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Mohammad Ziauddin (officer)

2026-05-02T21:13:35Z

PaulineBarwell2: started a article v1

{{Short description|Bir Uttam recipient & Bangladeshi freedom fighter}}
{{similar names|Ziauddin}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = Mohammad Ziauddin Ahmed
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Mohammad Ziauddin Ahmed
| native_name = মোহাম্মদ জিয়াউদ্দিন আহমেদ
| native_name_lang = bn
| nickname = Bachchi
| birth_date = {{Birth date | 1939|11|22|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Chakaria Upazila|Chakaria]], [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2025|08|05|1939 |11|22|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Chittagong District|Chittagong]], Bangladesh
| allegiance = {{ubl|{{PAK}} (before 1971)|{{BAN}}}}
| branch = {{army|Bangladesh}} {{army|Pakistan}}
| unit = [[East Bengal Regiment]]
| service_years = 1962-1974
| service_number = P. A. - 6489 B. A. - 489
| rank = [[Lieutenant Colonel]]
| commands = *Sub-Commander of [[List of sectors in the Bangladesh Liberation War|Sector – I]]
* Sub-Commander of [[List of sectors in the Bangladesh Liberation War|Sector – IV]]
* Deputy Commander of [[Z Force (Bangladesh)|Z Force]]
* CO of [[Senior Tigers|1st East Bengal Regiment]]
* Commander of [[46th Independent Infantry Brigade]]
| battles = {{ubl|[[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]]|[[Bangladesh Liberation War]]}}
| awards = [[Bir Uttom]]<ref>[http://www.molwa.gov.bd/site/page/3f3b7628-3ac7-4927-bf6f-c9203fae601f/Bir-Uttam Bangladesh Gazette of 15 December, 1973; Ministry of Liberation War Affairs]</ref>
| relations = {{ubl|[[Fazlul Karim (lawyer)|Fazlul Karim]] (uncle)}}
}}

'''Mohammad Ziauddin Ahmed''', [[Bir Uttom|BU]] ({{langx|bn|মোহাম্মদ জিয়াউদ্দিন আহমেদ}}; 22 November 1939 – 5 August 2025) <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.kalerkantho.com/multimedia/country-news/2025/08/05/1558086 |title=বীর মুক্তিযোদ্ধা জিয়াউদ্দিন আহমেদ আর নেই |work=Kaler Kantho |date=5 August 2025 |access-date=6 August 2025 |language=bn}}</ref> was a Bangladeshi military officer who was the [[commanding officer]] of the 1st [[East Bengal Regiment]] during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]. He was awarded the [[Bir Uttom]], the country's second highest [[gallantry award]] (and the highest military award for living military personnel) for his outstanding [[bravery]] in the Liberation War. His certificate number was 22.<ref>{{Cite web |title=List of Bir Uttoms in 1971 |url=http://www.molwa.gov.bd/site/page/3f3b7628-3ac7-4927-bf6f-c9203fae601f/Bir-Uttam |access-date=27 October 2022 |website=[[Ministry of Liberation War Affairs]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Bangladesh Government Gazettes |date=15 December 1973 |publisher=Ministry of Defense, Government of Bangladesh |location=Dhaka |page=Gazettes No-8/25/D-1/72-1378}}</ref>

Ziauddin was the second [[brigade commander]] of the [[46th Independent Infantry Brigade|46 Brigade]], [[Dhaka]]. He was a close associate of Colonel [[Abu Taher]], who was known for his left-wing [[socialist]] views.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Franda |first1=Marcus F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GfEQAAAAMAAJ&q=Colonel+Mohammad+Ziauddin |title=Bangladesh, the First Decade |last2=Franda |first2=Marcus F. |date=1982 |publisher=South Asian Publishers |isbn=978-0-88333-006-7 |pages=240 |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life==
Ziauddin was born in the village of Harbang of [[Chakaria Upazila]], [[Cox's Bazar District]] (now in [[Chittagong Division|Chittagong]], Bangladesh) on 22 November 1939. His father was Mohammad Quasem and mother was Majida Khatun.

==Career==
===Pakistan Army===
Ziauddin joined the Pakistan Army in 1960. He was commissioned from the 25th PMA Long Course on 21 April 1962 in the 1st East Bengal Regiment. He fought in the [[Indo-Pak War of 1965]] as the adjutant of the 1st East Bengal Regiment. Later he served as the A.D.C. of the [[President of Pakistan]]. In 1968 he served as an instructor in the [[Pakistan Military Academy]].

=== Bangladesh Liberation War ===
When the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] started, Ziauddin deserted the Pakistan Army with Major [[Abu Taher]], Major [[Muhammed Abul Manzur]], and Captain Bazlul Ghani Patwari from [[Abbottabad Cantonment]], crossing the border to Devigarh in India on 25 July 1971 and reaching Delhi on 27 July.<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 January 2014 |title=Clandestine killings in the Bangladesh Army |url=https://www.observerbd.com/2014/01/21/2073.php |access-date=27 October 2022 |work=[[The Daily Observer (Bangladesh)]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Lifschultz |first=Lawrence |date=2014-02-22 |title=The murder of Major General Abul Manzur, Bir Uttam |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/the-murder-of-major-general-abul-manzur-bir-uttam-12397 |access-date=2022-10-27 |work=The Daily Star |language=en}}</ref> Ziauddin and others reached Calcutta on August 7. He was then given the command of the 1st East Bengal Regiment under [[Z Force (Bangladesh)|Z Force]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hossain |first=Md Anwar |date=18 June 2021 |title=Taher, Colonel Abu |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Taher,_Colonel_Abu |access-date=2022-09-28 |website=[[Banglapedia]] |language=en}}</ref> During the Liberation War, Ziauddin was the commanding officer of the 1st [[East Bengal Regiment]] under Sector 1.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-12-17 |title=Bittersweet Victory: A Freedom Fighter's Tale |url=https://archive.dhakatribune.com/uncategorized/2013/12/17/bittersweet-victory-a-freedom-fighters-tale |access-date=2022-09-28 |work=[[Dhaka Tribune]]}}</ref> At the sector commanders conference in October in Calcutta, both Ziauddin and Taher opposed focusing on the [[Bangladesh Army]], encouraging instead more support for [[Irregular military|irregular]] [[militias]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Riaz |first=Ali |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=udSLDwAAQBAJ&dq=lieutenant+colonel+ziauddin&pg=PT62 |title=Bangladesh: A Political History since Independence |year=2016 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |page=36 |isbn=978-1-78672-075-7 |language=en}}</ref> They called for reducing reliance on India for weapons and moving the Mukti Bahini headquarters from India to Bangladesh.<ref name=":0" />

On the afternoon of September 8, a company of the 1st East Bengal Regiment went to Mahendraganj, India. A small team of only platoon and section commanders carried out hit and run operations in Kamalpur. He accompanied and led them in all operations. Most of the operations were [[successful]] and caused [[casualties]] to the [[Pakistani Army]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2021 |title=Major Ziauddin Bir Uttom |url=https://1971.prothomalo.com/freedom-fighters-info/gallantry-awardees/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A6-%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%AE |access-date=27 October 2022 |website=[[Prothom Alo]]}}</ref>

Ziauddin commanded the unit [[Hamidur Rahman]] served in when they attacked a Pakistan Army camp on the [[Dhalai River]].<ref name=":1" /> Crawling forward to destroy the LMG post, he threw a [[grenade]] at the bunker, causing the LMG to explode. Sepoy Hamidur Rahman was [[martyred]] by another LMG. In the end, Ziauddin ordered them to return to Mohanpur camp due to heavy [[casualties]]. Hamidur Rahman of the [[1st East Bengal Regiment]] was posthumously awarded the [[Bir Sreshtho]], Bangladesh's highest award for valor, for his actions during the [[War|conflict]].<ref name=":1">{{cite news |date=9 December 2014 |title=October 28, 1971 |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/october-28-1971-54190 |access-date=27 October 2022 |work=The Daily Star}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-115066 |title=War heroes honoured |work=The Daily Star |date=29 November 2009}}</ref>

Ziauddin was at the forefront of Sylhet's MC College battle on December 13 of the Liberation War. By December 15, Mukti Bahini and joint forces started knocking at Sylhet's front door. In the end, Pakistani forces decided to surrender. [[Pakistani forces]] [[surrendered]] in [[Sylhet]] on December 17 at 3 pm.<ref>{{Cite news |script-title=bn:খেতাবপ্রাপ্ত বীর মুক্তিযোদ্ধা: মোহাম্মদ জিয়াউদ্দিন, বীর উত্তম |url=https://bangla.thedailystar.net/%e0%a6%b8%e0%a6%82%e0%a6%b8%e0%a7%8d%e0%a6%95%e0%a7%83%e0%a6%a4%e0%a6%bf/%e0%a6%87%e0%a6%a4%e0%a6%bf%e0%a6%b9%e0%a6%be%e0%a6%b8-%e0%a6%90%e0%a6%a4%e0%a6%bf%e0%a6%b9%e0%a7%8d%e0%a6%af/%e0%a6%87%e0%a6%a4%e0%a6%bf%e0%a6%b9%e0%a6%be%e0%a6%b8/%e0%a6%96%e0%a7%87%e0%a6%a4%e0%a6%be%e0%a6%ac%e0%a6%aa%e0%a7%8d%e0%a6%b0%e0%a6%be%e0%a6%aa%e0%a7%8d%e0%a6%a4-%e0%a6%ac%e0%a7%80%e0%a6%b0-%e0%a6%ae%e0%a7%81%e0%a6%95%e0%a7%8d%e0%a6%a4%e0%a6%bf%e0%a6%af%e0%a7%8b%e0%a6%a6%e0%a7%8d%e0%a6%a7%e0%a6%be-%e0%a6%ae%e0%a7%8b%e0%a6%b9%e0%a6%be%e0%a6%ae%e0%a7%8d%e0%a6%ae%e0%a6%a6-%e0%a6%9c%e0%a6%bf%e0%a7%9f%e0%a6%be%e0%a6%89%e0%a6%a6%e0%a7%8d%e0%a6%a6%e0%a6%bf%e0%a6%a8-%e0%a6%ac%e0%a7%80%e0%a6%b0-%e0%a6%89%e0%a6%a4%e0%a7%8d%e0%a6%a4%e0%a6%ae-310346 |work=The Daily Star |date=31 January 2022 |language=bn}}</ref>

=== Bangladesh Army ===
After independence, Ziauddin was promoted to the rank of [[lieutenant colonel]].<ref name=":3" /> Meanwhile, when Indian Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] visited Bangladesh, Ziauddin gave her a [[guard of honour]].<ref name=":2" /> In 1972, Ziauddin commanded the [[46th Independent Infantry Brigade|46 Brigade]], based in [[Dhaka Cantonment]], with which he suppressed a mutiny by soldiers of the [[Bangladesh Air Force]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Lifschultz |first=Lawrence |year=1977 |title=Abu Taher's Last Testament: Bangladesh: The Unfinished Revolution |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4365850 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=12 |issue=33/34 |pages=1303–1354 |jstor=4365850 |issn=0012-9976}}</ref> He spoke in favor of socialism to officers under his command.<ref name=":3" /> He and Taher, in charge of the 46th Infantry Brigade, commanded nearly 90 percent of the infantry soldiers of the newly created Bangladesh Army.<ref name=":3" /> In 1972, he destroyed all war loot taken by officers and soldiers under his command during the Bangladesh Liberation War.<ref name=":3" /> Ziauddin argued that military units should be self-sufficient and raise their own food.<ref name=":3" />

After the independence, for two more months of institutional training, a temporary 'Battle School' on the model of Military Academy was established at Kachukshet in Dhaka Cantonment under the 46th Independent Infantry Brigade for the cadets of the Second Bangladesh War Course. Lt. Col. Ziauddin was in charge of this battle school. He himself was engaged in overall supervision of extended training at the Temporary Battle School.<ref>{{Cite news |script-title=bn:ওয়ার কোর্স-স্বাধীনতাযুদ্ধের দূরদর্শী পরিকল্পনা |url=https://www.dailynayadiganta.com/opinion/585676/%E0%A6%93%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE |work=Daily Naya Diganta |date=1 June 2021 |type=Opinion |language=bn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241202221749/https://www.dailynayadiganta.com/opinion/585676/%E0%A6%93%E0%A7%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE |archive-date=2024-12-02}}</ref>

Ziauddin wrote an article in the ''[[Holiday (newspaper)|Holiday]]'' criticizing the government and its treaty with India on 20 August 1972.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Chowdhury |first=R. |date=2019-12-01 |title=Bangladesh: An Enslaved Nation? (Part I) |url=http://southasiajournal.net/bangladesh-an-enslaved-nation-part-i/ |access-date=2022-09-28 |website=South Asia Journal |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Q. M. Jalal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5bUmEAAAQBAJ&dq=Colonel+Mohammad+Ziauddin&pg=PA84 |title=India's Hegemonic Design in Bangladesh |date=2021-02-25 |publisher=Writers Republic LLC |isbn=978-1-63728-158-1 |pages=84 |language=ar}}</ref> He called the treaty a secret agreement and pointed out they had fought the war without Sheikh Mujib, who was in jail in Pakistan, and would fight another if necessary.<ref name=":3" /> He had published the article when Prime Minister Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was outside the country.<ref name=":3" /> The Prime Minister met Ziauddin after returning to the country and demanded an official apology which he refused.<ref name=":3" /> He lost his job for the article. He travelled the country getting to know the people.<ref name=":3" />

In February 1974, Zia dropped all contact and went underground to join Marxist revolutionaries.<ref name=":3" /> He joined the underground [[Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party]] led by [[Siraj Sikder]], which was the most active left wing insurgency in Bangladesh at that time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (1975) - reasons for army's anger towards Sheikh Mujibur Rahman - History of Bangladesh |url=http://www.londoni.co/index.php/26-history-of-bangladesh/1975-assassination-of-sheikh-mujibur-rahman/267-assassination-of-sheikh-mujibur-rahman-1975-reasons-for-army-s-anger-towards-sheikh-mujibur-rahman-history-of-bangladesh |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=londoni.co}}</ref><ref name=":3" />

His colleague, Major [[Mohammad Abdul Jalil]], who shared his left wing views, was also fired from the army.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hossain |first=M. Sanjeeb |title=Know your friends and foes |url=https://bdnews24.com/opinion/comment/know-your-friends-and-foes |access-date=2022-10-27 |work=bdnews24.com |date=2 November 2012 |type=Opinion |language=en}}</ref> Siraj Sikder was killed by Bangladesh police on 2 January 1975 on his way to [[Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini|Rakkhi Bahini]] camp.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khan |first=Muazzam Hussain |date=18 June 2021 |title=Sikder, Siraj |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Sikder,_Siraj |access-date=2022-10-27 |website=Banglapedia |language=en}}</ref> President Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was killed in [[15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état]].<ref name=":3" /> One of the mutineers, Major [[Khandaker Abdur Rashid]], asked Taher and Ziauddin to join the new regime.<ref name=":3" /> Taher asked him remove the death warrant issued against Zaiuddin by the former president.<ref name=":3" /> The new president, [[Khondakar Mustaque Ahmed]], encouraged them to start a political party.<ref name=":3" />

In 1976, Ziauddin was sentenced to ten years imprisonment, while Taher was sentenced to death following the [[7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état]].<ref name=":3" /> The coup paved the way for Major General [[Ziaur Rahman]] to take power.<ref name=":3" />

In 1989, he returned to a normal life under special amnesty. Ziauddin was appointed chairman of [[Chittagong Development Authority]] on 2 September 1993 and served until September 15, 1996.<ref>{{Cite web |title=পূর্বের চেয়ারম্যানগণ |url=https://cda.gov.bd/site/page/583df265-398f-4ca5-a043-fa8c2d256d09/-}}</ref>

He was the founding principal of Chittagong Presidency International School. After the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], Lt. Col. Ziauddin was leading a retired life in his home in Chittagong until his death on 5 August 2025.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Mohosin |first=A K M |year=2022 |title=নির্মোহ এক স্বপ্নযোদ্ধা লে. কর্নেল (অবঃ) জিয়াউদ্দিনের (বীর উত্তম) জীবন কথা |url=https://www.rokomari.com/book/235161/nirmoho-ek-swaponjoddha-lt-coloner-retd-ziyauddin-bir-uttom-jibon-kotha |publisher=Anannya |location=Rokomari |isbn=978-9-849-66454-3}}

{{Bir Uttom}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ziauddin, Mohammad}}
[[Category:1939 births]]
[[Category:2025 deaths]]
[[Category:Mukti Bahini personnel]]
[[Category:Bangladesh Army officers]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi lieutenant colonels]]
[[Category:People from Harbang]]
[[Category:PAF College Sargodha alumni]]
[[Category:Chattogram Collegiate School alumni]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi socialists]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Bir Uttom]]
[[Category:Muslim socialists]]

Kalaktang Monpa language

2026-04-28T23:48:07Z

PaulineBarwell2:

{{Short description|Sino-Tibetan language of India}}
{{Infobox language
|name=Kalaktang Monpa
|nativename=
|region=[[Arunachal Pradesh]]
|speakers=8000
|date=2005
|ref=<ref>{{citation|title = Monpa, Kalaktang|website = [[Ethnologue]]|url = https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kkf|accessdate = 2023-02-13}}</ref>
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|fam2=[[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]]?
|fam3=[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibeto-Kanauri]]?
|fam4=Kalaktang Monpa–[[Tshangla language|Tshangla]]
|iso3=kkf
|glotto=kala1376
|glottorefname=Kalaktang Monpa
}}

'''Kalaktang Monpa''' is an underdocumented [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] language spoken in [[West Kameng district]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[India]].

==Classification==
Kalaktang Monpa should not be confused with the [[Takpa language]] known under the name ''Tawang Monpa'' in India. It is also distinct from the neighboring [[Dirang Monpa language]]. According to [[Roger Blench]], [[Tshangla language|Tshangla]] as spoken in [[Bhutan]] is the closest external relative of Kalaktang Monpa.<ref>{{citation|last = Blench|first = Roger|author-link = Roger Blench|year = 2012|title = Sorting out Monpa: the relationships of the Bodic languages. Draft Manuscript|url = https://www.rogerblench.info/Language/NEI/Bodish/General/Sorting%20out%20Monpa.pdf}}</ref> [[Glottolog]] classifies Kalaktang Monpa under ''Tshanglic'', a sub-branch of the [[Bodic languages]].<ref>{{citation|title = Spoken L1 Language: Kalaktang Monpa|website = [[Glottolog]]|url = https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/kala1376|accessdate = 2023-02-12}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Bodic languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Languages of Arunachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:West Kameng district]]
[[Category:Endangered languages of India]]
[[Category:Bodic languages]]
{{SinoTibetan-lang-stub}}
{{ArunachalPradesh-stub}}

Zeenat Begum

2026-04-28T16:46:32Z

PaulineBarwell2:

{{short description|Pakistani singer}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Zeenat Begum
| image = Zeenat-begum.jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| native_name = {{Nastaliq|زینت بيگم}}
| birth_name = Shamim Akhtar<ref name=cineplot/>
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1931|11|11}}
| birth_place = [[Malerkotla]], [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2007|12|11|1931|11|11|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Lahore]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]]
| alias = ''Queen of Yesteryear''<ref name=HimalSouthasian/>
| occupation = {{Hlist | Playback singer | Actress | Producer}}
| years_active = 1942 – 2007
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|Abdul Jabbar|1949|1955|end=div}}
* Saqlain Rizvi
}}
| children = 1
}}

'''Zeenat Begum''' (born '''Shamim Akhtar'''; 11 November 1931 {{endash}} 11 December 2007), sometimes known as '''Zeenat''', was a Pakistani singer.<ref name=cineplot/> She was known as ''The Queen of Yesteryear'' for singing songs in films and on radio.<ref name=HimalSouthasian/>

==Early life==
Zeenat Begum was born Shamim Akhtar in 1931 on November 11 at [[Malerkotla]], [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]], [[British Raj|British India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://urdu.arynews.tv/death-anniversary-zeenat-begum/|title=زینت بیگم: فلمی صنعت کی ایک بھولی بسری آواز|website=ARY News|date=January 23, 2022}}</ref>

==Music career==
Zeenat Begum was a [[tawaif]] and a renowned classical singer.<ref name=HimalSouthasian/><ref name=cineplot/> She was discovered by [[Amar Nath|Pandit Amar Nath]] around 1937.<ref name=cineplot>{{cite web|url=http://cineplot.com/music/zeenat-begum/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101141700/http://cineplot.com/music/zeenat-begum/ |title=Zeenat Begum profile|publisher=cineplot.com website|date=2 November 2010 |access-date=19 April 2019|archive-date=1 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1256664|title=Spotlight: World's greatest mums|website=Dawn News|date=June 8, 2021}}</ref> Her first success as a playback singer came in 1942 when she sang for Govind Ram's Punjabi film [[Mangti]] (1942) and she also made her debut as an actress in the film.<ref name=HimalSouthasian>{{cite web|url=https://www.himalmag.com/mallikas-of-yesteryear-music-queens-pakistan-2021|title=Mallikas of yesteryear|website=Himal Southasian|date=January 14, 2022}}</ref> The film was marked as the first [[Golden jubilee]] film produced in [[Lahore]].<ref name=cineplot/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1572495|title=Mohammad Rafi remembered|website=Dawn News|date=February 26, 2022}}</ref>

Her first [[Hindi]] film was ''Nishani'' (1942).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cineplot.com/music/zeenat-begums-song-list-1942-1951/ |title=Zeenat Begum's Song List – (1942–1951) |publisher=Cineplot.com |date=21 May 2011 |access-date=19 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101132907/http://cineplot.com/music/zeenat-begums-song-list-1942-1951/ |archive-date=1 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> She sang for other notable films including ''[[Panchhi]]'' (1944), ''[[Shalimar (1946 film)|Shalimar]]'' (1946), ''Shehar se Door'' (1946) and ''Daasi'' (1944).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cineplot.com/zeenat-begum/|title=Zeenat Begum|publisher=Cineplot.com|access-date=19 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190913161909/http://cineplot.com/zeenat-begum/|archive-date=13 September 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Cinema Vision India Volume 2|publisher=Bombay S. Kak|page=34}}</ref>

Zeenat Begum migrated from Lahore to [[Mumbai|Bombay]] in 1944.<ref name=cineplot/> She sang for several music directors in Bombay, including younger brothers of Pandit Amar Nath – Pandit [[Husnlal Bhagatram]], Master [[Ghulam Haider (composer)|Ghulam Haider]], Pandit Gobind Ram, etc.<ref name=cineplot/> The last film she sang for in [[India]] was ''Mukhda'' (1951).<ref name=cineplot/> She migrated to [[Pakistan]] and joined [[Lahore]] station of [[Radio Pakistan]] and worked there until the late 1950s.<ref name=cineplot/> After the [[independence of Pakistan]] in 1947, many new playback singers arrived in Pakistan which affected the playback singing career of Zeenat Begum.<ref name=cineplot/> Though she remained a prominent singer of Radio Lahore in the 1950s and 1960s.<ref name=cineplot/><ref>{{cite book|title=Sangeet Natak, Issues 99-102|publisher=New Delhi : Sangeet Natak Akademi, 1965|page=72}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Zeenat married Abdul Jabbar in 1949. They divorced in 1955. She married Saqlain Rizvi later and they had one child together.

==Death==
She died on 11 December 2007 in [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]].<ref name=cineplot/>

==Filmography==
===Film===
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Year
! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Film
! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Language
|-
| 1942 || ''Nishani'' || Hindi
|-
| 1942 || ''[[Mangti]]'' || Punjabi<ref>{{cite book|title=Routledge Handbook of Indian Cinemas|publisher=Routledge|page=165}}</ref>
|-
| 1943 || ''[[Sahara (1943 Hindi film)|Sahara]]'' || Hindi<ref>{{cite book|title=A Woman of Substance: The Memoirs of Begum Khurshid Mirza, 1918-1989|publisher=New Delhi : Zubaan, an imprint of Kali for Women|page=147}}</ref>
|-
| 1944 || ''Daasi'' || Hindi
|-
| 1944 || ''Chand'' || Hindi
|-
| 1944 || ''[[Panchhi]]'' || Hindi
|-
| 1944 || ''Gul Baloch'' || Punjabi<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/features/punjabs-rafi-rafis-punjab-%E2%80%94-a-bond-of-love-118094|title=Punjab's Rafi, Rafi's Punjab — a bond of love|website=Tribune India|date=December 26, 2021|access-date=14 February 2022|archive-date=8 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108060508/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/features/punjabs-rafi-rafis-punjab-%E2%80%94-a-bond-of-love-118094|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Remembering Mohammed Rafi|publisher=VIJAY. POOLAKKAL|page=2}}</ref>
|-
| 1945 || ''Champa'' || Hindi
|-
| 1946 || ''Kahan Gaye'' || Hindi
|-
| 1946 || ''Shehar se Door'' || Hindi
|-
| 1946 || ''Rehana'' || Urdu
|-
| 1946 || ''[[Shalimar (1946 film)|Shalimar]]'' || Hindi
|-
| 1946 || ''Khush Naseeb'' || Hindi
|-
| 1948 || ''[[Teri Yaad (film)|Teri Yaad]]'' || Urdu
|-
| 1949 || ''[[Ek Thi Larki]]'' || Hindi
|-
| 1949 || ''Kaneez'' || Hindi<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rajadhyaksha|first1=Ashish|last2=Willemen|first2=Paul|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian cinema|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofi0000raja|year=1999|page=313|publisher=British Film Institute|isbn=9780851706696 }}</ref>
|-
| 1949 || ''[[Pheray]]'' || Urdu<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.desimoviesreviews.com/index.php/category/lollywood-reviews/|date=26 May 2020|archive-date=13 June 2020|access-date=4 February 2022|url-status=dead|author=Swami ji|website=Hot Spot Online website|title=Pheray (1949 film) - a film review (scroll down to read this title) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613171705/https://www.desimoviesreviews.com/index.php/category/lollywood-reviews/}}</ref>
|-
| 1950 || ''Jahad'' || Urdu
|-
| 1950 || ''Hamari Basti'' || Urdu
|-
| 1950 || ''2 Aansoo'' || Urdu
|-
| 1950 || ''Shammi'' || Punjabi
|-
| 1951 || ''Mukhda'' || Hindi
|-
| 1951 || ''Eid'' || Urdu
|-
| 1951 || ''Ghairat'' || Urdu
|-
| 1951 || ''[[Billo (film)|Billo]]'' || Punjabi
|-
| 1952 || ''Shola'' || Urdu
|-
| 1952 || ''Nath'' || Punjabi
|-
| 1953 || ''Sailab'' || Urdu
|-
| 1953 || ''Ilzam'' || Urdu
|-
| 1963 || ''Ik Tera Sahara'' || Urdu
|-
| 1970 || ''Naya Savera'' || Urdu
|-
| 1975 || ''[[Mohabbat Zindagi Hai (1975 film)|Mohabbat Zindagi Hai]]'' || Urdu
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|0066834}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Begum, Zeenat}}
[[Category:Indian women classical singers]]
[[Category:Pakistani classical singers]]
[[Category:Pakistani playback singers]]
[[Category:Pakistani radio personalities]]
[[Category:Indian women playback singers]]
[[Category:Indian courtesans]]
[[Category:2007 deaths]]
[[Category:Punjabi women]]
[[Category:Singers from Lahore]]
[[Category:Punjabi-language singers]]
[[Category:Radio personalities from Lahore]]
[[Category:Hindi-language playback singers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women singers]]
[[Category:1931 births]]
[[Category:20th-century Pakistani actresses]]
[[Category:20th-century Pakistani women singers]]
[[Category:Singers from British India]]
[[Category:21st-century Pakistani women singers]]
[[Category:Pakistani film actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century Pakistani actresses]]
[[Category:People from Punjab Province (British India)]]
[[Category:Pakistani tawaifs]]
[[Category:Pakistani ghazal singers]]
[[Category:20th-century women musicians]]

Nistar Kujur

2026-04-26T02:33:04Z

PaulineBarwell2:

{{Short description|Indian Bishop}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| native_name = Rt. Rev. Nistar Kujur
| native_name_lang = निस्तार कुजूर
| church = [[Lutheran]]
| diocese = [[Central Diocese]]
| appointed = January 24, 2022
| rank = Bishop
| birth_name = Nistar Kujur
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1965|df=y}}
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| honorific_prefix = [[Most Reverend]]
| predecessor = Position Established
| successor = [[Incumbent]]
| term = 2022-Present
| see = [[North Western Gossner Evangelical Lutheran Church|N.W.G.E.L.Church]]
| spouse = Harshit Kujur
| children = 2 son
| parents = Mahindar Kujur (father)
Phoolkumari Kujur (mother)
| birth_place = [[Gumla]]
| consecration = 24 January 2024
| title = Bishop of Central Diocese
| alma_mater = Kartik Oraon College, Gumla
}}

'''Rev.Nistar Kujur''' (born 1965) is an Indian [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] [[Bishop]] who serves as the first Bishop of [[Central Diocese]] of [[North Western Gossner Evangelical Lutheran Church]] from 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-01-22 |title=जब व‍िभिन्‍नता में एकता का उदय होगा, वहीं सर्वश्रेष्ठ एकता : आर्च बिशप |url=https://lagatar.in/when-unity-in-diversity-emerges-there-is-the-best-unity-archbishop/ |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=Lagatar |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-26 |title=प्रभु यीशु को अपने हृदय में जगह दें : पादरी निस्तार |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/state/jharkhand/gumla/1103474 |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=Prabhat Khabar |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=प्रभु खीस्त का आशीष मिले सबको : निस्तार - |url=https://www.jagran.com/jharkhand/gumla-chritasmas-news-17257468.html |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=Jagran |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PH5tj_A5X4k |title=धर्म शास्त्र बाइबल के अनुसार गिरजाघर एक मंदिर है. : बिशप निस्तार |date=2024-06-14 |last=Prabhat Khabar Gumla |access-date=2024-07-08 |via=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=सर्वशक्तिमान है परमपिता परमेश्‍वर: आर्च बिशप |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/jharkhand/simdega/story-almighty-god-is-the-almighty-arch-bishop-10175180.html |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=Hindustan |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=एनडब्ल्यू जीइएल चर्च में धूमधाम से मना क्रिसमस - एनडब्ल्यू जीइएल चर्च में धूमधाम से मना क्रिसमस - Jharkhand Gumla General News |url=https://www.jagran.com/jharkhand/gumla-gumla-news-19876950.html |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=Jagran |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-24 |title=christmas 2023 beauty of churches in Ranchi worth seeing |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/state/jharkhand/ranchi/christmas-2023-beauty-of-churches-in-ranchi-worth-seeing-know-where-and-when-the-prayers-to-be-held-srn |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=Prabhat Khabar |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-22 |title=Christmas In Ranchi: राजधानी रांची में क्रिसमस की धूम |url=https://jharexpress.com/christmas-in-ranchi/ |access-date=2024-07-08 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-25 |title=क्रिसमस के उत्सव पर पूरी राजधानी में छायी रही रौनक, प्रभु यीशु का मनाया गया जन्मोत्सव - News Express 24 |url=https://newsexpress24.com/jharkhand-news-hindi/the-entire-capital-was-filled-with-excitement-on-the-occasion-of-christmas-the-birth-anniversary-of-lord-jesus-was-celebrated/ |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=newsexpress24.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=केरसई: केरसई के जीईएल प्राथमिक विद्यालय कोंनजोबा में बने नए विद्यालय भवन का बिशप निस्तार कुजूर ने किया उद्घाटन |url=https://public.app/video/sp_a3lj6oq0ke7t8 |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=Public |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

{{morecat|date=April 2025}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kujur, Nistar}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:Lutheran bishops in Asia]]
[[Category:Indian clergy]]
[[Category:People from Gumla district]]

{{India-reli-bio-stub}}
{{Lutheran-bishop-stub}}

Eparchy of Kanjirappally

2026-04-24T14:46:07Z

PaulineBarwell2: started basic details v1

{{Short description|Eastern Catholic eparchy in Kerala, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox diocese
|jurisdiction = Eparchy
|name = Kanjirapally
|local =
|image =
|caption = St. Dominic's Syro Malabar Catholic Cathedral Church, Kanjirappally
|country = {{flag|India}}
|province = [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Archeparchy of Changanassery|Metropolitan Province of Changanassery]]
|metropolitan =
|rite = [[East Syriac Rite]]
|cathedral = Cathedral of St Dominic in [[Kanjirappally]]
|cocathedral =
|established = 26 February 1977
|patron = [[Mary, mother of Jesus]]
|parishes =
|area_km2 = 1,980
|population = 1,383,000
|population_as_of = 2011
|catholics = 228,700
|catholics_percent= 16.5
|pope = {{incumbent pope}}
|metro_archbishop = [[Thomas Tharayil (archbishop of Changanassery)|Mar Thomas Tharayil]] {{Lang|syc| }}
|coadjutor =
|bishop = [[Jose Pulickal]] {{Lang|syc| ܡܵܪܝ ܝܵܘܣܹܦ ܐܲܦܸܣܩܘܿܦܵܐ }}
|major_archbishop = [[Raphael Thattil]]
|auxiliary_bishops=
|emeritus_bishops = Mathew Vattackuzhy (1987–2000) Mathew Arackal (2001-2020)
|website = [https://kanjirapallydiocese.com/home/index.php Website of the Diocese]
|churches=|dissolved=|founded=|sui_iuris_church=|flag=|denomination=[[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]]|headquarters=|territory=|coat=Kanjirappally_diocese.jpeg|language=}}

The '''Eparchy of Kanjirappally''' is a [[Syro-Malabar Catholic]] eparchy with an area of 1980 km2 comprising the [[Kanjirappally]] taluk in [[Kottayam district]] and a few villages of the neighbouring taluks in Kottayam district, northern [[Pathanamthitta district|Pathanamthitta]] district, and parts of [[Idukki district|Idukki]] district of central Kerala in [[South India]].

The Eparchy of Kanjirappally-Nilackal was erected by [[Pope Paul VI]] with the [[Papal bull|bull]] "Nos Beati Petri Successores" in February 1977, which separated the eastern part of the [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Archeparchy of Changanassery|Archeparchy of Changanassery]] and erected the new eparchy of Kanjirapally-Nilackal, as a [[Suffragan diocese|suffragan]] of the same Archeparchy. [[Jose Pulickal]] is the current bishop, serving since January 2020. [[Mathew Arackal]] is the bishop emeritus of the eparchy, who served from 2001 to 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kanjirapallydiocese.com/ |title=Eparchy of Kanjirapally |publisher=Kanjirapallydiocese.com |date= |accessdate=2020-02-26}}</ref>
Mary Matha Minor seminary is the heart of kanjirapally diocese.

[[File:Mar Mathew Arackal with Pope.jpg|thumb|Mathew Arackal, Bishop of Kanjirapally, with Pope Benedict XVI.]]

