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Netherlands

2023-10-12T22:14:36Z

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{{Short description|Country in Northwestern Europe}}
{{other uses}}
{{Redirect|Nederland}}

{{Use British English|date=August 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Infobox political division
| name = Netherlands
| native_name = {{native name|nl|Nederland}}
| settlement_type = [[Kingdom of the Netherlands|Constituent country]]
| image_flag = Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg
| flag_size = 125
| flag_link = Flag of the Netherlands
| image_seal = Royal_coat_of_arms_of_the_Netherlands.svg
| seal_size = 110
| seal_type = Coat of arms
| seal_link = Coat of arms of the Netherlands
| motto = {{native name|fr|[[Coat of arms of the Netherlands|Je maintiendrai]]|link=on}} ({{lang-en|"I will maintain"}})
| anthem = {{native name|nl|[[Wilhelmus]]|link=on}} ({{lang-en|"William of Nassau"}})<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:United States Navy Band - Het Wilhelmus (tempo corrected).ogg]]}}
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File: Netherlands (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Metropolitan Netherlands in Europe|[[File:BES islands location map.svg|frameless]]|[[Caribbean Netherlands|Caribbean municipalities]]|default=1}}
| map_caption = {{map caption|location_color=dark green|region=Europe|region_color=dark grey|subregion=the European Union|subregion_color=green}}
| subdivision_type = [[Sovereign state]]
| subdivision_name = [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]
| established_title = Before independence
| established_date = [[Spanish Netherlands]]
| established_title2 = [[Act of Abjuration]]
| established_date2 = 26 July 1581
| established_title3 = [[Peace of Münster]]
| established_date3 = 30 January 1648
| established_title4 = Kingdom established
| established_date4 = 16 March 1815
| established_title5 = [[Liberation Day (Netherlands)|Liberation Day]]
| established_date5 = 5 May 1945
| established_title6 = [[Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands|Kingdom Charter]]
| established_date6 = 15 December 1954
| established_title7 = [[Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles|Caribbean reorganisation]]
| established_date7 = 10 October 2010
| official_languages = [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
| languages_type = [[Regional language]]s
| languages_sub = yes
| languages = {{hlist|[[West Frisian language|West Frisian]]|[[Papiamento]]|[[English in the Netherlands|English]]{{efn|name=co-official_languages|Apart from Dutch, English is an official language in the special municipalities of [[Saba (island)|Saba]] and [[Sint Eustatius]], Papiamentu is an official language in the special municipality of [[Bonaire]], and West Frisian is an official language in the province of [[Friesland]].<ref name="official-and-recognised-languages">{{cite web |url=https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/erkende-talen/vraag-en-antwoord/erkende-talen-nederland |title=Welke erkende talen heeft Nederland? |publisher=Rijksoverheid |access-date=27 December 2017 |language=nl|date=11 January 2016 }}</ref>}}}}
| languages2_type = Recognised languages
| languages2_sub = yes
| languages2 = {{hlist|[[Dutch Low Saxon]]|[[Dutch Sign Language]]|[[Limburgish]]|[[Sinte Romani]]|[[Yiddish]]{{efn|name=recognised_languages|Having ratified the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] in 1996, the Dutch government recognises Dutch Low Saxon, Limburgish, Sinte Romani and Yiddish as regional or non-territorial minority languages.<ref name="official-and-recognised-languages" /> On 1 July 2021, Dutch Sign Language received the status of recognised language.<ref name="NGT">{{cite journal |title=Besluit van 24 juni 2021 tot vaststelling van het tijdstip van inwerkingtreding van de Wet erkenning Nederlandse Gebarentaal |journal=Staatsblad van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden |date=2021 |url=https://www.eerstekamer.nl/behandeling/20210629/publicatie_inwerkingtreding/document3/f=/vlk1d0bzv6qf.pdf |access-date=1 July 2021 |issn=0920-2064}}</ref>}}}}
| demonym = Dutch
| capital = [[Amsterdam]]{{efn|name=central_cities|Amsterdam is the constitutional capital, while the government and the royal family are seated in The Hague.}}
| largest_city = capital
| coordinates = {{coord|52|22|N|4|53|E|type:city}}
| admin_center = [[The Hague]]{{efn|name=central_cities}}
| admin_center_type = Government seat
| ethnic_groups = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap;
|74.0% [[Dutch people|Dutch]]{{efn|Includes residents who were born in the Netherlands and whose parents were born in the Netherlands.}}
|8.4% other [[Europe]]an
|2.4% [[Turks in the Netherlands|Turkish]]
|2.4% [[Moroccans in the Netherlands|Moroccan]]
|2.1% [[Indonesians|Indonesian]]
|2.1% [[Surinamese people in the Netherlands|Surinamese]]
|1.1% [[Dutch Caribbean]]
|7.6% [[Demography of the Netherlands|other]]<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|title=How many residents have origins outside the Netherlands|url=https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/dossier/dossier-asiel-migratie-en-integratie/hoeveel-inwoners-hebben-een-herkomst-buiten-nederland|access-date=21 July 2023|website=opendata.cbs.nl|date=March 2023 }}</ref>}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2022
| religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap;
| 55.4% [[Irreligion in the Netherlands|no religion]]
|37.5% [[Christianity]]
{{Tree list}}
** 19.8% [[Catholic Church in the Netherlands|Catholicism]]
** 14.4% [[Protestant Church in the Netherlands|Protestantism]]
** 3.3% other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]]
{{Tree list/end}}
| 5.2% [[Islam in the Netherlands|Islam]]
| 1.8% other<ref name="cbs2021">{{Cite web|url=https://longreads.cbs.nl/the-netherlands-in-numbers-2021/what-are-the-major-religions/|title=What are the major religions?|last=CBS|website=cbs.nl|language=en|access-date=15 September 2022}}</ref>}}
| religion_year = 2020
| government_type = [[Parliamentary constitutional monarchy]]
| leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of the Netherlands|Monarch]]
| leader_name1 = [[Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands|Willem-Alexander]]
| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Mark Rutte]]
| national_representation = [[European Parliament]]
| national_representation_type1 = [[Netherlands (European Parliament constituency)|Netherlands constituency]]
| national_representation1 = [[2019 European Parliament election in the Netherlands|26 seats]]
| legislature = [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]]
| upper_house = [[Senate (Netherlands)|Senate]]
| lower_house = [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|House of Representatives]]
| area_km2 = 41865<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/caribische-deel-van-het-koninkrijk/vraag-en-antwoord/waaruit-bestaat-het-koninkrijk-der-nederlanden | title=Waaruit bestaat het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden? - Rijksoverheid.nl | date=19 May 2015 }}</ref> {{efn|name=area|The area of the Netherlands with overseas territories. The Netherlands is 41,543 square kilometers excluding the overseas territories.}}
| area_rank = 134th
| area_sq_mi = 16039
| percent_water = 18.41<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook Netherlands|access-date=26 July 2021 |publisher=[[CIA]]|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/netherlands/}}</ref>
| elevation_max_m = 322.4
| elevation_max_ft =
| elevation_max_point = [[Vaalserberg]]
| population_census = 16,655,799<ref name="2011Census">{{cite web|url=https://www.cbs.nl/-/media/imported/documents/2014/44/2014-b57-pub.pdf?la=en-gb|title=Dutch Census 2011 Analysis and Methodology|work=[[Statistics Netherlands]]|page=9|date=19 November 2014|accessdate=9 June 2021}}</ref>
| population_census_year = 2011
| population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} {{data Netherlands|poptoday|formatnum}}<ref name="Counter">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/visualisaties/dashboard-bevolking/bevolkingsteller|title=Bevolkingsteller|website=[[Statistics Netherlands]]|language=Dutch|accessdate=9 June 2021}}</ref>
| population_estimate_rank = 68th
| population_estimate_year = {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}
| population_density_km2 = 520
| population_density_sq_mi =
| population_density_rank = 16th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $1.297 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.NL">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=138,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Netherlands) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |date=10 October 2023 |access-date=10 October 2023}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2023
| GDP_PPP_rank = 28th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $73,316<ref name="IMFWEO.NL"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 13th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $1.092 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.NL"/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2023
| GDP_nominal_rank = 17th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $61,769<ref name="IMFWEO.NL"/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 11th
| Gini = 26.4
| Gini_year = 2021
| Gini_change = decrease
| Gini_ref = <ref name=eurogini>{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi190/default/table?lang=en |title=Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey|publisher=[[Eurostat]] |website=ec.europa.eu |access-date=25 January 2023}}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.941
| HDI_year = 2021
| HDI_change = increase
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref>| HDI_rank = 10th
| currency = {{hlist|[[Euro]] (€) ([[ISO 4217|EUR]])|[[United States dollar]] (US$) ([[ISO 4217|USD]]){{efn|The euro is used in the European part of the Netherlands and replaced the [[Dutch guilder]] in 2002. The United States dollar is used in the [[Caribbean Netherlands]] and replaced the [[Netherlands Antillean guilder]] in 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0028551 |title=Wet geldstelsel BES |publisher=Dutch government |date=30 September 2010 |access-date=11 January 2014 }}</ref>}}}}
| timezone =
| utc_offset_list = {{hlist|[[UTC+01:00]] ([[Central European Time|CET]])|[[UTC−04:00]] ([[Atlantic Time Zone|AST]])}}{{efn|CET and CEST are used in the European Netherlands, and AST is used in the Caribbean Netherlands.}}
| utc_offset_list_DST = {{hlist|[[UTC+02:00]] ([[Central European Summer Time|CEST]])|[[UTC−04:00]] (AST)}}
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in the Netherlands|+31]], [[Telephone numbers in Curaçao and the Caribbean Netherlands|+599]]{{efn|+599 was the country code designated for the now dissolved [[Netherlands Antilles]]. The Caribbean Netherlands still use +599 7 (for Bonaire), +599 3 (for Sint Eustatius), and +599 4 (for Saba).}}
| cctld = [[.nl]], [[.bq]]{{efn|.nl is the common internet top-level domain name for the Netherlands. The [[.eu]] domain is also used, as it is shared with other [[European Union]] member states. .bq is designated, but not in use, for the [[Caribbean Netherlands]].}}
|drives_on=Right}}

The '''Netherlands''' ({{lang-nl|Nederland}} {{IPA-nl|ˈneːdərlɑnt||Nl-Nederland.ogg}}), [[Terminology of the Low Countries|informally]] '''Holland''',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Holland|quote=BRITISH DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS FOR HOLLAND (2 OF 3); Holland1; / (ˈhɒlənd) /; noun; another name for the Netherlands; a county of the Holy Roman Empire, corresponding to the present-day North and South Holland provinces of the Netherlands; Parts of an area in E England constituting a former administrative division of Lincolnshire|publisher=Dictionary.com|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/holland}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=[[Cambridge Dictionary]]|chapter=Holland|quote=a name that is sometimes used for the Netherlands, a country in western Europe; a former province (= region with its own government) of the Netherlands, now divided into the provinces North Holland and South Holland|chapter-url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/holland|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=[[Merriam-Webster Dictionary]]|chapter=Holland|quote=geographical name; Hol·land ˈhä-lənd; 1 city in western Michigan on Lake Michigan population 33,051; 2 medieval county of the Holy Roman Empire bordering on the North Sea, now forming the North Holland and South Holland provinces of the Netherlands; 3 NETHERLANDS|chapter-url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/holland|publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]]}}</ref> is a country located in [[northwestern Europe]] with overseas territories in the [[Caribbean]]. It is the largest of four constituent countries of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0002154/2017-11-17 |title=Statuut voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden |trans-title=Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands |language=nl |work=Government of the Netherlands |date=17 November 2017 |access-date=11 July 2020}}</ref> The Netherlands consists of [[Provinces of the Netherlands|twelve provinces]]; it borders [[Germany]] to the east, and [[Belgium]] to the south, with a [[North Sea]] coastline to the north and west. It also has a border with [[France]] on the split island of [[Saint Martin (island)|Saint Martin]] in the Caribbean. It shares [[Maritime boundary|maritime borders]] with the [[United Kingdom]], Germany and Belgium.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.defensie.nl/english/topics/hydrography/contents/maritime-zones-and-boundaries/netherlands-boundaries-in-the-north-sea |title=Netherlands boundaries in the North Sea |publisher=Ministry of Defence |access-date=15 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819083824/http://www.defensie.nl/english/topics/hydrography/contents/maritime-zones-and-boundaries/netherlands-boundaries-in-the-north-sea |archive-date=19 August 2014}}</ref> The official language is Dutch, with [[West Frisian language|West Frisian]] as a secondary official language in the province of [[Friesland]].<ref name="official-and-recognised-languages"/> Dutch, English and [[Papiamento]] are official in the Caribbean territories.<ref name="official-and-recognised-languages"/>

{{anchor|name}}''Netherlands'' literally means "lower countries" in reference to its low elevation and flat topography, with nearly 26% falling [[Height above mean sea level|below sea level]].<ref name=":1" /> Most of the areas below sea level, known as [[Polder|''polders'']], are the result of [[Land reclamation in the Netherlands|land reclamation that began in the 14th century]].<ref name="Cavendish_2003">{{cite book|title=How it Works: Science and Technology|url=https://archive.org/details/howitworks09mars|url-access=registration|year=2003|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-7323-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/howitworks09mars/page/1208 1208]}}</ref> In the [[Dutch Republic|Republican period]], which began in 1588, the Netherlands entered a unique era of political, economic, and cultural greatness, ranked among the most powerful and influential in Europe and the world; this period is known as the [[Dutch Golden Age]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Netherlands - Dutch civilization in the Golden Age (1609–1713)|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Netherlands|access-date=10 November 2021|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> During this time, its trading companies, the [[Dutch East India Company]] and the [[Dutch West India Company]], [[Dutch Empire|established colonies and trading posts]] all over the world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dutch Republic {{!}} History & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Dutch-Republic|access-date=10 November 2021|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=History of the Dutch Empire|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=aa61|access-date=10 November 2021|website=historyworld.net}}</ref>

With a population of 17.9 million people, all living within a total area of {{cvt|41,850|km2}}—of which the land area is {{cvt|33,500|km2}}—the Netherlands is the [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|16th most densely populated]] country, with a density of {{convert|535|/km2||disp=preunit|people |people}}. Nevertheless, it is the world's second-largest [[export]]er of food and agricultural products by value, owing to its [[Soil fertility|fertile soil]], mild climate, [[Intensive farming|intensive agriculture]], and [[List of Dutch inventions and innovations|inventiveness]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Reiley |first=Laura |title=Cutting-edge tech made this tiny country a major exporter of food |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/interactive/2022/netherlands-agriculture-technology/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=23 November 2022 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en}}</ref><ref name="hollandtrade.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.hollandtrade.com/sector-information/agriculture-and-food/?bstnum=4909|title=Agriculture and food|first=Netherlands Enterprise Agency|last=(RVO)|work=hollandtrade.com|access-date=26 August 2016|date=17 July 2015|archive-date=1 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101082732/http://www.hollandtrade.com/sector-information/agriculture-and-food/?bstnum=4909|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="nationalgeographic.com">{{cite web |date=September 2017 |title=How the Netherlands Feeds the World |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/09/holland-agriculture-sustainable-farming/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=15 January 2020 |website=[[National Geographic Society]]}}</ref> The four largest cities in the Netherlands are [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] and [[Utrecht]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/onze-diensten/methoden/classificaties/overig/gemeentegrootte-en-stedelijkheid |title=Gemeentegrootte en stedelijkheid |language=nl |publisher=[[Statistics Netherlands|CBS]] |access-date=16 December 2019}}</ref> Amsterdam is the country's most populous city and the nominal [[Capital of the Netherlands|capital]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Dutch Wikisource |title=Grondwet voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden |trans-title=Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands |language=nl |url=http://nl.wikisource.org/wiki/Grondwet_voor_het_Koninkrijk_der_Nederlanden |at=[http://nl.wikisource.org/wiki/Nederlandse_grondwet/Hoofdstuk_2#Artikel_32 Chapter 2, Article 32] |quote=... de hoofdstad Amsterdam ... |access-date=3 July 2013}}</ref>

The Netherlands has been a [[parliamentary constitutional monarchy]] with a [[Unitary state|unitary structure]] since 1848. The country has a tradition of [[pillarisation]] and a long record of [[Toleration|social tolerance]], having legalised [[Prostitution in the Netherlands|prostitution]] and [[Euthanasia in the Netherlands|euthanasia]], along with maintaining a liberal [[Drug policy of the Netherlands|drug policy]]. The Netherlands allowed [[women's suffrage]] in 1919 and was the first country to legalise [[Same-sex marriage in the Netherlands|same-sex marriage]] in 2001.<ref>{{cite news |date=1 April 2001 |title=Same-Sex Marriage Legalized in Amsterdam |work=[[CNN]] |url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0104/01/sm.10.html |url-status=dead |access-date=11 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221411/http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0104/01/sm.10.html |archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> Its [[Mixed economy|mixed-market]] [[Developed country|advanced economy]] has the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|thirteenth-highest]] [[per capita income]] globally. The Hague holds the seat of the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]], [[Cabinet of the Netherlands|Cabinet]] and [[Supreme Court of the Netherlands|Supreme Court]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://netherlandsmission.org/article.asp?articleref=AR00000154EN&categoryvalue=netherlands&subcategoryvalue=nlgeneralinfo |author=Permanent Mission of the Netherlands to the UN |title=General Information |access-date=26 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005025411/http://netherlandsmission.org/article.asp?articleref=AR00000154EN&categoryvalue=netherlands&subcategoryvalue=nlgeneralinfo |archive-date=5 October 2013 }}</ref> The [[Port of Rotterdam]] is the [[List of busiest ports in Europe|busiest seaport in Europe]].<ref name="Ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/ddn-20200402-2_2021-11-25">{{Citation | url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/ddn-20200402-2| title=Rotterdam: the largest freight port in the EU| newspaper=European Commission| date=2 April 2020 | accessdate=25 November 2021}}</ref> [[Amsterdam Airport Schiphol|Schiphol]] is the [[List of the busiest airports in the Netherlands|busiest airport in the Netherlands]], and the [[List of the busiest airports in Europe|third busiest in Europe]]. The Netherlands is a founding member of the [[European Union]], [[Eurozone]], [[Group of Ten (economics)|G10]], [[NATO]], [[OECD]], and [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], as well as a part of the [[Schengen Area]] and the trilateral [[Benelux]] Union. It hosts several [[Intergovernmental organization|intergovernmental organisations]] and [[international court]]s, many of which are centred in The Hague.<ref>{{Cite book|last = van Krieken|first = Peter J.|author2 = David McKay|title = The Hague: Legal Capital of the World|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2005|isbn = 978-90-6704-185-0|url-access = registration|url = https://archive.org/details/haguelegalcapita0000unse}}</ref>

==Etymology==
{{Main|Terminology of the Low Countries}}

===Netherlands and the Low Countries===
The countries that comprise the region called the [[Low Country]] (Netherlands, [[Belgium]], and [[Luxembourg]]) all have comparatively the same [[toponymy]]. Place names with ''Neder'', ''Nieder'', ''Nedre'', ''Nether'', ''Lage(r)'' or ''Low(er)'' (in [[Germanic languages]]) and ''Bas'' or ''Inferior'' (in [[Romance languages]]) are in use in low-lying places all over Europe. The [[Roman Empire|Romans]] made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream [[Germania Inferior]] (nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands) and upstream [[Germania Superior]]. Thus, in the case of the Low Countries and the Netherlands, the geographical location of this ''lower'' region is more or less downstream and near the sea, compared to that of the upper region of Germania Superior. The designation 'Low' returned in the 10th-century Duchy of [[Lower Lorraine]], which covered much of the Low Countries.<ref name="Franks (Columbia Encyclopedia)">{{cite encyclopedia |url = http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Franks.aspx |title=Franks |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |encyclopedia=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]] |year=2013 |access-date=1 February 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://nobhist.narod.ru/lorraine.html |title=Lotharingia / Lorraine (Lothringen) |date=5 September 2013 |access-date=1 February 2014 }}</ref>

The [[Dukes of Burgundy]] used the term ''les pays de par deçà'' ("the lands over here") for the Low Countries.<ref name="BlockmansPrevenier2010">{{cite book |author1=Wim Blockmans |author2=Walter Prevenier |title = The Promised Lands: The Low Countries Under Burgundian Rule, 1369–1530 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0Foy9GGgdcgC&q=duke+pays+de+par+deçà&pg=PA85 |date=3 August 2010 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-0070-6 |pages=85– }}</ref> Under [[Habsburg Netherlands|Habsburg rule]], this became ''pays d'embas'' ("lands down-here").<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=59Pae06JSiUC&q=The%20New%20Cambridge%20Modern%20History%3A%20Volume%202%2C%20The%20Reformation%2C%201520-1559&pg=PA342 |title = The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 2, The Reformation, 1520–1559 |isbn = 978-0-521-34536-1 |last1 = Elton |first1 = Geoffrey Rudolph |year = 1990 |publisher = Cambridge University Press }}</ref> This was translated as ''Neder-landen'' in contemporary Dutch official documents.<ref name="Lem">{{cite web |last=Van der Lem |first=Anton |title=De Opstand in de Nederlanden 1555–1609;De landen van herwaarts over |url = http://www.dutchrevolt.leiden.edu/dutch/verhaal/Pages/verhaal01.aspx |access-date=11 March 2013 }}</ref> From a regional point of view, ''Niderlant'' was also the area between the [[Meuse (river)|Meuse]] and the lower [[Rhine]] in the late Middle Ages. From the mid-sixteenth century, the "Low Countries" and the "Netherlands" lost their original [[deixis|deictic meaning]].

In most [[Romance languages]], the term "Low Countries" is officially used as the name for the Netherlands.

=== Holland ===
The term ''[[Holland]]'' has frequently been used [[Colloquialism|informally]] to [[Pars pro toto|refer to the whole]] of the modern country of the Netherlands in various languages,<ref name="MoFA">{{cite web |title=Holland or the Netherlands? |url=http://sweden.nlembassy.org/you-and-netherlands |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161027142541/http://sweden.nlembassy.org/you-and-netherlands |archive-date=27 October 2016 |access-date=15 December 2012 |publisher=Dutch Embassy in Sweden}}</ref> including [[Dutch language|Dutch]]<ref name="Van Dale">G. Geerts & H. Heestermans, 1981, ''Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal. Deel I'', Van Dale Lexicografie, Utrecht, p 1105</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=11 May 2016 |title=Nederland vs. Holland |url=https://www.holland.com/be_nl/toerisme/informatie/algemeen/nederland-vs-holland.htm |access-date=5 February 2023 |website=holland.com |language=Dutch |quote=Wat is het verschil tussen Holland en Nederland? Nederland bestaat uit de 12 provincies, maar veel mensen gebruiken ook het woord Holland als ze het over Nederland hebben.}}</ref> and English. In some languages, Holland is used as the formal name for the Netherlands. However, Holland is a region within the Netherlands that consists of the two provinces of [[North Holland|North]] and [[South Holland]]. Formerly these were a single province, and earlier the [[County of Holland]], which included parts of present-day [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]]. The emphasis on Holland during the formation of the [[Dutch Republic]], the [[Eighty Years' War]], and the [[Anglo-Dutch Wars]] in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, made Holland a ''[[pars pro toto]]'' for the entire country.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/topics/about-us/style-book/1435302/Telegraph-style-book-places-and-peoples.html |title=Telegraph style book: places and peoples |access-date=31 March 2014 |location=London |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=12 April 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.media.uoa.gr/lectures/linguistic_archives/academic_papers0506/notes/stylesheets_3.pdf|title=The BBC News Styleguide|access-date=31 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227003642/http://www2.media.uoa.gr/lectures/linguistic_archives/academic_papers0506/notes/stylesheets_3.pdf|archive-date=27 February 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Many Dutch people will object to the country being referred to as ''Holland'' instead of ''the Netherlands'', on much the same grounds as many [[Welsh people|Welsh]] or [[Scottish people|Scots]] would object to their country being referred to as ''[[England]]'' instead of the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Oostendorp |first=Marc van |date=2018-06-01 |title=Nederland of Holland? |url=https://neerlandistiek.nl/2018/06/nederland-of-holland/ |access-date=2023-09-01 |website=Neerlandistiek |language=nl-NL}}</ref> Particularly those from regions outside Holland, or the west, find it undesirable or misrepresentative to use the term Holland for the whole country,<ref name="MoFA"/> as the [[Holland]] region only comprises 2 of the 12 provinces, and 20% of the Dutch citizens. In January 2020, the Dutch government officially dropped its support of the word ''Holland'' for the whole country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-12-31 |title=Wennen aan The Netherlands, want Holland bestaat niet langer |url=https://nos.nl/artikel/2316869-wennen-aan-the-netherlands-want-holland-bestaat-niet-langer |access-date=2023-09-01 |website=nos.nl |language=nl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=margoD |date=2020-09-03 |title=Wat is het verschil tussen Holland en Nederland? |url=https://wheninholland.com/weetjes/het-verschil-tussen-holland-en-nederland/ |access-date=2023-09-01 |website=When in Holland |language=nl-NL}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Romano |first=Andrea |date=January 7, 2020 |title=The Netherlands Will No Longer Be Called Holland |url=https://www.travelandleisure.com/travel-news/netherlands-holland-official-name-change |access-date=2022-02-05 |website=Travel + Leisure |language=en}}</ref>

Often ''Holland'' or ''Hollanders'' is used by the [[Flemish people|Flemish]] to refer to the Dutch in the Netherlands,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Het Vlaams woordenboek » hollander |url=https://www.vlaamswoordenboek.be/definities/term/hollander |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=www.vlaamswoordenboek.be}}</ref> and by the Southern Dutch (Dutch living "''[[Grote rivieren|below the great rivers]]''", a natural cultural, social and [[Religion in the Netherlands|religious]] boundary formed by the rivers [[Rhine]] and [[Meuse]]) to refer to the Northern Dutch (Dutch living North of these rivers).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=HOLLANDER - de betekenis volgens Encyclopedie van Noord Brabant |url=https://www.ensie.nl/encyclopedie-van-noord-brabant/hollander |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=www.ensie.nl}}</ref> In the Southern province of Limburg, the term is used for the Dutch from the other 11 provinces.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2017-10-25 |title=Limburger vindt 'Hollander' bedreigender dan buitenlander |url=https://nos.nl/artikel/2199675-limburger-vindt-hollander-bedreigender-dan-buitenlander |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=nos.nl |language=nl}}</ref> The use of the term is this context by the Southern Dutch is in a [[Pejorative|derogatory]] fashion.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />

=== Dutch ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2023}}
''Dutch'' is used as the [[adjective]] for the Netherlands, as well as the [[demonym]]. The origins of the word go back to Proto-Germanic ''*þiudiskaz'', [[Onomastic Latinisation|Latinised]] into [[Theodiscus]], meaning "popular" or "of the people", akin to Old Dutch ''Dietsch'' or Old English ''þeodisc'', meaning "(of) the common ([[Germanic peoples|Germanic]]) people". At first, the English language used Dutch to refer to any or all speakers of [[West Germanic languages]]. Gradually its meaning shifted to the West Germanic people they had the most contact with.

==History==
{{Main|History of the Netherlands}}

===Prehistory (before 800 BC)===
{{Main|Prehistory of the Netherlands}}
{{multiple image |perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
| title =
| image1 = 5500vc ex leg.jpg|caption1=The Netherlands in 5500 BC
| image2 = BronzAgeElp.png|caption2=Bronze Age cultures in the Netherlands
}}
The oldest human ([[Neanderthal]]) traces in the Netherlands, believed to be about 250,000 years old, were found near [[Maastricht]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roebroeks|first1=Wil|last2=Sier|first2=Mark J.|last3=Nielsen|first3=Trine Kellberg|last4=Loecker|first4=Dimitri De|last5=Parés|first5=Josep Maria|last6=Arps|first6=Charles E. S.|last7=Mücher|first7=Herman J.|title=Use of red ochre by early Neandertals|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=109|issue=6 |pages=1889–1894 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1112261109 |pmid=22308348|date=7 February 2012 |pmc=3277516 |bibcode=2012PNAS..109.1889R|doi-access=free}}</ref> At the end of the [[Weichselian glaciation|Ice Age]], the [[nomadic]] late [[Upper Paleolithic|Upper Palaeolithic]] [[Hamburg culture]] (13,000–10,000 BC) hunted [[reindeer]] in the area, using spears. The later [[Ahrensburg culture]] (11,200–9,500 BC) used [[bow and arrow]]. From [[Mesolithic Europe|Mesolithic]] [[Maglemosian culture|Maglemosian-like tribes]] (c. 8000 BC), the world's [[Pesse canoe|oldest canoe]] was found in [[Drenthe]].<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Van Zeist | first1 = W. | title = De steentijd van Nederland | journal=Nieuwe Drentse Volksalmanak | volume = 75 | pages = 4–11 | year = 1957}}</ref>

Indigenous late Mesolithic [[hunter-gatherer]]s from the [[Swifterbant culture]] (c. 5600 BC), related to the southern Scandinavian [[Ertebølle culture]], were strongly linked to rivers and open water.<ref name="Kooijmans1998">Louwe Kooijmans, L.P., "[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/1108/171_060.pdf?sequence=1 Trijntje van de Betuweroute, Jachtkampen uit de Steentijd te Hardinxveld-Giessendam]", 1998, ''Spiegel Historiael'' 33, pp. 423–428</ref> Between 4800 and 4500 BC, the Swifterbant people started to adopt from the neighbouring [[Linear Pottery culture]] the practice of [[animal husbandry]], and between 4300 and 4000 BC [[agriculture]].<ref>Volkskrant 24 August 2007 "[http://www.volkskrant.nl/wetenschap/article455140.ece/Prehistorische_akker_gevonden_bij_Swifterbant Prehistoric agricultural field found in Swifterbant, 4300–4000 BC] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919141403/http://www.volkskrant.nl/wetenschap/article455140.ece/Prehistorische_akker_gevonden_bij_Swifterbant |date=19 September 2009 }}"</ref> The [[Funnelbeaker culture]] (4300–2800 BC) erected the [[dolmens]], large stone grave monuments found in [[Drenthe]]. There was a quick transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European [[Corded Ware]] [[Pastoralism|pastoralist]] culture (c. 2950 BC). In the southwest, the [[Seine-Oise-Marne culture]]—related to the [[Vlaardingen culture]] (c. 2600 BC)—survived well into the [[Neolithic]] period, until it too was succeeded by the Corded Ware culture.

The subsequent [[Beaker culture|Bell Beaker culture]] (2700–2100 BC)<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Harry |editor-last=Fokkens |editor-first2=Franco |editor-last2=Nicolis |title=Background to beakers : inquiries in regional cultural backgrounds to the Bell Beaker complex|date=2012|publisher=Sidestone|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-8890-084-6|page=131}}</ref> introduced metalwork in copper, gold and later bronze and opened new international trade routes, reflected in [[Copper Age Europe|copper artifacts]]. Finds of rare bronze objects suggest that Drenthe was a trading centre in the Bronze Age (2000–800 BC). The Bell Beaker culture developed locally into the Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC) and later the [[Elp culture]] (1800–800 BC),<ref>{{cite web|last1=Fokkens|first1=Harry|title=The Periodisation of the Dutch Bronze Age: a Critical Review|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/19822/Fokkens_2001_The%20periodisation%20of%20the%20Dutch%20Bronze%20Age%20a%20critical%20review[1]_Redacted.pdf?sequence=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010141442/https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/19822/Fokkens_2001_The%20periodisation%20of%20the%20Dutch%20Bronze%20Age%20a%20critical%20review%5b1%5d_Redacted.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 October 2017|website=Open Access Leiden University|publisher=Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden|access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref> a Middle Bronze Age culture marked by [[earthenware]] pottery. The southern region became dominated by the related [[Hilversum culture]] (1800–800 BC).

===Celts, Germanic tribes and Romans (800 BC–410 AD)===
{{Main|Iron Age Europe|Celts|Germanic peoples|Netherlands in the Roman era}}

From 800 BC onwards, the [[Iron Age Europe|Iron Age]] Celtic [[Hallstatt culture]] became influential, replacing the [[Hilversum culture]]. Iron ore brought a measure of prosperity and was available throughout the country. [[Blacksmith|Smiths]] travelled from settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand. The [[Vorstengraf (Oss)|King's grave of Oss]] (700 BC) was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in Western Europe.

The deteriorating climate in Scandinavia from 850 BC and 650 BC and might have triggered the migration of [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged.<ref>''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'', 15th edition, 22:641–642</ref><ref name="Verhaal">de Vries, Jan W., Roland Willemyns and Peter Burger, ''Het verhaal van een taal'', Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2003, pp. 12, 21–27</ref> The [[North Sea Germanic]] [[Ingaevones]] inhabited the northern part of the [[Low Countries]]. They would later develop into the [[Frisii]] and the early [[Saxons]].<ref name="Verhaal" /> The [[Weser-Rhine Germanic]] (or [[Istvaeones]]) extended along the middle Rhine and [[Weser]] and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers. These tribes would eventually develop into the [[Salian Franks]].<ref name="Verhaal" /> Also the [[Celts|Celtic]] [[La Tène culture]] (c. 450 BC to the Roman conquest) expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the [[Low Countries]]. Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period, the [[Nordwestblock]] culture.<ref>Hachmann, Rolf, Georg Kossack and Hans Kuhn, ''Völker zwischen Germanen und Kelten'', 1986, pp. 183–212</ref><ref name="Lendering">Lendering, Jona, [https://www.livius.org/ga-gh/germania/inferior.htm "Germania Inferior"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161027034706/http://www.livius.org/ga-gh/germania/inferior.htm |date=27 October 2016 }}, Livius.org. Retrieved 6 October 2011.</ref>

[[File:Germania 70.svg|thumb|The Rhine frontier around 70 AD]]
The first author to describe the coast of [[Holland]] and [[Flanders]] was the [[geographer]] [[Pytheas]], who noted in c. 325 BC that in these regions, "more people died in the struggle against water than in the struggle against men."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lendering |first1=Jona |title=The Edges of the Earth (3) – Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/the-edges-of-the-earth-1/the-edges-of-the-earth-3/ |website=livius.org |access-date=28 February 2019}}</ref> During the [[Gallic Wars]], the area south and west of the [[Rhine]] was conquered by [[Roman Empire|Roman forces]] under [[Julius Caesar]] from 57 BC to 53 BC.<ref name="Lendering"/> Caesar describes two main Celtic tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands: the [[Menapii]] and the [[Eburones]]. Under [[Augustus]], the [[Roman Empire]] would conquer the entirety of the modern day Netherlands, incorporating it into the province of [[Germania Antiqua]] in 7 BC, but would be repelled back across the Rhine after the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest|Battle of Teutoburg Forest]] in 9 AD, with the Rhine becoming fixed as Rome's permanent northern frontier around 12 AD. Notable towns would arise along the [[Limes Germanicus]]: [[Nijmegen]] and [[Voorburg]]. In the first part of [[Gallia Belgica]], the area south of the Limes became part of the [[Roman province]] of [[Germania Inferior]]. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule, while the Germanic border tribes of the [[Batavi (Germanic tribe)|Batavi]] and [[Cananefates]] served in the [[Ala (Roman allied military unit)|Roman cavalry]].<ref>Roymans, Nico, ''Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power: The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire'', Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2005, pp 226–227</ref> The Batavi rose against the Romans in the [[Revolt of the Batavi|Batavian rebellion]] of 69 AD but were eventually defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks, whose identity emerged in the first half of the third century.<ref name="Previté-Orton">Previté-Orton, Charles, ''The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History'', vol. I, pp. 51–52, 151</ref> Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies. They were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in [[West Flanders]] and the Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the [[English Channel]]. Roman forces pacified the region but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of [[Julian (emperor)|Julian the Apostate]] (358) when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as ''[[foederati]]'' in [[Texandria]].<ref name="Previté-Orton"/>

===Early Middle Ages (411–1000)===
{{Main|Frankish Kingdom|Frisian Kingdom}}
[[File:Franks expansion.gif|thumb|left|Frankish expansion (481 to 870 AD)]]
After the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] government in the area collapsed in roughly the year 406,<ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last=Rietbergen |first=P. J. A. N. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52849131 |title=A Short History of the Netherlands: From Prehistory to the Present Day |publisher=Bekking |year=2000 |isbn=90-6109-440-2 |edition=4th |location=Amersfoort |pages=158 |oclc=52849131}}</ref> the Franks expanded their territories into numerous kingdoms. By the 490s, [[Clovis I]] had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one [[Frankish kingdom]], and from there continued his conquests into [[Gaul]]. During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south (modern territory of France and Walloon part of Belgium) eventually adopted the [[Vulgar Latin]] of the local population.<ref name="Verhaal"/> A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north (i.e. the southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking [[Old Frankish]], which by the ninth century had evolved into [[Old Low Franconian]] or [[Old Dutch]].<ref name="Verhaal"/> A Dutch-French language boundary hence came into existence.<ref name="Verhaal"/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j10lCgAAQBAJ|title=History of the Low Countries|last=Blom|first=J. C. H.|date=30 June 2006|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-84545-272-8|pages=6–18|language=en}}</ref>

To the north of the Franks, climatic conditions improved, and during the [[Migration Period]] [[Saxons]], the closely related [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], [[Jutes]] and [[Frisii]] settled the coast.<ref name="Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity">{{Citation |last=Bazelmans |first=Jos |year=2009 |editor1-last=Derks |editor1-first=Ton |editor2-last=Roymans |editor2-first=Nico |contribution=The early-medieval use of ethnic names from classical antiquity: The case of the Frisians |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fM_cmuhmSbIC&pg=PA321 |title=Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition |publisher=Amsterdam University |publication-date=2009 |location=Amsterdam |pages=321–337 |url=http://s393993344.online.de/ssoar/handle/document/27183 |isbn=978-90-8964-078-9 |access-date=3 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830194912/http://s393993344.online.de/ssoar/handle/document/27183 |archive-date=30 August 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Many moved on to [[England]] and came to be known as [[Anglo-Saxons]], but those who stayed would be referred to as [[Frisians]] and their language as [[Frisian languages|Frisian]].<ref name="Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity"/> Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast. By the seventh century, a [[Frisian Kingdom]] (650–734) under King [[Aldegisel]] and King [[Redbad, King of the Frisians|Redbad]] emerged with [[Traiectum (Utrecht)|Traiectum]] ([[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]]) as its centre of power,<ref name="Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity"/><ref>[http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html Frisii en Frisiaevones, 25–08–02 (Dutch)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003101550/http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html |date=3 October 2011 }}, Bertsgeschiedenissite.nl. Retrieved 6 October 2011</ref> while [[Dorestad]] was a flourishing trading place.<ref>Willemsen, A. (2009), ''Dorestad. Een wereldstad in de middeleeuwen'', Walburg Pers, Zutphen, pp. 23–27, {{ISBN|978-90-5730-627-3}}</ref><ref name="Atlas">{{cite book | title=Atlas of Medieval Europe| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q50IyzCMQxgC&q=dorestad&pg=PA57| last=MacKay| first=Angus|author2=David Ditchburn| year=1997| page=57| publisher=[[Routledge]]| isbn=978-0-415-01923-1}}</ref> Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the [[Battle of the Boarn]], the Frisians were defeated after a [[Frisian–Frankish wars|series of wars]]. With the approval of the Franks, the [[Anglo-Saxon mission|Anglo-Saxon]] missionary [[Willibrord]] converted the Frisian people to [[Christianity]] and established the [[Archdiocese of Utrecht (695–1580)|Archdiocese of Utrecht]]. However, his successor [[Boniface]] was murdered by the Frisians in 754.

