Siege of Janjira (1682)

2026-09-10T17:15:22Z

Predator.Maratha:

{{short description|Battle in the Mughal-Maratha wars}}{{refimprove|date=July 2020}}
{{more footnotes|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege Of Janjira ( 1682 )
| commander1 = [[Sambhaji]] [[Kondaji Farzand]] {{KIA}} [[Maynak Bhandari]] [[Dariya Sarang]] [[Kavi Kalash]] [[Dadaji Raghunath Deshpande]] [[Jange Khan]]
| casualties1 = Heavy
| strength2 = Unknown estimated to be 5000-7000 under Siddis of Janjira
| strength1 = 20,000
300 ships
| units2 = Unknown under Siddis of Janjira
| units1 = 20,000 army under Sambhaji ships of Maratha navy under Admirals Mainak Bhandari and Dariya Sarang Maratha artillery
| commander2 = [[Siddi Khairiyat]] [[Siddi Kasim]]
| place = [[Murud-Janjira]], [[Raigad district]],[[Maharashtra]]
| combatant2 = [[Siddis of Janjira]] [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] under [[Aurangzeb]]
| combatant1 = [[Maratha Empire]] [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] under [[Muhammad Akbar (Mughal prince)|Akbar]]
| result = {{ubl|Siddi Victory}}
Janjira fort heavily damaged Marathas fail to capture Janjira fort
| territory = No Territorial Change
| coordinates = 18.299589°N 72.964425°E
| date = 1682
| partof = [[Mughal-Maratha Wars]]
| casualties2 = Heavy
}}
The '''siege of Janjira (1682)''' was a military conflict fought between Maratha and Siddis of Janjira,the allies of Mughal Empire.Maratha Emperor Sambhaji personally besieged the fort of Murud-Janjira to stop Siddi's intrusions into Maratha Territories and to capture the strategically important fort Janjira.

== Background ==
Mughal emperor [[Aurangzeb]] had arrived in the Deccan to conquer the [[Deccan Plateau]] in 1681. His first goal was to conquer the newly established [[Maratha Empire]] in Maharashtra. Aurangzeb wanted to encircle the Maratha Empire from all sides. He ordered his allies and enemies of Maratha Empire such as [[Siddis of Janjira]], [[Wadiyar dynasty|Wodeyars of Mysore]] and [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese of Goa]] to attack the Maratha Empire. In addition Sambhaji Raje knew the strategic importance of Janjira, he had an ambition to capture it. Hence, Sambhaji Raje decided to capture Janjira personally.

== Plan of Marathas ==
Sambhaji Raje had planned to Janjira by ruse, he had sent a party in 1681 under the leadership of senior Maratha General [[Kondaji Farzand]] under the pretext of a fake fight with Sambhaji Raje. Kondaji and his men told Siddi about their fight with Sambhaji and asked for a post in his army. Siddi Khairiyat was happy at the defection of Kondaji at his side. The Siddi brothers made Kondaji a sardar in their army. But actually Sambhaji Raje had sent Kondaji and his men to the ammunition storage on the fort in order to capture the fort.

== Siege of Janjira ==
[[Sambhaji]] Raje personally attacked Janjira in 1682. He had a 20,000 strong army, 300 ships of the Maratha navy and Maratha artillery assisting him. Maratha admirals Mainak Bhandari, Dariya Sarang and Daulat Khan were commanding the navy. Arab admiral Jange Khan was also helping the Marathas. Siddi forces in the Maratha territories retreated to Janjira fort after seeing such a large army. Sambhaji Raje recaptured the villages surrounding Janjira.

Sambhaji Raje then launched a fierce attack on Janjira. Maratha artillery started to damage the fort walls. The Siddis were also responding strongly with their artillery.

Meanwhile, on the Janjira fort, Kondaji and his men were looking for an opportunity to light the ammunition storage on the fort so as to allow Sambhaji Raje to attack the fort using the ensuing panic on the fort.

300 ships of the Maratha navy were trying to attack the fort but the strong artillery of Siddis somehow managed to defend the fort. Both sides had suffered great losses and nobody was able to gain an upper hand. Sambhaji Raje had maintained a constant pressure on Janjira and his artillery managed to inflict heavy damage to the fort walls. The siege continued for thirty days. Maratha Navy had blockaded Janjira from three sides cutting of any supplies to the fort. Maratha forces started constructing a bridge from shoreline to the fort. The bridge had started to take shape. Siddis were caught in a dire situation and were battling a severe food shortage. The Siddis realised that if the same situation continues for a few days then Sambhaji Raje will capture the fort in a matter of 4–5 days. Hence they pleaded to [[Aurangzeb]] for help.

Aurangzeb was well aware of the strategic importance of Janjira. He immediately sent his General [[Husain Ali Khan]] to destroy [[Kalyan]] and [[Bhiwandi]] regions with a 35,000 strong force to divert Sambhaji Raje's attack on Janjira. Husain Ali Khan destroyed Kalyan and Bhiwandi was threatening to attack Raigad, the Maratha Capital. Sambhaji Raje had almost captured Janjira but he was forced to retreat from Janjira to check Husain Ali Khan's advance. In absence of Sambhaji Raje, his naval commander Dadaji Raghunath Deshpande of Mahad took control of the siege. Sambhaji Raje later on defeated and pushed back Husain Ali Khan to Ahmadnagar but Janjira was saved due to his advance on Kalyan-Bhiwandi.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Robinson, Howard|first=James Thomson Shotwell|title=''Mogul Empire and the Marathas''. The Development of the British Empire.|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|year=1922|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> Sambhaji Raje was unable to capture the Janjira fort. Nevertheless, he was able to inflict heavy damage to fort. It was an important strategic victory for the Marathas as the Siddis stopped their activities in the Maratha territories and never ventured against the Marathas in Sambhaji Raje's reign.

== Aftermath ==
Siddis had suffered great losses in the siege. They got to know about the superior strength of the Marathas under Sambhaji. They decided not to venture out against the Marathas. In the next few years Aurangzeb repeatedly pleaded them to open a campaign against the Marathas but the Siddis were not ready to fight against the Marathas.

