Senate|Connecticut]], [[Georgia State Senate|Georgia]], [[Idaho Senate|Idaho]], [[Maine Senate|Maine]], [[Massachusetts Senate|Massachusetts]], [[New Hampshire Senate|New Hampshire]], [[New York State Senate|New York]], [[North Carolina Senate|North Carolina]], [[Rhode Island Senate|Rhode Island]], [[South Dakota Senate|South Dakota]], [[Vermont Senate|Vermont]]) had terms of office at two years.

Among [[territories of the United States]]:
*In the [[American Samoa Fono]], members of the [[American Samoa House of Representatives|House]] serve two-year terms while members of the [[American Samoa Senate|Senate]] serve six-year terms.
*Members of both chambers of the [[Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico]] have four-year terms.
*Members of both chambers of the [[Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth Legislature]] have two-year terms.
*The [[Legislature of Guam]] and [[Legislature of the Virgin Islands]] are [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] and Senators have two-year terms.

Members of [[Council of the District of Columbia]] serve a four-year term.

==Canada==
As a former British territory following the [[Westminster System]], there are many similarities with the United Kingdom, although with some variations based on local customs, the federal system of government and the absentee monarch.

===Monarch===
Being a [[Commonwealth realm]], Canada shares a [[Monarchy of Canada|monarch]] with the United Kingdom and 14 other countries, who serves as head of state of all 15 realms until his or her death or abdication.

===Viceroys===
The [[Governor General of Canada|governor general]] is appointed by the monarch as his/her personal representative on the advice of the [[Prime Minister of Canada|prime minister]], and serves [[At Her Majesty's Pleasure|for an indefinite term]], though the normal convention is 5 years. Similarly, the [[Lieutenant Governor (Canada)|lieutenant governors]], who represent the monarch at the provincial level, are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister (usually also with consultation of the relevant provincial [[Premier (Canada)|premier]]), and generally also serve 5 year terms by convention. The territories have [[Commissioner#Canadian territories|commissioners]], who are not representatives of the monarch, but are instead appointed by and represent the [[Queen-in-Council|governor-in-council]] (i.e. the [[Cabinet of Canada|federal cabinet]]), and conventionally serve for about 5 years.

===House of Commons===
{{See also|House of Commons of Canada}}

Similar to the United Kingdom, MPs serve for the duration of the Parliament. They may resign before the end of a Parliament or be elected in [[by-election]]s during the middle of a Parliament.

Under the [[Constitution Act, 1867]], a Parliament may last for a maximum of 5 years from the most recent election before expiring, although all Parliaments to date have been dissolved before they could expire. Bill C-16, introduced in the [[39th Canadian Parliament|39th Parliament]], provided for fixed election dates every 4 years on the third Monday in October, beginning in 2009. However, the Prime Minister may still advise the Governor General to dissolve Parliament at any time.

As in the United Kingdom, the cabinet and head of government are indirectly elected based on the composition of the House of Commons, they are not technically affected by the terms of legislators or Parliaments. In practice however, the terms of government office holders are affected by changes in the House of Commons, and those who serve for multiple consecutive Parliaments are generally considered to have served a single term. The term of a government generally ends when it is defeated on a confidence matter or the governing party fails to gain enough seats in a general election.

===Senate===

Senators are appointed to the [[Senate of Canada|Canadian Senate]] to represent a province, territory, or group of provinces, by the Governor General of Canada on the advice of the Prime Minister, and serve until the mandatory retirement age of 75. Senators appointed before the passage of the [[British North America Act, 1965]] served for life. Senators may also resign from office or be expelled from the Senate.

===Provincial and Territorial Legislatures===
{{See also|Legislative assemblies of Canadian provinces and territories}}

Provincial legislatures and the legislature of the Yukon function very similarly to the federal House of Commons. MLAs (called MPPs in [[Ontario]], MNAs in [[Quebec]], and MHAs in [[Newfoundland and Labrador]]) serve for the duration of the legislature, though they may resign before the legislature is dissolved or be elected in by-elections between general elections. The legislatures of the [[Northwest Territories]] and [[Nunavut]] operate using a [[Consensus government in Canada|consensus]] model, but are similar otherwise. The premiers and their cabinets are selected in the same way as in the House of Commons, and like at the federal level, the term of a provincial government can be ended by defeat in a general election or the loss of the legislature's confidence.

All provincial legislatures except that of [[Nova Scotia]] have fixed-term election legislation in place, as does the legislature of the Northwest Territories. Premiers may also advise Lieutenant Governors to dissolve legislatures at any time before the prescribed election date.

==Netherlands==
In the Netherlands the position of Minister-President (Prime Minister) is limited to four years (counted from the moment the government is officially formed) although it can be repeated indefinitely after subsequent elections. It is common for the heads of governments in the Netherlands to take up the mantle multiple times, although it's neither expected or required to do so, more often a consequence of governments breaking up internally before their official four years are over and reforming with other parties. This is how the Netherlands ended up with consequent cabinets by:
4x [[Willem Drees]] (Drees-Van Schaik I '48, Drees I '51, Drees II '52 - Drees III '56)
3x [[Dries van Agt]] (Van Agt I '77, Van Agt II '81, Van Agt III '82)
4x [[Jan Peter Balkenende]] (Balkenende I '02, Balkenende II '03, Balkenende III '06, Balkenende IV '07)
4x [[Mark Rutte]] (Rutte I '10, Rutte II '12, Rutte III '17, Rutte IV '22).

==China==
{{Further|Xi Jinping Administration}}
Between 1982 and 2018, the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Constitution of China]] stipulated that the [[President of the People's Republic of China|president]], [[Vice President of the People's Republic of China|vice president]], [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|premier]], [[Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China|vice premiers]] could not serve more than two consecutive terms. In March 2018, [[China]]'s party-controlled [[National People's Congress]] passed a set of constitutional amendments including removal of term limits for the [[President of the People's Republic of China|president]] and [[Vice President of the People's Republic of China|vice president]], as well as enhancing the central role of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP).<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2134791/end-term-limits-top-may-be-start-global-backlash-china|title=End to term limits at top 'may be start of global backlash for China'|last1=Shi|first1=Jiangtao|work=[[South China Morning Post]]|access-date=28 February 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227155138/http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2134791/end-term-limits-top-may-be-start-global-backlash-china|archive-date=27 February 2018|last2=Huang|first2=Kristin}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/04/xi-jinping-from-president-to-china-new-dictator|title=Xi Jinping's power play: from president to China's new dictator?|last=Phillips|first=Tom|website=[[The Guardian]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304005848/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/04/xi-jinping-from-president-to-china-new-dictator|archive-date=4 March 2018|access-date=4 March 2018}}</ref> On 17 March 2018, the Chinese legislature reappointed Xi as president, now without term limits; [[Wang Qishan]] was appointed vice president.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-parliament-xi/chinas-parliament-re-elects-xi-jinping-as-president-idUSKCN1GT03C|title=China's parliament re-elects Xi Jinping as president|last=Wen|first=Philip|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=17 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317042406/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-parliament-xi/chinas-parliament-re-elects-xi-jinping-as-president-idUSKCN1GT03C|archive-date=17 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://apnews.com/78ea5b0646564a6eb98d9d20d5fbcbb6|title=Xi reappointed as China's president with no term limits|last1=Bodeen|first1=Christopher|newspaper=[[Associated Press]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317190611/https://apnews.com/78ea5b0646564a6eb98d9d20d5fbcbb6|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018}}</ref> The following day, [[Li Keqiang]] was reappointed [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|premier]] and longtime allies of Xi, [[Xu Qiliang]] and [[Zhang Youxia]], were voted in as [[Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission|vice-chairmen of the state military commission]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/economy/article/2137707/li-keqiang-endorsed-chinas-premier-while-military-commission|title=Li Keqiang endorsed as China's premier; military leaders confirmed|last1=Zhou|first1=Xin|newspaper=[[South China Morning Post]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827155325/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/economy/article/2137707/li-keqiang-endorsed-chinas-premier-while-military-commission|archive-date=27 August 2019|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref> Foreign minister [[Wang Yi (politician)|Wang Yi]] was promoted to [[State councillor (China)|state councillor]] and General [[Wei Fenghe]] was named [[Ministry of National Defense of the People's Republic of China|defence minister]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2137769/china-promotes-foreign-minister-wang-yi-state|title=China's foreign minister gains power in new post as state councillor|last1=Ng|first1=Teddy|newspaper=[[South China Morning Post]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190305121632/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2137769/china-promotes-foreign-minister-wang-yi-state|archive-date=5 March 2019|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref>

According to the ''[[Financial Times]]'', Xi expressed his views of constitutional amendment at meetings with Chinese officials and foreign dignitaries. Xi explained the decision in terms of needing to align two more powerful posts—[[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]] and [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|Chairman of the Central Military Commission]] (CMC)—which have no term limits. However, Xi did not say whether he intended to serve as party general secretary, CMC chairman and state president, for three or more terms.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/2b449400-413a-11e8-803a-295c97e6fd0b|title=China's Xi Jinping says he is opposed to life-long rule|last1=Mitchell|first1=Tom|newspaper=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=17 April 2018|quote=President insists term extension is necessary to align government and party posts|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417192157/https://www.ft.com/content/2b449400-413a-11e8-803a-295c97e6fd0b|archive-date=17 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Terms of office by country==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; width:400px; text-align:center;"
|-
!colspan=8|Heads of state
|-
|colspan=8|[[File:Terms of office of heads of state.svg|400px]]
|-
!colspan=8|Upper houses
|-
|colspan=8|[[File:Terms of office of upper houses.svg|400px]]
|-
!colspan=8|Lower houses
|-
|colspan=8|[[File:Terms of office of lower houses.svg|400px]]
|-
!colspan=8|Legend
|-
| style="background:#ff8000; width:14.3%;"|2 || style="background:#fff000; width:14.3%;"|{{nbsp}}3{{nbsp}}|| style="background:#30c030; width:14.3%;"|{{nbsp}}4{{nbsp}}|| style="background:#00c0ff; width:14.3%;"|{{nbsp}}5{{nbsp}}|| style="background:#00f; width:14.3%;"|{{nbsp}}6{{nbsp}}|| style="background:#8000ff; width:14.3%;"|{{nbsp}}7{{nbsp}}|| style="background:#f0f; width:14.3%;"|>7
|-
| style="background:#ddd;" colspan="2"|Not applicable || style="background:#926e51;" colspan="2"| Unclear || style="background:black;"|Varies || style="background:#c00000;" colspan="2"|Until removed
|}
Numbers in years unless stated otherwise. Some countries where [[fixed-term election]]s are uncommon, the legislature is almost always dissolved earlier than its expiry date. "[[Life tenure|Until removed from office]]" refers to offices that do not have fixed terms; in these cases, the officeholder(s) may serve indefinitely until death, abdication, resignation, retirement, or forcible removal from office (such as [[impeachment]]).