[[File:Rorik by H. W. Koekkoek.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Rorik of Dorestad]], [[Viking]] ruler of [[Friesland]] (romantic 1912 depiction)]]
The Frankish [[Carolingian empire]] controlled much of Western Europe. In 843, it was divided into three parts—[[East Francia|East]], [[Middle Francia|Middle]], and [[West Francia]]. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of [[Middle Francia]], which was a weak kingdom and subject to numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprised territories from [[Frisia]] in the north to the [[Kingdom of Italy (medieval)|Kingdom of Italy]] in the south. Around 850, [[Lothair I]] of Middle Francia acknowledged the Viking [[Rorik of Dorestad]] as ruler of most of Frisia.<ref>Baldwin, Stewart, [http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/GEN-MEDIEVAL/2002-09/1031544685 "Danish Haralds in 9th Century Frisia"]. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref> When the kingdom of Middle Francia was partitioned in 855, the lands north of the [[Alps]] passed to [[Lothair II of Lotharingia|Lothair II]] and subsequently were named [[Lotharingia]]. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into [[Upper Lotharingia|Upper]] and [[Lower Lotharingia]], the latter comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of [[East Francia]] in 870, although it was effectively under the control of Vikings.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} Around 879, another Viking expedition led by [[Godfrid, Duke of Frisia]], raided the Frisian lands. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that laid the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was [[Gerolf of Holland]], who assumed lordship in Frisia, and Viking rule came to an end.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-01 |title=Lindisfarne raid I Facts, Summary, & Significance |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Lindisfarne-Raid |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

===High Middle Ages (1000–1384)===
{{Main|History of urban centres in the Low Countries}}
[[File:Graftombe Ridder Arnold van der Sluijs.jpg|thumb|A medieval tomb of the Brabantian knight Arnold van der Sluijs]]

The [[Holy Roman Empire]] ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Louis II {{!}} king of the East Franks |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-II-king-of-the-East-Franks |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> [[County of Holland|Holland]], [[County of Hainaut|Hainaut]], [[County of Flanders|Flanders]], [[Duchy of Gelre|Gelre]], [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabant]], and [[Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht|Utrecht]] were in a state of almost continual war or paradoxically formed personal unions. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became [[Old Low Franconian]] (or [[Old Dutch]]). The rest of [[Frisia]] in the north continued to maintain its independence and had its own institutions (collectively called the "[[Frisian freedom]]"), which resented the imposition of the feudal system.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Around 1000 AD, due to several agricultural developments, the economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or become tradesmen. Towns grew around [[monasteries]] and [[castles]], and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders and later also Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain [[City rights in the Low Countries|privileges]] for themselves from the [[monarch|sovereign]]. In practice, this meant that [[Bruges]] and [[Antwerp]] became quasi-independent republics and would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Around 1100 AD, farmers from [[County of Flanders|Flanders]] and [[Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht|Utrecht]] began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, making the emergence of the County of Holland as the centre of power possible. The title of [[Count of Holland]] was fought over in the [[Hook and Cod Wars]] between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited Duke [[Philip the Good]] of Burgundy to conquer Holland.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

===Burgundian, Habsburg and Spanish Habsburg Netherlands (1384–1581)===
{{Main|Burgundian Netherlands|Habsburg Netherlands|Spanish Netherlands}}
{{multiple image|perrow=1/2/1|align=left|total_width=250|caption_align=center
| title = Habsburg Netherlands
| image1 = Carlos V en Mühlberg, by Titian, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg|caption1=''[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], Lord of the Netherlands at the [[Battle of Mühlberg]]'' (1547), by [[Titian]]
| image2 = Political map of the Low Countries (1350)-NL.svg|caption2=The Low Countries in the late 14th century
| image3 = William I, Prince of Orange by Adriaen Thomasz. Key Rijksmuseum Amsterdam SK-A-3148.jpg|caption3= [[William the Silent|William I]], Prince of Orange, leader of the [[Dutch Revolt]], by [[Adriaen Thomasz. Key]]
}}

Most of the [[Holy Roman Empire|Imperial]] and [[France in the Middle Ages|French]] fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a [[personal union]] by Philip the Good in 1433. The [[House of Valois-Burgundy]] and their [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] heirs would rule the Low Countries from 1384 to 1581. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests, which then developed rapidly.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} The fleets of the [[County of Holland]] defeated the fleets of the [[Hanseatic League]] several times. [[Amsterdam]] grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the [[Baltic region]]. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the [[peat]] of the former [[wetland]]s to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-31 |title=Low Countries {{!}} Facts, Map, & History |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Low-Countries |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Under Habsburg [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the [[Seventeen Provinces]], which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of France and Germany. In 1568, under Phillip II, the [[Eighty Years' War]] between the Provinces and their [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] ruler began. The level of ferocity exhibited by both sides can be gleaned from a Dutch chronicler's report:<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/risedutchrepubl01motlgoog|title=The Rise of the Dutch Republic, Volume 2|last=Motley|first=John|year=1859|pages=[https://archive.org/details/risedutchrepubl01motlgoog/page/n33 25]}}</ref>
<blockquote>On more than one occasion men were seen hanging their own brothers, who had been taken prisoners in the enemy's ranks... A Spaniard had ceased to be human in their eyes. On one occasion, a surgeon at Veer cut the heart from a Spanish prisoner, nailed it on a vessel's prow, and invited the townsmen to come and fasten their teeth in it, which many did with savage satisfaction. </blockquote>

The [[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba|Duke of Alba]] ruthlessly attempted to suppress the Protestant movement in the Netherlands. Netherlanders were "burned, strangled, beheaded, or buried alive" by his "[[Council of Troubles|Blood Council]]" and Spanish soldiers. Bodies were displayed along roads to terrorise the population into submission. Alba boasted of having executed 18,600;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm#Ne1566|title=Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count|website=necrometrics.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Clodfelter |first1=Micheal |title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015, 4th ed. |date=9 May 2017 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-7470-7 |pages=16 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8urEDgAAQBAJ |access-date=11 November 2020 |language=en}}</ref> this figure does not include those who perished by war and famine.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sharp Hume|first=Martin Andrew|title=The Spanish People: Their Origin, Growth and Influence|date=1901|page=372}}</ref>

The first great siege was Alba's effort to capture [[Haarlem]] and thereby cut Holland in half. It dragged on from December 1572 to the next summer, when Haarlemers finally surrendered on 13 July upon the promise that the city would be spared from being sacked. It was a stipulation [[Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Duke of Alba|Don Fadrique]] was unable to honour, when his soldiers mutinied, angered over pay owed and the miserable conditions of the campaign.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Arnade |first1=Peter J. |title=Beggars, Iconoclasts, and Civic Patriots: The Political Culture of the Dutch Revolt |page=237}}</ref> On 4 November 1576, Spanish [[tercio]]s seized [[Antwerp]] and subjected it to the worst pillage in the Netherlands' history. The citizens resisted but were overcome; seven thousand of them were killed and a thousand buildings were torched.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Durant |first1=Will |last2=Durant |first2=Ariel |title=The Age of Reason Begins: A History of European Civilization in the Period of Shakespeare, Bacon, Montaigne, Rembrandt, Galileo, and Descartes: 1558–1648 |page=451}}</ref>

[[File:Beleg van Maastricht (1579), Johann Jakob Wick (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[Spanish Fury]] at [[Siege of Maastricht (1579)|Maastricht]], 1579]]
Following the [[sack of Antwerp]], delegates from Catholic Brabant, Protestant Holland and Zeeland agreed to join Utrecht and William the Silent in driving out Spanish troops and forming a new government for the Netherlands. [[Don Juan of Austria]], the new Spanish governor, was forced to concede initially, but within months returned to active hostilities. The Dutch began to look for help from the Protestant [[Elizabeth I of England]], but she initially stood by her commitments to the Spanish in the [[Treaty of Bristol]] of 1574. When the next large-scale battle occurred at [[Gembloux]] in 1578, the Spanish forces easily won the day, killing at least 10,000 rebels.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gillespie |first1=Alexander |title=The Causes of War: Volume III: 1400 CE to 1650 CE |date=2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page=131}}</ref>{{dubious|date=May 2022}} In light of the [[Battle of Gembloux (1578)|defeat at Gembloux]], the southern states of the Seventeen Provinces (today in northern France and Belgium) distanced themselves from the rebels in the north with the 1579 [[Union of Arras]]. Opposing them, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the [[Union of Utrecht]] (also of 1579) in which they committed to support each other against the Spanish.<ref>Motley, John Lothrop (1855). [https://books.google.com/books?id=8isNLCXfNycC&pg=PA411 ''The Rise of the Dutch Republic''] Vol. III, Harper Bros.: New York, p. 411.</ref> The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Union of Utrecht {{!}} European history |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Union-of-Utrecht |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Spanish troops sacked [[Maastricht]] in 1579, killing over 10,000 civilians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nolan |first1=Cathal J. |title=The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000–1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization, Volume 1 |date=2006 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |page=247}}</ref> In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the [[Act of Abjuration]], the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II.<ref>Motley, John Lothrop (1855). [https://books.google.com/books?id=8isNLCXfNycC&pg=PA508 ''The Rise of the Dutch Republic''] Vol. III, Harper Bros.: New York, p. 508.</ref> Against the rebels Philip could draw on the resources of the [[Spanish Empire]]. Queen Elizabeth I of England sympathised with the Dutch struggle and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid the Dutch.<ref>Willson, David Harris (1972). ''History of England'', Holt, Rinehart & Winston: New York, p. 294.</ref> English forces under the Earl of Leicester and then Lord Willoughby faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under the [[Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma|Duke of Parma]] in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for the Dutch to reorganise their defences.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia, Volume 1 |date=2002 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=45}}</ref> The war continued until 1648, when Spain under King [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]] recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the [[Peace of Münster]].<ref name=":022" /> Parts of the southern provinces became ''de facto'' colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Spain |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Spain |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

===Dutch Republic (1581–1795)===
{{Main|Dutch Republic|Evolution of the Dutch Empire}}
[[File:De handelsloge van de VOC in Hougly in Bengalen Rijksmuseum SK-A-4282.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Dutch East India Company]] factory in [[Hugli-Chuchura]], [[Mughal Bengal]] by Hendrik van Schuylenburgh, 1665]]
Following the declaration of independence, the provinces of [[County of Holland|Holland]], [[County of Zeeland|Zeeland]], [[Lordship of Groningen|Groningen]], [[Lordship of Friesland|Friesland]], [[Lordship of Utrecht|Utrecht]], [[Lordship of Overijssel|Overijssel]], and [[Duchy of Gelderland|Gelderland]] entered into a [[confederation]]. All these duchies, lordships and counties enjoyed a significant degree of autonomy and was governed by its own administrative body known as the [[States-Provincial]]. The confederal government, known as the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]], was headquartered in [[The Hague]] and comprised representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of [[Lordship of Drenthe|Drenthe]] was also part of the republic, albeit not considered a province in its own right. Moreover, during the [[Eighty Years' War]], the Republic came to occupy a number of [[Generality Lands]] located in [[County of Flanders|Flanders]], [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabant]] and [[Duchy of Limburg|Limburg]]. These areas were primarily inhabited by Roman Catholics and lacked a distinct governmental structure of their own. They were utilized as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled [[Southern Netherlands]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XjTSBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA66|title=The Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century: The Golden Age|last=Prak|first=Maarten|date=22 September 2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-34248-0|language=en}} p. 66</ref>

[[File:Hendrick Avercamp - Winterlandschap met schaatsers bij de stad Kampen.jpg|thumb|''Winter landscape with skaters near the city of [[Kampen, Overijssel|Kampen]]'' by [[Hendrick Avercamp]] (1620s)]]
[[File:Johannes Lingelbach 001.jpg|thumb|[[Amsterdam]]'s [[Dam Square]] in 1656]]
In the [[Dutch Golden Age]], spanning much of the 17th century, the [[Dutch Empire]] grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers. Science, military and art (especially [[Dutch Golden Age painting|painting]]) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650, the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display_printable.cfm?HHID=682 |title=The Middle Colonies: New York |access-date=14 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114182245/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display_printable.cfm?HHID=682 |archive-date=14 January 2012 }} Digital History.</ref> The [[Dutch East India Company]] and the [[Dutch West India Company]] established [[colonization|colonies]] and [[trading post]]s all over the world. The [[New Netherland|Dutch settlement in North America]] began with the founding of [[New Amsterdam]] in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the [[Cape Colony]] in 1652. [[Dutch colonisation of the Guianas|Dutch colonies in South America]] were established along the many rivers in the fertile [[Guyana]] plains, among them [[Surinam (Dutch colony)|Colony of Surinam]] (now [[Suriname]]). In Asia, the Dutch established a presence in [[Dutch India|India]], the [[Dutch East Indies]] (now [[Indonesia]]), [[Dutch Formosa|Formosa]] (now Taiwan), and the only western trading post in Japan, [[Dejima]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dutch West India Company {{!}} Dutch trading company |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dutch-West-India-Company |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> During the period of [[Proto-industrialisation]], the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's [[Mughal Empire]].<ref name="tong">{{cite book |author=Junie T. Tong |year=2016 |title=Finance and Society in 21st Century China: Chinese Culture Versus Western Markets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UQGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151 |publisher=CRC Press |page=151 |isbn=978-1-317-13522-7}}</ref><ref name="esposito">{{cite book |editor1=John L. Esposito |editor1-link=John L. Esposito |year=2004 |title=The Islamic World: Past and Present |volume=1: Abba - Hist. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KZcohRpc4OsC&pg=PT190 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=174 |isbn=978-0-19-516520-3}}</ref><ref>Nanda, J. N (2005). {{cite book |year=2005 | title=Bengal: the unique state | publisher=Concept Publishing Company. p. 10. | isbn=978-81-8069-149-2 | quote=Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.}}</ref><ref name="Prakash">[[Om Prakash (historian)|Om Prakash]], "[http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3447600139/WHIC?u=seat24826&xid=6b597320 Empire, Mughal]", ''History of World Trade Since 1450'', edited by [[John J. McCusker]], vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2006, pp. 237–240, ''World History in Context''. Retrieved 3 August 2017</ref>

Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly [[capitalism|capitalist]] country. In early modern Europe, it had the wealthiest trading city ([[Amsterdam]]) and the first full-time [[Amsterdam Stock Exchange|stock exchange]]. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the [[Boom and bust|boom-bust cycle]], the world's first [[Asset price inflation|asset-inflation bubble]], the [[tulip mania]] of 1636–1637, and the world's first [[bear raid]]er, [[Isaac le Maire]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v23/n07/murray-sayle/japan-goes-dutch|title=Japan Goes Dutch|magazine=London Review of Books|date=5 April 2001|author=Sayle, Murray |volume=23|issue=7|pages=3–7}}</ref> In 1672 – known in Dutch history as the [[Rampjaar]] (Disaster Year) – the Dutch Republic was attacked by France, England and three German Bishoprics simultaneously, in what would became known as the [[Franco-Dutch War]]. [[Third Anglo-Dutch War|At sea]], it could successfully prevent the English and French navies from blockading the western shores. On land, however, it was almost taken over by the advancing French and German armies from the east. It managed to turn the tide by [[Hollandic Water Line|inundating parts of Holland]].<ref name="Rowman & Littlefield">{{cite book|last1=Koopmans|first1=Joop W.|title=Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-5593-7|pages=233|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GU-xCgAAQBAJ&q=main+political+factions+dutch+society+18th+century&pg=PA271|language=en|date=5 November 2015}}</ref>

From 1672 to 1712, the Republic, led by [[William III of England|William III of Orange]] and [[Anthonie Heinsius]] would regularly clash with France in what some historians have come to call the ''Forty Years' War''. In the [[Nine Years' War]] and the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], the Republic was at the centre of anti-French coalitions. The Dutch ultimately successfully defended the [[Spanish Netherlands]], established a [[Barrier Treaty|barrier]] there, and their troops proved central to the alliance which halted French territorial expansion in Europe until a new cycle began in 1792 with the [[French Revolutionary Wars]].{{sfn|Van Nimwegen|2020|p=354}} However, the wars left them effectively bankrupt, and inflicted permanent damage on the Dutch merchant navy; while they remained the dominant economic power in the [[Far East]], Britain took over as the pre-eminent global commercial and maritime power.{{sfn|Elliott|2014|p=8}} Between 1590 and 1713, the United Provinces consistently possessed one of Europe's largest and most capable armies. However, following the [[Peace of Utrecht|conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession]], other major powers such as Prussia, Austria, Britain, and Russia significantly expanded their military forces. The Republic struggled to match these developments, and gradually assumed the status of a mid-tier power. However, historians have sometimes overstated the extent of this decline, especially when considering the period up to the 1750s.{{sfn|Israel|1995|pp=985–986}}

===Batavian Republic and Kingdom (1795–1890)===
{{Main|Batavian Republic|Kingdom of Holland|Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands|United Kingdom of the Netherlands|Kingdom of the Netherlands}}

In the 18th century the Dutch Republic had seen a state of a general decline, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican [[Dutch States Party|''Staatsgezinden'']] and the supporters of the [[stadtholder]] the [[Orangism (Netherlands)|''Prinsgezinden'']] as main [[political faction]]s.<ref name="Rowman & Littlefield"/> With the armed support of [[French Revolution|revolutionary France]], [[Patriots (Dutch Republic)|Dutch republicans]] proclaimed the [[Batavian Republic]], modelled after the [[French First Republic|French Republic]] and rendering the Netherlands a [[unitary state]] on 19 January 1795. The [[stadtholder]] [[William V of Orange]] had fled to England. From 1806 to 1810, the [[Kingdom of Holland]] was set up by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother [[Louis Bonaparte]]. However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands [[Incorporation (Netherlands)|became part of the French Empire]] until the autumn of 1813 when Napoleon was defeated in the [[Battle of Leipzig]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

[[File:Dutch Empire35.PNG|thumb|Map of the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch colonial empire]]. Light green: territories administered by or originating from territories administered by the [[Dutch East India Company]]; dark green: the [[Dutch West India Company]]. In yellow are the territories occupied later, during the 19th century.]]
[[William I of the Netherlands|William Frederick]], son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself [[Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands|Sovereign Prince]]. Two years later, the [[Congress of Vienna]] added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands|United Netherlands]] to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself as [[William I of the Netherlands|King William I]] in 1815.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of France |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-France |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> William became hereditary [[Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg|Grand Duke of Luxembourg]] in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and [[Belgian Revolution|rebelled]]. The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium (recognised by the Northern Netherlands in 1839 as the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by decree), while the [[personal union]] between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when [[William III of the Netherlands|William III]] died with no surviving male heirs. [[Salic Law|Ascendancy laws]] prevented his daughter [[Wilhelmina of the Netherlands|Queen Wilhelmina]] from becoming the next Grand Duchess.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-02 |title=William I {{!}} king of The Netherlands |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-I-king-of-The-Netherlands |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The Belgian Revolution and the [[Java War]] in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the [[Cultivation System]] was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Belgium - Industrial Revolution, Belgian Revolution, and Unionist Coalition |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Belgium/The-Austrian-Netherlands |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> The Netherlands abolished slavery in its colonies in 1863.<ref>Finkelman and Miller, ''Macmillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery'' 2:637</ref> Enslaved people in [[Suriname]] would be fully free only in 1873.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ascleiden.nl/content/webdossiers/dutch-involvement-transatlantic-slave-trade-and-abolition|title=Dutch involvement in the transatlantic slave trade and abolition|work=ascleiden.nl|date=24 June 2013}}</ref>

===World wars and beyond (1890–present)===
{{Main|History of the Netherlands (1900–present)|The Netherlands in World War I|Netherlands in World War II}}
[[File:Rotterdam, Laurenskerk, na bombardement van mei 1940.jpg|thumb|left|[[Rotterdam]] after [[Rotterdam Blitz|German air raids]] in 1940]]

The Netherlands remained neutral during [[World War I]], in part because the import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival until the blockade by the British [[Royal Navy]] in 1916.<ref name="Abbenhuis">Abbenhuis, Maartje M. (2006) [https://books.google.com/books?id=5gMCfhUR6Y0C The Art of Staying Neutral]. Amsterdam University Press, {{ISBN|978-90-5356-818-7}}.</ref> That changed in [[World War II]], when Germany [[Battle of the Netherlands|invaded the Netherlands]] on 10 May 1940. The [[Rotterdam Blitz]] forced most of the Dutch army to surrender. During the occupation, over 100,000 [[History of the Jews in the Netherlands|Dutch Jews]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kampwesterbork.nl/site1.2/English/KAMP/k08.html |title=93 trains |access-date=7 December 2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041207064440/http://www.kampwesterbork.nl/site1.2/English/KAMP/k08.html |archive-date=7 December 2004 }}. kampwesterbork.nl</ref> were transported to Nazi [[extermination camp]]s; only a few survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, [[Dutch resistance|civilians who resisted]] were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists [[23rd SS Volunteer Panzer Grenadier Division Nederland|joined the Waffen SS]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.waffen-ss.nl/main.php|title=Nederlanders in de Waffen-SS|website=waffen-ss.nl|access-date=13 November 2015|archive-date=2 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151202043232/http://www.waffen-ss.nl/main.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> fighting on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]].<ref>{{cite web|author=MOOXE from Close Combat Series |url=http://www.closecombatseries.net/CCS/modules.php?name=Forums&file=viewtopic&t=7686&highlight= |title=Indonesian SS Volunteers |publisher=Closecombatseries.net |access-date=28 October 2011}}</ref> Political [[Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy|collaborators]] were members of the fascist [[National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands|NSB]], the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the [[Dutch government-in-exile]] in London declared war on Japan,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1941/411208c.html |title=The Kingdom of the Netherlands declares war with Japan |publisher=ibiblio |access-date=2 October 2009}}</ref> but could not prevent the [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies]].<ref>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+id0029) Library of Congress, 1992, "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45"] Access date: 9 February 2007.</ref> In 1944–45, the [[First Canadian Army]] liberated much of the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite video| year =1944| title =Video: Allies Set For Offensive| url =https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.39141| publisher =[[Universal Newsreel]]| access-date =21 February 2012}}</ref> Soon after [[Victory in Europe Day|VE Day]], the Dutch fought a [[Indonesian National Revolution|colonial war against the new Republic of Indonesia]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-17 |title=Sukarno {{!}} Indonesian Nationalist & 1st President of Indonesia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sukarno |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the Netherlands |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-the-Netherlands |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

====Decolonisation====
In 1954, the [[Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands]] reformed the political structure as a result of international pressure to carry out [[decolonisation]]. The Dutch colonies of [[Surinam (Dutch colony)|Surinam]] and [[Curaçao and Dependencies]] and the European country all became countries within the Kingdom, on a basis of equality. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945 (recognised in 1949).{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} [[Suriname]] followed in 1975. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of [[Benelux]] and [[NATO]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Benelux |url=https://gouvernement.lu/en/dossiers/2018/benelux.html |website=gouvernement.lu |access-date=21 November 2022 |language=en |date=4 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Member countries |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_52044.htm |website=NATO |access-date=21 November 2022 |language=en}}</ref> In the 1950s, the Netherlands became one of the six founding countries of the [[European Communities]], following the 1952 establishment of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]], and subsequent 1958 creations of the [[European Economic Community]] and [[European Atomic Energy Community]].<ref name="NL: EU member state">{{cite web |title=The Netherlands: EU member state - European Union - Government.nl |url=https://www.government.nl/topics/european-union/the-netherlands-eu-member-state |website=government.nl |access-date=21 November 2022 |date=26 September 2012}}</ref> In 1993, the former two were incorporated into the [[European Union]].<ref name="NL: EU member state" />

Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce [[population density]] prompted some 500,000 [[Dutch people|Dutch]] to leave the country after the war.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409956/Netherlands |title=Netherlands |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid de-[[pillarisation]]. Students and other youth rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as [[women's rights]], [[Human sexuality|sexuality]], [[disarmament]] and [[environmental issues]]. In 2002 the [[euro]] was introduced as [[fiat money]], and in 2010 the [[Netherlands Antilles]] was [[Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles|dissolved]]. Referendums were held on each island. As a result, [[Bonaire]], [[Sint Eustatius]] and [[Saba (island)|Saba]] (the BES islands) were incorporated as ''[[Special municipality (Netherlands)|special municipalities]]'' upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the [[Caribbean Netherlands]].<ref>Grommé, Francisca. "Thinking, seeing, and doing like a kingdom: The making of Caribbean Netherlands statistics and the 'native Bonairian'." (2021). [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Francisca-Gromme/publication/353121877_Thinking_Seeing_and_Doing_Like_a_Kingdom_The_Making_of_Caribbean_Netherlands_Statistics_and_the_Native_Bonairian/links/60e82eb30fbf460db8f3123d/Thinking-Seeing-and-Doing-Like-a-Kingdom-The-Making-of-Caribbean-Netherlands-Statistics-and-the-Native-Bonairian.pdf online]</ref>

==Geography==
{{Further|Geography of the European Netherlands}}
{{See also|Low Countries}}
[[File:2012-NL-prov-relief-3000.jpg|thumb|Relief map of the European Netherlands]]

The European Netherlands has a total area of {{convert|41543|km2|abbr=on}}, including water bodies, and a land area of {{convert|33481|km2|abbr=on}}. The [[Caribbean Netherlands]] has a total area of {{convert|328|km2|abbr=on}}<ref>{{Citation|author=Central Bureau of Statistics|title=Land – en tuinbouwcijfers, 2009|journal=Land- en Tuinbouwcijfers|publisher=Government of the Netherlands, Department of Publication and Information|url=https://www.cbs.nl/-/media/imported/documents/2009/36/2009-j29-pub.pdf|issn=1386-9566|language=nl|year=2009|page=14|access-date=6 January 2018}}</ref> It lies between [[latitudes]] [[50th parallel north|50°]] and [[54th parallel north|54° N]], and longitudes [[3rd meridian east|3°]] and [[8th meridian east|8° E]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

The Netherlands is geographically very low relative to sea level and is considered a flat country, with about 26% of its area<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|last1=Schiermeier|first1=Quirin|title=Few fishy facts found in climate report|journal=Nature|date=5 July 2010|volume=466|issue=170|pages=170|doi=10.1038/466170a|pmid=20613812|doi-access=free}}</ref> and 21% of its population<ref name=milrek>{{cite web|title = Milieurekeningen 2008|publisher = [[Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek]]|url = http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/D2CE63F9-D210-4006-B68B-98BE079EA9B6/0/2008c167pub.pdf|access-date = 4 February 2010|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100215002601/http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/D2CE63F9-D210-4006-B68B-98BE079EA9B6/0/2008c167pub.pdf|archive-date = 15 February 2010|url-status=dead|df = dmy-all}}</ref> below sea level. The European part of the country is for the most part flat, with the exception of [[foothills]] in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 321 metres, and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are caused by [[peat]] extraction or achieved through [[land reclamation in the Netherlands|land reclamation]]. Since the late 16th century, large [[polder]] areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include [[dike (construction)|dikes]], canals and pumping stations. Nearly 17% of the country's land area is reclaimed.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Much of the country was originally formed by the [[estuary|estuaries]] of three large European rivers: the [[Rhine]] (''Rijn''), the [[Meuse]] (''Maas'') and the [[Scheldt]] (''Schelde''), as well as their [[tributary|tributaries]]. The south-western part of the Netherlands is a [[river delta]] of these rivers, the [[Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=de Haas |first1=Tjalling |last2=van der Valk |first2=Lambertus |last3=Cohen |first3=Kim M. |last4=Pierik |first4=Harm Jan |last5=Weisscher |first5=Steven A. H. |last6=Hijma |first6=Marc P. |last7=van der Spek |first7=Ad J. F. |last8=Kleinhans |first8=Maarten G. |date=February 2019 |title=Long‐term evolution of the Old Rhine estuary: Unravelling effects of changing boundary conditions and inherited landscape |journal=The Depositional Record |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=84–108 |doi=10.1002/dep2.56 |issn=2055-4877 |pmc=6743690 |pmid=31543980}}</ref>

The European Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the [[Waal (river)|Waal]], its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. These rivers functioned as a natural barrier between [[fief]]doms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their "Great Rivers" (''de Grote Rivieren''). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the [[IJssel]] river, discharges into [[IJsselmeer|Lake IJssel]], the former [[Zuiderzee]] ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak [[Dutch Low Saxon]] dialects (except for the province of [[Friesland]], which has its own language).<ref name="international2000">Welschen, Ad: Course ''Dutch Society and Culture'', International School for Humanities and Social Studies ISHSS, Universiteit van Amsterdam, 2000–2005.</ref>

=== Geology ===
{{main|Geology of the Netherlands}}

The Netherlands is mostly composed of [[river delta|deltaic]], [[coast]]al and [[Aeolian processes|aeolian]] derived sediments during the [[Pleistocene]] [[glacial]] and [[interglacial]] periods.<ref name="international2000" />

Almost the entire west Netherlands is composed of the [[Rhine]]-[[Meuse]] river [[estuary]]. In the east of the Netherlands, remains are found of the [[Last Glacial Period|last ice age]], which ended approximately ten thousand years ago. As the continental [[ice sheet]] moved in from the north, it pushed [[moraine]] forward. The ice sheet halted as it covered the eastern half of the Netherlands. After the ice age ended, the moraine remained in the form of a long hill-line. The cities of [[Arnhem]] and [[Nijmegen]] are built on these hills.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Wong |first1=Th.E. |last2= Batjes |first2=D.A.J.|last3= Jager|first3=J. de|year= 2007 |title=Geology of the Netherlands |publisher= [[KNAW]] |isbn=978-90-6984-481-7}}</ref>

===Floods===
{{Main|Flood control in the Netherlands|Floods in the Netherlands|North Sea flood of 1953|Storm tides of the North Sea}}
[[File:Christmas flood 1717.jpg|thumb|The [[Christmas flood of 1717]] was the result of a northwesterly storm that resulted in the death of thousands.]]

Over the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention.

On 14 December 1287, [[St. Lucia's flood]] affected the Netherlands and Germany, killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1485002/Zuiderzee-floods Zuiderzee floods (Netherlands history)]. Britannica Online Encyclopedia.</ref> The [[St. Elizabeth's flood (1421)|St. Elizabeth flood]] of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed [[polder]], replacing it with the {{convert|72|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} ''[[Biesbosch]]'' tidal floodplains. The huge [[North Sea flood of 1953|North Sea flood of February 1953]] caused the collapse of several dikes in the southwest Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the "[[Deltawerken|Delta Works]]", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than thirty years.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

[[File:The Netherlands compared to sealevel.png|thumb|left|Map illustrating areas of the Netherlands below sea level]]
The impact of disasters was, to an extent, increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying [[swamp]]land was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile [[peat]] to contract and ground levels to drop; groundwater levels were lowered to compensate, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Netherlands : Fugros Ground Investigation Links Dutch Subsidence to Former Peat Extraction |journal=MENA Report |date=20 September 2021}}</ref>

To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium [[AD]], villages and farmhouses were built on hills called ''[[terp]]s''. Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called ''"[[Water board (Netherlands)|waterschappen]]"'' ("water boards") or ''"[[Water board (Netherlands)|hoogheemraadschappen]]"'' ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century [[windmill]]s had come into use to pump water. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous [[polder]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Windmills in Dutch History|url=http://www.let.rug.nl/polders/boekje/history.htm|website=Let.rug.nl|publisher=Rijks Universiteit Groningen|access-date=7 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705084250/http://www.let.rug.nl/polders/boekje/history.htm|archive-date=5 July 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In 1932 the ''[[Afsluitdijk]]'' ("Closure Dike") was completed, blocking the former ''[[Zuiderzee]]'' (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the [[IJsselmeer]] ([[IJssel]] Lake). It became part of the larger [[Zuiderzee Works]] in which four polders totalling {{convert|2500|km2|mi2|0}} were reclaimed from the sea.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/gemeentes/gem533nh.htm |publisher=sdu.nl |title=Kerngegevens gemeente Wieringermeer |access-date=21 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106163025/http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/gemeentes/gem533nh.htm |archive-date=6 January 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/PROVINCIES/flevoland.htm |publisher=sdu.nl |title=Kerngegevens procincie Flevoland |access-date=21 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226115958/http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/PROVINCIES/flevoland.htm |archive-date=26 December 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from [[climate change]]. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Nickerson |first=Colin |title=Netherlands relinquishes some of itself to the waters |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=5 December 2005 |url=https://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2005/12/05/holland_goes_beyond_holding_back_the_tide/ |access-date=10 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060630210923/http://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2005/12/05/holland_goes_beyond_holding_back_the_tide/ |archive-date=30 June 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Olsthoorn |first=A.A. |author2=Richard S.J. Tol |title=Floods, flood management and climate change in The Netherlands |publisher=Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit |date=February 2001 |url=http://de.scientificcommons.org/16816958 |oclc=150386158 |access-date=10 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022043234/http://de.scientificcommons.org/16816958 |archive-date=22 October 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tol |first1=Richard S. J. |last2=van der Grijp |first2=Nicolien |last3=Olsthoorn |first3=Alexander A. |last4=van der Werff |first4=Peter E. |title=Adapting to Climate: A Case Study on Riverine Flood Risks in the Netherlands |journal=Risk Analysis |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=575–583 |year=2003 |doi=10.1111/1539-6924.00338 |pmid=12836850|url=http://dare.ubvu.vu.nl/bitstream/1871/31872/1/158073.pdf |hdl=1871/31872 |s2cid=1054016 }}</ref>

===Delta Works===
{{Main|Delta Works|Flood control in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Deltawerken na.png|thumb|left|The [[Delta Works]] are located in the provinces of [[South Holland]] and [[Zeeland]].]]

After the [[North Sea Flood of 1953|1953 disaster]], the [[Delta Works]] was constructed, which is a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the [[Maeslantkering]]. Since then, new projects have been periodically started to renovate and renew the Delta Works. The main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland. This was achieved by raising {{convert|3000|km|mi|abbr=on}} of outer sea-dikes and {{convert|10000|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea [[estuary|estuaries]] of Zeeland. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dike reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] as one of the [[Wonders of the World#American Society of Civil Engineers|seven wonders of the modern world]].<ref>[http://www.asce.org/Content.aspx?id=2147487305 Seven Wonders] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100802060056/http://www.asce.org/Content.aspx?id=2147487305 |date=2 August 2010 }}. Asce.org (19 July 2010). Retrieved on 21 August 2012.</ref>

It is anticipated that [[global warming]] will result in a rise in [[sea level]]. The Netherlands is actively preparing for a sea-level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea-level rise of {{convert|1.10|m|ft|abbr=on|0}} and a simultaneous land height decline of {{convert|10|cm|in|abbr=on|0}}. The plan encompasses the reinforcement of the existing coastal defences like [[Levee|dike]]s and [[dune]]s with {{convert|1.30|m|ft|abbr=on}} of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the seaside but could also alter rainfall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another programme is already being executed. The [[Room for the River (Netherlands)|Room for the River plan]] grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called "overflow areas" have been moved to higher ground, with some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels.<ref name=NYT021313>{{cite news|title=Going With the Flow|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/17/arts/design/flood-control-in-the-netherlands-now-allows-sea-water-in.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214132056/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/17/arts/design/flood-control-in-the-netherlands-now-allows-sea-water-in.html |archive-date=14 February 2013 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=19 February 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=13 February 2013|author=Kimmelman, Michael}}</ref>

===Climate change===
{{main|Climate change in the Netherlands}}

{{Excerpt|Climate change in the Netherlands|hat=no}}

===Nature===
{{Further|List of national parks of the Netherlands|List of extinct animals of the Netherlands}}
The Netherlands has 21 national parks<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://nationaalpark.nl/ |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=Nationaal Park |language=nl-NL}}</ref> and hundreds of other nature reserves. Most of these are owned by [[Staatsbosbeheer]], the national department for [[forestry]] and [[Habitat conservation|nature conservation]] and [[Vereniging Natuurmonumenten|Natuurmonumenten]] (literally 'Natures monuments'), a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} The [[Wadden Sea]] in the north, with its [[tidal flat]]s and [[wetland]]s, is rich in [[biodiversity|biological diversity]], and is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage Nature Site]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Wadden Sea |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1314/ |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Phoca vitulina Terschelling.jpg|thumb|right|[[Harbor seal|Common seals]] on [[Terschelling]], a [[Wadden Sea]] island]]
The [[Oosterschelde]], formerly the northeast [[estuary]] of the river [[Scheldt]] was designated a national park in 2002, making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of {{convert|370|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. It consists primarily of the salt waters of the Oosterschelde but also includes mudflats, meadows, and shoals. Because of the large variety of sea life, including unique regional species, the park is popular with [[Scuba diving|Scuba divers]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

[[Phytogeography|Phytogeographically]], the European Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the [[Circumboreal Region]] within the [[Boreal Kingdom]]. According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]], the European territory of the Netherlands belongs to the [[ecoregion]] of [[Atlantic mixed forests]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|display-authors=1|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287}}</ref> In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Beekbergerwoud - Natuurgebied |url=https://www.natuurmonumenten.nl/natuurgebieden/beekbergerwoud |access-date=13 June 2022 |website=Natuurmonumenten |language=nl}}</ref> and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like [[Scots pine]] and trees that are not native to the Netherlands.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} These woods were planted on [[heath (habitat)#Anthropogenic heaths|anthropogenic heaths]] and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) ([[Veluwe]]). The Netherlands had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 0.6/10, ranking it 169th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G }}</ref>

[[Nitrogen pollution]] is a problem.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The cucumber Saudis: how the Dutch got too good at farming |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2023/03/23/the-cucumber-saudis-how-the-dutch-got-too-good-at-farming |access-date=2023-04-19 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> The number of flying insects in the Netherlands has dropped by 75% since the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.consoglobe.com/insectes-disparaitre-cg |title=Les insectes sont bel et bien en train de disparaître |language=fr |trans-title=Insects are well and truly disappearing |first=Paul |last=Malo |date=18 November 2019 |website=consoglobe.com}}</ref>

===Caribbean islands===
{{Main|Bonaire|Sint Eustatius|Saba (island)|Caribbean Netherlands}}
In the [[Lesser Antilles]] islands of the Caribbean, the territories of [[Curaçao]], [[Aruba]] and [[Sint Maarten]] have a constituent country status within the wider Kingdom of the Netherlands. Another three territories which make up the [[Caribbean Netherlands]] are designated as special municipalities. The Caribbean Netherlands have maritime borders with [[Anguilla]], [[Curaçao]], [[France]] ([[Saint Barthélemy]]), [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Sint Maarten]], the [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]] and [[Venezuela]].<ref name="Caribbean-Borders">{{cite web |title=Maritime boundaries of the Caribbean part of the Kingdom |url=https://english.defensie.nl/topics/hydrography/maritime-limits-and-boundaries/maritime-boundaries-of-the-caribbean-part-of-the-kingdom |website=Ministry of Defence |date=15 November 2017 |access-date=5 August 2020 |language=en}}</ref> The islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a [[tropical]] [[climate]] with warm weather all year round.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Biasutti |first1=Michela |last2=Sobel |first2=Adam H. |last3=Camargo |first3=Suzana J. |last4=Creyts |first4=Timothy T. |date=1 June 2012 |title=Projected changes in the physical climate of the Gulf Coast and Caribbean |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0254-y |journal=Climatic Change |language=en |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=819–845 |doi=10.1007/s10584-011-0254-y |bibcode=2012ClCh..112..819B |s2cid=8304158 |issn=1573-1480}}</ref>

[[File:Kleine Bonaire-Underwater life(js).jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Underwater life of [[Klein Bonaire]]]]
Within this island group:
* [[Bonaire]] is part of the [[ABC islands (Lesser Antilles)|ABC islands]] within the [[Leeward Antilles]] island chain off the [[Venezuela]]n coast. The Leeward Antilles have a mixed volcanic and coral origin.
* [[Saba (island)|Saba]] and [[Sint Eustatius]] are part of the [[SSS islands]]. They are located east of [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[Virgin Islands]]. Although in the English language they are considered part of the [[Leeward Islands]], French, Spanish, [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and the English spoken locally consider them part of the [[Windward Islands]]. The Windward Islands are all of volcanic origin and hilly, leaving little ground suitable for [[agriculture]]. The highest point is [[Mount Scenery]], {{convert|887|m|ft|abbr=on}}, on [[Saba (island)|Saba]]. This is the highest point in the country and is also the highest point of the entire [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]].

==Government and politics==
{{Main|Politics of the Netherlands}}
[[File:Den Haag - panoramio - Nikolai Karaneschev.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Binnenhof]], where the lower and upper houses of the States General meet]]

The Netherlands has been a [[constitutional monarchy]] since 1815 and a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary democracy]] since 1848. The Netherlands is described as a [[consociational state]]. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues. The Netherlands was ranked as the 17th best electoral democracy in the world by [[V-Dem Democracy indices]] in 2023<ref name="vdem_dataset">Coppedge, Michael, John Gerring, Carl Henrik Knutsen, Staffan I. Lindberg, Jan Teorell, Nazifa Alizada, David Altman, Michael Bernhard, Agnes Cornell, M. Steven Fish, Lisa Gastaldi, Haakon Gjerløw, Adam Glynn, Allen Hicken, Garry Hindle, Nina Ilchenko, Joshua Krusell, Anna Lührmann, Seraphine F. Maerz, Kyle L. Marquardt, Kelly McMann, Valeriya Mechkova, Juraj Medzihorsky, Pamela Paxton, Daniel Pemstein, Josefine Pernes, Johannes von Römer, Brigitte Seim, Rachel Sigman, Svend-Erik Skaaning, Jeffrey Staton, Aksel Sundström, Eitan Tzelgov, Yi-ting Wang, Tore Wig, Steven Wilson and Daniel Ziblatt. 2021. "V-Dem [Country–Year/Country–Date] Dataset v11.1" Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project. https://doi.org/10.23696/vdemds21.</ref> and 9th most democratic country in the world by the [[Democracy Index|Democracy Index (The Economist)]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Democracy Index 2022: Frontline democracy and the battle for Ukraine |url=https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/DI-final-version-report.pdf |website=[[Economist Intelligence Unit]] |page=3 |language=en-GB}}</ref>

The [[Monarchy of the Netherlands|monarch]] is the [[head of state]], at present King [[Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands]]. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with limited powers. By law, the King has the right to be periodically briefed and consulted on government affairs.

{{multiple image
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| image1 = Zijne Majesteit Koning Willem-Alexander met koningsmantel april 2013 (cropped).jpeg
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| caption1 = [[Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands|Willem-Alexander]] [[Monarchy of the Netherlands|King of the Netherlands]] since 30 April 2013
| image2 = Mark Rutte, 23.03.23 (cropped).jpg
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| caption2 = [[Mark Rutte]] [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]] since 14 October 2010
}}
The [[Executive (government)|executive power]] is formed by the [[Council of Ministers (Netherlands)|Council of Ministers]], the deliberative organ of the [[Cabinet of the Netherlands|Dutch cabinet]]. The cabinet usually consists of 13 to 16 ministers and a varying number of [[State Secretary (Netherlands)|state secretaries]]. One to three ministers are [[Minister without portfolio|ministers without portfolio]]. The [[head of government]] is the [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]], who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. The Prime Minister is a ''[[primus inter pares]]'', with no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. [[Mark Rutte]] has been Prime Minister since October 2010.

The cabinet is [[Ministerial responsibility|responsible]] to the [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] [[parliament]], the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]], which also has [[Legislative|legislative powers]]. The 150 members of the [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|House of Representatives]], the [[lower house]], are elected in [[direct election]]s on the basis of [[party-list proportional representation]]. These are held every four years, or sooner in case the cabinet falls. The provincial assemblies, the [[States-Provincial|States Provincial]], are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the [[Senate (Netherlands)|Senate]], the [[upper house]], which has the power to reject laws, but not propose or amend them.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

===Political culture===
{{Main|Political parties of the Netherlands|Politics of the Netherlands}}

[[File:Red-light district of Amsterdam by day. 2012.JPG|thumb|[[De Wallen]], Amsterdam's red-light district offers activities such as legal [[Prostitution in the Netherlands|prostitution]], symbolizing the Dutch political culture and tradition of tolerance.]]

Both trade unions and [[employers organisation]]s are consulted in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with the government in the [[Social-Economic Council]].

The Netherlands has a tradition of [[Toleration|social tolerance]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Buruma|first=Ybo|date=2007|title=Dutch Tolerance: On Drugs, Prostitution, and Euthanasia|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/650185|journal=Crime and Justice|volume=35|issue=1|pages=73–113|doi=10.1086/650185|jstor=10.1086/650185|s2cid=144295342|issn=0192-3234}}</ref> In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of [[pillarisation]], in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Benjamin J. |url=https://brill.com/view/book/9789004353954/BP000009.xml |title="Dutch" Religious Tolerance: Celebration and Revision |date=5 September 2019 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-35395-4 |language=en}}</ref> Protection for [[LGBT rights in the Netherlands|LGBT]] and [[abortion]] rights are enshrined within the Netherlands' foreign aid policy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Feminist foreign policy explained |url=https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2022/11/18/feminist-foreign-policy-netherlands |website=Government of the Netherlands |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref>

No single party has held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, and as a result, [[coalition government|coalition cabinets]] had to be formed. Since suffrage became universal [[Pacification of 1917|in 1917]], the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: [[Christian democracy|Christian Democrats]] (currently the [[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]]), [[Social democracy|Social Democrats]] (currently the [[Labour Party (Netherlands)|PvdA]]), and [[Liberalism in the Netherlands|Liberals]] (currently the [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy|VVD]]). In March 2021, centre-right VVD of Prime Minister [[Mark Rutte]] was the winner of the [[2021 Netherlands general election|elections]], securing 34 out of 150 seats. The second biggest party was the centre-left D66 with 24 seats. [[Geert Wilders]]' far-right party lost support. Prime Minister Mark Rutte, in power since 2010, formed his fourth coalition government, the [[Fourth Rutte cabinet]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56436297 |title=Dutch election: PM Mark Rutte claims victory and fourth term |date=18 March 2021 |website=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of the Netherlands|Public body (Netherlands)}}
[[File:Map provinces Netherlands-en.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Provinces of the Netherlands|Provinces]] and [[Caribbean Netherlands#Administration|territories]] of the Netherlands]]

The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each under a [[King's Commissioner]]. All provinces are divided into [[Municipalities of the Netherlands|municipalities]] (''gemeenten''), of which there are 342 (2023).<ref name="CBS_code">{{cite web |url=https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/onze-diensten/methoden/classificaties/overig/gemeentelijke-indelingen-per-jaar/indeling-per-jaar/gemeentelijke-indeling-op-1-januari-2023 |title=Gemeentelijke indeling op 1 januari 2023 |trans-title=Municipalities on 1 January 2021 |language=nl |author= |work=CBS Classifications |publisher=[[Statistics Netherlands|CBS]] |access-date=16 January 2023}}</ref>

The country is also subdivided into 21 water districts, governed by a [[Water board (Netherlands)|water board]] (''waterschap'' or ''hoogheemraadschap''), each having authority in matters concerning water management.<ref name=WATER>{{cite web|url=http://www.uvw.nl/de-waterschappen.html |title=De waterschappen |language=nl |access-date=7 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103064157/http://www.uvw.nl/de-waterschappen.html |archive-date=3 November 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.waterschappen.nl/mijn-waterschap/ |title=Mijn waterschap |language=nl |access-date=6 May 2021}}</ref> The creation of water boards pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. The Dutch water boards are among the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Direct elections of the water boards take place every four years.

The administrative structure on the three BES islands, collectively known as the [[Caribbean Netherlands]], is outside the twelve provinces. These islands have the status of ''openbare lichamen ([[Public body (Netherlands)|public bodies]])''.<ref name=WOLBES>{{cite web|url=http://www.eerstekamer.nl/wetsvoorstel/31954_wet_openbare_lichamen|title=31.954, Wet openbare lichamen Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba|language=nl|publisher=Eerste kamer der Staten-Generaal|quote=De openbare lichamen vallen rechtstreeks onder het Rijk omdat zij geen deel uitmaken van een provincie. "Through the establishment of the BES islands as public bodies, rather than communities, the BES islands' rules may deviate from the rules in the European part of the Netherlands. The Dutch legislation will be introduced gradually. The public bodies fall directly under the central government because they are not part of a province."|access-date=15 October 2010}}</ref> In the Netherlands these administrative units are often referred to as ''special municipalities''.