== Prelates ==
''' Eparchs of Kanjirappally'''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Sl.no
! Name
! Designation
! Year of appointment
! Last year of service
|-
| 1
| [[Joseph Powathil]]
| align="center" |Bishop
| align="center" |1977
| align="center" |1985
|-
| 2
| [[Mathew Vattackuzhy]]
| align="center" |Bishop
| align="center" |1986
| align="center" |2000
|-
| 3
| [[Mathew Arackal]]
| align="center" |Bishop
| align="center" |2000
| align="center" |2020
|-
| 4
| [[Jose Pulickal]]
| align="center" |Bishop
| align="center" | 2020
| align="center" |''present''
|}

''' Prelates Hailing From Diocese'''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Sl.no
! Name
! Designation
! Year of appointment
! Last year of service
|-
| 1
| [[Thomas Kozhimala]]
| align="center" | Former Bishop - Bhagalpur
| align="center" | 1996
| align="center" | 2005
|-
| 2
| [[Mathai Kochuparampil SDB]]
| align="center" | Former Bishop - Dimphu
| align="center" | 1983
| align="center" | 1992
|-
| 3
| [[Sebastian Vaniyapurackal]]
| align="center" | Archbishop - Kalyan
| align="center" | 2025
| align="center" | ''Present''
|-
| 4
| [[Sibi Mathew Peedikayil HGN]]
| align="center" | Bishop - Aitape
| align="center" | 2021
| align="center" | ''Present''
|-
| 5
| [[Joseph Kallarackal]]
| align="center" | Bishop - Jaipur
| align="center" | 2023
| align="center" | ''Present''
|}

==List of Parishes==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!ID
!Place
!Name
!Estd
!Tele
!Families
!Population
!H Families
!H Populations
|-
|1
|Alampally
|St. Dominic
|1965
|4869246252
|95
|475
|0
|0
|-
|2
|Amalagiri
|St. Thomas
|1962
|4869280177
|145
|640
|0
|0
|-
|3
|Amaravathy
|St. Joseph
|1961
|04869-222421
|220
|941
|7
|43
|-
|4
|Anakkal
|St. Antony
|1940
|4828202567
|580
|2350
|60
|382
|-
|5
|Anakkara
|St. Thomas
|1952
|4868282244
|684
|2980
|82
|334
|-
|6
|[[Anavilasam]]
|St. George
|1967
|4869263326
|215
|1020
|4
|17
|-
|7
|Anchilippa
|St. Pius
|1955
|4828202666
|292
|1376
|17
|50
|-
|8
|Angelvalley
|St. Mary
|1996
|4828214460
|285
|1333
|0
|0
|-
|9
|Anickad
|St. Mary
|1860
|4812551303
|689
|3476
|129
|635
|-
|10
|Aniyartholu
|St. Thomas
|1996
|4868270020
|40
|183
|0
|0
|-
|11
|Azhangad
|St. Antony
|1960
|4869280097
|98
|500
|0
|0
|-
|12
|Bethani Hills
|St. Mary
|1960
|4735270470
|31
|143
|0
|0
|-
|13
|Chakkupallam
|Carmala Matha
|1998
|4868282218
|210
|1063
|1
|4
|-
|14
|Chamampathal
|Fathima Matha
|1988
|4812457106
|180
|742
|13
|48
|-
|15
|Chellarcoil
|Mar Sleeva
|1995
|4868282890
|245
|1146
|10
|42
|-
|16
|Chembalam
|St. Mary
|1953
|4868232522
|196
|990
|2
|9
|-
|17
|Chemmannu
|St. Thomas
|1952
|4869242326
|222
|1000
|8
|40
|-
|18
|Chempanoly
|St. Sebastain
|1953
|4735265933
|108
|602
|6
|24
|-
|19
|[[Chengalam]]
|[[Anthony of Padua|St. Antony]]
|1913
|4812704332
|650
|3245
|110
|654
|-
|20
|Chenkal
|Sacred Heart
|1930
|4828221413
|358
|1802
|5
|32
|-
|21
|Chennakunnu
|St. George
|2002
|4828228268
|122
|531
|0
|0
|-
|22
|Cheruvallikulam
|St. George
|1973
|4869288022
|162
|672
|1
|0
|-
|23
|Cheruvally
|St. Mary
|1913
|4828247451
|342
|1684
|0
|0
|-
|24
|Chinnar
|St. George
|1957
|4869242354
|146
|670
|4
|21
|-
|25
|Christunagar
|St. George
|1962
|4869288040
|103
|487
|0
|0
|-
|26
|Cumbummettu
|St. Joseph
|1964
|4868279226
|290
|1289
|30
|122
|-
|27
|Edakkunnam
|Mary Matha
|2003
|4828270191
|117
|540
|5
|24
|-
|28
|Edamon
|St. Mary
|1963
|4735260407
|110
|471
|1
|3
|-
|29
|Elamgulam
|St. Mary
|1895
|4828226369
|560
|2824
|35
|154
|-
|30
|Elangoi
|Holy Cross
|1922
|4812456343
|227
|1017
|0
|0
|-
|31
|Elappara-Pallikunnu
|St. Alphonsa
|1993
|4869232497
|75
|400
|4
|20
|-
|32
|Elikkulam
|Infant Jesus
|1908
|4822225319
|398
|1600
|0
|0
|-
|33
|Elivalikkara
|St. Antony
|1985
|4828255145
|132
|579
|2
|9
|-
|34
|Erumely
|Assumption Forane
|1952
|4828210343
|354
|1784
|1
|5
|-
|35
|Grace Mount
|Grace Matha
|2000
|4869325627
|78
|298
|2
|9
|-
|36
|Greenvalley
|Infant Jesus
|2006
|4868228500
|67
|280
|6
|26
|-
|37
|[[Inchiyani]]
|Holy Family
|1938
|4828272951
|268
|1430
|1
|3
|-
|38
|Kalthotty
|Holy Family
|1953
|4868271318
|410
|2050
|3
|24
|-
|39
|Kanamala
|St. Thomas
|1956
|4828214235
|300
|1363
|3
|13
|-
|40
|Kanayankavayal
|St. Mary
|1953
|4869288169
|330
|1551
|1
|12
|-
|41
|Kanchiyar
|St. Mary
|1953
|4868271308
|330
|1024
|8
|24
|-
|42
|Kanjirapally
|St. Dominic Cathedral
|1450
|04828-202343,204643
|1252
|10354
|84
|425
|-
|43
|Kannampally
|St. Mary
|1950
|4735270275
|134
|619
|0
|0
|-
|44
|Kannimala
|St. Joseph
|1953
|4828210301
|225
|1200
|11
|65
|-
|45
|Kappadu
|Holy Cross
|1923
|4828235339
|765
|3825
|66
|330
|-
|46
|Karikkattoor
|St. Antony
|1987
|4828247551
|190
|447
|2
|8
|-
|47
|Karikulam
|Fathima Matha
|1950
|4828251213
|173
|665
|66
|116
|-
|48
|Karunapuram
|St. Mary
|1960
|4868279334
|188
|834
|0
|0
|-
|49
|Kattappana
|St. George
|1953
|4868272231
|963
|4228
|18
|45
|-
|50
|Keerikkara
|St. Antony
|1979
|4869258499
|118
|611
|0
|0
|-
|51
|Kochera
|St. Joseph
|1960
|4868285017
|281
|1054
|15
|64
|-
|52
|Kochuthovala
|St. Joseph
|1985
|4868272342
|172
|800
|5
|37
|-
|53
|Kollamula
|Maria Goretti
|1954
|4735264135
|530
|2597
|7
|33
|-
|54
|Konni
|St. Jude
|2000
|4682340554
|20
|65
|0
|0
|-
|55
|Koothattukulam
|Assumption
|1963
|4735255408
|34
|200
|5
|30
|-
|56
|Koovapally
|St. Joseph
|1956
|4828251126
|550
|2825
|50
|252
|-
|57
|Koratty Puthenpally
|St. Joseph
|1951
|4828210417
|273
|1410
|7
|64
|-
|58
|Koruthodu
|St. George
|1954
|4828280235
|675
|3069
|32
|138
|-
|59
|Kozhanchery
|Holy Family
|2005
|4735200568
|30
|100
|0
|0
|-
|60
|Kumily - Attappallam
|St. Thomas
|1953
|4869222091
|680
|3102
|5
|28
|-
|61
|Kunnumbhagam
|St. Joseph
|1961
|4828202681
|300
|2000
|10
|45
|-
|62
|Kurumpanmoozhy
|St. Thomas
|1996
|4735263666
|191
|840
|1
|2
|-
|63
|Kuzhitholu
|St. Sebastian
|1960
|4868279208
|288
|1421
|33
|227
|-
|64
|Madukka
|St. Mathew
|1997
|4828280449
|270
|1132
|10
|28
|-
|65
|Mailapra
|St. Joseph
|1958
|4682300488
|22
|101
|0
|0
|-
|66
|Mangapetta
|St. Thomas
|1995
|4828278687
|55
|290
|10
|45
|-
|67
|Manipuzha
|Christ The King
|1940
|4828254146
|205
|800
|0
|0
|-
|68
|Mariagiri
|St. Sebastian
|1993
|4869244414
|142
|673
|5
|27
|-
|69
|[[Marykulam]]
|St. George
|1956
|4869244240
|925
|4276
|45
|310
|-
|70
|Meenkuzhy
|Little Flower
|1963
|4735255408
|49
|300
|5
|30
|-
|71
|[[Meloram]]
|St. Sebastian
|1950
|4869280785
|135
|667
|5
|20
|-
|72
|Meppara
|Lourde Matha
|2005
|4868259035
|118
|440
|8
|43
|-
|73
|Mlamala
|Fathima Matha
|1950
|4869258160
|400
|1780
|0
|0
|-
|74
|Mukkoottuthara
|St. Thomas
|1997
|4828254805
|185
|948
|0
|0
|-
|75
|Mukkulam
|St. George
|1941
|4828286167
|210
|1025
|0
|0
|-
|76
|Mulankunnu
|Infant Jesus
|1993
|4869280849
|52
|270
|0
|0
|-
|77
|Mundakayam
|Our Lady of Dolours
|1937
|4828277600
|669
|3188
|29
|166
|-
|78
|Mundiyeruma
|Assumption
|1957
|4868236342
|253
|1248
|6
|30
|-
|79
|Nallathanny
|Holy Family
|2000
|4869288086
|28
|111
|0
|0
|-
|80
|Nariyanpara
|Holy Cross
|2000
|4868250561
|108
|445
|0
|0
|-
|81
|Nasranipuram
|St. Mathew
|1953
|4869222272
|154
|745
|1
|4
|-
|82
|Nettithozhu
|St. Isidore
|1953
|4868285236
|420
|1921
|0
|0
|-
|83
|Neyyattussery
|St. George
|1955
|4828221658
|220
|960
|12
|52
|-
|84
|Niarvu
|St. Mary
|2005
|4735265337
|69
|318
|0
|0
|-
|85
|[[Mar Thoma Sleeha Church Thulappally|Nilackal - Thulappally]]
|[[Thomas the Apostle|Marthoma Sleeha]]
|1956
|4735244327
|314
|1668
|5
|32
|-
|86
|Nirmalagiri
|St. Antony
|1963
|4869280269
|107
|557
|10
|58
|-
|87
|Nirmalapuram
|Holy Family
|1963
|4868270101
|44
|241
|0
|0
|-
|88
|Padanilam
|St. Sebastian
|2005
|4828228138
|62
|271
|1
|4
|-
|89
|Palampra
|Gethsemene
|1986
|4828202205
|198
|1192
|12
|42
|-
|90
|Palapra
|Vimala Matha
|1998
|4828270001
|215
|1320
|8
|36
|-
|91
|Paloorkavu
|St. George
|1956
|4869286722
|196
|869
|14
|48
|-
|92
|Pampadumpara
|St. George
|2004
|4868270290
|56
|275
|7
|25
|-
|93
|Panapilavu
|St. Joseph
|1955
|4828254168
|185
|710
|4
|22
|-
|94
|Pathanamthitta
|Mary Matha Forane
|1992
|4682221488
|90
|363
|0
|0
|-
|95
|Pazhaya Koratty
|St. Mary
|1920
|4828216330
|112
|545
|0
|0{{Anchor|Pazhayidom Parish}}
|-
|96
|Pazhayidom
|St. Michael
|1924
|4828262180
|260
|1570
|0
|0
|-
|97
|Peermade
|St. Mary
|1961
|4869232315
|64
|291
|4
|18
|-
|98
|Periyar Vallakadavu
|St. Joseph
|1979
|4869252425
|101
|500
|7
|36
|-
|99
|Perunadu
|St. Jude
|2006
|4735270450
|49
|215
|0
|0
|-
|100
|Perunthenaruvi
|St. Joseph
|1963
|4735270450
|40
|215
|0
|0
|-
|101
|Peruvanthanam
|St. Joseph
|1935
|4869280095
|194
|907
|1
|9
|-
|102
|Pezhumpara
|Sacred Heart
|1963
|4735252493
|110
|470
|0
|0
|-
|103
|Plachery
|Fathima Matha
|1952
|4735260407
|52
|215
|0
|0
|-
|104
|Podimattam
|St. Mary
|1937
|4828234026
|475
|2900
|18
|75
|-
|105
|Ponkunnam
|Holy Family
|1891
|4828221368
|925
|4032
|85
|246
|-
|106
|Poomattam
|St. Thomas
|2003
|4828252037
|64
|285
|9
|25
|-
|107
|Pulianmala
|St. Antony
|1994
|4868270263
|203
|820
|5
|12
|-
|108
|Pulinkatta
|St. George
|1960
|4869246252
|175
|700
|7
|30
|-
|109
|Pullikkanam
|St. Thomas
|1965
|4869248283
|68
|322
|0
|0
|-
|110
|Punchavayal
|St. Sebastian
|1978
|4828278839
|380
|1800
|16
|20
|-
|111
|Purakkayam
|St. Joseph
|1991
|4869288075
|48
|246
|1
|4
|-
|112
|Puttady
|Velankanny Matha
|2000
|4868277581
|198
|838
|5
|18
|-
|113
|Rajagiri
|Christu Raj
|1963
|4869240030
|264
|1101
|15
|116
|-
|114
|Ramakkalmettu
|Sacred Heart
|1978
|4868236539
|170
|814
|3
|13
|-
|115
|Ranni
|Infant Jesus Forane
|2000
|4735225962
|115
|395
|2
|12
|-
|116
|Santhigiri
|St. George
|1996
|4868282763
|110
|454
|4
|17
|-
|117
|Sanyasioda
|Infant Jesus
|2005
|4868223361
|61
|237
|0
|0
|-
|118
|Seethathodu
|St. George
|1963
|4735258211
|76
|312
|3
|15
|-
|119
|Swaraj
|St. Paul
|2000
|4868271647
|183
|739
|21
|127
|-
|120
|Thamarakunnu
|St. Ephrem
|1891
|4828230645
|591
|3450
|9
|45
|-
|121
|Thampalackadu
|St. Thomas
|1912
|4828226150
|269
|1290
|15
|125
|-
|122
|Tharakanattukunnu
|St. Antony
|1927
|4828262139
|286
|1420
|2
|8
|-
|123
|Thekkemala
|St. Mary
|1952
|4869286727
|340
|1581
|1
|5
|-
|124
|Third Camp
|St. Joseph
|1983
|4868236422
|130
|601
|0
|0
|-
|125
|Uluppooni
|St. Alphonsa
|2000
|4869248537
|29
|128
|0
|0
|-
|126
|Umikuppa
|Lourde Matha
|1954
|4828214275
|300
|1400
|2
|8
|-
|127
|Upputhara
|St. Mary Forane
|1919
|4869244222
|640
|2654
|42
|169
|-
|128
|Vadakkemala
|St. Sebastian
|1975
|9387662196
|68
|328
|2
|7
|-
|129
|Vakayar
|Infant Jesus
|2005
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|130
|Valiyathovala
|Christ Raj
|1952
|4868276210
|512
|2290
|17
|80
|-
|131
|Vallakadavu
|St. Antony
|1959
|4868272302
|520
|2302
|27
|115
|-
|132
|Vanchimala
|St. Antony
|1991
|4828235102
|137
|693
|8
|61
|-
|133
|Vandanmedu
|St. Antony
|1953
|4868277047
|250
|1100
|7
|33
|-
|134
|Vandanpathal
|St. Paul
|1966
|4828272249
|220
|850
|5
|20
|-
|135
|Vechoochira
|St. Joseph
|1983
|4735265337
|246
|1405
|7
|7
|-
|136
|Velichiyani
|St. Thomas
|1925
|4828270414
|645
|3225
|65
|277
|-
|137
|Vellaramkunnu
|St. Mary
|1955
|4869263356
|567
|2653
|17
|78
|-
|138
|Wallardy
|Holy Cross
|1969
|4869252352
|164
|788
|0
|0
|}
<ref>{{cite web|title=List of Parishes|url=http://kanjirapallydiocese.com/kply/parish.php?pa_place=|website=kanjirapallydiocese.com/}}{{Dead link|date=January 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>

==Saints and causes for canonisation==
* Servant of God Bernhard Thanhauser (Fortunatus)<ref name="CCBI">{{cite web|url=http://ccbi.in/saints-blessed/|title=Saints & Blessed – CCBI|accessdate=Oct 17, 2019|archive-date=18 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218103142/http://ccbi.in/saints-blessed/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Saint Thomas Christian]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.kanjirapallydiocese.com/ Diocese of Kanjirappally]
*[http://www.thesyromalabarchurch.org/kanjirappally.htm Church profile]
*[http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dknsm.html Catholic-Hierarchy entry]

{{Syro-Malabar Catholic Church Hierarchy}}
{{Christianity in Kerala}}

{{coord missing|Kerala}}

[[Category:Syro-Malabar Catholic Eparchy of Kanjirappally| ]]
[[Category:Eastern Catholic dioceses in India|Kanjirappally]]
[[Category:Syro-Malabar Catholic dioceses|Kanjirappally]]
[[Category:Christian organizations established in 1977]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic dioceses and prelatures established in the 20th century]]
[[Category:Dioceses in Kerala]]
[[Category:1977 establishments in Kerala]]
[[Category:Churches in Kottayam district]]

Bilaigarh Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:20:32Z

PaulineBarwell2: started basic entry v1

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Chhattisgarh State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Bilaigarh
| mla = Kavita Pran Lahrey
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| state = [[Chhattisgarh]]
| district = [[Baloda Bazar district|Baloda Bazar]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Janjgir-Champa (Lok Sabha constituency)|Janjgir-Champa]]
| established = 2003
| reservation = SC
| electors = {{formatnum:301885}}<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/chhattisgarh-legislative-election-2023-statistical-report |title=State Election, 2023 to the Legislative Assembly Of Chhattisgarh |website=Election Commission of India |date= |accessdate=25 January 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{update after|2029|1}}
| type = SLA
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| preceded_by = Chandradev Prasad Rai
| constituency_no = 43
| map_image = Bilaigarh Assembly constituency map.svg
}}

'''Bilaigarh Legislative Assembly constituency''' is one of the 90 [[Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Chhattisgarh]] state in [[India]].<ref name=ceoMap>{{cite web |url=https://ceochhattisgarh.nic.in/en/new-maps-assembly-constituency |title=New Maps of Assembly Constituency |website=ceochhattisgarh.nic.in |accessdate= 3 February 2021}}</ref>

It comprises [[Bilaigarh tehsil]] and parts of [[Kasdol tehsil]], in [[Baloda Bazar district|Baloda Bazar]] district, and is reserved for candidates belonging to the [[Scheduled Castes]].<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://upload.indiacode.nic.in/showfile?actid=AC_CEN_3_20_00030_200233_1517807324510&type=order&filename=Delimitation%20Order,2008.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |date=26 November 2008 |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Election
!Name
!colspan=2|Party
|-
| colspan="4" |''Before 2008: Constituency did not exist''
|-
|[[2008 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2008]]<ref name="election2008">{{cite web |title=State Election, 2008 to the Legislative Assembly Of Chhattisgarh |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3883-chhattisgarh-2008/ |accessdate=31 December 2021 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
| [[Shivkumar Dahariya]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[2013 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2013]]<ref name="election2013">{{cite web |title=State Election, 2013 to the Legislative Assembly Of Chhattisgarh |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3884-chhattisgarh-2013/ |accessdate=31 December 2021 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
| Sanam Jangre
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[2018 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2018]]<ref name="election2018" />
| [[Chandradev Prasad Rai]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2023 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|[[Kavita Pran Lahrey]]
|}

== Election results ==

=== 2023 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2023 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly Election, 2023]]: Basna<ref name=election2023/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[Kavita Pran Lahrey]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 81,647
|percentage = 37.92
|change = +1.73
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Dinesh Lal Jangdey|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|votes=63,708|percentage=29.59|change=+9.15}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=Shyam Kumar Tandan|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|votes=61,920|percentage=28.76|change=-2.48}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||candidate=[[None of the Above]]|party=None of the above|votes=2,324|percentage=1.08|change=-0.32}}
{{Election box majority||votes=17,939|percentage=8.33|change=+3.38}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=215,333|percentage=71.33|change=-0.37}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2018 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election|Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly Election, 2018]]: Bilaigarh<ref name=election2018>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9643-statistical-data-of-general-election-to-chhatisgarh-assembly/ |title=Statistical data of General Election to Chhatisgarh Assembly - 2018 |website=Election Commission of India |accessdate= 3 February 2021}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = Chandradev Prasad Rai
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 71,936
|percentage = 36.19
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Shyam Kumar Tandan
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = 62,089
|percentage = 31.24
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Sanam Jangade
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 40,623
|percentage = 20.44
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Bhoj Ram Ajagale
|party = Independent politician
|votes = 10,595
|percentage = 5.33
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Hari Ram Kurrey
|party = Independent politician
|votes = 2,580
|percentage = 1.30
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Sanjay Kumar
|party = Independent politician
|votes = 1,822
|percentage = 0.92
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = 2,789
|percentage = 1.40
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 9,847
|percentage = 4.95
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 198,769
|percentage = 71.70
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Baloda Bazar district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Chhattisgarh}}

{{coord|21.64|82.72|display=title}}

[[Category:Baloda Bazar district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Politics of Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:2003 establishments in Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2003]]

Chithi 2

2026-04-18T16:15:30Z

PaulineBarwell2: started initial stub first draft

{{short description|Indian television series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date = January 2020}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Chithi – 2 serial.jpg
| caption =
| alt_name =
| genre = [[Soap opera]]
| executive_producer = [[Radhika Sarathkumar|R. Radikaa Sarathkumar]]
| director = [[Sundar K. Vijayan]] (Episodes 1-31) K. Sulaiman (Episode 32-580)
| starring = [[Radhika Sarathkumar]] [[Preethi Sharma]] [[Nandan Loganathan]]
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| num_seasons = 2
| num_episodes = 580
| list_episodes =
| producer = Pooja Sarathkumar
| company = Radaan Mediaworks [[Sun Network|Sun Entertainment]]
| opentheme = "Kanninmani"
| theme_music_composer = [[Dhina]]
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime = approx. 21-23 minutes
| channel = [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
| first_aired = {{start date|df=y|2020|01|27}}
| last_aired = {{end date|df=y|2022|05|28}}
| screenplay = Sekizhar
| story = Sekizhar Dialogues Pa. Raghavan
| writer =
| composer = Clement
}}

'''''Chithi 2''''' is an Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[soap opera]] which premiered on 27 January 2020 and ended on 28 May 2022 with 580 episodes on [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tamil.samayam.com/tv/news/radhika-chithi-2-serial-shoot-begins/articleshow/71434274.cms|title=Chithi after 22 years; Radikaa fans are happy|website=The Timesof India - Samayam}}</ref> It is a reboot of the 1999 series [[Chithi (TV series)|''Chithi'']].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/radhika-sarathkumars-chithi-season-2-to-premiere-on-january-27/articleshow/73302839.cms|title=Radikaa Sarathkumar's Chithi season 2 to premiere on January 27|website=The Times of India |date=16 January 2020 }}</ref> Produced by Radaan Mediaworks, it starred [[Radhika Sarathkumar]] with [[Preethi Sharma]] and [[Nandan Loganathan]].

==Plot==
Sharada is an honest teacher. She is married to Shanmugam under circumstances as his first wife, and Sharada's elder sister had run away with her lover. She even takes complete responsibility for Shanmugam and Padma's children Kalai and Anbu. Mallika, a rich lady who wished to marry Shanmugam is revealed to have helped in chasing away Padma and her lover. Sharada gives birth to a girl, and Mallika's brother Dharma and his wife Gowri too have a girl. Dharma's baby is seemingly stillborn and is taken to hospital and declared dead. A dejected Dharma takes his dead baby but sees Sharada's car in an accident and swaps his baby with hers. Sharada comes to consciousness and learns her child is stolen, and to everyone's surprise, Dharma's baby survives and Sharada raises her as her daughter and names her Venba. Sharada deals with various issues that trouble her family and keeps them closer. Nandini, Anbu's wife has an enmity with Sharada and Venba who had previously insulted her for a misunderstanding. Nandini learns about Venba's birth and breaks it open on her birthday. Venba feels shattered but gathers herself and considers the family hers. Kavin, a London MBA graduate, and Mallika's son returns to India to work for his company "Kavin Industries". Venba works as his secretary and he slowly falls in love with her. Mallika pressures him to marry Yazhini, her brother Dharma's daughter. However, Dharma soon learns that Venba is his real daughter after Sharada's relative Gomathinayagam reveals the truth about her birth. Kavin proposes to Venba who rejects him and suggests he marry Yazhini for betterment as Sharada and Mallika are at loggerheads because Mallika thinks that Sharada had exposed her illegal activities to the police when in fact it's Nandini who did it. Kavin who knows Venba loves him, secretly takes her to a temple and ties the sacred marriage chain as she is praying. A shocked Venba keeps this a secret and lies to Kavin that she has donated the gold chain he put on her. A saddened but determined Kavin tries to win her heart while his marriage preparations are going on with Yazhini. Soon Sharada learns that Yazhini is her real daughter and Venba is Dharma's daughter. She goes into a dilemma as Venba too confesses that she loves Kavin. She sends Venba away so Yazhini can get married in peace. Dharma learns about Kavin and Venba's marriage and goes to announce to his family that Venba is the real heir of the family but soon meets with an accident and lands in a coma. After a series of events, it is revealed that Kavin and Venba are already married, and Venba faces the wrath of her family. They soon accept the truth and get Kavin and Venba legally married. Sharada shifts to Singapore with her family to continue her services as a teacher there.

Venba shifts to Kavin's place and faces hurdles and hatred of Mallika, Gowri, and Yazhini while Dharma cries in the silence seeing his daughter suffer. Despite all hurdles, Kavin stands as a huge support for Venba. Venba soon wins over Gowri who considers her like her daughter and supports her. Mallika creates a ruckus and tells Kavin to pay 1 crore for bringing him up. Kavin moves out with Venba and faces a lot of hurdles but leads a simpler and happier life. Yazhini and Mallika try to stop their growth but go futile. Kavin and Venba take over Natarajan and Subbulakshmi's almost bankrupt company and bring them to a stable position. Kavin is shocked to learn that Venba is Dharma’s real daughter and that Yazhini is Sharada's daughter but is stopped by Dharma from revealing the truth to Venba. Mallika is diagnosed with a brain tumor and is told that she has a few days to live. Gowri and later Venba discover Mallika's illness and plead with her to agree to the surgery. Mallika puts forth a condition that Venba has to find a groom for Yazhini and only after she is married, she'll proceed with the surgery. Venba and Kavin find Kanniyan, a professor as a match for Yazhini. Yazhini agrees to the marriage as Mallika reveals to her that she has faked her brain tumor only to kidnap Kanniyan and force Kavin to wed her. On the day of the marriage, Venba learns that she is Dharma and Gowri's real daughter and is delighted only for Yazhini to blackmail her into revealing the truth as Mallika will accept Venba as she is the real heir of the family. Venba sadly accepts and heads to the wedding where Mallika executes her plan by kidnapping Kanniyan only for Dharma to rescue him and bring him on time. Kanniyan weds Yazhini. Kavin reveals that Mallika has faked her tumor and she planned to kidnap Kanniyan, he confusedly also reveals that Mallika herself had revealed to Ravi that Kanniyan was kidnapped. As the whole family reaches home, Gowri welcomes the newlyweds home taking arti. Venba and Kavin start to leave saying they can't enter without paying back the money. Mallika calls out to Venba and also identifies her as her brother's daughter shocking everyone. She tells Gowri that Venba is her only daughter who she gave birth to. Gowri cries hearing it. Mallika reveals that she had followed Yazhini to the temple in the morning and witnessed her whole confrontation scene with Venba. Gowri tearfully embraces Venba and gets emotional when she refers to her as mom. Dharma apologizes to Venba for being unable to reveal the truth all along and for all the difficulties she faced thus far. He gets emotional when Venba refers to him as dad and tells him not to worry as they're all reunited again. Mallika emotionally embraces Venba and apologizes to her for hurting her all along, not knowing that she is her brother's real daughter. Yazhini cries witnessing all of this but Kanniyan supports her. Mallika happily welcomes Kavin and Venba back into the house, which makes Dharma and Gowri happy witnessing it. Venba makes peace with Yazhini by telling her that she's always the daughter of the house as she (Venba) herself is happy being the daughter-in-law. Kavin plans for honeymoon. Venba reveals that she wants to go to Singapore to meet Sharada. Yazhini happily agrees with Venba as she too wants to meet her mom Sharada. Mallika too realizes that Sharada was right the whole time and wishes to reunite with her. The show ends with the family uniting together and living happily.

==Cast==
===Main cast===
* [[Radhika Sarathkumar]] as Saradha Shanmugapriyan. Shanmugam’s wife. Venba’s adoptive mother. Kalai and Anbu’s stepmother. Yazhini’s biological mother.
*[[Preethi Sharma]] as Venba Kavin
*[[Nandan Loganathan]] as Kavin

=== Recurring ===
* Dharshna Sripal Golecha as Yazhini. Saradha and Shanmugam’s biological daughter. Gowri and Dharmaraj’s adopted daughter.
* [[Meera Vasudevan]] / Sirisha Sougandh / [[Meera Krishna]] as Mallika Devi
* Sridhar Subramaniyam as Dharmaraj, Venba’s biological father. Yazhini’s adopted father.
* [[Uma Padmanabhan]] as Gowri Dharmaraj. Venba’s biological mother. Yazhini’s adopted mother.
* [[Ponvannan]] / [[Nizhalgal Ravi]] as Shanmugapriyan a.k.a Shanmugam
* Sakthi Saravanan as Kalaiselvan "Kalai" Shanmugapriyan
* Prathiksha Sankar as Ammulu Kalaiselvan
* Mahalakshmi as Deepa Kalaiselvan
* Shilpa Mary / V. Jayalakshmi as Lakshmi Gomathinayagam
* Santhanu Arulmani as Gomathinayagam
* [[Neha Menon]] as Sevandhi Gomathinayagam
* [[Rupini (actress)|Rupini]] / Rajashree as Padma Shanmugapriyan
* "Saathappan" Nandakumar as Saathappan
* Bharath Kalyan as Mohanraj
* Vijayalakshmi as Deivanayagi
* Vinitha Jaganathan as Vinitha aka Vini
* Jairam as Praveen
* Jeganathan / Ravi Chandran as Nandhini's and Praveen's father
* Mithun Raj as Jeeva
* Gemini as Deepa's father
* Smrithi as Deepa's mother
* Sasikala Shree as Thamaraiselvi
* Meesai Rajendran as Education Minister
* Manishika Vijay as Shivani
* Vasavi as Shivani's mother
* Nikhila Rao / Gayathri Yuvraaj as Nandini Anbuselvan
* [[Ashwin (actor, born 1987)|Ashwin Kumar]] as Anbuselvan "Anbu" Shanmugapriyan
* Mercy Leyal as Sanghavi
* Chandhini Prakash as Parvathi
* Veena Venkatesh / Usha Elizabeth Suraj as Advocate Subbulakshmi Natarajan
* Sivaji Manohar as Natarajan
* Munish Raja as Singaram
* Murali Krishnan as Ticket Ravi
* Akalya Venkatesan as Divya
* VJ Azhar as Kanniyan
* Rekha Angelina as Kanniyan's mother

=== Special appearances ===
*[[Jeeva Ravi]] as Padma's second husband
*Vincent Roy as Saradha's father
*[[S. N. Parvathy]] as Saradha's mother
*[[K. Bhagyaraj]] as himself
*[[Samuthirakani]] as himself
*Bharatha Naidu as Sandhya
*[[Venkat Subha]] as Sandhya's grandfather
*[[Ambika (actress)|Ambika]] as Sargunam
*[[Papri Ghosh]] as Kayal Kuttisundaram
*Naresh Eswar as Kuttisundaram Pandavar
*Guhan Shanmugam as Anbusundaram Pandavar
*Aarthi Subash as Malliga Anbusundaram
*Surendran as Azhagusundaram Pandavar
*Sailu Imran as Thenmozhi Azhagusundaram
*[[Madhan Bob]] as himself
*[[Vinodhini Vaidyanathan|Vinodhini]] as herself
*VJ Aswath as himself
*Sastika Rajendran as herself
*Anuradha Krishnamoorthy as herself
*[[Sanjeev Venkat|Sanjeev]] as Thirunavukarasu aka Thiru
*VJ Azhar as himself and Kaniyan Poongundran (climax episodes)
*Pujitha Devaraju as herself
*[[Suja Varunee]] as herself
*Navya Swamy as Kamali
*[[Nancy Jennifer]] as Jeni
*[[Daniel Annie Pope]] as Saravanan aka Saro

== Development ==
=== Release ===
The 1999 series [[Chithi (TV series)|''Chithi'']] having a reboot was first announced in June 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/chithi-fame-radhika-sarathkumar-bags-her-next-project-a-second-season-of-the-show-in-the-offing/articleshow/69676214.cms|title=Chithi fame Radhika Sarathkumar bags her next project; a second season of the show in the offing?|website=The Times of India |date=6 June 2019 }}</ref> It was first reported to premiere in September 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-tv-serials/81905/Chinna-thirai-Television-News/Chithi-sequel-to-be-soon.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001001133/https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-tv-serials/81905/Chinna-thirai-Television-News/Chithi-sequel-to-be-soon.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 October 2019|title=Chiti's sequel to be soon|website=[[Dinamalar]]}}</ref> Then, it was reported again as October 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/radhika-sarathkumars-chithi-2-to-premiere-soon/articleshow/71520056.cms|title=Radhika Sarathkumar's Chithi 2 to premiere soon|website=The Times of India |date=10 October 2019 }}</ref> However, in December 2019, [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radikaa]] announced the making of the reboot version during [[Sun Kudumbam Viruthugal]], and it premiered on 27 January 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/radikaa-announces-chithi-2-6178199/|title=Radikaa announces Chithi 2|website=The Indian Express |date=21 December 2019 }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> The first promo was released on 15 January 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/watch-chithi-2-promo-retains-theme-its-original-116162|title=Watch Chithi 2 promo: Retains theme of its original|website=[[The News Minute]] |date=15 January 2020 }}</ref>

Speaking about the series, Radikaa said, "I'm playing the title role and the story gathers steam from the first episode. In this family drama, the heroine is neither rich nor poor. She is a middle-class woman, who takes a vital decision, which leads to many consequences. It'll be interesting to watch how she faces them."<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last1=Kumar |first1=S. R. Ashok |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/art/return-of-chithi/article30633888.ece|title=Return of Chithi|website=[[The Hindu]] |date=23 January 2020 }}</ref>

=== Broadcast ===
Owing [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]] outbreak, the production and filming of all the Indian television series and films were halted on 19 March 2020 and was to resume from 1 April 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Covid-19 impact: Film, serial shootings halted till March 31|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/media/entertainment/media/film-serial-shootings-halted-till-march-31/articleshow/74642704.cms?from=mdr|website=The Economic Times | date=16 March 2020 }}</ref> But it could not resume due to the imposed nationwide lockdown which was extended on increasing cases and the series aired its last new episode on 3 April 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=கொரோனா லாக்டவுன்: டிடி-யைப் பின்பற்றும் தனியார் தொலைக்காட்சிகள்?|url=https://tamil.indianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil-tv-channels-serial-re-telecast-sun-tv-vijay-tv-180645/|website=The Indian Express Tamil}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=No TV shoots to resume from June-end, says FWICE a week after issuing guidelines|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/top-stories/story/no-tv-shoots-to-resume-from-june-end-says-fwice-a-week-after-issuing-guidelines-1680114-2020-05-20|website=India Today |date=20 May 2020 }}</ref> The 1999 series ''Chithi'' took its slot since then until its production and airing resumed.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Radikaa Sarathkumar's hit show Chithi to entertain the audience once again|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/radikaa-sarathkumars-hit-show-chithi-to-entertain-the-audience-once-again/articleshow/75012692.cms|website=The Times of India |date=6 April 2020 }}</ref> The production resumed in July 2020 and the new episodes began airing on 10 August 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Tamil |first1=Hindu |title=Nizhalgal Ravi in replacement to Ponvannan in 'Chithi 2' serial: Change in some other characters too!|url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/564823-chithi-2-changes.html|website=The Hindu |date=16 July 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=7 August 2020|title=Radikaa Sarathkumar's 'Chithi 2' to air fresh episodes from August 10|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/radikaa-sarathkumars-chithi-2-to-air-fresh-episodes-from-august-10/articleshow/77418263.cms|website=The Times of India}}</ref> Initially scheduled to resume on 3 August 2020, it was postponed a week to 10 August 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Change in date of 'Chithi 2' broadcast again: What is the background?|url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/567657-chithi-2-telecast.html|website=The Hindu}}</ref>

=== Casting ===
Radhika reprises her lead role of Saradha from the original series ''Chithi''.<ref name=":1" /> [[Preethi Sharma]] was cast as female lead Venba due to which she had quit the series [[Thirumanam (TV series)|''Thirumanam''.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tamil.indianexpress.com/lifestyle/preethi-sharma-thirumanam-serial-chithi-2-sun-tv/|title=திருமணம் சீரியல் பழைய அனிதாவோட வயச கேட்டா நம்ப மாட்டீங்க!|website=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref> [[Nandan Loganathan]] was cast as the male lead Kavin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Actors Radikaa Sarathkumar and Nandan Loganathan excited about Chithi 2|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/actors-radikaa-sarathkumar-and-nandan-loganathan-excited-about-chithi-2/articleshow/73660731.cms|website=The Times of India |date=27 January 2020 }}</ref> Shilpa and Vincet Roy who played Daniel, Brindha and Vishwanathan also reprise from the former series.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tamil.indianexpress.com/lifestyle/daniel-balaji-acted-in-chithi-serial-sun-tv-chithi-2/|title=Daniel Balaji acting in Chithi 2|website=The Indian Express}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=64_CJ2Vis-4|title=Chithi 2 - Actress Shilpa and Actor Arulmani - Interview|website=YouTube|publisher=Radaan Mediaworks}}</ref> Besides [[Ponvannan]], [[Rupini]], [[Meera Vasudevan]], Neha Menon,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sun TV's Vani Rani to Chithi 2, Raadhika's pet girl Neha|url=https://tamil.indianexpress.com/lifestyle/sun-tv-vani-rani-thenu-chithi-2-serial-neha-185970/|website=The Indian Express}}</ref> Mahalakshmi,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tamil.samayam.com/tamil-cinema/movie-news/fans-unhappy-with-chithi-2-serial-cast/articleshow/73416545.cms|title=Fans unhappy with Chithi 2 serial cast|website=The Times of India}}</ref> Sakthi Saravanan, [[Ashwin (actor, born 1987)|Ashwin Kumar]], Arulmani,<ref name=":2" /> Nandhakumar, and [[Jeeva Ravi]] were cast then.

[[K. Bhagyaraj]] and [[Samuthirakani]] were cast for guest roles in a few episodes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-tv-serials/82175/Chinna-thirai-Television-News/Bhagyaraj-in-Chithi-2.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012121738/https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-tv-serials/82175/Chinna-thirai-Television-News/Bhagyaraj-in-Chithi-2.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 October 2019|title=Bhagyaraj in Chithi 2|website=Dinamalar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-tv-serials/85132/Chinna-thirai-Television-News/K-Bhagyaraj,-Samuthirakani-to-joint-in-Chithi-2.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125122828/https://cinema.dinamalar.com/tamil-tv-serials/85132/Chinna-thirai-Television-News/K-Bhagyaraj,-Samuthirakani-to-joint-in-Chithi-2.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 January 2020|title=K. Bhagyaraj and Samuthirakani to join in Chithi 2|website=Dinamalar}}</ref>

Post [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19]] break when the production resumed in July 2020 after three months, Ponvannan was replaced by [[Nizhalgal Ravi]], Shilpa was replaced by Jayalakshmi, Nikhila was replaced by Gayathri and Sirisha Sougandh, who replaced Meera Vasudevan weeks after premiere, was replaced by Meera Krishnan owing the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chithi 2: Nizhalgal Ravi replaces Ponvannan and the show goes on|url=https://www.sify.com/movies/chithi-2-nizhalgal-ravi-replaces-ponvannan-and-the-show-goes-on-news-tamil-uhreNfbadafig.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717170251/https://www.sify.com/movies/chithi-2-nizhalgal-ravi-replaces-ponvannan-and-the-show-goes-on-news-tamil-uhreNfbadafig.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 July 2020|website=[[Sify]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Actress Meera Krishna is excited about joining 'Chithi 2'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/actress-meera-krishna-is-excited-about-joining-chithi-2/articleshow/77021747.cms|website=The Times of India |date=17 July 2020 }}</ref> In February 2021, Radhika left the series.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Tamil|first1=Hindu|date=11 February 2021|title='சித்தி 2' தொடரிலிருந்து விலகினார் ராதிகா|url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/632516-radhika-sarathkumar-tweet-about-chithi-2.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211140729/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/632516-radhika-sarathkumar-tweet-about-chithi-2.html |archive-date=11 February 2021 |access-date=|website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/radikaa-bids-adieu-to-chithi-2-and-mega-serials/articleshow/80861890.cms|title=Radikaa bids adieu to Chithi 2 and mega serials|website=The Times of India}}</ref>

== Dubbed version ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-right: 0;"
|- style="color:white"
! style="background:#7b0c0c; "| Language
! style="background:#7b0c0c; "| Title
! style="background:#7b0c0c; "| Original release
! style="background:#7b0c0c; "| Network(s)
! style="background:#7b0c0c; "| Last aired
|-
| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| Pinni 2<ref>{{Cite web|title=Karthika-Deepam-vs-Pinni-serial-Radhika-sSarathkumar-back-to-small-screen-with-sensational-serial-Pinni|url=https://telugu.samayam.com/tv/news/karthika-deepam-vs-pinni-serial-radhika-sarathkumar-back-to-small-screen-with-sensational-seraial-pinni/articleshow/74594821.cms|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
| 29 June 2020
| [[Gemini TV]]
| 20 February 2021
|-
|}

== Reception ==
=== Critical reception ===
''[[The Indian Express]]'' quoted, "The song of Chithi itself makes everyone move back 22 years, creating a feel of nostalgia."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tamil.indianexpress.com/entertainment/chithi-2-serial-first-day-review-radikaa-sarathkumar-165386/lite/|title=Chithi 2 serial first day review|website=The Indian Express}}</ref>

=== Viewership ===
It became the fifth most watched Tamil television programme in its debut week with 8.220 million impressions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tamil.asianetnews.com/cinema/chithi-2-serial-got-mass-trp-rating-in-first-month-q5jbdu|title=Chithi 2 got mass trp rating in the first month|website=[[Asianet News]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tamil.behindtalkies.com/chithi-2-serial-holds-top-5-position-in-trp-of-the-week/|title=Chithi serial holds top 5 position in trp of the opening week|website=Behind Talkies |date=11 February 2020 }}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|11581308}}

{{Sun TV shows}}{{Works by Radaan Mediaworks}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chithi - 2}}
[[Category:Sun TV original programming]]
[[Category:Television series by Radaan Mediaworks]]
[[Category:2020 Tamil-language television series debuts]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television shows]]
[[Category:2020 Tamil-language television seasons]]
[[Category:Tamil-language sequel television series]]
[[Category:Television shows set in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:2022 Tamil-language television series endings]]
[[Category:Television productions suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic]]

Suman Devi

2026-04-10T16:19:50Z

PaulineBarwell2:

{{Short description|Indian athlete}}
{{Infobox sportsperson
| name = Suman Devi
| image = Suman Devi Athlete.jpg
| caption = Suman Devi at 12th South Asian Games 2016
| image_size = 200px
| nationality = Indian
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1985|7|15}}
| occupation = Track and field athlete
| years_active = 2000–2017
| country = India
| sport = Athletics
| event = [[Javelin throw]]
| retired = yes
| commonwealth = Competitor (2010)
| regionals = [[Asian Games]] competitor (2014)
| nationals = Multiple national-level medals
| pb = 59.45 m
}}

'''Suman Devi''' (born 15 July 1985) is an Indian former track and field athlete who competed in the [[javelin throw]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Suman Devi |url=https://worldathletics.org/athletes/india/suman-devi-14282827 |website=World Athletics |access-date=2026-02-09}}</ref> She represented India at the [[2010 Commonwealth Games]] and the [[2014 Asian Games]], and is a gold medalist from the [[2016 South Asian Games]].<ref>{{cite web
| title =Suman Devi of India won Gold Medal ...
| url = https://archive.pib.gov.in/archive2/photoright.aspx?phid=77134
| publisher = [[Press Information Bureau]], [[Government of India]]
| access-date = 9 February 2026
}}</ref> Her career personal best of 59.45 metres ranks her among the top Indian women in the event's history.<ref>{{cite news |title=12th South Asian Games: Track & field yields 11 more golds for the host |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/other-sports/12th-south-asian-games-track-field-yields-11-more-golds-for-the-host/article8224372.ece |publisher=[[The Hindu]] |date=2016-02-16}}
</ref>

Suman competed in javelin throw at the national level from 2000 to 2006. She won a bronze at the 2003 SAF Games in [[Pakistan]] and a silver at the 2008 SAF Championships in [[Kochi]]. At the junior level, she won silver at the 2002 Junior Asian Championships in [[Bangkok]].<ref>{{cite news |title=I was expecting my name in team for Commonwealth Games |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/i-was-expecting-my-name-in-team-for-commonwealth-games/ |publisher=Indian Express |date=2022-07-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Suman Devi bags a gold at National Games |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/suman-devi-bags-a-gold-at-national-games/ |publisher=[[Indian Express]] |date=2022-10-04}}</ref>

In 2017, Devi tested positive for [[nandrolone]], a prohibited [[anabolic steroid]], during an out-of-competition test conducted by the [[National Anti-Doping Agency (India)|National Anti-Doping Agency]] (NADA).<ref>{{cite news |title=Indian athletics shame: Now two top throwers in dope net |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/other-sports/indian-athletics-shame-now-two-top-throwers-in-dope-net/story-HR3wncs9b9kgTeb2FNYz4J.html |newspaper=Hindustan Times |date=2023-10-11}}</ref> In 2019, NADA imposed a four-year ban, applied retrospectively from 2017 to 2021.<ref>{{cite news |title=Women throwers Manpreet, Suman slapped four-year bans for doping |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/other-sports/women-throwers-manpreet-suman-slapped-four-year-bans-for-doping/story-R4vzyTGxtvAsB9tC2x6njO.html |publisher=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=2023-10-12}}
</ref> During her suspension, Devi underwent surgery for a [[stomach tumour]].<ref>{{cite news |title=After dope slur, athletes told to avoid Suman |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/other-sports/after-dope-slur-athletes-told-to-avoid-suman/story-L1ZcI13b4rRW6SQQ5IQWzN.html |publisher=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=2023-10-13}}</ref>
== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Devi, Suman}}
[[Category:1985 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian javelin throwers]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2010 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Indian sportspeople in doping cases]]

Ministry of Municipal Administration and Urban Development

2026-04-09T16:33:09Z

PaulineBarwell2:

{{Short description|Government official of Andhra Pradesh, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox official post
| post = Minister of Municipal Administration and Urban Development
| body =
| native_name = {{transliteration|te|Purapālaka mariyu Paṭṭaṇābhivṛddhi Śākha Mantrī}}
| insignia =
| insigniasize = 200
| insigniacaption =
| insigniaalt =
| flag =
| flagsize =
| flagalt =
| flagborder =
| flagcaption = [[Emblem of Andhra Pradesh]]
| image = Pomguru narayana.JPG
| imagesize = 150px
| alt =
| imagecaption =
| incumbent = [[Ponguru Narayana]]
| acting =
| incumbentsince = 12 June 2024
| department = Department of Municipal Administration & Urban Development
| style =
| type =
| status =
| abbreviation = MA&UD
| member_of = [[Andhra Pradesh Council of Ministers|Andha Pradesh Cabinet]]
| reports_to = [[List of governors of Andhra Pradesh|Governor of Andhra Pradesh]] [[List of chief ministers of Andhra Pradesh|Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh]] [[Andhra Pradesh Legislature]]
| residence =
| seat =
| nominator =
| appointer = [[List of governors of Andhra Pradesh|Governor of Andhra Pradesh]]
| appointer_qualified = on the advice of the [[List of chief ministers of Andhra Pradesh|chief minister of Andhra Pradesh]]
| termlength =
| termlength_qualified =
| constituting_instrument =
| precursor =
| inaugural = [[Ponguru Narayana]]
| formation = 8 June 2014
| first =
| last =
| abolished =
| superseded_by =
| succession =
| unofficial_names =
| deputy =
| salary =
| website = {{url|https://cdma.ap.gov.in/en/municipal-administration-and-urban-development|Official website}}
| footnotes =
}}

The '''Minister of Municipal Administration and Urban Development''' is the head of the Department of Municipal Administration & Urban Development in the [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]]. The Minister is one of the senior-most members of the [[Andhra Pradesh Council of Ministers| Andhra Pradesh Cabinet]].