In most cases where the [[head of government]] is a different person from the head of state, its term of office is identical to the chamber that elected it (the legislature if it is unicameral, or most usually the [[lower house]] if it is bicameral), unless it does not survive a [[vote of no confidence]].
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center; width:60%;"
|-
!width=28%|Country !!width=24%|Head of state!!width=24%|Members of the [[upper house]]{{efn|Excludes [[senator for life|senators for life]].}} !!width=24%|Members of the [[lower house]]
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|AFG}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || {{N/A}}
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ALB}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ALG}} || 5 || 6 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|AND}} || Until removed from office {{nowrap|([[Bishop of Urgel]])}} 5 ([[President of France]]) || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ANG}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ATG}} || Until removed from office || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ARG}} || 4 || 6 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ARM}} || 7<ref>{{cite web|url=https://president.am/en/constitution-2015/|title=Constitution of Armenia - Library - the President of Armenia|access-date=2022-04-10|archive-date=2016-09-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919030629/https://president.am/en/constitution-2015/|url-status=live}}</ref> || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|AUS}} || Until removed from office || 6 || 3
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|AUT}} || 6 || 4 to 6 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|AZE}} || 7 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BAH}} || Until removed from office || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BHR}} || Until removed from office || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BAN}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BAR}} || 4 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BLR}} || 5 || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BEL}} || Until removed from office || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BLZ}} || Until removed from office || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BEN}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BHU}} || Until removed from office || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BOL}} || 5 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BIH}} || 4{{efn|The [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] is composed of three members as a collective head of state, all elected at the same time via popular vote, by different constituencies each, every four years.}} || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BOT}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BRA}} || 4 || 8 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BUL}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BUR}} || 5 || 6 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BDI}} || 7 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|BRU}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CAM}} || Until removed from office || 6 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CMR}} || 7 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CAN}} || Until removed from office || Until removed from office || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CPV}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CAF}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CHA}} || 6 || {{N/A}} || 5<ref>http://www.laltdh.org/pdf/constution_tchad.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410025122/http://www.laltdh.org/pdf/constution_tchad.pdf }} {{Bare URL PDF}}</ref>
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CHI}} || 4 || 8 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CHN}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ROC}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|COL}} || 4 || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CGO}} || 5 || 6 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|COM}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CIV}} || 5 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CRI}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CRO}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CUB}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CYP}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|CZE}} || 5 || 6 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|DRC}} || 5 || 5 || 5<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/education/edurights/media/docs/30fc959de50075fb86d6f23e93148d2f48056a21.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210103200717/http://www.unesco.org/education/edurights/media/docs/30fc959de50075fb86d6f23e93148d2f48056a21.pdf|url-status=dead|title=CONSTITUTION DE LA REPUBLIQUE DEMOCRATIQUE DU CONGO|archivedate=January 3, 2021}}</ref>
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|DEN}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|DJI}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|DMA}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|DOM}} || 4 || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ECU}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|EGY}} || 6 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SLV}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 3
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|GNQ}} || 7 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ERI}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || Until removed from office
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|EST}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ETH}} || 6 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|FIJ}} || 3 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|FIN}} || 6 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|FRA}} || 5 || 6 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|GAB}} || 7 || 6 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|GAM}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|GEO}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|GER}} || 5 || 4 to 5 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|GHA}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|GRE}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|GRD}} || Until removed from office || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|GUA}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|GIN}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|GNB}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|GUY}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|HAI}} || 5 || 6 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|HON}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|HUN}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ISL}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|IND}} || 5 || 6 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|INA}} || 5 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|IRN}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|IRQ}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|IRE}} || 7 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ISR}} || 7 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ITA}}{{efn|In [[Italy]] the ''prorogatio'', unlike the real extension of the term, does not affect the duration of the electoral mandate, but only concerns the exercise of the powers in the interval between the deadline, natural or anticipated, of this mandate, and the entry into office of the new elected body.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Buonomo|first1=Giampiero|title=Norme regionali annullate, ma sulla "prorogatio" del Consiglio passa il federalismo|journal=Diritto&Giustizia Edizione Online|date=2003|url=https://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89371618|access-date=2016-04-03|archive-date=2012-08-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120801002834/http://www.questia.com/projects#!/project/89371618|url-status=dead}}</ref>}} || 7 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|JAM}} || Until removed from office || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|JPN}} || Until removed from office || 6 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|JOR}} || Until removed from office || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|KAZ}} || 7 || 6 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|KEN}} || 5 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|KIR}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|KOS}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|KUW}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|KGZ}} ||5|| {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|LAO}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|LAT}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|LIB}} || 6 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|LBY}} || Until removed from office || Until removed from office || Until removed from office
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|LES}} || Until removed from office || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|LBR}} || 6 || 9 || 6
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|LIE}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|LTU}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|LUX}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MKD}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MAD}} || 5 || 5 || 5<ref>{{cite web |author=Jean-Pierre Maury |url=https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/constit/mg2010.htm#3 |title=Madagascar, Constitution de la IVe République 2010, Digithèque MJP |publisher=Mjp.univ-perp.fr |accessdate=2022-03-08 |archive-date=2021-11-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128174717/https://mjp.univ-perp.fr/constit/mg2010.htm#3 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MWI}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MAS}} || 5 || 3 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MDV}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MLI}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MLT}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MHL}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MRT}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MUS}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MEX}} || 6 || 6 || 3
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|FSM}} || 4 || 4 || 2
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MON}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MGL}} || 6 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MDA}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MNE}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MAR}} || Until removed from office || 6 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MOZ}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|MYA}} || 5 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|NAM}} || 5 || 6 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|NRU}} || 3 || {{N/A}} || 3
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|NEP}} || 5 || 6 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|NED}} || Until removed from office || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|NZL}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 3
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|NIC}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|NGR}} || 4 || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|NIG}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|PRK}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|NOR}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|OMA}} || Until removed from office || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|PAK}} || 5 || 6 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|PLW}} || 4 || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|PLE}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|PAN}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|PNG}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|PAR}} || 5 || 5* || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|PER}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|PHI}} || 6 || 6 || 3
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|POL}} || 5 || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|POR}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|QAT}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ROM}} || 5 || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|RUS}} || 6 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|RWA}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|KNA}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|LCA}} || Until removed from office || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|VCT}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SAM}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SMR}} || 0.5 (6 months) || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|STP}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SAU}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SEN}} || 5 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SRB}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SYC}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SLE}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SIN}} || 6 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SVK}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SLO}} || 5 || 5 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SLB}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SOM}} || 4 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ZAF}} || 5 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ROK}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|South Sudan}} || 5<ref>{{cite web |title=South Sudan 2011 (rev. 2013) |url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/South_Sudan_2013?lang=en |website=Constitute Project |access-date=5 September 2022 |archive-date=5 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905052527/https://constituteproject.org/constitution/South_Sudan_2013?lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref> || Unknown || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ESP}} || Until removed from office || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|LKA}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SUD}} || Until removed from office || Until removed from office || Until removed from office
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SUR}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SWZ}} || Until removed from office || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SWE}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SUI}} || 4{{efn|The [[Federal Council (Switzerland)|Federal Council]] of Switzerland is composed of seven members as a collective head of state, all elected at the same time by the [[Federal Assembly of Switzerland]] every four years.}} || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|SYR}} || 7 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|TJK}} || 7 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|TZA}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|THA}} || Until removed from office || 6 || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|TLS}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|TGO}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|TGA}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|TTO}} || 5 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|TUN}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|TUR}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|TKM}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|TUV}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|UGA}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|UKR}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|UAE}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|UK}} || Until removed from office || Until removed from office || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|USA}} || 4 || 6 || 2
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|URU}} || 5 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|UZB}} || 5 || 5 || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|VAN}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 4
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|Vatican City}} || Until removed from office || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|VEN}} || 6 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|VIE}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|YEM}} || 7 || {{N/A}} || 6
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ZAM}} || 5 || {{N/A}} || 5
|-
|align=left|{{flagcountry|ZIM}} || 5 || 5 || 5
|}

==See also==
* [[Term limits in the United States]]
* [[Term limit]]
* [[Reelection]]

==Further reading==
* Alexander Baturo and Robert Elgie (eds.). 2019. ''The Politics of Presidential Term Limits''. Oxford University Press.

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
[https://data.ipu.org/content/parline-global-data-national-parliaments IPU Parline] database on national parliaments

[[Category:Term of office| ]]
[[Category:Politics]]

Commonwealth War Graves Commission

2022-03-02T20:06:32Z

Profpremrajpushpakaran: Just completed a new creation.

{{Short description|Commonwealth organisation responsible for war graves}}
{{redirect|CWGC|the secondary school in Hong Kong|Christian Alliance Cheng Wing Gee College}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use British English}}
{{Infobox geopolitical organization
|conventional_long_name = Commonwealth War Graves Commission
|linking_name =
|image_flag =
|symbol_type = Logo
|image_symbol =[[File:New Logo CWGC.jpg|200px]]
|image_map =
|map_width =
|map_caption =
|org_type = [[Intergovernmental organization]] and [[Statutory authority|commission]]
|membership = {{ubl||{{AUS}}|{{CAN}}|{{IND}}|{{NZL}}|{{RSA}}|{{GBR}} }}
|admin_center_type = Headquarters
|admin_center = [[Maidenhead]], United Kingdom
|languages_type = Official languages
|languages = [[English language|English]]
|leader_title1 = President
|leader_name1 = [[Prince Edward, Duke of Kent]]
|leader_title2 = Director-General
|leader_name2 = [[Claire Horton]]
|established_event1 = Founded as the Imperial War Graves Commission
|established_date1 = {{Start date|1917|05|21|df=yes}}
|established_event2 = Name changed to Commonwealth War Graves Commission
|established_date2 = {{Start date|1960|03|28|df=yes}}
|official_website = {{Official URL}}
|FR_total_population_estimate = 7,403,020,000
|FR_total_population_estimate_year = 2016
}}

The '''Commonwealth War Graves Commission''' ('''CWGC''') is an [[intergovernmental organisation]] of six independent [[member states]] whose principal function is to mark, record and maintain the graves and places of commemoration of [[Commonwealth of Nations]] military service members who died in the two World Wars. The commission is also responsible for commemorating Commonwealth civilians who died as a result of enemy action during the [[Second World War]].{{sfn|Peaslee|1974|p=300}} The commission was founded by [[Fabian Ware|Sir Fabian Ware]] and constituted through [[Royal Charter]] in 1917 as the '''Imperial War Graves Commission'''.{{sfn|Peaslee|1974|p=300}} The change to the present name took place in 1960.{{sfn|Gibson|Ward|1989|p=63}}

The commission, as part of its mandate, is responsible for commemorating all Commonwealth war dead individually and equally. To this end, the war dead are commemorated by a name on a headstone, at an identified site of a burial, or on a memorial. War dead are commemorated uniformly and equally, irrespective of military or civil rank, race or creed.

The commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1.7 million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153 countries.{{sfn|Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report|2013|p=2}} Since its inception, the commission has constructed approximately 2,500 war cemeteries and numerous memorials.{{sfn|Peaslee|1974|p=300}} The commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23,000 separate burial sites and the maintenance of more than 200 memorials worldwide.{{sfn|Gibson|Ward|1989|p=63}} In addition to commemorating Commonwealth military service members, the commission maintains, under arrangement with applicable governments, over 40,000 non-Commonwealth war graves and over 25,000 non-war military and civilian graves.{{sfn|Peaslee|1974|p=300}}<ref name="fast facts">{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/content.asp?menuid=2&submenuid=50&id=50&menuname=Facts%20and%20figures&menu=sub |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111105023549/http://www.cwgc.org/content.asp?menuid=2&submenuid=50&id=50&menuname=Facts%20and%20figures&menu=sub |archive-date= 5 November 2011 |title= Facts and figures |publisher= Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=15 December 2009}}</ref> The commission operates through the continued financial support of the member states: United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India and South Africa. The current President of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission is [[Prince Edward, Duke of Kent]].