Within the Dutch town of [[Baarle-Nassau]], are 22 Belgian [[Enclave and exclave|exclaves]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.exclave.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4&Itemid=10|title=Baarle-Hertog and Baarle Nassau|website=Exclave.eu|access-date=21 November 2016}}</ref> and within those are 8 Dutch [[Enclave and exclave|enclaves]].

{| style="background:none;" cellspacing="2"
|
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|- style="text-align:left;"
! style="width:40px;" class="unsortable"| Flag
! style="width:110px;"| Province
! style="width:120px;"| Capital
! style="width:100px;"| Largest city
! style="width:60px;"| Total area<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.waarstaatjeprovincie.nl/Paginas/Ruimtelijke%20ordening/Oppervlakte.aspx|title=Oppervlakte}}</ref>
! style="width:60px;"| Land area
! style="width:90px;"| Population<ref name="RegionalPop">{{cite web|url=https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/37230ned/table?dl=543D2|title=Bevolkingsontwikkeling; regio per maand|work=[[Statistics Netherlands]]|language=Dutch|accessdate=9 June 2021}}</ref> (November 2019)
! style="width:80px;"|Density
|-
|{{flagicon|Drenthe|size=27px}} || [[Drenthe]] || [[Assen]] || [[Emmen, Netherlands|Emmen]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|2680|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}||style="text-align:right"|{{convert|2634|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|493,449|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|188|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|-
| {{flagicon|Flevoland|size=27px}} || [[Flevoland]] || [[Lelystad]] || [[Almere]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|2413|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}||style="text-align:right"|{{convert|1413|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|422,202|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|299|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|-
| {{flagicon|Friesland|size=27px}} || [[Friesland]] ||colspan="2" | [[Leeuwarden]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|5749|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}||style="text-align:right"|{{convert|3324|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|649,988|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|196|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|-
| {{flagicon|Gelderland|size=27px}} || [[Gelderland]] || [[Arnhem]] || [[Nijmegen]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|5136|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}||style="text-align:right"|{{convert|4967|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|2,084,478|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|420|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|-
| {{flagicon|Groningen|size=27px}} || [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] || colspan="2" | [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|2960|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}||style="text-align:right"|{{convert|2325|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|585,881|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|252|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|-
| {{flagicon|Limburg (Netherlands)|size=27px}} || [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]] || colspan="2"| [[Maastricht]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|2210|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}||style="text-align:right"|{{convert|2148|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|1,118,223|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|521|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|-
| {{flagicon|North Brabant|size=27px}} || [[North Brabant]]|| [['s-Hertogenbosch]] || [[Eindhoven]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|5082|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}||style="text-align:right"|{{convert|4908|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|2,562,566|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|523|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|-
| {{flagicon|North Holland|size=27px}} || [[North Holland]] ||[[Haarlem]] || [[Amsterdam]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|4092|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}||style="text-align:right"|{{convert|2662|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|2,877,909|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|1082|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|-
| {{flagicon|Overijssel|size=27px}} || [[Overijssel]] || [[Zwolle]] || [[Enschede]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|3421|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}||style="text-align:right"|{{convert|3323|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|1,162,215|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|350|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|-
| {{flagicon|South Holland|size=27px}} || [[South Holland]] || [[The Hague]] || [[Rotterdam]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|3419|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}||style="text-align:right"|{{convert|2814|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|3,705,625|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|1317|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|-
| {{flagicon|Utrecht|size=27px}} || [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]] || colspan="2" | [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|1449|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}||style="text-align:right"|{{convert|1380|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|1,353,596|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|981|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|-
| {{flagicon|Zeeland|size=27px}} || [[Zeeland]] || colspan="2" |[[Middelburg, Zeeland|Middelburg]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|2934|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}||style="text-align:right"|{{convert|1783|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|383,689|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|216|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|- class="sortbottom" style="text-align:right"
! colspan="4"| Total
! {{convert|41545|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
! {{convert|33481|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
! 17,399,821
! {{convert|521|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|}
|}

{| style="background:none;" cellspacing="2"
|
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|- style="text-align:left"
! style="width:40px;" class="unsortable"| Flag
! style="width:110px;"| Name
! style="width:120px;"| Capital
! style="width:60px;"| Area<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/caribische-deel-van-het-koninkrijk/vraag-en-antwoord/waaruit-bestaat-het-koninkrijk-der-nederlanden|title=Waaruit bestaat het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden?|author=Ministerie van Algemene Zaken|date=19 May 2015|website=Rijksoverheid}}</ref>
! style="width:90px;"| Population<ref name="auto1"/> (January 2019)
! style="width:80px;"|Density
|-
| {{flagicon|Bonaire|size=27px}} || [[Bonaire]] || [[Kralendijk]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|294|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|20,104|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|69|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|-
| {{flagicon|Saba|size=27px}} || [[Saba (island)|Saba]] || [[The Bottom]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|13|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|1,915|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|148|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|-
| {{flagicon|Sint Eustatius|size=27px}} || [[Sint Eustatius]] || [[Oranjestad, Sint Eustatius|Oranjestad]] || style="text-align:right"|{{convert|21|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}|| style="text-align:right"|3,138|| style="text-align:right"|{{convert|150|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|- class="sortbottom"
! colspan="3" | Total
! style="text-align:right;"| {{convert|328|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
! style="text-align:right;"| 25,157
! style="text-align:right;"| {{convert|77|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on|sortable=on}}
|}
|}

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of the Netherlands|List of diplomatic missions of the Netherlands}}
[[File:International Court of Justice.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Peace Palace]] (''Vredespaleis''), in [[The Hague]]]]

The history of [[foreign relations of the Netherlands|Dutch foreign policy]] has been characterised by its [[neutral state|neutrality]]. Since World War II, the Netherlands has become a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, [[NATO]] and the EU.

The [[foreign policy]] of the Netherlands is based on four basic commitments: to [[atlanticism|Atlantic co-operation]], to [[European integration]], to [[international development]] and to [[international law]]. One of the more controversial international issues surrounding the Netherlands is its [[Drug policy of the Netherlands|liberal policy towards soft drugs]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Drug Kingpin Trial 'Ultimate Test' for Dutch Rule of Law |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/drug-kingpin-trial-ultimate-test-for-dutch-rule-of-law/6885306.html |access-date=18 July 2023 |agency=Agence France-Presse |publisher=VOA |date=21 December 2022}}</ref>

The historical ties inherited from its colonial past in [[Indonesia]] and [[Suriname]] still influence the foreign relations of the Netherlands. In addition, many people from these countries are living permanently in the Netherlands.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

===Military===
{{Main|Armed forces of the Netherlands}}
[[File:Portretfoto_Onno_Eichelsheim.jpg|thumb|General [[Onno Eichelsheim]] is the current [[Chief of Defence (Netherlands)|Chief of Defence]].]]
[[File:HNLMS Holland.jpg|thumb|''Zr. Ms. Holland'', a [[Royal Netherlands Navy]] [[offshore patrol vessel]]]]
The Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in Europe; it was first established in the late 1500s. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a [[conscription]] army. The Netherlands abandoned its neutrality in 1948 when it signed the [[Treaty of Brussels]], and became a founding member of [[NATO]] in 1949. The Dutch military was therefore part of the NATO strength in [[Cold War]] Europe. In 1983 the (ceremonial) function of commander of chief of the monarch was transferred to the government, which means the monarch (nominal head of state) has not formal military function. In 1996 conscription was suspended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the [[Bosnian War]] and the [[Kosovo War]], it held a province in [[Iraq]] after the defeat of [[Saddam Hussein]], and it was engaged in [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Afghanistan]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} The Netherlands has ratified many international conventions concerning [[International humanitarian law|war law]]. The Netherlands decided not to sign the UN [[treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Red Cross urges Netherlands to sign UN nuclear weapons ban |url=https://nltimes.nl/2019/02/11/red-cross-urges-netherlands-sign-un-nuclear-weapons-ban |work=NL Times |date=11 February 2019}}</ref>

The military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix ''Koninklijke'' (Royal):

* ''Koninklijke Marine'' (KM), the [[Royal Netherlands Navy]], including the Naval Air Service and Marine Corps;
* ''Koninklijke Landmacht'' (KL), the [[Royal Netherlands Army]];
* ''Koninklijke Luchtmacht'' (KLu), the [[Royal Netherlands Air Force]];
* ''Koninklijke Marechaussee'' (KMar), the [[Royal Marechaussee]] (Military Police), tasks include military police and border control.

The submarine service opened to women on 1 January 2017. The [[Korps Commandotroepen]], the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is almost impossible for a woman to become a commando.<ref>[http://www.korpscommandotroepen.nl/index.php?l=nl&p=118 KCT. Official website of the Dutch Commando Foundation] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205094656/http://www.korpscommandotroepen.nl/index.php?l=nl&p=118 |date=5 February 2011 }}. Korpscommandotroepen.nl (14 April 2010). Retrieved on 21 August 2012.</ref> The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs more than 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilians and over 50,000 military personnel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defensie.nl/onderwerpen/werken_bij_defensie |title=Ministerie van defensie – Werken bij Defensie |publisher=Mindef.nl |access-date=29 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811142105/http://www.defensie.nl/onderwerpen/werken_bij_defensie |archive-date=11 August 2011 }}</ref>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of the Netherlands}}
[[File:Economic growth of the Netherlands.jpg|thumb|Historical GDP per capita development ([[Our World in Data]])]]

Since the 16th century, shipping, fishing, agriculture, trade, and banking have been leading sectors of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has a [[List of countries by economic freedom|high level of economic freedom]]. The Netherlands is one of the top countries in the [[Global Enabling Trade Report]] (2nd in 2016), and was ranked the fifth most competitive economy in the world by the Swiss [[International Institute for Management Development]] in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |first= |date=4 June 2017 |title=The 2017 IMD World Competitiveness Ranking |url=http://www.imd.org/globalassets/wcc/docs/release-2017/2017-world_competitiveness_ranking.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170604200349/http://www.imd.org/globalassets/wcc/docs/release-2017/2017-world_competitiveness_ranking.pdf |archive-date=4 June 2017 |access-date=3 August 2017}}</ref> In addition, the country was ranked the 5th most innovative nation in the world in the 2022 [[Global Innovation Index]] down from 2nd in 2018.<ref>{{Cite book |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |access-date=17 November 2022 |website=wipo.int |year=2022 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |isbn=9789280534320 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Cornell University, INSEAD, and WIPO (2018): The Global Innovation Index 2018: Energizing the World with Innovation. Ithaca, Fontainebleau and Geneva</ref>

{{As of|2020}}, the key trading partners of the Netherlands were Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Italy, China and Russia.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/netherlands/ Netherlands]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].</ref> The Netherlands is one of the world's 10 leading exporting countries. Foodstuffs form the largest industrial sector. Other major industries include chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, trade, services and tourism. Examples of international Dutch companies operating in the Netherlands include [[Randstad Holding|Randstad]], [[Heineken International|Heineken]], [[KLM]], financial services ([[ING Group|ING]], [[ABN AMRO]], [[Rabobank]]), chemicals ([[DSM (company)|DSM]], [[AkzoNobel|AKZO]]), petroleum refining ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), electronic machinery ([[Philips]], [[ASML Holding|ASML]]), and satellite navigation ([[TomTom]]).

The Netherlands has the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|17th-largest economy in the world]], and [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|ranks 11th in GDP (nominal) per capita]]. The Netherlands has low income inequality, but wealth inequality is relatively high.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bavel |first1=Bas Van |last2=Frankema |first2=Ewout |date=22 June 2017 |title=Wealth Inequality in the Netherlands, c. 1950-2015. The Paradox of a Northern European Welfare State |url=https://tseg.nl/article/view/8184 |journal=TSEG - the Low Countries Journal of Social and Economic History |language=en |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=29–62 |doi=10.18352/tseg.916 |issn=2468-9068}}</ref> Despite ranking 11th in [[GDP per capita]], [[UNICEF]] ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being in rich countries, both in 2007 and in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/why-dutch-kids-are-the-happiest-in-the-world-2017-04-05 |title=This is why Dutch kids are much happier than American children|first=Barbara |last= Chai|website=Marketwatch.com|access-date=3 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/media/files/ChildPovertyReport.pdf|title=Child Poverty in Perspective: An overview of child well-being in rich countries|date=2007|work=unicef.org|access-date=14 September 2007|archive-date=3 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903184146/https://www.unicef.org/media/files/ChildPovertyReport.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/rc11_eng.pdf |title=Child well-being in rich countries — UNICEF, 2013|website=Unicef-irc.org|access-date=3 August 2017}}</ref>

[[Amsterdam]] is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands.<ref name="ez">{{cite web|url=http://www.ez.amsterdam.nl/page.php?menu=24&page=6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205161807/http://www.ez.amsterdam.nl/page.php?menu=24&page=6 |archive-date=5 December 2008 |title=Amsterdam – Economische Zaken |language=nl |access-date=22 May 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Amsterdam Stock Exchange]] (AEX), part of [[Euronext]], is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. As a founding member of the [[euro]], the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the "gulden" ([[Dutch guilder|guilder]]), on 1 January 1999. Actual [[euro coins]] and [[Euro banknotes|banknotes]] followed on 1 January 2002. One euro was equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. In the [[Caribbean Netherlands]], the [[United States dollar]] is used instead.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Memorie van toelichting - Regels met betrekking tot het geldstelsel van de openbare lichamen Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba (Wet geldstelsel BES) - Parlementaire monitor |url=https://www.parlementairemonitor.nl/9353000/1/j9vvij5epmj1ey0/viahe0d72fyt |access-date=28 January 2023 |website=parlementairemonitor.nl}}</ref> The Netherlands is a "conduit country" that helps to funnel profits from high-tax countries to tax havens.<ref>{{cite web |last=Schindler |first=Dirk |date=January 28, 2022 |title=Is the Netherlands Still a Tax Haven? |url=https://www.eur.nl/en/news/netherlands-still-tax-haven |access-date=April 2, 2023 |website=Erasmus University Rotterdam |quote=}}</ref> It has been ranked as the 4th largest tax haven in the world.<ref>{{cite web |author= |date=2021 |title=Corporate Tax Haven Index |url=https://cthi.taxjustice.net/en/cthi/cthi-2021-results |access-date=April 2, 2023 |website=Tax Justice Network |quote=}}</ref>

[[File:BlueEurozone.svg|thumb|left|The Netherlands is part of a monetary union, the [[Eurozone]] (dark blue), and the [[Internal Market (European Union)|EU single market]].]]
The Dutch location gives it prime access to markets in the United Kingdom and Germany, with the [[Port of Rotterdam]] being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are [[international trade]], banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th-busiest tourist destination in Europe, with more than 4.2 million international visitors.<ref name="42milvisitors">{{cite web|url=http://www.ez.amsterdam.nl/page.php?page=9&menu=27 |title=Amsterdam en de wereld: Toerisme en congreswezen |access-date=15 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215160103/http://www.ez.amsterdam.nl/page.php?page=9&menu=27 |archive-date=15 February 2009 }}. ez.amsterdam.nl</ref> Since the enlargement of the EU, large numbers of [[migrant worker]]s have arrived in the Netherlands from [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-dutch-immigrants-idUKTRE8191ML20120210 |title= Dutch allow Wilders' anti-Pole website, EU critical | work= Reuters | date=10 February 2012 |first=Gilbert |last=Kreijger}}</ref>

The Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005, but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. The Netherlands is the fourth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the [[World Economic Forum]]'s [[Global Competitiveness Report]].<ref name="wefcomp">{{cite web|url=http://www.weforum.org/issues/global-competitiveness |title=Global Competitiveness Report 2012–2013 |publisher=World Economic Forum |date=5 September 2012 |access-date=11 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210040419/http://www.weforum.org/issues/global-competitiveness |archive-date=10 December 2014}}</ref>

===Energy===
[[File:Natural gas NL.png|thumb|Natural gas concessions in the Netherlands. The Netherlands accounts for more than 25% of all natural gas reserves in the EU.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}]]
[[File:Wildervank natural gas field.jpg|thumb|The [[Groningen gas field]], whose discovery in 1959 transformed the Dutch economy, is one of the largest [[natural-gas field]]s in the world]]

Beginning in the 1950s, the Netherlands discovered huge natural gas resources. The sale of natural gas generated enormous revenues for the Netherlands for decades, adding, over sixty years, hundreds of billions of euros to the government's budget.<ref name="vorige.nrc.nl">{{cite news|url=http://vorige.nrc.nl//international/article2274261.ece/The_Dutch_curse_how_billions_from_natural_gas_went_up_in_smoke|title=The Dutch curse: how billions from natural gas went up in smoke|date=17 June 2009|newspaper=[[NRC Handelsblad]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221000129/http://vorige.nrc.nl//international/article2274261.ece/The_Dutch_curse_how_billions_from_natural_gas_went_up_in_smoke |archive-date=21 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, the unforeseen consequences of the country's huge energy wealth impacted the competitiveness of other sectors of the economy, leading to the theory of [[Dutch disease]].<ref name="vorige.nrc.nl"/> The field is operated by government-owned Gasunie and output is jointly exploited by the government, Royal Dutch Shell, and ExxonMobil. Gas production caused [[earthquake]]s which damaged housing. After a large public backlash, the government decided to phase out gas production from the field.<ref name=":4">{{cite report|title=The Netherlands 2020: Energy Policy Review|publisher=[[International Energy Agency]]|date=September 2020|url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/93f03b36-64a9-4366-9d5f-0261d73d68b3/The_Netherlands_2020_Energy_Policy_Review.pdf|page=11}}</ref>

The Netherlands has made notable progress in its [[Energy transition|transition]] to a [[carbon-neutral economy]]. Thanks to increasing [[Energy conservation|energy efficiency]], energy demand shows signs of decoupling from economic growth. The share of energy from [[Renewable energy|renewable sources]] doubled from 2008 to 2019, with especially strong growth in [[Offshore wind power|offshore wind]] and [[Rooftop solar power|rooftop solar]]. However, the Netherlands remains heavily reliant on fossil fuels and has a concentration of energy- and emission-intensive industries that will not be easy to decarbonise. Its [[Klimaatakkoord|2019 Climate Agreement]] defines policies and measures to support the achievement of Dutch climate targets and was developed through a collaborative process involving parties from across Dutch society.<ref>{{cite report|title=The Netherlands 2020: Energy Policy Review|publisher=[[International Energy Agency]]|date=September 2020|url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/93f03b36-64a9-4366-9d5f-0261d73d68b3/The_Netherlands_2020_Energy_Policy_Review.pdf|page=3}} [[File:CC BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> As of 2018, the Netherlands had one of the highest rates of [[carbon dioxide]] emissions per person in the European Union.<ref>{{cite web |date=2018 |title=Fossil CO2 emissions of all world countries – 2018 Report |url=https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/fossil-co2-emissions-all-world-countries-2018-report |access-date=21 October 2019 |work=EU Science Hub}}</ref>

===Agriculture and natural resources===

The Netherlands' [[biocapacity]] totals only 0.8 global hectares per person in 2016, 0.2 of which are dedicated to agriculture.<ref name=footprintdata>{{cite web|url=http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=150&type=BCpc,EFCpc|title=Country Trends|publisher=Global Footprint Network|access-date= 15 November 2019}}</ref> The Dutch biocapacity per person is just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person available worldwide.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=David|last2=Hanscom|first2=Laurel|last3=Murthy|first3=Adeline|last4=Galli|first4=Alessandro|last5=Evans|first5=Mikel|last6=Neill|first6=Evan|last7=Mancini|first7=Maria Serena|last8=Martindill|first8=Jon|last9=Medouar|first9=Fatime-Zahra|last10=Huang|first10=Shiyu|last11=Wackernagel|first11=Mathis|date=2018|title=Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012–2018|journal=Resources|language=en|volume=7|issue=3|pages=58|doi=10.3390/resources7030058|doi-access=free}}</ref> In contrast, in 2016, the Dutch used on average 4.8 global hectares of biocapacity - their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. As a result, the Netherlands was running a biocapacity deficit of 4.0 global hectares per person in 2016.<ref name=footprintdata/> In addition, the Dutch waste more food than any other EU citizen, at over three times the EU average.<ref>{{cite web |date=2017 |title=Food waste: the problem in the EU in numbers |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/society/20170505STO73528/food-waste-the-problem-in-the-eu-in-numbers-infographic |access-date=18 January 2021 |work=EU parliament}}</ref>

The Dutch agricultural sector is highly mechanised, and has a strong focus on international exports. It employs about 4% of the Dutch labour force but produces large surpluses in the food-processing industry and accounts for 21% of the Dutch total export value.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hollandalumni.nl/files/documents/career/factsheets-key-sectors/factsheet-agri-food|title=Factsheet Agri-food: Holland is a world-leading supplier of sustainable, healthy, agri-food products|website=Hollandalumni.nl|access-date=3 August 2017|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010141804/https://www.hollandalumni.nl/files/documents/career/factsheets-key-sectors/factsheet-agri-food|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Dutch rank first in the European Union and second worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind only the United States,<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Farming in the Netherlands: Polder and wiser |url=https://www.economist.com/news/business/21613356-dutch-farmers-add-sustainability-their-enviable-productivity-polder-and-wiser |newspaper=The Economist |location=Sevenum |date=23 August 2014 |access-date=29 August 2014}}</ref> with agricultural exports earning €80.7 billion in 2014,<ref name="government.nl">{{cite web|url=http://www.government.nl/news/2015/01/16/dutch-agricultural-exports-top-80-billion-euros.html |title=Dutch agricultural exports top 80 billion Euros |date=16 January 2015 }}</ref> up from €75.4 billion in 2012.<ref name="hollandtrade.com"/> In 2019 agricultural exports were worth €94.5 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2020/01/17/dutch-agricultural-exports-worth-%E2%82%AC94.5-billion-in-2019|title=Dutch agricultural exports worth €94.5 billion in 2019 |first=Natuur en Voedselkwaliteit|last=Ministerie van Landbouw|date=17 January 2020|website=government.nl}}</ref> In an effort to reduce [[agricultural pollution]], the Dutch government is imposing strict limits on the productivity of the farming sector, triggering [[Dutch farmers' protests]].<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://www.nujournal.com/news/agribusiness/2022/07/08/explainer-why-are-dutch-farmers-protesting-over-emissions/
| title = Why are Dutch farmers protesting over emissions?
| last = Corder
| first = Mike
| date = 8 July 2022
| website = The Journal
| access-date = 8 July 2022}}</ref>

One-third of the world's exports of [[Capsicum|chilis]], [[tomato]]es, and [[cucumber]]s go through the country. The Netherlands also exports one-fifteenth of the world's apples.<ref name="USDA Foreign Agriculture Service"/> A significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports consists of fresh-cut plants, flowers, and flower bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total.<ref name="USDA Foreign Agriculture Service">{{cite web|url = http://www.fas.usda.gov/gainfiles/200501/146118432.pdf#search=%22netherlands%20main%20agriculture%20export%20flowers%22|title = Netherlands: Agricultural situation|access-date = 20 June 2007|publisher = USDA Foreign Agriculture Service|archive-date = 19 June 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070619213352/http://www.fas.usda.gov/gainfiles/200501/146118432.pdf#search=%22netherlands%20main%20agriculture%20export%20flowers%22|url-status = dead}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demography of the Netherlands|Dutch people}}
The Netherlands had an estimated population of 17,493,969 as of 30 April 2021.<ref name="RegionalPop"/> It is the [[Area and population of European countries|5th most densely populated]] country in Europe and the [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by population density|16th most densely populated]] country in the world with a density of {{convert|424|/km2}}. Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population almost doubled from 5.1 to 10 million. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased, to 15.9 million.<ref>[http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLEN&PA=37556ENG&D1=0-44,53-60&D2=1,11,21,31,41,51,61,71,81,91,101&LA=EN&VW=T CBS Statline – Population; history]. [[Statistics Netherlands]]. Retrieved on 8 March 2009.</ref>

The [[fertility rate]] in the Netherlands is 1.78 children per woman (2018 estimate),<ref name="cia-worldfactbook-nl">{{cite web |title=The World Factbook – Netherlands |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/netherlands/ |access-date=2 February 2021 |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> which is high compared with many other European countries, but [[sub-replacement fertility|below the rate of 2.1 children per woman required for natural population replacement]].<ref>{{citation|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=ITA|title=Total Fertility Rate around the world over the last centuries|author=Max Roser|date=2014|work=[[Our World In Data]], [[Gapminder Foundation]]|access-date=7 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180807185906/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=ITA|archive-date=7 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Netherlands has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 42.7 years.<ref name="cia-worldfactbook-nl"/> [[Life expectancy]] is high in the Netherlands: 84.3 years for newborn girls and 79.7 for boys (2020 estimate).<ref name="cia-worldfactbook-nl"/> The Dutch are the [[Average human height by country|tallest people in the world]], by nationality,<ref name="Science 2015-04-07">{{cite news |last=Enserink |first=Martin |date=7 April 2015 |title=Did natural selection make the Dutch the tallest people on the planet? |newspaper=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |location=Amsterdam |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/did-natural-selection-make-dutch-tallest-people-planet |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> with an average [[Human height|height]] of {{convert|1.81|m|ftin|1|abbr=out}} for men and {{convert|1.67|m|ftin|1|abbr=out}} for women in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |title=Reported health and lifestyle |url=http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?VW=T&DM=SLNL&PA=03799&D1=242,254,267-270&D2=0-17&HD=081103-1603&HDR=T.&STB=G1 |access-date=12 August 2012 |publisher=Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek}}</ref> The average height of young men in the Netherlands increased from 5 feet, 4 inches to approximately 6 feet between the 1850s until the early 2000s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fogel |first=Robert |title=The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700—2100 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |pages=41 |language=English}}</ref>

The country has a [[Human migration|migration]] rate of 1.9 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year.<ref name="cia-worldfactbook-nl" /> The majority of the population of the Netherlands is ethnically [[Dutch people|Dutch]]. In 2022, the population was 74.8% ethnically Dutch, 8.3% other European, 2.4% [[Turkish-Dutch|Turkish]], 2.4% [[Morocco|Moroccan]], 2.0% [[Indonesia]]n, 2.0% [[Surinamese people|Surinamese]], and 8.1% others.<ref name="auto"/> Some 150,000 to 200,000 people living in the Netherlands are [[expatriate]]s, mostly concentrated in and around [[Amsterdam]] and [[The Hague]], now constituting almost 10% of the population of these cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.verhurenaanexpats.nl/verhuren-aan-expats/expats-de-feiten/|title=Expats in Nederland|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019004614/http://www.verhurenaanexpats.nl/verhuren-aan-expats/expats-de-feiten/|archive-date=19 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onsamsterdam.nl/tijdschrift/jaargang-2011/1158-nummer-11-12-november-december-2011.html?start=4|title=Feiten en cijfers over immigratie – Pagina 5|work=Ons Amsterdam}}</ref>

[[File:Grote drukte zomercarnaval Rotterdam.jpg|thumb|In [[Rotterdam]] almost half the population has an immigrant background.]]
According to [[Eurostat]], in 2010 there were 1.8 million [[Foreign born|foreign-born residents]] in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1.4 million (8.5%) were born outside the EU and 0.43 million (2.6%) were born in another EU Member State.<ref>Vasileva, Katya (2011) [http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-SF-11-034/EN/KS-SF-11-034-EN.PDF 6.5% of the EU population are foreigners and 9.4% are born abroad] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128101046/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-SF-11-034/EN/KS-SF-11-034-EN.PDF |date=28 January 2012 }}, Eurostat, Statistics in focus vol. 34.</ref> On 21 November 2016, there were 3.8 million residents in the Netherlands with at least one foreign-born parent.<ref>"[https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/news/2016/47/migration-background-still-plays-a-role Migration background still plays a role]". Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (CBS). 21 November 2016.</ref> Over half the young people in Amsterdam and Rotterdam have a non-western background.<ref>"[https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/news/2006/31/half-of-young-big-city-dwellers-have-non-western-background Half of young big-city dwellers have non-western background]". Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (CBS). 1 August 2006.</ref> Dutch people, or [[Dutch diaspora|descendants of Dutch people]], are also found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in [[South Africa]] and the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite web |author=American FactFinder, United States Census Bureau |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_%2526amp%253B-_lang%253Den%2526amp%253B-_caller%253Dgeoselect%2526amp%253B-format%253D |title=Census 2006 ACS Ancestry estimates |publisher=Factfinder.census.gov |access-date=29 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428095854/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_&amp%3B-_lang=en&amp%3B-_caller=geoselect&amp%3B-format= |archive-date=28 April 2011 }}</ref><ref>[http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/49.htm South Africa – Afrikaans Speakers]. ''Library of Congress.''</ref>

The [[Randstad]] is the country's largest [[conurbation]] located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: [[Amsterdam]] in the province [[North Holland]], [[Rotterdam]] and [[The Hague]] in the province [[South Holland]], and [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] in the province [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]]. The Randstad has a population of about 8.2 million inhabitants<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/03759ned/table?dl=DA8F|title=CBS Statline|website=opendata.cbs.nl}}</ref> and is the [[List of metropolitan areas in Europe by population|5th largest]] [[metropolitan area]] in Europe. According to Dutch Central Statistics Bureau, in 2015, 28 per cent of the Dutch population had a spendable income above 45,000 euros (which does not include spending on health care or education).<ref>{{cite web|title = CBS – Income distribution – Extra|url = http://www.cbs.nl/en-GB/menu/themas/inkomen-bestedingen/cijfers/extra/inkomensverdeling.htm|website = www.cbs.nl|access-date = 15 September 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150930184435/http://www.cbs.nl/en-GB/menu/themas/inkomen-bestedingen/cijfers/extra/inkomensverdeling.htm|archive-date = 30 September 2015|df = dmy-all}}</ref>

{{Largest cities of the Netherlands}}

===Language===
{{Main|Languages of the Netherlands}}
[[File:Foreign languages Netherlands, 2005.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Knowledge of foreign languages in the Netherlands, among population 15 and older, in 2006<ref>Data taken from an EU survey. [http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf ebs_243_en.pdf] (europa.eu)</ref>]]
The official language of the Netherlands is [[Dutch language|Dutch]], which is spoken by the vast majority of inhabitants. The dialects most spoken in the Netherlands are the [[Brabantian]]-[[Hollandic]] dialects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taalcanon.nl/vragen/hoeveel-dialecten-heeft-het-nederlands/ |title=Hoeveel dialecten heeft het Nederlands? | Taalcanon |publisher=Taalcanon.nl |access-date=23 April 2014}}</ref>

Besides Dutch, [[West Frisian language|West Frisian]] is recognised as a second official language in the northern province of [[Friesland]] (''Fryslân'' in West Frisian).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/erkende-talen/talen-in-nederland |title=Talen in Nederland – Erkende talen |publisher=rijksoverheid.nl |access-date=12 August 2014}}</ref> West Frisian has a formal status for government correspondence in that province. Four other languages are protected under the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Languages |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/2021/field/languages/ |access-date=8 January 2023 |website=CIA – The World Factbook}}</ref> The first of these recognised regional languages is [[Dutch Low Saxon|Low Saxon]] (''Nedersaksisch'' in Dutch). Low Saxon consists of several dialects of the [[Low German]] language spoken in the north and east of the Netherlands, like [[Tweants]] in the region of [[Twente]], and [[Drents]] in the province of [[Drenthe]].

[[Limburgish]] is also recognised as a regional language. It consists of Dutch varieties of [[Meuse-Rhenish]] [[Franconian languages]] and is spoken in the south-eastern province of [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]].<ref name="international2000" /> [[Yiddish]] and the [[Romani language]] were recognised in 1996 as non-territorial languages.<ref name=":3">"The Kingdom of the Netherlands further declares that the principles enumerated in Part II of the Charter will be applied to the Lower-Saxon languages used in the Netherlands, and, in accordance with Article 7, paragraph 5, to Yiddish and the Romanes languages." [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=148&CM=8&DF=23/01/05&CL=ENG&VL=1 Netherlands: Declaration contained in the instrument of acceptance, deposited on 2 May 1996 – Or. Engl.], List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148 – [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]</ref>

[[English in the Netherlands|English]] has a formal status in the special municipalities of [[Saba (island)|Saba]] and [[Sint Eustatius]]. It is widely spoken on these islands. [[Papiamento]] has a formal status in the special municipality of [[Bonaire]].<ref name=":3" />

The Netherlands has a long tradition of learning foreign languages, formalised in Dutch education laws. Some 90% of the total population [[English in the Netherlands|are able to converse in English]], 70% in German, and 29% in French.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_237.en.pdf|title=European Union survey|website=Ec.europa.eu|access-date=3 August 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070128095746/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_237.en.pdf|archive-date=28 January 2007}}</ref> English is a mandatory course in all secondary schools.<ref name="rijksoverheid">{{cite web|title=Foreign languages in secondary education |work=Wat is het aanbod aan vreemde talen in de onderbouw van het voortgezet onderwijs (vo)? |publisher=Rijksoverheid |url=http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/documenten-en-publicaties/vragen-en-antwoorden/wat-is-het-aanbod-aan-vreemde-talen-in-de-onderbouw-van-het-voortgezet-onderwijs-vo.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429185145/http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/documenten-en-publicaties/vragen-en-antwoorden/wat-is-het-aanbod-aan-vreemde-talen-in-de-onderbouw-van-het-voortgezet-onderwijs-vo.html |archive-date=29 April 2011 |access-date=3 May 2010 |url-status=dead |language=nl}}</ref> In most lower level secondary school educations ([[voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs|vmbo]]), one additional modern foreign language is mandatory during the first two years.<ref name="Schedule of the Central Exams of 2009">[http://www.examenblad.nl/9336000/1/j9vvhinitagymgn_m7mvh57glpdohx6_n11vg41h1h4i9qe/vhl5jftd1sx8 Schedule of the Central Exams of 2009], Examenblad</ref> In higher level secondary schools ([[Hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs|havo]] and [[Voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs|vwo]]), the acquisition of two additional modern foreign language skills is mandatory. Besides English, the standard modern languages are [[French language|French]] and [[German language|German]], although schools can replace one of these with [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]] or [[Arabic]].<ref name="Examenblad talen vwo 2019">[https://www.examenblad.nl/item/talen/2019?sectorid=vg41h1h4i9qe Examenblad talen, vwo in 2019], Examenblad</ref> Additionally, schools in Friesland teach and have exams in [[West Frisian language|West Frisian]],<ref>{{Cite web |author=Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties |date=14 July 2020 |title=De Friese taal - Erkende talen - Rijksoverheid.nl |url=https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/erkende-talen/de-friese-taal |access-date=8 January 2023 |website=rijksoverheid.nl |language=nl-NL}}</ref> and secondary schools (called [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]]) across the country teach [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Latin]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in the Netherlands}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religious identification in the Netherlands (2020)<ref name="cbs2021" />
|label1 = [[Irreligious]]
|value1 = 55.4
|color1 = Gray
|label2 = [[Catholic]]
|value2 = 19.8
|color2 = Purple
|label3 = [[Protestant]]
|value3 = 14.4
|color3 = DarkBlue
|label4 = [[Islam in the Netherlands|Muslim]]
|value4 = 5.2
|color4 = Darkgreen
|label5 = Other
|value5 = 5.1
|color5 = Gold
}}
Forms of Christianity have dominated religious life in what is now the Netherlands for more than 1,200 years,<ref>Milis, L.J.R., "A Long Beginning: The Low Countries Through the Tenth Century" in J.C.H. Blom & E. Lamberts ''History of the Low Countries'', pp. 6–18, Berghahn Books, 1999. {{ISBN|978-1-84545-272-8}}</ref> and by the middle of the sixteenth century the country was strongly Protestant ([[Calvinist]]).{{sfn|Israel|1995|pp=361–395}} The population was predominantly [[Christianity|Christian]] until the late 20th century.<ref name=Creationism>{{cite book|last=Numbers|first=Ronald L.|year=2014|isbn= 9781421415628|title=Creationism in Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uSuhBQAAQBAJ&q=netherlands+protestant+country&pg=PA65|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press}}</ref> Although significant religious diversity remains, there has been a decline of religious adherence. The Netherlands is now one of the most [[secular]] societies in the world.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

In 2020, [[Statistics Netherlands]] found that 55% of the total population declared itself [[non-religious]]. Groups that represent the non-religious in the Netherlands include [[Humanistisch Verbond]]. [[Catholic]]s comprised 19.8% of the total population, [[Protestants]] (14.4%). [[Muslim]]s comprised 5.2% of the total population and followers of other Christian denominations and other religions (like [[Judaism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]]) comprised the remaining 5.1%.<ref name="cbs2021"/> A 2015 survey from another source found that Protestants outnumbered Catholics.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1177/0021140019872340|title = The Challenge of a Church Going into Liquidation|year = 2019|last1 = De Groot|first1 = Kees|journal = Irish Theological Quarterly|volume = 84|issue = 4|pages = 409–423|s2cid = 220161067|doi-access = free}}</ref>

The southern provinces of [[North Brabant]] and [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]] have historically been strongly Catholic, and some residents consider the Catholic Church as a base for their [[Cultural Christian|cultural identity]]. Protestantism in the Netherlands consists of a number of churches within various traditions. The largest of these is the [[Protestant Church in the Netherlands]] (PKN), a [[United and uniting churches|united]] church which is [[Calvinist]] and [[Lutheran]] in orientation.<ref name="CBS 2009">{{cite news |url=http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37944&D1=0-5,10&D2=29-40&VW=T |title=Kerkelijke gezindte en kerkbezoek; vanaf 1849; 18 jaar of ouder |date=15 October 2010}}</ref> It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the [[Dutch Reformed Church]], the [[Reformed Churches in the Netherlands]] and [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands|a smaller Lutheran Church]]. Several orthodox Calvinist and liberal churches did not merge into the PKN. Although in the Netherlands as a whole Christianity has become a minority, the Netherlands contains a [[Bible Belt (Netherlands)|Bible Belt]] from [[Zeeland]] to the northern parts of the province [[Overijssel]], in which Protestant (particularly Calvinist) beliefs remain strong, and even has majorities in municipal councils{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays ([[Christmas]], [[Easter]], [[Pentecost]], and the [[Ascension of Jesus]]).<ref name="auto3">{{cite web|url=http://www.beleven.org/feesten/lijsten/landen.php?land=Nederland |title=Feestdagen Nederland |publisher=Beleven.org |access-date=27 January 2010}}</ref>

[[Islam]] is the second largest religion in the state.<ref name=CBS2>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbs.nl/nl-NL/menu/themas/vrije-tijd-cultuur/publicaties/artikelen/archief/2012/2012-3759-wm.htm|title=Een op de zes bezoekt regelmatig kerk of moskee|work=Central Bureau of Statistics, Netherlands|year=2012|access-date=30 March 2014}}</ref> The Muslim population increased from the 1960 as a result of large numbers of [[Demography of the Netherlands#Migration and ethnicity|migrant workers]]. This included migrant workers from [[Turkey]] and [[Morocco]], as well as migrants from former [[Dutch Empire|Dutch colonies]], such as [[Surinam (Dutch colony)|Surinam]] and [[Indonesia]]. During the 1990s, [[Muslim refugees]] arrived from countries like [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Somalia]], and [[Afghanistan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scp.nl/publicaties/boeken/9037702597/Godsdienstige_veranderingen.pdf |title=Godsdienstige veranderingen in Nederland |access-date=17 May 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070125142251/http://www.scp.nl/publicaties/boeken/9037702597/Godsdienstige_veranderingen.pdf |archive-date = 25 January 2007}}</ref> Since 2000 there has been raised awareness of religion, mainly due to [[Muslim extremism]].<ref>Knippenberg, Hans "The Changing Religious Landscape of Europe" edited by Knippenberg published by Het Spinhuis, Amsterdam 2005 {{ISBN|978-90-5589-248-8}}, pages 102–104</ref>

Another religion practised is [[Hinduism]], with around 215,000 adherents (slightly over 1% of the population). Most of these are [[Indo-Surinamese]]. There are also sizeable populations of Hindu immigrants from [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]], and some Western adherents of [[Hinduism in the West|Hinduism-orientated new religious movements]] such as [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishnas]]. The Netherlands has an estimated 250,000 [[Buddhism in the Netherlands|Buddhists]] or people strongly attracted to this religion, mainly ethnic Dutch people. In addition, there are about 45,000 [[History of the Jews in the Netherlands|Jews]] in the Netherlands.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

The Constitution of the Netherlands guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Catholic and Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament, ([[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]], and two small parties, [[ChristianUnion]] and [[Reformed Political Party|SGP]]) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, [[Pentecost]] and the [[Ascension of Jesus]]).<ref name="auto3"/>

A survey in December 2014 concluded that for the first time there were more atheists (25%) than theists (17%) in the Netherlands, while the remainder of the population was agnostic (31%) or [[ietsism|ietsistic]] (27%).<ref name="trouw.nl">{{cite news|last1=van Beek|first1=Marije|title=Ongelovigen halen de gelovigen in|url=http://www.trouw.nl/tr/nl/5091/Religie/article/detail/3830831/2015/01/16/Ongelovigen-halen-de-gelovigen-in.dhtml|access-date=21 April 2015|work=Dossier Relige|publisher=der Verdieping Trouw|date=16 January 2015}}</ref> In 2015, a vast majority of the inhabitants of the Netherlands (82%) said they had never or almost never visited a church, and 59% stated that they had never been to a church. Of all the people questioned, 24% saw themselves as atheist, an increase of 11% compared to the previous study done in 2006.<ref name="BerntsA">{{cite book|last1=Bernts|first1=Tom|last2=Berghuijs|first2=Joantine|title=God in Nederland 1966–2015|date=2016|publisher=Ten Have|isbn=978-90-259-0524-8}}</ref> The expected rise of spirituality has come to a halt according to research in 2015. In 2006, 40% of respondents considered themselves spiritual; in 2015 this has dropped to 31%. The number who believed in the existence of a higher power fell from 36% to 28% over the same period.<ref name="nos.nl">{{cite news|title=Hoe God (bijna) verdween uit Nederland|url=http://nos.nl/artikel/2092498-hoe-god-bijna-verdween-uit-nederland.html|access-date=3 April 2016|publisher=NOS|date=13 March 2016}}</ref>

===Education===
{{Main|Education in the Netherlands|Universities in the Netherlands}}
Education in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. If a child does not have a "starting qualification" (HAVO, VWO or MBO 2+ degree) they are still forced to attend classes until they achieve such a qualification or reach the age of 18.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/leerplicht/leerplicht-en-kwalificatieplicht|title=Leerplicht en kwalificatieplicht|website=Rijksoverheid.nl|access-date=9 June 2021|date=10 July 2020}}</ref>

Children in the Netherlands attend elementary school from (on average) ages 4 to 12. It has eight grades and the first is facultative. Based on an aptitude test, the eighth grade teacher's recommendation and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers, a choice is made for one of the three main streams of secondary education. After completing a particular stream, a pupil may still continue in the penultimate year of the next stream.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

[[File:Utrecht-Uithof, from CambridgeLaan 01.jpg|thumb|View on the Utrecht Science Park of [[Utrecht University]]. The building in the centre is the library.]]
The [[Voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs|VMBO]] has four grades and is subdivided over several levels. Successfully completing the VMBO results in a low-level vocational degree that grants access to the MBO. The MBO (middle-level applied education) is a form of education that primarily focuses on teaching a practical trade or a vocational degree. With the MBO certification, a student can apply for the HBO. The [[Hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs|HAVO]] has 5 grades and allows for admission to the HBO. The HBO (higher professional education) are [[Vocational university|universities of professional education]] (applied sciences) that award professional bachelor's degrees; similar to polytechnic degrees. An HBO degree gives access to the university system. The [[Voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs|VWO]] (comprising [[Atheneum (school)|atheneum]] and [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]]) has 6 grades and prepares for studying at a research university. Universities offer a three-year bachelor's degree, followed by a one or two-year master's degree, which in turn can be followed by a [[doctoral degree]] programme.

Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are generally non-tenured employees of a university. All Dutch schools and universities are publicly funded and managed with the exception of religious schools. Dutch universities have a tuition fee of about 2,000 euros a year for students from the Netherlands and the European Union, and 10,000 euros for non-EU students.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

===Healthcare===
{{Main|Healthcare in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). Natuurkundige te Delft Rijksmuseum SK-A-957.jpeg|thumb|Portrait of [[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]] (1632–1723), known as "the father of microbiology"]]
[[File:Meander MC noordzijde 1.JPG|thumb|A public hospital in [[Amersfoort]]]]
In 2016, the Netherlands maintained its position at the top of the annual [[Euro health consumer index]] (EHCI), which compares healthcare systems in Europe, scoring 916 of a maximum 1,000 points. The Netherlands has been among the top three countries in each report published since 2005. On 48 indicators such as patient rights and information, accessibility, prevention and outcomes, the Netherlands secured its top position among 37 European countries for six years in a row.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.healthpowerhouse.com|title=Health Consumer Powerhouse|work=healthpowerhouse.com|access-date=26 August 2016}}</ref>
The Netherlands was ranked first in a study in 2009 comparing the [[health care system]]s of the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany and New Zealand.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE65M0SU20100623 | work=Reuters | title=U.S. scores dead last again in healthcare study | date=23 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.healthaffairs.org/content/26/6/w717.full.pdf+html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110040524/http://content.healthaffairs.org/content/26/6/w717.full.pdf+html|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 January 2012|title=Toward Higher-Performance Health Systems: Adults' Health Care Experiences In Seven Countries, 2007}}</ref>

According to the HCP ([[Health Consumer Powerhouse]]), the Netherlands has 'a chaos system', meaning patients have a great degree of freedom from where to buy their health insurance, to where they get their healthcare. The difference between the Netherlands and other countries is that the chaos is managed. Healthcare decisions are being made in a dialogue between the patients and healthcare professionals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://healthpowerhouse.com/|title=Health Consumer Powerhouse – Health Care System's Indexes and reports}}</ref> In contrast to many other European systems, the Dutch government is responsible for the accessibility and quality of the healthcare system in the Netherlands, but not in charge of its management.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} Healthcare in the Netherlands can be divided in several ways: three echelons, in somatic and mental health care and in 'cure' (short term) and 'care' (long term). Home doctors (''huisartsen'', comparable to [[general practitioner]]s) form the largest part of the first echelon. Being referenced by a member of the first echelon is mandatory for access to the second and third echelon.<ref name="Boot">J.M. Boot, 'De Nederlandse Gezondheidszorg', Bohn Stafleu van Loghum 2011</ref> The health care system is in comparison to other Western countries quite effective but not the most cost-effective.<ref name=BCG>Boston Consulting Group, 'Zorg voor Waarde', 2011.</ref>
Healthcare in the Netherlands is financed by a dual system that came into effect in January 2006. Long-term treatments, especially those that involve semi-permanent hospitalisation, and also disability costs such as wheelchairs, are covered by a state-controlled mandatory insurance. In 2009 this insurance covered 27% of all health care expenses.<ref name="statline.cbs.nl">{{cite web|url=http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=71914ned&D1=37-43&D2=a&HDR=G1&STB=T&VW=T|title=Zorgrekeningen; uitgaven (in lopende en constante prijzen) en financiering|date=20 May 2010|publisher=Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek: StatLine|language=nl|access-date=16 May 2011}}</ref> Other sources of health care payment are taxes (14%), out of pocket payments (9%), additional optional health insurance packages (4%) and a range of other sources (4%).<ref name="statline.cbs.nl"/>
Health insurance in the Netherlands is mandatory. Healthcare in the Netherlands is covered by two statutory forms of insurance:
* Zorgverzekeringswet (ZVW), often called "basic insurance", covers common medical care.
* Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten (AWBZ) covers long-term nursing and care.

While Dutch residents are automatically insured by the government for AWBZ, everyone has to take out their own basic healthcare insurance (basisverzekering), except those under 18 who are automatically covered under their parents. These insurance companies are obliged to provide a package with a defined set of insured treatments.<ref name="minvws.nl">{{cite web|url=http://www.minvws.nl/en/themes/health-insurance-system/|title=Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en Sport|first=Ministerie van Volksgezondheid, Welzijn en|last=Sport|work=minvws.nl|access-date=26 August 2016|date=18 February 2010}}</ref> This insurance covers 41% of all health care expenses.<ref name="statline.cbs.nl"/> Insurers have to offer a universal package for everyone over 18, regardless of age or state of health – it is illegal to refuse an application or impose special conditions. The funding burden for all short-term health care coverage is carried 50% by employers, 45% by the insured person and 5% by the government. Those on low incomes receive compensation to help them pay their insurance. Premiums paid by the insured are about €100 per month (about US$127 in August 2010 and €150 or US$196 in 2012) and a yearly deductible of €220 (US$288).{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

==Transport==
{{Main|Transport in the Netherlands}}
Mobility on Dutch roads has grown continuously since the 1950s and now exceeds 200 billion km travelled per year,<ref>{{cite press release |title=SWOV Fact sheet | Mobility on Dutch roads |url=http://www.swov.nl/rapport/Factsheets/UK/FS_Mobility.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100415044922/http://www.swov.nl/rapport/Factsheets/UK/FS_Mobility.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2010 |location=Leidschendam, the Netherlands |publisher=[[SWOV – Dutch Institute for Road Safety Research]] |date=July 2013 |access-date=7 July 2014 }}</ref> three quarters of which are done by car.<ref name="OECD-ITF">{{cite report |last1=Waard |first1=Jan van der |last2=Jorritsma |first2=Peter |last3=Immers |first3=Ben |date=October 2012 |title=New Drivers in Mobility: What Moves the Dutch in 2012 and Beyond? |url=http://www.internationaltransportforum.org/jtrc/DiscussionPapers/DP201215.pdf |location=Delft, the Netherlands |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] International Transport Forum |access-date=7 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117223717/http://internationaltransportforum.org/jtrc/DiscussionPapers/DP201215.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2013 }}</ref> Around half of all trips in the Netherlands are made by car, 25% by bicycle, 20% walking, and 5% by public transport.<ref name="OECD-ITF"/>

=== Road transport ===
[[File:A1-Hoog Buurlo.jpg|thumb|right|[[A1 motorway (Netherlands)|A1 motorway]], in [[Gelderland]]]]

The Netherlands has one of the densest road networks in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IS.ROD.DNST.K2?order=wbapi_data_value_2011%20wbapi_data_value%20wbapi_data_value-last&sort=desc |title=Road density (km of road per 100 sq. km of land area) | Data | Table |author= |date=2014 |website=data.worldbank.org |publisher=The World Bank Group |access-date=7 July 2014}}</ref> The Netherlands has a relatively high uptake of [[electric vehicle]]s, as the government implemented ambitious policy on both charging infrastructure and tax benefits.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Rietmann |first1=Nele |title=A Comparison of Policy Measures Promoting Electric Vehicles in 20 Countries |date=2019 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96526-0_7 |work=The Governance of Smart Transportation Systems: Towards New Organizational Structures for the Development of Shared, Automated, Electric and Integrated Mobility |pages=125–145 |editor-last=Finger |editor-first=Matthias |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-96526-0_7 |isbn=978-3-319-96526-0 |access-date=26 January 2023 |last2=Lieven |first2=Theo |series=The Urban Book Series |s2cid=158767268 |editor2-last=Audouin |editor2-first=Maxime}}</ref> As of 2019, the Netherlands hosts approximately 30% of all recharging stations in the European Union.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://fd.nl/economie-politiek/1323217/kwart-laadpalen-in-eu-staat-in-nederland-fce1caCY0804|title=Een kwart van de laadpalen in de EU staat in Nederland|trans-title=A quarter of the recharging stations in the EU is in the Netherlands|language=Dutch|newspaper=Fd.nl|date=4 November 2019|access-date=3 May 2021}}</ref> Moreover, newly sold cars in the Netherlands have on average the lowest {{CO2}} emissions in the EU.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.acea.be/uploads/publications/ACEA_progress_report_2019.pdf|title=Making the transition to zero-emission mobility: 2019 progress report|website=ACEA|date=September 2019|access-date=3 May 2021}}</ref>

=== Public transport ===
[[File:NSR - Sprinter Lighttrain (SLT) - Wieldrechtse Zeedijk - Dordrecht (22087244596).jpg|thumb|A regional train operated by [[Nederlandse Spoorwegen]] (NS)]]

About 13% of all distance is travelled by public transport, the majority of which by train.<ref name="OECD-ITF"/> The Dutch rail network of 3,013 km route is also rather dense.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2121.html#nl |title=CIA World Factbook | Field listing: Railways |date=2012 |website=Cia.gov |publisher=U.S. Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=7 July 2014 |archive-date=13 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090513124715/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2121.html#nl |url-status=dead }}</ref> The network is mostly focused on passenger rail services and connects all major cities, with over [[Railway stations in the Netherlands|400 stations]]. Trains are frequent, with two trains per hour on lesser lines,{{efn|Only 11 stations are served less than twice an hour during weekdays.}} two to four trains per hour on average, and up to eight trains an hour on the busiest lines.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dutchnews.nl/news/archives/2017/06/ns-to-up-frequency-of-amsterdam-to-eindhoven-trains/|title=NS to up frequency of Amsterdam to Eindhoven trains to six an hour – DutchNews.nl|date=21 June 2017|work=DutchNews.nl|access-date=8 December 2017|language=en-GB}}</ref> The Dutch national train network includes the [[HSL-Zuid]], a high-speed line between the [[Amsterdam metropolitan area]] and the Belgian border for trains running from Paris and London to the Netherlands.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

=== Cycling ===
{{Main|Cycling in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Bike entrance Rotterdam Central Station.jpg|thumb|right|Bike passage at [[Rotterdam Centraal station]]]]

[[Cycling in the Netherlands|Cycling]] is a ubiquitous mode of transport. Almost as many kilometres are covered by bicycle as by train.<ref name="OECD-ITF"/> The Dutch are estimated to have at least 18 million bicycles,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hollandtrade.com/media/features/feature-stories/?bstnum=4960|title=Holland Publications|first=Netherlands Enterprise Agency|last=(RVO)|work=hollandtrade.com|access-date=26 August 2016|date=17 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924031010/http://www.hollandtrade.com/media/features/feature-stories/?bstnum=4960|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.iamexpat.nl/lifestyle/cycling-netherlands|title=Cycling in the Netherlands|newspaper=Iamexpat |author1=Wedia }}</ref> which makes more than one per capita, and twice as many as the circa 9 million motor vehicles on the road.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/|title=CBS Statline|website=opendata.cbs.nl}}</ref> In 2013, the [[European Cyclists' Federation]] ranked the Netherlands and [[Denmark]] as the most bike-friendly countries in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecf.com/news/the-first-eu-wide-ecf-cycling-barometer-launched/ |title=European Cyclists' Federation – The first EU wide ECF Cycling Barometer launched |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714151023/http://www.ecf.com/news/the-first-eu-wide-ecf-cycling-barometer-launched/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 }}</ref> [[Cycling infrastructure]] is comprehensive. Busy roads have received some 35,000 km of [[Segregated cycle facilities|dedicated cycle tracks]], physically segregated from motorised traffic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fietsberaad.nl/index.cfm?lang=nl&section=nieuws&mode=newsArticle&repository=The+Netherlands+boast+almost+35.000+km+of+cycling+paths|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717230921/http://www.fietsberaad.nl/index.cfm?lang=nl&section=nieuws&mode=newsArticle&repository=The+Netherlands+boast+almost+35.000+km+of+cycling+paths|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 July 2014|title=CROW Fietsberaad|website=Fietsberaad.nl|access-date=3 August 2017}}</ref> Busy junctions are often equipped with bicycle-specific traffic lights. There are large bicycle parking facilities, particularly in city centres and at train stations.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

=== Water transport ===
The [[Port of Rotterdam]] is the largest port in Europe and the largest port outside East Asia, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the [[hinterland]] upstream. {{As of|2022}}, Rotterdam was the world's tenth largest [[container port]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Lloyd's List One Hundred Ports 2022 |url=https://lloydslist.maritimeintelligence.informa.com/-/media/lloyds-list/images/top-100-ports-2022/top100ports2022_ebook.pdf?rev=bc3fa2a77e134864bcc7dde4518e07d9&hash=D54445A74F150E76C09174D21AB1ABA5 |access-date=23 January 2023 |website=Lloyd's List}}</ref> The port's main activities are [[petrochemical]] industries and general cargo handling and [[transshipment]]. The harbour functions as an important transit point for [[bulk material handling|bulk materials]] and between the European continent and overseas. The Volkeraksluizen between Rotterdam and Antwerp are the biggest sluices for inland navigation in terms of tonnage. In 2007, the [[Betuweroute]], a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed. [[Port of Amsterdam|Amsterdam]] is Europe's 4th largest port. The [[Inland navigation|inland shipping]] fleet of the Netherlands is the largest in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://seaport-magazine.nl/nederland-heeft-grootste-binnenvaartvloot-van-europa/|title=Nederland heeft grootste binnenvaartvloot van Europa|trans-title=The Netherlands has largest inland shipping fleet of Europe|language=Dutch|website=Seaport Magazine|access-date=3 May 2021}}</ref> Passenger boats in the Netherlands includes a ferry network in Amsterdam, and waterbusses and taxis in Rotterdam.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Public transport in Amsterdam |url=https://www.iamsterdam.com/en/travel-stay/getting-around/public-transport-in-amsterdam |access-date=2023-08-03 |website=I amsterdam |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=About the Waterbus - Waterbus |url=https://www.waterbus.nl/en/about-the-waterbus |access-date=2023-08-03 |website=waterbus.nl}}</ref>

=== Air transport ===
[[Amsterdam Airport Schiphol|Schiphol Airport]], just southwest of Amsterdam, is the main [[international airport]] in the Netherlands, and the [[List of the busiest airports in Europe|third busiest airport in Europe]] by number of passengers. Schiphol is the main hub for [[KLM]], the nation's [[flag carrier]] and the world's oldest airline.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kirkliauskaite|first=Kristina|date=19 July 2020|title=What is the oldest airline in the world?|url=https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/worlds-oldest-airlines/index.html|access-date=22 December 2020|website=AeroTime}}</ref> In 2016, the [[Schiphol Group|Royal Schiphol Group]] airports handled 70 million passengers.<ref name="NOS Schiphol64">{{cite web |url=http://nos.nl/artikel/2152140-bijna-64-miljoen-zo-veel-passagiers-zag-schiphol-nog-nooit.html |title=Bijna 64 miljoen—zo veel passagiers zag Schiphol nog nooit – NOS |language=nl |trans-title=Almost 64 million—Schiphol never saw so many passengers – NOS |url-status=live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170109153121/http://nos.nl/artikel/2152140-bijna-64-miljoen-zo-veel-passagiers-zag-schiphol-nog-nooit.html |date=9 January 2017 |website=NOS.nl |publisher=[[Nederlandse Omroep Stichting]] |access-date=9 January 2017| archive-date=9 January 2017}}</ref> All air traffic is international and Schiphol Airport is connected to over 300 destinations worldwide, more than any other European airport.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.schiphol.nl/nl/route-development/pagina/amsterdam-airport-schiphol-airport-facts/|title=What you would like to know|website=Schiphol|access-date=3 May 2021}}</ref> The airport is a major freight hub as well, processing 1.44 million tonnes of cargo in 2020.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.annualreportschiphol.com/trafficreview2020/cargo#figures-by-airport |title=71% of cargo tonnage transported by full freighters |website=Schiphol |access-date=3 May 2021}}</ref> Smaller international airports are located in or near [[Eindhoven Airport|Eindhoven]], [[Rotterdam The Hague Airport|Rotterdam]], [[Maastricht Aachen Airport|Maastricht]] and [[Groningen Airport Eelde|Groningen]]. Air transport is of vital significance for the Caribbean part of the Netherlands, with all islands having their own airport. This includes the shortest runway in the world on [[Juancho E. Yrausquin Airport|Saba]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sabaisland.net/airport/|title=Saba Island Airport|date=25 February 2018|access-date=3 May 2021}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of the Netherlands}}

===Art, architecture and philosophy===
{{Main|Dutch art|Architecture of the Netherlands|Dutch literature}}
{{multiple image
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| caption_align = center
| image1 = Bruegel d. Ä., Pieter - Tower of Babel - Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen Rotterdam.jpg
| caption1 = ''[[The Tower of Babel (Bruegel)|The Tower of Babel]]'' by Brabantine artist [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder]]
| image2 = Van Gogh - Wassermühle in Kollen bei Nuenen.jpeg
| caption2 = ''[[Water Mill at Kollen Near Nuenen]]'' by Brabantine artist [[Vincent van Gogh]]
| image3 = Rijksmuseum 2022.jpg
| caption3 = The [[Rijksmuseum]] in Amsterdam
}}

The Netherlands has had many well-known painters. In the Middle Ages [[Hieronymus Bosch]] and [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder]] were leading Dutch pioneers. During the [[Dutch Golden Age]], the Dutch Republic was prosperous and witnessed a flourishing artistic movement. The "Dutch Masters", spanning this 17th century era, included [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt van Rijn]], [[Johannes Vermeer]], [[Jan Steen]], and [[Jacob van Ruisdael]]. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century included [[Vincent van Gogh]] and [[Piet Mondrian]]. [[M. C. Escher]] is a well-known graphic artist.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Literature flourished as well during the Dutch Golden Age, with [[Joost van den Vondel]] and [[Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft|P. C. Hooft]] as the most famous writers. In the 19th century, [[Multatuli]] wrote about the poor treatment of the natives in the Dutch colony. [[The Diary of a Young Girl|''Diary of a Young Girl'']] by [[Anne Frank]] is the most translated book from Dutch. Other important 20th century authors include [[Harry Mulisch]], [[Jan Wolkers]], [[Hella S. Haasse]], [[Willem Frederik Hermans]], [[Cees Nooteboom]] and [[Gerard Reve]]. [[Janwillem van de Wetering]] wrote successful detectives, [[Dick Bruna]] (doubling as illustrator) and [[Annie M. G. Schmidt]] children's books.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Various architectural styles can be distinguished in the Netherlands. The [[Romanesque architecture]] was built between the years 950 and 1250. This architectural style is most concentrated in the provinces of [[Gelderland]] and [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]]. The [[Gothic architecture]] was used in the Netherlands from about 1230. Gothic buildings had large windows, pointed arches and were richly decorated. [[Brabantine Gothic]] originated with the rise of the Duchy of Brabant and spread throughout the Burgundian provinces. [[Dutch Baroque architecture]] (1525 – 1630) and classicism (1630 – 1700) is especially evident in the west of the Netherlands. Other common architectural styles are [[Style Louis XIV]], [[Art Nouveau]], [[Rationalism (architecture)|Rationalism]], [[Neoclassicism]], [[Expressionist architecture|Expressionism]], [[De Stijl]], [[Traditionalist School (architecture)|Traditionalism]] and [[Brutalism]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

[[Erasmus]] and [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]] were famous Dutch philosophers. The Dutch scientist [[Christiaan Huygens]] (1629–1695) discovered [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], argued that light travelled as waves, invented the [[pendulum clock]], and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. [[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]] was the first to observe and describe [[Microorganism|single-celled organisms]] with a [[microscope]].

[[Windmill]]s, [[tulip]]s, [[Clog (shoe)|wooden shoes]], cheese, [[Delftware]] pottery, and [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] have grown to symbolize the Netherlands, especially among tourists.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

===Dutch value system===
{{Main|Dutch customs and etiquette}}
The Dutch are proud of their [[cultural heritage]], [[Dutch art|rich history in art]] and involvement in [[International relations|international affairs]].<ref name="Colin White 1995">Colin White & Laurie Boucke (1995). The UnDutchables: An observation of the Netherlands, its culture and its inhabitants (3rd Ed.). White-Boucke Publishing.</ref> A predominant attitude in the Netherlands is to think of the nation as being "both tolerant and cosmopolitan."<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Rietbergen |first=P. J. A. N. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52849131 |title=A Short History of the Netherlands: From Prehistory to the Present Day |publisher=Bekking |year=2000 |isbn=90-6109-440-2 |edition=4th |location=Amersfoort |pages=155–156 |oclc=52849131}}</ref>

A Dutch saying indicating their sense of national pride in their reclamation of land from the sea and marshes is "God created the world, but the Dutch created the Netherlands."<ref>quoted in Fred Feddes, ''A Millennium of Amsterdam: Spatial History of a Marvelous City''. Bussum: Thoth Publishers 2012, p.9 {{ISBN|978-9068685954}}</ref>

[[File:Koningsdag 2017 Amstel.jpg|thumb|left|Dutch people in orange celebrating [[Koningsdag|King's Day]] in Amsterdam, 2017]]
Dutch manners are open and direct with a no-nonsense attitude—informality combined with adherence to basic behaviour. "Dealing with the Dutch" by Jacob Vossestein states: "Dutch egalitarianism is the idea that people are equal, especially from a moral point of view, and accordingly, causes the somewhat ambiguous stance the Dutch have towards hierarchy and status."<ref>J. Vossenstein, Dealing with the Dutch, 9789460220791.</ref>

The Netherlands is one of the most secular countries of Europe,<ref name=":02" /> and religion in the Netherlands is generally considered as a personal matter which is not supposed to be propagated in public, although it often remains a discussion subject.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Becker, De Hart|first1=Jos, Joep|title=Godsdienstige veranderingen in Nederland, Verschuivingen in de binding met de kerken en de christelijke traditie|url=http://www.scp.nl/dsresource?objectid=6e36ffc5-45eb-4b33-bc88-eb7b99083527|website=SCP|publisher=Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau Den Haag|access-date=7 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010141120/https://www.scp.nl/dsresource?objectid=6e36ffc5-45eb-4b33-bc88-eb7b99083527|archive-date=10 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Music===
{{Main|Music of the Netherlands||Music of the former Netherlands Antilles}}
The Netherlands has multiple [[music]] traditions. Traditional Dutch music is a genre known as "[[Levenslied]]", meaning ''Song of life''. These songs typically have a simple melody and rhythm, and a straightforward structure of verses and choruses. Themes can be light, but are often sentimental and include [[love]], [[death]] and [[loneliness]]. Traditional musical instruments such as the [[accordion]] and the [[barrel organ]] are a staple of levenslied music, though in recent years many artists also use synthesisers and guitars. Artists in this genre include [[Jan Smit (singer)|Jan Smit]], [[Frans Bauer]] and [[André Hazes]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Contemporary Dutch [[Rock music|rock]] and [[pop music]] ([[Nederpop]]) originated in the 1960s, heavily influenced by popular music from the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. Bands such as [[Shocking Blue]], [[Golden Earring]], [[Tee Set]], [[George Baker Selection]] and [[Focus (band)|Focus]] enjoyed international success. From the 1980s, more and more pop musicians started working in the Dutch language, partly inspired by the huge success of the band [[Doe Maar]].

[[File:Coldplay perform "Up&Up", Amsterdam Arena, June 2016 (5).jpg|thumb|[[Johan Cruyff Arena]], the largest Dutch concert venue]]
Current [[symphonic metal]] bands [[Epica (band)|Epica]], [[Delain]], [[ReVamp]], [[The Gathering (band)|The Gathering]], [[Asrai]], [[Autumn]], [[Ayreon]] and [[Within Temptation]] as well as [[jazz]] and pop singer [[Caro Emerald]] are having international success. Also, metal bands like [[Hail of Bullets]], [[God Dethroned]], [[Izegrim]], [[Asphyx]], [[Textures (band)|Textures]], [[Present Danger]], [[Heidevolk]] and [[Slechtvalk]] are popular guests at the biggest [[metal festival]]s in Europe. Contemporary local stars include pop singer [[Anouk (singer)|Anouk]], country pop singer [[Ilse DeLange]], [[South Guelderish]] and [[Limburgish]] dialect singing folk band [[Rowwen Hèze]], rock band [[BLØF]] and duo [[Nick & Simon]]. [[Trijntje Oosterhuis]], one of the country's most well known and versatile singers, has made multiple albums with famous American composers [[Vince Mendoza]] and [[Burt Bacharach]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Early 1990s Dutch and [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[house music]] came together in [[Eurodance]] project [[2 Unlimited]]. Selling 18 million records,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/2-unlimited-mn0000431439/biography |title=2 Unlimited | Biography | AllMusic |website=[[AllMusic]] |access-date=30 June 2014}}</ref> the two singers in the band are the most successful Dutch music artists to this day. Tracks like "[[Get Ready for This]]" are still popular themes of U.S. sports events. In the mid-1990s Dutch language [[Hip hop music|rap and hip hop]] (''[[Dutch hip hop|Nederhop]]'') also came to fruition and has become popular in the Netherlands and Belgium. Artists with North African, Caribbean or Middle Eastern origins have strongly influenced this genre.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Since the 1990s, Dutch [[electronic dance music]] (EDM) gained widespread popularity in the world in many forms, from [[trance music|trance]], [[techno]] and [[gabber]] to [[hardstyle]]. Some of the world's best known dance music DJs hail from the Netherlands, including [[Armin van Buuren]], [[Tiësto]], [[Hardwell]], [[Martin Garrix]], [[Dash Berlin]], [[Julian Jordan]], [[Nicky Romero]], [[W&W]], [[Don Diablo]], [[Ummet Ozcan]], [[Headhunterz]], [[Sander van Doorn]] and [[Afrojack]]; the first four of which have been ranked as best in the world by [[DJ Mag Top 100 DJs]]. The [[Amsterdam Dance Event]] (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.local-life.com/amsterdam/articles/amsterdam-dance-event|title=Amsterdam Dance Event|work=local-life.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dutchdailynews.com/the-international-dance-industry-assembles-in-amsterdam-next-week/|title=The international Dance industry assembles in Amsterdam next week|work=Dutch Daily News|date=12 October 2012}}</ref>

The Netherlands has [[Netherlands in the Eurovision Song Contest|participated]] in the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] since its first edition in 1956, and has won five times.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

In [[classical music]], [[Jan Sweelinck]] is a famous Dutch composer, with [[Louis Andriessen]] among the best known contemporary Dutch classical composers. [[Ton Koopman]] is a Dutch conductor, organist and harpsichordist. Notable violinists are [[Janine Jansen]] and [[André Rieu]].

===Film and television===
{{Main|Cinema of the Netherlands|Television in the Netherlands}}

Some Dutch films – mainly by director [[Paul Verhoeven]] – have received international distribution and recognition, such as ''[[Turkish Delight (1973 film)|Turkish Delight]]'' ("''Turks Fruit''", 1973), ''[[Soldier of Orange]]'' ("''Soldaat van Oranje''", 1977), ''[[Spetters]]'' (1980) and ''[[The Fourth Man (1983 film)|The Fourth Man]]'' ("''De Vierde Man''", 1983). Verhoeven then went on to direct big [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] movies like ''[[RoboCop]]'' (1987), ''[[Total Recall (1990 film)|Total Recall]]'' (1990) and ''[[Basic Instinct]]'' (1992), and returned with Dutch film ''[[Black Book (film)|Black Book]]'' ("''Zwartboek''", 2006).{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Other well-known Dutch film directors are [[Jan de Bont]] (''[[Speed (1994 film)|Speed]]''), [[Anton Corbijn]] (''[[A Most Wanted Man (film)|A Most wanted Man]]''), [[Dick Maas]] (''[[The Lift]]''), [[Fons Rademakers]] (''[[The Assault (1986 film)|The Assault]]''), and documentary makers [[Bert Haanstra]] and [[Joris Ivens]]. Film director [[Theo van Gogh (film director)|Theo van Gogh]] achieved international notoriety in 2004 when he was murdered by [[Mohammed Bouyeri]] in the streets of Amsterdam after directing the short film ''[[Submission (2004 film)|Submission]]''.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Internationally, successful directors of photography from the Netherlands are [[Hoyte van Hoytema]] (''[[Interstellar (film)|Interstellar]]'', ''[[Spectre (2015 film)|Spectre]]'', ''[[Dunkirk (2017 film)|Dunkirk]]'') and [[Theo van de Sande]] (''[[Wayne's World]]'' and ''[[Blade (1998 film)|Blade]]''). Van Hoytema went to the [[National Film School in Łódź]] ([[Poland]]) and Van de Sande went to the [[Netherlands Film Academy]]. Internationally successful Dutch actors include [[Famke Janssen]] ([[X-Men (film series)|''X-Men'']]), [[Carice van Houten]] (''[[Game of Thrones]]''), [[Michiel Huisman]] (''[[Game of Thrones]]''), [[Rutger Hauer]] (''[[Blade Runner]]''), [[Jeroen Krabbé]] (''[[The Living Daylights]]'') and [[Derek de Lint]] (''[[Three Men and a Baby]]'').{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

The Netherlands has a well developed television market, with both multiple commercial and public broadcasters. Imported TV programmes, as well as interviews with responses in a foreign language, are virtually always shown with the original sound and subtitled. Only foreign shows for children are dubbed.<ref name="HaGanahl2013">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=chXSFH-gzVMC&pg=PA101 Webcasting Worldwide: Business Models of an Emerging Global Medium]''. Routledge; 2013. {{ISBN|978-1-135-24977-9}}. p. 101–103.</ref>

TV exports from the Netherlands mostly take the form of specific formats and franchises, most notably through internationally active TV production conglomerate [[Endemol]], founded by Dutch [[Mass media|media]] [[Business magnate|tycoons]] [[John de Mol Jr.|John de Mol]] and [[Joop van den Ende]]. Headquartered in [[Amsterdam]], Endemol has around 90 companies in over 30 countries. Endemol and its subsidiaries create and run reality, talent, and game show franchises worldwide, including ''[[Big Brother (franchise)|Big Brother]]'' and ''[[Deal or No Deal]]''. John de Mol later started his own company [[Tien (TV channel)|Talpa]] which created show franchises like [[The Voice (TV series)|''The Voice'']] and ''[[Utopia (U.S. reality TV series)|Utopia]]''.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sports in the Netherlands}}

[[File:NED-DEN Euro 2012 (10).jpg|thumb|Dutch star football players [[Arjen Robben]] and [[Robin van Persie]] during a game with the [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]] against [[Denmark national football team|Denmark]] at [[Euro 2012]]]]

Approximately 4.5 million of the 16.8 million people in the Netherlands are registered in one of the 35,000 sports clubs in the country. About two-thirds of the population between 15 and 75 participate in sports weekly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://s2.ned.univie.ac.at/NoN/landeskunde/nl/h11/index.htm |title=Sport in Nederland |access-date=21 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925042514/http://s2.ned.univie.ac.at/NoN/landeskunde/nl/h11/index.htm |archive-date=25 September 2008 |language=nl}} . ned.univie.ac.at</ref> [[Association football|Football]] is the most popular team sport in the Netherlands, followed by [[field hockey]] and [[volleyball]]. Tennis, gymnastics and golf are the three most widely engaged in individual sports.<ref name="sport">{{cite web |url=http://www.sport.nl/content/nieuwsartikelen/nocnsf/223198?channel=nocnsf |title=Ledental sportbonden opnieuw gestegen |date=24 July 2006 |website=sport.nl |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070812034648/http://www.sport.nl/content/nieuwsartikelen/nocnsf/223198?channel=nocnsf |archive-date=12 August 2007 |access-date=1 June 2016 |url-status=dead |language=nl}}</ref> Organisation of sports began at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Federations for sports were established, rules were unified and sports clubs came into existence. A [[NOC*NSF|Dutch National Olympic Committee]] was established in 1912.

The [[Netherlands national football team|national football team]] was runner-up in the [[FIFA World Cup|World Cup]] of 1974, 1978, and 2010, and won the [[UEFA European Championship|European Championship]] of 1988. Of [[Sports Illustrated|SI]]'s 50 greatest footballers of all time, [[Johan Cruyff]] (#5), [[Marco van Basten]] (#19), [[Ruud Gullit]] (#25), and [[Johan Neeskens]] (#36) are Dutch.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=The 50 Greatest Footballers of All Time|date=21 May 2019|url=https://www.si.com/soccer/2019/05/21/50-greatest-footballers-all-time|magazine=[[Sports Illustrated]]}}</ref> The [[Netherlands women's national football team|women's national team]] was runner-up in [[2019 FIFA Women's World Cup|2019 World Cup]] and won the European Championship of 2017. The [[Netherlands women's national field hockey team|Netherlands women's field hockey team]] won 9 out of 15 [[Women's Hockey World Cup|World Cup]]s. The [[Netherlands national baseball team|Netherlands baseball team]] have won the [[European Baseball Championship|European championship]] 24 times out of 33 events. The [[Netherlands women's national volleyball team|volleyball national women's team]] won the [[1995 Women's European Volleyball Championship|European Championship in 1995]] and the [[2007 FIVB Volleyball World Grand Prix|World Grand Prix in 2007]].

The Netherlands has won 266 medals at the [[Summer Olympic Games]] and another 110 medals at the [[Winter Olympic Games]]. [[Joop Zoetemelk]] won the [[1979 Vuelta a Espana]], the [[1980 Tour de France]], and the 1985 UCI World Championship. [[Jan Janssen]] won the [[1968 Tour de France]], [[Tom Dumoulin]] the [[2017 Giro d'Italia]]. [[Max Verstappen]], the youngest [[Formula 1]] driver to make his debut and to win a race, was the [[2016 Spanish Grand Prix|first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix]] and a [[2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix|Formula One World Drivers Championship]]. Dutch [[K-1]] [[Kickboxing|kickboxers]] have won the [[K-1 World Grand Prix]] 15 times out of 19 tournaments.

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Dutch cuisine}}
{{Overly detailed|section|details=|date=March 2022}}
[[File:Hutspot met stooflap op bord.JPG|thumb|[[Hutspot]] with stew beef on plate]]
Dutch cuisine is simple and straightforward, and contains many dairy products. Breakfast and lunch are typically bread with toppings, with cereal for breakfast as an alternative. Traditionally, dinner consists of potatoes, a portion of meat, and (seasonal) vegetables.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} The Dutch diet was relatively high in carbohydrates and fat, reflecting the dietary needs of the labourers whose culture moulded the country. In the course of the twentieth century this diet changed and became much more [[Multiculturalism|cosmopolitan]], with most [[global cuisine]]s being represented in the major cities.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Modern culinary writers distinguish between three general regional forms of Dutch cuisine. The regions in the northeast of the Netherlands, roughly the provinces of [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], [[Friesland]], [[Drenthe]], [[Overijssel]] and [[Gelderland]] north of the [[Grote rivieren|great rivers]] are the least populated areas of the Netherlands. The late (18th century) introduction of large scale agriculture means that the cuisine is generally known for its many kinds of meats. The relative lack of farms allowed for an abundance of [[game (meat)|game]] and [[Animal husbandry|husbandry]], though dishes near the coastal regions of Friesland, Groningen and the parts of Overijssel bordering the [[IJsselmeer]] also include a large amount of fish. The various dried sausages, belonging to the [[metworst]]-family of Dutch sausages are found throughout this region. Also smoked sausages are common, of which (''Gelderse'') ''[[rookworst]]'' is the most renowned. Larger sausages are often eaten alongside ''[[stamppot]]'', ''[[hutspot]]'' or ''zuurkool'' ([[sauerkraut]]); whereas smaller ones are often eaten as a [[street food]]. The provinces are also home to hard textured [[rye bread]], pastries and cookies, the latter heavily spiced with [[ginger]] or [[succade]] or containing small bits of meat. Various kinds of ''Kruidkoek'' (such as [[:nl:Groninger koek|Groninger koek]]), ''[[:nl:Fryske dúmkes|Fryske dúmkes]]'' and ''[[:nl:spekdik|spekdikken]]'' (small savoury pancakes cooked in a waffle iron) are considered typical. A notable characteristic of ''Fries roggebrood'' (Frisian rye bread) is its long baking time (up to 20 hours).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.warenkennis.nl/graan/soorten.htm|title=Graansoorten|website=Warenkennis.nl|access-date=3 August 2017}}</ref> As a coastal region, Friesland is home to low-lying grasslands, and thus has a cheese production in common with the Western cuisine. ''Friese Nagelkaas'' ([[Friesian Clove]]) is a notable example. The ''[[oliebol]]'' (in its modern form) and ''[[Zeeuwse bolus]]'' are good examples. Cookies are also produced in great number and tend to contain a lot of butter and sugar, like ''[[stroopwafel]]'', as well as a filling of some kind, mostly almond, like ''[[:nl:Gevulde koek|gevulde koek]]''. The traditional alcoholic beverages of this region are [[beer]] (strong pale lager) and ''[[Jenever]]'', a high proof [[juniper]]-flavoured spirit, that came to be known in England as [[gin]]. A noted exception within the traditional Dutch alcoholic landscape, ''[[Advocaat]]'', a rich and creamy liqueur made from eggs, sugar and brandy, is also native to this region.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

The provinces of [[North Holland]], [[South Holland]], [[Zeeland]], and [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]] and the Gelderlandic area of [[Betuwe]] make up the region in which western Dutch cuisine is found. Because of the abundance of water and flat grasslands that are found here, the area is known for its many dairy products, which include prominent cheeses such as [[Gouda (cheese)|Gouda]], [[Leyden cheese|Leyden]] (spiced cheese with cumin), and [[Edam (cheese)|Edam]] (traditionally in small spheres) as well as [[Leerdammer]] and [[Beemster Cheese|Beemster]], while the adjacent [[Zaanstreek]] in [[North Holland]] has since the 16th century been known for its [[mayonnaise]], typical whole-grain [[mustard (condiment)|mustards]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smulweb.nl/blog/tonia/718/de-geschiedenis-van-de-mosterd|title=De geschiedenis van de mosterd – Smulweb Blog|date=5 May 2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191655/http://www.smulweb.nl/blog/tonia/718/de-geschiedenis-van-de-mosterd|archive-date=2016-03-04|access-date=2023-10-12}}</ref> and [[chocolate]] industry.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} A by-product of the butter-making process, ''karnemelk'' ([[buttermilk]]), is also considered typical for this region. [[Seafood]] such as [[soused herring]], [[Blue mussel|mussels]] (called ''Zeeuwse Mossels'', since all Dutch mussels for consumption are cleaned in Zeeland's [[Oosterschelde]]), [[European eel|eels]], [[oyster]]s and [[shrimp]]s are widely available and typical for the region. ''[[:nl:Kibbeling|Kibbeling]]'', once a local delicacy consisting of small chunks of battered [[Whitefish (fisheries term)|white fish]], has become a national [[fast food]], just as [[:nl:Lekkerbekje|lekkerbek]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

The Southern Dutch cuisine consists of the cuisines of the Dutch provinces of [[North Brabant]] and [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]] and the [[Flemish Region]] in [[Belgium]]. It is renowned for its many rich pastries, soups, stews and vegetable dishes and is often called Burgundian which is a Dutch idiom invoking the rich Burgundian court which ruled the Low Countries in the Middle Ages, renowned for its splendour and great feasts. It is the only Dutch culinary region that developed an [[haute cuisine]]. Pastries are abundant, often with rich fillings of cream, custard or fruits. Cakes, such as the ''[[Vlaai]]'' from Limburg and the ''Moorkop'' and ''[[Bossche Bol]]'' from Brabant, are typical pastries. Savoury pastries also occur, with the {{lang|nl|worstenbroodje}} (a roll with a sausage of [[ground beef]], literally translates into sausage bread) being the most popular. The traditional alcoholic beverage of the region is beer. There are many local brands, ranging from ''[[Trappist beer|Trappist]]'' to ''[[Kriek lambic|Kriek]]''. 5 of the 10 ''International Trappist Association'' recognised breweries in the world, are located in the Southern Dutch cultural area. Beer, like wine in French cuisine, is also used in cooking.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

In early 2014, [[Oxfam]] ranked the Netherlands as the country with the most nutritious, plentiful and healthy food.<ref>{{cite news |last=Reaney |first=Patricia |date=14 January 2014 |title=Netherlands is country with most plentiful, healthy food: Oxfam |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-food-countries-idUSBREA0E01S20140115 |location=New York |publisher=Reuters U.S. |access-date=1 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |author= |title=Good Enough to Eat – Media Briefing |url=http://www.oxfamamerica.org/static/media/files/Good_Enough_To_Eat_Media_brief_FINAL.pdf |location=Boston, MA |publisher=[[Oxfam]] America |date=14 January 2013 |access-date=1 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808001149/http://www.oxfamamerica.org/static/media/files/Good_Enough_To_Eat_Media_brief_FINAL.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Outline of the Netherlands]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |last=Van Nimwegen |first=Olaf |title=De Veertigjarige Oorlog 1672–1712: de strijd van de Nederlanders tegen de Zonnekoning |trans-title=The 40 Years' War 1672–1712: the Dutch struggle against the Sun King|publisher=Prometheus |year=2020 |isbn=978-90-446-3871-4|language=nl}}
* {{cite book |last=Elliott |first=John |title = The Road to Utrecht in Britain, Spain and the Treaty of Utrecht 1713–2013 |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-909662-22-3 |editor-last=Dadson |editor-first=Trevor}}
* {{cite book|first = Jonathan |last = Israel |author-link=Jonathan Israel |title=The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 1477–1806|series=[[Oxford History of Early Modern Europe]]|year=1995|isbn=0-19-873072-1}}

== Further reading ==
* Burke, Gerald L. ''The making of Dutch towns: A study in urban development from the 10th–17th centuries''. (1960) Hassell Street Press 2021. {{ISBN|978-1013598852}}
* Lambert, Audrey M. ''The Making of the Dutch Landscape: An Historical Geography of the Netherlands'' (1985) {{ISBN|978-0128670507}}; focus on the history of land reclamation
* Meijer, Henk. ''Compact geography of the Netherlands'' (1985)
* Riley, R. C., and G. J. Ashworth. ''Benelux: An Economic Geography of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg'' (1975) [https://www.questia.com/read/85882918/benelux-an-economic-geography-of-belgium-the-netherlands online]
* Paul Arblaster. ''A History of the Low Countries''. Palgrave Essential Histories Series New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 298 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4039-4828-1}}.
* J. C. H. Blom and E. Lamberts, eds. ''History of the Low Countries'' (1998)
* J. A. Kossmann-Putto and E. H. Kossmann. ''The Low Countries: History of the Northern and Southern Netherlands'' (1987)
* Amry Vandenbosch, ''Dutch Foreign Policy since 1815'' (1959).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180824080557/https://www.hollandtradeandinvest.com/binaries/hollandtrade/documents/publications/holland-compared-2017/06/30/holland-compared-2nd-edition-2016/1392_CU+Holland+Compared+2nd+2017+III.pdf Holland Compared 2nd edition 2017] – 95-page booklet by Holland's commercial website, with facts and figures about the Netherlands, comparing the country's economic indicators with those of other countries.