From June 2014 to May 2019, following the bifurcation of [[United Andhra Pradesh]] into the present-day residual [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Telangana]], the Minister of Municipal Administration & Urban Development was [[Ponguru Narayana]] of the [[Telugu Desam Party]]. Following the cabinet formation on 12 June 2024, [[Ponguru Narayana]] assumed the office under the Chief Ministership of [[N. Chandrababu Naidu]].

== List of ministers ==
{| class="wikitable" style="line-height:1.4em; text-align:center"
! rowspan=2 |#
! rowspan=2 colspan="2" |Portrait
! rowspan=2 style="width:16em" | Minister {{small|(Lifespan) Constituency}}
! colspan="3" |Term of office
! rowspan=2 style="width:5em" |Election {{small|(Term)}}
! rowspan=2 style="width:8em" |Party
! rowspan=2 style="width:8em" |Ministry
! rowspan=2 style="width:10em" |Chief Minister
!rowspan=2 |Ref.
|-
!Term start
!Term end
!Duration
|-
!1
|bgcolor="{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}"|
|[[File:Pomguru narayana.JPG|97x97px]]
|'''[[Ponguru Narayana]]''' {{small|(born 1957) MLC}}
|8 June 2014
|29 May 2019
|'''{{ayd|8 June 2014|29 May 2019}}'''
|[[2014 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2014]] {{small|[[14th Andhra Pradesh Assembly|(14th)]]}}
|[[Telugu Desam Party]]
|bgcolor="#F5EC7D"| '''[[Third N. Chandrababu Naidu ministry|Naidu III]]'''
|[[N. Chandrababu Naidu]]
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-06-08 |title=Chandrababu Naidu's Cabinet: Ayyanna, Ganta to be ministers |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140608/nation-current-affairs/article/chandrababu-naidu%E2%80%99s-cabinet-ayyanna-ganta-be-ministers |newspaper=Deccan Chronicle |access-date=2022-08-20 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
!2
|rowspan=2 bgcolor="{{party color|YSR Congress Party}}"|
|[[File:Botsa Satyanarayana (cropped).png|97x97px]]
|'''[[Botsa Satyanarayana]]''' {{small|(born 1958) MLA for [[Cheepurupalli Assembly constituency|Cheepurupalli]]}}
|8 June 2019
|10 April 2022
|'''{{ayd|8 June 2019|10 April 2022}}'''
|rowspan=2 |[[2019 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2019]] {{small|[[15th Andhra Pradesh Assembly|(15th)]]}}
| rowspan="2" |[[YSR Congress Party]]
| rowspan=2 bgcolor="#94A2F7"| '''[[Y. S. Jagan Mohan Reddy ministry|Jagan]]'''
| rowspan="2" |[[Y. S. Jagan Mohan Reddy]]
|<ref>{{Cite news |agency=TNN|date=Jun 8, 2019 |title=YS Jagan Cabinet Ministers List 2019: 25 ministers inducted into AP Cabinet |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/amaravati/andhra-pradesh-cm-ys-jagan-cabinet-ministers-complete-list/articleshow/69699829.cms |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|-
!3
|[[File:Audimulapu Suresh.png|97x97px]]
|'''[[Audimulapu Suresh]]''' {{small|(born 1964) MLA for [[Yerragondapalem Assembly constituency|Yerragondapalem]]}}
|11 April 2022
|8 June 2024
|'''{{ayd|11 April 2022|8 June 2024}}'''
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-04-11 |title=Buggana retains finance, Vanitha gets Home |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/buggana-retains-finance-vanithagets-home/article65311357.ece |access-date=2022-08-20 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
|-
!4
|bgcolor="{{party color|Telugu Desam Party}}"|
|[[File:Pomguru narayana.JPG|97x97px]]
|'''[[Ponguru Narayana]]''' {{small|(born 1957) MLA for [[Nellore City Assembly constituency|Nellore City]]}}
|12 June 2024
|''Incumbent''
|'''{{ayd|12 June 2024|}}'''
|[[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2024]] {{small|[[16th Andhra Pradesh Assembly|(16th)]]}}
|[[Telugu Desam Party]]
|bgcolor="#F5EC7D"| '''[[Fourth N. Chandrababu Naidu ministry|Naidu IV]]'''
|[[N. Chandrababu Naidu]]
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-06-14 |title=Full list of Andhra Pradesh Cabinet Ministers with portfolios: Who gets what |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/andhra-pradesh-assembly/andhra-pradesh-council-of-ministers-full-list/article68288989.ece |access-date=2024-07-23 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.AndhraPradeshtoday.in/Andhra Pradesh/story/amit-shah-home-minister-rajnath-finance-minister-new-list-of-cabinet-ministers-in-modi-govt-1539264-2019-05-31 Amit Shah take charge of EducationMinistry of Andhra Pradesh 2019]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Education (Andhra Pradesh) Minister}}

[[Category:Government of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Lists of government ministers of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:State cabinet ministers of Andhra Pradesh]]

India women's national under-16 basketball team

2026-04-04T08:15:40Z

PaulineBarwell2:

{{Infobox national basketball team
| country = India
| logo = Flag of India.svg
| logo_width = 120px
| joined_FIBA = 1936
| FIBA_zone = FIBA Asia
| national_fed = [[Basketball Federation of India]]
| first_game = '''{{bkwu|16|IND}}''' '''91'''–64 {{bkwu-rt|16|PHI}} [[2009 FIBA Asia Under-16 Championship for Women]] ([[Pune]], India; 30 November 2009)
| coach =
| medal_templates =
| wc_championship = [[FIBA Under-17 Women's Basketball World Cup|U17 World Cup]]
| wc_appearances = None
| wc_medals =
| zone_championship = [[FIBA Under-16 Women's Asia Cup|U16 Asia Cup]]
| zone_appearances = 5
| zone_medals = None
| zone_championship2 = [[FIBA Under-16 Women's Asia Cup#Division B|U16 Asia Cup Division B]]
| zone_appearances2 = 2
| zone_medals2 = {{gold1}} '''Gold:''' 2 (2017, 2025)
}}

The '''India women's national under-16 basketball team''' is a national [[basketball]] team of [[India]], administered by the [[Basketball Federation of India]].<ref>[https://about.fiba.basketball/en/national-federations/77-india Profile - India], about.fiba.basketball</ref><ref>[https://www.asia-basket.com/India/Basketball-National-Team/U16?women=1 India (U16 Women)], asia-basket.com</ref> It represents the country in international under-16 women's basketball competitions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/others/indian-u-16-girls-basketball-squad-named/articleshow/25598654.cms|title=Indian U-16 girls' basketball squad named|access-date=9 March 2023|website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com}}</ref>

==Performance record==
===FIBA U16 Asia Cup===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! Year !! Division A !! Division B
|-
| [[2009 FIBA Asia Under-16 Championship for Women|2009]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fiba.basketball/en/history/242-fiba-u16-womens-asia-cup/3920 |title=2009 FIBA Asia Under-16 Championship for Women |website=www.fiba.basketball}}</ref> || 6th || {{n/a}}
|-
| [[2011 FIBA Asia Under-16 Championship for Women|2011]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fiba.basketball/en/history/242-fiba-u16-womens-asia-cup/6202 |title=2011 FIBA Asia Under-16 Championship for Women |website=www.fiba.basketball}}</ref> || 5th || {{n/a}}
|-
| [[2013 FIBA Asia Under-16 Championship for Women|2013]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fiba.basketball/en/history/242-fiba-u16-womens-asia-cup/5324 |title=2013 FIBA Asia Under-16 Championship for Women |website=www.fiba.basketball}}</ref> || 5th || {{n/a}}
|-
| [[2015 FIBA Asia Under-16 Championship for Women|2015]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fiba.basketball/en/history/242-fiba-u16-womens-asia-cup/6312 |title=2015 FIBA Asia Under-16 Championship for Women |website=www.fiba.basketball}}</ref> || 6th || {{n/a}}
|-
| [[2017 FIBA Under-16 Women's Asian Championship#Division B|2017]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fiba.basketball/en/history/241-fiba-u16-womens-asia-cup-division-b/10981 |title=2017 FIBA Under-16 Women's Asian Championship Division B|website=www.fiba.basketball}}</ref> || {{n/a}} || {{gold1}}
|-
| [[2022 FIBA Under-16 Women's Asian Championship|2022]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fiba.basketball/en/history/242-fiba-u16-womens-asia-cup/208430 |title=2022 FIBA Under-16 Women's Asian Championship |website=www.fiba.basketball}}</ref> || 5th || {{n/a}}
|-
| [[2025 FIBA U16 Women's Asia Cup#Division B|2025]] || {{n/a}} || {{gold1}}
|}

==See also==
* [[India women's national basketball team]]
* [[India women's national under-18 basketball team]]
* [[India men's national under-16 basketball team]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.fiba.basketball/en/teams/77-india#achievements Archived records] of India team participations

{{Basketball in India}}
{{National sports teams of India}}

[[Category:India women's national basketball team|Under]]
[[Category:National youth sports teams of India|Basketball]]
[[Category:Women's national under-16 basketball teams]]
[[Category:2009 establishments in India]]
[[Category:National sports teams established in 2009]]

{{National-basketball-team-stub}}
{{India-sport-stub}}

Pink Line (Delhi Metro)

2026-03-29T14:33:44Z

PaulineBarwell2: formatting fix

{{Short description|Line on the Delhi Metro system}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox rail line
| color = {{rail color|Delhi Metro|Pink}}
| box_width =
| name = Pink Line (Line 7)
| image = The rear of a Hyundai-Rotem coach of Delhi Metro's Pink Line at Anand Vihar metro station.jpg
| caption = Pink Line near Anand Vihar Station
| type = [[Rapid Transit]]
| system = [[Delhi Metro]]
| status = Operational
| locale = [[Delhi]]
| start = [[Maujpur - Babarpur metro station|Maujpur-Babarpur]]
| end = [[Shiv Vihar metro station|Shiv Vihar]]
| stations = [[List of Delhi metro stations|46]]
| daily_ridership =
| open = {{indented plainlist|
*14 March 2018 ([[Majlis Park metro station|Majlis Park]] – [[Durgabai Deshmukh South Campus metro station|Durgabai Deshmukh South Campus]])
*6 August 2018 ([[Durgabai Deshmukh South Campus metro station|Durgabai Deshmukh South Campus]] – [[Lajpat Nagar metro station|Lajpat Nagar]])
*31 October 2018 ([[Trilokpuri Sanjay Lake metro station|Trilokpuri Sanjay Lake]] – [[Shiv Vihar metro station|Shiv Vihar]])
*31 December 2018 ([[Lajpat Nagar metro station|Lajpat Nagar]] – [[Shree Ram Mandir Mayur Vihar metro station|Shree Ram Mandir Mayur Vihar]])
*6 August 2021 ([[Trilokpuri Sanjay Lake metro station|Trilokpuri Sanjay Lake]] – [[Shree Ram Mandir Mayur Vihar metro station|Shree Ram Mandir Mayur Vihar]])
*8 March 2026 ([[Majlis Park metro station|Majlis Park]] – [[Maujpur - Babarpur metro station|Maujpur-Babarpur]])
}}
| close =
| owner = [[Delhi Metro]]
| operator = [[Delhi Metro Rail Corporation]]
| character = Underground and Elevated
| stock = Hyundai-ROTEM
| linelength = {{convert|73.49|km|mi|abbr=on }}
| tracklength =
| tracks =
| gauge = {{track gauge|sg|allk=on}}
| electrification = {{25 kV 50 Hz|conductor=overhead}}
| speed =
| elevation =
| map = {{Delhi Metro Pink Line Route}}
| map_state = collapsed
}}

The '''Pink Line (Line 7)''' is a line of the [[Delhi Metro]], a [[rapid transit]] system in [[Delhi]], [[India]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/metro-comes-to-ne-delhi-but-it-wont-be-straight-line/articleshow/66421712.cms |title=Metro comes to north-east Delhi, but it won't be straight line | website=[[Times of India]] |date=30 October 2018 }}</ref> It consists of [[List of Delhi metro stations|46 stations]] between [[Maujpur - Babarpur metro station|Maujpur - Babarpur]] via [[Majlis Park metro station|Majlis Park]] and [[Shiv Vihar metro station|Shiv Vihar]] and, at {{convert|73.49|km|mi}}, is the Delhi Metro's — and India's — longest metro line. The Pink Line is India's first operational ring metro. It is also known as the Ring Road Line, as it mostly passes alongside the city's [[Inner Ring Road, Delhi|Inner Ring Road]].<ref name = "Delhi Metro - Phase 3 Challenges" />{{rp|86}}

The Pink Line has interchanges with most of the operational lines of the network, such as the [[Magenta Line (Delhi Metro)|Magenta Line]] at [[Majlis Park metro station|Majlis Park]], [[Red Line (Delhi Metro)|Red Line]] at [[Netaji Subhash Place metro station|Netaji Subhash Place]] & [[Welcome metro station|Welcome]], [[Yellow Line (Delhi Metro)|Yellow Line]] at [[Azadpur metro station|Azadpur]] & [[Dilli Haat - INA metro station|Dilli Haat - INA]], [[Green Line (Delhi Metro)|Green Line]] at [[Punjabi Bagh West metro station|Punjabi Bagh West]], [[Blue Line (Delhi Metro)|Blue Line]] at [[Rajouri Garden metro station|Rajouri Garden]], [[Mayur Vihar-I metro station|Mayur Vihar Phase-I]], [[Anand Vihar metro station|Anand Vihar]] & [[Karkarduma metro station|Karkarduma]], [[Dhaula Kuan metro station|Dhaula Kuan]] of [[Delhi Airport Metro Express|Airport Express (Orange Line)]] at [[Durgabai Deshmukh South Campus metro station|Durgabai Deshmukh South Campus]], [[Violet Line (Delhi Metro)|Violet Line]] at [[Lajpat Nagar metro station|Lajpat Nagar]], as well as with [[Hazrat Nizamuddin Railway Station|Hazrat Nizamuddin]] and [[Anand Vihar Railway Terminal|Anand Vihar Terminal]] (Indian Railways / Namo Bharat) and the [[Inter State Bus Terminals|ISBT]]s at [[Swami Vivekanand Inter State Bus Terminus|Anand Vihar]] and [[Sarai Kale Khan Inter-State Bus Terminus|Sarai Kale Khan]].

The Pink Line has the highest point above ground on the Delhi Metro at [[Dhaula Kuan]] with a height of {{Convert|23.6|m}}, passing over the Dhaula Kuan grade separator flyovers and the [[Delhi Airport Metro Express|Airport Express Line]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/new-high-for-metro-with-track-at-24m/|title=New high for Metro with track at 24m|date=26 September 2014|work=The Indian Express}}</ref> It possesses the country's smallest metro station, [[Ashram metro station|Ashram]], with a size of just {{Convert|151.6|m}} against the usual {{Convert|265|m}}.<ref name = "Delhi Metro - Phase 3 Challenges">{{cite book |last=Dayal |first=Anuj |author-link= |date=5 April 2018 |title=Delhi Metro - Phase 3 Challenges |location=New Delhi |publisher=Delhi Metro Rail Corporation}}</ref>{{rp|93}} The usual platform length for a six-coach train on this route is {{Convert|140|m|4=0}} but it has been reduced to {{Convert|135|m}} in Ashram station.

A feeder line from Shiv Vihar has separate services; passengers have to change platforms to continue on the main route.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-05 |title=First section of Delhi Metro phase-IV to open by July 2024, says DMRC chief |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/delhi/first-section-of-delhi-metro-phase-iv-to-open-by-july-2024-says-dmrc-chief-article-104978294 |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
The line was initially put on table as a metro route that would run almost along the Delhi's busy Ring Road, on the lines of the existing Delhi Circular Railway. A route length of {{convert|59.24|km|mi}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Delhi Metro Map|url=http://www.delhimetrorail.com/Zoom_Map.aspx|access-date=2021-08-06|website=www.delhimetrorail.com}}</ref> was proposed from Majlis Park to Shiv Vihar, that would cut through all the existing lines at various interchanges as part of Phase 3's expansion plans.

Currently, there are 46 stations in the Pink Line, out of which 34 are elevated and 12 are underground.

The line was opened in stages from 2018 to 2026. The first section on the Pink Line become operational from 14 March 2018 between [[Majlis Park metro station|Majlis Park]] to [[Durgabai Deshmukh South Campus metro station|Durgabai Deshmukh South Campus]], it was then extended to [[Lajpat Nagar metro station|Lajpat Nagar]] on 6 August 2018. A separate section between Shiv Vihar to Trilokpuri-Sanjay Lake was opened on 31 October 2018 and the initial section was extended to [[Shree Ram Mandir Mayur Vihar]] (formerly known as Mayur Vihar Pocket-1) on 31 December 2018.

The section between [[Trilokpuri Sanjay Lake metro station|Trilokpuri Sanjay Lake]] and [[Shree Ram Mandir Mayur Vihar]] was not completed as construction of a {{Cvt|1.5|km}} viaduct began late due to land acquisition issues at Trilokpuri.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/missing-link-at-mayur-vihar-1-in-metros-longest-line-finally-set-to-be-bridged/articleshow/64022099.cms|title=Delhi Metro: Missing link at Mayur Vihar-1 in Metro's longest line finally set to be bridged |date=May 4, 2018|first=Sidharatha |last=Roy |website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=2019-05-28}}</ref> This had rendered the Pink Line into two independent lines and forced DMRC to convert the Shree Ram Mandir Mayur Vihar (formerly known as Mayur Vihar Pocket-1) station into a terminating station with reversal facilities so that trains from Majlis Park would terminate there. On the eastern section, trains would run in separate loops - Shiv Vihar to Maujpur-Babarpur, Maujpur-Babarpur to IP Extension/Trilokpuri-Sanjay Lake. Every third train from Maujpur-Babarpur would move beyond IP Extension to Trilokpuri-Sanjay Lake as the latter has no reversal facilities and single line movement took place in that section. Both disjoint sections were finally bridged on 6 August 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-08-06|title=Delhi Metro Pink Line's Trilokpuri Sanjay Lake-Mayur Vihar Pocket-1 stretch inaugurated|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/delhi-metro-pink-lines-trilokpuri-sanjay-lake-mayur-vihar-pocket-1-stretch-inaugurated/article35759836.ece|access-date=2021-08-06|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

In December 2024, trial runs were initiated on the Phase 4 extension from Majlis Park to Jagatpur Village stations which were gradually done till Sonia Vihar and finally Maujpur-Babarpur by August 2025. The [[Majlis Park metro station|Majlis Park]] to [[Maujpur - Babarpur metro station|Maujpur - Babarpur]] stretch was opened on 8 March 2026, making this line India’s first ring metro line.

== Stations ==
{{main|List of Delhi Metro stations}}
The stations of the Pink Line are:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.delhimetrorail.com/Phase-III_documetnt/pdf/61PH-III_DMRC_-Model.pdf |title=Metro Network Phase I, II, III & NCR |publisher=[[Delhi Metro Rail Corporation]] Ltd (DMR) |date=February 2015 |access-date=2015-06-28}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" width="100%"
! colspan="10" style="background:#{{rail color|Delhi Metro|Pink}};" | Pink Line
|-
! rowspan="2" |#
! colspan="2" |Station Name
! rowspan="2" |Opened
! rowspan="2" |Interchange Connection
! rowspan="2" |Station Layout
! rowspan="2" |Platform Layout
|-
!English
!Hindi
|-
|1
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Maujpur - Babarpur}}
|मौजपुर - बाबरपुर
|8 March 2026
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Pink|croute}}
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|2||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Yamuna Vihar}}
|यमुना विहार
|8 March 2026
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|3||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Bhajanpura}}
|भजनपुरा
|8 March 2026
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|4||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Khajuri Khas}}
|खजूरी ख़ास
|8 March 2026
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|5
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Nanaksar Sonia Vihar}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-23 |title=2 Delhi Metro stations renamed, 7 names modified |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/delhi-news/2-delhi-metro-stations-renamed-7-names-modified-101771783245653.html |access-date=2026-03-12 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>
|नानकसर सोनिया विहार
|8 March 2026
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|6
|Soorghat
|सूरघाट
|2026
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|7||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Wazirabad}}
|जगतपुर - वज़ीराबाद
|8 March 2026
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|8
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Jharoda Majra}}
|झड़ौदा माजरा
|8 March 2026
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|9||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Burari}}
|बुराड़ी
|8 March 2026
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|10
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Majlis Park}}
|मजलिस पार्क
|14 March 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Magenta|croute}}
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|11
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Azadpur}}
|आज़ादपुर
|14 March 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Yellow|croute}} {{rcb|Delhi Metro|Magenta|croute}} (Phase 4 - Under Construction)
|Underground
|Island
|-
|12||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Shalimar Bagh}}||शालीमार बाग़||14 March 2018
|None
|Underground
|Island
|-
|13
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Netaji Subhash Place}}
|नेताजी सुभाष प्लेस
|14 March 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Red|croute}}
|Underground
|Side
|-
|14||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Shakurpur}}||शकूरपुर||14 March 2018
|None
|Elevated
|Island
|-
|15
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Punjabi Bagh West}}
|पंजाबी बाग़ पश्चिम
|14 March 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Green|croute}} 
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|16||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Bali Nagar}}
|ईएसआई - बसईदारापुर
|14 March 2018
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|17
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Rajouri Garden}}
|राजौरी गार्डन
|14 March 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Blue|croute}}
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|18||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Mayapuri Chowk}}||मायापुरी||14 March 2018
|None
|Elevated
| Side
|-
|19||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Naraina}}||नारायणा||14 March 2018
|None
|Underground
| Island
|-
|20||{{stl|Delhi Metro|North Delhi Cantonment}}||दिल्ली छावनी||14 March 2018
|None
|Elevated
| Side
|-
|21
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Durgabai Deshmukh South Campus}}
|दुर्गाबाई देशमुख साउथ कैम्पस
|14 March 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Airport Express|croute}}
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|22||{{metro|Sir Vishweshwaraiah Moti Bagh||Sir M. Vishweshwaraiah Moti Bagh}}||सर एम. विश्वेश्वरय्या मोती बाग़||6 August 2018
|None
|Elevated
| Side
|-
|23||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Bhikaji Cama Place}}||भीकाजी कामा प्लेस||6 August 2018
|None
|Underground
| Island
|-
|24||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Sarojini Nagar}}||सरोजिनी नगर||6 August 2018
|None
|Underground
| Island
|-
|25
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|INA}}
|दिल्ली हाट - आईएनए
|6 August 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Yellow|croute}}
|Underground
|Island
|-
|26||{{stl|Delhi Metro|South Extension}}||साउथ एक्सटेंशन||6 August 2018
|None
|Underground
| Island
|-
|27
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Lajpat Nagar}}
|लाजपत नगर
|6 August 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Violet|croute}} {{rcb|Delhi Metro|Golden|croute}} (Phase 4 - Under Construction)
|Underground
|Island
|-
|28||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Vinobapuri}}||विनोबापुरी||31 December 2018
|None
|Underground
| Island
|-
|29||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Ashram}}|| आश्रम |आश्रम|| 2018 June |31 December 2018
|None
|Underground
| Island
|-
|30||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Sarai Kale Khan Nizamuddin}}||सराय काले ख़ान निज़ामुद्दीन||31 December 2018
| [[File:NCRTC logo.png|25px]] {{stl|RapidX|Sarai Kale Khan}} {{ric|Indian Railways}} [[Hazrat Nizamuddin railway station|Hazrat Nizamuddin]] {{rint|bus}} [[Sarai Kale Khan Inter-State Bus Terminus|Sarai Kale Khan ISBT]]
|Underground
|Island
|-
|31
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Mayur Vihar-I}}
|मयूर विहार-I
|31 December 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Blue|croute}}
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|32||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Shree Ram Mandir Mayur Vihar}}||श्री राम मंदिर मयूर विहार||31 December 2018
|None
| Elevated
|Side
|-
|33||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Trilokpuri}}|| त्रिलोकपुरी |त्रिलोकपुरी–संजय लेक
|31 October 2018||None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|34||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Mayur Vihar-II}}
|ईस्ट विनोद नगर–मयूर विहार-II
|31 October 2018
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|35||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Mandawali}}
|मंडावली - वेस्ट विनोद नगर
|31 October 2018
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|36||{{stl|Delhi Metro|IP Extension}}||आईपी एक्सटेंशन||31 October 2018
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|37
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Anand Vihar}}
|आनंद विहार
|31 October 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Blue|croute}} [[File:NCRTC logo.png|25px]] [[File:A02 Anand Vihar RRTS station (capsule).svg|25px]] {{stl|RapidX|Anand Vihar}} {{ric|Indian Railways}} [[Anand Vihar Terminal railway station|Anand Vihar Terminal]] {{rint|bus}} [[Swami Vivekanand Inter State Bus Terminus|Anand Vihar ISBT]]
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|38
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Karkarduma}}
|कड़कड़डूमा
|31 October 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Blue|croute}}
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|39||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Karkarduma Court}}
|कड़कड़डूमा कोर्ट
|31 October 2018
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|40||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Krishna Nagar}}||कृष्णा नगर||31 October 2018
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|41||{{stl|Delhi Metro|East Azad Nagar}}||ईस्ट आज़ाद नगर||31 October 2018
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|42
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Welcome}}
|वेलकम
|31 October 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Red|croute}}
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|43||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Jaffrabad}}||जाफ़राबाद||31 October 2018
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|44
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Maujpur - Babarpur}}
|मौजपुर–बाबरपुर
|31 October 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Pink|croute}}
|Elevated
|Side
|}

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" width="100%"
! colspan="10" style="background:#{{rail color|Delhi Metro|Pink}};" | Pink Line (Branch)
|-
! rowspan="2" |#
! colspan="2" |Station Name
! rowspan="2" |Opening
! rowspan="2" |Interchange Connection
! rowspan="2" |Station Layout
! rowspan="2" |Platform Layout
|-
!English
!Hindi
|-
|1
|{{stl|Delhi Metro|Maujpur - Babarpur}}
|मौजपुर–बाबरपुर
|31 October 2018
|{{rcb|Delhi Metro|Pink|croute}}
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|2||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Gokulpuri}}||गोकुलपुरी||31 October 2018
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|3||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Johri Enclave}}||जोहरी एन्क्लेव||31 October 2018
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|-
|4||{{stl|Delhi Metro|Shiv Vihar}}||शिव विहार||31 October 2018
|None
|Elevated
|Side
|}

== Train Info ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! style="background: #{{rail color|Delhi Metro|pink}};" colspan="3" |Pink Line
|-
!Rakes
|Hyundai Rotem
|Alstom Metropolis
|-
!Train Gauge
| colspan="2" |4 ft {{frac|8|1|2}} in (1,435 mm) [[standard gauge]]
|-
!Electrification
| colspan="2" |25 kV, 50 Hz [[Alternating current|AC]] through [[overhead catenary]] OHE
|-
!Train's Maximum Speed
| colspan="2" |100 km/h
|-
!Train Operation
| colspan="2" |Majlis Park - Maujpur-Babarpur
Maujpur-Babarpur - Shiv Vihar
|}

==Planned extension==
{{anchor | Extension }}

'''Gokulpuri-Hindon Airport-Arthala Pink Line Extension''': In September 2024, the [[Delhi_Metro|DMRC]] proposed a branch of 13 km from [[East Delhi|Trans-Yamuna North-East Delhi]] (existing [[Gokulpuri metro station]] of Pink Line) to the west Ghaziabad (existing [[Arthala metro station]] of Red Line) via [[Hindon Airport]] connecting 2 existing Red Line metro stations with 10 new Pink Line stations namely Gol Chakkar, DLF, Shalimar Garden, Hindon Airport, Bhopura, Tulsi Niketan, Rajendra Nagar, New Karhaira Colony, Karhaira, and Loni Road Industrial Area.<ref name=railext1>[https://www.timesnownews.com/delhi/new-metro-line-to-connect-north-east-delhi-with-trans-hindon-area-in-ghaziabad-article-113263970 New Metro Line To Connect North-East Delhi With Trans Hindon Area In Ghaziabad], timesnownews.com, 11 Sept 2024.</ref> It is also officially proposed in delhi metro phase 5 corridors, among the 4 metro corridors of phase 5 in ghaziabad.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-07-26 |title=Noida link among 4 Ghaziabad metro corridors in DMRC’s Phase-V plan |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/noida/noida-link-among-4-ghaziabad-metro-corridors-in-dmrcs-phase-v-plan/articleshow/122912732.cms |access-date=2026-02-21 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[List of Delhi Metro stations]]
*[[Transport in Delhi]]
*[[Delhi Metro Rail Corporation]]
*[[Delhi Suburban Railway]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Delhi Metro}}
* [http://www.delhimetrorail.com/ Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (Official site)]
* [http://www.delhimetrorail.com/annual_report.aspx/ Delhi Metro Annual Reports]
* {{cite web|title=Station Information|work=Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (DMRC)|url=http://www.delhimetrorail.com/commuters/station_information.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619035828/http://delhimetrorail.com/commuters/station_information.html|archive-date=19 June 2010|df=dmy-all}}
* [http://delhimetromaps.com/delhi-metro-pink-line-route-map/ Delhi Metro Pink Line Details] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003030434/http://delhimetromaps.com/delhi-metro-pink-line-route-map/ |date=3 October 2020 }}

{{Delhi Metro}}
{{Delhi & NCR Metro stations|pink line=yes}}
{{Rapid transit in India}}
{{Rapid transit in Asia}}

[[Category:Delhi Metro lines]]
[[Category:Railway lines opened in 2018]]

Suchita Trivedi

2026-03-25T18:02:10Z

PaulineBarwell2: enhance formatting after review also and corrected details

{{short description|Indian actress (born 1976)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Suchita Trivedi
| image = Suchita Trivedi in 2012.jpg
| caption = Trivedi in 2012
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1976|09|20}}
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| spouse = {{marriage|Nigam Patel|2018}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/baa-bahoo-aur-baby-fame-suchita-trivedi-gets-married-shares-a-beautiful-message-for-her-husband-post-wedding/articleshow/65929812.cms |title='Baa Bahoo Aur Baby' fame Suchita Trivedi gets married, shares a beautiful message for her husband post wedding |date=24 September 2018 |work=The Times of India}}</ref>
| occupation = [[Actress]]
| yearsactive = 1983–present
}}

'''Suchita Trivedi''' (born 20 September 1976)<ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ES0WIwx4KWQ |title=Chatters Few Matters with Suchita Trivedi |date=1 October 2012 |publisher=GlitzVision USA |medium=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/Suchita-Trivedi |title=Sucita Trivedi at Times of India |work=The Times of India}}</ref> is an Indian actress, who is known for her work in [[Hindi cinema|Hindi]] TV dramas. She is widely remembered for her portrayal of Meenakshi Thakkar in the acclaimed dramedy ''[[Baa Bahoo Aur Baby]]'' on [[Star Plus]], for which she twice won the [[Indian Telly Award for Best Actress in a Comic Role]], and received two further nominations.

==Personal life==
Suchita was born to parents Anil Trivedi and Geeta Trivedi in [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], on 20 September 1976. Suchita married Nigam Patel on 22 September 2018, at the age of 42.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sucheeta Trivedi: There is no perfect age to get married - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/sucheeta-trivedi-there-is-no-perfect-age-to-get-married/articleshow/78221356.cms |work=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>

She shared her marriage photos on [[Instagram]] which become viral.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/entertainment/tele-talk/story-khichdi-actress-suchita-trivedi-married-at-the-age-of-42-with-nigam-patel-2188208.html |title=PHOTO: 42 की उम्र में शादी के बंधन में बंधीं 'खिचड़ी' की ये एक्ट्रेस, ऐसे बनीं दुल्हन |website=Hindustan}}</ref>

==Career==
Trivedi made her acting debut as a child artiste in the short film "Ek Sawaal Munni Ka", written and directed by Balwant Dullat. The short film was telecast many times on National Television ([[Doordarshan|Door Darshan]]). She also acted as a child artist in the 1983 [[Bollywood]] film ''[[Woh Saat Din]]'', starring [[Anil Kapoor]], [[Naseeruddin Shah]], and [[Padmini Kolhapure]] in the main roles. Her character was called Chanda.

She has mainly worked in [[Indian television Indian Hindi television|Indian Hindi television]]. She is best known for portraying the comic character of Meenakshi Thakkar in Hats Off Productions' super-hit TV series ''[[Baa Bahoo Aur Baby]]'', aired on [[Star Plus|Star Plus Hindi]] channel from 2005 to 2010.