==History==

===First World War===
[[File:Canadian Corps - Canadian war graves.jpg|thumb|left|Canadian war graves near [[Ypres, Belgium]]. The crosses identify the graves as those of soldiers of the [[14th Battalion, CEF|14th Canadian Battalion]] who were killed over several days in May 1916.|alt=Six graves marked with white crosses located in a muddy field with trees in the background.]]

At the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, [[Fabian Ware]], a director of the [[Rio Tinto Group|Rio Tinto Company]], found that he was too old, at age 45, to join the British Army.<ref name="Ware">{{cite web |url=http://www.veterans-uk.info/remembrance/ware.html |title=Major General Sir Fabian Ware |access-date=26 May 2008 |publisher=Ministry of Defence Veterans Agency |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228084441/http://www.veterans-uk.info/remembrance/ware.html |archive-date=28 December 2013 }}</ref> He used the influence of Rio Tinto chairman, [[Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner|Viscount Milner]], to become the commander of a mobile unit of the [[British Red Cross]]. He arrived in France in September 1914 and whilst there was struck by the lack of any official mechanism for documenting or marking the location of graves of those who had been killed and felt compelled to create an organisation within the Red Cross for this purpose.{{sfn|Stamp|2007|p=72}} In March 1915, with the support of [[Nevil Macready]], Adjutant-General of the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War I)|British Expeditionary Force]], Ware's work was given official recognition and support by the Imperial War Office and the unit was transferred to the British Army as the Graves Registration Commission.<ref name="Ware"/>{{sfn|Stamp|2007|p=72}} The new Graves Registration Commission had over 31,000 graves of British and Imperial soldiers registered by October 1915 and 50,000 registered by May 1916.{{sfn|van Emden|2011|p=149}}

When municipal graveyards began to overfill Ware began negotiations with various local authorities to acquire land for further cemeteries. Ware began with an agreement with France to build joint British and French cemeteries under the understanding that these would be maintained by the French government.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=13}} Ware eventually concluded that it was not prudent to leave the maintenance responsibilities solely to the French government and subsequently arranged for France to purchase the land (under the [[French law of 29 December 1915|law of 29 December 1915]]), grant it in perpetuity, and leave the management and maintenance responsibilities to the British. The French government agreed under the condition that cemeteries respected certain dimensions,<ref>Graves were to be {{convert|23|to|30|cm|in}} apart with pathways no more than {{convert|90|cm|in}} wide.{{harvnb|Geurst|2010|p=13}}</ref> were accessible by public road, were in the vicinity of medical aid stations and were not too close to towns or villages. Similar negotiations began with the Belgian government.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=13}}

As reports of the grave registration work became public, the commission began to receive letters of enquiry and requests for photographs of graves from relatives of deceased soldiers.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=15}} By 1917, 17,000 photographs had been dispatched to relatives.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=15}}<ref>{{cite web |title=A History of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission |url=http://twgpp.org/downloads/About_the_CWGC.pdf |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=14 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130226125553/http://twgpp.org/downloads/About_the_CWGC.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 1915, the commission, with the support of the Red Cross, began to dispatch photographic prints and cemetery location information in answer to the requests. The Graves Registration Commission became the Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries in the spring of 1916 in recognition of the fact that the scope of work began to extend beyond simple grave registration and began to include responding to enquiries from relatives of those killed. The directorate's work was also extended beyond the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] and into other theatres of war, with units deployed in Greece, Egypt and Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=15}}

===Formal establishment===

[[File:CWGC - Headstone carving.jpg|thumb|upright|Carving of headstones by hand would take a week|alt=a man carving the a maple leaf onto a gravestone, in a workshop, with a hammer and chisel.]]

As the war continued, Ware and others became concerned about the fate of the graves in the post-war period. Following a suggestion by the British Army, the government appointed the National Committee for the Care of Soldiers' Graves in January 1916, with [[Edward VIII|Edward, Prince of Wales]] agreeing to serve as president.{{sfn|Summers|2007|pp=15–16}} The National Committee for the Care of Soldiers' Graves was created with the intention of taking over the work of the Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries after the war. The government felt that it was more appropriate to entrust the work to a specially appointed body rather than to any existing government department.<ref name="WO 32/9433">{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/externalrequest.asp?requestreference=WO32/9433 |title=WO 32/9433 – Text of Memorandum put before the Imperial War Conference in April 1917 |work=The Catalogue |publisher=[[The National Archives (United Kingdom)|The National Archives]] |access-date=15 December 2009 |archive-date=7 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307173755/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/externalrequest.asp?requestreference=WO32%2F9433 |url-status=live }}</ref> By early 1917, a number of members of the committee believed a formal imperial organisation would be needed to care for the graves. With the help of [[Edward VIII|Edward, Prince of Wales]], Ware submitted a memorandum to the [[Imperial War Conference]] in 1917 suggesting that an imperial organisation be constituted.<ref name="WO 32/9433"/>{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=16}} The suggestion was accepted and on 21 May 1917 the Imperial War Graves Commission was established by Royal Charter, with the Prince of Wales serving as president, [[Secretary of State for War]] [[Edward Stanley, 17th Earl of Derby|Lord Derby]] as chairman and Ware as vice-chairman.{{sfn|Peaslee|1974|p=300}}{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=16}} The commission's undertakings began in earnest at the end of the First World War. Once land for cemeteries and memorials had been guaranteed, the enormous task of recording the details of the dead could begin. By 1918, some 587,000 graves had been identified and a further 559,000 casualties were registered as having no known grave.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/about-us/history-of-cwgc.aspx |title=History of CWGC |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=14 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130803025303/http://www.cwgc.org/about-us/history-of-cwgc.aspx |archive-date=3 August 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The scale, and associated high number of casualties, of the war produced an entirely new attitude towards the commemoration of war dead. Previous to the First World War, individual commemoration of war dead was often on an ad hoc basis and was almost exclusively limited to commissioned officers.{{sfn|Carter|Jackson|2000|p=182}} However, the war required mobilisation of a significant percentage of the population, either as volunteers or through [[conscription]].{{sfn|Winter|1998|p=80}} An expectation had consequently arisen that individual soldiers would expect to be commemorated, even if they were low-ranking members of the military.{{sfn|Wittman|2011}} A committee under [[Frederic Kenyon]], Director of the [[British Museum]], presented a report to the Commission in November 1918 detailing how it envisioned the development of the cemeteries.<ref name="Kenyon">The document was entitled ''War Graves: How Cemeteries Abroad will be Designed''.{{harvnb|Braybon|2004|p=32}}</ref> Two key elements of this report were that bodies should not be repatriated and that uniform memorials should be used to avoid class distinctions. Beyond the logistical nightmare of returning home so many corpses, it was felt that repatriation would conflict with the feeling of brotherhood that had developed between serving ranks.{{sfn|Longworth|2003|p=33}}{{sfn|Longworth|2003|p=42}}

[[File:The Graves of the Fallen - cover page.jpg|thumb|left|Cover page of ''Graves of the Fallen''|alt=A wire image of a white Cross of Sacrifice on a background of green with the text "Graves of the Fallen" and "Imperial War Graves Commission".]]
An article in ''[[The Times]]'' on 17 February 1919 by [[Rudyard Kipling]] carried the commission's proposal to a wider audience and described what the graves would look like.{{sfn|Scutts|2009|p=387}} The article entitled ''War Graves: Work of Imperial Commission: Mr. Kipling's Survey'' was quickly republished as an illustrated booklet, ''Graves of the Fallen''. The illustrated booklet was intended to soften the impact of Kenyon's report as it included illustrations of cemeteries with mature trees and shrubs; contrasting the bleak landscapes depicted in published battlefield photos.{{sfn|Braybon|2004|p=32}} There was an immediate public outcry following the publication of the reports, particularly with regards to the decision to not repatriate the bodies of the dead. The reports generated considerable discussion in the press which ultimately led to a heated debate in Parliament on 4 May 1920.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1920/may/04/imperial-war-graves-commission |title=Imperial War Graves Commission HC Deb 04 May 1920 vol 128 cc1929-72 |work=[[Hansard]] |publisher=[[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] |access-date=15 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625173055/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1920/may/04/imperial-war-graves-commission |archive-date=25 June 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Braybon|2004|p=32}} Sir [[James Remnant, 1st Baron Remnant|James Remnant]] started the debate, followed by speeches by [[William Burdett-Coutts]] in favour of the commission's principles and [[Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood|Robert Cecil]] speaking for those desiring repatriation and opposing uniformity of grave markers. [[Winston Churchill]] closed the debate and asked that the issue not proceed to a vote. Remnant withdrew his motion, allowing the commission to carry out its work assured of support for its principles.{{sfn|Longworth|2003|pp=51–55}}<ref name="A History p3">{{cite web |url=http://issuu.com/wargravescommission/docs/history/1?e=4065448/5004091 |title=A History of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=28 December 2013 |page=3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231002231/http://issuu.com/wargravescommission/docs/history/1?e=4065448%2F5004091 |archive-date=31 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The 1920 United States Public Law 66-175 ensured American citizens who were killed while in service of a Commonwealth nation were eligible for burial in national cemeteries in the United States <ref>{{Citation| url = https://govtrackus.s3.amazonaws.com/legislink/pdf/stat/41/STATUTE-41-Pg552.pdf| title = Pub. L. 66-175 - An AN ACT To amend section 4878 of the Revised Statutes as amended by the Act of March 3 1897. April 15, 1920 552| publisher= uslaw.link | access-date = 18 November 2021| ref = none}}</ref> However, the commission made no repatriation policy exception for American citizens and attempts to retrieve loved ones from Commonwealth cemeteries were not supported by the American [[Graves Registration Service]].{{sfn|Dickon|2014}}

===First cemeteries and memorials to the missing===

In 1918, three of the most eminent architects of their day, [[Herbert Baker|Sir Herbert Baker]], [[Reginald Blomfield|Sir Reginald Blomfield]], and [[Edwin Lutyens|Sir Edwin Lutyens]] were appointed as the organization's initial Principal Architects. Rudyard Kipling was appointed literary advisor for the language used for memorial inscriptions.{{sfn|Dickon|2011|p=62}}
[[File:Site plan for the Forceville Communal Cemetery Extension.jpg|thumb|upright|The site plan for the Forceville Communal Cemetery and Extension|alt=a overhead technical drawing of the site layout which shows approximately 10 rows of burials.]]