==External links==

'''General information'''
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/netherlands/ Netherlands]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081026124437/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/netherlands.htm Netherlands] from UCB Libraries GovPubs
* {{curlie|Regional/Europe/Netherlands}}
* [http://www.iamexpat.nl/expat-page/the-netherlands/general-information I am Expat – General information about the Netherlands]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17740800 Netherlands profile] from the [[BBC News]]
* {{Wikiatlas|Netherlands}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|47796}}
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=NL Key Development Forecasts for the Netherlands] from [[International Futures]]
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Rohit Sharma

2023-10-12T02:24:21Z

Prasenjeet:

{{good article}}
{{redirect |Rohit |other uses |Rohit (disambiguation) |Rohit Sharma |Rohit Sharma (disambiguation)}}
{{Short description|Indian cricketer}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Rohit Sharma
| image = Rohit Sharma during the India vs Australia 4th Test match at Narendra Modi Stadium.jpg
| caption = Rohit in 2023
| fullname = Rohit Gurunath Sharma
| nickname = Hitman<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 May 2020 |title=Rohit Sharma Reveals Origins Of His Nickname 'The Hitman' |url=https://cricketaddictor.com/cricket/rohit-sharma-nickname-hitman/ |access-date=29 June 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=How did Rohit Sharma's nickname 'Hitman' come about? |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricket-videos/how-did-rohit-sharma-s-nickname-hitman-come-about-1223107 |access-date=30 March 2023 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en}}</ref>

| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1987|4|30|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Nagpur|Nagpur, Maharashtra]], India
| heightm = 1.74
| batting = Right-handed
| bowling = Right-arm [[off break]]
| role = [[Batting order (cricket)#Opening batters|Opening batter]]
| international = true
| internationalspan = 2007–present
| country = India

| testdebutdate = 6 November
| testdebutyear = 2013
| testdebutagainst = West Indies
| testcap = 280
| lasttestdate = 7 June
| lasttestyear = 2023
| lasttestagainst = Australia

| odidebutdate = 23 June
| odidebutyear = 2007
| odidebutagainst = Ireland
| odicap = 168
| lastodidate = 11 October
| lastodiyear = 2023
| lastodiagainst = Afghanistan
| odishirt = 45 (formerly 77)

| T20Idebutdate = 19 September
| T20Idebutyear = 2007
| T20Idebutagainst = England
| T20Icap = 17
| lastT20Idate = 10 November
| lastT20Iyear = 2022
| lastT20Iagainst = England
| T20Ishirt = 45 (formerly 77)

| club1 = [[Mumbai cricket team|Mumbai]]
| year1 = 2006/07–present
| club2 = [[Deccan Chargers]]
| year2 = 2008–2010
| clubnumber2 = 45
| club3 = [[Mumbai Indians]]
| year3 = 2011–present
| clubnumber3 = 45
| columns =4
| column1 = [[Test cricket|Test]]
| column2 = [[One Day International|ODI]]
| column3 = [[Twenty20 International|T20I]]
| column4 = [[First-class cricket|FC]]
| matches1 = 52
| matches2 = 253
| matches3 = 148
| matches4 = 110
| runs1 = 3,677
| runs2 = 10,243
| runs3 = 3,853
| runs4 = 8,365
| bat avg1 = 46.41
| bat avg2 = 49.00
| bat avg3 = 31.32
| bat avg4 = 53.62
| 100s/50s1 = 10/15
| 100s/50s2 = 31/52
| 100s/50s3 = 4/29
| 100s/50s4 = 26/34
| top score1 = 212
| top score2 = 264
| top score3 = 118
| top score4 = 309*
| deliveries1 = 383
| deliveries2 = 593
| deliveries3 = 68
| deliveries4 = 2,153
| wickets1 = 2
| wickets2 = 8
| wickets3 = 1
| wickets4 = 24
| bowl avg1 = 112.00
| bowl avg2 = 64.37
| bowl avg3 = 113.00
| bowl avg4 = 48.08
| fivefor1 = 0
| fivefor2 = 0
| fivefor3 = 0
| fivefor4 = 0
| tenfor1 = 0
| tenfor2 = 0
| tenfor3 = 0
| tenfor4 = 0
| best bowling1 = 1/26
| best bowling2 = 2/27
| best bowling3 = 1/22
| best bowling4 = 4/41
| catches/stumpings1 = 50/–
| catches/stumpings2 = 87/–
| catches/stumpings3 = 58/–
| catches/stumpings4 = 94/–
| date = 8 June 2023
| source = http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/player/34102.html ESPNcricinfo
| medaltemplates = {{MedalSport|Men's [[Cricket]]}}
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[ICC T20 World Cup]]}}
{{Medal|Winner|[[2007 ICC World Twenty20|2007 South Africa]]|}}
{{Medal|RU|[[2014 ICC World Twenty20|2014 Bangladesh]]|}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[ICC Champions Trophy]]}}
{{Medal|Winner|[[2013 ICC Champions Trophy|2013 England & Wales]]|}}
{{Medal|RU|[[2017 ICC Champions Trophy|2017 England & Wales]]|}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[ICC World Test Championship]]}}
{{MedalRU|[[2019–2021 ICC World Test Championship|2021 England]]|}}
{{MedalRU|[[2021–2023 ICC World Test Championship|2023 England]]|}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asia Cup|ACC Asia Cup]]}}
{{Medal|Winner|[[2010 Asia Cup|2010 Sri Lanka]]|}}
{{Medal|Winner|[[2016 Asia Cup|2016 Bangladesh]]|}}
{{Medal|Winner|[[2018 Asia Cup|2018 UAE]]|}}
{{Medal|Winner|[[2023 Asia Cup|2023 Pakistan and Sri Lanka]]|}}
{{Medal|RU|[[2008 Asia Cup|2008 Pakistan]]|}}
}}
'''Rohit Gurunath Sharma''' (born 30 April 1987), is an Indian international [[cricket]]er and the current [[captain (cricket)|captain]] of [[India men’s cricket team]] in all formats. Considered one of the best [[Batting (cricket)|batsmen]] of his generation and one of greatest [[Batting order (cricket)|opening batters]] of all time,<ref>
* {{Cite web |date=2023-03-04 |title=6 reasons why Rohit Sharma is a great ODI batsman of this generation |url= https://www.sportskeeda.com/amp/cricket/6-reasons-why-rohit-sharma-is-a-great-odi-batsman-of-this-generation |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=Sportskeeda |language=en-IN}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023-03-04 |title=Rohit tops the rating of top 10 T20I batsmen of the decade |url= https://www.crictracker.com/rating-the-top-10-t20i-batsmen-of-the-decade/10/?amp=1 |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=Crictracker.com |language=en-IN}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023-03-04 |title='Rohit is far better batsman than Kohli, dominated world cricket in last 10-12 years': PAK pacer's staggering rationale |url= https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/rohit-sharma-is-far-better-batsman-than-virat-kohli-dominated-world-cricket-in-last-10-12-years-pakistan-pacer-s-sohail-khan-staggering-rationale-101675590892153-amp.html |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=[[Hindustan Times]] |language=en-IN}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023-03-04 |title=Virat Kohli Might Be A Legend But Rohit Sharma Is A God With Bat In His Hands |url= https://www.scoopwhoop.com/amp/sports/virat-kohli-good-but-batsman-rohit-sharma-is-great/ |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=[[ScoopWhoop]] |language=en-IN}}
* {{Cite web |date=2023-03-04 |title=The fall and rise of Rohit Sharma |url= https://www.forbesindia.com/article/play/the-fall-and-rise-of-rohit-sharma/44431/1 |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=[[Forbes India]] |language=en-IN}}
* {{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=Rohit Sharma, the opener: one of the best there's ever been |url= https://wisden.com/series-stories/india-v-england/rohit-sharma-the-opener-one-of-the-best-theres-ever-been/amp |access-date=2022-12-09 |website=[[Wisden]] |language=en-US}}
* {{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title= Rohit Sharma is one of the greatest ever ODI openers |url= https://m.timesofindia.com/sports/cricket/news/rohit-sharma-is-one-of-greatest-ever-odi-openers-krishnamachari-srikkanth/amp_articleshow/76707640.cms |access-date=2022-12-09 |website=[[Times of India]] |language=en-US}}
* {{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title= Rohit Sharma probably among top 3 or 5 openers of all time |url= https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/rohit-sharma-probably-in-top-three-or-five-all-time-greatest-openers-former-cricketer-s-remarkable-praise-for-india-batsman/story-4eH9CiiRIfA3qKcKu2SsZN_amp.html |access-date=2022-12-09 |website=[[Hindustan Times]] |language=en-US}}
* {{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title= Rohit Sharma Already Among Best ODI Openers of All Time |url= https://www.news18.com/cricketnext/uc/news/india-vs-australia-in-numbers-rohit-sharma-already-among-best-odi-openers-of-all-time-2006887.html?COMSCORE_KW=UCWeb.com&uc_news_item_id=1887546091904840&app=h5_card |access-date=2022-12-09 |website=[[News18 India]] |language=en-US}}
</ref> Sharma is known for his timing, elegance, six-hitting abilities and leadership skills. He plays as a right-handed [[batsman]] for [[India national cricket team]] in [[international cricket]], [[Mumbai Indians]] in [[Indian Premier League|IPL]] and for [[Mumbai cricket team|Mumbai]] in domestic cricket. Rohit also captains [[Mumbai Indians]] and the team has won 5 titles under his leadership. With India, Sharma was a member of the team that won the [[2007 T20 World Cup]], and the [[2013 ICC Champions Trophy]], where he played in the finals of both tournaments.

Sharma currently holds the world record for the highest individual score (264) in a [[One Day International]] (ODI) match and is the only player to have scored three [[century (cricket)|double-centuries]] in ODIs and also holds the record for scoring most hundreds (five) in a single [[Cricket World Cup]], for which he won the [[ICC Men's ODI Cricketer of the Year]] award in 2019. Sharma has received two national honours, the [[Arjuna Award]] in 2015 and the prestigious [[Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna]] in 2020. Under his captaincy, India won the [[2018 Asia Cup]] and the [[2023 Asia Cup]], the seventh and eighth time the country won the title, both in ODI format as well as the [[2018 Nidahas Trophy]], their second overall and first in T20I format.

Outside cricket, Sharma is an active supporter of [[Animal welfare and rights in India|animal welfare campaigns]]. He is the official Rhino Ambassador for [[WWF-India]] and is a member of [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]] (PETA). He has worked with PETA in its campaign to raise awareness of the plight of homeless cats and dogs in India.

== Early life ==
Sharma was born on 30 April 1987 in Bansod, [[Nagpur]], [[Maharashtra]] into a [[Telugu people|Telugu]]-[[Marathi people|Marathi]] family.<ref name="CI34102">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/player/34102.html |title=Rohit Sharma |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |access-date=31 July 2019}}</ref> His mother, Purnima Sharma, is from [[Visakhapatnam]], [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/telugu-connection-to-twenty20-world-cup/article1916899.ece |title=Telugu connection to Twenty20 World Cup |newspaper=The Hindu |publisher=THG Publishing |date=24 September 2007 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> His father, Gurunath Sharma, worked as a caretaker of a transport firm storehouse. Sharma was raised by his grandparents and uncles in [[Borivali]] because of his father's low income. He would visit his parents, who lived in a single-room house in [[Dombivli]], only during weekends.<ref name="promise">{{cite web |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/rohit-s-kept-his-promise/276142/0 |title=Rohit's kept his promise |work=The Indian Express |date=23 February 2008 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> He has a younger brother, Vishal Sharma.<ref name="attra">{{cite web |date=27 February 2008 |title=Forthcoming attraction |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/forthcoming-attraction-339913 |access-date=4 August 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref>

Sharma joined a cricket camp in 1999 with his uncle's money. Dinesh Lad, his coach at the camp, asked him to change his school to Swami Vivekanand International School, where Lad was the coach and the cricket facilities were better than those at Sharma’s old school. Sharma recollects, "I told him I couldn't afford it, but he got me a scholarship. So for four years I didn't pay a penny, and did well in my cricket".<ref name="attra" /> Sharma started as an [[off spinner|off-spinner]] who could bat a bit before Lad noticed his batting ability and promoted him from number eight to [[opening batsman|open]] the innings. He excelled in the Harris and Giles Shield school cricket tournaments, scoring a [[century (cricket)|century]] on debut as an opener.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abplive.in/sports/the-untold-story-of-rohit-sharma-104963 |title=The untold story of Rohit Sharma |publisher=ABP Live |date=2017 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref>

== Youth and domestic first-class career ==
Sharma made his [[List A]] debut for [[West Zone cricket team|West Zone]] against [[Central Zone cricket team|Central Zone]] in the [[Deodhar Trophy]] at [[Gwalior International Cricket Stadium|Gwalior]] in March 2005. Batting at number eight, he scored 31 [[not out]] as West Zone won by 3 wickets with 24 balls remaining. [[Cheteshwar Pujara]] and [[Ravindra Jadeja]] made their debuts in the same match.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://content-ind.cricinfo.com/india/engine/match/264826.html |title=Deodhar Trophy: Central Zone v West Zone at Gwalior, 25 February 2006 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |date=25 February 2006 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> It was Sharma's unbeaten innings of 142 in 123 balls against [[North Zone cricket team|North Zone]] at the Maharanna Bhupal College Ground in [[Udaipur]] in the same tournament that brought him into the limelight.<ref>{{cite web |date=3 March 2006 |title=Vidyut and Rao power South to big win |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/vidyut-and-rao-power-south-to-big-win-239442 |access-date=4 August 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref> He visited Abu Dhabi and Australia with the India A squad and was then included among India's 30-member probables list for the upcoming [[2006 ICC Champions Trophy|ICC Champions Trophy]] tournament, although he did not make the final squad.<ref name="selection">{{cite web |date=9 August 2006 |title='I was expecting the call-up' – Rohit Sharma |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/i-was-expecting-the-call-up-rohit-sharma-256094 |access-date=4 August 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref>

Sharma made his [[first-class cricket|first-class]] debut for India A against New Zealand A at Darwin in July 2006. He scored 57 and 22 as India won by 3 wickets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://content-ind.cricinfo.com/india/engine/match/246723.html |title=Top End Series: India A v New Zealand A at Darwin, 11–14 July 2006 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |date=14 July 2006 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> He made his [[Ranji Trophy]] debut for [[Mumbai cricket team|Mumbai]] in the 2006–07 season and scored 205 off 267 balls against [[Gujarat cricket team|Gujarat]].<ref name="revival">{{cite web |last=Monga |first=Sidharth |date=6 February 2007 |title=Leaders of a revival |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/leaders-of-a-revival-279084 |access-date=4 August 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref> Mumbai went on to win the tournament with Sharma scoring a half-century (57) in his second innings in the final against [[Bengal cricket team|Bengal]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://content-ind.cricinfo.com/india/engine/match/263126.html |title=Ranji Trophy Super League final: Mumbai v Bengal at Mumbai, 2–5 February 2007 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |date=5 February 2007 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref>

Sharma has spent his entire domestic first-class career at Mumbai. In December 2009, he made his highest career score of 309 not out in the Ranji Trophy against [[Gujarat cricket team|Gujarat]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/8846/scorecard/412778/mumbai-vs-gujarat-group-a-ranji-trophy-super-league-2009-10 |title=Group A, Ranji Trophy Super League. Mumbai v Gujarat, 15–18 December 2009 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |date=18 December 2009 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> In October 2013, upon the retirement of [[Ajit Agarkar]], he was appointed [[captain (cricket)|team captain]] ahead of the 2013–14 season.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.firstpost.com/sports/rohit-sharma-named-skipper-of-mumbai-ranji-team-1177611.html |title=Rohit Sharma named skipper of Mumbai Ranji team |work=Firstpost |publisher=Network 18 |date=17 October 2013 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref>

== International career ==
{{further|List of international cricket centuries by Rohit Sharma}}

=== Test matches ===
In November 2013, during [[Sachin Tendulkar]]'s farewell series, Sharma made his [[Test cricket|Test]] debut at [[Eden Gardens]] in Kolkata against [[West Indies cricket team|West Indies]] and scored 177, the second-highest score on debut by an Indian to [[Shikhar Dhawan]] (187).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/c/content/records/284185.html |title=Most runs in debut Test match |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |year=2019 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref> He followed it up with 111 (not out) in the second Test at his home ground, the [[Wankhede Stadium]] in Mumbai.<ref>{{cite news |date=16 November 2013 |title=Tendulkar era ends with 2–0 sweep |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/west-indies-tour-of-india-2013-14-668845/india-vs-west-indies-2nd-test-676527/match-report-3 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref>

Having been out of the Test team since 2017–18, Sharma went on the [[Indian cricket team in Australia in 2018–19|2018–19 tour of Australia]] after he had earned a recall earlier. Chief selector [[M. S. K. Prasad]] said the reason for his recall was that his natural game suited the bouncy Australian pitches.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cricket365.com/top-story/rohit-sharma-recalled-for-test-tour-of-australia/ |title=Rohit Sharma recalled for Test tour of Australia |work=Cricket 365 |publisher=Cricket 365.com |date=26 October 2018 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> Sharma played in the first Test in Adelaide, scoring 37 and 1 in an Indian victory.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/18693/report/1144993/day/5/australia-vs-india-1st-test-india-in-aus-2018-19 |title=Bumrah stars but Australia's tail makes India sweat for famous victory |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |date=9 December 2018 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/india-in-australia/india-vs-australia-live-score-1st-test-day-5/articleshow/67018067.cms |title=India vs Australia 1st Test: India beat Australia by 31 runs on Day 5 in Adelaide |work=The Times of India|date=10 December 2018 |language=en}}</ref> During the first Test, he sustained a minor injury which saw him miss the second Test in [[Perth Stadium|Perth]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cricket/46549922 |title=Australia v India: Ravichandran Ashwin and Rohit Sharma ruled out of second Test |work=BBC Sport |publisher=BBC |date=13 December 2018 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> He recovered for the [[Boxing Day]] third Test at [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|Melbourne]] and scored 63 (not out) to help India total 443/7 and win both the Test and the series.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/india-in-australia/india-beat-australia-by-137-runs-to-take-2-1-lead-in-four-match-series/articleshow/67306141.cms |title=India vs Australia 3rd Test: India beat Australia by 137 runs to take 2–1 lead in four-match series |work=The Times of India|date=30 December 2018 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> After the third Test, Sharma had to return to India for the birth of his daughter.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/rohit-sharma-ritika-sajdeh-baby-girl-india-vs-australia-4th-test-return-home-1420381-2018-12-31 |title=Rohit Sharma to return home after daughter's birth, will miss Sydney Test |work=India Today |publisher=Living Media India Limited |date=31 December 2018 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref>

In October 2019, in the third Test [[South African cricket team in India in 2019–20|against South Africa]], Sharma scored his 2,000th [[run (cricket)|run]] and his first double century in Tests. He made 212 in the first innings of the match.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/india-vs-southafrica/rohit-sharma-hundred-india-vs-south-africa-ajinkya-rahane-virat-kohli-cricket-records/article29743351.ece |title=Rohit Sharma completes 2,000 runs in Test cricket |work=Sportstar |date=19 October 2019 |access-date=20 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/south-africa-in-india/india-vs-south-africa-3rd-test-imperious-rohit-sharma-delights-with-maiden-test-double-ton/articleshow/71671971.cms|title=Maiden Test double century of Rohit Sharma |work=TOI |date=20 October 2019 |access-date=20 October 2019}}</ref> Sharma was named as vice-captain of India's Test team during the [[Indian cricket team in Australia in 2020–21|tour of Australia in 2020]], replacing [[Cheteshwar Pujara]].<ref>{{Cite news|agency=PTI|date=1 January 2021|title=Aus vs Ind Test series {{!}} Rohit Sharma replaces Pujara as vice-captain|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/aus-vs-ind-test-series-rohit-sharma-replaces-pujara-as-vice-captain/article33472159.ece|access-date=19 March 2021|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Rohit was always set to be vice-captain on return, Pujara stop-gap arrangement, says BCCI official|url=https://scroll.in/field/982892/rohit-was-always-set-to-be-vice-captain-on-return-pujara-stop-gap-arrangement-says-bcci-official|access-date=19 March 2021|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=1 January 2021|title=Rohit Sharma replaces Pujara as vice-captain of Indian Test team|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/sports/cricket/rohit-sharma-replaces-pujara-as-vice-captain-of-indian-test-team-933991.html|access-date=19 March 2021|website=Deccan Herald|language=en}}</ref>

Sharma had a successful [[English cricket team in India in 2020–21|home series against England in 2021]]. Instrumental in his team's comeback after a defeat in the first Test at Chennai, he scored a century, one that ''[[The Guardian]]'' termed "deserves to be considered one of the greatest this century."<ref name="ENG2021">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/99-94-cricket-blog/2021/mar/08/india-3-1-england-player-ratings-for-the-test-series-cricket |last1=Naylor |first1=Gary |title=India 3–1 England: player ratings for the Test series |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |date=8 March 2021 |access-date=9 March 2021}}</ref> He put on 167 runs with [[Ajinkya Rahane]] for the fourth wicket while making 161 runs in an innings that included 18 [[four (cricket)|fours]] and two [[six (cricket)|sixes]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/feb/13/india-england-second-test-day-one-match-report-cricket |last1=Martin |first1=Ali |title=Rohit Sharma's 161 puts India in driving seat against England in second Test |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |date=13 February 2021 |access-date=9 March 2021}}</ref> India went on to win the Test by 317 runs.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/cricket/56080661 |title=India v England: Hosts win second Test in Chennai by 317 runs |work=BBC Sport |date=16 February 2021 |access-date=9 March 2021}}</ref> He top-scored for his side in both innings of the low-scoring third Test in [[Narendra Modi Stadium|Ahmedabad]] with scores of 66 and 25 contributing to his team's win.<ref>{{cite news |title=India vs England: 'No Demons, Normal and Typical Indian Pitch' – Rohit Sharma Defends Motera Wicket |url=https://www.news18.com/cricketnext/news/india-vs-england-no-demons-normal-and-typical-indian-pitch-rohit-sharma-defends-motera-wicket-3474365.html |access-date=9 March 2021 |work=News18 |date=25 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Sharma finished the series aggregating 345 runs, the most for India, at an average of 58.<ref name="ENG2021" /> He went on to score his first overseas Test century on 4 September 2021 with an innings of 127 against England at [[The Oval]], also reaching the milestone of 3,000 runs in Test cricket.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/oval-test-rohit-sharma-hits-his-1st-overseas-hundred-completes-3000-test-runs-1849267-2021-09-04 |last=Raj |first=Pratyush |title=India in England: Rohit Sharma hits his 1st Test hundred on foreign soil, completes 3,000 runs in longest format |newspaper=India Today |date=4 September 2021 |access-date=7 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

Sharma was appointed captain of India's Test team in February 2022, succeeding [[Virat Kohli]], ahead of a two-match series against [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-sports/rohit-appointed-test-captain/article65067359.ece |last=Karhadkar |first=Amol |title=Rohit appointed Test captain |work=The Hindu |date=20 February 2022 |access-date=22 February 2022}}</ref> [[Sunil Gavaskar]] praised his leadership and [[Chetan Sharma]], India's chairman of selectors, said: "We will groom future captains under him".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/rohit-sharmas-elevation-to-india-test-captaincy-praised-by-pundits-players/articleshow/89701467.cms |title=Rohit Sharma's elevation to India's Test captaincy praised by pundits, players |work=The Times of India |date=20 February 2022 |access-date=22 February 2022}}</ref>

=== 2015 and 2019 Cricket World Cups ===
{{Main|2015 Cricket World Cup|2019 Cricket World Cup}}
[[File:2015 CWC I v UAE 02-28 Sharma (01) (cropped).JPG|thumb|Sharma during the [[2015 Cricket World Cup]] in Australia]]

In March 2015, Sharma made his first appearance in the [[Cricket World Cup]] and played in eight matches for India in the [[2015 Cricket World Cup|2015 tournament]] in Australia. India reached the semi-final stage where they were defeated by [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]]. Sharma scored 330 runs in the tournament with one century, a score of 137 in the quarter-final against [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket-world-cup-2019/story/from-world-cup-2015-to-world-cup-2019-rohit-sharma-most-prolific-six-hitter-1537794-2019-05-29 |title=From World Cup 2015 to World Cup 2019: Rohit Sharma most prolific six-hitter |last=Gupta |first=Rajarshi |work=India Today |publisher=Living Media India Limited |date=29 May 2019 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref>

On 15 April 2019, Sharma was appointed vice-captain of [[2019 Cricket World Cup squads#India|India's squad]] for the [[2019 Cricket World Cup|2019 World Cup]] in England.<ref>{{cite web |date=15 April 2019 |title=Rahul and Karthik in, Pant and Rayudu out of India's World Cup squad |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/rahul-and-karthik-in-pant-and-rayudu-out-of-india-s-world-cup-squad-1181017 |access-date=31 July 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref> In the opening match against [[South Africa national cricket team|South Africa]], he scored 122, including his 12,000th run in international cricket.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.timesofindia.com/sports/cricket/icc-world-cup/india-vs-south-africa-live-score-world-cup-2019-confident-rohit-sharma-leads-india-chase/articleshow/69661519.cms |title=India vs South Africa Highlights, World Cup 2019: Ton-up Rohit Sharma helps India beat South Africa by six wickets |work=The Times of India|date=6 June 2019 |access-date=31 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/icc-world-cup-2019-india-vs-south-africa-rohit-sharma-hits-23rd-odi-ton-joins-elite-list/story-ZFbizV3Ow2xfxXHAy2hK2N.html |title=ICC World Cup 2019, India vs South Africa: Rohit Sharma hits 23rd ODI ton, joins elite list |work=Hindustan Times|date=6 June 2019 |access-date=31 July 2019}}</ref> He followed it up with centuries against Pakistan, England and Bangladesh. In the match against Sri Lanka, hitting yet another century, he became the first batsman to score five centuries in a single World Cup tournament,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/icc-world-cup/rohit-sharma-first-batsman-to-hit-five-centuries-in-a-world-cup/articleshow/70108555.cms |title=Rohit Sharma first batsman to hit five centuries in a World Cup |work=The Times of India|date=6 July 2019 |access-date=31 July 2019}}</ref> and equalled Tendulkar's record for the most centuries (6) in all World Cup matches.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/icc-cricket-world-cup/rohit-sharma-equals-sachin-tendulkar-most-hundreds-world-cup/article28306606.ece |title=Rohit Sharma equals Sachin Tendulkar for most centuries in World Cup matches |department=Sportstar |work=The Hindu|language=en |date=6 July 2019 |access-date=31 July 2019}}</ref> Sharma totalled 648 runs in the tournament to finish as the leading run-scorer and win the ICC's [[Cricket World Cup awards#Golden Bat|Golden Bat]] award, the third Indian player to do so.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/sports-news-icc-cricket-world-cup-2019-rohit-sharma-wins-golden-bat-for-most-runs-in-the-tournament/334198 |title=Rohit Sharma, With Five Timely Centuries, Wins 2019 ICC Cricket World Cup's Golden Bat |publisher=Outlook India |date=14 July 2019 |access-date=31 July 2019}}</ref>

=== Other one-day international matches ===
Sharma made his full international debut in a one-day match against [[Ireland cricket team|Ireland]] in Belfast on 23 June 2007. This was part of the [[2007 Future Cup]] competition which also involved [[South Africa national cricket team|South Africa]]. He was number seven in the batting order but did not bat as India won the game by 9 wickets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://content-ind.cricinfo.com/india/engine/match/293071.html |title=Only ODI, India tour of Ireland, England and Scotland at Belfast, June 23 2007 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |date=23 June 2007 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref>

He scored his maiden ODI half-century (52) against Pakistan at Jaipur on 18 November 2007 and was selected for the Indian squad going to the [[2007–08 Commonwealth Bank Series]] in Australia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://content-ind.cricinfo.com/statsguru/engine/match/297805.html |title=Pakistan in India ODI Series-5th ODI: India v Pakistan at Jaipur, 18 November 2007 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |date=18 November 2007 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=20 January 2008 |title=Ganguly dropped as selectors focus on youth |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ganguly-dropped-as-selectors-focus-on-youth-332389 |access-date=5 August 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref> In that series, he scored 235 runs at an average of 33.57 with 2 fifties, including 66 in the first final at Sydney when he partnered [[Sachin Tendulkar]] for most of India's successful run chase.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/cbs/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?id=3160;type=tournament |title=Commonwealth Bank Series, 2007–08 : Records : Most Runs |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |date=2008 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://content-ind.cricinfo.com/cbs/engine/current/match/291371.html |title=Commonwealth Bank Series – 1st Final: India v Australia at Sydney, 2nd March 2008 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |date=2 March 2008 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref> After that, however, his ODI performances suffered a downturn and he lost his middle-order position to [[Suresh Raina]]. Later, [[Virat Kohli]] took his position as the reserve batsman. In December 2009, following his triple century in the Ranji Trophy, he was recalled to the ODI team for the tri-nations tournament in Bangladesh as Tendulkar opted to rest in the series.<ref>{{cite web |date=25 December 2009 |title=Tendulkar opts out of Bangladesh tri-series |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/tendulkar-opts-out-of-bangladesh-tri-series-441139 |access-date=5 August 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref>

He scored his maiden ODI century (114) against [[Zimbabwe national cricket team|Zimbabwe]] on 28 May 2010 and followed it up with another century in the next match of the tri-series against [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lanka]] on 30 May 2010 by scoring 101 not out.<ref>{{cite web |last=Monga |first=Sidharth |date=28 May 2010 |title=Taylor and Ervine seal terrific win |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/zimbabwe-triangular-series-2010-452140/zimbabwe-vs-india-1st-match-452146/match-report |access-date=5 August 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Veera |first=Sriram |date=30 May 2010 |title=Rohit's second ton seals comfortable win |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/zimbabwe-triangular-series-2010-452140/india-vs-sri-lanka-2nd-match-452147/match-report |access-date=5 August 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref> He had a run of poor form in South Africa just before the [[2011 Cricket World Cup|2011 World Cup]] and as a consequence he was left out of India's squad for the tournament.<ref>{{cite web |date=17 January 2011 |title=No Rohit Sharma in World Cup squad |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/icc-world-cup-2011-no-rohit-sharma-in-world-cup-squad-497102 |access-date=5 August 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref>

Sharma was recalled to the limited-overs squad for the [[Indian cricket team in the West Indies in 2011|tour of the West Indies]] in June and July 2011.<ref>{{cite web |date=27 May 2011 |title=Tendulkar, Yuvraj, Gambhir out of entire WI tour |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/india-in-west-indies-2011-tendulkar-yuvraj-gambhir-out-of-entire-wi-tour-516872 |access-date=5 August 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref> In the first match at [[Queen's Park Oval]], he scored 68 (not out) from 75 balls with three fours and a six. In the third match at the [[Sir Vivian Richards Stadium]] in Antigua, he scored a match-winning 86 off 91 balls after India had been reduced to 92 for 6.<ref>{{cite web |last=Monga |first=Sidharth |date=11 June 2011 |title=Rohit Sharma outdoes Andre Russell's heroics |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/india-tour-of-west-indies-2011-489197/west-indies-vs-india-3rd-odi-489223/match-report |access-date=5 August 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref>

He had a disastrous loss of form in 2012 and scored only 168 runs in the whole calendar year at the very low average of 12.92 with just a single half-century. Even so, his captain [[Mahendra Singh Dhoni]] showed faith in him, and his career was revived in 2013. Dhoni decided to move him up the batting order to open the innings with [[Shikhar Dhawan]] in the [[2013 ICC Champions Trophy]]. The pairing was a success and India won the competition, defeating hosts [[England cricket team|England]] in the final.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/cricket/10-years-of-rohit-sharma-star-career-pinnacle-rock-bottom |title=Rohit Sharma: A stop-start career that has reached the ODI pinnacle |work=sportskeeda |publisher=Absolute Sports |date=23 June 2018 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref>

His good form continued and, [[Australian cricket team in India in 2013–14|later in the year against Australia]], he scored 141 (not out) in Jaipur. He followed that with 209 off 158 balls in Bangalore and established a then-world record for the most sixes (16) in a one-day international innings (since beaten by [[Eoin Morgan]] of England with 17).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283127.html |title=Most sixes in an innings |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |year=2019 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref> On 13 November 2014, playing against Sri Lanka at [[Eden Gardens]] in Kolkata, Sharma broke the world record for the highest score in a one-day international innings with 264 from 173 deliveries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/216972.html |title=Most runs in an innings |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |year=2019 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cricket/30038630 |title=Rohit Sharma: India batsman hits 264, the highest ODI score |work=BBC Sport |publisher=BBC |date=13 November 2014 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref>

In December 2017, India's captain Virat Kohli was rested for the [[Sri Lankan cricket team in India in 2017–18|series against Sri Lanka]], in preparation for [[Indian cricket team in South Africa in 2017–18|India's tour to South Africa]], which began in the first week of January 2018. In his place, Sharma was appointed team captain and India under his leadership won the series 2–1, their eighth consecutive series win since [[Indian cricket team in Zimbabwe in 2016|defeating Zimbabwe in June 2016]].<ref>{{cite web |date=27 November 2017 |title=Kohli rested for Sri Lanka ODIs; Rohit to lead |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/virat-kohli-rested-for-sri-lanka-odis-rohit-sharma-to-lead-1127271 |access-date=5 August 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/18074/report/1122728/ |title=India scamper to eighth successive ODI series win |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |date=17 December 2017 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref> Sharma also hit his third ODI double-century in this series, scoring 208 (not out) to extend his record of most ODI double-centuries by a player.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/538333 |title=Rohit's third double-ton powers India to victory |work=ICC |publisher=ICC |date=27 November 2017 |access-date=13 December 2017}}</ref>

In September 2018, in the absence of many top players including regular captain [[Virat Kohli]], Sharma led [[India]] to win the [[2018 Asia Cup]], where they defeated [[Bangladesh]] in the final.<ref name=":0" />

On 12 January 2019, in the opening match against Australia at the [[Sydney Cricket Ground]], Sharma scored 133 but it was in vain as India lost by 34 runs. It was his 22nd century in one-day internationals.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/india-in-australia/india-vs-australia-1st-odi-rohit-sharmas-brilliant-hundred-goes-in-vain-as-india-lose-series-opener/articleshow/67501265.cms |title=India vs Australia, 1st ODI: Rohit Sharma's brilliant hundred goes in vain as India lose series-opener |work=The Times of India|date=12 January 2019 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref> At Delhi on 13 March 2019, in the fifth and final match of a home series against Australia, Sharma scored 56 including his 8,000th run in one-day internationals. It was his 200th innings.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/australia-in-india/rohit-sharma-joins-sourav-ganguly-to-become-third-fastest-player-to-score-8000-runs-in-odis/articleshow/68395827.cms |title=Rohit Sharma joins Sourav Ganguly to become third fastest player to score 8,000 runs |work=The Times of India|date=14 March 2019 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref> In 2019, he scored the most runs in ODIs by any batsman, with 1,490 runs in the calendar year, including 7 centuries.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?class=2;id=2019;type=year |title=Most ODI Runs in 2019 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref>

In November 2020, Sharma was nominated for the ICC Men's ODI Cricketer of the Decade award.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |title=Virat Kohli, Kane Williamson, Steven Smith, Joe Root nominated for ICC men's cricketer of the decade award |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/virat-kohli-kane-williamson-steven-smith-joe-root-nominated-for-icc-mens-cricketer-of-the-decade-award-1239940 |access-date=25 November 2020 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/1908769 |title=ICC Awards of the Decade announced |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=25 November 2020}}</ref>

In July 2022, Sharma became the first Indian captain to lead their team to both T20I and ODI series wins in England. He became the 3rd Indian captain to win an ODI series in England, and the first since 2014.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2022-07-18 |title=IND vs ENG: Rohit Sharma replicates MS Dhoni, sets another massive captaincy record as India outwit England in 3rd ODI |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/rohit-sharma-replicates-ms-dhoni-sets-another-massive-captaincy-record-as-india-outwit-england-in-3rd-odi-101658097510597.html |access-date=2022-07-19 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

=== Twenty20 international matches ===
[[File:2015 CWC I v UAE 02-28 Sharma (04).JPG|thumb|right|Sharma hitting a six]]
Sharma was included in the Indian squad for the [[2007 ICC World Twenty20]] and made his mark by scoring an unbeaten 50 from 40 deliveries against hosts South Africa in the quarter-finals. This enabled India to win the match by 37 runs and they went on to defeat Pakistan in the final, when Sharma scored 30 (not out) from 16 deliveries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://content-ind.cricinfo.com/statsguru/engine/match/287876.html |title=ICC World Twenty20, 24th match, Group E: India v South Africa at Durban, 20th September 2007 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |date=20 September 2007 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://content-ind.cricinfo.com/statsguru/engine/match/287879.html |title=ICC World Twenty20, Final: India v Pakistan at Johannesburg, 24th September 2007 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |date=24 September 2007 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref>

On 2 October 2015, during the [[South African cricket team in India in 2015–16|South African tour of India]], Sharma scored 106 in the first Twenty20 international at [[Himachal Pradesh Cricket Association Stadium|HPCA Stadium]] in Dharamshala. With that, he became the second Indian cricketer to have scored centuries in all three formats of international cricket.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://zeenews.india.com/cricket/rohit-sharma-becomes-first-player-to-score-three-hundreds-in-all-formats-2123159.html |title=Rohit Sharma becomes first player to score three hundreds in all formats |work=ZeeNews |publisher=Zee Media Corporation Ltd |date=9 July 2018 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref>

In December 2017, in a series against Sri Lanka, Sharma scored the joint-fastest T20I century, in 35 balls, ending with 118 from 43 deliveries, equaling the record of [[David Miller (South African cricketer)|David Miller]]. This was also his second century in Twenty20 internationals.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/rohit-sharma-india-vs-sri-lanka-t20i-cricket-indore-holkar-stadium-1114565-2017-12-22 |title=Rohit Sharma slams joint fastest T20I century off 35 balls |work=India Today |publisher=India Today |date=22 December 2017 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref>

On 8 July 2018, during a [[Indian cricket team in England in 2018|series in England]], Sharma became the second Indian batsman, after Virat Kohli, to score 2,000 runs in a Twenty20 international career.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/sports/cricket/cricket-news/article/india-vs-england-3rd-t20i-rohit-sharma-joins-skipper-virat-kohli-in-elite-t20i-list/251631 |title=India vs England 3rd T20I: Rohit Sharma joins skipper Virat Kohli in elite T20I list |work=Times Now News |publisher=Times Now Digital |date=8 July 2018 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref> He was the fifth batsman worldwide to achieve the feat; the others besides Kohli were [[Brendon McCullum]], [[Martin Guptill]] and [[Shoaib Malik]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/story/india-vs-england-rohit-sharma-joins-virat-kohli-in-elite-t20-internationals-list-1280768-2018-07-08 |title=India vs England: Rohit Sharma joins Virat Kohli in elite T20 Internationals list |work=India Today |publisher=Living Media India Limited |date=8 July 2018 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref> He also scored his third T20I century during this series, equaling the then-record for most T20I centuries, held by [[Colin Munro]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/india-vs-england-rohit-sharma-becomes-second-batsman-to-score-three-t20i-centuries-5251244/ |title=India vs England: Rohit Sharma becomes second player to score three T20I centuries |work=The Indian Express |publisher=The Indian Express |date=9 July 2018 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref>

In March 2018, he led Team India to win the [[Nidahas Trophy]] under his captaincy.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|agency=PTI|date=29 September 2021|title=Rohit Sharma should be India's captain for next two T20 World Cups: Sunil Gavsakar|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/rohit-sharma-should-be-indias-captain-for-next-two-t20-world-cups-sunil-gavsakar/article36736813.ece|access-date=9 November 2021|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In November 2018, in a [[West Indian cricket team in India in 2018–19|series against West Indies]], he scored his fourth T20I century, creating a new record for the most centuries by a player in T20I cricket. <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/rohit-sharma-becomes-first-player-to-hit-4-t20-international-centuries/story-4WMv4FRl9sZr154PPqonRN.html |title=Rohit Sharma becomes first player to hit 4 T20 international centuries |work=Hindustan Times |publisher=Hindustan Times |date=7 November 2018 |access-date=5 August 2019}}</ref>

In November 2019, in the opening match of the series [[Bangladeshi cricket team in India in 2019–20|against Bangladesh]], Sharma became the [[List of Twenty20 International records#Most matches played in career|most-capped cricketer for India in T20Is]], playing in his 99th match.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/rohit-sharma-t20i-player-most-capped-ms-dhoni-bangladesh-kohli/article29864095.ece |title=Rohit Sharma set to become most capped T20I player for India |work=SportStar |access-date=3 October 2019}}</ref> In the next match of the series, he became the first male cricketer for India [[List of Twenty20 International records#Most matches played in career|to play in 100 T20Is]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/bangladesh-in-india/rohit-sharma-set-to-become-first-indian-male-cricketer-to-play-100-t20is/articleshow/71939963.cms? |title=Rohit Sharma set to become first Indian male cricketer to play 100 T20Is |work=The Times of India|date=6 November 2019 |access-date=7 November 2019}}</ref>

In November 2020, Sharma was nominated for the ICC Men's T20I Cricketer of the Decade award.<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto"/>

In July 2022, Sharma became the first captain in T20I history to lead their team to 14 consecutive victories.<ref name=":1" />

With his participation in the [[2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2022 T20 World Cup]] in [[Australia]], Sharma became the only Indian cricketer to have played in every edition of the tournament since its inception in 2007.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-27 |title=Rohit Sharma breaks Yuvraj Singh's huge T20 World Cup record with blazing knock vs Netherlands |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/rohit-sharma-breaks-yuvraj-singh-s-huge-t20-world-cup-record-with-blazing-knock-vs-netherlands-101666859062830.html |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

On 27 October 2022, Sharma broke the record for most sixes by an Indian batsman in T20 World Cups, previously held by [[Yuvraj Singh]], hitting his 34th six against [[Netherlands national cricket team|Netherlands]] at [[Sydney Cricket Ground]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rohit Sharma breaks Yuvraj Singh's Indian record for most sixes in T20 World Cup |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/rohit-breaks-yuvraj-indian-record-for-most-sixes-in-t20-world-cup-2290048-2022-10-27 |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rohit, Kohli and Suryakumar power India to the top of Group 2 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/icc-men-s-t20-world-cup-2022-23-1298134/india-vs-netherlands-23rd-match-group-2-1298157/match-report |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>

== Indian Premier League ==
Sharma joined the [[Indian Premier League]] (IPL) in 2008 when he was signed by the [[Deccan Chargers]] franchise, based in [[Hyderabad]], for the sum of US$750,000 a year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/7252238.stm |title=Dhoni tops Indian auction bidding |publisher=BBC Sport |date=20 February 2008 |access-date=3 August 2019}}</ref> In the 2011 auction, he was sold for US$2 million to the Mumbai Indians.<ref>{{cite news |date=10 January 2011 |title=IPL 2011 Auction: The big gainers and losers |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-2011-auction-the-big-gainers-and-losers-496202 |access-date=3 August 2019}}</ref> He scored his only IPL century in the [[2012 Indian Premier League|2012 tournament]] with 109 (not out) against the [[Kolkata Knight Riders]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Rohit's maiden IPL ton takes Mumbai to 182/1 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/Rohit%E2%80%99s-maiden-IPL-ton-takes-Mumbai-to-1821/article12874926.ece |work=The Hindu |publisher=THG Publishing |date=12 May 2012 |access-date=3 August 2019}}</ref> Under his leadership, Mumbai has won the IPL in 2013, 2015, 2017, 2019 and 2020; they also won the former [[Champions League Twenty20]] competition in 2013.<ref name="4th title" />

Sharma has been one of the most successful players in the IPL as captain since 2013 of the [[Mumbai Indians]], who have won the tournament five times under his leadership.<ref name="4th title">{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/story/ipl-2019-final-mi-vs-csk-rohit-sharma-4th-title-mumbai-indians-1523474-2019-05-13 |title=IPL 2019: Rohit Sharma only 5-time IPL champion after Mumbai Indians win 4th title |publisher=India Today |date=13 May 2019 |access-date=3 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cricket/54891953 |last=Henry |first=Matthew |title=IPL 2020: Mumbai Indians beat Delhi Capitals to win fifth title |publisher=BBC Sport |date=10 November 2020 |access-date=3 January 2021}}</ref> He is currently (March 2022) one of six players who have scored 5,000 career runs in the competition. Sharma has 5,611 runs with one century and 40 half centuries and is the third-highest run scorer after [[Virat Kohli]] (6,283) and [[Shikhar Dhawan]] (5,784).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iplt20.com/stats/all-time/mostRuns?stats_type=batting |title=All Time Leaders: Most Runs |publisher=Indian Premier League |date=2022 |access-date=5 March 2022}}</ref>