== Filmography ==

=== Films ===
* 1982 - ''[[Ek Sawaal Munni Ka]]'' (Debut; Child artist)
* 1983 – ''[[Woh Saat Din]]'' (child artist)
* 1984 - [[Laila (1984 film)|Laila]] (1984) (Child Artist)
* 1986 - [[Preeti (1986 film)|''Preeti'' (1986 film)]] (Child Artist)
* 1997 – ''[[...Jayate]]''
* 2000 – ''[[Mission Kashmir]]'' – Dr Akhtar's wife
* 2006 – ''[[O Re Manvaa (My Heart)]]''
* 2008 – ''[[Firaaq]]''
* 2015 – ''[[Kuch Kuch Locha Hai]]'' – Kokila Patel
* 2018 – ''[[Ventilator (Gujarati film)|Ventilator]]'' – Gujarati film
* 2024 - ''[[CTRL (film)|CTRL]]'' - Nella's Mother
* 2024 - ''[[The Great Gujarati Matrimony]]'' - Gujarati film
* 2025 - ''[[Umbarro]]'' - Gujarati film
* 2026 - ''[[Paatki]]'' - Gujarati film

=== Television ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Year(s)
! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Show
! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Role
! style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Notes
|-
| 1995–1998
| ''[[Sailaab (TV series)|Sailaab]]''
|
|
|-
| 1993–1995
|''Campus''
|Priya
| Unknown
|-
| 1999
| ''[[Rishtey (TV series)|Rishtey]]''
|
| Episode role
|-
| 1996
| ''Gopaljee''
| Saraswati
| Supporting role
|-
| 1999–2002
| ''[[Ek Mahal Ho Sapno Ka (TV series)|Ek Mahal Ho Sapno Ka]]''
| Meenu
| Supporting role
|-
| 2001
| ''[[Chandan Ka Palna Resham Ki Dori]]''
| Binita Bhimani
| Supporting role
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2003
| ''[[Khichdi (2002 TV series)|Khichdi]]''
| {{nowrap|Mayurakshi ("Maxi")}}
| One episode (episode 38)
|-
| ''[[Kahaani Ghar Ghar Ki]]''
| Shilpa Agarwal
|-
| 2005–2010
| ''[[Baa Bahoo Aur Baby]]''
| Meenakshi Thakkar
| Lead role '''Won—[[Indian Telly Award for Best Actress in a Comic Role]] (2006, 2008)''' Nominated—[[Indian Telly Award for Best Actress in a Comic Role]] (2007, 2009)
|-
| 2008
| ''[[Ek Packet Umeed]]''
| Kanchan
| Supporting role
|-
| 2009
| ''[[Comedy Circus]]''
| Nurse Maya Khurgil
| Stand-up comedian (few episodes)
|-
| 2010–2011
| ''[[Dil Se Diya Vachan]]''
| Sonakshi Krushna Karmakar
| Supporting role
|-
| 2012
| ''[[Ek Doosre Se Karte Hain Pyaar Hum]]''
| Sanyukta Majumdar
| Lead role
|-
| 2013
| ''[[Savitri (TV series)|Savitri]]''
| Maharani (Queen)
| Supporting role
|-
| {{nowrap|2013–2014}}
| ''[[Bh Se Bhade]]''
| Sushma Bhade
| Lead role
|-
| {{nowrap|2015–2017}}
| ''[[Mere Angne Mein]]''
| {{nowrap|Kaushalya Shrivastav}}
| Supporting role
|-
| 2018
| ''[[Ishq Mein Marjawan]]''
| {{nowrap|Roma Raichand}}
| Supporting role
|-
| 2019
| ''[[Tujhse Hai Raabta]]''
| Savita Deshpande
| Supporting Role
|-
| 2020–2021
|''[[Indiawaali Maa]]''
| Kaushalya Gadvi/Kaaku
| Lead role
|-
|2021
|Crashh
|
|
|}

===Stage===
* 2005 – ''[[Ishwar Ni Exchange Offer]]'' (Gujarati stage drama)

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama person}}

{{Navboxes
| title = Awards for Suchita Trivedi
| list =
{{Indian Telly Award Best Comic Actress}}
{{Indian Television Academy Award Best Comic Actress}}
}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Trivedi, Suchita}}
[[Category:1976 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Gujarati actresses]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Gujarati cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi television]]
[[Category:Indian women comedians]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]
[[Category:Indian stage actresses]]
[[Category:Indian soap opera actresses]]
[[Category:Comedians from Mumbai]]

Saka

2026-03-25T00:47:41Z

PaulineBarwell2: slightly adjust details based on references and fixed typos per sources

{{Short description|Historical group of nomadic Iranian peoples}}
{{Redirect|Sacae|the South Australian College of Advanced Education|University of South Australia}}
{{Hatnote|For the land of the Saka under the Sassanid dynasty, see [[Sistan|Sakastān]].
Not to be confused with the [[Sakha (people) | Sakha]], the endonym of the Yakut people of Siberia. For other uses, see [[Saka (disambiguation)]].}}
{{For|the footballer|Bukayo Saka}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox archaeological culture
|name = Sakas
| map =
{{Location map+
|Continental Asia
|overlay_image= Map of the Saka realm.png
| width=300 
| float = center
| border =none
| nodiv = 1
| mini = 1
| relief = yes
| places =
{{Annotation|125|50|[[Sakas|SAKAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|162|41|[[Pazyryk culture|''Pazyryk culture'']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|145|78|[[Kingdom of Khotan|''Khotan'']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|253|58|[[Upper Xiajiadian culture|'''''Upper Xiajiadian''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|190|30|[[Uyuk culture|'''''Uyuk culture''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|170|23|[[Tagar culture|'''''Tagar culture''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|103|60|[[Massagetae|'''''Massagetae''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|103|73|[[Kangju|'''''Kangju''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|175|62|[[Subeshi culture|'''''Subeshi culture''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|225|73|[[Ordos culture|'''''Ordos''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|212|116|[[Dian Kingdom|'''''Dian''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|215|80|[[Majiayuan|'''''Majia- yuan''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|125|50|[[Sakas|SAKAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|110|30|[[Sargat culture|'''''Sargat culture''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}

{{Annotation|50|40|[[Sauromatian culture|'''''Sauromatian culture''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|90|35|[[Itkul culture|'''''Itkul culture''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|135|32|[[Tasmola culture|'''''Tasmola culture''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|82|67|[[Dahae|'''''Dahae''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|100|90|[[Indo-Scythians|'''''Indo- Scythians''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|120|113|[[Western Satraps|'''''Western Satraps''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|130|97|[[Northern Satraps|'''''Northern Satraps''''']]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
| caption=
}}
| mapcaption = {{center|Map of the Saka realm ({{Colorsample|rgba(255, 140, 0, 0.5)|0.6|0.6}}) and main Saka polities throughout their history.<ref>{{cite book |last1 =Davis-Kimball |first1 =Jeannine |last2 =Bashilov |first2 =V. A. |last3 =I︠A︡blonskiĭ |first3 =Leonid Teodorovich |title =Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age |date =1995 |page=IX, Map 1 |url =https://www.podgorski.com/main/assets/documents/Nomads_of_the_Eurasian_Steppes.pdf |publisher =Zinat Press |language =en}}</ref><ref name="Atlas of World History">{{cite book |title =Atlas of World History |date =2002 |publisher =Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-521921-0 |page=51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA51}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite book |last1 =Fauve |first1 =Jeroen|title =The European Handbook of Central Asian Studies |date =2021 |isbn=978-3-8382-1518-1 |page=403 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=KPBIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA406}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1 =Haywood |first1 =John |title =Atlas of world history |date=1997 |publisher =New York : Barnes & Noble Books |isbn =978-0-7607-0687-9 |pages =Map 22 |url=https://archive.org/details/atlasofworldhist00hayw/page/n58/mode/1up}}</ref> The affiliation of the easternmost [[Scythians|Scythoïd]] cultures ([[Subeshi culture]], [[Ordos culture]], [[Majiayuan]], [[Upper Xiajiadian]] or [[Dian Kingdom|Dian]]) remains uncertain.}}
|mapalt =
|altnames =
|horizon =
|region = [[Central Asia]], [[South Siberia]], [[South Asia]]
|period =
|dates = 9th century BC to 5th century AD
|typesite =
|majorsites =
|extra =
|precededby = [[Andronovo culture]], [[Seima-Turbino phenomenon]], [[Karakol culture]], [[Karasuk culture]], [[Deer stones culture]]
|followedby = [[Xiongnu]], [[Kushan Empire]], [[Gupta Empire]]}}
[[File:Golden Man (Issyk kurgan).jpg|thumb|200px|[[Cataphract]]-style parade-armour of a Saka royal, also known as "The Golden Warrior", from the [[Issyk kurgan]], a historical burial site near [[Almaty]], [[Kazakhstan]], {{Circa}} 400–200 BC.<ref>{{cite book |last1 =Chang |first1 =Claudia |title=Rethinking Prehistoric Central Asia: Shepherds, Farmers, and Nomads |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-70158-7 |page=72 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=QR0xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT72}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1 =Rhie |first1 =Marylin M. |title =Early Buddhist art of China and Central Asia |date =2002 |publisher =Brill |location =Leiden |isbn =978-90-04-11499-9| page =Fig. 5.70d |quote =Fig. 5.70d Gold mail suit, crown and leg covers, from an Issik tomb, period of the Saka tribes, 5th to 4th century B.C., Institute of Archaeology, History and Ethnography, Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan (after Shiruku rodo no yuihO, pl. 18) }}</ref>]]
{{Indo-European}}

The '''Saka'''{{efn|[[Old Persian]]:{{lang|peo|{{script|Xpeo|{{small|[[wiktionary:𐎿𐎣𐎠|𐎿𐎣𐎠]]}}}}}} {{transliteration|peo|Sakā}}; [[Kharoṣṭhī]]: {{lang|pgd|𐨯𐨐}} {{transliteration|pgd|Saka}}; [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]]: {{lang|egy|{{script|Egyp|[[wiktionary:sk#Etymology 2|𓋴𓎝𓎡]] [[𓈉]]|italic=no}}}} {{transliteration|egy|sk}}, {{lang|egy|{{script|Egyp|[[wiktionary:sꜣg|𓐠𓎼]] [[𓈉]]}}}} {{transliteration|egy|sꜣg}}; {{lang-zh|{{linktext|塞}}}}, [[Old Chinese|old]] {{transliteration|och|*Sək}}, [[Pinyin|mod.]] {{transliteration|cmn|Sè}}, {{transliteration|cmn|Sāi}}), '''Shaka''' ([[Sanskrit]] ([[Brāhmī]]): {{lang|sa|{{script|Brah|𑀰𑀓}}}}, [[File:Gupta_allahabad_sh.svg|12x12px]] [[File:Gupta_allahabad_k.svg|12x12px]], {{transliteration|sa|Śaka}}; [[Sanskrit]] ([[Devanāgarī]]): {{lang|sa|शक}} {{transliteration|sa|Śaka}}, {{lang|sa|[[wiktionary:शाक#Sanskrit|शाक]]}} {{transliteration|sa|Śāka}}), or '''Sacae''' ([[Ancient Greek]]: {{lang|grc|{{script|Grek|Σάκαι}}}} {{transliteration|grc|Sákai}}; [[Latin]]: {{lang|la|{{script|Latn|Sacae}}}}}} were a group of nomadic [[Iranian peoples|Eastern Iranian peoples]] who lived in the [[Eurasian Steppe]] and the [[Tarim Basin]] from the 9th century BC to the 5th century AD.<ref name="B_68">{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|p=68}} "Modern scholars have mostly used the name ''Saka'' to refer specifically to Iranians of the Eastern Steppe and Tarim Basin"</ref><ref name="D_37">{{harvnb|Dandamayev|1994|p=37}} "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."</ref> The Saka were closely related to the [[Scythians]], and both groups formed parts of the wider [[Scythian cultures]].<ref>{{harvnb|Unterländer|Palstra|Lazaridis|Pilipenko|2017}}: "During the first millennium BC, nomadic people spread over the Eurasian Steppe from the Altai Mountains over the northern Black Sea area as far as the Carpathian Basin... Greek and Persian historians of the 1st millennium BCE chronicle the existence of the Massagetae and Sauromatians, and later, the Sarmatians and Sacae: cultures possessing artefacts similar to those found in classical Scythian monuments, such as weapons, horse harnesses and a distinctive 'Animal Style' artistic tradition. Accordingly, these groups are often assigned to the Scythian culture..."</ref> However, both groups have differing specific geographical and cultural traits.<ref name="D_37" /><ref name="SK"/> The [[Saka languages]] formed part of the [[Scythian languages|Scythian phylum]], a branch of the [[Eastern Iranian languages]].

Derived from the earlier [[Andronovo]], [[Sintashta culture|Sintashta]] and [[Srubnaya culture]]s, the Saka were later influenced by the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Culture]] and Iron-Age [[East Asia]]n genetic influx.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last =Gnecchi-Ruscone |first =Guido Alberto |date=26 March 2021 |title =Ancient genomic time transect from the Central Asian Steppe unravels the history of the Scythians |journal =Science Advances |language =en |volume =7 |issue =13 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abe4414 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc =7997506 |pmid =33771866 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.4414G }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1 =Kumar |first1 =Vikas |last2 =Wang |first2 =Wenjun |last3 =Zhang |first3 =Jie |last4=Wang |first4=Yongqiang |last5=Ruan |first5 =Qiurong |last6 =Yu |first6 =Jianjun |last7 =Wu |first7 =Xiaohong |last8 =Hu |first8 =Xingjun |last9 =Wu |first9 =Xinhua |last10 =Guo |first10 =Wu |last11 =Wang |first11 =Bo |last12 =Niyazi |first12 =Alipujiang |last13 =Lv |first13 =Enguo |last14 =Tang |first14 =Zihua |last15 =Cao |first15 =Peng |date =April 2022 |title=Bronze and Iron Age population movements underlie Xinjiang population history |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abk1534 |journal =Science |language =en |volume =376 |issue =6588 |pages =62–69 |doi =10.1126/science.abk1534 |pmid =35357918 |bibcode =2022Sci...376...62K |s2cid =247855352 |issn=0036-8075 |quote=Of these, the Sakas were the descendants of Late Bronze Age (LBA) herders (such as the Andronovo, Srubnaya, and Sintashta) with additional ancestries derived from Lake Baikal (Shamanka_EBA) (EBA, Early Bronze Age) and BMAC populations (1, 17, 18). Sakas have been associated with the Indo-Iranian Khotanese language, which was spoken in southern Xinjiang before spreading to other parts of the region (19).|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The ancient Persians, ancient Greeks, and ancient Babylonians respectively used the names "Saka", "Scythian", and "[[Cimmerian]]" for all the [[steppe nomads]]. However, the name "Saka" is used specifically for the ancient nomads of the [[History of the eastern steppe | eastern steppe]], while "Scythian" is used for the related group of nomads living in the [[History of the western steppe | western steppe]].<ref name="D_37"/><ref name="DM_156">{{harvnb|David|McNiven|2018}}: "Horse-riding nomadism has been referred to as the culture of 'Early Nomads'. This term encompasses different ethnic groups (such as Scythians, Saka, Massagetae, and Yuezhi)..."</ref><ref name="DiakonoffNomenclature">{{harvnb|Diakonoff|1985}}: the Persians called "Saka" all the northern nomads, just as the Greeks called them "Scythians", and the Babylonians "Cimmerians".</ref>

Prominent archaeological remains of the Sakas include [[Arzhan culture|Arzhan]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zaitseva |first1=G. I. |last2=Chugunov |first2=K. V. |last3=Alekseev |first3=A. Yu |last4=Dergachev |first4=V. A. |last5=Vasiliev |first5=S. S. |last6=Sementsov |first6=A. A. |last7=Cook |first7=G. |last8=Scott| first8=E. M. |last9=Plicht |first9=J. van der |last10=Parzinger |first10=H. |last11=Nagler |first11=A. |date=2007 |title=Chronology of Key Barrows Belonging to Different Stages of the Scythian Period in Tuva (Arzhan-1 and Arzhan-2 Barrows) |journal=Radiocarbon |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=645–658 |doi=10.1017/S0033822200042545 |bibcode=2007Radcb..49..645Z |issn=0033-8222 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Tunnug,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Caspari |first1=Gino |last2=Sadykov |first2=Timur |last3=Blochin |first3=Jegor |last4=Hajdas |first4=Irka |date=1 September 2018 |title=Tunnug 1 (Arzhan 0) – an early Scythian kurgan in Tuva Republic, Russia |journal=Archaeological Research in Asia |volume=15 |pages=82–87 |doi=10.1016/j.ara.2017.11.001 |s2cid=135231553 |issn=2352-2267}}</ref> the [[Pazyryk burials]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dergachev |first1=V. A. |last2=Vasiliev |first2=S. S. |last3=Sementsov |first3=A. A. |last4=Zaitseva |first4=G. I. |last5=Chugunov |first5=K. A. |last6=Sljusarenko |first6=I. Ju |date=2001 |title=Dendrochronology and Radiocarbon Dating Methods in Archaeological Studies of Scythian Sites |journal=Radiocarbon |volume=43 |issue=2A |pages=417–424 |doi=10.1017/S0033822200038273 |bibcode=2001Radcb..43..417D |issn=0033-8222 |doi-access=free}}</ref> the [[Issyk kurgan]], [[Saka Kurgan tombs]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Panyushkina |first1=Irina |last2=Grigoriev |first2=Fedor |last3=Lange |first3=Todd |last4=Alimbay |first4=Nursan |date=2013 |title=Radiocarbon and Tree-Ring Dates of the Bes-Shatyr #3 Saka Kurgan in the Semirechiye, Kazakhstan |journal=Radiocarbon |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=1297–1303 |issn=0033-8222 |doi=10.1017/S0033822200048207 |bibcode=2013Radcb..55.1297P |hdl=10150/628658 |s2cid=220661798 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> the [[Barrows of Tasmola]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beisenov |first1=Àrman Z. |last2=Duisenbay |first2=Daniyar |last3=Akhiyarov |first3=Islam |last4=Sargizova |first4=Gulzada |date=1 October 2016 |title=Dromos Burials of Tasmola Culture in Central Kazakhstan |journal=The Anthropologist |volume=26 |issue=1–2 |pages=25–33 |doi=10.1080/09720073.2016.11892125 |s2cid=80362028 |issn=0972-0073}}</ref> and possibly [[Tillya Tepe]]. In the 2nd century BC, many Sakas were driven by the [[Yuezhi]] from the steppe into [[Sogdia]] and [[Bactria]] and then into the northwest of the [[Indian subcontinent]], where they became known as the [[Indo-Scythians]].<ref name="Benjamin">{{cite web |url =http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html |title =The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia |last =Benjamin |first=Craig |author-link =Craig Benjamin |date =March 2003 |publisher =Ērān ud Anērān Webfestschrift Marshak |access-date=1 March 2015 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20150218204941/http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html |archive-date=18 February 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ChineseHistory">{{cite web |url =http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/sakas.html|title=Chinese History – Sai 塞 The Saka People or Soghdians |website =Chinaknowledge|access-date=1 March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20150119210419/http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/sakas.html |archive-date=19 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="Beckwith85">{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|p=85}} "The Saka, or Śaka, people then began their long migration that ended with their conquest of northern India, where they are also known as the Indo-Scythians."</ref> Other Sakas invaded the [[Parthian Empire]], eventually settling in [[Sistan]], while others may have migrated to the [[Dian Kingdom]] in [[Yunnan]], [[China]]. In the [[Tarim Basin]] and [[Taklamakan Desert]] of today's [[Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]], they settled in [[Kingdom of Khotan|Khotan]], [[Yarkand]], [[Kashgar]] and other places.<ref name="Sinor_173" />

== Name ==
===Etymology===
[[File:Scythian helmet, copper alloy, Samarkand, 6th-1st century BCE.jpg|thumb|Scythian helmet, copper alloy, [[Afrasiyab (Samarkand)|Afrasiyab]], [[Samarkand]], 6th–1st century BC.]]
Derived from an Iranian verbal root {{transliteration|ira|sak-}}, "go, roam" and thus meaning "nomad" was the term {{transliteration|peo|Sakā}}, from which came the names:<ref name="Szemerényi">{{cite book |last=Szemerényi |first=Oswald |author-link=Oswald Szemerényi |year=1980 |title=Four old Iranian ethnic names: Scythian – Skudra – Sogdian – Saka |url=http://www.azargoshnasp.net/history/Scythians/fouroldiranianethnicnames.pdf |publisher=[[:de:Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften|Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften]] |isbn=0-520-06864-5 }}</ref>
* [[Old Persian]]: {{lang|peo|{{script|Xpeo|{{small|𐎿𐎣𐎠}}}}}} {{transliteration|peo|Sakā}}, used by the ancient [[Persians]] to designate all nomads of the [[Eurasian steppe]], including the Pontic Scythians<ref>{{cite book |last=West |first=Stephanie |author-link=Stephanie West |year=2002 |chapter=Scythians |editor-last1=Bakker |editor-first1=Egbert J. |editor-link1=Egbert Bakker |editor-last2=de Jong |editor-first2=Irene J. F. |editor-link2=Irene de Jong |editor-last3=van Wees |editor-first3=Hans |title=Brill's Companion to Herodotus |url=https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004217584/BP000020.xml |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |pages=437–456 |isbn=978-90-04-21758-4 }}</ref>
* [[Ancient Greek]]: {{lang|grc|{{script|Grek|Σάκαι}}}} {{transliteration|grc|Sákai}}
* [[Latin]]: {{lang|la|{{script|Latn|Sacae}}}}
* [[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|शक}} {{transliteration|sa|Śaka}}
* [[Old Chinese]]: {{lang|och|塞}} {{transliteration|och|Sək}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FcKtIPVQ6REC&pg=PA283 |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia Volume III: The crossroads of civilizations: AD 250 to 750 | page=283 |first= Zhang |last= Guang-da |publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-81-208-1540-7 |year=1999 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OOK-fBNwZ7kC&pg=PA67 |title= Indo-Scythian Studies: Being Khotanese Texts|author= H. W. Bailey |page=67 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-0-521-11873-6 |date= 7 February 1985}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/sakas-in-afghanistan |title=SAKAS: IN AFGHANISTAN |last=Callieri |first=Pierfrancesco |date=2016 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |quote=The ethnonym Saka appears in ancient Iranian and Indian sources as the name of the large family of Iranian nomads called Scythians by the Classical Western sources and Sai by the Chinese (Gk. Sacae; OPers. Sakā). }}</ref>

The [[Scythians]], Saka, and [[Cimmerians]] were closely related nomadic [[Iranic]] peoples, and the ancient [[Babylonia]]ns, ancient [[Persians]], and [[ancient Greeks]] respectively used the names "[[Cimmerian]]," "Saka," and "[[Scythian]]" for all the steppe nomads. Early modern historians such as [[Edward Gibbon]] used the term Scythian to refer to a variety of nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples across the Eurasian Steppe. The name "Scythian" in contemporary modern scholarship generally refers to the nomadic [[Iranic people]] who, from the 7th century BC to the 3rd century BC, dominated the steppe and forest-steppe zones to the north of the Black Sea, Crimea, the Kuban valley, as well as the Taman and Kerch peninsulas,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jacobson |first=Esther |title=The art of the Scythians: the interpenetration of cultures at the edge of the Hellenic world |date=1995 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-09856-5 |series=Handbuch der Orientalistik / hrsg. von B. Spuler ... Abt. 8. Handbook of Uralic studies |location=Leiden New York Köln |page=31}}</ref><ref name="nomenclature3">*{{harvnb|Dandamayev|1994|p=37}}: "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."
*{{harvnb|Cernenko|2012|p=3}}: "The Scythians lived in the Early Iron Age, and inhabited the northern areas of the Black Sea (Pontic) steppes. Though the 'Scythian period' in the history of Eastern Europe lasted little more than 400 years, from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC, the impression these horsemen made upon the history of their times was such that a thousand years after they had ceased to exist as a sovereign people, their heartland and the territories which they dominated far beyond it continued to be known as 'greater Scythia'."
*{{harvnb|Melyukova|1990|pp=97–98}}: "From the end of the 7th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. the Central- Eurasian steppes were inhabited by two large groups of kin Iranian-speaking tribes – the Scythians and Sarmatians [...] "[I]t may be confidently stated that from the end of the 7th century to the 3rd century B.C. the Scythians occupied the steppe expanses of the north Black Sea area, from the Don in the east to the Danube in the West."
*{{harvnb|Ivantchik|2018}}: "Scythians, a nomadic people of Iranian origin who flourished in the steppe lands north of the Black Sea during the 7th–4th centuries BC (Figure 1). For related groups in Central Asia and India, see [...]"
*{{harvnb|Sulimirski|1985|pp=149–153}}: "During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock [...] The main Iranian-speaking peoples of the region at that period were the Scyths and the Sarmatians [...] [T]he population of ancient Scythia was far from being homogeneous, nor were the Scyths themselves a homogeneous people. The country called after them was ruled by their principal tribe, the "Royal Scyths" (Her. iv. 20), who were of Iranian stock and called themselves "Skolotoi" (iv. 6); they were nomads who lived in the steppe east of the Dnieper up to the Don, and in the Crimean steppe [...] The eastern neighbours of the "Royal Scyths," the Sauromatians, were also Iranian; their country extended over the steppe east of the Don and the Volga."
*{{harvnb|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=547}}: "The name 'Scythian' is met in the classical authors and has been taken to refer to an ethnic group or people, also mentioned in Near Eastern texts, who inhabited the northern Black Sea region."
*{{harvnb|West|2002|pp=437–440}}: "Ordinary Greek (and later Latin) usage could designate as Scythian any northern barbarian from the general area of the Eurasian steppe, the virtually treeless corridor of drought-resistant perennial grassland extending from the Danube to Manchuria. Herodotus seeks greater precision, and this essay is focussed on his Scythians, who belong to the North Pontic steppe [...] These true Scyths seems to be those whom he calls Royal Scyths, that is, the group who claimed hegemony [...] apparently warrior-pastoralists. It is generally agreed, from what we know of their names, that these were people of Iranian stock [...]"
*{{harvnb|Jacobson|1995|pp=36–37}}: "When we speak of Scythians, we refer to those Scytho-Siberians who inhabited the Kuban Valley, the Taman and Kerch peninsulas, Crimea, the northern and northeastern littoral of the Black Sea, and the steppe and lower forest steppe regions now shared between Ukraine and Russia, from the seventh century down to the first century B.C [...] They almost certainly spoke an Iranian language [...]"
*{{harvnb|Di Cosmo|1999|p=924}}: "The first historical steppe nomads, the Scythians, inhabited the steppe north of the Black Sea from about the eight century B.C."
*{{cite web |last=Rice |first=Tamara Talbot |author-link=Tamara Talbot Rice |title=Central Asian arts: Nomadic cultures |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Central-Asian-arts/Visual-arts |access-date=4 October 2019 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |quote=[Saka] gold belt buckles, jewelry, and harness decorations display sheep, griffins, and other animal designs that are similar in style to those used by the Scythians, a nomadic people living in the Kuban basin of the Caucasus region and the western section of the Eurasian plain during the greater part of the 1st millennium bc.}}</ref>while the name "Saka" is used specifically for their eastern members who inhabited the northern and eastern [[Eurasian Steppe]] and the [[Tarim Basin]].<ref name="nomenclature3" /><ref name="SK">{{cite web |last=Kramrisch |first=Stella |author-link=Stella Kramrisch |title=Central Asian Arts: Nomadic Cultures |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Central-Asian-arts/Visual-arts#ref314168 |access-date=1 September 2018 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |quote=The Śaka tribe was pasturing its herds in the Pamirs, central Tien Shan, and in the Amu Darya delta. Their gold belt buckles, jewelry, and harness decorations display sheep, griffins, and other animal designs that are similar in style to those used by the Scythians, a nomadic people living in the Kuban basin of the Caucasus region and the western section of the Eurasian plain during the greater part of the 1st millennium bc.}}</ref>

===Identification===
The name {{transliteration|peo|Sakā}} was used by the ancient [[Persians|Persian]] to refer to all the Iranian nomadic tribes living to the north of their [[Achaemenid Empire|empire]], including both those who lived between the [[Caspian Sea]] and the [[Mirzachoʻl|Hungry steppe]], and those who lived to the north of the [[Danube]] and the [[Black Sea]].{{sfn|Cook|1985|p=252-255}}
[[File:Xerxes detail three types of Sakas cleaned up.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|For the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenids]], there were three types of Sakas: the ''[[Scythians|Sakā tayai paradraya]]'' ("beyond the sea", presumably between the Greeks and the [[Thracians]] on the Western side of the [[Black Sea]]), the ''[[Sakā Tigraxaudā]]'' (the [[Massagetae]], "with [[Phrygian cap|pointed caps]]"), the {{transliteration|peo|Sakā haumavargā}} ("[[Haoma|Hauma]] drinkers", furthest East). Soldiers of the [[Achaemenid army]], [[Xerxes I]] tomb detail, circa 480 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/haumavarga |title=HAUMAVARGĀ |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |author-link=Rüdiger Schmitt |date=2003 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] }}</ref>]]

The Achaemenid inscriptions initially listed a single group of {{transliteration|peo|Sakā}}. However, following [[Darius I]]'s campaign of 520 to 518 BC against the Asian nomads, they were differentiated into two groups, both living in Central Asia to the east of the Caspian Sea:{{sfn|Cook|1985|p=252-255}}{{sfn|Dandamayev|1994|p=44-46}}
* the [[Massagetae|{{transliteration|peo|Sakā tigraxaudā}}]] ({{lang|peo|{{script|Xpeo|{{small|𐎿𐎣𐎠 𐏐 𐎫𐎡𐎥𐎼𐎧𐎢𐎭𐎠}}}}}}) – "{{transliteration|peo|Sakā}} who wear [[Phrygian cap|pointed caps]]," who were also known as the {{transliteration|la|Massagetae}}.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000}}<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2021}}: "Apparently the Dahai represented an entity not identical with the other better known groups of the Sakai, i.e. the Sakai (Sakā) tigrakhaudā (Massagetai, roaming in Turkmenistan), and Sakai (Sakā) Haumavargā (in Transoxania and beyond the Syr Daryā)."</ref>
* the [[Amyrgians|{{transliteration|peo|Sakā haumavargā}}]] ({{lang|peo|{{script|Xpeo|{{small|𐎿𐎣𐎠 𐏐 𐏃𐎢𐎶𐎺𐎼𐎥𐎠}}}}}}) – interpreted as "{{transliteration|peo|Sakā}} who lay [[haoma|hauma]] (around the fire)",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/haumavarga |title=HAUMAVARGĀ |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |author-link=Rüdiger Schmitt |date=2003 |website=Encyclopædia Iranica |publisher= |quote=}}</ref> which can be interpreted as "Saka who revere [[haoma|hauma]]."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dandamaev |first1=Muhammad A. |author-link1=Muhammad Dandamayev |last2=Lukonin |first2=Vladimir G. |date=1989 |title=The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran |url= |location= |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g7N74BFaC90C&pg=PA334 334] |isbn=978-0-521-61191-6 }}</ref>

A third name was added after the [[Scythian campaign of Darius I|Darius's campaign]] north of the [[Danube]]:{{sfn|Cook|1985|p=252-255}}
* the [[Scythians|{{transliteration|peo|Sakā tayaiy paradraya}}]] ({{lang|peo|{{script|Xpeo|{{small|𐎿𐎣𐎠 𐏐 𐎫𐎹𐎡𐎹 𐏐 𐎱𐎼𐎭𐎼𐎹}}}}}}) – "the {{transliteration|peo|Sakā}} who live beyond the [[Black Sea|(Black) Sea]]," who were the Pontic Scythians of the East European steppes

An additional term is found in two inscriptions elsewhere:{{sfn|Francfort|1988|p=173}}{{sfn|Cook|1985|p=252-255}}
* the {{transliteration|peo|Sakaibiš tayaiy para Sugdam}} ({{lang|peo|{{script|Xpeo|{{small|𐎿𐎣𐎡𐎲𐎡𐏁 𐏐 𐎫𐎹𐎡𐎹 𐏐 𐎱𐎼 𐏐 𐎿𐎢𐎥𐎭𐎶}}}}}}) – "Saka who are beyond [[Sogdia]]", a term was used by Darius for the people who formed the north-eastern limits of his empire at the opposite end to the [[Kush (satrapy)|satrapy of Kush]] (the Ethiopians).{{sfn|Bailey|1983|p=1230}}<ref>{{cite book |first= Pierre |last=Briant |author-link=Pierre Briant |title=From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC&pg=PA178 178] |publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]] |date=29 July 2006 |isbn=978-1-57506-120-7 |quote= This is Kingdom which I hold, from the Scythians [Saka] who are beyond Sogdiana, thence unto Ethiopia [Cush]; from Sind, thence unto Sardis.}}</ref> These {{transliteration|peo|Sakaibiš tayaiy para Sugdam}} have been suggested to have been the same people as the {{transliteration|peo|Sakā haumavargā}}{{sfn|Cook|1985|p=254-255}}

Moreover, [[Darius the Great's Suez Inscriptions]] mention two groups of Saka:{{sfn|Young|1988|p=89}}{{sfn|Francfort|1988|p=177}}
* the {{transliteration|egy|Sꜣg pḥ}} ({{lang|egy|{{huge|{{script|Egyp|𓐠𓎼𓄖𓈉}}}}}}) – "{{transliteration|peo|Sakā}} of the Marshes"
* the {{transliteration|egy|Sk tꜣ}} ({{lang|egy|{{huge|{{script|Egyp|𓋴𓎝𓎡𓐰𓇿𓈉}}}}}}) – "{{transliteration|peo|Sakā}} of the Land"

The scholar [[David Bivar]] had tentatively identified the {{transliteration|egy|Sk tꜣ}} with the {{transliteration|peo|Sakā haumavargā}},<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Yarshater |editor-first=Ehsan| editor-link=Ehsan Yarshater |last=Bivar |first=A. D. H. |author-link=David Bivar |date=1983 |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |volume=3 |chapter=The History of Eastern Iran |issue=1 |url= |location=[[Cambridge]], [[United Kingdom]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=181–231 |isbn=978-0-521-20092-9 }}</ref> and [[John Manuel Cook]] had tentatively identified the {{transliteration|egy|Sꜣg pḥ}} with the {{transliteration|peo|Sakā tigraxaudā}}.{{sfn|Cook|1985|p=254-255}} More recently, the scholar [[Rüdiger Schmitt]] has suggested that the {{transliteration|egy|Sꜣg pḥ}} and the {{transliteration|egy|Sk tꜣ}} might have collectively designated the {{transliteration|peo|Sakā tigraxaudā}}/Massagetae.{{sfn|Schmitt|2018}}

The Achaemenid king [[Xerxes I]] listed the Saka coupled with the [[Dahae|{{transliteration|peo|Dahā}}]] ({{lang|peo|{{script|Xpeo|{{small|𐎭𐏃𐎠}}}}}}) people of Central Asia,{{sfn|Bailey|1983|p=1230}}{{sfn|Cook|1985|p=254-255}}{{sfn|Francfort|1988|p=173}} who might possibly have been identical with the {{transliteration|peo|Sakā tigraxaudā}}.{{sfn|Harmatta|1999}}<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Dani |editor-first1=Ahmad Hasan |editor-link1=Ahmad Hasan Dani |editor-last2=Harmatta |editor-first2=János |editor-link2=János Harmatta | editor-last3=Puri |editor-first3=Baij Nath |editor-link3=Baij Nath Puri |editor-last4=Etemadi |editor-first4=G. F. |editor-last5=Bosworth |editor-first5=Clifford Edmund |editor-link5=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |last1=Abetekov |first1=A. |last2=Yusupov |first2=H. |date=1994 |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia |chapter=Ancient Iranian Nomads in Western Central Asia |url= |location=[[Paris]], [[France]] |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |pages=24–34 |isbn=978-9-231-02846-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Dani |editor-first1=Ahmad Hasan |editor-link1=Ahmad Hasan Dani |editor-last2=Harmatta |editor-first2=János |editor-link2=János Harmatta | editor-last3=Puri |editor-first3=Baij Nath |editor-link3=Baij Nath Puri |editor-last4=Etemadi |editor-first4=G. F. |editor-last5=Bosworth |editor-first5=Clifford Edmund |editor-link5=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |last=Zadneprovskiy |first=Y. A. |date=1994 |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia |chapter=The Nomads of Northern Central Asia After the Invansion of Alexander |url= |location=[[Paris]], [[France]] |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |pages=448–463 |isbn=978-9-231-02846-5 |quote=The middle of the third century b.c. saw the rise to power of a group of tribes consisting of the Parni (Aparni) and the Dahae, descendants of the Massagetae of the Aral Sea region. }}</ref>

=== Modern terminology ===
{{See also|Scythian cultures}}
Although the ancient Persians, ancient Greeks, and ancient Babylonians respectively used the names "Saka," "Scythian," and "[[Cimmerian]]" for all the steppe nomads, modern scholars now use the term Saka to refer specifically to Iranian peoples who inhabited the northern and eastern [[Eurasian Steppe]] and the [[Tarim Basin]];<ref name="B_68" /><ref name="eolss">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UwueDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA380 |title=ARCHAEOLOGY – Volume I |chapter= The Archaeology of Eurasian Nomads |editor-first= Donald L. |editor-last= Hardesty |page=383 |author=L. T. Yablonsky |publisher= EOLSS |isbn=978-1-84826-002-3|date=15 June 2010 }}</ref><ref name="D_37"/><ref name="DiakonoffNomenclature"/> and while the Cimmerians were often described by contemporaries as [[Scythian cultures|culturally Scythian]], they may have differed ethnically from the Scythians proper, to whom the Cimmerians were related, and who also displaced and replaced the Cimmerians.<ref name="Cimmerians">{{cite web |last=Tokhtas'ev |first=Sergei R. |date=1991 |title=Cimmerians |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/cimmerians-nomads |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |quote=As the Cimmerians cannot be differentiated archeologically from the Scythians, it is possible to speculate about their Iranian origins. In the Neo-Babylonian texts (according to D'yakonov, including at least some of the Assyrian texts in Babylonian dialect) {{transliteration|akk|Gimirri}} and similar forms designate the Scythians and Central Asian Saka, reflecting the perception among inhabitants of Mesopotamia that Cimmerians and Scythians represented a single cultural and economic group}}</ref>

==Location==
{{Continental Asia in 325 BCE|right|{{center|The Sakas ({{Colorsample|#FFA500|0.6}}), and main Asian polities, circa 325 BC.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Coatsworth |first1=John |last2=Cole |first2=Juan |last3=Hanagan |first3=Michael P. |last4=Perdue |first4=Peter C. |last5=Tilly |first5=Charles |last6=Tilly |first6=Louise |title=Global Connections: Volume 1, To 1500: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History |date=16 March 2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-29777-3 |page=138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5vlBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA138}}</ref><ref name="Atlas of World History"/><ref name="auto"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gursoy |first1=M. |title=Жазба Және Археологиялық Деректер Негізінде Савромат-Сармат Тайпаларының Шығу Тегі |journal=BULLETIN Series Historical and Socio-political Sciences |date=28 February 2023 |volume=1 |issue=72 |page=157 |doi=10.51889/2022-1.1728-5461.16 |doi-access=free }}</ref>}}||Map of the Sakas.png}}
The {{transliteration|peo|Sakā tigraxaudā}} and {{transliteration|peo|Sakā haumavargā}} both lived in the steppe and highland areas located in northern Central Asia and to the east of the Caspian Sea.{{sfn|Cook|1985|p=252-255}}{{sfn|Dandamayev|1994|p=44-46}}{{sfn|Francfort|1988|p=168}}

The {{transliteration|peo|Sakā tigraxaudā}}/Massagetae more specifically lived around [[Chorasmia]]{{sfn|Francfort|1988|p=184}} and in the lowlands of Central Asia located to the east of the [[Caspian Sea]] and the south-east of the [[Aral Sea]], in the [[Kyzylkum Desert]] and the [[Ustyurt Plateau]], most especially between the [[Amu Darya|Araxes]] and [[Iaxartes]] rivers.{{sfn|Harmatta|1999}}{{sfn|Schmitt|2018}} The {{transliteration|peo|Sakā tigraxaudā}}/Massagetae could also be found in the Caspian Steppe.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000}} The imprecise description of where the Massagetae lived by ancient authors has however led modern scholars to ascribe to them various locations, such as the Oxus delta, the Iaxartes delta, between the Caspian and Aral seas or further to the north or northeast, but without basing these suggestions on any conclusive arguments.{{sfn|Schmitt|2018}} Other locations assigned to the Massagetae include the area corresponding to modern-day [[Turkmenistan]].{{sfn|Olbrycht|2021}}

The {{transliteration|peo|Sakā haumavargā}} lived around the Pamir Mountains and the Ferghana Valley.{{sfn|Francfort|1988|p=184}}

The {{transliteration|peo|Sakaibiš tayaiy para Sugdam}}, who may have been identical with the {{transliteration|peo|Sakā haumavargā}}, lived on the north-east border of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] on the [[Iaxartes]] river.{{sfn|Cook|1985|p=252-255}}

Some other Saka groups lived to the east of the [[Pamir Mountains]] and to the north of the [[Syr Darya|Iaxartes river]],{{sfn|Francfort|1988|p=168}} as well as in the regions corresponding to modern-day [[Kyrgyzstan|Qirghizia]], [[Tian Shan]], [[Altai Mountains|Altai]], [[Tuva Depression|Tuva]], [[Mongolia]], [[Xinjiang]], and [[Kazakhstan]].{{sfn|Francfort|1988|p=184}}

The {{transliteration|och|Sək}}, that is the Saka who were in contact with the Chinese, inhabited the [[Ili (river)|Ili]] and [[Chu (river)|Chu]] valleys of modern [[Kyrgyzstan]] and [[Kazakhstan]], which was called the "land of the {{transliteration|och|Sək}}", i.e. "land of the Saka", in the ''[[Book of Han]]''.<ref name="yu 2010 p13" />

== History ==
=== Origins ===
{{multiple image
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| header = [[Arzhan kurgan]]s (9–7th century BC)
| image1 = Аржаан - 2.JPG
| caption1 =
| image2 = Arzhan deer.jpg
| caption2 =
| image3 = 6. Pectorale burial mound Arzhan (VIII. - VII. B. C.) Tuva.JPG
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| image4 = 8. Akinak (dagger) bural mound Arzhan (VIII.-VII. B.C.) Tuva.JPG
| caption4 =
| footer = [[Arzhan culture|Arzhan]] kurgan and early Saka artifacts, dated to 8–7th century BC
}}
The Scythian/Saka cultures emerged on the [[Eurasian Steppe]] at the dawn of the [[Iron Age]] in the early 1st millennium BC. Their origin has long been a source of debate among archaeologists.{{sfn|Järve|2019}} The [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]] was initially thought to have been their place of origin, until the [[Soviet]] archaeologist [[:ru:Тереножкин, Алексей Иванович|Aleksey Terenozhkin]] suggested a [[Central Asia]]n origin.{{sfn|Unterländer|Palstra|Lazaridis|Pilipenko|2017}}<ref name="Krzewińska 2018">{{harvnb|Krzewińska|2018}}</ref>