In 1920, the Commission built three experimental cemeteries at [[Le Treport]], [[Forceville]] and [[Louvencourt]], following the principles outlined in the Kenyon report.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=58}} Of these, the Forceville Communal Cemetery and Extension was agreed to be the most successful.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=34}} Having consulted with garden designer [[Gertrude Jekyll]], the architects created a walled cemetery with uniform headstones in a garden setting, augmented by Blomfield's [[Cross of Sacrifice]] and Lutyens' [[Stone of Remembrance]].{{sfn|Peaslee|1974|p=300}} After some adjustments, Forceville became the template for the commission's building programme. Cost overruns at all three experimental cemeteries necessitated some adjustments.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|pp=48–50}} To ensure future cemeteries remained within their budget the Commission decided to not build shelters in cemeteries that contained less than 200 graves, to not place a Stone of Remembrance in any cemetery with less than 400 graves, and to limit the height of cemetery walls to {{convert|1|m|ft}}.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|pp=48–50}}

At the end of 1919, the commission had spent £7,500, and this figure rose to £250,000 in 1920 as construction of cemeteries and memorials increased. By 1921, the commission had established 1,000 cemeteries which were ready for headstone erections, and burials. Between 1920 and 1923, the commission was shipping 4,000 headstones a week to France.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=27}} In many cases, the Commission closed small cemeteries and concentrated the graves into larger ones. By 1927, when the majority of construction had been completed, over 500 cemeteries had been built, with 400,000 headstones, a thousand Crosses of Sacrifice, and 400 Stones of Remembrance.{{sfn|Longworth|2003|p=125}}

[[File:Ieper Menenpoort R01.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Menin Gate]] at night|alt=A triumphal arch made of red brick and limestone illuminated at night.]]
The commission had also been mandated to individually commemorate each soldier who had no known grave, which amounted to 315,000 in France and Belgium alone. The Commission initially decided to build 12 monuments on which to commemorate the missing; each memorial being located at the site of an important battle along the Western Front.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=56}} After resistance from the French committee responsible for the approvals of memorials on French territory, the Commission revised their plan and reduced the number of memorials, and in some cases built memorials to the missing in existing cemeteries rather than as separate structures.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=57}}

Reginald Blomfield's [[Menin Gate]] was the first memorial to the missing located in Europe to be completed, and was unveiled on 24 July 1927.<ref name="Can encyclopaedia">{{cite encyclopedia| title=Monuments of the First and Second World Wars| first=Jacqueline| last=Hucker| encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]| url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/monuments-of-the-first-and-second-world-wars| access-date=21 November 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810091629/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0009128| archive-date=10 August 2011| url-status=live| df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Menin Gate (Menenpoort) was found to have insufficient space to contain all the names as originally planned and 34,984 names of the missing were instead inscribed on Herbert Baker's [[Tyne Cot Cemetery|Tyne Cot Memorial to the Missing]].{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=22}} Other memorials followed: the [[Helles Memorial]] in [[Gallipoli]] designed by [[John James Burnet]];{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=23}} the [[Thiepval Memorial]] on the [[Somme (department)|Somme]] and the [[Arras Memorial]] designed by Edwin Lutyens;{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=2889}} and the [[Basra Memorial]] in Iraq designed by [[Edward Prioleau Warren]].{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=35}} The Dominions and India also erected memorials on which they commemorated their missing: the [[Neuve-Chapelle Memorial]] for the forces of India, the [[Vimy Memorial]] by Canada, the [[Villers-Bretonneux Memorial]] by Australia, the [[Delville Wood Memorial]] by South Africa and the [[Beaumont-Hamel Memorial]] by Newfoundland.{{sfn|Ware|1937|p=33}} The programme of commemorating the dead of the Great War was considered essentially complete with the inauguration of the Thiepval Memorial in 1932, though the Vimy Memorial would not be finished until 1936, the Villers-Bretonneux Memorial until 1938 and stonemasons were still conducting work on the Menin Gate when Germany invaded Belgium in 1940.{{sfn|Longworth|2003|p=126}}{{sfn|Carter|Jackson|2000|p=190}} The only memorial created by the Commission that was not in the form of a monument or cemetery was the Memorial Ophthalmic Laboratory at [[Giza]], [[Egypt]]—complete with library, and bacteriology and pathology departments—as its memorial to men of the [[Egyptian Labour Corps]] and [[Imperial Camel Corps|Camel Transport Corps]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fourcorners.cwgc.org/story/giza-eye-hospital/ |title=Giza Eye Hospital |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref> Its erection was agreed with local political pressure.{{sfn|Longworth|2003|p=97}}
===Second World War===
[[File:Kranji War Memorial.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Kranji War Memorial]], a Second World War memorial in [[Singapore]], commemorating 24,306 casualties]]

From the start of the Second World War in 1939, the Commission organised grave registration units and, planning ahead based on the experience gained from the First World War, earmarked land for use as cemeteries.<ref name="A History p5">{{cite web |url=http://issuu.com/wargravescommission/docs/history/1?e=4065448/5004091 |title=A History of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=28 December 2013 |page=5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231002231/http://issuu.com/wargravescommission/docs/history/1?e=4065448%2F5004091 |archive-date=31 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> When the war began turning in favour of the Allies, the commission was able to begin restoring its First World War cemeteries and memorials. It also began the task of commemorating the 600,000 Commonwealth casualties from the Second World War.{{Citation needed}} As with the First World War, casualties were commemorated with uniform memorials and bodies should not be repatriated. Exceptionally, the American Graves Registration were permitted to repatriate the remains of an unknown number of American citizens who were in service of a Commonwealth nation during the Second World War.{{Citation needed}}

In 1949, the Commission completed [[Dieppe Canadian War Cemetery]], the first of 559 new cemeteries and 36 new memorials.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/about-us/history-of-cwgc/second-world-war.aspx |access-date=26 February 2014 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |title=Second World War |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231020848/http://www.cwgc.org/about-us/history-of-cwgc/second-world-war.aspx |archive-date=31 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Gibson|Ward|1989|p=60}}<ref>{{cite book |title=How to Read a Graveyard: Journeys in the Company of the Dead |first=Peter |last=Stanford |page=119 |publisher=Bloomsbury |year= 2013 |isbn=978-1-4411-7977-7 }}</ref> Eventually, the Commission erected over 350,000 new headstones, many from [[Hopton Wood stone]].{{sfn|Thomas|2005}} The wider scale of the Second World War, coupled with manpower shortages and unrest in some countries, meant that the construction and restoration programmes took much longer. In Albania the graves of 52 of the 54 graves of British SOE personnel had been reburied in Tirana before Major McIntosh from the CWGC Florence base was expelled by the new regime. Three-quarters of the original graves had been in "difficult" or remote locations.<ref>{{cite book |last= Bailey |first= Roderick |title= The Wildest Province: SOE in the Land of the Eagle |year= 2008 |publisher= Jonathan Cape |location= London |isbn= 978-0224079167 |pages= 2–6 }}</ref> Following the war, the Commission implemented a five-year horticultural renovation programme which addressed neglect by 1950. Structural repairs, together with the backlog of maintenance tasks from before the war, took a further ten years to complete.{{sfn|Edwards|2008|p=30}}

With the increased number of civilian casualties compared with the First World War, [[Winston Churchill]] agreed to Ware's proposal that the commission also maintain a record of Commonwealth civilian war deaths. A supplemental chapter was added to the Imperial War Graves Commission's charter on 7 February 1941, empowering the organisation to collect and record the names of civilians who died from enemy action during the Second World War, which resulted in the creation of the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour. The roll eventually contained the names of nearly 67,000 civilians. The Commission and the [[Dean of Westminster]] reached an agreement that the roll would eventually be placed in [[Westminster Abbey]] but not until the roll was complete and hostilities had ended. The Commission handed over the first six volumes to the Dean of Westminster on 21 February 1956; it added the final volume to the showcase in 1958.<ref name="west abbey">{{cite web |url=http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/civilian-war-dead-roll-of-honour-1939---1945 |title=Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour 1939–1945 – Westminster Abbey |publisher=The Dean and Chapter of Westminster |access-date=28 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233706/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/civilian-war-dead-roll-of-honour-1939---1945 |archive-date=30 December 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Post–Second World War===
[[File:Fromelles (Pheasant Wood) Milit.Cem.11-2.JPG|thumb|left|[[Fromelles (Pheasant Wood) Military Cemetery]], the most recently dedicated cemetery.|alt=A cemetery of couple hundred white headstones with a terrain of well-manicured grass with plants between each headstone. The cemetery is surrounded by a waist-high red brick wall.]]
Following the Second World War, the Commission recognised that the word 'Imperial' within its name was no longer appropriate. In the spirit of strengthening national and regional feelings the organization changed its name to Commonwealth War Graves Commission in 1960.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=50}}

More recent conflicts have sometimes made it impossible for the commission to care for cemeteries in a given region or resulted in the destruction of sites altogether. Zehrensdorf Indian Cemetery in Germany was unkempt after the end of the Second World War and until the [[German reunification]] because it was located in an area occupied by Russian forces and was not entirely rebuilt until 2005.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=45}} The [[Six-Day War]] and [[War of Attrition]] resulted in the destruction of [[Port Tewfik Memorial]] and Aden Memorial, and the death of a Commission gardener at Suez War Memorial Cemetery.<ref name=Heliopolis>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/143800 |title=Heliopolis (Port Tewfik) Memorial |access-date=31 October 2007 |author=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131081049/https://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/143800 |archive-date=31 January 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[Lebanese Civil War]] two cemeteries in Beirut were destroyed and had to be rebuilt.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=45}} The maintenance of war graves and memorials in Iraq has remained difficult since [[Iran–Iraq War]] in the 1980s, with regular maintenance being impractical since after the [[Gulf War]].<ref name=Freeman>{{cite news |title=Iraq cemetery containing graves of British servicemen is destroyed |last=Freeman |first=Colin |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |access-date=5 April 2014 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/britain-at-war/10438147/Iraq-cemetery-containing-graves-of-British-servicemen-is-destroyed.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226035525/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/britain-at-war/10438147/Iraq-cemetery-containing-graves-of-British-servicemen-is-destroyed.html |archive-date=26 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Commission in Iraq |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=5 April 2014 |type=PDF |url=http://www.cwgc.org/media/45212/cwgc_in_iraq.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407065419/http://www.cwgc.org/media/45212/cwgc_in_iraq.pdf |archive-date=7 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The commission also provides support for war graves outside its traditional mandate. In 1982, the British Ministry of Defence requested the commission's assistance to design and construct cemeteries in the [[Falkland Islands]] for those killed during the [[Falklands War]].{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=51}} Although these cemeteries are not Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries, the Commission manages the administrative responsibilities for them.<ref name=Falkland>{{cite web |title=March 2012 Newsletter: Commonwealth War Graves Commission in The Falkland Islands |url=http://www.cwgc.org/March%202012%20Falkland%20Islands.pdf |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=5 April 2014 |type=PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407070255/http://www.cwgc.org/March%202012%20Falkland%20Islands.pdf |archive-date=7 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Since 2005, the commission has carried out similar management duties on behalf of the British Ministry of Defence for cemeteries and graves of British and Imperial soldiers who died during the [[Second Boer War]].<ref name="boer">{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/media/20095/january_2011.pdf |title=January 2011 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=14 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903152730/http://www.cwgc.org/media/20095/january_2011.pdf |archive-date=3 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2003, [[Veterans Affairs Canada]] employed the commission to develop an approach to locate grave markers for which the Canadian Minister of Veterans Affairs has responsibility. As of 2011, the commission conducts a twelve-year cyclical inspection programme of Canadian veterans' markers installed at the expense of the [[Government of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web |title=CWGC – Contract Service |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission (Canada) |url=http://www.cwgc-canadianagency.ca/s7/contract-services-eng.php |access-date=5 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219114601/http://www.cwgc-canadianagency.ca/s7/contract-services-eng.php |archive-date=19 December 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2008, an exploratory excavation discovered [[mass grave]]s on the edge of Pheasant Wood outside of [[Fromelles]]. Two-hundred and fifty British and Australian bodies were excavated from five mass graves which were interred in the newly constructed [[Fromelles (Pheasant Wood) Military Cemetery]]. This was the first new Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery in more than 50 years, the last such cemeteries having been built after the Second World War.<ref>{{cite news |title=WWI war dead reburied in special service |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8488863.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=5 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407102723/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8488863.stm |archive-date=7 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Putting names to the lost soldiers of Fromelles |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/8473444.stm |work=BBC News |first=Peter |last=Jackson |access-date=5 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407103251/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/8473444.stm |archive-date=7 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Burial sites and memorials==
{{See also|List of total Commonwealth War Graves Commission burials by country|List of Commonwealth War Graves Commission World War I memorials to the missing|List of Commonwealth War Graves Commission World War I memorials to the missing in Belgium and France|Memorial tablets to the British Empire dead of the First World War|List of Commonwealth War Graves Commission World War II memorials to the missing}}

The commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1.7 million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153 countries and approximately 67,000 civilians who died as a result of enemy action during the Second World War.{{sfn|Peaslee|1974|p=300}}<ref name="fast facts"/>{{sfn|Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report|2013|p=2}} Commonwealth military service members are commemorated by name on either a headstone, at an identified site of a burial, or on a memorial. As a result, the commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23,000 separate burial sites and maintenance of more than 200 memorials worldwide.{{sfn|Gibson|Ward|1989|p=63}} The vast majority of burial sites are pre-existing communal or municipal cemeteries and parish churchyards located in the United Kingdom, however the commission has itself constructed approximately 2,500 war cemeteries worldwide.{{sfn|Peaslee|1974|p=300}}<ref name="CWGC2008">{{cite book |title=Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2007–2008 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |pages=48–52}}</ref> The commission has also constructed or commissioned memorials to commemorate the dead who have no known grave; the largest of these is the [[Thiepval Memorial]].{{sfn|Stamp|2007|page=153}}

===Qualifications for inclusion===
The Commission only commemorates those who have died during the designated war years, while in Commonwealth military service or of causes attributable to service. Death in service included not only those killed in combat but other causes such as those that died in training accidents, air raids and due to disease such as the [[1918 flu pandemic]].<ref>{{citation |url=http://discover.cwgc.org/discover/homefront.aspx |title=UK Home Front |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=8 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501235229/http://discover.cwgc.org/discover/homefront.aspx |archive-date=1 May 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The applicable periods of consideration are 4 August 1914 to 31 August 1921 for the First World War and 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947 for the Second World War.<ref name="fast facts"/> The end date for the First World War period is the official end of the war, while for the Second World War the Commission selected a date approximately the same period after [[VE Day]] as the official end of the First World War was after the 1918 Armistice.{{sfn|Gibson|Ward|1989|page=64}}

Civilians who died as a result of enemy action during the Second World War are commemorated differently from those that died as a result of military service. They are commemorated by name through the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour located in St George's Chapel in Westminster Abbey. In addition to its mandated duties, the commission maintains, under arrangement with applicable governments, over 40,000 non-Commonwealth war graves and over 25,000 non-war military and civilian graves.{{sfn|Peaslee|1974|p=300}}<ref name="fast facts"/>

===Architects and sculptors===
[[File:Herbert Baker00.jpg|thumb|left|Herbert Baker, one of the original Principal Architects of the Commission|alt=A black and white portrait of an older gentleman with a receding hairline wearing a suit and tie.]]
As well as the main Principal Architects for France and Belgium (Baker, Blomfield and Lutyens), there were Principal Architects appointed for other regions as well. Sir [[Robert Lorimer]] was Principal Architect for Italy, Macedonia and Egypt, while Sir John James Burnet was Principal Architect for Palestine and Gallipoli, assisted by [[Thomas Smith Tait]]. The Principal Architect for Mesopotamia was Edward Prioleau Warren.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=20}}

As well as these senior architects, there was a team of Assistant Architects who were actually responsible for many of the cemetery and memorial designs. These architects were younger, and many of them had served in the war. The Assistant Architects were: George Esselmont Gordon Leith, [[Wilfred Clement Von Berg]], [[Charles Henry Holden]] (who in 1920 became a Principal Architect), [[William Harrison Cowlishaw]], [[William Bryce Binnie]], George Hartley Goldsmith, Frank Higginson, Arthur James Scott Hutton, Noel Ackroyd Rew, and John Reginald Truelove.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=20}}{{sfn|Stamp|2007|pp=90–91}} Other architects that worked for the commission, or won competitions for the Commission memorials, included George Salway Nicol,<ref>{{cite book |title=Who's Who in Art |url=https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinart15dolm |url-access=registration |year=1927 |editor=Bernard Dolman |publisher=Art Trade Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinart15dolm/page/170 170]}}</ref> [[Harold Chalton Bradshaw]], Verner Owen Rees, Gordon H. Holt, and Henry Philip Cart de Lafontaine.{{sfn|Stamp|Harris|1977|pp=20–27}}

In January 1944, [[Edward Maufe]] was appointed Principal Architect for the UK.{{sfn|Longworth|2003|p=179}} Maufe worked extensively for the commission for 25 years until 1969, becoming Chief Architect and also succeeding Kenyon as Artistic Advisor.<ref name="odnb">Richardson, Margaret. [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/31429 ''Maufe, Edward'' ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719171347/https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-31429;jsessionid=5375B4ACD13CBFF792AF101FF7B2E3FA }}, Oxford University Press, accessed 25 September 2013 {{ODNBsub}}</ref>{{sfn|Longworth|2003|p=207}} Together with Maufe, the other Principal Architects appointed during and after the Second World War were [[Hubert Worthington]], [[Louis de Soissons]], [[Philip Hepworth]] and [[Colin St Clair Oakes]].{{sfn|Longworth|2003|pp=179–180}}

Leading sculptors that worked on the memorials and cemeteries after the First World War included [[Eric Henri Kennington]], [[Charles Thomas Wheeler]], [[Gilbert Ledward]], and [[Charles Sargeant Jagger]].{{sfn|Longworth|2003|p=130}} Other sculptors, both in the inter-war period and after the Second World War, included [[William Reid Dick]],<ref name=Ypres>{{cite web |title=Ypres (Menin Gate) Memorial |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/91800/YPRES%20%28MENIN%20GATE%29%20MEMORIAL |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=26 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928142259/http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/91800/YPRES%20%28MENIN%20GATE%29%20MEMORIAL |archive-date=28 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Ernest Gillick]],<ref name=Artois>{{cite web |title=Vis-en-Artois Memorial |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/79200/VIS-EN-ARTOIS%20MEMORIAL |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=26 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928142304/http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/79200/VIS-EN-ARTOIS%20MEMORIAL |archive-date=28 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Basil Gotto]],<ref name=Beaumont>{{cite web |title=Beaumont-Hamel (Newfoundland) Memorial |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/79000/Beaumont-Hamel%20%28Newfoundland%29%20Memorial |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=26 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928142347/http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/79000/Beaumont-Hamel%20%28Newfoundland%29%20Memorial |archive-date=28 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Alfred Turner (sculptor)|Alfred Turner]],<ref>'Alfred Turner RA', Mapping the Practice and Profession of Sculpture in Britain and Ireland 1851–1951, University of Glasgow History of Art and HATII, online database 2011 [http://sculpture.gla.ac.uk/view/person.php?id=msib2_1215528314, accessed 26 Sep 2013] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427101918/http://sculpture.gla.ac.uk/view/person.php?id=msib2_1215528314, }}</ref> [[Laurence A. Turner]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Pozieres Memorial |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/87600/POZIERES%20MEMORIAL |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=26 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924232856/http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/87600/POZIERES%20MEMORIAL |archive-date=24 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Walter Gilbert (sculptor)|Walter Gilbert]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Doiran Memorial |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/160000/DOIRAN%20MEMORIAL |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=26 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207195150/http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/160000/DOIRAN%2520MEMORIAL |archive-date=7 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Henry Poole (sculptor)|Henry Poole]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Plymouth Naval Memorial |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/142001/PLYMOUTH%20NAVAL%20MEMORIAL |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=26 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917225151/http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/142001/PLYMOUTH%20NAVAL%20MEMORIAL |archive-date=17 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Vernon Hill (sculptor)|Vernon Hill]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Runnymede Memorial |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/109600/RUNNYMEDE%20MEMORIAL |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=26 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928060543/http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/109600/RUNNYMEDE%20MEMORIAL |archive-date=28 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Robert Anning Bell]],<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web |title=Jerusalem Memorial |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/142016/JERUSALEM%20MEMORIAL |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=26 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926002715/http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/142016/JERUSALEM%20MEMORIAL |archive-date=26 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Ferdinand Victor Blundstone]],<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web |title=Tyne Cot Memorial |url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/85900/TYNE%20COT%20MEMORIAL |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=26 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917233026/http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/85900/TYNE%20COT%20MEMORIAL |archive-date=17 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Joseph Armitage,<ref name="autogenerated2"/> and [[Gilbert Bayes]].<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

===Cemetery design===

====Common architectural design features====
[[File:Cross of Sacrifice, Ypres Reservoir cemetery.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The [[Cross of Sacrifice]].|alt=a stone cross with a metal longsword in the middle on an octagonal stone base. ]]
Structural design has always played an important part in the commission's cemeteries. Apart from a few exceptions, due to local geological conditions, the cemeteries follow the same design and uniform aesthetic all over the world.{{sfn|Carter|Jackson|2000|p=188}} This makes the cemeteries easily recognisable and distinguishes them from war graves administered by other groups or countries. {{sfn|Carter|Jackson|2000|p=188}}{{sfn|Stamp|2007|p=82}}

A typical cemetery is surrounded by a low wall or hedge and with a wrought-iron gate entrance.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=147}}<ref name="design">{{cite web |title=Our Cemetery design and features |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |url=http://www.cwgc.org/about-us/what-we-do/architecture/our-cemetery-design-and-features.aspx |access-date=16 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930083547/http://www.cwgc.org/about-us/what-we-do/architecture/our-cemetery-design-and-features.aspx |archive-date=30 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> For cemeteries in France and Belgium, a land tablet near the entrance or along a wall identifies the cemetery grounds as having been provided by the French or Belgian governments. All but the smallest cemeteries contain a register with an inventory of the burials, a plan of the plots and rows, and a basic history of the cemetery. The register is located within a metal cupboard that is marked with a cross located in either the wall near the cemetery entrance or in a shelter within the cemetery. More recently, in larger sites, a stainless steel notice gives details of the respective military campaign.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=158}}<ref name="design"/> The headstones within the cemetery are of a uniform size and design and mark plots of equal size.{{sfn|Carter|Jackson|2000|p=187}}

The cemetery grounds are, except in drier climates, grass-covered with a floral border around the headstones. There is also an absence of any paving between the headstone rows which is intended to make the cemetery feel like a traditional walled garden where visitors could experience a sense of peace.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=67}} However, Carter and Jackson argue that the uniform aesthetics are designed to evoke a positive experience which deliberately masks and sanitises the nature of the war deaths.{{sfn|Carter|Jackson|2000|p=190}}

====Cross of Sacrifice and Stone of Remembrance====
{{Main|Cross of Sacrifice|Stone of Remembrance}}
[[File:Britfriedhof04.jpg|thumb|left|The Stone of Remembrance, a feature of larger cemeteries|alt=A rectangular stone on a multi-stepped stone platform. the words "Their name liveth for evermore" inscribed on the longer side of the stone.]]