== Playing style ==
[[File:2015 CWC I v UAE 02-28 Sharma (11) (cropped).JPG|thumb|180px |right |Sharma playing a late cut shot during the 2015 World Cup]]
Sharma is an aggressive batsman but plays with style and elegance.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/cricket/rohit-sharma-personification-of-style-and-elegance |title=Rohit Sharma – Personification of style and elegance |work=sportskeeda |publisher=Absolute Sports |date=13 May 2012 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/rohit-sharma-aggressive-india-and-australia-have-to-draw-a-line-in-between/18584183 |title=Rohit Sharma: 'Aggressive' India and Australia have to draw a line in between |work=mid-day.com |publisher=Mid-Day Infomedia Ltd |date=16 September 2017 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> He is usually an opening batsman in limited overs cricket, but has played most of his Test cricket as a middle-order batsman.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.timesofindia.com/sports/cricket/asia-cup/kl-rahul-to-be-backup-opener-for-rohit-sharma-and-shikhar-dhawan/articleshow/65974490.cms |title=KL Rahul to be backup opener for Rohit Sharma and Shikhar Dhawan |work=The Times of India|date=27 September 2018 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/cricket/why-rohit-sharma-should-open-the-batting-for-india-in-test-series-downunder |title=Why Rohit Sharma should open the batting for India in the Test series Down Under |work=sportskeeda |publisher=Absolute Sports |date=22 October 2018 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> In [[limited overs cricket]], Sharma is widely recognised as one of the format's most outstanding batsmen.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wisden.com/stories/rohit-sharma-the-opener-one-of-the-best-theres-ever-been |title=Rohit Sharma, the opener: one of the best there's ever been |publisher=Wisden India |date=13 February 2021 |access-date=11 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/rohit-sharma-probably-in-top-three-or-five-all-time-greatest-openers-former-cricketer-s-remarkable-praise-for-india-batsman/story-4eH9CiiRIfA3qKcKu2SsZN.html |title=Rohit Sharma probably among top 3 or 5 openers of all time |work=Hindustan Times |date=30 June 2020 |access-date=11 March 2022}}</ref> And for his attacking batting and six hitting abilities he often referred as Hitman.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-19 |title=Rohit Sharma Reveals Origins Of His Nickname 'The Hitman' |url=https://cricketaddictor.com/cricket/rohit-sharma-nickname-hitman/ |access-date=2022-06-29 |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Sunil Gavaskar]] considers Sharma to have a batting style similar to those of [[Virender Sehwag]] and [[Viv Richards]]. In his column for ''[[The Times of India]]'' in November 2018, Gavaskar said:<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/sports/cricket/article/rohit-sharma-can-become-most-destructive-batsman-after-viv-richards-and-virender-sehwag-says-sunil-gavaskar/312047 |title=Rohit Sharma can become most destructive batsman after Viv Richards and Virender Sehwag, says Sunil Gavaskar |work=The Times of India|date=11 November 2018 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref>

{{quote|The standout performer in both the limited overs series and the T20 series has been Rohit Sharma. Like Virender Sehwag before him, he is unstoppable once he gets going and like Viru he has an appetite for big hundreds. When Viru used to get out looking to hit another delivery out of the park, there used to be consternation around the ground, just like it is when Rohit gets out to a seemingly casual shot. If Rohit can turn his white ball exploits into red ball cricket, he will be the most destructive batsman in the world after Viv Richards and Virender Sehwag.}}

While Sharma is not a regular bowler, he can bowl right arm [[off spin]].<ref name="CI34102" /> He usually fields in the [[slip (cricket)|slips]] and has said this is a part of his game which he works very hard on for improvement.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/rohit-sharma-india-vs-west-indies-1379214-2018-10-31 |title=Why Rohit Sharma asked fans not to cheer for him during Mumbai ODI |work=India Today |publisher=Living Media India Limited |date=31 October 2018 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref>

== Achievements ==
{{See also|List of highest individual scores in One Day International cricket}}
Sharma holds the world record for the highest individual score by a batsman playing in a one-day international match, having scored 264 against Sri Lanka at [[Eden Gardens]], [[Kolkata]], on 13 November 2014.<ref name="CI34102" /> He is the only player to have scored three double-centuries in this form of international cricket.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/216972.html |title=One-Day Internationals – Most runs in an innings |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd | access-date=31 July 2019}}</ref> In January 2020, Sharma was named as the ODI Player of the Year by the [[International Cricket Council]] (ICC).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/1571932 |title=Stokes wins Sir Garfield Sobers Trophy |work=International Cricket Council |date=15 January 2020 |access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref> During the [[2019 Cricket World Cup|2019 World Cup]], Sharma became the only batsman to scored five centuries in a single edition of the Cricket World Cup.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cricket/48894355 |title=Cricket World Cup: Rohit Sharma hits fifth century as India beat Sri Lanka |work=BBC Sport |date=6 July 2019 |access-date=26 March 2021}}</ref>

On 5 October 2019, during a Test match against [[South Africa cricket team|South Africa]], Sharma became the first batsman to score two centuries in a match on his first appearance as an opening batsman.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/rohit-sharma-hundreds-in-each-innings-test-india-vs-south-africa-sunil-gavaskar-records-1606508-2019-10-05 |title=Rohit Sharma 1st batsman to hit twin hundreds in maiden Test as opener |publisher=India Today |date=7 October 2019 |access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref> In the same series, he broke [[Shimron Hetmyer]]'s record for the highest number of [[six (cricket)|sixes]] in a Test series.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/south-africa-in-india/india-vs-south-africa-3rd-test-rohit-sharma-breaks-shimron-hetmyers-record-of-most-sixes-in-test-series/articleshow/71661928.cms |title=India vs South Africa, 3rd Test: Rohit Sharma breaks Shimron Hetmyer's record of most sixes in Test series – Times of India |work=The Times of India |date=18 October 2019 |access-date=19 October 2019}}</ref>

=== National honours ===
[[File:The Minister of State for Youth Affairs and Sports (IC), Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Shri Vijay Goel conferring the Arjuna Award on Cricketer Rohit Sharma, in New Delhi on September 16, 2016.jpg|thumb|Sharma receiving [[Arjuna award]]]]
* 2015 – [[Arjuna Award]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sports.ndtv.com/cricket/ajinkya-rahane-rohit-sharma-conferred-with-arjuna-award-1479659 |title=Ajinkya Rahane, Rohit Sharma Conferred With Arjuna Award |work=Cricket News |publisher=NDTVSports.com |access-date=17 September 2020}}</ref>
* 2020 – [[Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Rohit Sharma receives Khel Ratna Award, India's highest sporting honour |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/rohit-sharma-receives-khel-ratna-award-india-s-highest-sporting-honour-1229810 |access-date=17 September 2020 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN Sports Media Ltd}}</ref>

=== Sporting honours ===
* [[ICC Men's ODI Cricketer of the Year]]: 2019<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.news18.com/cricketnext/news/virat-kohli-rohit-sharma-among-winners-in-icc-awards-2458755.html |title=Rohit Sharma Named ODI Player of Year, Virat Kohli Wins Spirit of Cricket Award at ICC Awards |work=News18 |date=15 January 2020 |access-date=17 September 2020}}</ref>
* [[ICC Men's ODI Team of the Year]]: 2014 (12th man),<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICC Test and ODI Teams of the Year 2014 announced |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/180586 |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=www.icc-cricket.com |language=en}}</ref> 2016,<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICC Test and ODI Teams of the Year announced |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/319236 |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=www.icc-cricket.com |language=en}}</ref> 2017,<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICC Awards: Men's Test and ODI Teams of the Year 2017 announced |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/597047 |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=www.icc-cricket.com |language=en}}</ref> 2018,<ref>{{Cite web |title=ICC announces men's Test and ODI Teams of the Year |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/980936 |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=www.icc-cricket.com |language=en}}</ref> 2019<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stokes wins Sir Garfield Sobers Trophy |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/1571932 |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=www.icc-cricket.com |language=en}}</ref>
* [[ICC Awards of the Decade|ICC Men's ODI Team of the Decade]]: 2011–2020<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web |date=29 December 2020 |title=ICC Team of the Decade: MS Dhoni named captain for both T20I and ODI, Virat Kohli Test captain |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/icc-team-of-the-decade-ms-dhoni-captain-t20i-odi-virat-kohli-test-captain-7122178/ |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
* [[ICC Awards of the Decade|ICC Men's T20I Team of the Decade]]: 2011–2020<ref name="auto2"/>
* [[ICC Men's Test Team of the Year]]: 2021<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/2451778 |title=ICC Men's Test Team of the Year revealed |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=21 January 2022}}</ref>

For his achievements on India's tour of England in 2021, Sharma was selected by ''[[Wisden Cricketers' Almanack]]'' as one of the five [[Wisden Cricketer of the Year|Wisden Cricketers of the Year]] in its 2022 edition.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/wisden-2022-joe-root-named-wisden-s-leading-cricketer-in-the-world-after-stellar-2021-1311620 |title=Ollie Robinson, Jasprit Bumrah, Rohit Sharma, Dane van Niekerk and Devon Conway named as Five Cricketers of the Year |work=Wisden Online |access-date=15 May 2022}}</ref>

== Outside cricket ==
=== Personal life ===
[[File:Rohit Sharma with Ritika Sajdeh (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Sharma and Ritika Sajdeh during their wedding]]
Sharma married his longtime girlfriend, Ritika Sajdeh on 13 December 2015. They have one child, a girl born on 30 December 2018.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/photos/rohit-sharma-ritika-sajdeh-wedding-pictures-5117-slide-35293 |title=Rohit Sharma and Ritika Sajdeh wedding pictures |publisher=International Business Times, India Edition |date=14 December 2015 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> He is a practitioner of the meditation technique [[Sahaj Marg]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/sport/cricket/2020/jan/03/rohit-sharma-embraces-heartfulness-meditation-2084566.html |title=Rohit Sharma embraces heartfulness meditation |work=New Indian Express |date=3 January 2020 |access-date=3 January 2020}}</ref>

He practices an [[Eggetarian]] diet <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cricketcountry.com/articles/rohit-sharma-11-interesting-facts-about-odis-only-triple-double-centurion-496562 | title=Rohit Sharma: 11 facts about ODIs triple double centurion }}</ref> but is known to have eaten beef at least once since.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.mensxp.com/sports/cricket/103917-rohit-sharma-beef-eater-animal-rights-on-holi.html | title='Beef Eater Lecturing on Animal Rights?' Rohit Sharma Gets Buried for 'Special Holi Message' | date=19 March 2022 }}</ref>

=== Commercial endorsements ===
Sharma has been sponsored by several brands including [[CEAT Limited|CEAT]] and the Swiss watchmaker [[Hublot]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Rohit Sharma signs as Brand Ambassador for Hublot watches |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/sports/rohit-sharma-signs-as-brand-ambassador-for-hublot-watches/article8547508.ece |work=The Hindu Business Line |publisher=THG Publishing |date=2 May 2016 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=CEAT extends bat deal with Rohit Sharma by 3 years |url=https://www.economictimes.com/industry/auto/tyres/ceat-extends-bat-deal-with-rohit-sharma-by-3-years/articleshow/66444543.cms |work=Economic Times |date=31 October 2018 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> In his career, Sharma has endorsed many other brands including [[Maggi]], Fair and Lovely, [[Lay's]], [[Nissan]], energy drink [[Relentless (drink)|Relentless]], Nasivion [[nasal spray]], [[Aristocrat]] by [[VIP Industries]], [[Adidas]] and [[Oppo|Oppo mobiles]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.indiantelevision.com/mam/marketing/mam/the-rise-of-brand-rohit-sharma-180903 |title=The rise of brand Rohit Sharma |work=MAM |publisher=Indian Television |date=3 September 2018 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref>

=== Philanthropy ===
Sharma engages in numerous philanthropic activities, promoting various causes such as [[animal welfare]], [[health]], and [[children]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.timesofindia.com/sports/off-the-field/Rohit-Sharma-empathises-with-cancer-stricken-kids/articleshow/17495062.cms |title=Rohit Sharma empathises with cancer stricken-kids |work=The Times of India|date=5 December 2012 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> He is particularly vocal about the protection of animals and has supported various initiatives and organisations to promote the cause.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.petaindia.com/blog/rohit-sharma-goes-bat-elephants/ |title=Rohit Sharma Speaks Up For Animals in Circuses |publisher=PETA India |date=3 March 2014 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref>

In February 2015, Sharma joined [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]] (PETA) to support sterilisation of homeless cats and dogs. When supporting the cause Sharma said, "Sterilisation is important because I feel that if we can stop (the homeless-animal crisis), there will be control of population among the street dogs".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/rohit-sharma-joins-peta-call-to-get-cats-and-dogs-sterilised/46892/ |title=Rohit Sharma joins PETA call to get cats and dogs sterilised |work=Financial Express |date=24 February 2015 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref>

In September 2015, along with Hollywood actors [[Matt LeBlanc]] and [[Salma Hayek]], Sharma joined an anti-poaching campaign in Kenya to save the wild animals of Africa including the last surviving [[northern white rhinoceros]]. When joining the campaign Sharma said, "I have been a member of PETA and when I was informed about the cause, I thought it is my duty to join the anti-poaching drive. That's what got me to Nairobi. I was fascinated to have a look at [[Sudan (rhinoceros)|Sudan]] (the last northern white rhino) and the sniffer dogs who catch hold of the poachers".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economictimes.com/magazines/panache/rohit-sharma-joins-anti-poaching-campaign-in-kenya/articleshow/49069192.cms |title=Rohit Sharma joins anti-poaching campaign in Kenya |work=The Economic Times|date=23 September 2015 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref>

In November 2017, Sharma in a video on social media said that he had agreed with an online store to merchandise mobile phone covers and other items that would use his name and ODI jersey no. 45. Sharma also told his [[Twitter]] followers: "All proceeds from your purchases would go to an animal charity of my choice".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/rohit-sharma-and-wife-ritika-bat-for-animal-charity/18746169 |title=Rohit Sharma and wife Ritika bat for animal charity |work=mid-day.com |publisher=Mid-Day Infomedia Ltd |date=16 November 2017 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref>

In 2018 on "World Rhino Day", Sharma was announced as the [[WWF-India]] Rhino Ambassador. Ravi Singh, the CEO and Secretary General of WWF-India, said "We welcome Rohit into the WWF family". After taking a pledge for the cause of rhino conservation, Sharma said, "My love for rhinos sparked when I first heard about Sudan, the last male northern white African rhino who died this year thus leading to the inevitable extinction of the entire species and that broke my heart. As the world and I mourned for my fallen friend Sudan, I researched the best way for me to help prevent something like this happening and the best way I know how is to create awareness. After getting in touch with WWF I learnt that 82% of the world’s rhinos reside in India and I am honoured to be WWF-India’s rhino ambassador to spread awareness and do my bit to contribute to the protection and survival of the rhino and help make this world a better place for them."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wwfindia.org/?17741/The-Indian-Batsman-announced-as-WWF-Indias-Rhino-Ambassador-this-World-Rhino-Day |title=The Indian Batsman announced as WWF-India's Rhino Ambassador this World Rhino Day |work=WWF-INDIA |publisher=World Wildlife Fund |date=22 September 2018 |access-date=4 August 2019}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.onlinebiography.in/2018/10/rohit-sharma-biography.html?m=1 Rohit Sharma biography]
* {{Cricinfo |is=34102}}
* [https://www.wisden.com/players/rohit-sharma Rohit Sharma] at Wisden

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Mind teachings of Tibet

2023-09-10T13:54:04Z

Prasenjeet: Just published an enlightening work.

{{orphan}}

{{Short description|Preservation of mind teachings of Tibetan Buddhism}}

[[File:The Ninth Karmapa, Wangchug Dorje (1555-1603) - Google Art Project.jpg|right|thumb|300px |The Ninth Karmapa, Wangchug Dorje (1555-1603)]]

{{Tibetan Buddhism}}
The '''mind teachings of Tibet''' ([[Wylie transliteration|Wylie]]: ''sems khrid'') are a body of sacredly held instructions on the nature of mind and the practice of meditation on, or in accordance with, that nature.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1= Khenchen Thrangu |title=Pointing Out the Dharmakaya: Teachings on the Ninth Karmapa's Text |page=5 |location= Ithaca, New York |publisher= Snow Lion Publications |year=2003 |quote=Two different lineages of the meditation of looking directly at mind arose in the Vajrayana in Tibet. One was the mahamudra and the other was the dzogchen lineage….The instructions in both of these traditions is simply called "guidance on the mind" because in both systems everything hinges on the student's recognition of the nature of mind. By looking at texts from both systems, one finds that they point to the same thing. In fact, in many cases they use the same words.}}</ref> Although maintained and cultivated, to various degrees, within each of the major Tibetan Buddhist traditions, they are primarily associated with the [[mahamudra]] traditions<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kongtrül |first1=The Third Jamgön |title= Cloudless Sky: The Mahamudra Path of the Tibetan Buddhist Kagyü School |page=15 |location= Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=Shambhala Publications , Inc. |year=1992 |quote=The essence of the countless teachings of the Buddha is the explanation of the buddha-nature, the luminosity that abides in the mind of every single being. As long as one does not recognize one's buddha-nature, one experiences the confusion of samsara.…Buddha's instructions were basically methods to help one overcome confusion and recognize the true nature of mind. The teachings of mahamudra, known as the "path of liberation," represent the pinnacle of the Buddha's teachings. }}</ref> of the [[Kagyu]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Namgyal |first1=Dakpo Tashi |last2=Lhalungpa |first2=Lobsang |year=2006 |title=Mahamudra - The Moonlight: Quintessence of Mind and Meditation |page=XXVII |publisher= Wisdom Publications, Inc.|location= Boston |quote=''Mahāmudrā: The Moonlight – Quintessence of Mind and Meditation'' ("Moonbeams of Mahāmudrā") represents the advanced doctrine and practice as understood and realized by the Kagyüpa Order of Tibetan Buddhism. |isbn=978-0861712991 }}</ref> and the [[dzogchen]] traditions<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Tulku Thondup |title=Buddha Mind: An Anthology of Longchen Rabjam's Writings on Dzogpa Chenpo |publisher=Snow Lion Publications |year= 1989 |page= xiii |quote=The teachings of ''Dzogpa Chenpo'' (or ''Dzogchen''), the ''Great Perfection'', are the innermost esoteric Buddhist training preserved and practiced to this day by the followers of the ''Nyingma'' (''rNying-Ma'') school of Tibet. The main emphasis of ''Dzogpa Chenpo'' is to attain the realization of the true nature of the mind, the Intrinsic Awareness (''Rig-Pa''), which is the Buddha Mind or Buddha-essence. }}</ref> of the [[Nyingma]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Dudjom |title=The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals and History |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year= 1991 |page=36 |isbn=0-86171-199-8 |quote=The Great Perfection…refers not to consciousness (Wylie: ''rnam shes'') but to pristine cognition (Wylie: ''ye shes''). It is the intrinsic awareness of mind-as-such (Wylie: ''sems nyid kyi rang rig''), transcending the mind, and buddhahood is said to emerge not through compounded provisions but through realisation of pristine cognition without activity. – Gyurme Dorje (Translator’s Introduction) }}</ref>

The mind teachings of [[Tibet]] are generally believed to have originated with [[Shakyamuni Buddha]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Thrangu | year=1994 |title= King of Samadhi: Commentaries on the Samadhi Raja Sutra and The Song of Lodrö Thaye |publisher=Rangjung Yeshe Publications |location= Hong Kong, Boudhanath and Århus |isbn=962-7341-19-3 }}</ref> although the recorded lineages only trace back to adepts from various regions of the [[Pala Empire]] within the [[Medieval India]] era between the 7th and 11th century (CE.)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Norbu |first1= Namkhai |title=The Cycle of Day and Night: An Essential Tibetan Text on the Practice of Contemplation |publisher=Station Hill Press |year=1984 |page=17 |isbn=0-88268-040-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Dudjom |title=The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals and History |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year= 1991 |isbn=0-86171-199-8 }}</ref> After the great [[Tibetan diaspora]] in 1959, the mind teachings were among the first Tibetan [[Dharma]] teachings identified for preservation and propagation, an effort which assumed an increased sense of urgency under the direction of the [[14th Dalai Lama]] as the full scope of the destruction to Tibet's religious and cultural heritage became apparent. Important treatises by the illustrious Nyingmapa [[Longchenpa]] (1308-1364) and the Kagyu master [[Wangchuk Dorje, 9th Karmapa Lama]] (1556-1603) were among the earliest of the works published by the [[Library of Tibetan Works and Archives]] (LTWA.) The first Nyingma work by Longchenpa published by LTWA was based on the four dharmas of [[Gampopa]] (1079–1153), the founder of the [[Dagpo Kagyu]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rab-jam-pa |first1=Long-chen |last2=Rinpoche |first2=H.H. Dudjom |last3=Khyentse Rinpoche |first3=Beru |title=The Four-Themed Precious Garland: An Introduction to Dzogchen-ch'en, the Great Completion |location= Dharamsala, H.P. India |publisher=Library of Tibetan Works and Archives |year=1979 |page=ix |quote=In June 1975, His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, as part of his programme to preserve and transmit the many lineages of Buddhism in Tibet, commissioned the Library of Tibetan Works to translate and preserve representative works from each of the major Tibetan Buddhist traditions. As a sample of the Nying-ma style of teaching, and in particular of the Dzog-ch'en or "Great Completeness"…''The Four themed Precious Garland'' of Long-ch'en Rab-jam-pa was chosen…Together with the Third Karmapa, he studied under Rig-dzin Kumarāja. Through the efforts of these three, the diverse streams of the "Nying-t'ig" or "Innermost Essence" teachings of Dzog-ch'en were brought together and codified into one of the common grounds between the Nying-ma and the Ka-gyü traditions. – Alexander Berzin }}</ref> The first mahamudra work published by them was a concise, yet comprehensive, [[Karma Kagyu]] mahamudra meditation manual by the Wangchuk Dorje, "pertaining to ancient Tibetan traditions of the mind."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wang-chu'g Dor-je |first1=Ninth Karmapa |title=The Mahāmudrā: Eliminating the Darkness of Ignorance |pages=iii-xiii |location= Dharamsala, India |publisher=Library of Tibetan Works and Archives |year=1978 |quote=This publication is a continuation of the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives' programme of research, translation and publication of several works from the original Tibetan sources. It is also a response to the growing demand for matters pertaining to ancient Tibetan traditions of the mind. – Gyatsho Tshering. Mahāmudrā, or the "Great Seal," refers to a Mahāyāna Buddhist system of meditation on the nature of mind and is undertaken for realizing Enlightenment – the complete elimination from the mind of all delusions and obstacles, and the attainment in terms of all of its good qualities. In this state you have the maximum ability to benefit others… This volume…on the Kar-ma Ka-gyü tradition of Mahāmudrā forms part of LTWAs programme to present representative works of the various Tibetan Buddhist lineages in order to preserve and further the wide diversity of teachings transmitted in Tibet. – Alexander Berzin |isbn=81-85102-13-9 }}</ref>

In addition to texts published by, or in cooperation, with LTWA, Kagyu and Nyingma leaders independently pursued other avenues to further the preservation of their most important works. By the dawn of the 21st century, the two most highly regarded Tibetan works on the nature of the mind, and the practice of meditation on, and in accordance with, that nature, were translated by highly qualified translators and published openly in English.

==Two most important texts of the mind teachings==
The foremost mind teaching treatise to be identified among the Kagyu traditions was a masterful presentation of the quintessential instructions of mahamudra by [[Dakpo Tashi Namgyal]] (1512-1587), colloquially referred to as "Moonbeams of Mahamudra" (Wylie: ''phyag chen zla ba'i 'od zer''). In 1969, Dukchen Thuksey Rinpoche (1916-1983), the acting head of the [[Drukpa Kagyu]], and, shortly thereafter, [[Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, 16th Karmapa]] (1924-1981), the head of the Karma Kagyu, independently requested the renowned Tibetan-English translator Lobsang P. Lhalungpa to undertake the translation of this voluminous work, which involved the task of translating a variety of forms of classical Tibetan, written in literary styles spanning several centuries.<ref>{{cite book |first=Lobsang P.|last=Lhalungpa | year=2006| title=Mahamudra - The Moonlight: Quintessence of Mind and Meditation |pages=XXI-XXII| publisher= Wisdom Publications, Inc. |quote=Since 1959, when many thousands of Tibetans escaped to India and other neighboring countries, I had been asked to translate Buddhist texts by the highest authority within our tradition and by many of my Lamas. In 1969 the late Venerable Dukchen Thuksay Rinpoche, renowned master of the Drukpa Kagyü Order, presented me with a xylographed print of a Tibetan text during an assembly at Sangngak Chöling Monastery in Darjeeling (India). While blessing me, Rinpoche, in his gentle voice, said: "This is the most important sacred text! I urge you to translate it."… A few years later, His Holiness Karmapa Rigpei Dorje, the Sixteenth Karmapa, presented me with seven great commentaries on the sūtric and tantric teachings. He also handed me a certificate bearing his seal that assigned me the task of translating these texts. On the list of titles this Mahāmudrā text was especially marked for translation. | location= Boston |isbn=978-0861712991 }}</ref> It was published and made accessible, without restrictions, in 1986, under the title, ''Mahamudra - The Moonlight: Quintessence of Mind and Meditation.''

[[File:Dudjom Rinpoche with Prince Paljor Namgyal and Maharani Kunzang Dechen Tshomo Namgyal.jpg|right|thumb|300px |Dudjom Rinpoche with Prince Paljor Namgyal and Maharani Kunzang Dechen Tshomo Namgyal]]

With respect to dzogchen, the highest and final vehicle of the nine [[Yana (Buddhism)|yana]]s of the Nyingma, the [[Seven Treasuries]] of Longchenpa were identified early on by [[Dudjom Jigdral Yeshe Dorje|Dudjom Rinpoche]], the [[Nyingma#Hierarchy and teachers|first selected head]] of the Nyingma, as most important for preservation, and which, in their entirety, were significantly larger than "Moonbeams of Mahamudra."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Dudjom |title=The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals and History |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year= 1991 |page= 375 |quote=As for all those…who wish to thoroughly investigate the limits of study and reflection…should be impartially liberated by relying on the extensive eloquent compositions…of accomplished masters such as: the scriptures of the all-knowing Trime Özer (Longchenpa), which, in the manner of a treasury of precious gems containing all the numerous extraordinary riches of the kingdom, excellent comment on the definitive, profound essentials of tantra, transmission and esoteric instruction endowed with the six superiorities of the ancient translations, with an insight which perceives reality, just as it is (explicit reference to the seven treasuries is provided)}}</ref> The 14th Dalai Lama also independently stated that two of the Seven Treasuries are exceptionally noteworthy, summarizing his views as, "Only by comprehending the practices of the Great Perfection based on these two texts (''The Treasury of the Dharmadhātu'' and ''The Treasury of the Supreme Vehicle'') can you hope to have a good reliable understanding of the Great Perfection (Dzogchen.)"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lama |first1=H. H. the Dalai |title=Dzogchen: The Heart Essence of the Great Perfection |publisher=Shambhala Publications, Inc. |year= 2000 | pages = 119–120 |isbn=1-55939-157-X |quote=''The Treasury of the Dharmadhātu'' is regarded as expressing the essence of Longchenpa's teachings on Dzogchen, and distils the three categories of Dzogchen: mind, space and pith instructions…His Holiness made reference to it during a teaching in London in 1998, when he emphasized the need to study the key texts in order to arrive at a thorough understanding of Dzogchen…. (noting, specifically that ''The Treasury of the Dharmadhātu'') "outlines the Great Perfection. In fact this…text is like the key to Dzogchen. Only by comprehending the practices of the Great Perfection based on these two texts (it, along with ''The Treasury of the Supreme Vehicle'' or "theg mchog mdzod") can you hope to have a good reliable understanding of the Great Perfection." }}</ref> ''The Treasury of the Dharmadhātu'', colloquially known in Tibetan as the "Chöying Dzöd", was also called by him "the key to dzogchen." It was to become the first of these two treasures translated (along with some of the other treasures) over a period of several years by a team lead by [[Richard Barron]] under the direction of [[Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche]] (1930-2002), and published in 2001 under the title, ''A Treasure Trove of Scriptural Transmission.''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rabjam |first1=Longchen |title=A Treasure Trove of Scriptural Transmission : A Commentary on The Precious Treasury of the Basic Space of Phenomena |publisher=Padma Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=1-881847-30-6 |page=vii |quote=The publication of Longchen Rabjam's Seven Treasuries should be a cause for rejoicing among deeply committed English-speaking Buddhists who aspire to realize the dzogchen, or great perfection, teachings of vajrayana Buddhism….Among Buddhist teachings, none are more profound, more capable of freeing the mind from its most subtle obscurations, than those of the great perfection }}</ref> This translation included the root text and, most importantly, the full auto-commentary by Longchenpa; the root text only was also published separately in 2001, with both Tibetan and English depictions, under the title of ''The Treasury of the Basic Space of Phenomena.''

==The preservation of oral instructions==
[[File:Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche in Nepal, 2008.jpg|right|thumb|300px |Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche in Nepal, 2008]]
A call for the propagation of the teachings of mahamudra first rose to prominence in the 1970s when, during his travels in the West, Rangjung Rigpe Dorje proclaimed, "of all meditations, Mahamudra would be of the most benefit for Westerners, because it deals directly with mind itself and is therefore accessible to people of any culture."<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Khenchen Thrangu |title=The Ninth Karmapa's Ocean of Definitive Meaning |publisher= Snow Lion |year=2003 |page= xiii (Peter Alan Roberts, from Translator's Preface) |isbn=1-55939-202-9 }}</ref> It was based on his advice and request<ref>{{cite web |url= https://leksheyling.net/pages/english/Lineages/KagyuGoldenrosary/023_8th-Karmpa_mtshungs-med-mi-bskyod-rdo-rje.htm |title=Karma Lekshey Ling Shedra - Kagyu Lineage - 23. 8th Karmapa 1507 - 1554 |last=Karma Lekshey Ling Shedra |publisher= Karma Lekshey Ling Shedra |website= leksheyling.net |access-date=August 31, 2023 |quote=Mahamudra practice is very useful and beneficial. There are various systems and texts which present it…and there is this text, 'Moonbeams of Mahamudra' by Dakpo Tashi Namgyal, who was an emanation of the great teacher Gampopa. In fact, it is very appropriate for our particular moment in history. When the Sixteenth Karmapa, Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, came to the West and taught, he was asked which text would be most useful and beneficial for western students and he particularly indicated this text. He said that to have it taught, translated, and printed would be of a great benefit at this time….We should meditate (according to) these teachings. We should read the text and tell others about it. - Thrangu Rinpoche (Oxford Seminar) }}</ref> that the foremost scholar-monk of the Karma Kagyu tradition, [[Thrangu Rinpoche|Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche]] (1933-2023), followed up on the English publication of "Moonbeams of Mahamudra" by presenting a comprehensive series of instructions on it over a period of six years. In addition, for more than four decades, he provided oral instructions and transmissions on several other mahamudra meditation manuals, and their ancillary texts, all with the intent of allowing the teachings to benefit as many as possible. Thrangu Rinpoche noted that it was "important that this highest, or deepest, teaching should be readily available to all who are interested in practicing it,"<ref name=":0" /> reaffirming the stance maintained within his tradition that mahamudra should be available as a complete and distinct "path to liberation" (Wylie: ''grol lam'') – both independent of, and interdependent with, its tantric methods.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kyabgon |first1=Traleg |title=Mind at Ease: Self-Liberation Through Mahamudra Meditation |publisher= Shambhala Publications, Inc. |year=2003 |page=5 |isbn=1-59030-156-0 |quote=Although other Tibetan Buddhist schools always practiced Mahamudra in conjunction with Tantrism, in the Kagyu tradition it is treated as a separate path to enlightenment, one that in fact transcends tantric methods and techniques, emphasizing the concept of self-liberation as opposed to tantric transformation. This is unique in the Kagyu school. }}</ref> In this manner, he followed in the footsteps of not only the 16th century Dakpo Tashi Namgyal (who was among the first to preserve the oral instructions of Tibet in writing, after xylographic methods of printing developed in China, were finally adopted in Tibet),<ref name=":3">{{cite book |last1=Namgyal |first1=Dakpo Tashi |title= Moonbeams of Mahamudra : with Dispelling the Darkness of Ignorance by Wangchuk Dorje, the Ninth Karmapa | pages=xxxix-xl |publisher=Snow Lion |location=Boulder |year=2019 |isbn=9781559394802 |quote=This new technology enabled monasteries to print large collections of texts, such as the Kangyur and Tengyur and multivolume collected works of individual authors, and make them available in an unprecedented way. Prior to that, the only option was to copy books by hand.– Elizabeth M. Callahan (from Translator’s Introduction) }}</ref> and the 12th century Gampopa<ref>{{cite book |last1=Namgyal |first1= Dakpo Tashi |last2=Lhalungpa |first2=Lobsang | year=2006 |title=Mahamudra - The Moonlight: Quintessence of Mind and Meditation |pages=109–112 | publisher= Wisdom Publications, Inc.|location= Boston |isbn=978-0861712991 }}</ref> but also in those of the earliest recorded adepts of his tradition, dating from around the 8th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Namgyal |first1=Dakpo Tashi |title= Moonbeams of Mahamudra : with Dispelling the Darkness of Ignorance by Wangchuk Dorje, the Ninth Karmapa |page=xxxiii |publisher=Snow Lion |location=Boulder |year=2019 |isbn=9781559394802 |quote=Although more study needs to be done of Gampopa’s Collected Works, his life and times, and other transmissions of mahāmudrā in India and Tibet, it is becoming clear that, while he may have done some things differently than his teachers, Gampopa did not teach in an unprecedented way and did not teach a mahāmudrā that was different from that taught by Maitrīpa and his students. – Elizabeth M. Callahan (from Translator’s Introduction) }}</ref>

A few years later, another branch of the Kagyu, the [[Drikung Kagyu]], realized the translation of its foremost text on the mind teachings, a very early Tibetan mahamudra written work by its founder [[Jigten Sumgön]] (1143-1217), who is frequently quoted in "Moonbeams of Mahamudra" and other mahamudra texts. This work is historically important since it was the first meditation manual on mahamudra written by a Tibetan and is most representative of the extant oral instructions of its time. Although the Drikung are generally known for maintaining a five-fold path consisting of the practices of [[bodhicitta]], [[yidam]] deity meditation, guru yoga, mahamudra and dedication of merit, according to Kyabgön Chetsang Rinpoche, one of the heads of the Drikung lineage, the manual demonstrates that the Drikung have also maintained mahamudra as a complete and independent path for students, and not only as part of their five-fold path.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sumgon |first1=Kyobpa Jigten |title= Introduction to Mahamudra the Co-emergent Unification: An Ornament which is the Luminosity of the Primordial Awareness that Dispels the Darkness of Ignorance |pages=xiv-xv |publisher=Songtsen Library |location=Dehra Dun, India |year=2004 |isbn=81-89210-00-9 |quote=…this text was not published before; many of the Dharma holders have assumed that the Drikung Kagyu lineage has only the ''Five-fold Mahamudra'' but not the pith instructions of the ''Unification of Co-emergent Mahamudra''. From Naropa through Marpa until Milarepa, the ''Unification of Co-emergent Mahamudra'' was only passed from mouth to ear. Therefore, the pith instruction were not available in this written form… (Afterwards, Gampopa) became a renowned master of Mahamudra and his benevolent activities pervaded all. Thereafter…most of the mind instructions in the old and new tantras in Tibet have been based on the ''Unification of Co-emergent Mahamudra''. In brief, the ''Unification of Co-emergent Mahamudra'' is the amalgamation of the whole gamut of essential pith instructions from the sutric and tantric teachings of Lord Buddha. Left behind by the former siddhas, it is the most profound Dharma of the Kagyu lineage in general and the Dakpo Kagyu lineage in particular. It is a very convenient practice, emphasized by the Dharma Lord Gampopa. – H.H. the Drikung Kyabgon Chetsang (Foreword) }}</ref> The text was translated by Khenpo Konchog Tamphel and published in 2004 under the title, ''Introduction to Mahamudra the Co-emergent Unification: An Ornament which is the Luminosity of the Primordial Awareness that Dispels the Darkness of Ignorance''. The oral instructions on this work had previously been presented in North America, in 1997, by [[Garchen Rinpoche]], after his release from two decades of internment within a People's Republic of China (PRC) labor camp. During its presentation, it was translated into English by the author and great abbot Khenchen Könchog Gyaltsen Rinpoche, and published that same year,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1= Garchen |title=Mahamudra Teachings (Drikung Kagyu Teachings Book 1) |publisher= Drikung Kagyu Teachings |year= 1997 |isbn= 0615578314 |quote=As a record of the oral transmission of Mahamudra based on the instructions of the founder of the Drikung Kagyü lineage, these teachings are of immeasurable value …both beginners and long-time practitioners will find much delightful and invaluable instruction embodied within these pages. – Peter Barth (Preface) }}</ref> edited by a former student of Dukchen Thuksey Rinpoche, a Westerner with experience in Mahamudra practice.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barth |first1= Peter F. |title=Piercing the Autumn Sky: Discovering the Natural Freedom of Mind |publisher= Lame Turtle Press |year= 1993 |isbn=0-9635796-3-0 |page=6 |quote=Peter Barth’s ''Piercing the Autumn Sky'' is written in simple language and a clear, accessible style in order to help those on the Dharma path. Easily readable, it draws from the author's own long-term experience with Mahamudra practice. ''Piercing the Autumn Sky'' will quench the thirst of the spiritual seeker. – Khenchen Könchog Gyaltsen Rinpoche (Preface) }}</ref> Garchen Rinpoche was also known as a dzogchen adept, having studied and practiced dzogchen in secret during his internment, under the guidance of his root teacher, Khenpo Munsel (1916-1994) of [[Kathok Monastery]]. Khenpo Munsel was well known as one of the chief disciples, along with [[Dzongsar Khyentse Chökyi Lodrö|Khyentse Chökyi Lodrö]] (1893-1959) and [[Chatral Sangye Dorje|Chatral Rinpoche]] (1913-2015), of the author of ''A Guide to the Words of My Perfect Teacher'', [[Khenpo Ngawang Pelzang|Khenpo Ngagchung]] (1879-1941.)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/Khenpo-Munsel/9929 |title=The Treasury of Lives |last=Chhosphel |first=Samten |website=treasuryoflives.org |access-date=August 31, 2023 }}</ref>

[[File:Garchen.jpg| right|thumb|300px|Garchen Rinpoche]]
The tradition of ensuring that oral instructions are provided to illuminate traditional written texts, whether original teachings attributed to Shakyamuni Buddha ([[Kangyur]]) or subsequent treatises and commentaries ([[Tengyur]]), is just as important among the Nyingma as it is among the Kagyu. In the Nyingma schools, by the end of the 19th century, texts which were records of important oral introductions to, and teachings on, dzogchen were increasingly in circulation, such as the those of [[Patrul Rinpoche]] (1808-1887) on "The Three Words that Strike the Crucial Point" by [[Garab Dorje]] (c. 7th century.) By 1998, one of the foremost scholar-monks of the Nyingma, [[Khenchen Palden Sherab Rinpoche]] (1938-2010), along with his brother, Khenpo Tsewang Dongyal Rinpoche, in accordance with the wishes of their teacher, Dudjom Rinpoche, provided comprehensive oral introductions to dzogchen and the practice of "trekcho" or "Cutting Through" (Wylie: ''khregs chod''), also known as "kadag trekcho" ("Cutting Through to Primordial Purity"), from dzogchen's most important Direct Instruction Series (Wylie: ''man ngag sde'') in reliance upon those texts.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lama |first1=H. H. the Dalai |title=Dzogchen: The Heart Essence of the Great Perfection |publisher=Shambhala Publications, Inc. |year= 2000 | page=43 |isbn=1-55939-157-X |quote=Patrul Rinpoche's ''Special Teaching of the Wise and Glorious King'', an elaboration, with its own commentary, on ''Hitting the Essence in Three Words'', is treasured as the most crucial instructions for the practice of Dzogchen. Brief yet exceedingly profound, it captures the understanding of the trekchö practice, and is "the infallible key point of the path of primordial purity in the natural Dzogpachenpo. }}</ref> Their teachings were translated into English and published, along with the other two texts, in the book entitled, ''Lion's Gaze'', translated into English by [[Sarah Harding (lama)|Sarah Harding]].<ref>{{cite book |first1= Khenchen Palden |last1=Sherab Rinpoche |first2= Khenpo Tsewang |last2= Dongyal Rinpoche |year=1998 |title=Lion's Gaze |publisher=Sky Dancer Press |location=Boca Rota, FL |isbn=1-880975-05-X }}</ref> In the publication, they emphasize the importance of putting the instructions into practice by noting, "Books alone won't do it. All Buddha's teachings maintain that knowing comes through direct experience, then practice maintains this experience. This is how realization happens. The great Dudjom Rinpoche in his pith instructions said that realization comes through practice." They encourage a student to practice trekcho even throughout the night, "in sleep. Keep the practice day and night. That view, that courage is necessary."<ref>{{cite book |first1= Khenchen Palden |last1= Sherab Rinpoche |first2= Khenpo Tsewang |last2=Dongyal Rinpoche | year=1998 |title=Lion's Gaze |publisher=Sky Dancer Press |location=Boca Rota, FL |page=176 |isbn=1-880975-05-X }}</ref>

''Lion's Gaze'' was preceded by earlier efforts, in the 1980s, including those by [[Namkhai Norbu]] (1938-2018) who had elected to extend his teachings on dzogchen beyond a small group of students in Italy to a broader audience, by publishing them and excerpts from Longchenpa, and by ensuring their translation into English.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Norbu |first1= Namkhai |title=The 21 Semzin of Dzog-chen Upadesa |publisher=Rinchen Edition |location=Singapore |year=1992 |isbn=981-00-3792-9 }}</ref> At the time, he also was one of the first in the West to offer dzogchen as a complete path, independent of tantric empowerment. Some of Namkhai Norbu Rinpoche's early instructions were preserved in books, including ''The Cycle of Day and Night'', a text written by him based primarily on his experiences with dzogchen in relation to its Space Series (Wylie: ''klong sde'') and dealing with achieving an all-around uninterrupted presence of awareness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Norbu |first1= Namkhai |title=The Cycle of Day and Night: An Essential Tibetan Text on the Practice of Contemplation |publisher=Station Hill Press |year=1984 |pages=11–12 |quote=The text we have translated here…is an upadeśa, a teaching on the essential points of Dzogchen practice. It explains with great precision, in detail although concisely, how to practice contemplation continuously during the day and night…the essence of Dzogchen is not found in academic scholarship nor does it require the credentials of ecclesiastical hierarchy. Dzogchen is beyond all such intellectual and cultural limitations. It was not until he met his own root Guru (Wylie: ''rtsa ba'i bla ma''), that he came to understand what Dzogchen meant in terms of direct personal experience and realization….From this master, Norbu Rinpoche received the most important transmissions of the three series of Dzogchen teachings… - John Myrdhin Reynolds (Introduction) |isbn=0-88268-040-4 }}</ref>

It was with the publication of high-quality translations of the most authoritative sacred texts of mahamudra and dzogchen and their corresponding oral instructions – the latter often presented by one or more of the most highly qualified scholar-monks or great [[khenpo]]s (Wylie: ''mkhan chen'') within the Kagyu or Nyingma lineages – that a reliable means of the study and practice of the mind teachings first became widely available beyond the borders of Tibet.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rabjam |first1=Longchen |title=A Treasure Trove of Scriptural Transmission: A Commentary on The Precious Treasury of the Basic Space of Phenomena |publisher=Padma Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=1-881847-30-6 |pages=v-vi |quote=those of us with the supreme fortune to have received authentic transmission from great dzogchen masters have a responsibility to maintain the oral lineage, including the translation of texts, as well as the mind-to-mind lineage of realization. If we eschew this work, the precious great perfection teachings will remain inaccessible to some excellent Western practitioners who have potential as meditators but who do not know Tibetan. An avenue for the flourishing of the transmission will be cut off. I am also gravely concerned about the translations of great perfection texts produced by Westerners who know Tibetan but who rely solely on scholarly knowledge, without recourse to teachers. Intellectual understanding alone, without the ripening process that takes place under the direction of qualified dzogchen teachers, will certainly result in misguided translations, perpetuated in misguided meditation by those who base their spiritual practice on such translations. But again, if qualified dzogchen masters refrain from working on translations because they fear imperfect results, can they lament when even more erroneous translations are published? The translator of these texts, Richard Barron (Lama Chokyi Nyima), has truly mastered both literary and spoken Tibetan, but his deeper understanding is based on an extended retreat under the guidance of His Eminence Kalu Rinpoche, on a number of six-week dzogchen retreats, and on listening to and translating the teachings of many eminent lamas. He has translated other great perfection texts and sadhanas, notably Dudjom Lingpa's Buddhahood Without Meditation, under my direction. He thus brings more capability to his work than mere theoreti- cal and intellectual competence. The other members of the translation committee have a grounding in the study of dzogchen terminology and have likewise participated in annual dzogchen retreats. The learned scholar Khenpo Chodzo has been consulted on many details of this translation of The Precious Treasury of the Basic Space o f Phenomena. I myself have brought to the process whatever understanding of great perfection I have attained in the course of a lifetime of study and meditation. This means that while we have not necessarily produced flawless translations, we have confidence in this groundbreaking attempt.– Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche (from Foreword) }}</ref>

==Reasons for meditating on mind and the three wisdoms==
In "Moonbeams of Mahamudra," Dakpo Tashi Namgyal gives two reasons why meditating on the nature of mind is important.