Archaeological evidence now suggests that the origins of [[Scythian culture]], characterized by its [[kurgans]] (a type of burial mound) and its ''[[Animal style]]'' of the 1st millennium BC, are to be found among Eastern Scythians rather than their Western counterparts: eastern [[kurgans]] are older than western ones (such as the Altai kurgan [[Arzhan culture|Arzhan 1]] in [[Tuva]]), and elements of the ''[[Animal style]]'' are first attested in areas of the [[Yenisei river]] and modern-day China in the 10th century BC.<ref name="ADD2">{{harvnb |Unterländer |Palstra |Lazaridis |Pilipenko |2017}} "The origin of the widespread Scythian culture has long been debated in Eurasian archaeology. The northern Black Sea steppe was originally considered the homeland and centre of the Scythians until Terenozhkin formulated the hypothesis of a Central Asian origin. On the other hand, evidence supporting an east Eurasian origin includes the kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva, which is considered the earliest Scythian kurgan. Dating of additional burial sites situated in east and west Eurasia confirmed eastern kurgans as older than their western counterparts. Additionally, elements of the characteristic 'Animal Style' dated to the tenth century BCE were found in the region of the Yenisei river and modern-day China, supporting the early presence of Scythian culture in the East."</ref> Genetic evidence corroborates archaeological findings, suggesting an initial eastwards expansion of [[Western Steppe Herders]] towards the [[Altai Mountains|Altai region]] and [[Western Mongolia]], spreading [[Iranian languages]], and subsequent contact episodes with local Siberian and Eastern Asian populations, giving rise to the initial (Eastern) Scythian material cultures (Saka). It was, however, also found that the various later Scythian sub-groups of the Eurasian Steppe had local origins; different Scythian groups arose locally through cultural adaption, rather than via migration patterns from East-to-West or West-to-East.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Järve |first1=Mari |last2=Saag |first2=Lehti |last3=Scheib |first3=Christiana Lyn |last4=Pathak |first4=Ajai K. |last5=Montinaro |first5=Francesco |last6=Pagani |first6=Luca |last7=Flores |first7=Rodrigo |last8=Guellil |first8=Meriam |last9=Saag |first9=Lauri |last10=Tambets |first10=Kristiina |last11=Kushniarevich |first11=Alena |last12=Solnik |first12=Anu |last13=Varul |first13=Liivi |last14=Zadnikov |first14=Stanislav |last15=Petrauskas |first15=Oleg |date=22 July 2019 |title=Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance |journal=Current Biology |language=en |volume=29 |issue=14 |pages=2430–2441.e10 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.019 |pmid=31303491 |s2cid=195887262 |issn=0960-9822 |quote=Recently, studies of ancient Scythian genomes have affirmed the confederate nature of the Scythian tribes, showing them to be genetically distinct from one another but finding little or no support for large-scale east-to-west movements, instead generally suggesting separate local origins of various Scythian groups [1, 2, 3].|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019CBio...29E2430J }}</ref><ref name="Järve">{{harvnb|Järve|2019}}. "The Early Iron Age nomadic Scythians have been described as a confederation of tribes of different origins, based on ancient DNA evidence [1, 2, 3]. All samples of this study also possessed at least one additional eastern component, one of which was nearly at 100% in modern Nganasans (orange) and the other in modern Han Chinese (yellow; Figure S2). The eastern components were present in variable proportions in the samples of this study."</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Savelyev |first1=Alexander |last2=Jeong |first2=Choongwon |date=7 May 2020 |title=Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West |journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences |volume=2 |article-number=e20 |doi=10.1017/ehs.2020.18 |issn=2513-843X |pmc=7612788 |pmid=35663512 |quote=It is still likely that the Xiongnu included an Eastern Iranian (Saka) component or were at least strongly influenced by the Iranians. It is also arguable that the Xiongnu learned the steppe nomadic model of economy from their Eastern Iranian neighbours (Beckwith, 2009: 72–73, 404).}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

The Sakas spoke a language belonging to the [[Iranian languages|Iranian branch]] of the [[Indo-European languages]]. The [[Pazyryk burials]] of the [[Pazyryk culture]] in the [[Ukok Plateau]] in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC are thought to be of Saka chieftains.<ref name="LH_443">{{harvnb|de Laet|Herrmann|1996|p=443}} "The rich kurgan burials in Pazyryk, Siberia probably were those of Saka chieftains"</ref><ref name="K_94">{{harvnb|Kuzmina|2008|p=94}} "Analysis of the clothing, which has analogies in the complex of Saka clothes, particularly in Pazyryk, led Wang Binghua (1987, 42) to the conclusion that they are related to the Saka Culture."</ref><ref name="K_103">{{harvnb|Kuzmina|2007|p=103}} "The dress of Iranian-speaking Saka and Scythians is easily reconstructed on the basis of... numerous archaeological discoveries from the Ukraine to the Altai, particularly at Issyk in Kazakhstan... at Pazyryk... and Ak-Alakha"</ref> These burials show striking similarities with the earlier [[Tarim mummies]] at [[Lop Nur#Qäwrighul|Gumugou]].<ref name="K_94" /> The [[Issyk kurgan]] of south-eastern [[Kazakhstan]],<ref name="K_103" /> and the [[Ordos culture]] of the [[Ordos Plateau]] has also been connected with the Saka.{{sfn|Lebedynsky|2007|p=125}} It has been suggested that the ruling elite of the [[Xiongnu]] was of Saka origin, or at least significantly influenced by their Eastern Iranian neighbours.<ref>{{harvnb|Harmatta|1996|p=488}}: "Their royal tribes and kings (shan-yii) bore Iranian names and all the Hsiung-nu words noted by the Chinese can be explained from an Iranian language of Saka type. It is therefore clear that the majority of Hsiung-nu tribes spoke an Eastern Iranian language."</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Savelyev |first1=Alexander |last2=Jeong |first2=Choongwon |date=7 May 2020|title=Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West |journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences |language=en |volume=2 |article-number=e20 |doi=10.1017/ehs.2020.18 |issn=2513-843X |pmc=7612788 |pmid=35663512 |quote=It is still likely that the Xiongnu included an Eastern Iranian (Saka) component or were at least strongly influenced by the Iranians. It is also arguable that the Xiongnu learned the steppe nomadic model of economy from their Eastern Iranian neighbours (Beckwith, 2009: 72–73, 404).}}</ref> Some scholars contend that in the 8th century BC, a Saka raid from the [[Altai Mountains|Altai]] may be "connected" with a raid on [[Zhou China]].<ref name="EBThe_Steppe">{{cite encyclopedia|first=William H.|last=McNeill|title=The Steppe – Scythian successes |url=http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/565551/the-Steppe/10302/Scythian-successes |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]|access-date=31 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130715064441/http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/565551/the-Steppe/10302/Scythian-successes|archive-date=15 July 2013}} {{cite encyclopedia|title=The Steppe – Military and political developments among the steppe peoples to 100 bc|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/the-Steppe/Military-and-political-developments-among-the-steppe-peoples-to-100-bc#ref10302|access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref>

=== Early history ===
[[File:Saka tribute-bearers, Apadana staircase 12.jpg|thumb|upright=1.75|[[Sakā Tigraxaudā]] tribute bearers to the [[Achaemenid Empire]], [[Apadana of Persepolis|Apadana]], Staircase 12.<ref>According to Donald N. Wilber's book ''Persepolis, The Archaeology of Parsa, Seat of the Persian Kings'', the group depicted in this panel is "the Saka tigrakhauda (Pointed-hat Scythians). All are armed and wear the appropriate headgear. They are accompanied by a horse, and offer a bracelet and folded coats and trousers, apparently copies of their own costumes."</ref>]]
The Saka are attested in historical and archaeological records dating to around the 8th century BC.<ref name="mallory">{{cite web |url=http://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/52-3/mallory.pdf |title=Bronze Age Languages of the Tarim Basin |author=J. P. mallory |work=Penn Museum |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909231531/http://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/52-3/mallory.pdf |archive-date=9 September 2016 }}</ref>

The Saka tribe of the [[Massagetae]]/{{transliteration|peo|Tigraxaudā}} rose to power in the 8th to 7th centuries BC, when they migrated from the east into Central Asia,{{sfn|Schmitt|2018}} from where they expelled the [[Scythians]], another nomadic Iranian tribe to whom they were closely related, after which they came to occupy large areas of the region beginning in the 6th century BC.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000}} The Massagetae forcing the Early Scythians to the west across the [[Volga|Araxes]] river and into the Caucasian and Pontic steppes started a significant movement of the nomadic peoples of the [[Eurasian Steppe]],{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=553}} following which the Scythians displaced the [[Cimmerians]] and the [[Agathyrsi]], who were also nomadic Iranian peoples closely related to the Massagetae and the Scythians, conquered their territories,{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=553}}{{sfn|Harmatta|1996}}{{sfn|Olbrycht|2000}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=560-590}}{{sfn|Batty|2007|p=202-203}}{{sfn|Sulimirski|1985}} and invaded [[Western Asia]], where their presence had an important role in the history of the ancient civilisations of [[Mesopotamia]], [[Anatolia]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], and [[History of Iran|Iran]].{{sfn|Sulimirski|Taylor|1991|p=560-590}}

During the 7th century BC itself, Saka presence started appearing in the [[Tarim Basin]] region.<ref name="mallory" />

According to the ancient Greek historian [[Diodorus Siculus]], the [[Parthia]]ns rebelled against the [[Medes]] during the reign of [[Cyaxares]], after which the Parthians put their country and capital city under the protection of the Sakas. This was followed by a long war opposing the Medes to the Saka, the latter of whom were led by the queen [[Zarinaea]]. At the end of this war, the Parthians accepted Median rule, and the Saka and the Medes made peace.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2021|p=17-18}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zarinaia |title=ZARINAIA |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |date=2000 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |publisher= |access-date=8 July 2022 |quote= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mayor |first=Adrienne |author-link=Adrienne Mayor |date=2014 |title=The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World |url= |location=[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[United States]] |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=379–381 |isbn=978-0-691-14720-8 }}</ref>

{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| total_width = 275
| image1 = Behistun.Inscript.Skunkha.jpg
| caption1 = Captured Saka king [[Skunkha]], from [[Mount Behistun]], Iran, [[Achaemenid]] stone relief from the reign of [[Darius I]] (r. 522–486 BC)
| image2 = Darius I Statue Sakas.jpg|thumb
| caption2 = The Sakas as subjects of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] on the statue of [[Darius I]], circa 500 BC.
}}

According to the Greek historian [[Ctesias]], once the [[Persians|Persian]] [[Achaemenid Empire]]'s founder, [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus]], had overthrown his grandfather the Median king [[Astyages]], the [[Bactria]]ns accepted him as the heir of Astyages and submitted to him, after which he founded the city of [[Cyropolis]] on the Iaxartes river as well as seven fortresses to protect the northern frontier of his empire against the Saka. Cyrus then attacked the {{transliteration|peo|Sakā haumavargā}}, initially defeated them and captured their king, [[Amorges (Saka king)|Amorges]]. After this, Amorges's queen, [[Sparethra]], defeated Cyrus with a large army of both men and women warriors and captured [[Parmises]], the brother-in-law of Cyrus and the brother of his wife [[Cassandane|Amytis]], as well as Parmises's three sons, whom Sparethra exchanged in return for her husband, after which Cyrus and Amorges became allies, and Amorges helped Cyrus conquer [[Lydia]].{{sfn|Francfort|1988|p=171}}{{sfn|Dandamayev|1994|pages=35–64}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Gera |first=Deborah Levine |date=2018 |title=Warrior Women: The Anonymous Tractatus De Mulieribus |url= |location=[[Leiden]], [[Netherlands]]; [[New York City]], [[United States]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |pages=199–200 |isbn=978-9-004-32988-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mayor |first=Adrienne |author-link=Adrienne Mayor |date=2014 |title=The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World |url= |location=[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[United States]] |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |pages=382–383 |isbn=978-0-691-17027-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kuhrt |first=Amélie |author-link=Amélie Kuhrt |date=2013 |title=The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period |url= |location=[[London]], [[United Kingdom]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=58 |isbn=978-1-136-01694-3 }}</ref><ref name="SchmittAmorges">{{cite web |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/amorges |title=AMORGES |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |date=1989 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |publisher= |access-date=8 July 2022 |quote= }}</ref>

Cyrus, accompanied by the {{transliteration|peo|Sakā haumavargā}} of his ally Amorges, later carried out a campaign against the [[Massagetae]]/{{transliteration|peo|Sakā tigraxaudā}} in 530 BC.{{sfn|Schmitt|2018}} According to Herodotus, Cyrus captured a Massagetaean camp by ruse, after which the Massagetae queen [[Tomyris]] led the tribe's main force against the Persians, defeated them, and placed the severed head of Cyrus in a sack full of blood. Some versions of the records of the death of Cyrus named the Derbices, rather than the Massagetae, as the tribe against whom Cyrus died in battle, because the Derbices were a member tribe of the Massagetae confederation or identical with the whole of the Massagetae.{{sfn|Dandamayev|1994}}{{sfn|Schmitt|2018}} After Cyrus had been mortally wounded by the Derbices/Massagetae, Amorges and his {{transliteration|peo|Sakā haumavargā}} army helped the Persian soldiers defeat them. Cyrus told his sons to respect their own mother as well as Amorges above everyone else before dying.<ref name="SchmittAmorges"/>

Possibly shortly before the 520s BC, the Saka expanded into the valleys of the [[Ili (river)|Ili]] and [[Chu (river)|Chu]] in eastern Central Asia.<ref name="yu 2010 p13" /> Around 30 Saka tombs in the form of [[kurgan]]s (burial mounds) have also been found in the [[Tian Shan]] area dated to between 550 and 250 BC.<ref name="mallory" />

[[Darius I]] waged wars against the eastern Sakas during a campaign of 520 to 518 BC where, according to his [[Behistun Inscription|inscription at Behistun]], he conquered the Massagetae/{{transliteration|peo|Sakā tigraxaudā}}, captured their king [[Skunkha|Skunxa]], and replaced him with a ruler who was loyal to Achaemenid rule.{{sfn|Schmitt|2018}}<ref name="SchmittAmorges"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/darius-iii |title=DARIUS iii. Darius I the Great |last=Shahbazi|first=A. Shapur |author-link=Alireza Shapour Shahbazi |date=1989 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |publisher= |access-date=12 July 2022 |quote= }}</ref> The territories of the Saka were absorbed into the Achaemenid Empire as part of [[Chorasmia (satrapy)|Chorasmia]] that included much of the territory between the [[Oxus]] and the [[Iaxartes]] rivers,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=osQ9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA235 |title=By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia |first= Barry |last=Cunliffe |page=235 |publisher= Oxford University Press |date=24 September 2015|isbn= 978-0-19-968917-0 }}</ref> and the Saka then supplied the Achaemenid army with a large number of mounted bowmen.<ref name="D_44">{{harvnb|Dandamayev|1994|pp=44–46}}</ref> According to [[Polyaenus]], Darius fought against three armies led by three kings, respectively named [[Sacesphares]], [[Homarges|Amorges]] or [[Homarges]], and [[Thamyris (Saka king)|Thamyris]], with Polyaenus's account being based on accurate Persian historical records.<ref name="SchmittAmorges"/>{{sfn|Vogelsang|1992|page=131}}<ref>{{cite book |last=De Jong |first=Albert |author-link=Albert de Jong |date=1997 |title=Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature |url=https://archive.org/details/TraditionsOfTheMagiZoroastrianismInGreekAndLatinLiterature |location=[[Leiden]], [[Netherlands]]; [[New York City]], [[United States]] |publisher=[[BRILL]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/TraditionsOfTheMagiZoroastrianismInGreekAndLatinLiterature/page/n307/mode/2up 297] |isbn=978-9-004-10844-8 }}</ref> After Darius's administrative reforms of the Achaemenid Empire, the {{transliteration|peo|Sakā tigraxaudā}} were included within the same tax district as the [[Medes]].{{sfn|Vogelsang|1992|page=160}}

During the period of Achaemenid rule, Central Asia was in contact with Saka populations who were themselves in contact with [[History of China#Ancient China|China]].<ref>{{harvnb|Francfort|1988|page=185}}: Besides trade and exchange within the borders of the Achaemenid empire, it seems that the part of Central Asua under Achaemenid rule was in contact with the Saka tribes who were in touch with China (see the finds of {{transliteration|en|kurgans}} II and V of Pazyryk and of Xinyuan and Alagou in Xinjiang).</ref>

After [[Alexander the Great]] conquered the Achaemenid Empire, the Saka resisted his incursions into Central Asia.<ref name="eolss" />

At least by the late 2nd century BC, the Sakas had founded states in the Tarim Basin.<ref name="Sinor_173">{{harvnb|Sinor|1990|pp=173–174}}</ref>

=== Kingdoms in the Tarim Basin ===
==== Kingdom of Khotan ====
{{Main|Kingdom of Khotan}}
[[File:Saka horserider with bow, 2nd-1st century BCE, Almaty, Kazakhstan.jpg|thumb|Saka hunter with bow, 2nd–1st century BC, [[Almaty]], [[Kazakhstan]]]]

The [[Kingdom of Khotan]] was a Saka city state on the southern edge of the Tarim Basin. As a consequence of the [[Han–Xiongnu War]] spanning from 133 BC to 89 AD, the Tarim Basin (now Xinjiang, [[Northwest China]]), including [[Khotan]] and [[Kashgar]], fell under [[Han Chinese]] influence, beginning with the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Han]] (r. 141–87 BC).<ref>Loewe, Michael. (1986). "The Former Han Dynasty," in ''The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220'', 103–222. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 197–198. {{ISBN|978-0-521-24327-8}}.</ref><ref>Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in ''The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220'', 377–462. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 410–411. {{ISBN|978-0-521-24327-8}}.</ref>

[[File:KingGurgamoyaKhotan1stCenturyCE.jpg|thumb|left|Coin of [[Gurgamoya]], king of Khotan. Khotan, first century. 
''Obv:'' [[Kharosthi]] legend, "Of the great king of kings, king of Khotan, Gurgamoya. 
''Rev:'' Chinese legend: "Twenty-four grain copper coin". [[British Museum]]]]

Archaeological evidence and documents from Khotan and other sites in the Tarim Basin provided information on the language spoken by the Saka.{{sfn|Bailey|1983}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Windfuhr |first=Gernot |title=Iranian Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QtpQZ1DD6tEC&pg=PA377|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-79704-1|page=377}}</ref>
The official language of Khotan was initially [[Gandhari Prakrit]] written in Kharosthi, and coins from Khotan dated to the 1st century bear dual inscriptions in Chinese and Gandhari Prakrit, indicating links of Khotan to both India and China.<ref name="emmerick 2003 p265">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PA265 |author=Emmerick, R. E. |publisher=Cambridge University Press; Reissue edition |date=14 April 1983|isbn=978-0-521-20092-9|chapter =Chapter 7: Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs|editor-first=Ehsan |editor-last=Yarshater |title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Part 1 |pages= 265–266 }}</ref> Surviving documents however suggest that an Iranian language was used by the people of the kingdom for a long time. Third-century AD documents in Prakrit from nearby [[Shanshan]] record the title for the king of Khotan as ''hinajha'' (i.e. "[[generalissimo]]"), a distinctively Iranian-based word equivalent to the [[Sanskrit]] title ''[[senapati]]'', yet nearly identical to the Khotanese Saka ''hīnāysa'' attested in later Khotanese documents.<ref name="emmerick 2003 p265" /> This, along with the fact that the king's recorded regnal periods were given as the Khotanese ''kṣuṇa'', "implies an established connection between the Iranian inhabitants and the royal power," according to the Professor of Iranian Studies Ronald E. Emmerick.<ref name="emmerick 2003 p265" /> He contended that Khotanese-Saka-language royal rescripts of Khotan dated to the 10th century "makes it likely that the ruler of Khotan was a speaker of Iranian."<ref name="emmerick 2003 p265" /> Furthermore, he argued that the early form of the name of Khotan, ''hvatana'', is connected semantically with the name Saka.<ref name="emmerick 2003 p265" />

The region once again came under Chinese [[suzerainty]] with the campaigns of conquest by [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]] (r. 626–649).<ref>Xue, Zongzheng (薛宗正). (1992). History of the Turks (突厥史). Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, p. 596-598. {{ISBN|978-7-5004-0432-3}}; OCLC 28622013</ref> From the late eighth to ninth centuries, the region changed hands between the rival Tang and [[Tibetan Empire]]s.<ref>Beckwith, Christopher. (1987). The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp 36, 146. {{ISBN|0-691-05494-0}}.</ref><ref>Wechsler, Howard J.; Twitchett, Dennis C. (1979). Denis C. Twitchett; John K. Fairbank, eds. ''The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part I''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 225–227. {{ISBN|978-0-521-21446-9}}.</ref> However, by the early 11th century the region fell to the Muslim Turkic peoples of the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate]], which led to both the [[Turkification]] of the region as well as its conversion from [[Buddhism]] to [[Islam]].
[[File:Khotanese animal zodiac BLI6 OR11252 1R2 1.jpg|thumb|A document from [[Khotan]] written in [[Khotanese Saka]], part of the [[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern Iranian branch]] of the [[Indo-European languages]], listing the animals of the [[Chinese zodiac]] in the cycle of predictions for people born in that year; ink on paper, early 9th century]]

Later Khotanese-Saka-language documents, ranging from medical texts to [[Buddhist literature]], have been found in Khotan and [[Tumshuq]] (northeast of Kashgar).{{sfn|Bailey|1983}} Similar documents in the Khotanese-Saka language dating mostly to the 10th century have been found in the [[Dunhuang manuscripts]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://history.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/VH%20BAI%20paper%2009.pdf |title=The Tribute Trade with Khotan in Light of Materials Found at the Dunhuang Library Cave|first=Valerie |last=Hansen |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute|volume= 19|date=2005|pages= 37–46}}</ref>

Although the ancient Chinese had called Khotan ''Yutian'' (于闐), another more native Iranian name occasionally used was ''Jusadanna'' (瞿薩旦那), derived from Indo-Iranian ''Gostan'' and ''Gostana'', the names of the town and region around it, respectively.<ref name="theobald 2011 yutian">Ulrich Theobald. (16 October 2011). "[http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/citystates.html#yutian City-states Along the Silk Road]." ''ChinaKnowledge.de''. Accessed 2 September 2016.</ref>

==== Shule Kingdom ====
{{Main|Shule Kingdom}}
Much like the neighboring people of the Kingdom of Khotan, the people of [[Kashgar]], the capital of Shule, spoke Saka, one of the [[Eastern Iranian languages]].<ref>Xavier Tremblay, "The Spread of Buddhism in Serindia: Buddhism Among Iranians, Tocharians and Turks before the 13th Century", in ''The Spread of Buddhism'', eds Ann Heirman and Stephan Peter Bumbacker, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, 2007, p. 77.</ref> According to the ''[[Book of Han]]'', the Saka split and formed several states in the region. These Saka states may include two states to the northwest of Kashgar, [[Tumshuq]] to its northeast, and [[Tashkurgan Town|Tushkurgan]] south in the Pamirs.<ref name="DaniLitvinsky1996" /> Kashgar also conquered other states such as [[Yarkand]] and [[Kucha]] during the Han dynasty, but in its later history, Kashgar was controlled by various empires, including [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] China,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/yarkand |title=YARKAND |last=Lurje |first=Pavel |date=2009 |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |quote=The territory of Yārkand is for the first time mentioned in the Hanshu (1st century BCE), under the name Shache (Old Chinese, approximately, {{transliteration|och|*s³a(j)-ka)}}, which is probably related to the name of the Iranian Saka tribes. }}</ref><ref>Whitfield 2004, p. 47.</ref><ref name="wechsler">Wechsler, Howard J.; Twitchett, Dennis C. (1979). Denis C. Twitchett; John K. Fairbank, eds. The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part I. Cambridge University Press. pp. 225–228. {{ISBN|978-0-521-21446-9}}.</ref> before it became part of the Turkic [[Kara-Khanid Khanate]] in the 10th century. In the 11th century, according to [[Mahmud al-Kashgari]], some non-Turkic languages like Kanchaki and [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]] were still used in some areas in the vicinity of Kashgar,<ref name="LeviSela2010 2">{{cite book |author1=Scott Cameron Levi|first2=Ron|last2=Sela|title=Islamic Central Asia: An Anthology of Historical Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAX5ohFkcVgC&pg=PA72 |year=2010|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-35385-6|pages=72–}}</ref> and Kanchaki is thought to belong to the Saka language group.<ref name="DaniLitvinsky1996">{{cite book|author1=Ahmad Hasan Dani|author2=B. A. Litvinsky|author3=Unesco|title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA283|year=1996 |publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-103211-0|pages=283–}}</ref> It is believed that the Tarim Basin was linguistically Turkified before the 11th century ended.<ref name="Akiner2013">{{cite book|author=Akiner|title=Cultural Change & Continuity In|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=udjWAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71|date=28 October 2013 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-15034-0|pages=71–}}</ref>

=== Southern migrations ===
[[File:Kalchayan Prince (armour).jpg|thumb|Model of a Saka/[[Kangju]] [[cataphract]] armour with neck-guard, from [[Khalchayan]]. 1st century BC. [[Museum of Arts of Uzbekistan]], nb 40.<ref name="SPL56">{{cite book |last1=Frantz |first1=Grenet |title=Splendeurs des oasis d'Ouzbékistan |date=2022 |publisher=Louvre Editions |location=Paris |isbn=978-84-125278-5-8 |page=56}}</ref>]]
The Saka were pushed out of the Ili and Chu River valleys by the [[Yuezhi]].<ref name="B_290">{{harvnb|Baumer|2012|p=290}}</ref><ref name="Benjamin" /><ref name="ChineseHistory" /> An account of the movement of these people is given in [[Sima Qian]]'s ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]''. The Yuehzhi, who originally lived between Tängri Tagh ([[Tian Shan]]) and [[Dunhuang]] of [[Gansu]], China,<ref>{{cite book |author1=Mallory, J. P. |author2=Mair, Victor H. |name-list-style=amp |page=[https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall/page/58 58] |year=2000 |title=''The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West'' |publisher=Thames & Hudson. London |isbn=0-500-05101-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall/page/58 }}</ref> were assaulted and forced to flee from the [[Hexi Corridor]] of Gansu by the forces of the [[Xiongnu]] ruler [[Modu Chanyu]], who conquered the area in 177–176 BC.<ref>Torday, Laszlo. (1997). ''Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History''. Durham: The Durham Academic Press, pp. 80–81, {{ISBN|978-1-900838-03-0}}.</ref><ref>Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in ''The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – A.D. 220'', 377–462. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–388, 391, {{ISBN|978-0-521-24327-8}}.</ref><ref>Chang, Chun-shu. (2007). The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Volume II; Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 BC – AD 157. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 5–8 {{ISBN|978-0-472-11534-1}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=174–189}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Di Cosmo|2004|pp=196–198}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Di Cosmo|2002|pp=241–242}}</ref> In turn the Yuehzhi were responsible for attacking and pushing the Sai (''i.e.'' Saka) west into Sogdiana, where, between 140 and 130 BC, the latter crossed the [[Syr Darya]] into Bactria. The Saka also moved southwards toward the Pamirs and northern India, where they settled in Kashmir, and eastward, to settle in some of the oasis-states of Tarim Basin sites, like Yanqi (焉耆, [[Karasahr]]) and Qiuci (龜茲, [[Kucha]]).<ref>Yu Taishan (June 2010), "The Earliest Tocharians in China" in Victor H. Mair (ed), ''Sino-Platonic Papers'', Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp. 13–14, 21–22.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html |title= The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia |first=Craig |last=Benjamin }}</ref> The Yuehzhi, themselves under attacks from another nomadic tribe, the [[Wusun]], in 133–132 BC, moved, again, from the Ili and Chu valleys, and occupied the country of [[Daxia]], (大夏, "Bactria").<ref name="yu 2010 p13">{{harvnb|Yu|2010}}: "The Daxia 大夏 people in the valley of the Amu Darya came from the valleys of the rivers Ili and Chu. From the {{transliteration|en|Geography}} of Strabo one can infer that the four tribes of the Asii and others came from these valleys (the so-called "land of the Sai 塞" in the {{transliteration|zh|Hanshu}} 漢書, ch. 96A). "</ref><ref>Bernard, P. (1994). "The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia". In Harmatta, János. ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250''. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 96–126. {{ISBN|92-3-102846-4}}.</ref>
[[File:Cult of Heavenly horse bronze horse ancient finial Bucephalus Ancient Akhal Teke.jpg|thumb|The Heavenly Horse, commonly known as the Ferghana Horse, is an ancient ceremonial bronze finial. It originates from Bactria, dating back to the 4th-1st century BC, and was skillfully crafted by Saka tribes.]]
The ancient Greco-Roman geographer [[Strabo]] noted that the four tribes that took down the Bactrians in the Greek and Roman account – the ''[[Asioi]]'', ''Pasianoi'', ''Tokharoi'' and ''Sakaraulai'' – came from land north of the Syr Darya where the Ili and Chu valleys are located.<ref name=Rene>{{Cite book |last=Grousset |first=Rene |title=The Empire of the Steppes |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-8135-1304-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/29 29–31] |url=https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof/page/29 }}</ref><ref name="yu 2010 p13" /> Identification of these four tribes varies, but ''Sakaraulai'' may indicate an ancient Saka tribe, the ''Tokharoi'' is possibly the Yuezhi, and while the Asioi had been proposed to be groups such as the Wusun or [[Alans]].<ref name=Rene /><ref>{{harvnb|Baumer|2012|p=296}}</ref>

[[File:SakastanMap.jpg|thumb|Map of [[Sakastan]] ("Land of the Sakas"), where the Sakas resettled c. 100 BC]]
[[René Grousset]] wrote of the migration of the Saka: "the Saka, under pressure from the Yueh-chih [Yuezhi], overran Sogdiana and then Bactria, there taking the place of the Greeks." Then, "Thrust back in the south by the Yueh-chih," the Saka occupied "the Saka country, Sakastana, whence the modern Persian Seistan."<ref name=Rene /> Some of the Saka fleeing the Yuezhi attacked the [[Parthian Empire]], where they defeated and killed the kings [[Phraates II]] and [[Artabanus I of Parthia|Artabanus]].<ref name="B_290" /> These Sakas were eventually settled by [[Mithridates II of Parthia|Mithridates II]] in what become known as [[Sakastan]].<ref name="B_290" /> According to [[Harold Walter Bailey]], the territory of [[Drangiana]] (now in Afghanistan and Pakistan) became known as "Land of the Sakas", and was called Sakastāna in the Persian language of contemporary Iran, in Armenian as Sakastan, with similar equivalents in Pahlavi, Greek, Sogdian, Syriac, Arabic, and the [[Middle Persian]] tongue used in [[Turfan]], Xinjiang, China.{{sfn|Bailey|1983}} This is attested in a contemporary [[Kharosthi]] inscription found on the [[Mathura lion capital]] belonging to the Saka kingdom of the [[Indo-Scythians]] (200 BC – 400 AD) in [[North India]],{{sfn|Bailey|1983}} roughly the same time the Chinese record that the Saka had invaded and settled the country of ''Jibin'' 罽賓 (i.e. [[Kashmir]], of modern-day India and Pakistan).<ref name="theobald 2011 saka">Ulrich Theobald. (26 November 2011). "[http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/sakas.html Chinese History – Sai 塞 The Saka People or Soghdians]." ''ChinaKnowledge.de''. Accessed 2 September 2016.</ref>

[[Iaroslav Lebedynsky]] and [[Victor H. Mair]] speculate that some Sakas may also have migrated to the area of [[Yunnan]] in southern China following their expulsion by the Yuezhi. Excavations of the prehistoric art of the [[Dian Kingdom]] of Yunnan have revealed hunting scenes of Caucasoid horsemen in Central Asian clothing.{{sfn|Lebedynsky|2006|p=73}} The scenes depicted on these drums sometimes represent these horsemen practising hunting. Animal scenes of felines attacking oxen are also at times reminiscent of [[Scythian art]] both in theme and in composition.{{sfn|Mallory|Mair|2008|pp=329–330}}
[[Pre-modern human migration|Migrations]] of the 2nd and 1st century BC have left traces in Sogdia and Bactria, but they cannot firmly be attributed to the Saka, similarly with the sites of [[Sirkap]] and [[Taxila]] in [[outline of ancient India|ancient India]]. The rich graves at [[Tillya Tepe]] in [[Afghanistan]] are seen as part of a population affected by the Saka.{{sfn|Lebedynsky|2006|p=84}}

The [[Shakya]] clan of India, to which [[Gautama Buddha]], called ''Śākyamuni'' "Sage of the Shakyas", belonged, were also likely Sakas, as [[Michael Witzel]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Attwood|first1=Jayarava|title=Possible Iranian Origins for the Śākyas and Aspects of Buddhism|journal=Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies|date=2012|volume=3}}</ref> and [[Christopher I. Beckwith]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Beckwith|first=Christopher I.|author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith|title=Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlCUBgAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6632-8|pages=1–21}}</ref> have alleged. The scholar Bryan Levman however criticised this hypothesis for resting on slim to no evidence, and maintains that the Shakyas were a population native to the north-east Gangetic plain who were unrelated to Iranic Sakas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Levman |first1=Bryan Geoffrey |title=Cultural Remnants of the Indigenous Peoples in the Buddhist Scriptures |journal=Buddhist Studies Review |date=2014 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=145–180 |doi=10.1558/bsrv.v30i2.145 |url=https://www.academia.edu/27981814 |issn=1747-9681|doi-access=free }} "The evidence for this final wave is however, very slim and there is no evidence for it in the Vedic texts; for their western origin, Witzel relies on a reference in Pāṇini (4.2.131, madravṛjyoḥ) to the Vṛjjis in dual relation with the Madras who are from the northwest, and to the Mallas in the Jaiminīya Brāhamaṇa (§198) as arising from the dust of Rajasthan. Neither the Sakyas nor any of the other eastern tribes are mentioned, and of course there is no proof that any of these are Indo-Aryan groups. I view the Sakyas and the later Śakas as two separate groups, the former being aboriginal."</ref>

=== Indo-Scythians ===
{{Main|Indo-Scythians}}
[[File:Saka warrior Termez Achaeological Museum.jpg|thumb|upright|Head of a Saka warrior, as a defeated enemy of the [[Yuezhi]], from [[Khalchayan]], northern [[Bactria]], 1st century BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abdullaev |first1=Kazim |title=Nomad Migration in Central Asia (in After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam) |journal=Proceedings of the British Academy |date=2007 |volume=133 |pages=87–98 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6864202}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iranicaonline.org/|title=Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica|first=Encyclopaedia Iranica|last=Foundation|website=iranicaonline.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://i.pinimg.com/originals/bf/c2/42/bfc242271c38d714044837d179faab53.jpg|title=Also a Saka according to this source}}</ref>]]
The region in modern Afghanistan and Iran where the Saka moved to became known as "land of the Saka" or [[Sakastan]].{{sfn|Bailey|1983}} This is attested in a contemporary [[Kharosthi]] inscription found on the [[Mathura lion capital]] belonging to the Saka kingdom of the [[Indo-Scythians]] (200 BC – 400 AD) in [[northern India]],{{sfn|Bailey|1983}} roughly the same time the Chinese record that the Saka had invaded and settled the country of ''Jibin'' 罽賓 (i.e. [[Kashmir]], of modern-day India and Pakistan).<ref name="theobald 2011 saka" /> In the Persian language of contemporary Iran the territory of Drangiana was called Sakastāna, in Armenian as Sakastan, with similar equivalents in Pahlavi, Greek, Sogdian, Syriac, Arabic, and the [[Middle Persian]] tongue used in [[Turfan]], Xinjiang, China.{{sfn|Bailey|1983}} The Sakas also captured [[Gandhara]] and [[Taxila]], and migrated to [[North India]].<ref name="Sulimirski 1970 113–114">{{cite book |title=The Sarmatians |volume=73 |series=Ancient peoples and places |pages=113–114 |last=Sulimirski |first=Tadeusz |author-link=Tadeusz Sulimirski |publisher=Praeger |location=New York |year=1970 |isbn=978-90-800572-7-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gdjhuAAACAAJ |quote=The evidence of both the ancient authors and the archaeological remains point to a massive migration of Sacian (Sakas) / Massagetan tribes from the Syr Daria Delta (Central Asia) by the middle of the second century B.C. Some of the Syr Darian tribes; they also invaded North India.}}</ref> The most famous Indo-Scythian king was [[Maues]].<ref name="I_Kushan">{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kushan-dynasty-i-history |title=KUSHAN DYNASTY i. Dynastic History |last=Bivar |first=A. D. H. |website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |access-date=31 August 2018 }}</ref> An Indo-Scythian kingdom was established in [[Mathura]] (200 BC – 400 AD).{{sfn|Bailey|1983}}<ref name="Beckwith85" /> [[Weer Rajendra Rishi]], an Indian linguist, identified linguistic affinities between Indian and Central Asian languages, which further lends credence to the possibility of historical Sakan influence in North India.<ref name="Sulimirski 1970 113–114" /><ref>{{cite book |title= India & Russia: linguistic & cultural affinity |page=95 | last=Rishi |first=Weer Rajendra |author-link=Weer Rajendra Rishi |publisher=Roma |year=1982 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vns_AAAAMAAJ&q=Getae}}</ref> According to historian Michael Mitchiner, the [[Abhira tribe]] were a Saka people cited in the Gunda inscription of the [[Western Satrap]] [[Rudrasimha I]] dated to AD 181.<ref name="Mitchiner1978">{{cite book|last=Mitchiner|first=Michael|title=The ancient & classical world, 600 B.C.-A.D. 650|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zuQLAQAAMAAJ|year=1978|publisher=Hawkins Publications; distributed by B. A. Seaby|isbn=978-0-904173-16-1|page=634}}</ref>

<gallery class="center" widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="3" caption="Later Saka polities">
File:Map_of_the_Indo-Scythians.png|The [[Indo-Scythians]] ruled in northwestern South Asia from circa 100 BC
File:Map_of_the_Northern_Satraps_(Northern_Sakas).jpg|The [[Northern Satraps]] ruled in northern India until their replacement by the Kushans circa 150 AD
File:Map_of_the_Western_Satraps.png|The [[Western Satraps]] was a Saka dynasty which ruled in western India until circa 400 AD
</gallery>

== Historiography ==
[[File:Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin (Shaded Relief BG).png|thumb|Distribution of Iranic peoples in Central Asia during the Iron Age. Saka included.]]
[[File:Coin of Azes II.jpg|thumb|Silver coin of the [[Indo-Scythians|Indo-Scythian]] King [[Azes II]] (ruled c. 35–12 BC). Note the royal [[tamga]] on the coin.]]

[[Persians]] referred to all northern nomads as Sakas. [[Herodotus]] (IV.64) describes them as Scythians, although they figure under a different name:

{{Blockquote|The Sacae, or Scyths, were clad in trousers, and had on their heads tall stiff caps rising to a point. They bore the bow of their country and the dagger; besides which they carried the battle-axe, or ''[[sagaris]]''. They were in truth Amyrgian (Western) Scythians, but the Persians called them Sacae, since that is the name which they gave to all Scythians.}}

=== Strabo ===
In the 1st century BC, the Greek-Roman geographer Strabo gave an extensive description of the peoples of the eastern steppe, whom he located in Central Asia beyond Bactria and Sogdiana.<ref name="Strabo, Geography, 11.8.1">{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Strab.+11.8.1 |title=Strabo, Geography, 11.8.1 |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=13 September 2012}}</ref>

Strabo went on to list the names of the various tribes he believed to be "Scythian",<ref name="Strabo, Geography, 11.8.1" /> and in so doing almost certainly conflated them with unrelated tribes of eastern Central Asia. These tribes included the Saka.

{{Blockquote|Now the greater part of the Scythians, beginning at the Caspian Sea, are called [[Däae]], but those who are situated more to the east than these are named [[Massagetae]] and Sacae, whereas all the rest are given the general name of Scythians, though each people is given a separate name of its own. They are all for the most part nomads. But the best known of the nomads are those who [[Kushan Empire|took away Bactriana]] from the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greeks]], I mean the [[Asii]], [[Pasiani]], [[Tochari]], and [[sacaraucae|Sacarauli]], who originally came from the [[Dayuan|country on the other side]] of the [[Syr Darya|Iaxartes River]] that adjoins that of the Sacae and the Sogdiani and was occupied by the Sacae. And as for the Däae, some of them are called [[Aparni]], some [[Xanthii]], and some [[Pissuri]]. Now of these the Aparni are situated closest to [[Hyrcania]] and the part of the sea that borders on it, but the remainder extend even as far as the country that stretches parallel to [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]].