== See also ==
*[[Mughal–Maratha Wars]]
*[[Sambhaji]]
*[[Murud-Janjira|Murud Janjira]]
*[[Battles involving the Maratha Empire]]

== References ==
 
<references /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sadiq Ali |first=Shanti |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/34943540 |title=The African dispersal in the Deccan : from medieval to modern times |date=1996 |publisher=Orient Longman |isbn=81-250-0485-8 |location=New Delhi |oclc=34943540}}</ref>

<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48084270 |title=The African diaspora in the Indian Ocean |date=2003 |others=Shihan de S. Jayasuriya, Richard Pankhurst |isbn=0-86543-979-6 |location=Trenton |oclc=48084270}}</ref>

<ref>{{Citation |title=Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya |date=2018-11-13 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-95810-8_332 |work=The Grants Register 2019 |pages=241–242 |place=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-95810-8_332 |isbn=978-1-349-95809-2 |s2cid=200679437 |access-date=2022-10-18}}</ref>

<ref>{{Cite book |last=Farooqui |first=Salma Ahmed |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/991819668 |title=A comprehensive history of medieval India : twelfth to the mid-eighteenth century |date=2011 |isbn=978-81-317-3202-1 |edition=First impression |location=India |oclc=991819668}}</ref>
[[Category:Maratha Navy]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1682|Janjira]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Maratha Empire|Janjira]]
[[Category:Battles fought by Marathas under Sambhaji|Janjira]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving Marathas]]

Siege of Janjira (1682)

2026-09-10T17:14:34Z

Predator.Maratha:

{{short description|Battle in the Mughal-Maratha wars}}{{refimprove|date=July 2020}}
{{more footnotes|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege Of Janjira ( 1682 )
| commander1 = [[Sambhaji]] [[Kondaji Farzand]] {{KIA}} [[Maynak Bhandari]] [[Dariya Sarang]] [[Kavi Kalash]] [[Dadaji Raghunath Deshpande]] [[Jange Khan]]
| casualties1 = Heavy
| strength2 = Unknown estimated to be 5000-7000 under Siddis of Janjira
| strength1 = 20,000
300 ships
| units2 = Unknown under Siddis of Janjira
| units1 = 20,000 army under Sambhaji ships of Maratha navy under Admirals Mainak Bhandari and Dariya Sarang Maratha artillery
| commander2 = [[Siddi Khairiyat]] [[Siddi Kasim]]
| place = [[Murud-Janjira]], [[Raigad district]],[[Maharashtra]]
| combatant2 = [[Siddis of Janjira]] [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] under [[Aurangzeb]]
| combatant1 = [[Maratha Empire]] [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] under [[Akbar]]
| result = {{ubl|Siddi Victory}}
Janjira fort heavily damaged Marathas fail to capture Janjira fort
| territory = No Territorial Change
| coordinates = 18.299589°N 72.964425°E
| date = 1682
| partof = [[Mughal-Maratha Wars]]
| casualties2 = Heavy
}}
The '''siege of Janjira (1682)''' was a military conflict fought between Maratha and Siddis of Janjira,the allies of Mughal Empire.Maratha Emperor Sambhaji personally besieged the fort of Murud-Janjira to stop Siddi's intrusions into Maratha Territories and to capture the strategically important fort Janjira.

== Background ==
Mughal emperor [[Aurangzeb]] had arrived in the Deccan to conquer the [[Deccan Plateau]] in 1681. His first goal was to conquer the newly established [[Maratha Empire]] in Maharashtra. Aurangzeb wanted to encircle the Maratha Empire from all sides. He ordered his allies and enemies of Maratha Empire such as [[Siddis of Janjira]], [[Wadiyar dynasty|Wodeyars of Mysore]] and [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese of Goa]] to attack the Maratha Empire. In addition Sambhaji Raje knew the strategic importance of Janjira, he had an ambition to capture it. Hence, Sambhaji Raje decided to capture Janjira personally.

== Plan of Marathas ==
Sambhaji Raje had planned to Janjira by ruse, he had sent a party in 1681 under the leadership of senior Maratha General [[Kondaji Farzand]] under the pretext of a fake fight with Sambhaji Raje. Kondaji and his men told Siddi about their fight with Sambhaji and asked for a post in his army. Siddi Khairiyat was happy at the defection of Kondaji at his side. The Siddi brothers made Kondaji a sardar in their army. But actually Sambhaji Raje had sent Kondaji and his men to the ammunition storage on the fort in order to capture the fort.

== Siege of Janjira ==
[[Sambhaji]] Raje personally attacked Janjira in 1682. He had a 20,000 strong army, 300 ships of the Maratha navy and Maratha artillery assisting him. Maratha admirals Mainak Bhandari, Dariya Sarang and Daulat Khan were commanding the navy. Arab admiral Jange Khan was also helping the Marathas. Siddi forces in the Maratha territories retreated to Janjira fort after seeing such a large army. Sambhaji Raje recaptured the villages surrounding Janjira.

Sambhaji Raje then launched a fierce attack on Janjira. Maratha artillery started to damage the fort walls. The Siddis were also responding strongly with their artillery.

Meanwhile, on the Janjira fort, Kondaji and his men were looking for an opportunity to light the ammunition storage on the fort so as to allow Sambhaji Raje to attack the fort using the ensuing panic on the fort.

300 ships of the Maratha navy were trying to attack the fort but the strong artillery of Siddis somehow managed to defend the fort. Both sides had suffered great losses and nobody was able to gain an upper hand. Sambhaji Raje had maintained a constant pressure on Janjira and his artillery managed to inflict heavy damage to the fort walls. The siege continued for thirty days. Maratha Navy had blockaded Janjira from three sides cutting of any supplies to the fort. Maratha forces started constructing a bridge from shoreline to the fort. The bridge had started to take shape. Siddis were caught in a dire situation and were battling a severe food shortage. The Siddis realised that if the same situation continues for a few days then Sambhaji Raje will capture the fort in a matter of 4–5 days. Hence they pleaded to [[Aurangzeb]] for help.

Aurangzeb was well aware of the strategic importance of Janjira. He immediately sent his General [[Husain Ali Khan]] to destroy [[Kalyan]] and [[Bhiwandi]] regions with a 35,000 strong force to divert Sambhaji Raje's attack on Janjira. Husain Ali Khan destroyed Kalyan and Bhiwandi was threatening to attack Raigad, the Maratha Capital. Sambhaji Raje had almost captured Janjira but he was forced to retreat from Janjira to check Husain Ali Khan's advance. In absence of Sambhaji Raje, his naval commander Dadaji Raghunath Deshpande of Mahad took control of the siege. Sambhaji Raje later on defeated and pushed back Husain Ali Khan to Ahmadnagar but Janjira was saved due to his advance on Kalyan-Bhiwandi.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Robinson, Howard|first=James Thomson Shotwell|title=''Mogul Empire and the Marathas''. The Development of the British Empire.|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|year=1922|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> Sambhaji Raje was unable to capture the Janjira fort. Nevertheless, he was able to inflict heavy damage to fort. It was an important strategic victory for the Marathas as the Siddis stopped their activities in the Maratha territories and never ventured against the Marathas in Sambhaji Raje's reign.