Typically, cemeteries of more than 40 graves contain a [[Cross of Sacrifice]] designed by architect [[Reginald Blomfield]]. This cross was designed to imitate medieval crosses found in churchyards in England with proportions more commonly seen in the [[Celtic cross]]. The cross is normally a freestanding four-point [[limestone]] [[Latin cross]], mounted on an octagonal base, and ranging in height from {{convert|14|to|32|ft}}. A [[bronze]] [[longsword]], blade down, is embedded on the face of the cross. This cross represents the faith of the majority of the dead and the sword represents the military character of the cemetery, intended to link British soldiers and the Christian concept of self-sacrifice.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=46}}<ref name="features">{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/about-us/what-we-do/architecture/our-cemetery-design-and-features.aspx |title=Features of Commonwealth War Cemeteries |format=Word document |access-date=23 May 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218041859/http://www.cwgc.org/about-us/what-we-do/architecture/our-cemetery-design-and-features.aspx |archive-date=18 February 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Cemeteries with more than 1000 burials typically have a [[Stone of Remembrance]], designed by [[Edwin Lutyens]] with the inscription ''"[[Their name liveth for evermore]]"''. The concept of the Stone of Remembrance stone was developed by [[Rudyard Kipling]] to commemorate those of all faiths and none respectively.{{sfn|Edwards|2008|p=31}}{{sfn|Stamp|Harris|1977|p=13}} In contrast to the Cross of Sacrifice, the design for the stone deliberately avoided "shapes associated with particular religions". The geometry of the structure was based on studies of the [[Parthenon]].<ref name="CWGC Architecture">{{cite web |title=CWGC – Our Cemetery design and features |url=http://www.cwgc.org/about-us/what-we-do/architecture/our-cemetery-design-and-features.aspx |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=1 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218041859/http://www.cwgc.org/about-us/what-we-do/architecture/our-cemetery-design-and-features.aspx |archive-date=18 February 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Each stone is {{convert|12|ft|m|round=0.5}} long and {{convert|5|ft|m}} high.<ref name="OAWG"/> The shape of the stone has been compared both to that of a [[sarcophagus]]<ref name="OAWG">{{cite web |url=http://www.dva.gov.au/commems_oawg/OAWG/remembering_war_dead/Pages/stone%20remembrance.aspx |title=Stone of Remembrance |publisher=Australian Government Department of Veterans' Affairs |access-date=1 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618154405/http://www.dva.gov.au/commems_oawg/OAWG/remembering_war_dead/Pages/stone%20remembrance.aspx |archive-date=18 June 2013 }}</ref> and an [[altar]].{{sfn|Stamp|Harris|1977|p=13}} The feature was designed using the principle of [[entasis]].<ref name="BA2009">{{cite journal |url=http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba109/feat4.shtml |title=Remembering the Great War with Lutyens |first=Tim |last=Skelton |journal=British Archaeology |issue=109 |publisher=Council for British Archaeology |access-date=30 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719172143/http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba109/feat4.shtml |archive-date=19 July 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> The subtle curves in the design, if extended, would form a sphere {{Convert|1801|ft|8|in}} in diameter.{{sfn|Stamp|2007|p=79}}

====Headstones====
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Every grave is marked with a [[headstone]].{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=34}} Each headstone contains the national emblem or regimental badge, rank, name, unit, date of death and age of each casualty inscribed above an appropriate religious symbol and a more personal dedication chosen by relatives.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=98}} The headstones use a standard [[upper case]] lettering designed by [[MacDonald Gill]].{{sfn|Stamp|2007|p=85}} Individual graves are arranged, where possible, in straight rows and marked by uniform headstones, the vast majority of which are made of [[Portland stone]]. The original headstone dimensions were {{Convert|30|in|cm}} tall, {{Convert|15|in|cm|abbr=on}} wide, and {{Convert|3|in|cm|abbr=on}} thick.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=96}}

Most headstones are inscribed with a cross, except for those deceased known to be atheist or non-Christian. In the case of burials of [[Victoria Cross]] or [[George Cross]] recipients, the regimental badge is supplemented by the Victoria Cross or George Cross emblem. Sometimes a soldier employed a pseudonym because he was too young to serve or was sought by law enforcement; in such cases his primary name is shown along with the notation "''served as"''.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=98}} Some American citizens who served with Commonwealth forces during the Second World War have the notation ''"Of U.S.A."''.<ref> "[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m-zDTZWOebA Lost, Unknown, Misidentified or Alone]" - You Tube, @ 7:00 and 12:00</ref> Those whose's exact burial location within a cemetery is not known will contain the superscript "''Buried elsewhere in this Cemetery''", ''"Known to be buried in this cemetery"'' or ''"Believed to be buried in this cemetery"''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cwgc.org/find-records/about-our-records/documents-faqs/ |title=Frequently Asked Questions about our documents |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> Many headstones are for unidentified casualties; they consequently bear only what could be discovered from the body. The epitaph, developed by [[Rudyard Kipling]], that appears on the graves of unidentified soldiers for which no details are known is "A Soldier of the Great War [[known unto God]]".{{sfn|Stamp|Harris|1977|p=13}} Some headstones bear the text "believed to be buried in this cemetery" when the grave's exact location within the cemetery is not known. In some cases soldiers were buried in collective graves and distinguishing one body from another was not possible and thus one headstone covers more than one grave.{{sfn|Geurst|2010|p=99}} The headstone does not denote any specific details of the death except for its date, and even then only if it is known, and are deliberately ambiguous about the cause of death.{{sfn|Carter|Jackson|2000|p=190}}
Due to local conditions it was sometimes necessary for the commission to deviate from its standard design. In places prone to extreme weather or earthquakes, such as Thailand and Turkey, stone-faced pedestal markers are used instead of the normal headstones.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=28}} These measures are intended to prevent masonry being damaged during earthquakes or sinking into sodden ground.<ref name="gallipoli1">{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Features |title=Features of Commonwealth War Cemeteries |format=Word document |access-date=23 May 2009 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012092120/http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/Features%20of%20Commonwealth%20War%20Cemeteries.doc |archive-date=12 October 2007}}</ref> In Italy, headstones were carved from Chiampo Perla limestone because it was in more plentiful supply.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=28}} In Struma Military Cemetery, in Greece, to avoid risk of earthquake damage, small headstones are laid flush to the ground.<ref name=Kilner>{{cite web| url=http://www.cwgc.org/education/life_death_pop/ussher/rem.htm| title=Charles Usher Kilner| work=Commonwealth War Graves Commission| access-date=23 May 2009| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616101559/http://www.cwgc.org/education/life_death_pop/ussher/rem.htm| archive-date=16 June 2011| url-status=live| df=dmy-all}}</ref> Due to their smaller size, the markers often lack unit insignia.<ref name="gallipoli2">{{cite web |url=http://issuu.com/wargravescommission/docs/gallipoli/1?e=4065448/5771503 |title=The Gallipoli Campaign, 1915 |access-date=28 December 2013 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001649/http://issuu.com/wargravescommission/docs/gallipoli/1?e=4065448%2F5771503 |archive-date=31 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Horticulture====
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Commission cemeteries are distinctive in treating [[floriculture]] as an integral part of the cemetery design. Originally, the horticultural concept was to create an environment where visitors could experience a sense of peace in a setting, in contrast to traditionally bleak graveyards. Recommendations given by [[Arthur William Hill]], the Assistant Director of the [[Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew]] enabled the commission to develop cemetery layouts and architectural structures that took into account the placement of suitable plant life.{{sfn|Longworth|2003|p=21}} Combining structural and horticultural elements were not unfamiliar to the commission's architects. Sir Edwin Lutyens furthered his long-standing working relationship with horticulturist [[Gertrude Jekyll]], whose devotion to traditional cottage garden plants and roses greatly influenced the appearance of the cemeteries. Where possible, indigenous plants were utilised to enhance sentimental associations with the gardens of home.<ref name="Horticulture">{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/about-us/what-we-do/horticulture.aspx |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |title=Our Horticulture |access-date=30 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131033644/http://www.cwgc.org/about-us/what-we-do/horticulture.aspx |archive-date=31 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Variety in texture, height and timing of floral display were equally important horticultural considerations. The beds around each headstone are planted with a mixture of [[floribunda rose]]s and [[herbaceous perennial]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Commonwealth War Graves Commission Information sheet: The Commission's Horticulture |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |page=2}}</ref> Low-growing plants are chosen for areas immediately in front of headstones, ensuring that inscriptions are not obscured and preventing soil from splashing back during rain. In cemeteries where there are pedestal grave markers, dwarf varieties of plants are used instead.<ref name="Horticulture" />

The absence of any form of paving between the headstone rows contributes to the simplicity of the cemetery designs. Lawn paths add to the garden ambience and are irrigated during the dry season in countries where there is insufficient rain. Where irrigation is inappropriate or impractical, dry landscaping is an ecological alternative favoured by the commission's horticulturists, as is the case in Iraq. Drier areas require a different approach not only for lawns but also to plants and styles of planting. Similarly, there are separate horticultural considerations in tropical climates. When many cemeteries are concentrated within a limited area, like along the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] or [[Gallipoli peninsula]], mobile teams of gardeners operate from a local base. Elsewhere, larger cemeteries have their own dedicated staff while small cemeteries are usually tended by a single gardener working part-time.{{sfn|Longworth|2003|pp=232–233}}

==Organisation==
[[File:Headquarters of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.jpg|thumb|Headquarters of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission in [[Maidenhead]], [[Berkshire]], UK|alt=a six-storey building with a dark-brown brick veneer.]]