Between them and Hyrcania and [[Parthia]] and extending as far as the Arians is a [[Karakum Desert|great waterless desert]], which they traversed by long marches and then overran Hyrcania, [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nesaea]], and the plains of the Parthians. And these people agreed to [[tribute|pay tribute]], and the tribute was to allow the invaders at certain appointed times to overrun the country and carry off booty. But when the invaders overran their country more than the agreement allowed, war ensued, and in turn their quarrels were composed and new wars were begun. Such is the life of the other nomads also, who are always attacking their neighbors and then in turn settling their differences.|Strabo, ''Geography'', 11.8.1; transl. 1903 by H. C. Hamilton & W. Falconer.<ref name="Strabo, Geography, 11.8.1" />}}

=== Indian sources ===
{{Main|Indo-Scythians}}

The Sakas receive numerous mentions in Indian texts, including the [[Purāṇas]], the ''[[Manusmriti|Manusmṛiti]]'', the ''[[Rāmāyaṇa]]'', the ''[[Mahābhārata]]'', and the ''[[Mahābhāṣya]]'' of [[Patanjali]].

== Language ==
{{Main|Saka language}}
{{multiple image
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Modern scholarly consensus is that the [[Eastern Iranian language]], ancestral to the [[Pamir languages]] in [[Central Asia]] and the medieval Saka language of [[Xinjiang]], was one of the [[Scythian languages]].<ref>Kuz'mina, Elena E. (2007). ''The Origin of the Indo Iranians''. Edited by J.P. Mallory. Leiden, Boston: Brill, pp 381–382. {{ISBN|978-90-04-16054-5}}.</ref> Evidence of the Middle Iranian "Scytho-Khotanese" language survives in [[Northwest China]], where Khotanese-Saka-language documents, ranging from medical texts to [[Buddhist texts]], have been found primarily in Khotan and [[Tumshuq]] (northeast of Kashgar).{{sfn|Bailey|1983}} They largely predate the [[Islamization of Xinjiang]] under the [[Turkic languages|Turkic-speaking]] [[Kara-Khanid Khanate]].{{sfn|Bailey|1983}} Similar documents, the [[Dunhuang manuscripts]], were discovered written in the Khotanese [[Saka language]] and date mostly from the tenth century.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://history.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/VH%20BAI%20paper%2009.pdf |title=The Tribute Trade with Khotan in Light of Materials Found at the Dunhuang Library Cave |first=Valerie |last=Hansen |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |volume=19 |date=2005 |pages=37–46 |access-date=23 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031701/http://history.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/VH%20BAI%20paper%2009.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Attestations of the Saka language show that it was an [[Eastern Iranian language]]. The linguistic heartland of Saka was the [[Kingdom of Khotan]], which had two varieties, corresponding to the major settlements at Khotan (now called [[Hotan]]) and Tumshuq (now titled [[Tumxuk]]).<ref>Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press, 2004. pg 197</ref><ref>Edward A Allworth,''Central Asia: A Historical Overview'', Duke University Press, 1994. pp 86.</ref> Tumshuqese and Khotanese varieties of Saka contain many borrowings from the [[Middle Indo-Aryan languages]], but also share features with the modern Eastern Iranian languages [[Wakhi language|Wakhi]] and [[Pashto]].<ref>{{cite conference|book-title=History of civilizations of Central Asia|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=81-208-1540-8|title=Religions and religious movements|last=Litvinsky|first=Boris Abramovich|author2=Vorobyova-Desyatovskaya, M.I|author-link2=Margarita Vorobyova-Desyatovskaya|pages=421–448|year=1999}}</ref>

It is suggested by some that the [[Pashto]] language may have originated in the [[Badakhshan]] region and is connected to a [[Saka language]] akin to Khotanese.<ref>{{Cite web|quote=lt is, however, possible that the original home of Pasto may have been in Badaksan, somewhere between Munji and Sangl. and Shugh., with some contact with a Saka dialect akin to Khotanese.|title=Encolypedia Iranica, AFGHANISTAN vi. Pastö|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afghanistan-vi-pasto}}</ref> In fact major linguist [[Georg Morgenstierne]] has described Pashto as a [[Saka language|Saka]] dialect and many others have observed the similarities between Pashto and other Saka languages as well, suggesting that the original Pashto speakers might have been a Saka group.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Indo-Iranica|publisher=Iran Society|year=1946|location=Kolkata, India|pages=173–174|quote=... and their language is most closely related to on the one hand with Saka on the other with Munji-Yidghal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Becka|first=Jiriltitle=A Study in Pashto Stress|publisher=Academia|year=1969|page=32|quote=Pashto in its origin, is probably a Saka dialect.}}</ref> Furthermore, Pashto and [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]], another Saka-descending language, share cognates in their vocabulary which other Eastern Iranian languages lack.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cheung|first=Jonny|title=Etymological Dictionary of the Iranian Verb|publisher=(Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series) |year=2007}}</ref> Cheung suggests a common isogloss between Pashto and Ossetian which he explains by an undocumented Saka dialect being spoken close to reconstructed Old Pashto which was likely spoken north of the [[Amu Darya|Oxus]] at that time.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cheung|first=Jonny|title=Etymological dictionary of the Iranian verb|publisher=(Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series)year=2007}}</ref>

The Issyk inscription, a short fragment on a silver cup found in the [[Issyk kurgan]] in [[Kazakhstan]] is believed to be the earliest example of Saka, constituting one of very few autochthonous epigraphic traces of that language.<ref name="CBAUMER">{{cite book |last1=Baumer |first1=Christoph |title=History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set |date=18 April 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-83860-868-2 |page=206 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA206 |language=en}}</ref> The inscription is in a variant of [[Kharosthi]]. Harmatta suggests that the inscriptions are a variant of the [[Kharosthi]] language, while Christopher Baumer has said that they closely resemble the [[Old Turkic]] runic alphabet. From Khotanese Saka, Harmatta translates the inscription as: "The vessel should hold wine of grapes, added cooked food, so much, to the mortal, then added cooked fresh butter on".{{sfn|Harmatta|1996|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9U6RlVVjpakC&pg=PA421 420–421]}}

[[Linguistic]] evidence suggest the Wakhi language is descended from Saka languages.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frye |first1=R.N. |title=The History of Ancient Iran |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye |url-access=registration |date=1984 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye/page/192 192]|publisher=C.H.Beck |isbn=978-3-406-09397-5 |quote=[T]hese western Saka he distinguishes from eastern Saka who moved south through the Kashgar-Tashkurgan-Gilgit-Swat route to the plains of the sub-continent of India. This would account for the existence of the ancient Khotanese-Saka speakers, documents of whom have been found in western Sinkiang, and the modern Wakhi language of Wakhan in Afghanistan, another modern branch of descendants of Saka speakers parallel to the Ossetes in the west.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bailey |first1=H.W. |title=The culture of the Sakas in ancient Iranian Khotan |date=1982 |publisher=Caravan Books |pages=7–10 |quote=It is noteworthy that the Wakhi language of Wakhan has features, phonetics, and vocabulary the nearest of Iranian dialects to Khotan Saka.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Windfuhr |first1=G. |title=Iranian Languages |date=2013 |publisher=Routeledge |isbn=978-1-135-79704-1 |page=15}} "In addition to the continuation of Middle Persian in New Persian, three small modern languages show significant grammatical and lexical reflexes of other documented Middle Iranian languages: In Iran, Sangesari of the Semnan group shares a distinct set of features with Khwarezmian. In the east, Yaghnobi in Tajikistan continues a dialect of Sogdian, and Wakhi in the Pamirs shows distinct reflexes of Khotanese and Tumshuqese Saka. In fact, Wakhi is an example of the repeated invasions of Saka since antiquity."</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carpelan |first1=C. |last2=Parpola |first2=A. |last3=Koskikallio |first3=P. |title=Early Contacts Between Uralic and Indo-European: Linguistic and Archaeological Considerations: Papers Presented at an International Symposium Held at the Tvärminne Research Station of the University of Helsinki, 8–10 January, 1999 |journal=Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura |date=2001 |volume=242 |page=136 |quote=...descendants of these languages survive now only in the Ossete language of the Caucasus and the Wakhi language of the Pamirs, the latter related to the Saka once spoken in Khotan.}}</ref> According to the Indo-Europeanist Martin Kümmel, Wakhi may be classified as a Western Saka dialect; the other attested Saka dialects, Khotanese and Tumshuqese, would then be classified as Eastern Saka.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Novak |first1=L. |title=Question of (Re)classification of Eastern Iranian Languages |journal=Linguistica Brunensia |date=2014 |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=77–87}}</ref>

== Genetics ==
{{See also|Scythian cultures#Genetics|Scythians#Genetics|Sarmatians#Genetics|Tagar culture#Genetics}}
The earliest studies could only analyze segments of mtDNA, thus providing only broad correlations of affinity to modern West Eurasian or East Eurasian populations. For example, in a 2002 study the mitochondrial DNA of Saka period male and female skeletal remains from a double inhumation [[kurgan]] at the Beral site in Kazakhstan was analysed. The two individuals were found to be not closely related. The HV1 mitochondrial sequence of the male was similar to the Anderson sequence which is most frequent in European populations. The HV1 sequence of the female suggested a greater likelihood of Asian origins.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Clisson, I. |display-authors=etal |date=2002 |title= Genetic analysis of human remains from a double inhumation in a frozen kurgan in Kazakhstan (Berel site, early 3rd century BC). |journal=International Journal of Legal Medicine |volume= 116 |issue=5 |pages=304–308 |pmid=12376844 |doi= 10.1007/s00414-002-0295-x |s2cid=27711154 }}</ref>

More recent studies have been able to type for specific [[human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|mtDNA lineages]]. For example, a 2004 study examined the [[hypervariable region|HV1 sequence]] obtained from a male "Scytho-Siberian" at the [[Kyzyl|Kizil]] site in the [[Altai Republic]]. It belonged to the [[haplogroup N (mtDNA)|N1a]] maternal lineage, a geographically West Eurasian lineage.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Ricaut F. |display-authors=etal | year = 2004 | title = Genetic Analysis of a Scytho-Siberian Skeleton and Its Implications for Ancient Central Asian Migrations | journal = Human Biology | volume = 76 | issue = 1| pages = 109–125 | doi=10.1353/hub.2004.0025 | pmid=15222683|s2cid=35948291 }}</ref> Another study by the same team, again of mtDNA from two Scytho-Siberian skeletons found in the Altai Republic, showed that they had been typical males "of mixed Euro-Mongoloid origin". One of the individuals was found to carry the [[Haplogroup F (mtDNA)|F2a]] maternal lineage, and the other the [[Haplogroup D (mtDNA)|D]] lineage, both of which are characteristic of East Eurasian populations.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Ricaut, F. |display-authors=etal |date=2004 |title= Genetic Analysis and Ethnic Affinities From Two Scytho-Siberian Skeletons|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume= 123|issue=4 |pages=351–360 |pmid = 15022363 |doi= 10.1002/ajpa.10323 |bibcode=2004AJPA..123..351R }}</ref>

[[File:Pazyryk man (reconstruction, Anokhin Museum).jpg|thumb|left|upright|A Saka man from the [[Pazyryk culture]], 6th to 3rd centuries BC (reconstruction from burials, [[Anokhin Museum]]).<ref name="ST">{{cite journal |title=Legal bid fails to rebury remains of 2,500 year old tattooed 'ice princess' |journal=The Siberian Times |date=2016 |url=https://siberiantimes.com/other/others/news/n0574-legal-bid-fails-to-rebury-remains-of-2500-year-old-tattooed-ice-princess/}}</ref>]]
These early studies have been elaborated by an increasing number of studies by Russian and western scholars. Conclusions are (i) an early, Bronze Age mixing of both west and east Eurasian lineages, with western lineages being found far to the east, but not vice versa; (ii) an apparent reversal by Iron Age times, with an increasing presence of East Eurasian [[mtDNA]] lineages in the Western steppe; (iii) the possible role of migrations from the south, the Balkano-Danubian and Iranian regions, toward the steppe.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Tracing the Origin of the East-West Population Admixture in the Altai Region (Central Asia) |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=11 |article-number=e48904 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0048904 |pmid=23152818 |pmc=3494716 |year=2012 |last1=González-Ruiz |first1=Mercedes |last2=Santos |first2=Cristina |last3=Jordana |first3=Xavier |last4=Simón |first4=Marc |last5=Lalueza-Fox |first5=Carles |last6=Gigli |first6=Elena |last7=Aluja |first7=Maria Pilar |last8=Malgosa |first8=Assumpció |bibcode=2012PLoSO...748904G |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{sfn|Unterländer|Palstra|Lazaridis|Pilipenko|2017}}

Unterländer, et al. (2017) found genetic evidence that the modern-day descendants of Eastern Scythians are found "almost exclusively" among modern-day [[Siberian Turkic]] speakers, suggesting that future studies could determine the extent to which the Eastern Scythians were involved in the early formation of Turkic-speaking populations.<ref>{{harvnb|Unterländer|2017|p=69|ps=: "Thirdly, contemporary populations with the highest likelihood of being directly descended from eastern Scythian groups are almost exclusively Turkic language speakers (Supplementary Fig. 10b). Particularly high statistical support was documented for some Turkic speaking groups geographically located close to the archaeological sites of the eastern Scythians (e.g. Telenghits, Tubular, Tofalar), but also among Turkic speaking populations located in Central Asia (e.g. Kyrgyz, Kazakhs and Karakalpaks) (Supplementary Fig. 11). These same results were found for some Turkic groups located even further to the West, such as the Kazan Volga-Tatars. Finally, contemporary populations likely to share a common ancestor with eastern Scythians were mainly found among Turkic, Mongolian and Siberian groups located in eastern Eurasia (Supplementary Fig. 10d and Supplementary Fig. 11). In summary, these results provide further support for a multi-regional origin of the various Scythian groups from the Iron Age."}}</ref>

===Haplogroups===
Ancient Y-DNA data was finally provided by Keyser ''et al.'' in 2009. They studied the haplotypes and haplogroups of 26 ancient human specimens from the [[Krasnoyarsk]] area in [[Siberia]] dated from between the middle of the 2nd millennium BC and the 4th century AD (Scythian and [[Sarmatian]] timeframe). Nearly all subjects belonged to [[haplogroup R-M17]]. The authors suggest that their data shows that between the Bronze and the Iron Ages the constellation of populations known variously as Scythians, [[Andronovo culture|Andronovians]], etc. were blue- (or green-) eyed, fair-skinned and light-haired people who might have played a role in the early development of the [[Tarim Basin]] civilisation. Moreover, this study found that they were genetically more closely related to modern populations in eastern Europe than those of central and southern Asia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keyser |first1=C |last2=Bouakaze |first2=C |last3=Crubézy |first3=E |display-authors=etal |date=September 2009 |title=Ancient DNA provides new insights into the history of south Siberian Kurgan people |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00439-009-0683-0 |journal=Human Genetics |volume=126 |issue=3 |pages=395–410 |doi=10.1007/s00439-009-0683-0 |pmid=19449030 |s2cid=21347353|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The ubiquity and dominance of the R1a Y-DNA lineage contrasted markedly with the diversity seen in the mtDNA profiles.

In May 2018, a genetic study published in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' examined the remains of twenty-eight Inner Asian Sakas buried between ca. 900 BC to AD 1, compromising eight Sakas of [[southern Siberia]] ([[Tagar culture]]), eight Sakas of the [[central steppe]] ([[Tasmola culture]]), and twelve Sakas of the [[Tian Shan]]. The six samples of [[Y-DNA]] extracted from the Tian Shan Saka belonged to the West Eurasian haplogroups [[Haplogroup R (Y-DNA)|R]] (four samples), [[Haplogroup R1|R1]] and [[R1a1]]. Four samples of Y-DNA extracted from central Steppe sakas belonged to haplogroup R1 and R1a, while one individual belonged to haplogroup [[Haplogroup E-M123|E1b1b]].<ref name="nature.com">{{cite journal |last1=Damgaard |first1=Peter de Barros |title=137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes |journal=Nature |date=May 2018 |volume=557 |issue=7705 |pages=369–374 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2 |pmid=29743675 |bibcode=2018Natur.557..369D |hdl=1887/3202709 |s2cid=13670282 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0094-2 |language=english|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

The samples of [[mtDNA]] extracted from the Tian Shan Saka belonged to [[Haplogroup C (mtDNA)|C4]], [[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)#H4|H4d]], [[Haplogroup T (mtDNA)|T2a1]], [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)#Haplogroup U5|U5a1d2b]], [[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)#H2|H2a]], [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)#Haplogroup U5|U5a1a1]], [[Haplogroup HV (mtDNA)|HV6]] (two samples), [[Haplogroup D (mtDNA)#D4|D4j8]] (two samples), [[Haplogroup W (mtDNA)|W1c]] and [[Haplogroup G (mtDNA)|G2a1]].<ref name="nature.com"/>

According to Tikhonov, et al. (2019), the Eastern Scythians and the Xiongnu "possibly bore proto-Turkic elements", based on a continuation of maternal and paternal haplogroups.<ref>{{harvnb|Tikhonov|Gurkan|Peler|Dyakonov|2019|p=42|ps=: "In other words, there is an apparent population continuity from the Scythians to the Xiongnu and then onto the Turkic people, possibly because the former two already bore proto-Turkic elements."}}</ref>

===Autosomal DNA===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 231
| image1 = Bronze to Iron Age Steppe peoples genetic makeup.png
| caption1 = Genetic makeup of Bronze and Iron Age Steppe populations
| image2 = Genetic makeup of the Saka and Scythian cultures.png
| caption2 = Map of Scythian cultures, including different Saka populations with genetic profiles, combining Steppe_MLBA, BMAC, and Khövsgöl LBA ancestries.
| image3 = Scythian genetic makeup.png
| caption3 = Genetic makeup of Iron Age Central Asian Scythians. The three main ancestry components are shown in green, red and violet representing the ancestries maximized in [[Anatolian Neolithic Farmers|Anatolian farmers]], [[Ganj Dareh|Iranian farmers]], and [[West Siberian hunter-gatherer|Hunter Gatherers from West Siberia]], respectively.
}}
[[File:Arzhan-2 forensic reconstruction of the King and Queen.jpg|thumb|Forensic reconstruction of the Saka King and Queen of [[Arzhan-2]], in their burial costumes (650-600 BC).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Веселовская |first1=Е.В. |last2=Галеев |first2=Р.М. |title=АНТРОПОЛОГИЧЕСКАЯ РЕКОНСТРУКЦИЯ ВНЕШНЕГО ОБЛИКА "ЦАРЯ" И "ЦАРИЦЫ" РАННЕСКИФСКОГО ПОГРЕБАЛЬНО-ПОМИНАЛЬНОГО КОМПЛЕКСА АРЖАН-2 |journal=Вестник археологии, антропологии и этнографии |date=2020 |volume=2 |issue=49 |url=http://www.ipdn.ru/_private/a49/112-122.pdf |quote=In anthropological terms, the buried show a peculiar mosaic of Caucasoid and Mongoloid features. They are characterized by brachycephaly and dome-shaped head, with notably developed rugosity of the supercilium in the man and its absence in the woman. For the man, an average width of the face and a narrow forehead of medium height are noted. The woman has broad face and forehead, the height of the forehead is average. Both portraits are characterized by prominent position of eyeballs and large eyes. Man's nose is short, prominent, with convex dorsum. Woman's nose has a wavy dorsum, and is slightly prominent. On the male portrait, the cheekbones are moderate, on the female one — high and prominent. Faces of the «royal» persons are flattened in the upper part, with a certain degree of alveolar prognathism. The lower jaw of the man is medium in size, narrow in the corners. For the woman, some gracility of the lower jaw can be noted.}}</ref>]]
A 2018 study detected significant genetic differences between analyzed Inner Asian Saka-associated samples and Scythian samples of the [[Pannonian Basin]], as well as between different Saka subgroups of southern Siberia, the central steppe and the Tian Shan. While Scythians (or "Hungarian Saka") harbored exclusively ancestry associated with [[Western Steppe Herders]], Inner Asian Saka displayed additional Neolithic Iranian (BMAC) and Southern Siberian hunter-gatherer (represented through a proxy of modern [[Altaians]]) components in varying degrees. Tian Shan Sakas were found to be of about 70% [[Western Steppe Herder]] (WSH) ancestry, 25% Southern Siberian Hunter-Gatherer ancestry and 5% Iranian Neolithic ancestry. The Iranian Neolithic ancestry was probably from the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]]. Sakas of the Tasmola culture were found to be of about 56% WSH ancestry and 44% Southern Siberian Hunter-Gather ancestry. The peoples of the Tagar culture had about 83.5% WSH ancestry, 9% [[Ancient North Eurasian]] (ANE) ancestry and 7.5% Southern Siberian Hunter-Gatherer ancestry. The study suggested that the Inner Asian Saka were the source of West Eurasian ancestry among the [[Xiongnu]], and that the [[Huns]] probably emerged through minor male-driven geneflow into the Saka through westward migrations by the Xiongnu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Damgaard |first1=Peter de Barros |title=137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes |journal=Nature |date=May 2018 |volume=557 |issue=7705 |pages=369–374 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2 |pmid=29743675 |bibcode=2018Natur.557..369D |hdl=1887/3202709 |s2cid=13670282 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0094-2 |language=english|hdl-access=free }} "Principal component analyses and D-statistics suggest that the Xiongnu individuals belong to two distinct groups, one being of East Asian origin and the other presenting considerable admixture levels with West Eurasian sources... Principal Component Analyses and D-statistics suggest that the Xiongnu individuals belong to two distinct groups, one being of East Asian origin and the other presenting considerable admixture levels with West Eurasian sources... We find that Central Sakas are accepted as a source for these 'western-admixed' Xiongnu in a single-wave model. In line with this finding, no East Asian gene flow is detected compared to Central Sakas as these form a clade with respect to the East Asian Xiongnu in a D-statistic, and furthermore, cluster closely together in the PCA (Figure 2)... Overall, our data show that the Xiongnu confederation was genetically heterogeneous, and that the Huns emerged following minor male-driven East Asian gene flow into the preceding Sakas that they invaded... As such our results support the contention that the disappearance of the Inner Asian Scythians and Sakas around two thousand years ago was a cultural transition that coincided with the westward migration of the Xiongnu. This Xiongnu invasion also led to the displacement of isolated remnant groups related to Late Bronze Age pastoralists that had remained on the southeastern side of the Tian Shan mountains."</ref> A genetic study published in 2020 in ''[[Cell (journal)|Cell]]'',{{sfn|Jeong|Wang|Wilkin|Taylor|2020}} modeled the ancestry of several Saka groups as a combination of [[Sintashta]] ([[Western Steppe Herders]]) and [[Baikal EBA]] ancestry ([[Lake Baikal|Western Baikal]] early Bronze Age hunter-gatherers, a profile consisting of about 80% [[Ancient Northeast Asian]] and 20% [[Ancient North Eurasian]] ancestries),{{sfn|Jeong|Wang|Wilkin|Taylor|2020|loc="Previously, we reported a shared genetic profile among EBA western Baikal hunter-gatherers (Baikal_EBA) and Late Bronze Age (LBA) pastoralists in northern Mongolia (Khövsgöl_LBA) (Jeong et al., 2018). This genetic profile, composed of major and minor ANA and ANE ancestry components, respectively, is also shared with the earlier eastern Baikal (Fofonovo_EN) and Mongolian (centralMongolia_preBA) groups analyzed in this study (Figures 3A, 3B, and 4A), suggesting a regional persistence of this genetic profile for nearly three millennia." (...) "Ancient ANA individuals fall close to the cluster of present-day Tungusic- and Nivkh-speaking populations in northeast Asia, indicating that their genetic profile is still present in indigenous populations of the Far East today"}} with varying degrees of an additional Neolithic Iranian ([[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|BMAC]]) component.{{sfn|Jeong|Wang|Wilkin|Taylor|2020}} Specifically, Central Sakas of the [[Tasmola culture]] were found to be of about 43% Sintashta ancestry, 50% Baikal_EBA ancestry and 7% BMAC ancestry. Tagar Sakas ([[Tagar culture]]) were found to have an elevated Sintashta proportion (69% Sintashta, 24% Baikal_EBA, and 7% BMAC), while [[Tian Shan]] Sakas had an elevated BMAC proportion at 24% (50% Sintashta, 26% Baikal_EBA, and 24% BMAC). The eastern Uyuk Sakas ([[Arzhan culture]]) had 50% Sintashta, 44% Baikal_EBA, and 6% BMAC ancestry. The [[Pazyryk culture|Pazyryk]] Sakas had elevated Baikal_EBA ancestry, with a nearly non-existent BMAC component (32% Sintashta, 68% Baikal_EBA, and ~0% BMAC).{{sfn|Jeong|Wang|Wilkin|Taylor|2020|loc=Visualization: Figure 3C Statistics: Table S5. Population Modeling, Related to Figures 3, 4, and 5. (D)}} Two other genetic studies published in 2021 and 2022 found that the Saka originated from a shared WSH-like ([[Srubnaya]], [[Sintashta culture|Sintashta]], and [[Andronovo culture]]) background with additional BMAC and East Eurasian-like ancestry. The Eastern ancestry among the Saka can also be represented by Lake Baikal (Shamanka_EBA-like) groups. The spread of Saka-like ancestry can be linked with the dispersal of [[Eastern Iranian languages]] (such as [[Khotanese language|Khotanese]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Vikas |last2=Wang |first2=Wenjun |last3=Zhang |first3=Jie |last4=Wang |first4=Yongqiang |last5=Ruan |first5=Qiurong |last6=Yu |first6=Jianjun |last7=Wu |first7=Xiaohong |last8=Hu |first8=Xingjun |last9=Wu |first9=Xinhua |last10=Guo |first10=Wu |last11=Wang |first11=Bo |last12=Niyazi |first12=Alipujiang |last13=Lv |first13=Enguo |last14=Tang |first14=Zihua |last15=Cao |first15=Peng |date=April 2022 |title=Bronze and Iron Age population movements underlie Xinjiang population history |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abk1534 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=376 |issue=6588 |pages=62–69 |bibcode=2022Sci...376...62K |doi=10.1126/science.abk1534 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=35357918 |s2cid=247855352 |quote=Of these, the Sakas were the descendants of Late Bronze Age (LBA) herders (such as the Andronovo, Srubnaya, and Sintashta) with additional ancestries derived from Lake Baikal (Shamanka_EBA) (EBA, Early Bronze Age) and BMAC populations (1, 17, 18). ... Further, although the spread of languages is not always congruent with population histories (32), the presence of Saka ancestry in Xinj_IA populations supports an IA introduction of the Indo-Iranian Khotanese language, which was spoken by the Saka and later attested to in this region (19).|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Vikas |last2=Bennett |first2=E Andrew |last3=Zhao |first3=Dongyue |last4=Liang |first4=Yun |last5=Tang |first5=Yunpeng |last6=Ren |first6=Meng |last7=Dai |first7=Qinyan |last8=Feng |first8=Xiaotian |last9=Cao |first9=Peng |last10=Yang |first10=Ruowei |last11=Liu |first11=Feng |last12=Ping |first12=Wanjing |last13=Zhang |first13=Ming |last14=Ding |first14=Manyu |last15=Yang |first15=Melinda A |date=28 July 2021 |title=Genetic Continuity of Bronze Age Ancestry with Increased Steppe-Related Ancestry in Late Iron Age Uzbekistan |url=|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=38 |issue=11 |pages=4908–4917 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msab216 |issn=0737-4038 |pmc=8557446 |pmid=34320653}}</ref>

A later different Eastern influx is evident in three outlier samples of the [[Tasmola culture]] (Tasmola Birlik) and one of the [[Pazyryk culture]] (Pazyryk Berel), which displayed c. 70-83% additional [[Ancient Northeast Asian]] ancestry represented by the Neolithic [[Devil's Gate Cave]] specimen, suggesting them to be recent migrants from further East. The same additional Eastern ancestry is found among the later groups of Huns (Hun Berel 300CE, Hun elite 350CE), and the Karakaba remains (830CE). At the same time, western [[Sarmatian]]-like and minor additional BMAC-like ancestry spread eastwards, with a Saka-associated sample from southeastern [[Kazakhstan]] (Konyr Tobe 300CE) displaying around 85% Sarmatian and 15% BMAC ancestry. Sarmatians are modeled to derive primarily from the preceding Western Steppe Herders of the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Gnecchi-Ruscone |first=Guido Alberto |date=26 March 2021 |title=Ancient genomic time transect from the Central Asian Steppe unravels the history of the Scythians |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=7 |issue=13 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.4414G |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abe4414 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=7997506 |pmid=33771866}}</ref>[[File:Central Asian haplogroups through time.png|thumb|left|upright=1.5|The Sakas represent a unique period of West-East admixture along the Altai line during the Iron Age, which has been a defining characteristic of Central Asian populations until modern times.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=González-Ruiz |first1=Mercedes |last2=Santos |first2=Cristina |last3=Jordana |first3=Xavier |last4=Simón |first4=Marc |last5=Lalueza-Fox |first5=Carles |last6=Gigli |first6=Elena |last7=Aluja |first7=Maria Pilar |last8=Malgosa |first8=Assumpció |title=Tracing the Origin of the East-West Population Admixture in the Altai Region (Central Asia) |journal=PLOS ONE |date=9 November 2012 |volume=7 |issue=11 |article-number=e48904 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0048904 |pmid=23152818 |pmc=3494716 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...748904G |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233389263 |quote=The Pazyryk groups analysed so far appear to be genetically homogeneous and they did not present significant genetic differences to current Altaians. These results suggest that roots of the current genetic diversity and admixture of the Altai region in Central Asia could be traced back to the Iron Age. |doi-access=free }}</ref>]]The most closely related modern population to the Saka (and other Eastern Scytho-Sarmatian groups) are the [[Bashkirs]], a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic people]] which display genetic continuity to Bronze and Iron Age Central Asians.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maróti |first=Zoltán |last2=Neparáczki |first2=Endre |last3=Schütz |first3=Oszkár |last4=Maár |first4=Kitti |last5=Varga |first5=Gergely I. B. |last6=Kovács |first6=Bence |last7=Kalmár |first7=Tibor |last8=Nyerki |first8=Emil |last9=Nagy |first9=István |last10=Latinovics |first10=Dóra |last11=Tihanyi |first11=Balázs |last12=Marcsik |first12=Antónia |last13=Pálfi |first13=György |last14=Bernert |first14=Zsolt |last15=Gallina |first15=Zsolt |date=2022-07-11 |title=The genetic origin of Huns, Avars, and conquering Hungarians |url=https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(22)00732-1 |journal=Current Biology |language=English |volume=32 |issue=13 |pages=2858–2870.e7 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2022.04.093 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=35617951}}</ref> There is also increasing evidence for genetic affinities between the Eastern Scythians (such as the [[Pazyryk culture]]) and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking groups,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tikhonov |first1=Dmitrii |last2=Gurkan |first2=Cemal |last3=Peler |first3=Gökçe |last4=Dyakonov |first4=Viktor |date=2019 |title=On The Genetic Continuity of the Iron Age Pazyryk Culture: Geographic Distributions of the Paternal and Maternal Lineages from the Ak-Alakha-1 Burial |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331179436 |journal=International Journal of Human Genetics |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.31901/24566330.2019/19.01.709 |s2cid=202015095|doi-access=free }} "The substantial presence of the Ak-Alakha-1 mtDNA and Y-STR haplotypes in the contemporary Anatolian populations may be attributed to two major historical events: (a) the less likely being the Scythian invasion of Anatolia around 7th century BCE and settlement for around 30 years near the Aras or Araxes River (Herodotus 1920), and (b) the more likely being the Central Asiatic Turkic migrations into Anatolia from around 11th century CE onwards, keeping in mind the ever growing support for a strong genetic continuity between the ancient eastern Scythians and the proto-Turkic tribes (Unterlander et al. 2017)."</ref> which formed via admixture events during the Iron Age between local Saka groups and geneflow from the Eastern Steppe,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dai |first1=Shan-Shan |last2=Sulaiman |first2=Xierzhatijiang |last3=Isakova |first3=Jainagul |last4=Xu |first4=Wei-Fang |last5=Abdulloevich |first5=Najmudinov Tojiddin |last6=Afanasevna |first6=Manilova Elena |last7=Ibrohimovich |first7=Khudoidodov Behruz |last8=Chen |first8=Xi |last9=Yang |first9=Wei-Kang |last10=Wang |first10=Ming-Shan |last11=Shen |first11=Quan-Kuan |last12=Yang |first12=Xing-Yan |last13=Yao |first13=Yong-Gang |last14=Aldashev |first14=Almaz A |last15=Saidov |first15=Abdusattor |date=25 August 2022 |title=The Genetic Echo of the Tarim Mummies in Modern Central Asians |url=|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=39 |issue=9 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msac179 |issn=0737-4038 |pmc=9469894 |pmid=36006373 |quote=By contrast, the Kyrgyz, together with other Turkic-speaking populations, originated from the admixture since the Iron Age. The Historical Era gene flow derived from the Eastern Steppe with the representative of Mongolia_Xiongnu_o1 made a more substantial contribution to Kyrgyz and other Turkic-speaking populations (i.e., Kazakh, Uyghur, Turkmen, and Uzbek; 34.9–55.2%) higher than that to the Tajik populations (11.6–18.6%; fig. 4A), suggesting Tajiks suffer fewer impacts of the recent admixtures (Martínez-Cruz et al. 2011). Consequently, the Tajik populations generally present patterns of genetic continuity of Central Asians since the Bronze Age. Our results are consistent with linguistic and genetic evidence that the spreading of Indo-European speakers into Central Asia was earlier than the expansion of Turkic speakers (Kuz′mina and Mallory 2007; Yunusbayev et al. 2015).}}</ref> but also [[Uralic]] and [[Ancient Paleo-Siberian|Paleo-Siberian]] peoples.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gurkan |first=Cemal |date=8 January 2019 |title=On The Genetic Continuity of the Iron Age Pazyryk Culture: Geographic Distributions of the Paternal and Maternal Lineages from the Ak-Alakha-1 Burial |journal=International Journal of Human Genetics |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.31901/24566330.2019/19.01.709 |issn=0972-3757 |quote=Notably, there is clear population continuity between the Uralic people such as Khants, Mansis and Nganasans, Paleo-Siberian people such as Yukaghirs and Chuvantsi, and the Pazyryk people even when considering just the two mtDNA and Y-STR haplotypes from the Ak-Alakha-1 mound 1 kurgan (Tables 1a, b, Table 2, Fig. 1).|doi-access=free }}</ref> The admixture with West Eurasian sources was found to be "in accordance with the linguistically documented language borrowing in Turkic languages".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=He |first1=Guang-Lin |last2=Wang |first2=Meng-Ge |last3=Zou |first3=Xing |last4=Yeh |first4=Hui-Yuan |last5=Liu |first5=Chang-Hui |last6=Liu |first6=Chao |last7=Chen |first7=Gang |last8=Wang |first8=Chuan-Chao |date=January 2023 |title=Extensive ethnolinguistic diversity at the crossroads of North China and South Siberia reflects multiple sources of genetic diversity |url=https://zenodo.org/record/8179175|journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |language=en |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=230–250 |doi=10.1111/jse.12827 |bibcode=2023JSyEv..61..230H |s2cid=245849003 |issn=1674-4918}}</ref>

===East–West migrations and cultural transmission===
Genetic data across Eurasia suggest that the Scythian cultural phenomenon was accompanied by some degree of migration from east to west, starting in the area of the [[Altai Mountains|Altai region]].<ref name="MJ"/> In particular, the Classical Scythians of the western Eurasian steppe were not direct descendants of the local Bronze Age populations, but partly resulted from this east–west spread.<ref name="MJ"/> This also suggests that Scythoïd cultural characteristics were not simply the result of the transfer of material culture, but were also accompanied by human migrations of Saka populations from the east.<ref name="MJ">{{cite journal |last1=Järve |first1=Mari |last2=Saag |first2=Lehti |last3=Scheib |first3=Christiana Lyn |last4=Pathak |first4=Ajai K. |last5=Montinaro |first5=Francesco |last6=Pagani |first6=Luca |last7=Flores |first7=Rodrigo |last8=Guellil |first8=Meriam |last9=Saag |first9=Lauri |last10=Tambets |first10=Kristiina |last11=Kushniarevich |first11=Alena |last12=Solnik |first12=Anu |last13=Varul |first13=Liivi |last14=Zadnikov |first14=Stanislav |last15=Petrauskas |first15=Oleg |last16=Avramenko |first16=Maryana |last17=Magomedov |first17=Boris |last18=Didenko |first18=Serghii |last19=Toshev |first19=Gennadi |last20=Bruyako |first20=Igor |last21=Grechko |first21=Denys |last22=Okatenko |first22=Vitalii |last23=Gorbenko |first23=Kyrylo |last24=Smyrnov |first24=Oleksandr |last25=Heiko |first25=Anatolii |last26=Reida |first26=Roman |last27=Sapiehin |first27=Serheii |last28=Sirotin |first28=Sergey |last29=Tairov |first29=Aleksandr |last30=Beisenov |first30=Arman |last31=Starodubtsev |first31=Maksim |last32=Vasilev |first32=Vitali |last33=Nechvaloda |first33=Alexei |last34=Atabiev |first34=Biyaslan |last35=Litvinov |first35=Sergey |last36=Ekomasova |first36=Natalia |last37=Dzhaubermezov |first37=Murat |last38=Voroniatov |first38=Sergey |last39=Utevska |first39=Olga |last40=Shramko |first40=Irina |last41=Khusnutdinova |first41=Elza |last42=Metspalu |first42=Mait |last43=Savelev |first43=Nikita |last44=Kriiska |first44=Aivar |last45=Kivisild |first45=Toomas |last46=Villems |first46=Richard |title=Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance |journal=Current Biology |date=July 2019 |volume=29 |issue=14 |pages=2430–2441.e10 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.019 |pmid=31303491 |issn=0960-9822 |quote=This is compatible with a moderate westward increase of the Altaian genetic component in the Steppe during the Scythian period, implying the involvement of at least some degree of migration (east to west; the more complicated scenarios that have been proposed [11] are not supported by our results) in the spread of the Scythian culture. This fits the previous observation that the Iron Age nomads of the western Eurasian Steppe were not direct descendants of the Bronze Age population [2] and suggests that the ''Scythian world'' cannot be described solely in terms of material culture.|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019CBio...29E2430J }}</ref>

The region between the [[Caspian Sea]] and of the Southern Urals originally had populations of [[Srubnaya]] (1900 BC–1200 BCE) and [[Andronovo]] (c. 2000–1150 BCE) ancestry, but, starting with the [[Iron Age]] (c.1000 BCE) became a region of intense ethnic and cultural interaction between European and Asian components.<ref name="MJE4">{{cite journal |last1=Järve |first1=Mari |last2=Saag |first2=Lehti |last3=Scheib |first3=Christiana Lyn |last4=Pathak |first4=Ajai K. |last5=Montinaro |first5=Francesco |last6=Pagani |first6=Luca |last7=Flores |first7=Rodrigo |last8=Guellil |first8=Meriam |last9=Saag |first9=Lauri |last10=Tambets |first10=Kristiina |last11=Kushniarevich |first11=Alena |last12=Solnik |first12=Anu |last13=Varul |first13=Liivi |last14=Zadnikov |first14=Stanislav |last15=Petrauskas |first15=Oleg |last16=Avramenko |first16=Maryana |last17=Magomedov |first17=Boris |last18=Didenko |first18=Serghii |last19=Toshev |first19=Gennadi |last20=Bruyako |first20=Igor |last21=Grechko |first21=Denys |last22=Okatenko |first22=Vitalii |last23=Gorbenko |first23=Kyrylo |last24=Smyrnov |first24=Oleksandr |last25=Heiko |first25=Anatolii |last26=Reida |first26=Roman |last27=Sapiehin |first27=Serheii |last28=Sirotin |first28=Sergey |last29=Tairov |first29=Aleksandr |last30=Beisenov |first30=Arman |last31=Starodubtsev |first31=Maksim |last32=Vasilev |first32=Vitali |last33=Nechvaloda |first33=Alexei |last34=Atabiev |first34=Biyaslan |last35=Litvinov |first35=Sergey |last36=Ekomasova |first36=Natalia |last37=Dzhaubermezov |first37=Murat |last38=Voroniatov |first38=Sergey |last39=Utevska |first39=Olga |last40=Shramko |first40=Irina |last41=Khusnutdinova |first41=Elza |last42=Metspalu |first42=Mait |last43=Savelev |first43=Nikita |last44=Kriiska |first44=Aivar |last45=Kivisild |first45=Toomas |last46=Villems |first46=Richard |title=Shifts in the Genetic Landscape of the Western Eurasian Steppe Associated with the Beginning and End of the Scythian Dominance |journal=Current Biology |date=22 July 2019 |volume=29 |issue=14 |pages=e4–e5 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.019 |issn=0960-9822|doi-access=free |pmid=31303491 |bibcode=2019CBio...29E2430J }}</ref> From the 7th century BCE, Early Saka nomads started to settle in the Southern Urals, coming from [[Central Asia]], the [[Altai-Sayan]] region, and Central and Northern [[Kazakhstan]].<ref name="MJE4"/> The [[Itkul culture]] (7th-5th century BCE) is one of these Early Saka cultures, based in the eastern foothills of the Urals, which was assimilated into the [[Sauromatian]] and Early [[Sarmatian]] cultures.<ref name="MJE4"/> Circa 600 BCE, groups from the Saka [[Tasmola culture]] settled in the southern Urals.<ref name="MJE4"/> Circa 500 BCE, other groups from the area of Ancient [[Khorezm]] settled in the western part of the southern Urals, who also assimilated into the Early Sarmatians.<ref name="MJE4"/> As a result, a large-scale integrated union of nomads from [[Central Asia]] formed in the area in the 5th–4th century BCE, with fairly uniformized cultural practices.<ref name="MJE4"/> This cultural complex, with notable ''foreign elements'', corresponds to the ''royal'' burials of [[Filippovka kurgan]], and define the "Prokhorovka period" of the Early Sarmatians.<ref name="MJE4"/>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Filippovka, individuals on a dagger blade, Kurgan 4, Burial 2.jpg|Warriors with daggers and bows. Dagger blade decoration from Kurgan 4, Burial 2, [[Filippovka kurgans]], Late [[Sauromatian]]-Early [[Sarmatian]], 5th-4th century BCE.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yablonsky |first1=Leonid Teodorovich |title=New Excavations of the Early Nomadic Burial Ground at Filippovka (Southern Ural Region, Russia) |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |date=2010 |volume=114 |issue=1 |page=137, Fig.13 |doi=10.3764/aja.114.1.129 |jstor=20627646 |s2cid=191399666 |issn=0002-9114}}</ref>
File:Taksai-1_Barrow_6_lady_(reconstruction,_detail).jpg|"Golden Lady " from the [[Taksai kurgans]], c. 500 BCE.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lukpanova |first1=Ya.A. |title=Reconstruction of Female Costume From the Elite Burial Ground Taksay-I: a View of the Archaeology. |journal=Povolzhskaya Arkheologiya (The Volga River Region Archaeology) |date=2017 |volume=1 |issue=19 |url=https://www.academia.edu/32899848}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Golden Man from Shilikty and Golden Woman from Taksai |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/9228922@N03/36214368340/in/album-72157684182450632/ |publisher=Nur-sultan - National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan |date=23 July 2017}}</ref>
</gallery>

== Archaeology ==
{{Saka kurgans}}
[[Image:ScythianC14AsiaEuropeFig6SketchEn 3dGraph.gif|thumb|Compative timeline of Scythian kurgans in Asia and Europe.<ref>Alekseev A.Yu. et al., ''"Chronology of Eurasian Scythian Antiquities Born by New Archaeological and 14C Data"'', © 2001 by the Arizona Board of Regents on behalf of the University of Arizona, ''Radiocarbon'', Vol .43, No 2B, 2001, p 1085-1107 Fig.6</ref>]]
The spectacular grave-goods from [[Arzhan culture|Arzhan]], and others in [[Tuva]], have been dated from about 800 BC onward, and the kurgans of [[Shilikty]] in eastern [[Kazakhstan]] circa 700 BC, and are associated with the Early Sakas.<ref name="Amir">{{cite journal |last1=Amir |first1=Saltanat |last2=Roberts |first2=Rebecca C. |title=The Saka 'Animal Style' in Context: Material, Technology, Form and Use |journal=Arts |date=2023 |volume=12 |page=23 |doi=10.3390/arts12010023 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Burials at [[Pazyryk burials|Pazyryk]] in the [[Altay Mountains]] have included some spectacularly preserved Sakas of the "Pazyryk culture" – including the [[Pazyryk Ice Maiden|Ice Maiden]] of the 5th century BC.