== Aftermath ==
Siddis had suffered great losses in the siege. They got to know about the superior strength of the Marathas under Sambhaji. They decided not to venture out against the Marathas. In the next few years Aurangzeb repeatedly pleaded them to open a campaign against the Marathas but the Siddis were not ready to fight against the Marathas.

== See also ==
*[[Mughal–Maratha Wars]]
*[[Sambhaji]]
*[[Murud-Janjira|Murud Janjira]]
*[[Battles involving the Maratha Empire]]

== References ==
 
<references /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sadiq Ali |first=Shanti |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/34943540 |title=The African dispersal in the Deccan : from medieval to modern times |date=1996 |publisher=Orient Longman |isbn=81-250-0485-8 |location=New Delhi |oclc=34943540}}</ref>

<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48084270 |title=The African diaspora in the Indian Ocean |date=2003 |others=Shihan de S. Jayasuriya, Richard Pankhurst |isbn=0-86543-979-6 |location=Trenton |oclc=48084270}}</ref>

<ref>{{Citation |title=Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya |date=2018-11-13 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-95810-8_332 |work=The Grants Register 2019 |pages=241–242 |place=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-95810-8_332 |isbn=978-1-349-95809-2 |s2cid=200679437 |access-date=2022-10-18}}</ref>

<ref>{{Cite book |last=Farooqui |first=Salma Ahmed |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/991819668 |title=A comprehensive history of medieval India : twelfth to the mid-eighteenth century |date=2011 |isbn=978-81-317-3202-1 |edition=First impression |location=India |oclc=991819668}}</ref>
[[Category:Maratha Navy]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1682|Janjira]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Maratha Empire|Janjira]]
[[Category:Battles fought by Marathas under Sambhaji|Janjira]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving Marathas]]

Skirmish at Sangameshwar

2026-09-10T15:07:02Z

Predator.Maratha: added Category:Battles fought by Marathas under Sambhaji using HotCat

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Skirmish at Sangameshwar
| partof = [[Deccan Wars]]
| image =
| caption = [[Sambhaji I|Sambhuji]] captured by [[Mughals|Mughal forces]] under Muqqrab Khan and [[Ganoji Shirke]]
| date = February 1689
| place = Sangameshwar or Khelna, Modern day [[Maharashtra]]
| result = [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] victory<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmad |first=tasneem |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.131101 |title=Fatuhat -i-alamgiri |date=1978 |pages=249}}</ref>
| territorial changes =
| combatant1 = [[Mughal Empire]]
| combatant2 = [[Maratha Empire]]
| commander1 = {{ubl|''[[Aurangzeb|Massir-i-Alamgiri]]'' :}}
{{ubl| {{ill|Muqqrab Khan|lt=Muqarrab Khan|en|Muqarrab Khan}}}}
{{ubl|[[Ganoji Shirke]]}}
-----
{{ubl|''[[Aurangzeb|Futuh-i-Alamgiri]]'' :}}
[[Kavi Kalash]]{{efn|According to Futuh-i-Alamgiri Kavi Kalash betrayed Sambhaji and helped Mughals however he was later executed along side with Sambhaji as Aurangzeb didn't wanted anyone to know how his spy system worked<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmad |first=tasneem |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.131101 |title=Fatuhat -i-alamgiri |date=1978 |pages=249}}</ref>}} Ikhlas Khan Bahadur Khan Fath Jang Hyderabadi
| commander2 = [[Sambhaji I]]{{POW}} [[Kavi Kalash]]{{POW}} Maloji Ghorpade{{KIA}} Raiba Malusare{{KIA}} Suryaji Jake{{KIA}} Mahumad Ghazi{{KIA}} Santaji Ghorpade{{WIA}} Dhanaji Jadhav{{WIA}} ''[[Skirmish at Sangameshwar#Battle|and 25 other officers........]]''
| territory = Sangameshwar or Khelna captured by the [[Mughal Empire]].
| strength1 = {{ubl|''[[Maratha Empire|Maratha Sources]]'' :}}
{{ubl|8000 [[Mughals]]}}
--------
{{ubl|''[[Mughal Empire|Persian Sources]]'' :}}
2000 [[Mughals]]
| strength2 = {{ubl|''[[Maratha Empire|Maratha Sources]]'' :}}
{{ubl|150 [[Marathas]]}}
--------
{{ubl|''[[Mughal Empire|Persian Sources]]'' :}}
1000 [[Marathas]]
| casualties3 = Nearly entire [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Army]] killed by the [[Mughals]] along with capture of [[Sambhaji I|Sambhaji]], [[Rajaram I]] coronated as new Chhatrapati on March 1689<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC|title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813|last=Mehta|first=Jaswant Lal|date=2005-01-01|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-1-932705-54-6|pages=42-52|language=en}}</ref>
}}
A millitary engagement between under Chatrapati [[Sambhaji I|Sambhaji Maharaj]] and [[Mughals]] under Muqqrab Khan in which [[Marathas]] were defeated resulting in death of Maloji Ghorpade and Raiba Malusare as well as capture and execution of [[Sambhaji I|Sambhaji]] and [[Kavi Kalash]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qA1BAAAAMAAJ|title=The Mughal-Maratha Relations: Twenty Five Fateful Years, 1682-1707|last=Kulkarni|first=G. T.|date=1983|publisher=Department of History, Deccan College Post-Graduate Research Institute|pages=74|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC|title=The Mughal Empire|last=Richards|first=John F.|date=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-56603-2|pages=223|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/chhatrapati-rajaram-and-the-maratha-state|title=Chhatrapati Rajaram And The Maratha State|last=Jaisingrao Pawar}}</ref>