First, he points out that, experientially, everything that one knows directly or through inferences arises only as appearances to and within one's mind (Wylie: ''snang sems''). Since mind and its various phenomena are the basis for experience, he quotes a Buddhist sutrā that states, "All things encompassing the phenomena of existence and enlightenment [[saṃsāra]] and [[nirvāṇa]] are of the mind." Secondly, it follows that, since all appearances occur only in each of our individual minds, it would be of benefit to understand the nature of that mind, and its appearances, while a perpetuation of misunderstandings of mind, and its appearances, would clearly lead one in meaningless directions.

In scriptural support of these points, Dakpo Tashi Namgyal quotes [[Shantideva]] from the [[Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra]]:{{blockquote|
If one does not know the secret nature of the mind

Which is the essence of all Dharma

One might wander aimlessly,

Though one wished to be happy and eliminate misery.

Wisdom does not arise without meditating upon tranquility;

Enlightenment does not arise without the emergence of wisdom.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Namgyal |first1= Dakpo Tashi |last2=Lhalungpa |first2=Lobsang | year=2006 |title=Mahamudra - The Moonlight: Quintessence of Mind and Meditation |page=10 | publisher= Wisdom Publications, Inc.|location= Boston |isbn=978-0861712991 }}</ref> }}

He further notes that, in mahamudra, Buddhist tranquility meditation (Sanskrit (Skt.): ''Śamaṭha''), not only provides one the opportunity to tame one's mind, but it also serves as a constant and essential companion to insight meditation (Skt. ''Vipaśyanā''). Collectively ([[Samatha-vipassana]]), their unity "causes one to perceive the true nature of reality and enables one to set spiritual trainees on the path to enlightenment and to achieve other virtues."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Namgyal |first1= Dakpo Tashi |last2=Lhalungpa |first2=Lobsang | year=2006 |title=Mahamudra - The Moonlight: Quintessence of Mind and Meditation |page=11 | publisher= Wisdom Publications, Inc.|location= Boston |isbn=978-0861712991 }}</ref>

Both the Nyingma and the Kagyu recognize the importance of honoring gradual (e.g., with stages), as well as sudden and more immediate paths to the dawning of wisdom. In the Kagyu tradition, a student is usually first introduced to general Buddhist tranquility and insight meditations, before being introduced to specific, or extraordinary, mahamudra tranquility and insight meditations, in that order; however, on occasion, a student may receive instruction to insight meditations, or the nature of mind itself, first or early on. In dzogchen, the ninth of the nine vehicles of the Nyingma tradition, introduction to the nature of awareness often occurs early on, since dzogchen is a path that starts with and is based on intrinsic wisdom, in contrast to a path which emphasizes a more gradual cultivation of wisdom and its discovery.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lama |first1=H. H. the Dalai |title=Dzogchen: The Heart Essence of the Great Perfection |publisher=Shambhala Publications, Inc. |year= 2000 | pages = 47–48 |quote= Throughout beginningless time, there has always been present, within us all, a pure awareness – that in-dwelling rigpa which in Atiyoga is evoked in all its nakedness, and which constitutes the practice. In other words, in Dzogchen the whole path is based on this rigpa: first you are introduced to it directly, then you put it into practice. So this is known as the ‘effortless yāna’….’Effortless’ here does not mean ‘with absolutely no effort at all’; it would be quite inappropriate to take this to mean that all you needed to do was lie around and sleep. In this tradition, there is indeed a practice, and it consists of focusing uniquely on rigpa – that is, practicing on the basis of rigpa alone. }}</ref>

The prayer "Aspiration of Mahamudra" was written by [[Rangjung Dorje, 3rd Karmapa Lama]] (1284-1339), who held both Kagyu and Nyingma lineages of his time and who had studied dzogchen under the same teacher as Longchenpa, [[Rigdzin Kumaradza|Rigdzin Kumaraja]] (1266-1343). Rangjung Dorje presents the roles of the three different types of wisdom on the path of mahamudra as follows: {{blockquote|
Hearing the scriptures and logic brings freedom from the clouds of ignorance. Contemplating the instructions defeats the darkness of doubt. The light of meditation illuminates the true nature, just as it is. May the radiance of the three wisdoms increase.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Peter |title=Mahāmudrā and Related Instructions: Core Teachings the Kagyü Schools |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year= 2011 | page=171 }}</ref> }}

All Buddhist traditions, including the Nyingma and Kagyu, rely on the wisdoms (Skt. ''prajna'') of hearing (Wylie: ''thos pa'i shes rab'') and contemplation (Wylie: ''bsam pa'i shes rab''); in addition, both mahamudra and the dzogchen place exceptionally strong emphasis on the third wisdom, a non-conceptual wisdom, dawning directly from yogic perception or cognition (Wylie: ''rnal 'byor mngon sum tshad ma'')<ref>{{cite web |url= http://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/science-of-mind/cognition-theory/lorig-ways-of-knowing |title=Study Buddhism, Advanced Studies, Science of Mind |last=Berzin |first=Alexander |website= studybuddhism.com |access-date=August 23, 2023 | quote=Prasangika defines valid cognition as cognition that is non-deceptive, in other words accurate and decisive. It does not include "fresh" in its definition, because no cognition arises under its own power, in accord with the Prasangika refutation of self-established existence. If a cognition could arise under its own power, it would be self-established. Thus, Prasangika does not assert subsequent cognition. Prasangika redefines what Sautrantika calls "bare cognition." Sautrantika defines this valid way of knowing as always non-conceptual: it takes its object without having a mental category as an intermediate. It needs to be fresh, since they gloss the "pra" prefix of "pramana" the Sanskrit word for "valid cognition" as meaning "first" or "new." For Prasangika, "pra" connotes valid or correct. They therefore redefine this valid way of knowing as one that does not directly rely for its arising on a line of reasoning. Thus, for Prasangika, bare cognition is straightforward cognition. Thus, what Sautrantika asserts as subsequent sensory bare cognition, Prasangika classifies as non-conceptual sensory straightforward cognition and what Sautrantika calls subsequent yogic bare cognition, Prasangika classifies as non-conceptual yogic straightforward cognition. }}</ref> and a profound illumination dawning through meditation (Wylie: ''sgom pa'i shes rab'').

==A Kagyu approach to "Moonbeams of Mahamudra"==
In the Kagu tradition, Lhalungpa notes that lay students often begin their studies with ''The Jewel Ornament of Liberation''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gampopa |last2=Gyaltshen |first2=Khenpo Könchog | year=1998 |title= The Jewel Ornament of Liberation: The Wish-fulfilling Gem of the Noble Teachings | publisher= Snow Lion Publications |location=Ithaca |asin=B001ULD0N2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Khenchen Thrangu | year=2003 |title= The Jewel Ornament of Liberation: The Wish-fulfilling Gem of the Noble Teachings, A Commentary by Khabje Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche | publisher= Namo Buddha and Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Publications |location=Crestone, CO and Auckland, NZ |isbn=1-877294-27-6 }}</ref> by Gampopa or the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra by Shantideva. At the outset, emphasis is placed on the cultivation of bodhicitta and engendering the motivation to study and practice the mind teachings of mahamudra for the benefit of all beings, including oneself. Some students, at this stage, also pursue meditations on Buddhist philosophical frameworks, such as those summarized by [[Khenpo Tsultrim Gyamtso Rinpoche]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gyamtso Rinpoche |first1= Khenpo Tsultrim | year=2016 |title=Progressive Stages of Meditation on Emptiness: Experiential training in meditation, reflection and insight | publisher=Shrimala Trust |isbn=978-1537409009 }}</ref> or explore traditional instructions on the [[Heart Sutra]], [[Madhyamaka]] or [[Ratnagotravibhāga|Uttaratantraśāstra]] to begin to understand the meaning of emptiness (Skt: ''Śūnyatā''),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Khenchen Thrangu | year=2013 |title=The Open Door to Emptiness: An Introduction to Madhyamaka Logic | publisher=Namo Buddha Publications |location= Glastonbury, CT |isbn= 978-1-931571-21-0 }}</ref> in relation to “Buddha Nature“ and reflect on some of their associated profound views, such as the axioms stating that relative phenomena are "empty of self" and absolute phenomena are "empty of other."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Khenchen Thrangu | year=2009 |title= Two Views of Emptiness: Shentong and Rangtong | publisher=Namo Buddha Publications |location= Boulder, CO |isbn=978-1-931571-17-3 }}</ref>

In the introduction to "Moonbeams of Mahamudra," Lhalungpa emphasizes that, "Like other great Buddhist treatises it is studied under the guidance of a chosen teacher. The need for a tutor becomes apparent when one considers the magnitude of this very esoteric work, the profundity of the subject..."<ref>{{cite book |first=Dakpo Tashi |last=Namgyal | year=2006| title=Mahamudra - The Moonlight: Quintessence of Mind and Meditation |pages=xxvii-xxviii |location= Boston | publisher= Wisdom Publications, Inc. |isbn=978-0861712991 }}</ref> The text begins by drawing from essential knowledge and methods from the areas on ethics [[vinaya]], logic ([[pramāṇa]]), and psychology ([[abhidharma]]), including the basis for aggregates of consciousness and the ongoing experiential sense of self consciousness known by each of us. It then presents aspects of the Buddha’s transcendental wisdom ([[prajñāpāramitā]]) and various approaches to achieving insight into the emptiness of self and all phenomena or realities (Skt. sarvadharma-śūnyatā) as their true state.<ref>{{cite book |first=Dakpo Tashi |last=Namgyal | year=2006| title=Mahamudra - The Moonlight: Quintessence of Mind and Meditation |pages=xxviii-xxix |location= Boston | publisher= Wisdom Publications, Inc. |isbn=978-0861712991 }}</ref>

Oral instructions on "Moonbeams of Mahamudra," such as those given by Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Khenchen Thrangu |year=2004 |title= Essentials of Mahamudra: Looking Directly at the Mind |publisher= Wisdom Publications, Inc. |location= Boston |isbn= 978-0-86171-371-4 }}</ref> or the translation of it interwoven with oral instructions, such as presented by [[Traleg Kyabgon Rinpoche]] (1955-2010),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kyabgon |first1=Traleg |title=Moonbeams of Mahamudra: The Classic Meditation Manual |publisher= Shogum Publications, Inc. |location=Carlton North, Victoria |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-9805022-3-7 }}</ref> are considered, within the Kagyu traditions, to serve as a reliable and invaluable gateway to this comprehensive text.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Khenchen Thrangu |title= Creation and Completion: Essential Points of Tantric Meditation |publisher=Wisdom Publications, Inc. |location=Boston |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-86171-312-7 |quote= You need to attempt them again and again until you actually experience them...Once you have gained some experience through actual practice of the instructions found in the text, then go back and study the text again and see how your experience compares with what you found in the text. Thus, by combining practical experience with the learning you have gained by studying the text, what you learn will actually become useful to you as a practitioner. In this way, the transmission of instructions has been kept as a lineage of practical experience rather than simply a lineage of transmitted. }}</ref> Lhalungpa notes that oral instructions are of three types, "There are various forms of explaining the texts: a simple literal explanation (tsigtri), a full explanation (dontri), and an experiential elucidation (nyamtri or martri) based on the teacher's personal experience." He also points out how the most vital instructions stem from interaction with a personal lineage teacher, "The most important of all is the elucidation on each successive stage, which requires the student to meditate for a period of time and then to relate his experience to the teacher. This leads to regular discussions with the teacher in respect to the practice, its problems, and its progress. All the various orders of Tibetan Buddhism practice these oral transmissions."<ref>{{cite book |first=Dakpo Tashi |last=Namgyal |year=2006 | title=Mahamudra - The Moonlight: Quintessence of Mind and Meditation |page=xxx |location=Boston |publisher= Wisdom Publications, Inc. |isbn=978-0861712991 }}</ref>

[[File:Sharaha British Museum.jpg|right|thumb|300px |Saraha (British Museum)]]
Additionally, the study of some of the texts and songs quoted in "Moonbeams of Mahamudra" is encouraged, as they provide a student with both breath and depth. Among these, "Aspiration of Mahamudra,"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Chökyi Nyima |year=1992 |title=Song of Karmapa: The Aspiration of Mahamudra | publisher=Rangjung Yeshe Publications |location= Kathmandu |isbn=962-7341-14-2 }}</ref> written by Rangjung Dorje, provides an excellent overview of mahamudra; two other texts, composed by Rangjung Dorje specifically for those interested in studying mahamudra, "Distinguishing Consciousness from Wisdom,"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Khenchen Thrangu | year=2013 |title=Transcending Ego: Distinguishing Consciousness from Wisdom | publisher= Namo Buddha Publications |location= Glastonbury, CT |isbn=978-1-931571-24-1 }}</ref> a treatise on Buddhist psychology related to its abhidharma, and "A Treatise on Buddha Nature",<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Khenchen Thrangu | year=2006 |title=On Buddha Essence: A Commentary on Rangjung Dorje's Treatise | publisher= Shambhala Publications, Inc. |location= Boston |isbn=1-59030-276-1 }}</ref> are also considered to be very helpful. An additional support, prior to or concurrent to studying the main text itself, are the oral instructions provided on one or more of the historical [[Doha (Indian literature)|Doha]]s composed by one of the great adepts associated with the tradition, such as those of Sarāha or Naropa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Khenchen Thrangu | year=2006 |title=Song for the King: Saraha on Mahamudra Meditation | publisher= Wisdom Publications |location= Boston |isbn= 978-0-86171-503-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Khenchen Thrangu |year=1997 |title=Songs of Naropa: Commentaries on Songs of Realization |publisher= Rangjung Yeshe Publications |location=Hong Kong |isbn= 962-7341-28-2 }}</ref>

Study and practice of the main body of "Moonbeams of Mahamudra" itself is traditionally divided into its two parts.

Part One, entitled "A Concise Elucidation of the Common System of Tranquil Equipoise," covers the guidance instructions for common (to all Buddhist traditions) tranquility meditation and insight meditation practices, first emphasizing each approach's individual distinctions and then making clear how to practice them completely in unity. In relation to insight, Dakpo Tashi Namgyal draws from the [[Sandhinirmocana Sutra|Saṃdhinirmochana-sūtra]] of the Buddha, the doctrines of [[Maitreya]], the [[Abhidharma-samuccaya]] by [[Asaṅga]], the ''Prajñāpāramitopadeśa'' of [[Ratnākaraśānti]], and the treatises of the [[Bhāvanākrama]] by [[Kamalaśīla]],<ref>{{cite book |first=Dakpo Tashi |last=Namgyal |year=2006 | title=Mahamudra - The Moonlight: Quintessence of Mind and Meditation |publisher=Wisdom Publications, Inc. |pages=15–88 |isbn=978-0861712991 }}</ref> and also presents the views and contemplations of other schools, with emphasis on the doctrines on "selflessness."

Next, Part Two of "Moonbeams of Mahamudra," entitled "An Extensive Elucidation of Mahāmudrā, the uncommon mahamudra meditation," presents the main body of the mahamudra theory and practices. In the first two chapters, it begins by covering topics to engender confidence in the teachings and the approaches of mahamudra (Chapter 1) and then summarizes both the common (reflection on the "four thoughts") and the special preliminary practices (Chapter 2.) In recent centuries, special preliminaries have frequently been incorporated into a small set of tantric practices (which traditionally require empowerments, such as [[Vajrasattva]]), although Gampopa and Dakpo Tashi Namgyal both regarded the tantric elements as optional, and not to be required for proceeding with the study and practice of mahamudra itself.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Namgyal |first1=Dakpo Tashi |title= Moonbeams of Mahamudra: with Dispelling the Darkness of Ignorance by Wangchuk Dorje, the Ninth Karmapa |publisher=Snow Lion |location=Boulder |year=2019 |isbn=9781559394802 |quote=Gampopa’s blend of Kagyu mahāmudrā instructions with the graduated Kadam path was a non-tantric approach to mahāmudrā, meaning that no abhiṣekas or preliminary Vajrayāna meditations were required to practice mahāmudrā. – Elizabeth M. Callahan (from Translator’s Introduction) }}</ref>

The next two chapters of Part Two then present in-depth instructions with emphasis on mahamudra tranquility meditation (Chapter 3) and mahamudra insight meditation (Chapter 4.)

The remaining chapters of Part Two (and of the book) present the advanced body of teachings on mahamudra, outlined as follows:{{blockquote|
The Stages of Virtuous Practice (Chapter 5.)
1. Understanding the system of absorption at the start
2. The actual identification of spontaneous coemergence
3. The elimination of flaws and the appreciation of the meaning of meditation

Consolidation of Experience in Meditation: How to Maintain Absorption and Postabsorption (Chapter 6.)
1. The reason for maintaining the meditation even after gaining insight into the identity of virtuous contemplation
2. How specifically to maintain absorption and postabsorption

Consolidation of Experience in Meditation: How to Get Rid of Meditative Deviation (Chapter 7.)
1. The elimination of aberration and deviation with regard to absorptive equipoise
2. The methods of removing obstacles to meditation

Determining the Mind to Be Expansive, Open, and Nonarising (Chaper 8.)
1. The epithet, significance, and time of determining the mind
2. Determining the abiding nature of the mind
3. Watching the mind's inner face as the basis of determination
4. Being aware of the mind’s nonarising openness
5. Remaining in the state of determinate awareness throughout the day and night

The Resultant Dawning of Realization (Chaper 9.)
1. Differentiating the ways of realization
2. How realization of the four stages of yoga takes place and the specific elucidation of each of the four yoga stages of Mahāmudrā<ref>{{cite book |first=Dakpo Tashi |last=Namgyal |year=2006|title=Mahamudra - The Moonlight: Quintessence of Mind and Meditation |location= Boston |publisher= Wisdom Publications, Inc. |isbn=978-0861712991 }}</ref> }}

The text finishes with a detailed presentation of the four yogas of mahamudra, 1) one-pointedness, 2) freedom from elaborations, 3) one-taste and 4) non-meditation, which were skillfully introduced earlier in the text, when Dakpo Tashi Namgyal provides detailed instructions on the blending of meditative absorption with postabsorption, and thereby begins to open up mahamudra practice to meaningfully embrace even the distracted states of mind, a special feature of advanced mahamudra practice.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Namgyal |first1=Dakpo Tashi |title= Moonbeams of Mahamudra: with Dispelling the Darkness of Ignorance by Wangchuk Dorje, the Ninth Karmapa |publisher=Snow Lion |location=Boulder |year=2019 |pages=351–353 |isbn=9781559394802 }}</ref>

Dakpo Tashi Namgyal also authored a condensed meditation guide focused exclusively on mahamudra practice, which was translated by [[Erik Pema Kunsang]] and published in 2001. In its introduction, Thrangu Rinpoche reiterates the view that, "it is important that the profound and ultimate instructions of Mahamudra and Dzogchen are made available," and then adds: {{blockquote|In particular the words of Dakpo Tashi Namgyal are unique in that they are adorned with plenty of pithy advice out of his personal experience. Therefore, practitioners are greatly benefitted by his instructions on how to remove hindrances and progress further. His methods for practicing Mahamudra, found in such books as "Moonbeams" and "Clarifying the Natural State," are preeminent. Of these, this book ("Clarifying the Natural State") is indispensable as it focuses exclusively on practice.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Namgyal |first1=Dakpo Tashi |title= Clarifying the Natural State: A Principal Guidance Manual for Mahamudra |publisher=Rangjung Yeshe Publications |year=2001 |page=9 |isbn=962-7341-45-2 }}</ref> }} The oral instructions had been previously given by Thrangu Rinpoche over two years, in 1998 and 1999, and were also translated by Kunsang. They were published, in 2003, under the title, ''Crystal Clear: Practical Advice for Meditators''. In the same year, potential contributions of these ancient teachings to the modern world were being posited by Cambridge educated Traleg Kyabgon Rinpoche, who writes:{{blockquote|I believe that Mahamudra meditation is a most congenial match for the contemporary world. This type of meditation is not founded on the moralistic, judgmental, punitive approaches modern people often associate with religion, nor does it emphasize a spiritual path involving extensive periods of discipline, self-denial, and self-abnegation…the Mahamudra approach to spirituality allows us to see things in a positive and open light. Even things that we might normally regard as bad and undesirable can be interpreted in a more uplifting way due to the expansiveness of the Mahamudra vision, allowing us to benefit from it spiritually.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kyabgon |first1=Traleg |title=Mind at Ease: Self-Liberation Through Mahamudra Meditation |publisher= Shambhala Publications, Inc. |year=2003 |page=xvi |isbn=1-59030-156-0 }}</ref> }}

==A Nyingma approach to ''Lion's Gaze'' and the "Chöying Dzöd"==
In the Nyingma traditions, most students begin their studies with the ''Words of My Perfect Teacher''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Patrul | year=2010 |title= Words of My Perfect Teacher: A Complete Translation of a Classic Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism |publisher= Shambhala Publications, Inc. |location=Boston |isbn=978-1-57062-412-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pelzang |first1=Khenpo Ngawang | year=2010 |title=A Guide to the Words of My Perfect Teacher |publisher= Shambhala Publications, Inc. |location=Boston |isbn=978-1590300732 }}</ref> Students wishing to explore the philosophical frameworks associated with this tradition may elect to read and study a more extensive work such as, ''The Adornment of the Middle Way: Shantarakshita's Madhyamakalankara with commentary by Jamgön Mipham.''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shantarakshita |last2=Mipham |first2=Jamgön | year=1998 |title= The Adornment of the Middle Way: Shantarakshita's Madhyamakalankara with commentary by Jamgön Mipham | publisher= Shambhala Publications, Inc. |location=Boston |isbn=1-59030-241-9 }}</ref> The four thoughts of the common preliminaries are always emphasized on the path, as is the case in the Kagyu traditions. Although dzogchen is also taught as a path independent of tantra, and therefore strictly not requiring empowerments, tantric preliminaries are often combined with its special preliminaries, as in the newer [[Longchen Nyingthig]] or ''Dudjom Tersar'' traditions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Norbu |first1= Namkhai |title=The 21 Semzin of Dzog-chen Upadesa |pages=14–15 |publisher=Rinchen Edition |location=Singapore |year=1992 |isbn=981-00-3792-9 }}</ref> ''Lion's Gaze'' notes that after the common and special [[ngondro]] practices, there is a set of beginning or preparation practices to the main body of dzogchen called "khorde rushan" (Wylie: '''khor 'das ru shan'') and introduces them briefly, including the outer, inner and secret practices, noting beforehand that, "Most interest in dzogchen arose after the 17th century, and some masters began teaching larger groups with more than twenty or thirty students at a time. The emphasis remained the same, receptivity to the teachings was and still is the key to realization."<ref name=":5">{{cite book |first1= Khenchen Palden |last1=Sherab Rinpoche |first2= Khenpo Tsewang |last2= Dongyal Rinpoche |year=1998 |title=Lion's Gaze |pages=64–74 |publisher=Sky Dancer Press |location=Boca Rota, FL |isbn=1-880975-05-X }}</ref>

[[File:Chagdud tulku rinpoche.JPG|right|thumb|300px |Chagdud tulku rinpoche]]
Great emphasis in the Nyingma tradition is also placed on working with a qualified teacher, should one be available (and availability of qualified teachers had already become an issue in the 17th century, in part due to the increasing popularity),<ref name=":5"/> and on laying a suitable groundwork by reading and studying its foundational and philosophical texts. Regarding finding qualified guidance – and this is still emphasized, in the case of the "Chöying Dzöd," the profundity of its topics is such that it is said that even with personal guidance by a great teacher (such as Nyoshul Lungtok (1829-1901), a student of the Paltrul Rinpoche), a fully qualified student (such as Khenpo Ngakchung (1879-1941)) may require an extensive period of reflection and practice based on that guidance, to fully comprehend its significance. Tulku Thondup Rinpoche notes how Nyoshul Lungtok told his student, Khenpo Ngakchung, "You must study it and treasure the understanding of its meaning in your mind" and yet, in spite of his many fervent prayers to Longchenpa, Khenpo Ngakchung, after some time, relayed back to his teacher that he still "didn’t have much understanding." So Nyoshul Lungtok then provided further clarification instruction and encouragement and, after awhile, Khenpo Ngakchung reports back, describing it as follows:{{blockquote|After that I studied ''Choying Dzod'' again and again and arrived at an awareness that wasn't the same as what I had earlier. I presented this discovery to him (Nyoshul Lungtok) and he said, "That is right! Progress is made gradually."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thondup Rinpoche |first1=Tulku |title=Buddha Mind: An Anthology of Longchen Rabjam's Writings on Dzogpa Chenpo |publisher=Snow Lion Publications |year=1989 |page=xii-xiii |isbn=0-937938-66-1 }}</ref> }}

The "Chöying Dzöd" (including the detailed auto-commentary by Longchenpa) dedicates its first nine chapters on the view of dzogchen, before introducing meditation practice in one chapter based on that view, thereby underscoring the importance of establishing a correct introduction to the view of dzogchen as a basis for meditation. In introducing dzogchen view and practice in the West in London in 1984, the 14th Dalai Lama based his instructions on the Patrul Rinpoche and Garab Dorje texts later included in ''Lion's Gaze''. He ensured that his teachings on these texts were published at the outset of his own new book, published in 2000, which also included a 1989 presentation on dzogchen drawn primarily from Longchenpa's "Chöying Dzöd." In this manner, a reader would benefit from receiving an introduction to dzogchen along the lines of ''Lion's Gaze'', before going on to read and consider his teachings on the "Chöying Dzöd." He also points out the uniqueness of the approach of dzogchen, stating, "…the special feature of Dzogchen is that the path is created through wisdom. In the Nyingma tradition, the teachings are divided into nine vehicles. Among them are the eight which are philosophical systems that depend on ordinary consciousness, meaning they employ the ordinary mind. In Dzogchen, or Atiyoga, however, the path is created with wisdom, which transcends the ordinary mind or consciousness altogether. There is an enormous difference between a path created with the ordinary mind and a path created through wisdom."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lama |first1=H. H. the Dalai |title=Dzogchen: The Heart Essence of the Great Perfection |publisher=Shambhala Publications, Inc. |year= 2000 |page=125 |isbn=1-55939-157-X }}</ref>

The renowned non-sectarian [[Jamgon Kongtrul]] (1813-1899) originally pointed out the importance, particularly in dzogchen, of establishing the correct view or experience of the view at the outset,<ref>{{cite book|first=Peter F. |last=Barth |author-link=Peter F. Barth |year=2013| title=The Meditations of Longchen Rabjam: A Guide to the Four Chog Zhag and Three Samadhis of the Chöying Dzöd| pages=238–239 |publisher= LearningKeys.com| location= Petaluma| asin= B077H77LWQ}}</ref> whether based on directly heard, or on written, pointing-out instructions, or on pointing-out by other means. In conclusion to his presentation on dzogchen and the "Chöying Dzöd", the Dalai Lama advises:{{blockquote|
What I have taught so far should be taken simply as a key, a basis or a source, which should be complemented later on by further reading, meditation and practice. Only then will what I have taught here become beneficial and fruitful. For an actual practitioner of Dzogchen, what is of vital importance is to maintain a continuous effort in your practice…I would like to reiterate: to have a real experience and realization of an advanced level of the path, it is crucial to lay a firm foundation and grounding in the paths. That is why in the Dzogchen system, great emphasis is placed on the preliminaries….The complete preliminary practices are explained systematically in great detail in a text called ''The Words of My Perfect Teacher''… composed by Dza Patrul Rinpoche, as notes taken at a teaching by his teacher Jikmé Gyalwé Nyugu. This text has been translated and is available in English. So if you maintain a sustained effort, without losing your hope or your courage, you will make progress along your spiritual path, and that is certain.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lama |first1=H. H. the Dalai |title=Dzogchen: The Heart Essence of the Great Perfection |publisher=Shambhala Publications, Inc. |year= 2000 |pages=198–199 |isbn=1-55939-157-X }}</ref>}}

The importance of the "Chöying Dzöd," and the great reverence by which it is held, is apparent from the introduction to it, in which Tulku Thondup Rinpoche quotes Patrul Rinpoche's statement that the text itself embodies "the meaning of the innate mind, [[dharmakaya]]. It elucidates naked primordial wisdom without affirming or denying anything. It is the heart essence of the visions of the Omniscient Lama [[Longchenpa|Longchen Rabjam]]. It is the most profound of all the teachings." In addition, Tulku Thondup Rinpoche writes: {{blockquote|For centuries, it has remained one of the most sacred meditation manuals and has inspired thousands to attain the ultimate realization of Dzogpa Chenpo.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rabjam |first1=Longchen |title=A Treasure Trove of Scriptural Transmission : A Commentary on The Precious Treasury of the Basic Space of Phenomena |publisher=Padma Publishing |year=2001 |page=ix |isbn=1-881847-30-6 }}</ref>}}

==Legacy and the Rimé movement==
Patrul Rinpoche was a notable proponent of the [[Rimé movement]]. In ''The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism'', Dudjom Rinpoche, summarizes its highest dzogchen practices by quoting not just traditional Nyingma sources, but also the forefathers of mahamudra, Saraha and Naropa, thereby acknowledging the fundamental harmony between the Nyingma and Kagyu mind teachings. He also expresses that he hopes his own concise presentations of these profound teachings will "somewhat benefit" those who pursue its subject-matter with open minds.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rinpoche |first1=Dudjom |title=The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals and History |publisher=Wisdom Publications |year= 1991 |pages=333–335 |isbn=0-86171-199-8 }}</ref>

[[File:Khyentse Chokyi Lodro, the 16th Karmapa, and the 6th Dzogchen Ponlop at Bodh Gaya in 1956.jpg|right|thumb|300px |Khyentse Chokyi Lodro, the 16th Karmapa, and the 6th Dzogchen Ponlop at Bodh Gaya in 1956]]
The spirit of the Rimé was also embraced by the 16th Karmapa, Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, having been fostered by Khyentse Chökyi Lodrö, a mutual teacher of his and of Dudjom Rinpoche, and of a young Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche. Since the time of [[Khakyab Dorje, 15th Karmapa Lama]] (who had received all the Rimé transmissions from his teacher Jamgon Kongtrul), the leading Kagyu lamas have also embraced Rimé [[universalism]] and [[nonsectarianism]]. It is in that spirit that the Kagyu mahamudra teacher Thrangu Rinpoche also emphasizes the importance of studying and practicing dzogchen based on instructions of Longchenpa in writing:{{blockquote|One of the most renowned presentations of Dzogchen is given in Longchen Rabjam's "Chöying Dzöd." This text gives clear instructions on how to develop the view and practice the meditation of resting in the nature of awareness. Studying and practicing these meditations will be of great benefit to everyone who encounters these instructions.<ref>{{cite book|first=Peter F. |last=Barth |author-link=Peter F. Barth |year=2013| title=The Meditations of Longchen Rabjam: A Guide to the Four Chog Zhag and Three Samadhis of the Chöying Dzöd | publisher= LearningKeys.com| location= Petaluma| asin= B077H77LWQ}}</ref> }}

The legacy of the wishes of Tibetan Buddhist religious leaders and their adherents, after being forced to leave their homelands, is visibly apparent in the second half of the 20th century and in the dawn of the 21st, through the collective presentations and publications of the quality translations of these most important sacred texts,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rabjam |first1=Longchen |title=A Treasure Trove of Scriptural Transmission: A Commentary on The Precious Treasury of the Basic Space of Phenomena |publisher=Padma Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=1-881847-30-6 |pages=v-vi |quote=Yet, because great perfection transmission leads to wisdom beyond words and concepts, the translation of dzogchen texts presents tremendous difficulties. Some lamas have said that it is not even worth the attempt, that too much distortion results. I respect their opinion, but feel that those of us with the supreme fortune to have received authentic transmission from great dzogchen masters have a responsibility to maintain the oral lineage, including the translation of texts, as well as the mind-to-mind lineage of realization. If we eschew this work, the precious great perfection teachings will remain inaccessible to some excellent Western practitioners who have potential as meditators but who do not know Tibetan. An avenue for the flourishing of the transmission will be cut off. – Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche (from Foreword) }}</ref> along with their associated oral instructions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Namgyal |first1=Dakpo Tashi |title= Clarifying the Natural State: A Principal Guidance Manual for Mahamudra |publisher=Rangjung Yeshe Publications |year=2001 |page=9 |quote=These days many people follow the Dharma astutely and not merely out of faith. Knowledgeable in many topics, they exert themselves in applying the sublime teachings. So, it is important that the profound and ultimate instructions of Mahamudra and Dzogchen are made available. These should include the sublime teachings of Mahamudra, the profound instructions that are simple to practice that are the unimpaired essence of realization of the eight great masters and eighty mahasiddhas from the noble land of India. As these instructions have been kept alive, through an unbroken stream of teaching and practice, by the learned and accomplished masters of Tibet, I find it of vital importance to have some of them translated into foreign languages. In particular, the words of Dakpo Tashi Namgyalare unique in that they are adorned with plenty of pithy advice out of his personal experience. – Thrangu Rinpoche (from Introduction)|isbn=962-7341-45-2 }}</ref> Taken together, they represent the first major milestone towards ensuring the preservation of the religious and cultural heritage of the mind teachings of Tibet – an effort which some may regard to be reminiscent of their original introduction to the lands of Tibet, more than thirteen centuries earlier.<ref>[http://studybuddhism.com/web/en/archives/e-books/unpublished_manuscripts/survey_tibetan_history/chapter_1.html: Berzin, Alexander, ''A Survey of Tibetan History'']</ref>

==Bibliography of Khenchen Palden Sherab Rinpoche (Nyingma)==
* With Khenpo Tsewang Dongyal. ''Ceaseless Echoes of Great Silence''. Sky Dancer Press, 1999. {{ISBN|978-1880975022}}
* With Khenpo Tsewang Dongyal. ''Discovering Infinite Freedom: The Prayer of Küntuzangpo''. Padma Samye Ling, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-9820922-2-4}}
* With Khenpo Tsewang Dongyal. ''Illuminating the Path: Ngondro Instructions According to the Nyingma School of Vajrayana Buddhism''. Padmasambhava Buddhist Center, 2008.
* With Khenpo Tsewang Dongyal. ''Lion's Gaze: A Commentary on Tsig Sum Nedek''. Sky Dancer Press, 1998. {{ISBN|1-880975-05-X}}
* With Khenpo Tsewang Dongyal. ''Opening To Our Primordial Nature.'' Snow Lion Publications, 2006. {{ISBN|1-55939-249-5}}

==Bibliography of Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche (Karma Kagyu)==
* ''Aspirational Prayer for Mahamudra of Rangjung Dorje'' (1999), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ASIN|B001L9KZL8}}
* ''Buddha Nature'' (1988, 1993), Rangjung Yeshe Publications. {{ISBN|962-7341-17-7}}
* ''Buddhist Conduct: The Ten Virtuous Actions'' (2001), Namo Buddha Publications.
* ''Creation and Completion'' (1996, 2002), Wisdom Publications. {{ISBN|978-0-86171-312-7}}
* ''Crystal Clear: Practical Advice for Mahamudra Meditators'' (2003), Rangjung Yeshe Publications. {{ISBN|978-962-7341-51-2}}
* ''Distinguishing Dharma and Dharmata: A Commentary on the Treatise of Maitreya'' (2004), Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-877294-33-4}}
* ''Essential Practice: Lectures on Kamalashila's Stages of Meditation'' (2002), Snow Lion. {{ISBN|978-1-55939-181-8}}
* ''Essentials of Mahamudra: Looking Directly at the Mind'' (2004), Wisdom Publications. {{ISBN|978-0-86171-371-4}}
* ''Everyday Consciousness and Primordial Awareness'' (2002), Snow Lion. {{ISBN|978-1-55939-379-9}}
* ''The Five Buddha Families and the Eight Consciousnesses'' (2013), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-931571-51-7}}
* ''The Four Dharmas of Gampopa'' (2013), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-931571-50-0}}
* ''Four Foundations of Buddhist Practice'' (2010), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-931571-19-7}}
* ''A Guide to the Bardo'' (2004), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-931571-08-1}}
* ''A Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life of Shantideva'' (2002). {{ISBN|978-9383441846}}
* ''A Guide to Mahamudra Meditation'' (2008), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-931571-15-9}}
* ''A Guide to Shamatha Meditation'' (2001), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|0-9628026-4-6}}
* ''The Heart of the Dharma: Mind Training for Beginners'' (2010), KTD Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-934608-15-9}}
* ''A History of Buddhism in India'' (2008), Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-877294-39-6}}
* ''The Jewel Ornament of Liberation'' (2003), Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-877294-27-3}}
* ''Journey of the Mind: Putting the Teachings on the Bardo into Effective Practice'' (1997), Karma Thekchen Choling, Vancouver. {{ASIN|B000B8742S}}
* ''King of Samadhi: Commentaries on the Samadhi Raja Sutra'' (2004), Rangjung Yeshe Publications. {{ISBN|962-7341-19-3}}
* ''The Life and Spiritual Songs of Milarepa'' (2003), Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-877294-26-6}}
* ''The Life and Teachings of Gampopa'' (2003), Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-877294-30-3}}
* ''The Life of the Buddha and the Four Noble Truths'' (2009), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-931571-09-8}}
* ''The Life of Tilopa and the Ganges Mahamudra'' (2002), Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-877294-22-8}}
* ''Luminous Clarity: A Commentary on Karma Chagme's Union of Mahamudra and Dzogchen'' (2016), Snow Lion. {{ASIN|B01M00G4LJ}}
* ''The Middle-Way Meditation Instructions of Mipham Rinpoche'' (2000), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|978-0-9628026-6-9}}
* ''The Ninth Karmapa's Ocean of Definitive Meaning'' (2010), Snow Lion. {{ISBN|978-1-55939-370-6}}
* ''An Ocean of the Ultimate Meaning: Teachings on Mahamudra'' (2004), Snow Lion. {{ISBN|978-1-59030-055-8}}
* ''On Buddha Essence: A Commentary on Rangjung Dorje's Treatise'' (2006), Shambhala. {{ISBN|978-1-59030-276-7}}
* ''The Open Door to Emptiness'' (2012), Namo Buddha Publications, {{ISBN|978-1-931571-21-0}}
* ''The Ornament of Clear Realization'' (2005), Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-877294-34-1}}
* ''Pointing Out the Dharmakaya'' (2003), Snow Lion. {{ISBN|978-1-55939-388-1}}
* ''The Practice of Tranquillity and Insight'' (1993), Snow Lion. {{ISBN|978-1-55939-106-1}}
* ''Rechungpa: A Biography of Milarepa's Disciple'' (2011), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-931571-22-7}}
* ''Seven Points of Mind Training'' (2006), Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Publications. {{ISBN|978-1877294372 }}
* ''Shentong and Rangtong: Two Views of Emptiness'' (2009), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-931571-17-3}}
* ''Showing the Path to Liberation'' (2002), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-931571-00-5}}
* ''A Song for the King: Saraha on Mahamudra Meditation'' (2006), Wisdom Publications. {{ISBN|978-0-86171-503-9}}
* ''Songs of Naropa: Commentaries on Songs of Realization'' (1997), Rangjung Yeshe Publications. {{ISBN|962-7341-28-2 }}
* ''A Spiritual Biography of Marpa the Translator'' (2001), Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-877294-07-5}}
* ''The Spiritual Song of Lodro Thaye'' (2008), Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-877294-40-2}}
* ''Teachings on the Practice of Meditation'' (2001), Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-877294-04-4}}
* ''The Three Vehicles of Buddhist Practice'' (2003), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-931571-02-9}}
* ''Transcending Ego: Distinguishing Consciousness from Wisdom'' (2001), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|978-0-9628026-1-4}}
* ''The Twelve Links of Interdependent Origination'' (2013), Namo Buddha Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-931571-52-4}}
* ''The Uttaratantra: A Treatise on Buddha-Essence'' (2004), Zhyisil Chokyi Ghatsal Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-877294-29-7}}
* ''Vivid Awareness: The Mind Instructions of Khenpo Gangshar'' (2011), Shambhala. {{ISBN|978-1-59030-816-5}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official|https://www.padmasambhava.org|Padmasambhava Buddhist Center official website}}
* [http://www.rinpoche.com Thrangu Rinpoche's website]
* [http://www.mahamudracenter.org Mahamudra Meditation Center]

[[Category:Mahamudra|Mahamudra]]
[[Category:Dzogchen|Dzogchen]]
[[Category:Kagyu]]
[[Category:Nyingma]]
[[Category:Tibetan Buddhist philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Tibetan Buddhist practices]]
[[Category:Religion in Tibet]]
[[Category:Schools of Tibetan Buddhism]]

Bidupur

2023-07-20T11:01:48Z

Prasenjeet: Just published a comprehensive article.

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| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Bihar
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in bihar , India
| coordinates = {{coord|25.706834|N|85.221183|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Bihar]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of regions of India|Region]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[vaishali district|vaishali]]
| subdivision_type4 = District Sub-division
| subdivision_name4 = Hajipur<ref name=Vaishaliatglance>{{cite web|title=Vaishali at a Glance |url=http://vaishali.bih.nic.in/DPMCWEB/St_Doc/District%20At%20a%20Glance/District%20Profile_Vaishali_Debjani.pdf|publisher=vaishali.bih.nic.in|accessdate=24 November 2014}}</ref>
| subdivision_type5 = Anchal
| subdivision_name5 = Bidupur<ref name=Vaishaliatglance/>
| subdivision_type6 = [[Vidhan Sabha| Vidhan Sabha constituency]]
| subdivision_name6 = [[Raghopur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Raghopur assembly constituency]]<ref>[http://ceobihar.nic.in/map/include/AC123.pdf Raghopur Assembly constituency -- chief Electoral Officer official website]</ref>
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| parts_type =
| parts =
| government_type = [[Community development block in India|Community development block]]
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 268849
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 844503
| registration_plate =
| website =
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-BR]]
| footnotes =
}}
'''Bidupur''' is a community development block in Vaishali district in the Indian state of Bihar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Subdivision & Blocks {{!}} Official Website of Vaishali District {{!}} India |url=https://vaishali.nic.in/subdivision-blocks/ |access-date=2023-07-13 |language=en-US}}</ref> The main Post office is Bidupur Bidupur is one of the 16 blocks of Vaishali.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About District {{!}} Official Website of Vaishali District {{!}} India |url=https://vaishali.nic.in/about-district/ |access-date=2023-07-13 |language=en-US}}</ref> There are 116 villages in Bidupur block.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Villages & Towns in Bidupur Block of Vaishali, Bihar |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/subdistrict/1280-bidupur-vaishali-bihar.html |access-date=2023-07-13 |website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref>

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Community development blocks in Vaishali district]]

{{Bihar-geo-stub}}

Bilateralism

2023-05-09T04:48:06Z

Prasenjeet: Just completed a comprehensive guide.