===Commissioners===
The affairs of the CWGC are overseen by a Board of Commissioners. The President of the board is HRH [[Prince Edward, Duke of Kent]], the Chairman is the United Kingdom's [[Secretary of State for Defence]] [[Ben Wallace (politician)|Ben Wallace]] MP and the Vice Chairman is [[Lieutenant General]] [[Bill Rollo|Sir Bill Rollo]].<ref name="Commissioners">{{cite web |url=https://www.cwgc.org/who-we-are/our-commissioners/ |title=Our Commissioners |website=www.cwgc.org |language=en |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |accessdate=2021-11-19}}</ref> [[Claire Horton]] was appointed Director-General of the CWGC in 2020<ref>{{Cite web|title=Commonwealth War Graves Commission appoints Claire Horton CBE as Director General {{!}} CWGC|url=https://www.cwgc.org/our-work/news/commonwealth-war-graves-commission-appoints-claire-horton-cbe-as-director-general/|access-date=2021-04-20|website=www.cwgc.org|language=en|archive-date=20 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420153716/https://www.cwgc.org/our-work/news/commonwealth-war-graves-commission-appoints-claire-horton-cbe-as-director-general/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The members are: the High Commissioner for New Zealand to the United Kingdom, Bede Corry; the High Commissioner of Australia to the United Kingdom, [[George Brandis]]; the High Commissioner of the Republic of South Africa to the United Kingdom, [[Nomatemba Tambo]]; the High Commissioner for India to the United Kingdom, [[Gaitri Issar Kumar]]; the High Commissioner for Canada to the United Kingdom, [[Ralph Goodale|Ralph E. Goodale]]; Keryn James; Sir Tim Hitchens; Vice Admiral Peter Hudson; Hon Philip Dunne; Dame [[Diana Johnson]]; Vasuki Shastry; Dame [[Judith Mayhew Jonas]]; Air Marshal [[David Walker (RAF aircrew officer)|David Walker]].<ref name="Commissioners"/>

===Functional structure===

The CWGC is headquartered in [[Maidenhead]], England. Offices or agencies that are each responsible for a specific geographical area manage the worldwide affairs of the organisation. They are:{{sfn|Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report|2013|pp=44–45}}

# '''''United Kingdom and Northern Area''' - UKNA:'' responsible for [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[Iceland]], [[Faroe Islands]], [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], [[Gibraltar]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Estonia]], [[Russia]] (West) / [[Ukraine]]
#''Central and Southern Europe Area - C&SEA:'' responsible for [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], [[Netherlands]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Poland]], [[Austria]], [[Albania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Hungary]], [[Italy]], [[Malta]], [[North Macedonia|North Macedonia Republic]], [[Romania]], [[San Marino]], [[Serbia]], [[Greece]]
#'''''France Area''' - FA:'' responsible for [[France]], [[Switzerland]], [[Monaco]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[Azores]], [[Madeira]]
#'''''Canada, Americas and Pacific Area''' - CAPA:'' responsible for [[Canada]], [[United States]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[The Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bermuda]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Cuba]], [[Dominica]], [[Falkland Islands]], [[Grenada]], [[Guatemala]], [[Guyana]], [[Honduras]], [[Jamaica]], [[Martinique]], [[Netherlands Antilles]], [[Panama]], [[Peru]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis|Saint Kitts]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|Saint Vincent]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Uruguay]], [[Venezuela]], [[Virgin Islands]], British China (including [[Hong Kong]]), [[Fiji]], [[Japan]], [[Philippines]], Russia [[Vladivostok]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Myanmar]], [[Singapore]], [[Thailand]]
#'''''Africa and Asia Area''' - AAA:'' responsible for [[Armenia]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Botswana]], [[British Indian Ocean Territories]], [[Cameroon]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Chad]], [[Congo Free State|Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo (Democratic Republic)]], [[Ivory Coast|Cote d'Ivoire]], [[Djibouti]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Eritrea]], [[Eswatini|Swasiland]] (Eswatini), [[Ethiopia]], [[The Gambia|Gambia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[India]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Kenya]], [[Lesotho]], [[Liberia]], [[Madagascar]], [[Malawi]], [[Maldives]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritius]], [[Mozambique]], [[Namibia]], [[Nepal]], [[Nigeria]], [[Pakistan]], [[Senegal]], [[Seychelles]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Somalia]] (including [[Somaliland]]), [[South Africa]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Saint Helena|St Helena]] and [[Ascension Island|Ascension]], [[Tanzania]], [[Togo]], [[Uganda]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Algeria]], [[Egypt]], [[Libya]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Sudan]], [[Tunisia]], [[Yemen]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Israel]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[Oman]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Syria]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Turkey]], [[Bahrain]]

===Financing===
The CWGC's work is funded predominantly by grants from the governments of the six member states. In the [[fiscal year]] 2020/21, these grants amounted to £66.1 million of the organisation's £74.5 million of income.{{sfn|Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report|2021|p=39-40}} This equates to an approximate cost of {{currency|85|CAD}} per commemorated war dead.<ref name=BHall>{{cite web |title=Mr. Bradley Hall (Secretary-General, Canadian Agency of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission) at the Veterans Affairs Committee |url=https://openparliament.ca/committees/veterans-affairs/41-1/9/bradley-hall-1/only/ |publisher=Open North |access-date=15 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002025642/http://openparliament.ca/committees/veterans-affairs/41-1/9/bradley-hall-1/only/ |archive-date=2 October 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The contribution from each country is proportionate to the number of graves the CWGC maintains on behalf of that country. The percentage of total annual contributions for which each country is responsible is United Kingdom {{Percentage|79|100|1}}, Canada {{Percentage|10|100|1}}, Australia {{Percentage|6|100|1}}, New Zealand {{Percentage|2|100|1}}, South Africa {{Percentage|2|100|1}} and India {{Percentage|1|100|1}}.{{sfn|Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report|2021|p=39-40}}

==Ongoing projects and issues==

===Reburials and identifications===
[[File:Pallbearers carry the coffin to the grave.jpg|thumb|Reburial of a New Zealand soldier in February 2012|alt=four men dressed entirely in black are carrying a wood casket draped in a flag.]]
Immediately following the First World War, the British Army remained responsible for the exhumation of remains. The Western Front was divided into sectors and combed for bodies by 12-man exhumation units. Between the Armistice and September 1921, the exhumation units reburied 204,695 bodies. After 1921, no further comprehensive search for bodies was undertaken, and in February 1921 responsibility for the cemeteries was transferred to the commission. Nevertheless, despite the rigour of the searches, bodies continued to be discovered in large numbers. In the three years following the conclusion of the general search 38,000 bodies were discovered. In the mid 1920s, 20 to 30 bodies were being discovered weekly.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=29}}{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=30}}

[[File:NewBwood-wyrdlight-2015.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|left|The dedication of the Brookwood 1914–1918 Memorial|alt=two people standing in from a memorial that is three pillars on a circular black stone base.]]
The discovery of remains of First and Second World War casualties remains a common occurrence, with approximately 30 bodies discovered annually.{{sfn|Summers|2007|p=30}} For example, in 2006 eight bodies of Canadian soldiers from the [[78th Battalion (Winnipeg Grenadiers), CEF]] were discovered in a backyard in [[Hallu]], France.<ref name=Shwartz>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/4-ww-i-canadian-soldiers-remains-identified-1.2779824 |first=Daniel |last=Shwartz |work=[[CBC News]] |title=4 WW I Canadian soldiers' remains identified |access-date=8 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141120163317/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/4-ww-i-canadian-soldiers-remains-identified-1.2779824 |archive-date=20 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|Of the eight bodies five have been identified. They are Lieutenant Clifford Neelands of [[Barrie, Ontario]], Private Lachlan McKinnon, an immigrant from [[Scotland]], Private William Simms of [[Russell, Manitoba]], Sergeant John Oscar Lindell of [[Sweden]] who immigrated to [[Winnipeg]], [[Manitoba]], and Private Sidney Halliday of [[Minto, Manitoba]]}} In April 2013, the remains of four British soldiers discovered by a French farmer clearing land with a metal detector in 2009 were re-interred at H.A.C. Cemetery near [[Arras]], France.<ref name=Allen>{{cite web |url=http://www.capitalbay.com/latest-news1/333828-british-soldiers-private-christopher-douglas-elphick-and-lieutenant-john-harold-pritchard-buried-in-france-96-years-after-killed-in-action-in-wwi.html |title=Douglas Elphick and Lieutenant John Harold Pritchard buried in France 96 years after killed in action in WWI |access-date=5 April 2014 |publisher=Capital Bay |first1=Peter |last1=Allen |first2=Harriet |last2=Arkell |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407092339/http://www.capitalbay.com/latest-news1/333828-british-soldiers-private-christopher-douglas-elphick-and-lieutenant-john-harold-pritchard-buried-in-france-96-years-after-killed-in-action-in-wwi.html |archive-date=7 April 2014 }}</ref> In March 2014, the remains of 20 Commonwealth and 30 German soldiers were discovered in [[Vendin-le-Vieil]], France, with the Commonwealth soldiers being subsequently reburied at Loos British Cemetery.<ref name=Loos>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/news-events/news/2014/3/reinterment-at-loos.aspx |title=Re-burial at Loos |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=5 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407070626/http://www.cwgc.org/news-events/news/2014/3/reinterment-at-loos.aspx |archive-date=7 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=100years>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/14/first-world-war-soldiers-buried-100-years |title=First world war soldiers buried with full military honours after 100 years |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=5 April 2014 |agency=[[Press Association]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317033924/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/14/first-world-war-soldiers-buried-100-years |archive-date=17 March 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> When the remains of a Commonwealth soldier from the First or Second World War is discovered the commission is notified, and a Commission burial officer tries to collect any associated artefacts that may help identify the individual. The details are then registered and archived at the commission's headquarters. Evidence used for identification purposes may include artifacts found with the remains, anthropological data and DNA.{{sfn|Signoli|de Verines|2011|p=712}}

Investigation of archival records by members of the public periodically results in the identification of previously buried casualties. The archival records of the commission are open to the public to permit individuals to conduct their own research.{{sfn|Signoli|de Verines|2011|p=712}} In December 2013, it was discovered that Second Lieutenant Philip Frederick Cormack, who was previously commemorated on the Arras Flying Services Memorial, had in fact been buried in a French military cemetery in [[Machelen (Zulte)|Machelen]], [[East Flanders]] in Belgium.<ref name=Cormack>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/news-events/news/2013/12/second-lieutenant-p-f-cormack-gets-a-known-grave.aspx |title=CWGC Headstone for Second Lieutenant P. F. Cormack's Grave |access-date=5 April 2014 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407065414/http://www.cwgc.org/news-events/news/2013/12/second-lieutenant-p-f-cormack-gets-a-known-grave.aspx |archive-date=7 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Sergeant Leonard Maidment was identified in 2013 after a visitor to Marfaux British Cemetery discovered a headstone of an unknown sergeant with the [[Hampshire Regiment]] killed on 20 July 1918, and was subsequently able to show that only one sergeant from that regiment had been killed in France on that date.<ref name=Tattersfield>{{cite web |url=http://www.westernfrontassociation.com/great-war-people/brothers-arms/3208-leonard-maidment-a-casualty-of-marfaux.html |title=The life of First World War British Sergeant Leonard Maidment |first=David |last=Tattersfield |publisher=Western Front Association |access-date=5 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407015759/http://westernfrontassociation.com/great-war-people/brothers-arms/3208-leonard-maidment-a-casualty-of-marfaux.html |archive-date=7 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> As of July 2022, the In From The Cold Project has so far identified 7,255 individuals with either unmarked graves or names missing from the Roll of Honour maintained at Westminster Abbey.<ref>{{cite web|title=Casulties In From The Cold.|url= https://www.infromthecold.org/casualties.asp|website=[[In From The Cold Project]]|access-date=30 July 2022}}</ref> The majority of the casualties commemorated on the Brookwood 1914–1918 Memorial are servicemen and women identified by the In From The Cold Project as having died while in care of their families and were not commemorated by the Commission at the time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.getsurrey.co.uk/news/surrey-news/brookwood-memorial-updated-77-new-12023022 |title=Brookwood memorial updated with 77 new names of fallen World War One soldiers |first=Eleanor |last=Davis |access-date=7 January 2018 |publisher=Trinity Mirror Southern |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108064159/http://www.getsurrey.co.uk/news/surrey-news/brookwood-memorial-updated-77-new-12023022 |archive-date=8 January 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/4007318/brookwood-1914-1918-memorial/ |title=Brookwood 1914–1918 Memorial |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=8 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209044000/https://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/4007318/brookwood-1914-1918-memorial/ |archive-date=9 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Vandalism===
Cemeteries, including those of war dead, are targets for vandalism. The gravestones, cemeteries and buildings of the Commission are no exception.{{sfn|Gibson|Ward|1989|p=99}} The Commission believes that graffiti and damage to stonework are usually the work of young people, noting that the number of incidents increases when schoolchildren are on school holidays.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/education/who_cares.htm |title=Who Cares |publisher=CWGC |access-date=21 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130119065100/http://www.cwgc.org/education/who_cares.htm |archive-date=19 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Metal theft]] is also a problem: determined thieves target the bronze swords from the Cross of Sacrifice, which are now replaced with replicas made of fibreglass.{{sfn|Gibson|Ward|1989|p=100}}