==Battle==
===According to Massir–i–Alamgiri===
While [[Aurangzeb]] was besieging Golconda and Bijapur, Sambhaji observed from Panhala. After capturing these forts, Aurangzeb deployed Sarja Khan, a seasoned general, to the Deccan. In December 1687, the [[Marathas]], led by Hambirrao Mohite, defeated the Mughals at the Battle of Wai, though Mohite was killed.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_qI9AAAAMAAJ|title=The Rise and Fall of the Maratha Power|last=Karandikar|first=Shivaram Laxman|date=1969|publisher=Sitabai Shivram Karandikar|pages=307-310|language=en}}</ref> Following the battle, [[Sambhaji I|Chatrapati Sambhaji]] Maharaj's forces weakened, and his movements were betrayed by Soyarabai and the Shirkes to the Mughals.Too fearful to meet his foe on an open battlefield, the Mughal commander '''Muqarrab Khan''' relied on a spineless snare to secure a capture supported by [[Ganoji Shirke]], after a defeat at Samgamneshwar on 1 February 1689.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ngBAAAAMAAJ|title=Chhatrapati Sambhaji, 1657-1689 A.D.|last=Joshi|first=Pandit Shankar|date=1980|publisher=S. Chand|pages=241|language=en}}</ref> He was captured along with his minister Kavi Kalash and 25 officers. Aurangzeb, pleased with the capture, renamed Akluj to Asadnagar.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA47|title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813|last=Mehta|first=Jaswant Lal|date=2005-01-01|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-1-932705-54-6|pages=49-50|language=en}}</ref>
===According to Futuh-i-Alamgiri===
[[Sambhaji I|Sambhaji]] grew jealous of [[Kavi Kalash|Kavi Kalash’]]<nowiki/>s growing influence and plotted with others to remove him from power, spreading lies that led to his dismissal as Diwan. Disgraced, Kavi Kalash moved to the fort of Khulna, but Sambhaji’s hostility continued, forcing him to seek refuge at the Mughal court, where the emperor rewarded him and his supporters with positions. Enraged, [[Sambhaji I|Sambhaji]] imprisoned their families and lost many followers to the imperial service, weakening his rule. When Mughal forces advanced and captured nearby forts, [[Sambhaji I|Sambhaji]], fearful and desperate, tried to reconcile with Kavi Kalash through letters, pretending regret. Outwardly forgiving, [[Kavi Kalash]] secretly planned revenge and lured [[Sambhaji I|Sambhaji]] to Khulna. Once Sambhaji arrived, Mughal commanders Ikhlas Khan and Bahadur Khan surrounded the fort. Lacking supplies and hope, [[Sambhaji I|Sambhaji]] tried to break out with a few men but was defeated after heavy fighting. Four hundred of his men were killed, and he was finally captured by imperial soldiers, while Kavi Kalash, pretending loyalty, was also “arrested” for safety.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.131101|title=Fatuhat -i-alamgiri|last=Ahmad|first=tasneem|date=1978|pages=250–254}}</ref>
==Aftermath==
Kavi Kalash and Sambhaji, captured by the Mughals, were humiliated and paraded through the Mughal camps before being presented to Aurangzeb. He offered to spare Sambhaji’s life if he surrendered his forts, disclosed his treasuries, and revealed Mughal officers aiding the Marathas, even offering him conversion to Islam. However, Chatrapati [[Sambhaji I|Sambhaji]] Maharaj insulted [[Aurangzeb]] and [[Muhammad]], leading the Ulema to sentence him to death.Then he was tortured, blinded with red-hot irons, and beheaded on 11 March 1689 at Koregaon marking the end of resistance in the region.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lq1flY9dSN0C|title=The Great Pioneer in India, Ceylon, Bhutan & Tibet|last=Johnston|first=Harry|date=1986|publisher=Mittal Publications|pages=252|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eh1BAAAAMAAJ|title=Maharani Tarabai of Kolhapur, C. 1675-1761 A.D.|last=Pāṭīla|first=Śālinī|date=1987|publisher=S. Chand & Company|isbn=978-81-219-0269-4|pages=46-48|language=en}}</ref>
==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==

{{Reflist}}


[[Category:History of India]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Maratha Empire]]
[[Category:Battles fought by Marathas under Sambhaji]]

Deccan Wars

2026-09-10T15:02:41Z

Predator.Maratha: Redirected page to Mughal–Maratha Wars

#Redirect [[Mughal–Maratha Wars]]

Category:Battles fought by Marathas under Sambhaji

2026-09-08T13:09:16Z

Predator.Maratha: added Category:Battles involving the Maratha Empire using HotCat

[[Category:Battles involving the Maratha Empire]]

Category:Battles fought by Marathas under Sambhaji

2026-09-08T13:09:05Z

Predator.Maratha: Created blank page

Yadava–Hoysala War

2026-09-07T15:45:48Z

Predator.Maratha:

Talk:Indian Campaign of Al-Junayd

2026-09-07T15:38:43Z

Predator.Maratha: Predator.Maratha moved page Talk:Indian Campaign of Al-Junayd to Talk:Indian campaign of Al-Junayd

#REDIRECT [[Talk:Indian campaign of Al-Junayd]]

Talk:Indian campaign of Al-Junayd

2026-09-07T15:38:43Z

Predator.Maratha: Predator.Maratha moved page Talk:Indian Campaign of Al-Junayd to Talk:Indian campaign of Al-Junayd

Indian Campaign of Al-Junayd

2026-09-07T15:38:43Z

Predator.Maratha: Predator.Maratha moved page Indian Campaign of Al-Junayd to Indian campaign of Al-Junayd

#REDIRECT [[Indian campaign of Al-Junayd]]

Indian campaign of Al-Junayd

2026-09-07T15:38:42Z

Predator.Maratha: Predator.Maratha moved page Indian Campaign of Al-Junayd to Indian campaign of Al-Junayd

Junayd ibn Abd ar-Rahman al-Murri (or Al Junayd) was appointed the governor of [[Sindh]] in 723 CE.
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Campaign of Al-Junayd
| location = [[Sindh]] and [[India]]
| partof = [[Umayyad campaigns in India]]
| combatants_header =
| combatant1 = [[Umayyad Caliphate]]
| combatant2 = [[Brahmin dynasty]] [[Gurjaradesa]] [[Pratiharas of Mandavyapura]] [[Bhinmal|Bhinmal Kingdom]] [[Malwa|Malwa Kingdom]] [[Kangra-Lambagraon|Kangra Kingdom]] [[Gurjaras of Lata]] [[Maitraka dynasty]] [[Jaisalmer|Jaisalmer Kingdom]]
| commander1 = [[Junayd ibn Abd ar-Rahman al-Murri]] Habib ibn Marrah
| commander2 = Jaisiah{{Executed}} Sassa{{Executed}} Druhar Siluka or Chanduka Jayabhata IV Siladitya IV Tanu or Tunno
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = Unknown
| image = Sindh 700ad.jpg
| caption = The state of Sindh in 700 AD
| date = 723-728
| result = Umayyad victory<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blankinship |first=Khalid Yahya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjP0i6FSfLwC&q=Punjab |title=The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām Ibn ʿAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads |date=1994-06-28 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-9683-1 |pages=147 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Balocu |first=Nabī Bak̲h̲shu K̲h̲ānu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKPjAAAAMAAJ&q=malwa+junayd+fresh+victory |title=Lands of Pakistan: Perspectives, Historical and Cultural |date=1995 |publisher=el-Mashriqi Foundation |pages=48 |language=en}}</ref> 
* Fall of Sindh dynasty
* Fall of Bhinmal dynasty
* Weakening of the Mauryas of Chittor & the Gurjaras
| territory = All of Gujarat, West & Southern Rajasthan & Punjab conquered by the Arabs
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
|place =
[[Rajasthan]] and [[Gujarat]], India
}}