===Arzhan 1 kurgan ({{circa|800 BC}})===
{{main|Arzhan culture}}
Arzhan-1 was excavated by M. P. Gryaznov in the 1970s, establishing the origins of Scythian culture in the region in the 10th to 8th centuries BC:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Francfort |first1=Henri-Paul |title=Images du combat contre le sanglier en Asie centrale (3 ème au 1 er millénaire av. J.-C.) |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |date=2002 |volume=16 |page=118 |jstor=24049162 |issn=0890-4464|quote=Dans le kourgane plus ancien d'Arzhan-1 (8-10ème s.)...}}</ref> Arzhan-1 was carbon-dated to circa 800 BC.<ref>{{cite book |date=2004 |publisher=Kluwer Academic |location=Dordrecht |isbn=1-4020-2655-2 |page=23 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-2656-0_1 |chapter-url=|quote=p.23 "Dendrochronological and radiocarbon dating indicate that Arzhan dates to the end 9th - beginning 8th century BC (Zaitseva, Vasilev, Marsadolov, Sementsov, Dergachev, Lebedeva, 1996)." |chapter=Chronology and Cultural Affinity of the Kurgan Arzhan-2 Complex According to Archaeological Data |title=Impact of the Environment on Human Migration in Eurasia |series=NATO Science Series: IV: Earth and Environmental Sciences |last1=Chugunov |first1=K. V. |last2=Parzinger |first2=H. |last3=Nagler |first3=A. |volume=42 }}</ref> Many of the styles of the artifacts found in Arzhan 1 (such as the animal style images of deer, boar, and panther) soon propagated to the west, probably following a migration mouvement from the east to the west in the 9th to 7th centuries BC, and ultimately reaching European Scythia and influencing artistic styles there.<ref>{{cite book |date=2004 |publisher=Kluwer Academic |location=Dordrecht |isbn=1-4020-2655-2 |pages=24–32 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-2656-0_1 |chapter-url=|quote="We can only note certain elements in the culture of European Scythia which doubtless have an Asiatic origin and are connected with the cultures of Asia." "In many scholars' opinion it is necessary to distinguish the following cultural components of European Scythia genetically tied with the East: daggers with butterfly-shaped guards, arrowheads early forms, helmets of the Kelermes type, spiked battle-axes, horse-bits, cheek-pieces of the Chernogorovo and Zhabotinsk type, bordered mirrors, bronze cauldrons of the Beshtaugor type and "stag-stones". We can follow the development of some animal style images (deer, boar, and panther) from east to west. There are elements of stylization and degradation on the objects from the western part of the Scythian World |chapter=Chronology and Cultural Affinity of the Kurgan Arzhan-2 Complex According to Archaeological Data |title=Impact of the Environment on Human Migration in Eurasia |series=NATO Science Series: IV: Earth and Environmental Sciences |last1=Chugunov |first1=K. V. |last2=Parzinger |first2=H. |last3=Nagler |first3=A. |volume=42 }}</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Аржаан-1.JPG|Arzhan-1, dated to circa 800 BC, partly looted in Antiquity
File:Arzhan animal ring.jpg|Curled-up feline animal from Arzhan-1, circa 800 BC.<ref>{{cite book |date=2004 |publisher=Kluwer Academic |location=Dordrecht |isbn=1-4020-2655-2 |page=24 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-2656-0_1 |chapter-url=|quote=p.24 "Figure.2. Royal barrow Arzhan 1: funeral artifacts. 36-39" |chapter=Chronology and Cultural Affinity of the Kurgan Arzhan-2 Complex According to Archaeological Data |title=Impact of the Environment on Human Migration in Eurasia |series=NATO Science Series: IV: Earth and Environmental Sciences |last1=Chugunov |first1=K. V. |last2=Parzinger |first2=H. |last3=Nagler |first3=A. |volume=42 }}</ref>
</gallery>

===Shilikty/ Baigetobe kurgan ({{circa|700 BC}})===

{{main|Shilikty}}
Shilikty is an archaeological site in eastern [[Kazakhstan]] with numerous 8-6th century BC Early Saka [[kurgans]].<ref name="Pan"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhumatayev |first1=Rinat |title=Royal Mound Baygetobe from the Burial Ground Shilikty |journal=International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic, Business and Industrial Engineering |date=1 January 2013 |url=https://www.academia.edu/45623946}}</ref> Carbon-14 dating suggests date of 730-690 BC for the kurgans, and a broad contemporaneity with the [[Arzhan-2]] kurgan in Tuva.<ref name="Pan">{{cite journal |last1=Panyushkina |first1=Irina P |last2=Slyusarenko |first2=Igor Y |last3=Sala |first3=Renato |last4=Deom |first4=Jean-Marc |last5=Toleubayev |first5=Abdesh T |title=Calendar Age of the Baigetobe Kurgan from the Iron Age Saka Cemetery in Shilikty Valley, Kazakhstan |journal=Radiocarbon |date=March 2016 |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=157–167 |doi=10.1017/RDC.2015.15 |bibcode=2016Radcb..58..157P |hdl=10150/628658 |s2cid=131703468 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Location-of-the-Shilikty-burial-site-in-the-Altai-Mountains-of-southeastern-Kazakhstan_fig2_289407150|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

The Kurgans contained vast quantities of precious golden jewelry.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Francfort |first1=Henri-Paul |title=Images du combat contre le sanglier en Asie centrale (3 ème au 1 er millénaire av. J.-C.) |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |date=2002 |volume=16 |page=118 |jstor=24049162 |issn=0890-4464|quote=Ainsi des bractrées d'or à l'effigie du sanglier qui étaient fixées aux vêtements ont été découvertes dans les Kourganes du 6eme siècle de Chilikti (Kazakhstan oriental) et d'Arzhan-2 (Touva)}}</ref> Remains of a "golden man" (similar to the [[Issyk kurgan]] golden man) were found in 2003, with 4262 gold finds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Noyanuly |first1=Noyanov Edyl |title=THE "GOLDEN PEOPLE" OF KAZAKHSTAN |journal=World Science |date=2016 |page=47 |url=https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-golden-people-of-kazakhstan/viewer|quote="2003 Associate Professor of National University of Al-Farabi Kazakh National University and Professor Gani lobster Abde§ Tulebaev in East -Kazakhstan near Zaisan in place Baygetobe "Chilikti-3" number 1, the mound of the "golden man" (4262 gold find) (Figure 4)"}}</ref>

===Arzhan 2 ({{circa|650 BC}})===
{{see also|Aldy-Bel culture}}
[[File:Аржаан - 2.JPG|thumb|Arzhan 2 kurgan (7th-6th centuries BC, associated with the [[Aldy-Bel culture]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chugunov |first1=K. V. |last2=Parzinger |first2=H. |last3=Nagler |first3=A. |title=Impact of the Environment on Human Migration in Eurasia |chapter=Chronology and Cultural Affinity of the Kurgan Arzhan-2 Complex According to Archaeological Data |series=NATO Science Series: IV: Earth and Environmental Sciences |date=2005 |volume=42 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-2656-0_1 |chapter-url=|publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=1-4020-2655-2 |language=en}}</ref>]]
Arzhan-2 was an undisturbed burial.<ref name="Man20">{{cite book |last=Man |first=John |author-link=John Man (author) |date=2020 |title=Empire of Horses: The First Nomadic Civilization and the Making of China |location=New York |publisher=Pegasus Books |page=20 |isbn=978-1-64313-327-0}}</ref> Archaeologists found a royal couple, sixteen murdered attendants, and 9,300 objects.<ref name="Man20"/> 5,700 of these artifacts were made of gold, weighing a Siberian record-breaking twenty kilograms.<ref name="Man20"/> The male, who researchers guess was some sort of king, wore a golden [[torc]], a jacket decorated with 2,500 golden panther figurines, a gold-encrusted dagger on a belt, trousers sewn with golden beads, and gold-cuffed boots.<ref name="Man20"/> The woman wore a red cloak that was also covered in 2,500 golden panther figurines, as well as a golden-hilted iron dagger, a gold comb, and a wooden ladle with a golden handle.<ref name="Man20"/>

<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px" perrow="4">
File:Arzhan deer.jpg|"Animal style" deer, (7-6th century BC) Tuva.
File:6. Pectorale burial mound Arzhan (VIII. - VII. B. C.) Tuva.JPG|Pectoral plate, from burial mound Arzhan (7-6th century BC) Tuva.
File:8. Akinak (dagger) bural mound Arzhan (VIII.-VII. B.C.) Tuva.JPG|Akinak (dagger) burial mound Arzhan (7-6th century BC) Tuva.
</gallery>

=== Eleke Sazy Burial Complex ({{circa|800-400 BC}})===
[[File:Eleke Sazy stag rotated, morphed, cropped.jpg|thumb|Recumbent stag plaque, Eleke Sazy, Kazakhstan; 8th to 6th century BC]]
In 2020, archaeologists excavated multiple burial mounds in the Eleke Sazy Valley in East Kazakhstan. Here, a large number of gold artifacts were found. These artifacts included golf harness fittings, pendants, chains, appliqués, and more – most of which are in the [[Animal Style]] of the Scythian-Saka era dating back to the 5th–4th centuries BC.<ref>{{Cite web|title=850 gold artefacts belonging to the Scythian-Saka era found in Kazakhstan|url=https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2020/09/850-gold-artefacts-belonging-to.html|access-date=27 September 2021|website=The Archaeology News Network|archive-date=27 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927225716/https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2020/09/850-gold-artefacts-belonging-to.html}}</ref>

===Berel burial mound ({{circa|350–300 BC}})===
Near the selo of Berel in the [[Katonkaragay District]] of eastern [[Kazakhstan]] ({{coord|49.3732082|86.4380264|scale:20000|format=dms|display=inline|name=Berel}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wikimapia.org/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070623073958/http://www.wikimapia.org/#lat=49.3732082&lon=86.4380264&z=15&l=9&m=s&v=9|title=Wikimapia - Let's describe the whole world!|archive-date=23 June 2007|website=wikimapia.org}}</ref>) excavations of ancient burial mounds have revealed artefacts the sophistication of which are encouraging a revaluation of the nomadic cultures of the 3rd and 4th centuries BC.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/science/from-their-graves-ancient-nomads-speak.html|title=Artifacts Show Sophistication of Ancient Nomads|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=12 March 2012 |access-date=1 March 2014|last1=Wilford |first1=John Noble }}</ref>

<gallery>
File:31. Catlike predator with protomas of two elk burial mound Berel (IV.-III. B.C.) Kazakhstan.JPG|Catlike predator with protomas of two elk, burial mound [[Berel, Kazakhstan|Berel]] (4th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan, Pazyryk culture.
File:1. Deer in Griffin's beak, burial mound Berel (IV-III. B.C.) Kazakstan.JPG|Deer in Griffin's beak, burial mound Berel (4th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan.
File:12. Tigergriffin arthor work based on Scytian- saka animal style burial mound Berel (V. - III. B.C.) Kazakstan.JPG|Tigergriffin arthor work based on Scytian- saka animal style, burial mound Berel (5th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan.
File:28. Griffins burial mound Berel (V.-III. B.C.) Kazakhstan.JPG|Griffins, burial mound Berel (5th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan.
File:34. Frontal decoration (harness) burial mound Berel (IV.-III. B.C.) Kazakhstan.JPG|Frontal decoration (harness), burial mound Berel (4th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan, Pazyryk culture.
</gallery>

=== Pazyryk culture ({{circa|300 BC}})===
{{Main|Pazyryk culture}}

[[File:PazyrikHorseman.JPG|thumb|upright|right|A ''[[Pazyryk culture|Pazyryk]]'' horseman in a felt painting from a burial around 300 BC. The Pazyryks appear to be closely related to the Scythians.<ref name=Parragon>{{cite book |author=Dr. Aaron Ralby|title=Atlas of Military History|chapter=Scythians, c. 700 BCE—600 CE: Punching a Cloud|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/atlasofworldmili0000ralb|chapter-url-access=registration|year=2013 |publisher=Parragon|isbn=978-1-4723-0963-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/atlasofworldmili0000ralb/page/224 224–225]}}</ref>]]

Saka burials documented by modern archaeologists include the [[kurgan]]s at [[Pazyryk burials|Pazyryk]] in the [[Ulagan]] (Red) district of the [[Altai Republic]], south of [[Novosibirsk]] in the [[Altai Mountains]] of southern [[Siberia]] (near Mongolia). Archaeologists have extrapolated the [[Pazyryk culture]] from these finds: five large burial mounds and several smaller ones between 1925 and 1949, one opened in 1947 by Russian archaeologist [[Sergei Rudenko]]. The burial mounds concealed chambers of larch-logs covered over with large [[cairn]]s of boulders and stones.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBydRHyHN10C&pg=PR29 |title=Frozen Tombs of Siberia: The Pazyryk Burials of Iron Age Horsemen |author=Сергей Иванович Руденко (Sergei I. Rudenko) |isbn=978-0-520-01395-7 |date=1970 |publisher=University of California Press}}</ref>

The Pazyryk culture flourished between the 7th and 3rd century BC in the area associated with the ''[[Sacae]]''.

Ordinary Pazyryk graves contain only common utensils, but in one, among other treasures, archaeologists found the famous [[:File:Scythiancarpet.jpg|Pazyryk Carpet]], the oldest surviving wool-pile [[oriental rug]]. Another striking find, a 3-metre-high four-wheel funerary chariot, survived well-preserved from the 5th to 4th century BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/08/hm88_0_0_17_0.html |title= Chariot |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010706232807/http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/08/hm88_0_0_17_0.html |archive-date=6 July 2001 |work=Hermitage Museum}}</ref>

===Southern Siberian kurgans excavated in the 18th century===
{{main|Siberian Collection of Peter the Great}}

[[File:Approximate location of the finds of the Siberian Collection of Peter the Great.png|thumb|left|Approximate location of the finds of the Siberian Collection of Peter the Great.<ref name="BM">{{cite book |last1=Pankova |first1=Svetlana |last2=Simpson |first2=St John |title=Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia |date=1 January 2017 |publisher=British Museum |url=https://www.academia.edu/34533231}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Presenting the Warrior Iron Age Scythian Materials and Gender Identity at the British Museum American Journal of Archaeology |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |date=July 2018 |url=https://www.ajaonline.org/online-museum-review/3680 |language=en}}</ref>]]

During the 18th century and the Russian expansion into Siberia, many Saka kurgans were plundered, sometimes by independent grave-robbers or sometimes officially at the instigation of [[Peter the Great]], but usually without any archaeological records being taken.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Presenting the Warrior Iron Age Scythian Materials and Gender Identity at the British Museum, American Journal of Archaeology |website=www.ajaonline.org |date=July 2018 |url=https://www.ajaonline.org/online-museum-review/3680 |language=en}}</ref> Only the general location where they were excavated is known, between modern [[Kazakhstan]] and the [[Altai Mountains]].<ref name="BM"/>

Many of these artefacts were part of the archaeological presents sent by {{ill|Matvey Gagarin|ru|Гагарин, Матвей Петрович}}, Governor of Siberia based in [[Tobolsk]], to [[Peter the Great]] in [[Saint-Petersburg]] in 1716.<ref>{{cite web |title=Museum notice |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/68423546@N08/48574017982/in/photostream/ |date=19 August 2019}}</ref> They are now located in the [[Hermitage Museum]] in [[Saint-Petersburg]], and form the [[Siberian Collection of Peter the Great]]. Their estimated datation ranges from the 7th century BC to the 1st century BC, depending on the artefacts.<ref name="BM"/>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Siberian Collection of Peter the Great An aigrette. State Hermitage. Inv. Si 1727 1-131.jpg|Aigrette, 4th-3rd century BC. [[Siberian Collection of Peter the Great]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pankova |first1=Svetlana |last2=Simpson |first2=St John |title=Masters of the Steppe: The Impact of the Scythians and Later Nomad Societies of Eurasia: Proceedings of a conference held at the British Museum, 27-29 October 2017 |date=21 January 2021 |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-78969-648-6 |page=223 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6MWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA223 |language=en}}</ref>
Steppes horseman hunting.jpg|[[Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)]], 2nd-1st century BC.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pankova |first1=Svetlana |last2=Simpson |first2=St John |title=Masters of the Steppe: The Impact of the Scythians and Later Nomad Societies of Eurasia: Proceedings of a conference held at the British Museum, 27-29 October 2017 |date=21 January 2021 |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-78969-648-6 |page=219 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6MWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219 |language=en}}</ref>
File:Ингальская долина-3.jpg|Belt plaque from the Siberian collection of Peter the Great, probably [[Ingala Valley]]
File:Siberian gold, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great.jpg|Siberian gold, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great
</gallery>

=== Tillia Tepe treasure (2nd-1st century BC) ===
{{Main|Tillia Tepe}}

[[File:TilliaTepeReconstitution.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Artifacts found the tombs 2 and 4 of [[Tillya Tepe]] and reconstitution of their use on the man and woman found in these tombs]]

A site found in 1968 in [[Tillia Tepe]] (literally "the golden hill") in northern [[Afghanistan]] (former Bactria) near [[Shebergan]] consisted of the graves of five women and one man with extremely rich jewelry, dated to around the 1st century BC, and probably related to that of Saka tribes normally living slightly to the north.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pankova |first1=Svetlana |last2=Simpson |first2=St John |title=Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia |date=1 January 2017 |publisher=British Museum |page=66, Item 25 |url=https://www.academia.edu/34533231 |quote=These graves at Tillya Tepe were initially regarded by the excavator as belonging to Yuezhi or Kushan nobility, but they are most likely to be tombs of a local tribal chief and his family who had strong connections with the Sakā cultures of Central Asia.}}</ref> Altogether the graves yielded several thousands of pieces of fine jewelry, usually made from combinations of [[gold]], [[turquoise]] and [[lapis-lazuli]].

A high degree of cultural [[syncretism]] pervades the findings, however. [[Hellenistic]] cultural and artistic influences appear in many of the forms and human depictions (from [[Putto|amorini]] to rings with the depiction of [[Athena]] and her name inscribed in Greek), attributable to the existence of the [[Seleucid empire]] and [[Greco-Bactrian]] kingdom in the same area until around 140 BC, and the continued existence of the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]] in the northwestern Indian sub-continent until the beginning of our era. This testifies to the richness of cultural influences in the area of Bactria at that time.

== Culture ==
=== Gender roles ===
Recently, evidence confirmed by the full-genomic analysis of a Scythian child's remains found in a coffin made of a larch trunk, which was discovered in Saryg-Bulun in Central Tuva, revealed that the individual, previously thought to be male because it had items that were associated with the belief that Scythian society was male-dominated, was actually female. Along with the leather skirt, the burial also contained a leather headdress painted with red pigment, a coat sewn from jerboa fur, a leather belt with bronze ornaments and buckles, a leather quiver with arrows with painted ornaments on the shafts, a fully-preserved battle pick, and a bow. These items provide valuable insights into the material culture and lifestyle of the Scythians, including their hunting and warfare practices, and their use of animal hides for clothing.<ref>New Kilunovskaya, M. E., Semenov, V. A., Busova, V. S., Mustafin, Kh. Kh., Alborova, I. E., & Matzvai, A. D. (2018). The Unique Burial of a Child of Early Scythian Time at the Cemetery of Saryg-Bulun (Tuva). Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia, 46(3), 379–406.</ref>

=== Art ===
{{Further|Scythian art}}
[[File:Orlat plaque encounter.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Battle scenes between "[[Kangju]]" Saka warriors, from the [[Orlat plaques]]. 1st century AD.]]
The art of the Saka was of a similar styles as other Iranian peoples of the steppes, which is referred to collectively as [[Scythian art]]. In 2001, the discovery of an undisturbed royal Scythian burial-barrow at [[Arzhan culture|Arzhan]] illustrated Scythian animal-style gold that lacks the direct influence of Greek styles. Forty-four pounds of gold weighed down the royal couple in this burial, discovered near [[Kyzyl]], capital of the [[Siberia]]n republic of [[Tuva]].

Ancient influences from and to Central Asia became identifiable in China following contacts of metropolitan China with nomadic western and northwestern border territories from the 8th century BC. The Chinese adopted the Scythian-style animal art of the [[steppe]]s (descriptions of animals locked in combat), particularly the rectangular belt-plaques made of gold or bronze, and created their own versions in [[jade]] and [[steatite]].<ref>Mallory and Mair, ''The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West'', 2000</ref>

Following their expulsion by the [[Yuezhi]], some Saka may also have migrated to the area of [[Yunnan]] in southern China. Saka warriors could also have served as mercenaries for the various kingdoms of ancient China. Excavations of the prehistoric art of the [[Dian Kingdom|Dian]] civilisation of Yunnan have revealed hunting scenes of [[Caucasoid]] horsemen in Central Asian clothing.<ref>"Les Saces", Iaroslav Lebedynsky, p.73 {{ISBN|2-87772-337-2}}</ref>

Saka influences have been identified as far as Korea and Japan. Various Korean artifacts, such as the royal crowns of the kingdom of [[Silla]], are said to be of "Scythian" design.<ref>Crowns similar to the Scythian ones discovered in [[Tillia Tepe]] "appear later, during the 5th and 6th century at the eastern edge of the Asia continent, in the [[tumulus]] tombs of the Kingdom of Silla, in South-East Korea. "Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés", 2006, p282, {{ISBN|978-2-7118-5218-5}}</ref> Similar crowns, brought through contacts with the continent, can also be found in [[Kofun era]] Japan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://sgkohun.world.coocan.jp/GUNMA/maebasi/kinkan.html |title=金冠塚古墳 – Sgkohun.world.coocan.jp |access-date=14 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722101738/http://sgkohun.world.coocan.jp/GUNMA/maebasi/kinkan.html |archive-date=22 July 2011 }}</ref>

=== Clothing ===
[[File:Majiayuan tomb figurines.jpg|thumb|Saka-style [[Majiayuan|Majiayuan culture]] tomb figurines (3rd-2nd century BC).<ref>See {{cite journal |last1=Linduff |first1=Katheryn |title=A Contextual Explanation for "Foreign" or "Steppic" Factors Exhibited in Burials at the Majiayuan Cemetery and the Opening of the Tianshan Mountain Corridor |journal=Asian Archaeology |date=2013 |page=81, Figure 6 (Majiayuan Tomb 3)| url=https://www.academia.edu/36091247}}</ref>]]
Similar to other [[eastern Iranian peoples]] represented on the reliefs of the [[Apadana]] at [[Persepolis]], Sakas are depicted as wearing long trousers, which cover the uppers of their boots. Over their shoulders they trail a type of long mantle, with one diagonal edge in back. One particular tribe of Sakas (''the Saka tigraxaudā'') wore [[Phrygian cap|pointed caps]]. [[Herodotus]] in his description of the Persian army mentions the Sakas as wearing trousers and tall pointed caps.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gropp |first1=G |title=Clothing v. In Pre-Islamic Eastern Iran |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/clothing-v |website=iranicaonline.org |publisher=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=6 January 2019}}</ref>

[[File:Kneeling bronze warrior figurine in Greeco-Bactrian style. Central Asian, 5th Cnetury BC - 3rc Century BC.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Statuette from the Saka culture in [[Xinjiang]], from a 3rd-century BC burial site north of the [[Tian Shan]], [[Xinjiang Region Museum]], [[Ürümqi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/640849 |website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref>{{sfn|Di Cosmo|1999|loc=[https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Statuette-of-warrior-a-and-bronze-cauldron-b-Saka-culture-Xinjiang-From-Mu_fig3_286685537 13.5. Statuette of warrior (a), and bronze cauldron (b), Saka...]}} Could alternatively be a Greek hoplite.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Betts |first1=Alison |last2=Vicziany |first2=Marika |last3=Jia |first3=Peter Weiming |last4=Castro |first4=Angelo Andrea Di |title=The Cultures of Ancient Xinjiang, Western China: Crossroads of the Silk Roads |date=19 December 2019 |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-78969-407-9 |page=103 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxUSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |language=en}}</ref>]]
Men and women wore long trousers, often adorned with metal plaques and often embroidered or adorned with felt {{transliteration|fr|appliqué}}s; trousers could have been wider or tight fitting depending on the area. Materials used depended on the wealth, climate and necessity.<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://koreascience.or.kr/article/JAKO201628663264867.page | title= The Study on the Scythian Costume III -Focaused on the Scythian of the Pazyryk region in Altai-|publisher= Korea Institute of Science and Technology | journal=Fashion & Textile Research Journal |volume=18|issue=4|year=2016|first= Youngsoo |last= Yi-Chang | pages= 424–437| doi= 10.5805/SFTI.2016.18.4.424 | access-date= 19 October 2020|doi-access= free}}</ref>

Herodotus says Sakas had "high caps tapering to a point and stiffly upright." Asian Saka headgear is clearly visible on the Persepolis Apadana staircase bas-relief – high pointed hat with flaps over ears and the nape of the neck.<ref name="saka_bas_relief">The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago Photographic Archives. Persepolis – Apadana, E Stairway, Tribute Procession, the Saka Tigraxauda Delegation.[http://oi.uchicago.edu/gallery/pa_iran_paai_per_apa/index.php/1E8_72dpi.png?action=big&size=resize&fromthumbnail=true] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012073352/http://oi.uchicago.edu/gallery/pa_iran_paai_per_apa/index.php/1E8_72dpi.png?action=big&size=resize&fromthumbnail=true|date=12 October 2012}} Retrieved 27 June 2012</ref> From China to the Danube delta, men seemed to have worn a variety of soft headgear – either conical like the one described by Herodotus, or rounder, more like a Phrygian cap.

Saka women dressed in much the same fashion as men. A Pazyryk burial, discovered in the 1990s, contained the skeletons of a man and a woman, each with weapons, arrowheads, and an axe. Clothing was sewn from plain-weave wool, hemp cloth, silk fabrics, felt, leather and hides.

[[File:Cavalry and Horse Warring States period 475-221 BCE Terracotta Warriors 2013 exhibit at San Francisco's Asian Art Museum 20130320-110726 C4A.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The ''[[Taerpo horserider]]'', a Chinese [[Qin (state)|Warrior-State Qin]] terracotta figurine from a tomb in the Taerpo cemetery near [[Xianyang]] in [[Shaanxi Province]], 4th-3rd century BC. This is the earliest known representation of a cavalryman in China.<ref name="MK">{{cite journal |last1=Khayutina |first1=Maria |title=From wooden attendants to terracotta warriors |journal=Bernisches Historisches Museum the Newsletter |date=Autumn 2013 |volume=65 |page=2, Fig.4 |url=https://www.iias.asia/sites/iias/files/nwl_article/2019-05/IIAS_NL65_1213.pdf|quote=Other noteworthy terracotta figurines were found in 1995 in a 4th-3rd century BCE tomb in the Taerpo cemetery near Xianyang in Shaanxi Province, where the last Qin capital of the same name was located from 350 to 207 BCE. These are the earliest representations of cavalrymen in China discovered up to this day. One of this pair can now be seen at the exhibition in Bern (Fig. 4). A small, ca. 23 cm tall, figurine represents a man sitting on a settled horse. He stretches out his left hand, whereas his right hand points downwards. Holes pierced through both his fists suggest that he originally held the reins of his horse in one hand and a weapon in the other. The rider wears a short jacket, trousers and boots – elements of the typical outfit of the inhabitants of the Central Asian steppes. Trousers were first introduced in the early Chinese state of Zhao during the late 4th century BCE, as the Chinese started to learn horse riding from their nomadic neighbours. The state of Qin should have adopted the nomadic clothes about the same time. But the figurine from Taerpo also has some other features that may point to its foreign identity: a hood-like headgear with a flat wide crown framing his face and a high, pointed nose.}} Also in {{cite book |last1=Khayutina |first1=Maria |title=Qin: the eternal emperor and his terracotta warriors |date=2013 |publisher=Neue Zürcher Zeitung |location=Zürich |isbn=978-3-03823-838-6 |page=cat. no. 314 |edition=1. Aufl}}</ref> The outfit is of Central Asian style, probably Scythian,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Qingbo |first1=Duan |title=Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis |journal=Journal of Chinese History |date=January 2023 |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=26 Fig.1, 27 |doi=10.1017/jch.2022.25 |s2cid=251690411 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3F6506262A9ED57C9DC3827EEAA6B230/S2059163222000251a.pdf/sino-western-cultural-exchange-as-seen-through-the-archaeology-of-the-first-emperors-necropolis.pdf|quote=In terms of formal characteristics and style of dress and adornment, the closest parallels to the Warring States-period Qin figurines are found in the Scythian culture. Wang Hui 王輝 has examined the exchanges between the cultures of the Yellow River valley and the Scythian culture of the steppe. During a 2007 exhibition on the Scythians in Berlin, there was a bronze hood on display labeled a "Kazakh military cap." This bronze hood and the clothing of the nomads in kneeling posture [also depicted in the exhibition] are very similar in form to those of the terracotta figurines from the late Warring States Qin-period tomb at the Taerpo site (see Figure 1). The style of the Scythian bronze horse figures and the saddle, bridle, and other accessories on their bodies are nearly identical to those seen on the Warring States-period Qin figurines and a similar type of artifact from the Ordos region, and they all date to the fifth to third centuries BCE.}}</ref> and the rider with his high-pointed nose appears to be a foreigner.<ref name="MK"/> King [[Zheng of Qin]] (246–221 BC) is known to have employed steppe cavalry men in his army, as seen in his [[Terracotta Army]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rawson |first1=Jessica |title=China and the steppe: reception and resistance |journal=Antiquity |date=April 2017 |volume=91 |issue=356 |page=386 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2016.276 |s2cid=165092308 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315991114|quote=King Zheng of Qin (246–221 BC), who was to be the First Emperor (221–210 BC), took material from many regions. As he unified the territory, he employed steppe cavalry men in his army, as we now recognise from the terracotta warriors guarding his tomb (Khayutina 2013: cat. no. 314), whose dress resembles that of the steppe leaders known to the Achaemenids and Parthians (Curtis 2000: front cover), but he proclaimed his conquest in the language of the Central Plains: Chinese. The First Emperor must have had advisors who knew something of the seals, weights and measures of Central Asia and Iran (Khayutina 2013: cat. nos 115–17), and also retained craftsmen who had mastered Western technologies and cast bronze birds for his tomb in hitherto unknown life-like forms (Mei et al. 2014). He also exploited mounted horsemen and iron weaponry originally from the steppe, and agriculture and settlements of the Central Plains, turning to the extraordinary organisation of people and manufacturing from this area to create a unified state. This could only be achieved by moving towards the centre, as the Emperor indeed did.}}</ref>]]
Pazyryk findings give the most almost fully preserved garments and clothing worn by the Scythian/Saka peoples. Ancient Persian bas-reliefs, inscriptions from [[Apadana]] and [[Behistun]] and archaeological findings give visual representations of these garments.

Based on the Pazyryk findings (can be seen also in the south Siberian, Uralic and Kazakhstan rock drawings) some caps were topped with zoomorphic wooden sculptures firmly attached to a cap and forming an integral part of the headgear, similar to the surviving nomad helmets from northern China. Men and warrior women wore tunics, often embroidered, adorned with felt applique work, or metal (golden) plaques.

Persepolis Apadana again serves a good starting point to observe the tunics of the Sakas. They appear to be a sewn, long-sleeved garment that extended to the knees and was girded with a belt, while the owner's weapons were fastened to the belt (sword or dagger, [[gorytos]], battle-axe, whetstone etc.). Based on numerous archeological findings, men and warrior women wore long-sleeved tunics that were always belted, often with richly ornamented belts. The Kazakhstan Saka (e.g. Issyk Golden Man/Maiden) wore shorter and closer-fitting tunics than the Pontic steppe Scythians. Some Pazyryk culture Saka wore short belted tunic with a lapel on the right side, with upright collar, 'puffed' sleeves narrowing at the wrist and bound in narrow cuffs of a color different from the rest of the tunic.

Men and women wore coats: e.g. Pazyryk Saka had many varieties, from fur to felt. They could have worn a riding coat that later was known as a Median robe or Kantus. Long sleeved, and open, it seems that on the Persepolis Apadana Skudrian delegation is perhaps shown wearing such coat. The Pazyryk felt tapestry shows a rider wearing a billowing cloak.