The vandalism of Commission cemeteries has also been connected to the participation of Commonwealth countries in contemporary conflicts. In the 1970s, during [[the Troubles]], Commission cemeteries in Ireland experienced vandalism.<ref name=Gibney>{{cite web |url=http://www.drb.ie/essays/comrades-in-death#sthash.5XJL9vkp.dpuf |last=Gibney |first=John |title=Comrades in Death |access-date=21 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107001647/http://www.drb.ie/essays/comrades-in-death#sthash.5XJL9vkp.dpuf |archive-date=7 November 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Vandals defaced the central memorial of the [[Étaples Military Cemetery]] in northern France with anti-British and anti-American graffiti on 20 March 2003 immediately after the beginning of the [[Iraq War]].<ref name=Plea>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2907701.stm |title=French Plea as cemetery defaced |work=BBC News |access-date=30 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112012242/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2907701.stm |archive-date=12 January 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 9 May 2004, thirty-three headstones were demolished in the [[Gaza War Cemetery|Gaza cemetery]], which contains 3,691 graves,<ref name=Gaza>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/71701|title=Gaza War Cemetery|access-date=15 September 2006|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131024001/https://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/cemetery/71701|archive-date=31 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> allegedly in retaliation for the [[Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse]] scandal.<ref name=Lynfield>{{cite news |first=Ben |last=Lynfield |url=http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=1183&id=535772004 |title=Palestinians vandalise UK war graves |work=[[The Scotsman]] |access-date=15 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050424070028/http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=1183&id=535772004 |archive-date=24 April 2005 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 24 February 2012, during the [[2011 Libyan Civil War|Libyan Civil War]], Islamist militia damaged over 200 headstones in the [[Benghazi]] war cemetery, as well as the central memorial.<ref name=Stephen>{{cite news |last=Stephen |first=Chris |title=British war graves in Libya desecrated by Islamist militants |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/04/libya-war-graves-desecrated |access-date=3 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313014511/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/04/libya-war-graves-desecrated |archive-date=13 March 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Inequalities in commemoration===
In April 2021, a special committee of the CWGC published a report on historical inequalities in commemoration, concerning "failures to properly commemorate black and Asian troops" after the First World War.<ref>{{cite web|title=Report of the Special Committee to Review Historical Inequalities in Commemoration|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|url=https://www.cwgc.org/media/noantj4i/report-of-the-special-committee-to-review-historical-inequalities-in-commemoration.pdf|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422110753/https://www.cwgc.org/media/noantj4i/report-of-the-special-committee-to-review-historical-inequalities-in-commemoration.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BBCInequality">{{cite news|title=Commonwealth war graves: PM 'deeply troubled' over racism|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-56840131|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422013918/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-56840131|url-status=live}}</ref> A set of public statements by CWGC and the Special Committee on the issue and the next steps to be taken were published on the CWGC website, and the Defence Secretary [[Ben Wallace (politician)|Ben Wallace]] made an official apology in the House of Commons.<ref name="BBCInequality"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Report of the Special Committee to Review Historical Inequalities in Commemoration|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|url=https://www.cwgc.org/non-commemoration-report/?mc_cid=064f49789b&mc_eid=52c50e35b3|access-date=22 April 2021|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422190648/https://www.cwgc.org/non-commemoration-report/?mc_cid=064f49789b&mc_eid=52c50e35b3|url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[American Battle Monuments Commission]]
* [[German War Graves Commission]]
* [[World War I memorials]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |title=Evidence, History, and the Great War: Historians and the Impact of 1914–18 |first=Gail |last=Braybon |year =2004 |publisher=Berghahn Books |location=New York |isbn=978-1-5718-1801-0 |oclc=1100228087}}
* {{cite book |title=The Aesthetics of Organization |editor-last=Linstead |editor-first=Stephen |editor2-last=Höpfl |editor2-first=Heather |year=2000 |contribution=An-aesthetics |last1=Carter |first1=Pippa |first2=Norman |last2=Jackson |publication-place=London |publisher=SAGE Publications Ltd |pages=[https://archive.org/details/aestheticsoforga0000unse/page/180 180–197] |isbn=978-0-7619-5323-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/aestheticsoforga0000unse/page/180 }}
* {{cite book| ref = {{harvid|Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report|2013}}| url = http://issuu.com/wargravescommission/docs/ar_2013| title = CWGC Annual Report 2012–2013| publisher = Commonwealth War Graves Commission| access-date = 28 December 2013| archive-date = 30 December 2013| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131230232741/http://issuu.com/wargravescommission/docs/ar_2013| url-status = live}}
* {{cite book| ref = {{harvid|Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report|2021}}| url =https://www.cwgc.org/media/ym4d5nqj/annual-report-2021-2022.pdf| title = CWGC Annual Report 2021–2022| publisher = Commonwealth War Graves Commission| access-date = 20 November 2021}}
* {{cite book |title= The Foreign Burial of American War Dead: A History |first=Chris |last=Dickon |publisher=McFarland|location=Jefferson, NC |year=2011|isbn=978-0-7864-4612-4 |oclc=659753667}}
* {{cite book |title= Americans at War in Foreign Forces: A History, 1914-1945 |first=Chris |last=Dickon |publisher=McFarland|location=Jefferson, NC |year=2014|isbn=978-0-7864-7190-4 |oclc=894719554}}
* {{cite journal |url=http://www.ihbconline.co.uk/context/107/index.html#/31/zoomed |title=The Commonwealth War Graves Commission |first=Barry |last=Edwards |journal=Context |issue=107 |publisher=The Institute of Historical Building Conversation |access-date=15 August 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042828/http://www.ihbconline.co.uk/context/107/index.html#/31/zoomed |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |title=The Quick and the Dead: Fallen Soldiers and Their Families in the Great War |year =2011 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |first=Richard |last=van Emden |isbn=978-0-7475-9779-7 |oclc=795355797}}
* {{cite book | title= Courage Remembered: The Story Behind the Construction and Maintenance of the Commonwealth's Military Cemeteries and Memorials of the Wars of 1914–18 and 1939–45 |last1=Gibson |first1=T. A. Edwin |last2=Ward |first2=G. Kingsley |year=1989 | publisher=Stationery Office Books |location=London |isbn=0-11-772608-7 |oclc=476384770 }}
* {{cite book |title=Cemeteries of the Great War By Sir Edwin Lutyens |first=Jeroen |last=Geurst |year=2010 |isbn=978-90-6450-715-1 |oclc=901292506}}
* {{cite book | title= The Unending Vigil: The History of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission |last=Longworth |first=Philip |year=2003 |orig-year=1st. pub. CWGC: 1967 |edition=1985 revised |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=1-84415-004-6 |oclc=1016649518}}
* {{cite book | title= International Governmental Organizations |last=Peaslee |first=Amos Jenkins |year=1974 | publisher=Martinus Nijhoff|location=London |volume=2 |edition=3rd |isbn=90-247-1601-2 }}
* {{cite journal |title=Battlefield Cemeteries, Pilgrimage, and Literature after the First World War: The Burial of the Dead |first=Joanna |last=Scutts |journal=English Literature in Transition |volume=52 |issue=4 |year=2009 |pages=387–416 |doi=10.2487/elt.52.4(2009)0045 |s2cid=162051177 |issn=0013-8339 |id=BL Shelfmark 3775.070000}}
* {{cite book |last1 =Signoli |last2=de Verines |first1=Michel |first2=Guillaume | year = 2011| contribution = Burials related to recent military conflicts. Case studies from France| editor-last = Marquez-Grant| editor-first = Nicholas | editor2-last = Fibiger| editor2-first = Linda | title = The Routledge Handbook of Archaeological Human Remains and Legislation: An International Guide to Laws and Practice in the Excavation and Treatment of Archaeological Human Remains| publication-place = Oxon| publisher=Routhedge| pages =711–717| isbn = 978-1-136-87956-2 |oclc=755922051}}
* {{Cite book |title=Silent Cities: Catalogue of an Exhibition of the Memorial and Cemetery Architecture of the Great War |first1=Gavin |last1=Stamp |first2=John |last2=Harris|year=1977 | publisher=Royal Institute of British Architects |location=London |oclc=16438447}}
* {{cite book |title=Memorial to the Missing of the Somme |first=Gavin |last=Stamp | publisher=Profile Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-86197-811-0 |oclc=1055383547}}
* {{cite book |first=Julie |last=Summers |title=Remembered: The History of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission |year=2007 |publisher=Merrell |location=London |isbn=978-1-85894-374-9 |oclc=1152049462}}
* {{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Ian A|contribution=Hopton Wood Stone – England's premier decorative stone|title=England's Heritage in Stone Proceedings of a Conference Tempest Anderson Hall, York 15–17 March 2005|year=2005|pages=90–105|url=http://www.englishstone.org.uk/York/ESF%20-%20Ian%20Thomas.pdf|publisher=Heritage in Stone|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514044950/http://www.englishstone.org.uk/York/ESF%20-%20Ian%20Thomas.pdf|archive-date=14 May 2014 |oclc= 770340529}}
* {{cite book | title= The Immortal Heritage: An Account of the Work and Policy of the Imperial War Graves Commission During Twenty Years |last=Ware |first=Fabian |year=1937 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |oclc=629958536}}
* {{cite book |last=Winter |first=Jay |year=1998 |title=Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-63988-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ji9ib28vmTYC |access-date=29 October 2015 |archive-date=25 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425031430/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ji9ib28vmTYC |url-status=live |oclc=1159801157 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wittman |first=Laura |year=2011 |title=The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Modern Mourning, and the Reinvention of the Mystical Body |publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto, Canada |isbn=978-1-4426-4339-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuOJhxnKmBoC |access-date=29 October 2015 |archive-date=25 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425145717/https://books.google.com/books?id=iuOJhxnKmBoC |url-status=live |oclc=777930306 }}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website}}
* [http://www.mapleleaflegacy.ca/ Maple Leaf Legacy Project]
* [http://www.southafricawargraves.org/ South Africa War Graves Project]
* [http://www.ukniwm.org.uk/ United Kingdom National Inventory of War Memorials]
* [http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/category/tid/648 New Zealand ''Memorials Register,'' Ministry of Culture & Heritage]
* {{Flickr-inline2|id=cwgc}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0I10fJzy8mQ Presentation on the history of the CWGC by Julie Summers]

{{Commonwealth War Graves Commission}}
{{Commonwealth of Nations topics}}
{{World War I War Memorials in France}}

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[[Category:New Zealand military memorials and cemeteries|New Zealand military memorials and cemeteries]]
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[[Category:Military history of the British Empire and Commonwealth in World War II]]