After defeating and executing two sons of [[Dahir of Aror|Dahir]], "Jaisiah" and "Sassa", he subdued the whole of [[Sindh]]. Junayd then sent an expedition against (Kiraj)-[[Kangra, Himachal Pradesh|Kangra]], and subdued it as well. A large expedition sent to [[Rajasthan]], [[Gujarat]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]], which included Mermad (Maru-Mada, in [[Jaisalmer]] and [[Jodhpur]]), al-Baylaman (Bhillamala or [[Bhinmal]]) and Jurz ([[Gurjaradesa]]—southern [[Rajasthan]] and northern [[Gujarat]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir Henry Miers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=noUgvSijknkC&dq=mandal+arab+baharimad&pg=PA17 |title=History of India, in Nine Volumes: Vol. V - The Mohammedan Period as Described by Its Own Historians |date=2008-01-01 |publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |isbn=978-1-60520-498-7 |pages=17 |language=en}}</ref> A force was also sent under Habib ibn Marra which successfully conquered Maliba [[Malwa]]. Another force was sent against Uzayn ([[Ujjain]]), which made incursions into its country (Avanti) and destroyed some parts of it, including the city of Baharimad, [[Mewar]] or [[Barmer, Rajasthan|Barmer]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jain |first=Kailash Chand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&dq=malwa+through+the+ages&pg=PA236 |title=Malwa Through The Ages |date=1972-12-31 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0824-9 |pages=321 |language=en}}</ref>

Another force was dispatched and it subdued Qassa (Kutch), al-Mandal ([[Mandore]]), Dahnaj ([[Dahej]]), Surast ([[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]]) and Barus or Barwas ([[Bharuch]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wink |first=André |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC |title=Al-hind: The Making of the Indo-islamic World |date=1990 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-09249-5 |pages=208 |language=en}}</ref> Either Chanduka Or Shiluka was on the throne when the Arabs under Junayd swept over the whole region where these rulers ruled.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Allan |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pMSFAAAAIAAJ&q=chanduka+siluka+Arab+Junaid |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India |last2=Haig |first2=Sir Wolseley |last3=Dodwell |first3=Henry |date=1964 |publisher=S. Chand |pages=102 |language=en}}</ref> The Bhattis under Tunno or Tanu were ruling the [[Jaisalmer]] region during Al-Junayd's invasion. They suffered defeat in the Arab raids and expanded eastward.

Al-Junayd sent his tax agents to the region, which implies that the new province would have included western and southern [[Rajasthan]], area of [[Punjab]], entire [[Gujarat]] and small parts of [[Madhya Pradesh]] as well.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blankinship |first=Khalid Yahya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjP0i6FSfLwC |title=The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām Ibn ʿAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads |date=1994-06-28 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-9683-1 |pages=133–134 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Balocu |first=Nabī Bak̲h̲shu K̲h̲ānu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKPjAAAAMAAJ&q=malwa+junayd+fresh+victory |title=Lands of Pakistan: Perspectives, Historical and Cultural |date=1995 |publisher=el-Mashriqi Foundation |pages=48 |language=en}}</ref>
==Background==
{{See also|Ali's Eastern Campaigns}}
The first incursion by Arabs in India occurred around 636/7 AD, during the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], long before any Arab Army reached the frontier of India by land.<ref name="Wink, Andre pp201">{{harvnb|Wink|2002|p=201}}</ref> [[Uthman ibn Abi al-As|Uthman ibn Abi al-As al-Thaqafi]], the governor of [[Eastern Arabia|Bahrain]] and [[History of Oman|Oman]], had dispatched the naval expeditions against the ports and positions of the [[Sasanian Empire]], and further east to the borders of India.{{sfn|Hoyland|2015|p=85}} The raided ports in India were [[Thane]], [[Bharuch]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Als1Iy223qkC&q=hakam+thana+arab |title=Proceedings and Transactions of the ... All-India Oriental Conference |date=1947 |publisher=Bihar and Orissa Research Society |pages=551 |language=en}}</ref> and [[Debal]] (in Sindh).<ref name="El Hareir">{{harvnb|El Hareir|M'Baye|2011|pp=594, 601–602}}</ref> These expeditions were not sanctioned by [[Umar|Caliph Umar]] and Uthman escaped punishment only because there weren't any casualties.<ref name="Baladhuri p209">{{harvnb|al-Balādhurī|1924|p=209}}: "'Uthmân ibn-abu-l-'Âși ath-Thaķafi ... sent his brother, al-Hakam, to al-Bahrain, and went himself to 'Umân, and sent an army across to Tânah. When the army returned, he wrote to 'Umar, informing him of this expedition and its result. 'Umar wrote to him in reply, ' ... By Allah, I swear that if they had been smitten, I would exact from thy tribe the equivalent.' Al-Hakam sent an expedition against Barwaș [Broach] also, and sent his brother, al-Mughîrah ibn-abu-l-'Âsi, to the gulf of ad-Daibul, where he met the enemy in battle and won a victory."</ref>

The motivation for these expeditions may have been to seek plunder or to attack pirates to safeguard Arabian trade in the [[Arabian Sea]], not to start the conquest of India.<ref name="Sen1999p346">{{harvnb|Sen|1999|p=346}}</ref> Arabs led by Suhail b. Abdi and Hakam al Taghilbi later defeated a [[Rai dynasty|Sindhi army]] in the [[Battle of Rasil]] in 644 beside the Indian Ocean sea coast, then reached the [[Indus River]].<ref name="WinkIp129">{{harvnb|Wink|2002|p=129}}</ref> Caliph [[Umar]] denied them permission to cross the river or operate in [[Makran]] and the Arabs returned home.<ref>{{harvnb|Crawford|2014|p=192}}</ref>
==Campaign==
[[Image:Arabsumf.png|thumb|325px|right|Arab Campaigns in Indian Subcontinent.
{{legend|yellow|Desert areas ([[Thar Desert]])}}
{{legend|#FFD700|[[Zunbils]]}}
{{legend|#FFDEAD|[[Turk Shahis]]}}
{{legend|#9932CC|[[Karkota dynasty|Kingdom of Kashmir]]}}
{{legend|#DEB887|[[Brahman dynasty of Sindh|Kingdom of Sindh]] ({{Circa|632–711}} CE) then, [[Caliphal province of Sind]] (712-854 CE)}}
{{legend|#E0FFFF|[[Maitraka dynasty|Kingdom of Valabhi]] ({{Circa|475–776}} CE)}}
]]

During the caliphates of [[Yazid II]] (r. 720–724) and [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik|Hisham]] (r. 724–743), the expansion policy was resumed, [[Junayd ibn Abd ar-Rahman al-Murri|Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri]] was appointed the governor of Sindh in 723 CE.