{{Short description|Relationship between two sovereign States}}
{{Other uses|Bilateral (disambiguation){{!}}Bilateral}}
{{More citations needed}}
{{Use dmy dates}}

'''Bilateralism''' is the conduct of political, economic, or cultural relations between two [[sovereign state]]s. It is in contrast to [[unilateralism]] or [[multilateralism]], which is activity by a single state or jointly by multiple states, respectively. When states recognize one another as [[sovereign state]]s and agree to diplomatic relations, they create a bilateral relationship. States with bilateral ties will exchange diplomatic agents such as ambassadors to facilitate dialogues and cooperations.

Economic agreements, such as [[free trade agreement]]s (FTA) or [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI), signed by two states, are a common example of bilateralism. Since most economic agreements are signed according to the specific characteristics of the contracting countries to give preferential treatment to each other, not a generalized principle but a situational differentiation is needed. Thus through bilateralism, states can obtain more tailored agreements and obligations that only apply to particular contracting states. However, the states will face a trade-off because it is more wasteful in transaction costs than the multilateral strategy. In a bilateral strategy, a new contract has to be negotiated for each participant. So it tends to be preferred when [[transaction costs]] are low and the member surplus, which corresponds to "[[producer surplus]]" in economic terms, is high. Moreover, this will be effective if an influential state wants control over small states from a liberalism perspective, because building a series of bilateral arrangements with small states can increase a state's influence.<ref>{{cite web|last=Thompson|first=Alexander|title=Multilateralism, Bilateralism and Regime Design|url=http://politicalscience.osu.edu/faculty/athompson/Lateralisms.pdf|publisher=Department of Political Science Ohio State University|access-date=23 September 2013}}</ref>

==Examples==
* Australia and Canada have a [[Australia–Canada relations|bilateral relationship]]; both have similar governments and share similar values as well as having the same titular head of state. In 1895 the Government of Canada sent John Larke to Sydney to establish a trade commission and in 1935 Canada sent Charles Burchell (Australia's first Canadian High Commissioner) to formalise ties between the two countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/canada/brief.html|title=Canada country brief - September 2010|work=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade|access-date=3 June 2011}}</ref> Both nations have been wartime allies, and their trade and economic relations are strong.
* India and [[Nepal]] have had a bilateral relationship since ancient times even before the birth of the [[Buddha]] in 563 BC. In modern times, this traditional relationship has been confirmed by written treaties. The [[1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship|India-Nepal treaty of friendship]] was signed in July 1950. That provided economically and politically important effects for both countries. In 2011, the two countries signed a new Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement. These bilateral treaties have played a significant role in the evolution of international investment law. Citizens of both countries can move across the border freely without passport or visa, live and work in either country and own property and business in either country. [[Gurkha]]s form a part of the Indian Army. Millions of Nepalis have been living in India for long periods of time.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160531162834/http://icsidreview.oxfordjournals.org/content/28/2/384.abstract] Oxford Journal</ref>
* The United States has bilateral relationships with several East Asian countries, particularly South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. The United States formed a bilateral alliance with Japan during the [[Security Treaty between the United States and Japan]]. The U.S. also formed a bilateral alliance with Korea during the 1953 [[U.S.–South Korea Status of Forces Agreement]] and one with the Republic of China during the 1954 [[Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty]]. Unlike its relationship with European nations which takes [[multilateralism|multilateral]] alliances centered in [[NATO]], the U.S. prefers a direct relationship with each of the East Asian countries. Rather than establishing a security alliance or hosting a summit, the U.S. tends to make a direct connection with each nation. From both historical and political perspectives, every country in the East Asian region can be an opponent or a target to any other. Therefore, it is comparatively difficult to construct multilateral alliances, which depend upon mutual reliance. A main U.S. reason for choosing a bilateral treaty was to avoid conflict, as might have been the case with multilateral treaties (e.g. risk of multilateral treaty defects). An example is the "[[San Francisco System|hub and spokes]]" reference, where the U.S. is the "hub" and the East Asian countries are the "spokes"; they each have a connection with the U.S. but not with each other.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eai.or.kr/data/bbs/eng_report/201104281643832.pdf|title=BBS Reports, December 2013|website=EAI.or.kr|access-date=16 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/369951|title=Powerplay Origins of the U.S. Alliance System in Asia|first=Victor D.|last=Cha|journal=International Security|volume=34|issue=3|pages=158–196|access-date=16 July 2017|via=Project MUSE|doi=10.1162/isec.2010.34.3.158|s2cid=57566528}}</ref>
** There are multiple factors that are unique when discussing why the United States has chosen to form bilateral relations particularly with East Asian countries, in comparison to the multilateral relations, such as NATO. Firstly, the United States had existing and longer relations with countries in Europe. Thus it was easier for the United States to build and form this [[Multilateralism|multilateral]] bond. [[Victor Cha]] states "Acheson argued that NATO was the product of a long, deliberative process, that West European powers had carefully developed their plan for collective defense before asking for U.S. help, and most revealing, that the United States viewed NATO as a mutual collective defense arrangement."<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Powerplay Origins of the U.S. Alliance System in Asia|journal=International Security|volume=34| issue = 3|pages=158–196|doi=10.1162/isec.2010.34.3.158 | last1 = Cha | first1 = Victor D.|s2cid=57566528}}</ref> Another factor which contributed is the geography of East Asia compared to Europe. Because Europe is "connected", it is better for the security and economy. Whereas in East Asia, states are divided over a large space and is separated by large amounts of water and distance, making it a less admirable condition to form multilateral bonds for the United States. In East Asia, there are also a variety of regimes: communist, authoritarian regimes as well as democratic regimes. In comparison to the states in NATO, who are consisted of democracies, causing a level of difficulty in creating multilateral relations. Another factor is that the states in NATO recognised the same source of threat, which was [[USSR]]. This allowed for an agreement amongst these NATO states to form this multilateral relation. However, in the case with East Asia, there was no unified threat. For the [[Taiwan|ROC]] (Republic of China, otherwise known as Taiwan), China was seen as the threat. For the [[South Korea|ROK]] (Republic of Korea, otherwise known as South Korea), [[North Korea|DPRK]] (Democratic People's Republic of Korea, otherwise known as North Korea) was the threat. Thus there was a great level of difficulty in the United States forming an alliance with East Asia as the threats were different. Among many of the different explanations behind the United States' choice of intervening in the bilateral alliances in East Asia, some social historians added that the U.S. decision makers firmly believed that unlike Europe, "inferior" Asians presumably did not possess the level of sophistication and responsibility that was required for the complex organization of the multilateral security arrangements. Christopher Hemmer and Peter J. Katzenstein concluded, "trust [was] absent, religion and domestic value were shared in only few cases, and race invoked as a powerful force separating the U.S. from Asia".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic199080.files/Readings_for_October_2_/HemmerPK.pdf|title=Why is There No NATO in Asia? Collective Identity, Regionalism, and the Origins of Multilateralism.|website=Harvard.edu|access-date=16 July 2017}}{{dead link|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
** Victor Cha proposed the [[Powerplay (theory)]] in his article "Powerplay Origins of the U.S. Alliances Systems in Asia", which explains the reasons behind the United States' decision in creating a series of bilateral alliances with East Asian countries. Powerplay is commonly used in any political or social situation when one uses its knowledge or information against others in order to gain benefits using situational advantages the one has. According to the powerplay theory, the alliances were created to both contain and constrain potential rogue allies ([[rogue state]]) from performing aggressive behavior that would trigger larger military conflict and involvement. The rogue allies (rogue states) include Taiwan's Kai Shek Chiang, who was publicly planning and looking forward to take back mainland China, and Korea's Syngman Rhee, who wanted to unify the Korean peninsula. The United States was also worried that Japan would recover its regional power in Asia. Cha concludes that the postwar United States planners had selected such a type of security architecture as an attempt to prevent aggression by the East Asian pro-west dictators and to increase leverage and states' dependency on the U.S. economy.
** The U.S.–Japan alliance was a bilateral security order created with the intention of preventing the expansion of Soviet power and communism in the Asia Pacific. The U.S. provided Japan, and the other Asia Pacific countries, with the offer of security protection and access to American markets, technology, and supplies in exchange for providing diplomatic, economic, and logistical support for the U.S., as this, according to John Ikenberry, would lead to the "wider, American-centered anti-Communist postwar order".<ref>[http://www.ou.edu/uschina/SASD/SASD2005/2005readings/Ikenberry2004%20AmHegEA.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005063208/http://www.ou.edu/uschina/SASD/SASD2005/2005readings/Ikenberry2004%20AmHegEA.pdf }}, Ikenberry G. John. "American Hegemony and East Asian Order." ''Australian Journal of International Affairs'', Vol. 58, No. 3, pp. 354-355, September 2004.</ref>
* The United States also has a history of [[Panama–United States relations|bilateral agreements with Panama]], beginning with the [[Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty]] (1903) which established the United States' right to build a canal and own it and adjacent property across the otherwise-sovereign nation of Panama. This was replaced by the [[Torrijos–Carter Treaties|Treaty Concerning the Permanent Neutrality and Operation of the Panama Canal]] and the Panama Canal Treaty (both signed 1977). A [[bilateral investment treaty]] amendment was signed by the two countries in 2000, and several more limited agreements have been signed between various law-enforcement and financial agencies of the two countries.

==History==
There has been a long debate on the merits of bilateralism versus [[multilateralism]]. The first rejection of bilateralism came after the [[World War I|First World War]] when many politicians concluded that the complex pre-war system of bilateral treaties had made war inevitable. This led to the creation of the multilateral [[League of Nations]] (which was disbanded in failure after 26 years).

A similar reaction against bilateral trade agreements occurred after the [[Great Depression]], when it was argued that such agreements helped produce a cycle of rising tariffs that deepened the economic downturn. Thus, after the [[World War II|Second World War]], the West turned to multilateral agreements such as the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] (GATT).{{Citation needed}}

Despite the high profile of modern multilateral systems such as the [[United Nations]] and [[World Trade Organization]], most diplomacy is still done at the bilateral level. Bilateralism has a flexibility and ease lacking in most compromise-dependent multilateral systems. In addition, disparities in power, resources, money, armament, or technology are more easily exploitable by the stronger side in bilateral diplomacy, which powerful states might consider as a positive aspect of it, compared to the more consensus-driven multilateral form of diplomacy, where the one state-one vote rule applies.{{Citation needed}}

A 2017 study found that bilateral tax treaties, even if intended to "coordinate policies between countries to avoid double taxation and encourage international investment", had the unintended consequence of allowing "multinationals to engage in treaty shopping, states' fiscal autonomy is limited, and governments tend to maintain lower tax rates."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arel-Bundock|first=Vincent|title=The Unintended Consequences of Bilateralism: Treaty Shopping and International Tax Policy|journal=International Organization|pages=349–371|doi=10.1017/S0020818317000108|issn=0020-8183|volume=71|issue=2|s2cid=157493354|url=http://osf.io/kg8rw/}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Bilateral trade]]
* [[Bilateral treaty]]
* [[List of bilateral free trade agreements]]
* [[Multilateralism]]
* [[Multistakeholder governance|Multistakeholderism]]
* [[Unilateralism]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://unu.edu/publications/books/the-rise-of-bilateralism-comparing-american-european-and-asian-approaches-to-preferential-trade-agreements.html#overview The Rise of Bilateralism]

[[Category:Bilateral relations| ]]
[[Category:International relations theory]]

Eastern coastal plains

2023-03-04T04:59:14Z

Prasenjeet: Created fresh page content.

#REDIRECT [[Eastern Coastal Plains]] {{R from other capitalisation}}

Chauri Chaura incident

2022-08-22T22:10:13Z

Prasenjeet: Just published an enlightening work.

{{short description|Massacre of police in India}}
{{Infobox protest
| title = Chauri Chaura Incident
| partof = [[Non-cooperation Movement]]
| place = [[Chauri Chaura]], [[United Provinces of British India|United Provinces]], [[British Raj|British India]] (now India)
| side1 = Protesters
| side2 = [[Indian Imperial Police]]
| result = Chauri Chaura police station burnt down with all occupants killed
| casualties1 = 3 dead
Several wounded
| casualties2 = 22 dead due to [[Burn|burn injuries]]
| casualties3 = 225 later arrested with 6 dying in police custody, 19 executed after trial in July 1923, 113 sentenced to varying years of imprisonment with 14 people getting life imprisonment.
| leadfigures1 = Nazar Ali, Lal Mohammad and 2000–2500 protesters
| leadfigures2 = ''Daroga'' Gupteshwar Singh{{KIA}}
}}

{{Use Indian English}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Coord|26.64283758611251|N|83.58969448910848|E|display=title}}
[[image:Chauri chaura new photo.jpg|thumb|200px|Chauri Chaura Martyrs Memorial|alt=]] The '''Chauri Chaura Incident''' took place on 4 February 1922 at [[Chauri Chaura]] in the [[Gorakhpur district]] of [[United Provinces of British India|United Provinces]] (now [[Uttar Pradesh]]) in [[British Raj|British India]]. The police there fired upon a large group of protesters participating in the [[Non-cooperation movement]]. In retaliation, the demonstrators attacked and set fire to a police station, which killed all of its occupants. The incident led to the death of three civilians and 22 policemen. [[Mahatma Gandhi]] halted the Non-Cooperation Movement on the national level on 12 February 1922 as a direct result of the incident. In spite of Gandhi's decision, 19 arrested demonstrators were sentenced to death and 14 to life imprisonment by the British colonial authorities.

==Background==
From 1920 onwards, [[Indian people|Indians]], led by [[Mahatma Gandhi]], were engaged in a nationwide [[non-cooperation movement]]. Using non-violent methods of civil disobedience known as [[Satyagraha]], protests were organised by the [[Indian National Congress]] to challenge oppressive government regulatory measures such as the [[Rowlatt Act]], with the ultimate goal of attaining ''[[Swaraj]]'' (home rule).

==The incident==
Two days before the incident, on 2 February 1922, volunteers participating in the [[non-cooperation movement]] led by a retired soldier of the [[British Indian Army]] named Bhagwan Ahir, protested against high [[Meat price|food prices]] and liquor sales at Gauri Bazaar. The demonstrators were beaten back by the local ''Daroga'' (inspector) Gupteshwar Singh and other police officers. Several of the leaders were arrested and put in the lock-up at the [[Chauri Chaura]] police station. In response to this, a protest against the police was called on 4 February, to be held at the Bazaar.<ref name=a>''[[Event, Metaphor, Memory]]'' – Chauri Chaura 1922–92 by Shahid Amin</ref>

On 4 February, approximately 2,000 to 2,500 protesters assembled and began marching towards the market lane at Chauri Chaura. They had gathered to picket the ''Gauri Bazaar Liquor Shop''. Armed police were dispatched to control the situation while the protesters marched towards the Bazaar, shouting anti-British slogans. In an attempt to frighten and disperse the crowd, Gupteshwar Singh ordered his 15 local police officers to fire warning shots into the air. This only agitated the crowd who began to throw stones at the police.<ref name=l/><ref name=g/><ref name=h/>

With the situation getting out of control, the Sub-inspector Prithvi Pal ordered the police to open fire on the advancing crowd, killing three and wounding several others. Reports vary on the reason for the police retreat, with some suggesting that the constables ran out of ammunition while others claimed that the crowd's unexpectedly assertive reaction to the gunfire was the cause. In the ensuing chaos, the heavily outnumbered police fell back to the shelter of the police ''chowki'' while the angry mob advanced. Infuriated by the gunfire into their ranks, the crowd set the ''[[police station|chowki]]'' ablaze, killing all of the policemen trapped inside, including Inspector Gupteshwar Singh.<ref name=l>{{cite book|title=Longman History & Civics Icse 10 By Singh Vipul|year=2009|page=91|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RX4OiM0MGZUC&q=chauri+chaura+incident&pg=PA91|isbn=9788131720424|last1=Vipul|first1=Singh}}</ref><ref name=g>{{cite book|title=Gandhi: A Political and Spiritual Life By Kathryn Tidrick|year=2006|pages=176–180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pp-gZ5OVkuUC&q=chauri+chaura+incident&pg=PA176|isbn=9781845111663|last1=Tidrick|first1=Kathryn}}</ref><ref name=h>{{cite book|title=History of Modern India: 1707 A.D. to 2000 A.D. By Radhey Shyam Chaurasia|year=2002|page=355|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MS_jrForJOoC&q=chauri+chaura+incident&pg=PA355|isbn=9788126900855|last1=Chaurasia|first1=Radhey Shyam}}</ref>

'''The following are the names of the senior officers, constables and ''chaukidars'' (government watchmen) who were killed in the incident:'''

#Inspector (''Daroga'') Gupteshwar Singh
#Sub-Inspector Prithvi Pal
#Constable Bashir Khan
#Constable Kapil Dev Singh
#Constable Visheshwar Ram Yadav
#Constable Mohammad Ali
#Constable Hasan Khan
#Constable Gadabaksh Khan
#Constable Jama Khan
#Constable Manglu Chaubey
#Constable Rambali Pandey
#Constable Kapil Dev
#Constable Indrasan Singh
#Constable Ramlakhan Singh
#Constable Mardana Khan
#Constable Jagdev Singh
#Constable Jaigai Singh
#Chaukidar Lakhai Singh
#Chaukidar Wazir
#Chaukidar Ghisai Ram
#Chaukidar Jathai Ram
#Chaukidar Katwaru Ram

One of the constables, named Raghuvir Singh, was found to be alive, a few months after the incident. He had been declared dead in the [[First information report|report]] registered thereafter. He was later produced in the court as the sole witness to the incident.

Most victims were burned to death, although several appear to have been killed by the crowd at the entrance to the chowki and their bodies thrown back into the fire. The death count is reported in the literature as either 22 or 23 policemen by different accounts, possibly because of including or excluding the reported death of Raghuvir Singh.<ref name=l/><ref name=g/><ref name=h/>

==Aftermath ==
In response to the killing of the police, the British colonial authorities declared [[martial law]] in and around Chauri Chaura. Several raids were conducted and hundreds of people were arrested.

Appalled at the outrage, Gandhi went on a [[List of fasts undertaken by Mahatma Gandhi|five-day fast]] as penance for what he perceived as his culpability in the bloodshed.<ref name=g/> In reflection, Gandhi felt that he had acted too hastily in encouraging people to revolt against the [[British Raj|British colonial government]] without sufficiently emphasizing the importance of ''[[ahimsa]]'' (non-violence) and without adequately training the people to exercise restraint in the face of attack.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Roychowdhury|first=Adrija |title=When the violence of Chauri Chaura prompted Gandhi to suspend the non-cooperation movement|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/research/chauri-chaura-centernary-anniversary-narendra-modi-7175289/|access-date=9 April 2021|work=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref> He decided that the Indian people were ill-prepared and not yet ready to do what was needed to achieve independence. Gandhi was also arrested and sentenced to six years of imprisonment but was later released in February 1924, on grounds of his ill health.<ref name=h/>

On 12 February 1922, the [[Indian National Congress]] halted the non-cooperation movement on the national level as a direct result of the Chauri Chaura tragedy.<ref>Batsha, "Gandhi and Chauri Chaura,"</ref>

[[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and most of the workers of the Congress, who were in prison when Gandhi made this decision, felt that this was a hasty and incorrect decision at a time when the nation was reaching the epoch of support for the Indian independence movement. A few months after this withdrawal, the colonial government arrested Gandhi and put him in Jail.<ref name="nh">{{cite book |last1=Nehru |first1=Jawaharlal |title=An Autobiography |publisher=Bodley Head }}</ref>

==Trial and conviction==
A total of 225 people were brought to trial at Gorakhpur Sessions Court of Judge H. E. Holmes, on charges of "rioting and arson" in conjunction with the Chauri Chaura affair.<ref name=Legal>M.N. Roy, "Legal Murder in India," ''International Press Correspondence,'' vol. 3, no. 9 (24 January 1923). Reprinted in G. Adhikari (ed.), ''Documents of the History of the Communist Party of India: Volume 2, 1923–1925.'' New Delhi: People's Publishing House, 1974; pp. 62–64.</ref> Of these, six died while in police custody, two were sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment, 170 were convicted and [[Capital punishment|sentenced to death]] by [[hanging]] while 47 were acquitted on 9 January 1923, following a trial which lasted eight months.<ref name=Legal/>

A storm of protest erupted over the verdicts, which were characterised as "legalised murder" by [[Communist involvement in the Indian independence movement|Indian communist leader]] [[M. N. Roy]],<ref name=Legal/> who called for a [[Hartal|general strike]] of Indian workers.<ref>M.N. Roy, "An Appeal to the Labour Unions of India," ''Vanguard,'' vol. 2, no. 2 (1 March 1923). Reprinted in G. Adhikari (ed.), ''Documents of the History of the Communist Party of India: Volume 2, 1923–1925.'' New Delhi: People's Publishing House, 1974; pp. 64–65.</ref>

On 30 April 1923, the [[Allahabad High Court|High Court of Allahabad]] pronounced the final judgements in the case, after appeals had been considered regarding the 170 convicted accused, who had been awarded death sentences:

*The (19) people who were sentenced to death were — Nazar Ali, Bhagwan Ahir, Lal Mohammad, Shyamsundar, Abdullah, Vikram Ahir, Dudhi Singh, Kali Charan, Lauti Kumar, Mahadev Singh, Meghu Ali, Raghuvir, Ramlakhan, Ramroop, Sahdev, Rudali, Mohan, Sampat and Sitaram.

*14 people were sentenced to life imprisonment.

*19 people were sentenced to 8 years' imprisonment.

*57 people were sentenced to 5 years' imprisonment.

*20 people were sentenced to 3 years' imprisonment.

*3 people were sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment.

*38 people were acquitted.

*The 19 defendants condemned to death were hanged between 2 and 11 July 1923.

==Memorial==

*A memorial to the dead policemen was dedicated by the British colonial authorities in 1923.<ref name=toi/> Following independence, the words ''[[Jai Hind]]''<ref name=it/> were added to it, as well as a verse by poet Jagdamba Prasad Mishra which is made famous by revolutionary poet [[Ram Prasad Bismil]]. The verse reads: ''{{transl|hi|Shaheedon ki chitaaon par lagenge har baras mele}}'' ("On the pyres of martyrs, there will be fairs every year").<ref name=ht/>
*The people of the district did not forget the 19 persons tried and executed after the Chauri Chaura incident. In 1971, they formed an association named ''Chauri Chaura Shaheed Smarak Samiti''. In 1973, this Samiti constructed near the lake at Chauri Chaura a {{convert|12.2|m|ft|adj=mid|-tall}} triangular minaret on each side of which a figure is depicted hanging with a noose round his neck. The minaret was built at a cost of Rs 13,500 contributed by popular subscription.<ref name=toi>{{cite news|title=No tears for these martyrs|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-07-22/special-report/27989263_1_martyrs-railway-station|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901145907/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-07-22/special-report/27989263_1_martyrs-railway-station|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 September 2013|access-date=1 March 2013|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref name=it>{{cite news|title=Haunted by memories|access-date=5 January 2017|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/chauri-chaura-village-that-became-metaphor-for-gandhism-gets-entangled-in-criminal-violence/1/205175.html|newspaper=India Today newspaper}}</ref><ref name=ht>{{cite news|title=Your memory versus mine|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/India/Your-memory-versus-mine/Article1-586846.aspx|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130629113055/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/India/Your-memory-versus-mine/Article1-586846.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 June 2013|access-date=1 March 2013|newspaper=Hindustan Times}}</ref>
*Later another Shaheed Smarak (now the main one) was built by the Government of India to honour those hanged after the incident. This tall memorial has names of those executed engraved upon it.<ref>{{cite news|title=Dilapidated freedom fighters' memorial angers Gorakhpur residents|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_dilapidated-freedom-fighters-memorial-angers-gorakhpur-residents_1727224|access-date=1 March 2013|newspaper=DNA}}</ref> A library and museum related to the independence struggle has been set up near the memorial.
*[[Indian Railways]] have named a train to honour those executed after the Chauri Chaura incident. The train is named [[Chauri Chaura Express]], which runs from [[Gorakhpur]] to [[Kanpur]].

[[File:Chauri Chaura Express at Kanpur Anwarganj.jpg|250 px|thumb|Chauri Chaura Express ready to depart from [[Kanpur]]—Anwarganj]]

==References==
{{Reflist}} 14 ^ Narayan, Badri (14 November 2006). Women Heroes and Dalit Assertion in North India: Culture, Identity and Politics

==External links==
{{Refbegin}}
*[http://www.chaurichaura.com A Complete Portal of Chauri Chaura describing the history of Chauri Chaura incident]
{{Refend}}
{{Indian independence movement}}
{{Gandhi}}

[[Category:1922 protests]]
[[Category:Indian independence movement]]
[[Category:Revolutionary movement for Indian independence]]
[[Category:1922 in India]]
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[[Category:Mass murder in 1922]]
[[Category:Massacres in India]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1922]]
[[Category:Indian independence movement in Uttar Pradesh]]
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[[Category:Attacks on police stations]]
[[Category:Attacks on buildings and structures in the 1920s]]

Indian wine

2022-05-31T07:28:41Z

Prasenjeet:

{{Short description|Wine from India}}
[[File:India Wine.png|right|250px|thumb|The major wine regions of India highlighted. To the north is Kashmir and Punjab. To the south (clockwise from top) is Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Goa.]]
The modern '''Indian Wine''' market is small but growing; annual per capita consumption of wine in the country is a mere 9 milliliters, approximately 1/8000th that of [[France]].<ref>[https://qz.com/india/944731/the-average-indian-wine-drinker-cant-tell-a-cabernet-sauvignon-from-a-sauvignon-blanc/ The average Indian wine drinker can’t tell a Cabernet Sauvignon from a Sauvignon blanc]</ref> The main reason for this can be attributed to the fact that Indians preference for [[hard liquor]] and beer boasts nearly 98% of market share whereas wine with low [[Alcohol by volume|ABV]] only has 2% market share.<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indians-love-hard-liquor-shun-wine/articleshow/7484037.cms Indians love hard liquor, shun wine]</ref> The [[viticulture]] in India has a long history dating back to the time of the [[Indus Valley civilization]] when [[grapevines]] were believed to have been introduced from [[Persia]]. [[Winemaking]] has existed throughout most of India's history but was particularly encouraged during the time of the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Colonial India|colonization]] of the [[Indian subcontinent|subcontinent]]. The end of the 19th century saw the [[phylloxera]] louse take its toll on the Indian wine industry followed by [[Temperance movement|religious and public opinion]] moving towards the [[prohibition of alcohol|prohibition]]. Following the country's [[Indian independence movement|independence]] from the [[British Empire]], the government encouraged vineyards to convert to [[table grape]] and [[raisin]] production. In the 1980s and 1990s, a revival in the Indian wine industry took place as international influences and the growing [[middle class]] started increasing demand for the beverage. By the turn of the 21st century, demand was increasing at a rate of 20-30% a year. The city of [[Nashik]] in the state of [[Maharashtra]] is called the "Wine Capital of India."<ref name="Oxford pg 355-356">J. Robinson (ed) ''"The Oxford Companion to Wine"'' Third Edition pg 355-356 Oxford University Press 2006 {{ISBN|0-19-860990-6}}</ref>

==History==
{{See also|History of India}}
[[File:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A 19th century reproduction of the [[Rigveda]].]]
Regarding the first wines of India, historians believe that these early plantings were used mostly for table grapes or [[grape juice]] rather than the production of an alcoholic beverage. During the [[Vedic period]] of the 2nd and 1st millennia, the tribes of the region were known for their indulgence in intoxicating drink and it seems probable that wine was a current beverage. The religious text of the ''[[Vedas]]'' mentions at least one alcoholic drink that may have been wine related -''[[Sura (alcoholic beverage)|sura]]'' which seems to have been a type of [[rice wine]] that was [[fermentation (wine)|fermented]] with [[honey]]. The first known mention of grape-based wines was in the late 4th century BC writings of [[Chanakya]] who was the chief minister of Emperor [[Chandragupta Maurya]]. In his writings, Chanakya condemns the use of alcohol while chronicling the emperor and his court's frequent indulgence of a style of grape wine known as ''Madhu''.<ref name="Oxford pg 355-356"/>

In the centuries that would follow, wine became the privileged drink of the ''[[Kshatriya]]'' or dominant class while the oppressed [[Indian caste system|caste]] typically drank alcohol made from [[wheat]], [[barley wine|barley]] and [[millet]]. Under the rule of the [[Muslim]] [[Mughal Empire]], alcohol was prohibited in accordance with [[Islamic dietary laws]]. However, there are written reports about at least one Mughal ruler, [[Jahangir]] and [[Babur]] for example, who were fond of wine. In the 16th century, Portuguese colonists at [[Goa]] introduced [[port wine|port-style wine]] and the production of [[fortified wine]]s soon spread to other regions. Under [[British Raj|British rule]] during the [[Victorian era]], viticulture and winemaking was strongly encouraged as a domestic source for the British colonists. Vineyards were planted extensively through the [[Baramati]], [[Kashmir]] and [[Surat]] regions. In 1883 at the [[Calcutta International Exhibition (1883)|Calcutta International Exhibition]], Indian wines were showcased to a favorable reception. The Indian wine industry was reaching a peak by the time the [[phylloxera]] epidemic made its way to country and devastated its vineyards.<ref name="Oxford pg 355-356"/>
[[Image:India, Day 13 (3430341330).jpg|thumb|125px|Indian variant of ''[[Chardonnay]]'' [[sparkling wine]]]]

It was a long road for the Indian wine industry to recover from the devastation at the end of the 19th century. Unfavorable religious and public opinion on alcohol developed and culminated in the 1950s when [[Alcohol prohibition in India|many of India's states prohibited alcohol]]. Vineyards were either uprooted or encouraged to convert to table grape and raisin production. Some areas, like [[Goa]], continued to produce wine but the product was normally very [[sweetness of wine|sweet]] and highly alcoholic. The turning point of the modern Indian wine industry occurred in the early 1980s with the founding of [[The Tonia Group]] in the state of [[Goa]]. With the assistance of [[France|French]] winemakers, The Tonia Group began to import ''[[Vitis vinifera]]'' [[List of grape varieties|grape varieties]] like [[Cabernet Sauvignon]], [[Chardonnay]], [[Pinot blanc]], [[Pinot noir]] and [[Ugni blanc]] and started making still and [[sparkling wine]]s. Other wineries soon followed as the emergence of India's growing middle class fueled the growth and development of the Indian wine industry.<ref name="Oxford pg 355-356"/>

==Climate and geography==
{{See also|Climate of India|Geography of India|Geology of India}}
[[Image:Barrels outside Chateau Indage Vineyards, Narayangaon - Pune, Mah..jpg|thumb|Vineyards of [[Chateau Indage]] in [[Pune]]]]
While a large portion of the Indian subcontinent is not ideal for viticulture, the large diversity of climate and geology does cover some areas with suitable ''[[terroir]]'' for winemaking to thrive. The summer growing season in India tends to be very hot and prone to [[monsoon]]s. Many of India's wine regions also fall within the [[tropics|tropical climate band]]. Vineyards are then planted at higher [[altitude]]s along slopes and hillsides to benefit from cooler air and some protection from wind. The altitude of India's vineyards typically range from around 200 m in [[Karnataka]], 300 m in Maharashtra, 800 m along the slopes of the [[Sahyadri]] to 1000 m in Kashmir. Summertime temperature can get as hot as 45 °C and wintertime lows can fall to 8 °C. During the peak growing season between June and August, rainfall averages 625-1,500 mm.<ref name="Oxford pg 355-356"/>

==Wine regions==
{{see|Nashik valley wine}}
Vineyards in India range from the more temperate climate of the northwestern state of [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] down to the southern state of [[Tamil Nadu]]. Some of India's larger wine producing areas are located in [[Maharashtra]], [[Karnataka]] near [[Bangalore]] and [[Telangana]] near [[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]. Within the Maharashtra region, vineyards are found on the [[Deccan Plateau]] and around [[Baramati]], [[Nashik]], [[Pune]], [[Sangli district|Sangli]] and [[Solapur district|Solapur]].<ref>[https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/month-long-wine-festival-in-maharastras-nashik-from-feb-1-all-you-need-to-know/982141/ Month-long wine festival in Maharastra’s Nashik]</ref> The high heat and humidity of the far eastern half of the country limits viticultural activity.<ref name="Oxford pg 355-356"/>

==Viticulture and wine==
{{see also|Category:Wineries of India}}
[[Image:The Tasting Cellar.jpg|thumb|Tasting cellar at [[Sula Vineyards]] in [[Nasik]]]]
The heat and humidity of India's wine region dictate many of the viticultural choices that are made in the vineyards. Vines are often trained on [[bamboo]] and wire in a [[pergola]] to increase canopy cover and to get the grapes off the ground where they would be more prone to [[List of grape diseases|fungal diseases]]. The canopy protects the grapes against sunburn and rows are spaced wide to help with aeration between the vines. [[Irrigation (wine)|Irrigation]] is essential for the vines given the hot weather. The tropical conditions often promote high [[yield (wine)|yield]]s which requires frequent pruning throughout the year. [[Harvest (wine)|Harvest]] normally takes place in February and is usually done by hand. In the very warm wine regions of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, grapevines can produce a crop twice a year.<ref name="Oxford pg 355-356"/>

Southern India is home to several [[Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] table grape varieties that can also be used in wine production with [[Anabeshahi]], [[Arkavati]] and [[Arkashyam]] being the most common. Popular non-native grapes include the Bangalore Blue ([[Isabella (grape)|Isabella]]) and Gulabi ([[Black Muscat]]). The [[Turkey|Turkish]] grape [[Sultana (grape)|Sultana]] is the most widely planted grape in India, cover more than half of the {{convert|148,000|acre|ha}} planted in the country. In addition to the imported French varieties that Chateau Indage planted, [[Sauvignon blanc]], [[Zinfandel]], [[Chenin blanc]] and [[Clairette Blanche]] have started to establish a presence in the Indian wine industry.<ref name="Oxford pg 355-356"/>

==See also==
* [[Globalization of wine]]
* [[Agriculture in India]]
* [[History of wine]]
* [[List of Indian beverages]]
* [http://www.sommelierindia.com Sommelier India]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Wine by country}}
{{Indian beverages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indian Wine}}
[[Category:Indian wine| ]]

V-Dem Institute

2022-02-14T06:16:35Z

Prasenjeet: Wrote an informative guide.

{{short description|Swedish research institute}}
{{use dmy dates }}

{{redirect|Varieties of Democracy|varieties of democracy|Types of democracy}}

The '''V-Dem Institute''' (Varieties of Democracy) is an independent research institute founded by Professor [[Staffan I. Lindberg]] in 2014 that studies the qualities of government. The institute is funded by a number of government organizations, [[World Bank]] and several research institutions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.v-dem.net/about/funders/|title=List of all funders of the V-Dem Institute and which type of activities they have been funding.}}</ref> The headquarters of the project is based at the department of political science, [[University of Gothenburg]], Sweden.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://pol.gu.se/english/varieties-of-democracy--v-dem- |title = Varieties of democracy (V-dem) - Varieties of democracy (V-dem), University of Gothenburg, Sweden}}</ref>

== Democracy indices ==
{{Main articles|V-Dem Democracy indices}}
{{align|right|{{Highlighted world map by country|scale = 60|CA=lightblue|US=darkblue|MX=lightblue|GB=darkblue|IS=darkblue|NO=darkblue|SE=darkblue|FI=darkblue|EE=darkblue|LV=darkblue|LT=lightblue|PL=lightblue|DE=darkblue|DK=darkblue|NL=darkblue|BE=darkblue|FR=darkblue|ES=darkblue|PT=lightblue|IT=darkblue|CH=darkblue|IE=darkblue|GL=black|CZ=darkblue|SK=darkblue|RU=orange|BY=orange|UA=orange|RO=lightblue|AT=lightblue|GR=lightblue|TR=orange|BG=lightblue|RS=orange|MK=lightblue|AL=orange|HU=orange|SI=lightblue|BA=lightblue|ME=lightblue|HR=lightblue|KZ=orange|MN=lightblue|CN=Red|KP=red|KR=darkblue|JP=darkblue|TW=darkblue|PH=orange|UZ=orange|KG=orange|TJ=orange|AF=red|PK=orange|IN=orange|NP=lightblue|BT=lightblue|BD=orange|MM=red|TH=red|VN=red|KH=orange|LA=red|IR=orange|LK=lightblue|ID=lightblue|MY=orange|PG=orange|AU=darkblue|NZ=darkblue|SA=red|YE=red|OM=red|AE=red|BH=red|QA=red|IQ=orange|SY=red|JO=red|IL=darkblue|EG=orange|LY=red|TN=orange|DZ=orange|MA=red|EH=black|MG=orange|MR=orange|CU=red|SD=red|SS=red|ER=red|DJ=orange|ET=orange|SO=red|BR=lightblue|UY=darkblue|AR=lightblue|CL=darkblue|KW=orange|PY=lightblue|BO=lightblue|PE=lightblue|EC=lightblue|CO=lightblue|VE=orange|PA=lightblue|GY=lightblue|SR=lightblue|CR=darkblue|NI=orange|HN=lightblue|SV=orange|GT=orange|HT=orange|DO=lightblue|NE=lightblue|ML=red|BF=red|NG=orange|CM=orange|CF=orange|TD=red|KE=lightblue|ZA=lightblue|NA=lightblue|BW=lightblue|CD=orange|CG=orange|GA=orange|GQ=orange|BZ=black|AZ=orange|AM=lightblue|GE=lightblue|SN=lightblue|GM=lightblue|GW=orange|SL=lightblue|CI=orange|GN=red|PR=black|JM=lightblue|AO=orange|ZM=lightblue|MZ=orange|ZW=orange|MW=lightblue|TZ=orange|UG=orange|BI=orange|RW=orange|BS=black|TK=red|BJ=orange|TG=orange|GH=lightblue|TT=lightblue|LR=lightblue|FK=black|CY=darkblue|TM=red|LB=orange|FJ=orange|SB=lightblue|NC=black|VU=lightblue|MD=lightblue|PS=black|LU=darkblue|BN=black}}
{{legend|darkblue|[[Liberal democracy]]}}
{{legend|lightblue|[[Electoral democracy]]}}
{{legend|orange|[[Electoral autocracy]]}}
{{legend|red|[[Autocracy|Closed autocracy]]}}
{{legend|black|Geographic areas without data}}}}

The V-Dem Institute publishes a number of high-profile datasets that describe qualities of different governments, annually published and publicly available for free.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/03/30/new-index-rates-countries-degree-freedom-scholars|title=Ranking Academic Freedom Globally|first=Elizabeth|last=Redden|website=Inside Higher Ed}}</ref> These datasets are a popular dataset among political scientists, due to information on hundreds of indicator variables describing all aspects of government, especially on the quality of democracy, inclusivity, and other economic indicators.<ref>{{cite web |last=V-Dem Institute |title=The V-Dem Dataset |url=https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/ |url-status=live |access-date=8 December 2022}}</ref> Compared to other measures of democracy (such as the [[Polity data series]] and [[Freedom House]]'s ''[[Freedom in the World]]''), the V-Dem Institute's measures of democracy are more granular<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Hegedüs|first=Daniel|title=Varieties of Democracy: Measuring Two Centuries of Political Change. By Michael Coppedge, John Gerring, Adam Glynn, Carl Henrik Knutsen, Staffan I. Lindberg, Daniel Pemstein, Brigitte Seim, Svend-Erik Skaaning, and Jan Teorell. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020. 226p. $99.99 cloth.|journal=Perspectives on Politics|language=en|volume=18|issue=4|pages=1258–1260|doi=10.1017/S1537592720003059|issn=1537-5927|doi-access=free}}</ref> and 2020 included "more than 470 indicators, 82 mid-level indices, and 5 high-level indices covering 202 polities from the period of 1789–2019."<ref name=":0" /> [[Political Scientist|Political scientist]] Daniel Hegedus describes V-Dem as "the most important provider of [[Quantitative research|quantitative]] democracy data for scholarly research."<ref name=":0" />

The V-Dem institute also republishes 59 other indicators,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.nd.edu/news/new-democracy-dataset-to-revolutionize-democracy-research/|title=New democracy dataset to ‘revolutionize’ democracy research|first=Elizabeth|last=Rankin|website=Notre Dame News}}</ref> and several other{{which}} indices which are created, in part, with the assistance of V-Dem indices. The Digital Society Project is a subset of indicators on V-Dem's survey which asks questions about the political status of social media and the internet.<ref name=":2">Coppedge, Michael, John Gerring, Carl Henrik Knutsen, Staffan I. Lindberg,Jan Teorell, David Altman, Michael Bernhard, Agnes Cornell, M. Steven Fish, Lisa Gastaldi,Haakon Gjerløw, Adam Glynn, Allen Hicken, Anna Lührmann, Seraphine F. Maerz, Kyle L.Marquardt, Kelly McMann, Valeriya Mechkova, Pamela Paxton, Daniel Pemstein, Johannes vonRömer, Brigitte Seim, Rachel Sigman, Svend-Erik Skaaning, Jeffrey Staton, Aksel Sundtröm, EitanTzelgov, Luca Uberti, Yi-ting Wang, Tore Wig, and Daniel Ziblatt. 2021. "V-Dem Codebook v11"Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project.[https://www.v-dem.net/media/filer_public/be/11/be11d657-a240-4fb0-a47f-bc151296e779/codebook.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608011903/https://www.v-dem.net/media/filer_public/be/11/be11d657-a240-4fb0-a47f-bc151296e779/codebook.pdf}}</ref>

== Democracy Report ==

The V-Dem Institute publishes the Democracy Report that describes the state of democracy in the world, with a focus on [[democratization]] and [[autocratization]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.v-dem.net/publications/democracy-reports/ | title=Democracy Reports | access-date=May 26, 2023 | website = V-Dem Institute }}</ref> The Democracy Report is published annually in March. The Democracy Report, the dataset, scientific articles, and working papers are free to download on the institute’s website, which also features interactive graphic tools.

== V-Party Dataset ==
Party positions for all political parties above a vote share of 5% in 169 countries are published as V-Party Dataset by V-Dem Institute.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://v-dem.net/data/v-party-dataset/ | title=V-Party Dataset | access-date=June 2, 2023 | website = V-Dem Institute }}</ref> The V-Party Dataset includes indices of Anti-Pluralism, Populism, Cultural Dimension and Economic Left-Right. The Anti-Pluralism Index is modeled as lack of commitment to democratic process, disrespect for fundamental minority rights, demonization of opponents, and acceptance of political violence. The dataset demonstrates higher [[autocratization]] for high anti-pluralism and populism.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Medzihorsky, Juraj |author2=Lindberg, Staffan I |title=Walking the Talk: How to Identify Anti-Pluralist Parties |journal=Party Politics |doi=10.1177/13540688231153092 |url=https://v-dem.net/media/publications/working_paper_116_final.pdf}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Democracy indices]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/16/world/americas/democracy-decline-worldwide.html Max Fisher, "U.S. Allies Drive Much of World’s Democratic Decline, Data Shows: Washington-aligned countries backslid at nearly double the rate of non-allies, data shows, complicating long-held assumptions about American influence" ''New York Times'' Nov 16, 2021]
* Vanessa A. Boese, Markus Eberhardt: [https://www.v-dem.net/media/publications/Working_Paper_131.pdf Which Institutions Rule? Unbundling the Democracy-Growth Nexus], V-Dem Institute, Series 2022:131, February 2022

==External links==
* [https://www.v-dem.net/ Official website]

{{Politics country lists}}

{{coord missing|Sweden}}

[[Category:Political research institutes]]
[[Category:Research institutes in Sweden]]
[[Category:University of Gothenburg]]