After subduing Sindh, Junayd sent campaigns to various parts of India. The justification was that these parts had previously paid tribute to Ibn al-Qasim but then stopped. The first target was ''al-Kiraj'' (possibly [[Kangra Valley]]), whose conquest effectively put an end to the kingdom. A large campaign was carried out in Rajasthan which included ''Mermad'' (Maru-Mada, in [[Jaisalmer]] and [[Jodhpur]]), ''al-Baylaman'' (Bhillamala or [[Bhinmal]]) and ''Jurz'' ([[Gurjaradesha|Gurjaradesa]]—southern Rajasthan and northern Gujarat). Another force was sent against ''Uzayn'' ([[Ujjain]]), which made incursions into its country (Avanti) and some parts of it were destroyed (the city of ''Baharimad'', unidentified). Ujjain itself was not conquered. A separate force was also sent against ''al-Malibah'' ([[Malwa]], to the east of Ujjain<ref>{{cite book |last=Jain |first=Kailash Chand |title=Malwa through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D. |publisher=Motilal Banarsidas |year=1972 |isbn=9788120808249 |page=10}}</ref>), The Umayyads tried to extend Muslim dominion over interior parts of India. They conquered most of the western India and conquered [[Bhinmal]], ''Juzr'', Marmad, Mandal, Dahnaz, Burwas and Malibah.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jain |first=Kailash Chand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&q=malwa+through+the+ages |title=Malwa Through The Ages |date=1972-12-31 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0824-9 |pages=321 |language=en}}</ref> This means that Umayyad boundaries would have included western and southern [[Rajasthan]], nearly all of [[Gujarat]], and a small part of [[Madhya Pradesh]].{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=133}}

Towards the North, the Umayyads attempted to expand into Punjab but were defeated by [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]] of [[Karkota dynasty|Kashmir]].<ref name="Hasan 1959 30">{{cite book |last=Hasan |first=Mohibbul |year=1959 |title=Kashmir Under the Sultans |location=Delhi |publisher=Aakar Books |page=30 |quote="In the reign of Caliph Hisham (724–43) the Arabs of Sindh under their energetic and ambitious governor Junaid again threatened Kashmir. But Lalitaditya (724–60), who was the ruler of Kashmir at this time, defeated him and overran his kingdom. His victory was, however, not decisive for the Arab aggression did not cease. That is why the Kashmiri ruler, pressed by them from the south and by the Turkish tribes and the Tibetans from the north, had to invoke the help of the Chinese emperor and to place himself under his protection. But, although he did not receive any aid, he was able to stem the tide of Arab advance by his own efforts."}}</ref> Another force was dispatched south. It subdued ''Qassa'' ([[History of Kutch|Kutch]]), ''al-Mandal'' (perhaps [[Okha, India|Okha]]), ''Dahnaj'' (unidentified), ''Surast'' ([[Kathiawar|Saurashtra]]) and ''Barus'' or ''Barwas'' ([[Bharuch]]).<ref name="Bhandarkar 1929 29–30">{{harvnb|Bhandarkar|1929|pp=29–30}}; {{harvnb|Wink|2002|p=208}}; {{harvnb|Blankinship|1994|pp=132–133}}</ref> According to historian [[Dilip Kumar Chakrabarti|Dilip K. Chakrabarti]], [[Yashovarman]] of Kannauj likely defeated Arab forces attempting to invade Kannauj.<ref>{{Citation |last=Chakrabarti |first=Dilip K. |chapter=The Re-emergence of the Gangetic Orbit and the Regional Power Centres: c. ad 300 to c. ad 800 |date=2010-10-07 |title=The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the Ancient Indian Dynasties |pages=77 |editor-last=Chakrabarti |editor-first=Dilip K. |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198069898.003.0004 |access-date=2025-06-20 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198069898.003.0004 |isbn=978-0-19-806989-8|chapter-url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The kingdoms weakened or destroyed included the [[Bhati|Bhattis]] of [[Jaisalmer]], the [[Pratihara dynasty|Gurjaras]] of Bhinmal, the [[Mori Kingdom|Moris]] of [[Chittorgarh|Chittor]], the [[Guhila dynasty|Guhilas]] of [[Kingdom of Mewar|Mewar]], the Kacchelas of Kutch, the [[Maitraka dynasty|Maitrakas]] of Saurashtra and [[Gurjaras of Lata]]. Altogether, Al-Junayd have conquered all of Gujarat, a large part of Rajasthan, and some parts of Madhya Pradesh. [[Khalid Yahya Blankinship|Blankinship]] states that this was a full-scale invasion carried out with the intent of founding a new province of the Caliphate.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|pp=133–134}}

In 726 CE, the Umayyads replaced Al-Junayd by [[Tamim ibn Zayd al-Utbi]] as the governor of Sindh. During the next few years, all of the gains made by Junayd were lost. The Arab records do not explain why, except to state that the Umayyad troops, drawn from distant lands such as [[Syria (region)|Syria]] and [[Greater Yemen|Yemen]], abandoned their posts in India and refused to go back. Blankinship admits the possibility that the Indians must have revolted but thinks it more likely that the problems were internal to the Arab forces.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|pp=147–148}} Tamim is said to have fled Sindh and died ''en route''. The Umayyads appointed [[Al-Hakam ibn Awana|al-Hakam ibn Awana al-Kalbi]] (Al-Hakam) in 731 who governed till 740.
==Aftermath==
{{Main|Indian Campaign of Al hakam}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Crawford, Peter (2013). The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam. Barnsley, Great Britain: Pen & Sword Books. p. 216. {{ISBN|978-1-84884-612-8}}

[[Category:Wars involving the Umayyad Caliphate]]
[[Category:Governors of Sindh]]
[[Category:8th-century governors]]
[[Category:Battles involving India]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Rajputs]]

Indian campaign of Al Hakam

2026-09-07T15:37:48Z

Predator.Maratha:

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Indian campaign of Al hakam
| location = [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]].
| partof = [[Umayyad campaigns in India]]
| combatants_header =
| combatant1 = [[Umayyad Caliphate]]
| combatant2 = [[Chavda dynasty]] [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty]] [[Chalukyas of Navasarika]] [[Kachchh]] [[Monarchy|Kingdom]] [[Saindhava]] [[Gurjaras of Lata]] [[Maitraka dynasty]]
| commander1 = [[Al-Hakam ibn Awana#The campaign|Al-Hakam ibn Awana]]{{KIA}}
| commander2 = Pushyadeva Dhavala Unknown chavda king{{KIA}} Jayabhata IV Siladitya IV Pulakeshin [[Nagabhata I]]
| image = Western India region WV locator.png
| caption = The region in which the arab campgain took place
| date = 731-740
| result = {{ubl|Partial Arab victory; Final [[India|Indian]] victory}}
*Decline of [[Gurjaras of Lata]]
*Decline of [[Mori Kingdom]]
*Arabs reconquered all of the the lost territories
*Arab raid halted due to the death of Al Hakim, all the territories recaptured by the [[India|Indians]]
| territory =
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
|place = [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]] and [[Rajasthan]]
}}

Although Arab sources do not mention details of the campaigns, they are recorded in [[India|Indian]] sources which mentioned some victories over the [[Arab]] forces and their expeditions. Al-Hakam ibn Abu al-Aas ventured to Indias coastline from Sindh utilizing the [[Early Caliphate navy|Caliphate navy]].<ref>{{Citation|title=Researching the History of the Indian Ocean World|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv224twcb.7|publisher=Ohio University Press|work=Connecting Continents|date=2018-06-07|access-date=2025-11-29|pages=92–120|first=EDWARD A.|last=ALPERS}}</ref> The [[Navsari]] inscription attributed to [[Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin]] of the [[Chalukya dynasty]] claimed victory over Arab forces after stating that they had arrived to Navsari and defeating the rulers.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Language of History: Sanskrit Narratives of Indo-Muslim Rule|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Language_of_History/rOcSEAAAQBAJ?hl=en|publisher=Columbia University Press|date=2021-01-05|isbn=978-0-231-55195-3|language=en|first=Audrey|last=Truschke}}</ref> Since these conquests had been lost under Tamim Zayd, and since the Muslims had again reached the southeastern corner of Gujarat by 739 AD, we must conclude that Al-Hakam or his lieutenants had indeed reconquered these territories.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blankinship |first=Khalid Yahya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjP0i6FSfLwC&q=end+of+jihad+state+by+blankenship+pdf+download |title=The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām Ibn ʿAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads |date=1994-06-28 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-9683-1 |pages=188 |language=en}}</ref> Al-Hakam died in battle while fighting the [[Saurashtra people|Saurashtra]] in present-day Gujarat in 740 AD, putting an end to his expedition.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The End of the jihād state: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/605483|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|date=1996|issn=0003-0279|pages=795|volume=116|issue=4|doi=10.2307/605483|first=Matthew S.|last=Gordon|first2=Khalid Yahya|last2=Blankinship|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Volume 1, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th-11th Centuries.|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/2164901|journal=The American Historical Review|date=1992|issn=0002-8762|pages=910|volume=97|issue=3|doi=10.2307/2164901|first=Michael H.|last=Fisher|first2=Andre|last2=Wink|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==Campaign==
Al-Hakam restored order to Sindh and Kutch and built secure fortifications at Al-Mahfuzah and Al-Mansur. He then proceeded to retake Indian kingdoms previously conquered by Al-Junayd. The Arab sources are silent on the details of the campaigns. However, several Indian sources record victories over Arab forces.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=187}}

The [[Gurjaras of Lata|Lord of Nandipuri]], Jayabhata IV, documented, in an inscription dated to 736 CE, that he went to the aid of his suzerain, the King of Vallabhi and inflicted a crushing defeat on an Arab army. The Umayyads then overran the feudatory of Jayabhata himself and proceeded on to [[Navsari]] in southern Gujarat.<ref name="Blankinship 1994 187">{{harvnb|Blankinship|1994|p=187}}; {{harvnb|Puri|1986|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Chattopadhyaya|1998|p=32}}</ref> Their intention might have been to make inroads into [[South India]]. However, to the south of the [[Mahi River]] lay the powerful [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya Kingdom]]. In the '''Battle of Navsari''', the Chalukyan general [[Chalukyas of Navasarika#Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin|Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin]] decisively defeated the invading Arab forces as documented in a Navsari grant of 739 CE. The Arab army defeated was, according to the grant, one that had attacked "Kacchella, Saindhava, Saurashtra, Cavotaka, [[Mori Kingdom|Maurya]] and Gurjara" kings. Pulakeshin subsequently received the titles "Solid Pillar of [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]" (''Dakshināpatha-sādhāra'') and the "Repeller of the Unrepellable" (''Anivartaka-nivartayitr''). The [[Rashtrakuta Empire|Rashtrakuta]] prince [[Dantidurga]], who was then a vassal to the Chalukyas, played an important role in the battle.<ref>{{harvnb|Blankinship|1994|p=186}}; {{harvnb|Bhandarkar|1929|pp=29–30}}; {{harvnb|Majumdar|1977|pp=266–267}}; {{harvnb|Puri|1986|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wink|2002|p=208}}; {{harvnb|Sailendra Nath Sen|1999|p=348}}; {{harvnb|Chattopadhyaya|1998|pp=33–34}}</ref>

The kingdoms recorded in the Navsari grant are interpreted as follows: ''Kacchelas'' were the people of [[History of Kutch|Kutch]]. The ''[[Saindhava]]s'' are thought to have been emigrants from Sindh, who presumably moved to [[Kathiawar]] after the Arab occupation of Sindh in 712 CE. Settling down in the northern tip of Kathiawar, they had a ruler by the name of Pushyadeva. The ''[[Chavda dynasty|Cavotakas]]'' (also called ''Capotaka'' or ''Capa'') were also associated with Kathiawar, with their capital at [[Patan, Gujarat|Anahilapataka]]. ''Saurashtra'' is south Kathiawar. The ''Mauryas'' and ''Gurjaras'' are open to interpretation. Blankinship takes them to be the [[Mori Kingdom|Moris of Chittor]] and [[Pratihara dynasty|Gurjaras of Bhinmal]] whereas [[Baij Nath Puri]] takes them to be a subsidiary line of Mauryas based in [[Vallabhi]] and the [[Gurjaras of Lata|Gurjaras of Bharuch]] under Jayabhata IV. In Puri's interpretation, this invasion of the Arab forces was limited to the southern parts of modern [[Gujarat]] with several small kingdoms, which was halted by the Chalukyan Kingdom.<ref>{{harvnb|Blankinship|1994|p=187}}; {{harvnb|Puri|1986|pp=45–46}}</ref>

Indications are that Al-Hakam was overstretched. An appeal for reinforcements from the Caliphate in 737 is recorded, with men being sent, a surprisingly small 3000 contingent. Even this force was absorbed in its passage through [[Lower Mesopotamia|Iraq]] for quelling a local rebellion.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=188}} The defeat at the hands of Chalukyas is believed to have been a blow to the Arab forces with large costs in men and arms.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=188}}

The weakened Arab forces were driven out by the subsidiaries of the erstwhile kings. [[Bappa Rawal]]. the King of [[Kingdom of Mewar|Mewar]] (r. 734–753) drove out the Arabs who had put an end to the Mori dynasty at Chittor.<ref>{{harvnb|Blankinship|1994|p=188}}; {{harvnb|Sailendra Nath Sen|1999|pp=336–337}}</ref> A [[Jainism|Jain]] ''[[prabandha]]'' mentions a King ''Nahada'', who is said to have been the first ruler of his family at [[Jalore]], near [[Bhinmal]], and who came into conflict with a Muslim ruler whom he defeated.{{sfn|Sanjay Sharma|2006|p=204}} Nahada is identified with [[Nagabhata I]] (r. 730–760), the founder of the [[Pratihara dynasty|Gurjara-Pratihara]] dynasty, which is believed to have started from the Jalore-Bhinmal area and spread to Avanti at [[Ujjain]].{{sfn|Sanjay Sharma|2006|p=187}} The [[Gwalior]] inscription of the [[Pratihara dynasty|Pratihara]] King [[Mihira Bhoja|Bhoja I]], says that Nagabhata, the founder of the dynasty, defeated a powerful army of ''Valacha Mlecchas'' ("[[Baloch people|Baluch]]" [[Mleccha|barbarians]]{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1929|p=30}}) around 725 CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Bhandarkar|1929|pp=30–31}}; {{harvnb|Rāya|1939|p=125}}; {{harvnb|Majumdar|1977|p=267}}; {{harvnb|Puri|1986|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Wink|2002|p=208}}</ref> Even though many historians believe that Nagabhata repulsed Arab forces at Ujjain, there is no authentic information about where precisely he encountered them.

[[Baij Nath Puri]] states that the Arab campaigns to the east of Indus proved ineffective. However, they had the unintended effect of integrating the Indian kingdoms in Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Chalukyas extended their kingdom to the north after fighting off the Arabs successfully. Nagabhata I secured a firm position and laid the foundation for a new dynasty, which would rise to become the principal deterrent against Arab expansion.{{sfn|Puri|1986|p=46}} Blankinship also notes that Hakam's campaigns caused the creation of larger, more powerful kingdoms, which was inimical to the caliphate's interests.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|pp=189–190}} Al-Hakam died in battle in 740 CE while fighting the ''Meds'' of north Saurashtra ([[Maitraka dynasty|Maitrakas]], probably under the vassalage of Chalukyas at this time).{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=189}}

==Aftermath==
The death of Al-Hakam effectively ended the Arab presence to the east of Sindh. In the following years, the Arabs were preoccupied with controlling Sindh. They made occasional raids to the seaports of [[Kathiawar]] to protect their trading routes but did not venture inland into Indian kingdoms.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zjP0i6FSfLwC&pg=PA203 203–204]}} Dantidurga, the Rashtrakuta chief of [[Vidarbha|Berar]] turned against his Chalukya overlords in 753 and became independent. The Gurjara-Pratiharas immediately to his north became his foes and the Arabs became his allies, due to the geographic logic as well as the economic interests of sea trade. The Pratiharas extended their influence throughout Gujarat and Rajasthan almost to the edge of the Indus river, but their push to become the central power of north India was repeatedly thwarted by the Rashtrakutas. This uneasy balance of power between the three powers lasted till the end of the caliphate.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} In 756, the [[Sind (caliphal province)#Abbasid period|Abbasid governor of Sindh]] sent a naval fleet against the Saindhavas. This naval attack was repulsed by the Saindhavas as they had a strong navy. Later in 776, another naval expedition by the Arabs was defeated by the Saindhava naval fleet under the command of [[Agguka I]]. After this the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid caliph]] [[Al-Mahdi]] gave up the project of conquering any part of India through the navy.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Kumar|first= Amit|year= 2012|title= Maritime History of India: An Overview|journal= Maritime Affairs:Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India|publisher= Taylor & Francis|volume= 8|issue= 1|pages= 93–115|doi= 10.1080/09733159.2012.690562|s2cid= 108648910|quote= "In 776 AD, Arabs tried to invade Sind again but were defeated by the Saindhava naval fleet. A Saindhava inscription provides information about these naval actions."}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]]
* [[List of early Hindu–Muslim military conflicts in the Indian subcontinent]]

==References==
{{Reflist |30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
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* {{cite journal |last1=Baloch |first1=Nabi Bakhsh Khan |author-link=Nabi Bakhsh Baloch |title=Muhammad ibn al-Qasim: A Study of His Family Background and Personality |journal=Islamic Culture |year=1953 |volume=1927 |issue=4 |pages=242–271 |url=https://archive.org/details/MuhammadBinQasimByDrNabiBakhshKhanBalochColour}}
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==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Atherton |first=Cynthia Packert |title=The Sculpture of Early Medieval Rajasthan |publisher=BRILL |year=1997 |isbn=978-9004107892}}
* {{cite book |title=Late classical India |first=Mainak Kumar |last=Bose |year=1988 |publisher=A. Mukherjee & Co. |location=Calcutta |ol=1830998M}}
* {{cite book |last=O'Brien |first=Anthony Gordon |title=The Ancient Chronology of Thar: The Bhattika, Laulika and Sindh Eras |publisher=Oxford University Press India |year=1996 |isbn=978-1582559308}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hakam ibn Awana}}
[[Category:Banu Kalb]]
[[Category:Battles involving India]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Rajputs]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Indian kingdoms]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Umayyad Caliphate]]