====Tattoos====

Men and women of eastern saka are known to have been extensively tattooed. The men in the [[Pazyryk burials]] had extensive tattoos in the Siberian [[animal style]].<ref name="nomads">{{cite web|url=http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/hm3_2_7.html
|title=Early Nomads of the Altaic Region|publisher=The Hermitage|access-date=31 July 2007|archive-date=22 June 2007
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622035146/http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/hm3_2_7.html}}</ref> A Pazyryk chief in burial mound 2, had his body covered in animal style tattoos, but not his face.<ref name="SP106">{{cite book |last1=Pankova |first1=Svetlana |last2=Simpson |first2=St John |title=Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia |date=1 January 2017 |publisher=British Museum |pages=106–109 |url=https://www.academia.edu/34533231}}</ref> Parts of the body had deteriorated, but much of the tattooing was still clearly visible. Subsequent investigation using reflected [[infrared photography]] revealed that all five bodies discovered in the Pazyryk kurgans were tattooed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barkova |first1=L. L. |last2=Pankova |first2=S. V. |title=Tattooed Mummies From The Large Pazyryk Mounds: New findings |journal=Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia |date=2005 |volume=2 |issue=22 |pages=48–59 |url=https://www.academia.edu/3640168 |access-date=21 December 2023}}</ref> No instruments specifically designed for tattooing were found, but the Pazyryks had extremely fine needles with which they did miniature [[embroidery]], and these were probably used for tattooing. The chief was elaborately decorated with an interlocking series of striking designs representing a variety of fantastic beasts. The best preserved [[tattoo]]s were images of a [[donkey]], a [[argali|mountain ram]], two highly stylized [[deer]] with long antlers and an imaginary [[carnivore]] on the right arm. Two monsters resembling [[griffin]]s decorate the chest, and on the left arm are three partially obliterated images which seem to represent two deer and a [[mountain goat]]. On the front of the right leg a [[fish]] extends from the foot to the knee. A monster crawls over the right foot, and on the inside of the shin is a series of four running rams which touch each other to form a single design. The left leg also bears tattoos, but these designs could not be clearly distinguished. In addition, the chief's back was tattooed with a series of small circles in line with the vertebral column.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pankova |first1=Svetlana |last2=Simpson |first2=St John |title=Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia |date=1 January 2017 |publisher=British Museum |pages=106–109, Items 31, 32, 33|url=https://www.academia.edu/34533231}}</ref> The [[Siberian Ice Maiden]] is also known for her extensive tattoos.<ref name="siberiantimes.com">{{cite journal |title=Siberian Princess reveals her 2,500 year old tattoos |journal=The Siberian Times |date=2012 |url=https://siberiantimes.com/culture/others/features/siberian-princess-reveals-her-2500-year-old-tattoos/ |archive-date=11 March 2024 |access-date=4 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240311103950/https://siberiantimes.com/culture/others/features/siberian-princess-reveals-her-2500-year-old-tattoos/ }}</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Pazyryk-2 tattoos.png|Tattoos of the Pazyryk-2 chief.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pankova |first1=Svetlana |last2=Simpson |first2=St John |title=Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia |date=1 January 2017 |publisher=British Museum |pages=106–109, Items 31, 32, 33 |url=https://www.academia.edu/34533231}}</ref>
File:Pazyryk tatoo design with zoomorphic symbols, 4th century BCE.jpg|Tattoos of the chief's right arm, with zoomorphic symbols.<ref name="siberiantimes.com"/>
File:Pazyryk-2 man, back and left arm (circa 300 BCE).jpg|Tattoos of the chief's back and left arm.<ref name="siberiantimes.com"/>
File:Tatoo motif on the arm of the Siberian Ice Maiden.png|Tattoo motif on the arm of the [[Siberian Ice Maiden]].<ref name="siberiantimes.com"/>
</gallery>

=== Warfare ===
A skull from an Iron Age cemetery in [[South Siberia]] shows evidence of scalping. It lends physical evidence to the practice of scalp taking by the Scythians living there.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=Eileen |last2=Gokhman |first2=Ilia |last3=Chistov |first3=Yuri |last4=Barkova |first4=Ludmilla |title=Prehistoric Old World Scalping: New Cases from the Cemetery of Aymyrlyg, South Siberia |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |date=2002 |volume=106 |issue=1|pages=1–10 |doi=10.2307/507186 |jstor=507186 |s2cid=161894416 }}</ref>

===Later depictions of "Sakas" in China (1st–3rd century AD)===
Numerous depictions of foreigners of Saka appearance appear in China around the [[Eastern Han]] period (25–220 AD), sometimes as far east as [[Shandong]]. They may have appeared in relation with the conflicts against the Scythoïd [[Xirong]] in the west or the [[Donghu people]] in the North, or the [[Kushans]] in the area of [[Xinjiang]]. They were generally called ''"[[Hu (people)|Hu]]"'' by the Chinese.<ref name="SKA"/><ref name="SS"/><ref name="BZ"/>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"">
File:Mingqi (Chinese funerary statuette) of a young western man, with scythian type caftan and conical hat reminiscent of early 3rd century CE Kushans. Later Han 3rd century CE. Guimet Museum (MA 4660).jpg|[[Mingqi]] (Chinese funerary statuette) of a young [[Central Asia]]n man, with Saka-type caftan and conical hat reminiscent of early 3rd century AD [[Kushans]]. [[Han dynasty#Eastern Han|Later Han]], 3rd century AD. [[Guimet Museum]] (MA 4660).<ref name="SKA">{{cite book |last1=Kurbanov |first1=Sharofiddin |title=Tadjikistan: au pays des fleuves d'or |date=2021 |publisher=Musée Guimet, Editions Snoeck |location=Paris, Gand |isbn=978-94-6161-627-2 |page=144}}</ref>
File:Hu and Han war narratives. Eastern Han Dynasty (151–153 CE). Tsangshan Han tomb in Linyi city.png|Eastern Han tombs sometimes have depiction of battles between [[Donghu people|Hu]] barbarians, with bows and arrows and wearing pointed hats (left), against Han troops. Eastern Han Dynasty (151–153 AD). Tsangshan Han tomb in Linyi city. Also visible in [[Yinan tombs]].<ref name="BZ">{{cite journal |last1=Bi |first1=Zhicheng |title=Stone Reliefs of the Han Tombs in Shandong Province: Relationship Between Motifs and Composition |journal=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research |date=2019 |pages=175–177 |volume=368 |url=https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125923384.pdf}}</ref>
File:Han monumental statues of Barbarian (山东发现的汉代大型胡人石雕像).png|General appearance of the numerous [[Scythians|Scythoïd]] ''[[Hu (people)|Hu]]'' monumental statues from [[Shandong]], featuring people with a high nose, deep eyes and a pointed hat. [[Eastern Han]] period.<ref name="SS">Several photographs and descriptions in: {{cite journal |last1=徐 |first1=龙国 |title=山东发现的汉代大型胡人石雕像再研究 |journal=美术研究 (Art Research) |date=2017 |url=http://www.kaogu.cn/uploads/soft/2017/20170912xulongguo.pdf| quote= 上述石雕像为胡人形象，对此学者们均无异议。胡人是我国古代中原汉人对北方和西方异族的通称。在汉人的认知领域，胡人的概念比较模糊，大致也有个变化的过程。先秦时的胡，专指匈奴，汉晋时期泛指匈奴、鲜卑、羯、氐、羌，"胡人"的范围已由北方逐渐扩大到西部族群。 "The above-mentioned stone statues are images of Hu people, and scholars have no objection to this. Hu people are the general name given by the Han people in the Central Plains of our country to the foreign ethnic groups in the north and west in ancient China. In the cognitive field of Han people, the concept of Hu people is relatively vague, and it has a tendency to change with time. The Hu in the pre-Qin period refers specifically to the Xiongnu, but in the Han and Jin dynasties generally Hu refers to the Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di, and Qiang. The scope of "Hu people" also expanded from the north to the west." 山东发现的这种高鼻深目、头戴尖帽的胡人形象，很可能是与斯基泰人文化有关的某些白种民族，并推测可能是月氏或早于月氏的民族 "The image of a barbarian with a high nose, deep eyes, and a pointed hat found in Shandong is likely to be some white ethnic group related to the Scythian culture, and it is speculated that it may be the Yuezhi or an ethnic group earlier than the Yuezhi."}}</ref>
File:Yinan battle scene, 2nd century CE, Eastern Han (Hu attack).png|[[Yinan tombs]] relief, depicting an attack by Hu barbarians with pointed hats, bow and arrows. 2nd century AD, Eastern Han.<ref name="Hu">{{cite journal |last1=Bi |first1=Zhicheng |title=Stone Reliefs of the Han Tombs in Shandong Province: Relationship Between Motifs and Composition |journal=Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research |date=2019 |volume=368 |url=https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125923384.pdf|quote=This type of composition is characteristic of the reliefs describing the Hu and Han war found in the Wurongci Temple and Wukaimingci Temple in Jiaxiang County, as well as of the image on the table at the entrance to the Yinan Beizhai tomb in the Linyi city. These works have a symmetrical composition with the center in the form of a bridge.}}</ref>
File:Hu statue columns from Wu Baizhuang 吳白莊 Han period tomb in Linyi, Shandong.jpg|''[[Donghu people|Hu]]'' statue from Wu Baizhuang tomb (吳白莊), [[Han dynasty]] period, [[Linyi]], Shandong.<ref name="doi.org">{{cite journal |last1=Guan |first1=Liu |last2=Bing |first2=Huang |title=The hybrid origin of the dragon-wrapped column in Han dynasty China |journal=Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering |date=2023 |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=1970–1994 |doi=10.1080/13467581.2022.2153057 |s2cid=256778140 |url=|quote=Other evidence to support our argument is that Western, Asian-style architectural elements such as Hu statue columns and arched doorways (Figure 35) indicate the influence of foreign styles in some of the large, high-grade Han pictorial stone tombs currently found in this region, such as the afore-mentioned Wu Baizhuang 吳白莊 tomb in Linyi 臨沂, Shandong.}}</ref>
File:Hu statue with lion column from Wu Baizhuang 吳白莊 Han period tomb in Linyi, Shandong.jpg|''[[Donghu people|Hu]]'' statue from Wu Baizhuang tomb (吳白莊), [[Han dynasty]] period, [[Linyi]], Shandong.<ref name="doi.org"/>
File:Foreigner hunting, circa 500 BCE, Gansu Museum.jpg|Man hunting, circa 500 BC, [[Gansu Museum]].<ref>{{cite web |title=线刻射猎纹骨管 |url=http://www.gansumuseum.com/dc/viewall-131.html |website=www.gansumuseum.com}}</ref>
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Besshatyr Burial Ground]]
* [[History of the central steppe]]
* [[Maga Brahmin]]
* {{ill|Sagetae|lt=Sagetae|it|Sageti}}
* [[Sakas in the Mahabharata]]
* [[Sakzai]]
* [[Scytho-Siberian world]]
* [[Shaka era]]

== References ==
=== Explanatory notes ===
{{notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
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* [[Bailey, H. W.]] 1958. "Languages of the Saka". ''Handbuch der Orientalistik'', I. Abt., 4. Bd., I. Absch., Leiden-Köln. 1958.
* Bailey, H. W. (1979). ''Dictionary of Khotan Saka''. Cambridge University Press. 1979. 1st Paperback edition 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-521-14250-2}}.
* {{cite book |editor-last=Yarshater |editor-first=Ehsan| editor-link=Ehsan Yarshater |last=Bailey |first=H. W. |author-link=Harold Walter Bailey |date=1983 |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |volume=3 |chapter=Khotanese Saka Literature |issue=2 |location=[[Cambridge]], [[United Kingdom]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=1230–1243 |isbn=978-0-521-24693-4 }}
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* {{cite book |last=Baumer |first=Christoph |date=2012 |title=The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yglkwD7pKV8C |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |isbn=978-1-78076-060-5 |author-link=Christoph Baumer }}
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{{refend}}

== External links ==
* {{cite book |last1=Pankova |first1=Svetlana |last2=Simpson |first2=St John |title=Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia |date=1 January 2017 |publisher=British Museum exhibition catalogue|url=https://www.academia.edu/34533231}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Saka | volume= 24 |last= Eliot |first=Charles Norton Edgcumbe |author1-link= Charles Eliot (diplomat) | page = 53 |short=1}}
* [https://www.livius.org/articles/people/scythians-sacae/ Scythians / Sacae] by [[Jona Lendering]]
* [http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Kivisild2003b.pdf Article by Kivisild et al. on genetic heritage of early Indian settlers] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070627000515/http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Kivisild2003b.pdf |date=27 June 2007 }})
* [http://www.friesian.com/sangoku.htm#saka Indian, Japanese and Chinese Emperors – The Sakas/Parthians, 97 BC–125 AD]

{{Central Asian history}}
{{Scythia}}
{{Kazakhstan topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Saka| ]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of ancient India]]
[[Category:Historical Iranian peoples]]
[[Category:History of Central Asia]]
[[Category:Iranian nomads]]
[[Category:Nomadic groups in Eurasia]]

S. Saraswathi Amma

2026-03-15T04:05:24Z

PaulineBarwell2: adding a stub

{{Short description|Indian Radio Presenter and Program Producer (1933 - 2020)}}
{{for|Feminist writer from Kerala|K. Saraswathi Amma}}
{{Infobox person
| name = S. Saraswathi Amma
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1933|02|19}}
| birth_place = [[Thazhava]], [[Travancore]], [[British India]]
| death_place = [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2020|01|15|1933|03|18}}
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Writer, Radio Presenter and Programme Producer
| known_for = ''Mahilalayam'' Radio programme
| movement =
| notable_works =
| spouse = Yeshodharan
| children = 3
| parents = Kottukoyikal Velayudhan, Saradamma
| awards = National Award for a Radio Programme (1985)
| influences =
| signature =
}}
'''S. Saraswathi Amma''' (February 19, 1933 – January 14, 2020) was a [[Malayalam]] language writer, radio anchor and producer of the women's section programme on [[All India Radio]] in [[Kerala]], India. Her popular radio series, “Manaswini Manavathi”, received the [[National Award]] for a Radio Programme in 1985.

==Biography==
S. Saraswathi Amma was born on February 19, 1933, at [[Thazhava]] in present-day [[Karunagappalli]], [[Kollam district]] to Kottukkoyikkal Velayudhan, a freedom fighter and a disciple, and biographer, of [[Sree Narayana Guru]], and Saradamma.<ref name="Keralaliterature">{{cite web |title=സരസ്വതി അമ്മ.എസ് |url=https://keralaliterature.com/malayalam-writers-%e0%b4%ae%e0%b4%b2%e0%b4%af%e0%b4%be%e0%b4%b3%e0%b4%82-%e0%b4%8e%e0%b4%b4%e0%b5%81%e0%b4%a4%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%a4%e0%b5%81%e0%b4%95%e0%b4%be%e0%b4%b0%e0%b5%8d/%e0%b4%b8%e0%b4%b0%e0%b4%b8%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%b5%e0%b4%a4%e0%b4%bf-%e0%b4%85%e0%b4%ae%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%ae-%e0%b4%8e%e0%b4%b8%e0%b5%8d-saraswathi-amma-s/ |website=Keralaliterature.com |date=27 February 2019 |access-date=2 October 2025 |archive-date=3 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251003055317/https://keralaliterature.com/malayalam-writers-%e0%b4%ae%e0%b4%b2%e0%b4%af%e0%b4%be%e0%b4%b3%e0%b4%82-%e0%b4%8e%e0%b4%b4%e0%b5%81%e0%b4%a4%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%a4%e0%b5%81%e0%b4%95%e0%b4%be%e0%b4%b0%e0%b5%8d/%e0%b4%b8%e0%b4%b0%e0%b4%b8%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%b5%e0%b4%a4%e0%b4%bf-%e0%b4%85%e0%b4%ae%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%ae-%e0%b4%8e%e0%b4%b8%e0%b5%8d-saraswathi-amma-s/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Manorama">{{cite news |title=മഹിളാലയം ചേച്ചി എസ്. സരസ്വതിയമ്മ അന്തരിച്ചു |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/kerala/2020/01/15/s-saraswathy-amma-passes-away.html |work=Manorama Online |agency=[[Malayala Manorama]] |language=ml}}</ref><ref name="keralawomen">{{cite web |title=മഹിളാലയം ചേച്ചി എന്ന എസ് സരസ്വതിയമ്മ |url=https://www.keralawomen.gov.in/ml/node/835 |website=Kerala Women |publisher=[[Government of Kerala]] |language=ml |date=30 March 2021 |access-date=2 October 2025 |archive-date=3 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251003055318/https://www.keralawomen.gov.in/ml/node/835 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Saraswathi Amma studied at [[S. N. College, Kollam]] for intermediate course in 1948 and later joined for BA Economics at the same college.<ref name="Hindu">{{cite news |title=College memories to treasure for a lifetime |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/society/college-memories-to-treasure-for-a-lifetime/article6012332.ece |work=The Hindu |date=15 May 2014 |language=en-IN}}</ref> She later studied law at [[Government Law College, Thiruvananthapuram]] which functioned at [[Ernakulam]] during the first year of her course.<ref name="Hindu"/> She was active in the arts and culture sector during her college days.<ref name="janmabhumi">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2015-04-20 |title=ആകാശവാണിയുടെ സ്വന്തം മഹിളാലയം ചേച്ചി |url=https://janmabhumi.in/2015/04/20/2623286/lifestyle/news281198/ |access-date=2025-10-01 |website=Janmabhumi |language=en-US}}</ref> Before getting graduation certificate from law college, she worked among women for a year and formed a women's association called Mahila Samajam'.<ref name="janmabhumi" /> After obtaining certificate, in 1957 she enrolled as an advocate and worked in [[Kollam]].<ref name="Hindu"/>

===Personal life and death===
Saraswathi Amma was married to Yeshodharan and they have three children Maya Priyadarshini, Harikrishnan and Gopikrishnan.<ref name="janmabhumi" /> She died on January 14, 2020, at the age of eighty-six at their residence in Thiruvananthapuram while undergoing treatment for age-related ailments.<ref name="Manorama"/>

==Career==
Saraswathi Amma joined [[All India Radio]], Thiruvananthapuram station in 1965 as the producer of the women's section programs.<ref>{{cite news |title='മഹിളാലയം ചേച്ചി' സരസ്വതിയമ്മ അന്തരിച്ചു |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/malayalam/kerala/sitara/tv-and-theater/akashavani-former-deputy-station-director-s-saraswathi-amma-passed-away/kerala20200115150023168 |work=ETV Bharat News |date=15 January 2020 |language=ml}}</ref> She got the job at All India Radio while she was gaining fame as a lawyer.<ref name="keralawomen"/> She came to All India Radio at a time when programs for women were minimal.<ref name="keralawomen"/> She introduced the idea of a special program for women on All India Radio and started a program called ''Sthreekalkk Mathram'' [For Women Only].<ref name="Emalayalee">{{cite news |title=എന്നും തിളങ്ങുന്നൊരു നക്ഷത്രമായി അവരുടെ സ്വരം; മലയാളികളുടെ സ്വന്തം മഹിളാലയം ചേച്ചി. |url=https://www.emalayalee.com/post/332945 |work=Emalayalee |date=20 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref> Later, she revived the ''Mahilalayam'' a women's program in the All India Radio, and became the producer and presenter of it.<ref name="keralawomen"/> At a time when programs for women were rare, she was reimagining the program ''Mahilalayam'', including women's literary works, plays, and success stories of famous women in various fields.<ref name="Breaking">{{cite news |title=ആകാശവാണിയിലെ 'മഹിളാലയം ചേച്ചി' വിടവാങ്ങി » Breaking Kerala % |url=https://breakingkerala.com/saraswathy-amma-passed-away/ |work=Breaking Kerala |date=15 January 2020 |archive-date=3 October 2025 |access-date=2 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251003055317/https://breakingkerala.com/saraswathy-amma-passed-away/ |url-status=live }}</ref> After becoming the presenter of Mahilalayam, people affectionately called her Mahilalayam Chechi (meaning elder sister).<ref name="keralawomen"/>

Saraswathi Amma received national award in 1985 for her radio program ''Manaswini Manavathi''. It was a program to identify and involve the underprivileged working class women in the society.<ref name="janmabhumi" /> After presenting this program from the Delhi station, it was proposed to be broadcast on radio stations in other states of India.<ref name="janmabhumi" />

At a time when Malayali women who were active in the literary field were rare, Saraswathi Amma started the radio program 'Masika', through which she provided an opportunity for unknown ordinary women writers to grow.<ref name="janmabhumi" />

Saraswathi Amma was also behind the formation of children's choirs in schools under the leadership of All India Radio.<ref name="keralawomen"/> She later became deputy station director of All India Radio, and retired in 1987.<ref name="keralawomen"/>

==Contributions==
''Akasathile Nakshatrarangal'' [Stars in the Sky] is a memoir written by S. Saraswathi Amma about her twenty-six-year career at All India Radio.<ref>{{cite news |title=Now, Saraswathi Amma scripts the golden era of AIR |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thiruvananthapuram/Now-Saraswathi-Amma-scripts-the-golden-era-of-AIR/articleshow/46442553.cms |work=The Times of India |date=3 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="deepika">{{cite news |title=ആകാശവാണി മഹിളാലയം.... |url=https://www.deepika.com/feature/Feature_Details.aspx?newscode=15462&feature_cat=cat17 |work=www.deepika.com |language=ml |date=September 3, 2019 |archive-date=October 3, 2025 |access-date=October 2, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251003055317/https://www.deepika.com/feature/Feature_Details.aspx?newscode=15462&feature_cat=cat17 |url-status=live }}</ref> She has also authored books such as, ''Pookkalum Kunjungalum'' [Flowers and Kids], ''Kuppichillum Rosadalamnum'' [broken glass pieces and Rose Petals], and ''Ammamar Arinjirikkan'' [For mothers to know].<ref name="Keralaliterature"/>

Saraswathi Amma wrote ''Vanithakalkk Mathram'' [for women only], a column for women in [[Mangalam Weekly]] for a long time.<ref name="keralawomen"/><ref name="Emalayalee"/> She also wrote the Vanithavedi column, another column for women, in the Malayala Manorama weekly for two decades.<ref name="Manorama"/>

==Awards and honors==
The program ''Manaswini Manavathi'' by her received a national award in 1985.<ref name="keralawomen"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Saraswathi Amma, S.}}
[[Category:1933 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women writers]]
[[Category:Women writers from Kerala]]
[[Category:Activists from Kerala]]
[[Category:All India Radio women]]
[[Category:Indian women radio presenters]]

Kothagudem

2026-03-14T19:28:55Z

PaulineBarwell2: general updated references for clarity and fixed typos as per guidelines

{{original research|date=July 2017}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Kothagudem
| other_name = Coal city of south india
| settlement_type = [[City]]
| image_skyline = District_collectorate.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = District collectorate at Kothagudem
| nickname = Coal city
| pushpin_map = India Telangana#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Telangana, India
| coordinates = {{coord|17.550|80.63|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{IND}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|}} [[Telangana]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Bhadradri Kothagudem]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Municipal corporation ]]
| governing_body = [[Kothagudem Municipal Corporation]]
| leader_title = Member of Legislative Assembly
| leader_name = Kunamneni Sambasiva Rao
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref name="civicbody">{{cite web|title=Urban Local Body Information|url=http://www.dtcp.telangana.gov.in/ULBs-List-68.pdf|website=Directorate of Town and Country Planning|publisher=Government of Telangana|access-date=28 June 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615135503/http://dtcp.telangana.gov.in/ULBs-List-68.pdf|archive-date=15 June 2016}}</ref>
| area_total_km2 = 86.10
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 89
| population_total = 2,89,456
| population_as_of = 2025
| population_rank = [[List of cities in Telangana by population|6th in Telangana]]
| population_footnotes = <ref name="basic">{{cite web|title=Basic information of muncipality|url=https://kothagudemmunicipality.telangana.gov.in/pages/basic-information|website=Official Site of Kothagudem Municipality}}</ref>
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 507 xxx
| area_code = +91-8744
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = '''TG 28'''
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 1:1 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| website =
| footnotes =
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Urdu]]
}}
'''Kothagudem''' is a city in the [[Indian state]] of [[Telangana]]. It serves as the headquarters of Telangana's [[Bhadradri Kothagudem district]]. It was a part of the large Zamindari estate known as Husanabad Shankaragiri or Palvancha Zamindari in the Nizam's Dominion. The estate's name was given by Captain Glasfurd.<ref name="Godavari District Gazetteer">{{Cite book|last=Gazetter|first=Godavari|title=Madras District Gazetteers Godavari District Gazetteer|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1915|isbn=81-206-1461-5|location=Madras|pages=259}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Andhra Pradesh|first=Census|title=ANDHRA PRADESH 1961 CENSUS - DISTRICT CENSUS HAND BOOK - KHAMMAM DISTRICT|publisher=Government of Andhra Pradesh|year=1968|location=Hyderabad|pages=96–97}}</ref> The Zamindar of Bhadrachalam was also Zamindar of Palvancha.<ref name="Godavari District Gazetteer" />

== Geography ==
Kothagudem is located at {{Coord|17.55|N|80.618|E}}. It has an average elevation of 89 metres (295 ft) above sea level.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/02/Kottagudem.html|title=Maps, Weather, and Airports for Kottagudem, India|website=www.fallingrain.com}}</ref> The North of Kothagudem borders Chhattisgarh state which is approximately 670 km from the town.

Kothagudem is known for its record high temperatures during summer, often crossing the {{convert|48|°C|0|abbr=on}} mark.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2003060203530300.htm&date=2003/06/02/&prd=th&|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120901170917/http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2003060203530300.htm&date=2003/06/02/&prd=th&|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 September 2012|title=The Hindu article about Kothagudem|website=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref>

== Government and politics ==
Kothagudem Municipality was constituted in 1971 and is classified as a ''first grade municipality'' with 33 election wards. The jurisdiction of the civic body is spread over an area of {{convert|16.10|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}.<ref name="civicbody" />

==Demographics==
{{Historical Populations
|source = <ref>{{Cite web | title=Census tables {{!}} Government of India | url=https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/data/census-tables | access-date=2025-11-24 | website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>
|1941 |9669
|1951|50195
|1961|69728
|1971|75542
|1981|94894
|1991|102137
|2001|105266
|2011|119501
}}
According to the [[2011 Census of India|2011 India Census]] the population of Kothagudem was 119,501.<ref>{{Cite web | title=Census tables {{!}} Government of India | url=https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/data/census-tables | access-date=2025-11-24 | website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>

==Transport==
[[National Highway 30 (India)|National Highway 30]] passes through this town.

===Rail===
Kothagudem has a train station which is called [[Bhadrachalam Road railway station]]. It is located on the Dornakal–Manuguru line.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indiarailinfo.com/station/blog/bhadrachalam-road-bdcr/2649 | title=Bhadrachalam Road Railway Station Forum/Discussion - Railway Enquiry }}</ref>

== Education ==

* University College of Engineering, Kakatiya University
==Climate==
{{Weather box|width=auto
| location = Bhadrachallam (Kothagudem) 1981–2010, extremes 1952–2012
| metric first = Yes
| single line = Yes
| Jan record high C = 37.2
| Feb record high C = 40.6
| Mar record high C = 42.8
| Apr record high C = 46.4
| May record high C = 48.6
| Jun record high C = 47.5
| Jul record high C = 40.8
| Aug record high C = 38.2
| Sep record high C = 38.6
| Oct record high C = 38.2
| Nov record high C = 36.0
| Dec record high C = 35.2
| year record high C = 48.6
| Jan high C = 30.8
| Feb high C = 33.8
| Mar high C = 37.2
| Apr high C = 39.3
| May high C = 40.9
| Jun high C = 36.8
| Jul high C = 32.7
| Aug high C = 31.6
| Sep high C = 32.8
| Oct high C = 32.6
| Nov high C = 31.3
| Dec high C = 30.3
| year high C = 34.2
| Jan low C = 17.0
| Feb low C = 19.9
| Mar low C = 22.8
| Apr low C = 25.5
| May low C = 27.4
| Jun low C = 26.5
| Jul low C = 24.6
| Aug low C = 24.4
| Sep low C = 24.5
| Oct low C = 22.9
| Nov low C = 19.3
| Dec low C = 16.9
| year low C = 22.6
| Jan record low C = 8.4
| Feb record low C = 11.6
| Mar record low C = 14.0
| Apr record low C = 17.0
| May record low C = 18.6
| Jun record low C = 19.4
| Jul record low C = 20.0
| Aug record low C = 19.8
| Sep record low C = 19.6
| Oct record low C = 14.0
| Nov record low C = 10.0
| Dec record low C = 8.4
| year record low C = 8.4
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 5.8
| Feb rain mm = 6.2
| Mar rain mm = 11.2
| Apr rain mm = 31.5
| May rain mm = 41.2
| Jun rain mm = 116.4
| Jul rain mm = 293.7
| Aug rain mm = 292.9
| Sep rain mm = 156.6
| Oct rain mm = 82.9
| Nov rain mm = 19.4
| Dec rain mm = 3.0
| year rain mm = 1060.8
| Jan rain days = 0.5
| Feb rain days = 0.4
| Mar rain days = 0.8
| Apr rain days = 1.5
| May rain days = 2.6
| Jun rain days = 7.0
| Jul rain days = 13.3
| Aug rain days = 13.0
| Sep rain days = 8.0
| Oct rain days = 4.1
| Nov rain days = 1.5
| Dec rain days = 0.3
| year rain days = 52.8
|time day = 17:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| Jan humidity = 56
| Feb humidity = 47
| Mar humidity = 44
| Apr humidity = 42
| May humidity = 39
| Jun humidity = 56
| Jul humidity = 74
| Aug humidity = 77
| Sep humidity = 77
| Oct humidity = 74
| Nov humidity = 68
| Dec humidity = 63
|year humidity = 60
|source 1 = [[India Meteorological Department]]<ref name=IMDnormals>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| url = http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf
| title = Station: Bhadrachallam (Kothagudem) Climatological Table 1981–2010
| work = Climatological Normals 1981–2010
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = January 2015
| pages = 125–126
| access-date = 17 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=IMDextremes>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205042509/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| url = http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| title = Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012)
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = December 2016
| page = M11
| access-date = 17 February 2020}}</ref>
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Municipalities of Telangana}}
{{Bhadradri Kothagudem district}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Bhadradri Kothagudem district]]
[[Category:Khammam task force articles]]

Lav Kush

2026-03-03T23:37:54Z

PaulineBarwell2: fixed issues

{{other uses|Lava Kusa (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Lav Kush
| image = Lav Kush.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| writer = {{ubl|Bhring Tupkaria {{small|(dialogues)}}|Dev Kohli|Bhring Tupkaria {{small|(lyrics)}}}}
| screenplay =
| producer = Dilip Kanikaria
| director = [[V. Madhusudhana Rao]]
| starring = {{ubl|[[Jeetendra]]|[[Jaya Prada]]|[[Arun Govil]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-04-30 |title='রাম' হয়েছিলেন 'লক্ষ্ণণ'! 'রামায়ণ'-এর ১০ বছর পর |url=https://bengali.indianexpress.com/entertainment/doordarshan-ramayans-ram-arun-govil-also-played-lakshman-in-lav-kush-216937/ |access-date=2023-07-09 |website=Indian Express Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>|[[Dara Singh]]|[[Pran (actor)|Pran]]}}
| narrator =
| music = [[Raamlaxman]]
| cinematography = K. S. Prakash Rao
| editing = K. Vijaya Babu
| story =
| based_on = ''[[Uttar Ramayan]]''
| studio = Devyank Arts
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1997|07|25}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Lav Kush |url=https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=2668 |access-date=2023-07-09 |website=boxofficeindia.com}}</ref>
| runtime = 165 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Lav Kush''''' is a 1997 Indian [[Hindu mythological film]], produced by Dilip Kanikaria under the Devyank Arts banner and directed by [[V. Madhusudhana Rao]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bureau |first=ABP News |date=2020-04-27 |title=Did You Know Ramayan's Ram Aka Arun Govil Played Lakshman In A Film Co-starring Jeetendra & Jaya Prada? |url=https://news.abplive.com/entertainment/television/ramayan-ram-arun-govil-played-lakshman-in-film-lav-kush-co-starring-jeetendra-jaya-prada-1207362 |access-date=2023-07-09 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref> It is based on [[Valmiki]]'s ''[[Uttar Ramayan]]'' from the Indian [[Epic poetry|epic]] ''[[Ramayana]]''. The music of the film was composed by [[Raamlaxman]]. It stars [[Jeetendra]] as [[Rama]], [[Jaya Prada]] as [[Sita]], [[Arun Govil]] as [[Lakshmana]], [[Dara Singh]] as [[Hanuman]] and [[Pran (actor)|Pran]] as [[Valmiki]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/506009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904102009/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/506009 |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 September 2012 |title=Lav Kush (1997)|work=Bollywood hungama}}</ref>

Upon its release, the film was a financial disaster grossing {{INR|43 [[lakh]]}} at the box office.<ref name=":0" />

==Plot==
The film begins with [[Lord Rama]] returning to [[Ayodhya (Ramayana)|Ayodhya]] after defeating Ravana along with [[Goddess Sita]] and being crowned as the emperor, settling down to a harmonious lifestyle. At that point, his spies inform him that his reputation may be at stake as Sita had spent over a year in Ravana's Lanka. So, he dictates [[Lakshmana]] to ensure that Sita is sent to exile. A devastated, pregnant, and distraught Sita is rescued by Valmiki, who shelters her at his [[ashram]] by renaming her Lokapavni, where she gives birth to twin sons [[Lava (Ramayana)|Lava]]- [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]]. Valmiki trains them as jake of all trades including knowledge, warfare, and religion.

Ten years later, the twins decide to visit a drought and famine-ravaged Ayodhya to get the blessings of Srirama & Sita also recite the Ramayan. Whereupon, they get the knowledge that Srirama has ostracized Sita. Later, they back with an aversion and refuses to invoke the Ramayan. Sita fails to endure, and fumes which indicate fright. However, she calms after Lava-Kusa re-chanting the Ramayana. After a while, Vashitha instructs Rama to conduct ''[[Ashvamedha|Aswamedha Yagam]]'' for the welfare of the country which is impracticable without a wife. Then, Vashista proclaims it can be feasible with the golden ideal of Sita. Plus, the gold required for it is bestowed by the civilians as an atonement for their sins. Now all the sages and saints are invited to the ritual and news spreads to Valmiki's ashram. At this, Sita is perturbed, suspects Srirama's spirit, and collapses. Accordingly, Valmiki relieves her soul to Ayodhya where she is startled to see golden Sita and Srirama's adoration on her.

Soon after, Valmiki states that the meaning of ''Rama Avtar'' is standing on one word, one arrow and love is for only one wife. Herewith, Sita repents and performs a [[puja (Hinduism)|pooja]] as contrition as per the advice of Valmiki. Meanwhile, Srirama begins the ritual and leaves the horse which the twins obstruct, confronts Lakshman, and defeats the entire Ayodhya army along with him. Being cognizant of it, Srirama proceeds to recoup the horse and an altercation carry out between father & sons which leads to war. Spotting it, [[Anjineeya]] hurriedly rushes to Sita and informs her of the catastrophe. Immediately, she impedes the battle and proclaims Lava-Kusha as the progeny of Srirama. Thus, the two embrace their father when everyone requests Sita to be back as queen which she denies and returns to her mother [[Bhūmi|Bhudevi]]. At last, Rama and his brothers renounce the throne by crowning Lava-Kusha. Finally, the movie ends on a happy note with Rama & Sita merging into their original forms of [[Vishnu]] and [[Lakshmi]] at [[Vaikuntha]].

==Cast==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Jeetendra]] as [[Rama|Lord Rama]]
*[[Jaya Prada]] as [[Sita|Goddess Sita]]
*[[Arun Govil]] as [[Lakshmana]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/did-you-know-arun-govil-played-lakshman-in-jeetendra-s-film-lav-kush-after-playing-lord-rama-in-ramayan/story-t8vYtgQa4o2lF3IXhSSJFL.html|title=Arun Govil played Lakshman in Jeetendra's Lav Kush after playing Lord Rama|date=27 April 2020|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>
*[[Dara Singh]] as [[Hanuman|Lord Hanuman]]
*[[Pran (actor)|Pran]] as [[Maharishi Valmiki]]
*[[Mannava Balayya|M. Balayya]] as [[Vashistha]]
*[[Tiku Talsania]] as Prachodi
*[[Jayshree Gadkar]] as [[Kausalya]]
*[[Beena Banerjee]] as [[Shanta]]
*Isha Gupta as [[Urmila]]
*[[Churni Ganguly]] as [[Mandavi]]
*[[Aditi Chatterjee]] as [[Shrutakirti]]
*[[Aruna Irani]] as [[Bhūmi|Goddess Bhudevi]]
*[[Master Baladitya]] as [[Lava (Ramayana)|Lava]]
*Baby Shreshtha as [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]]
}}

==Soundtrack==
The songs were composed by [[Raamlaxman]] and penned by Dev Kohli and Bhring Tupkari. [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Suresh Wadkar]], [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] have lent their voices for the soundtrack.
{|class="wikitable"
! Song !! Singer
|-
| "Yeh Vidhi Ki Dekho"
| [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
|-
| "Barson Ka Hreen Chukane Aayi"
| S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
|-
| "Varnan Kare Kya"
| Lata Mangeshkar, [[Asha Bhosle]]
|-
| "Katha Ram Ki"
| Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle
|-
| "Pativrata Siya"
| Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle
|-
| "Suno Suno Mere"
| Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle
|-
| "Nanha Munna Aayega Mehmaan"
| Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, [[Usha Mangeshkar]]
|-
| "O Dharti Maa"
| Asha Bhosle
|-
| "Jai Jai Ram Siyaram"
| Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, [[Suresh Wadkar]]
|-
| "Karo Nahin"
| Suresh Wadkar
|-
| "Surya Mantra"
| Suresh Wadkar
|-
| "Ram Raj Aayo Re, Aayo Re Aayo Re"
| [[Kavita Krishnamurthy]], [[Alka Yagnik]]
|-
| "Tak Dhina Dhin"
| Alka Yagnik, [[Kumar Sanu]]
|-
|}

== Release ==

{{Empty section|date=May 2020}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0290231}}

[[Category:1997 films]]
[[Category:1997 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Hindu mythological films]]
[[Category:Films based on the Ramayana]]
[[Category:Films directed by V. Madhusudhana Rao]]
[[Category:Films scored by Raamlaxman]]
[[Category:Films based on the Uttar Ramayana]]

Intiguttu (1984 film)

2026-03-03T19:07:06Z

PaulineBarwell2: adjust formatting for consistency and improved wording after review

{{More citations needed|date=November 2006}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Intiguttu
| image = intiguttuchiru.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = K.Bapayya
| based_on = ''[[Panakkara Kudumbam]]'' (1964)
| producer = D.V.S.Raju
| writer = Paruchuri Brothers
| starring = [[Chiranjeevi]] [[Nalini (actress)|Nalini]] [[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]] [[Kaikala Satyanarayana|Satyanarayana]] [[Allu Ramalingaiah]] [[Chandra Mohan (Telugu actor)|Chandra Mohan]]
| music = Chakravarthy
| cinematography = Venkat
| editing = Kotagiri Venkateswarao
| distributor =
| released = {{film date|df=y|1984|9|14}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| budget =
}}

'''''Intiguttu''''' ({{translation|Family Secret}}) is a 1984 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language film that was directed by [[K. Bapayya]]. It stars [[Chiranjeevi]], [[Nalini (actress)|Nalini]], [[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]], and [[Kaikala Satyanarayana]]. The movie is a remake of the 1964 Tamil movie ''[[Panakkara Kudumbam]]''. Despite being a remake of a Tamil film, the film was dubbed in Tamil as ''Dhairiyasali''.<ref>https://eap.bl.uk/archive-file/EAP372-6-23-9-181#?xywh=1708%2C4780%2C6788%2C4063&cv=3</ref>

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Chiranjeevi]]
* [[Nalini (actress)|Nalini]]
* [[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]]
* [[Chandra Mohan (Telugu actor)|Chandramohan]]
* [[Rao Gopala Rao]]
* [[Giri Babu]]
* [[Nutan Prasad]]
* [[Satyanarayana Kaikala|Satyanarayana]]
*[[Allu Ramalingaiah]]
*[[Sarathi (comedian)|Sarathi]]
*[[Chalapathi Rao]]
}}

==Soundtrack==
* Chedugudu
* Lepave Lepave
* Letha Letha Cheekati
* Navvithe Navvandi
* Randi Podamu
* Veriety Veriety

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0154645|Inti Guttu}}

[[Category:1984 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by K. Bapayya]]
[[Category:Films scored by K. Chakravarthy]]
[[Category:1984 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:Telugu remakes of Tamil films]]

{{1980s-Telugu-film-stub}}

1952 Coorg State Legislative Assembly election

2026-02-28T17:45:17Z

PaulineBarwell2: made new data

{{Short description|Legislative Assembly election in Coorg, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{Infobox election
| election_name = 1952 Coorg Legislative Assembly election
| country = India
| type = legislative
| vote_type = Popular 
| ongoing = no
| election_date = 1952
| next_election = 1957 Mysore Legislative Assembly election
| next_year = 1957
| seats_for_election = 24 seats in the [[Coorg Legislative Assembly]]
| majority_seats = 13
| registered = {{formatnum:138440}}
| turnout = 63.53%
| image_size = 100px

| party1 = Indian National Congress
| image1 = C M Poonacha.gif
| leader1 = [[C. M. Poonacha]]
| leaders_seat1 =
| leader_since1 =
| seats1 = 15
| popular_vote1 = 55.54%
| seat_change1 = New


| title = [[Chief Minister of Coorg|CM]]
| before_party =
| before_election =
| after_party = Indian National Congress
| after_election = [[C. M. Poonacha]]
}}
[[File:India Administrative Divisions 1951.svg|thumb|Indian administrative divisions, as of 1951]]

The '''1952 Coorg Legislative Assembly election''' was held to constitute the [[Coorg Legislative Assembly]], electing members of legislature for 18 constituencies of the erstwhile [[India]]n [[States and union territories of India|State]] of [[Coorg State|Coorg]]. It took place on 27 March 1952 and a total of 87,947 people voted 24 out of 60 candidates to power. This was the only election to the assembly before the State was merged into [[Mysore State|Mysore]] (later renamed as [[Karnataka]]) as per the [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956|States Reorganisation Act]] in 1956.<ref name="TheHindu"/><ref name="1955ReorgStates">{{cite web|url=http://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1955_7/42/reorganisation_of_statesthe_approach_and_arrangements.pdf|title=Reorganisation of States, 1955|publisher=The Economic Weekly| date=15 October 1955|accessdate=25 July 2015}}</ref>

==Constituencies==
A total of 24 seats were up for election from 18 constituencies; six two-member constituencies and twelve single-member constituencies. No seats were reserved for [[Scheduled Caste]]s or [[Scheduled Tribe]]s.<ref name="CoorgECI1951"/>

==Contestants==
Sixty candidates contested the election. The [[Indian National Congress]] presented candidates in all 24 constituencies. There were also 34 [[independent (politician)|independent]] candidates.<ref name="CoorgECI1951"/> The [[Thakkadi Party]], which campaigned against merger into [[Mysore State]], contested as independents.<ref name="TheHindu">{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/coorg-and-the-reorganisation-of-states/article5253017.ece | title=Coorg and the reorganisation of States | work=C.M. Ramachandra | date=20 October 2013 | agency=The Hindu | accessdate=14 October 2014}}</ref> The [[Thakkadi Party]] was led by [[Pandyanda Belliappa]], a veteran [[Gandhi]]an.<ref name="TheHindu"/> A third force in the election was the [[Communist Party of India]], that only presented two candidates (C.B. Monniah in Hudikeri and B.N. Kuttappa in Siddapur).<ref name="CoorgECI1951"/> No female candidates were in the fray.<ref name="CoorgECI1951"/>

==Results==
The Indian National Congress (INC) emerged victorious, winning 15 out of the 24 seats. The INC leader [[C. M. Poonacha]] won his seat from the Berriathnad constituency, with 1,969 votes (71.37 per cent of the votes polled in the constituency). Nine independent candidates won the remaining seats. Belliappa won his seat Ammathi Nad with 1,667 votes (57.25 per cent of votes polled). INC candidates got 55.54 per cent of the votes polled statewide, independents 42.88 per cent and the two communist candidates 1.58 per cent.<ref name="CoorgECI1951"/> The candidate with the highest percentage of votes polled in his favour was G. Lingarajayya, the INC candidate in Fraserpet, who polled 2,375 votes (71.64 per cent).<ref name="CoorgECI1951"/>
<section begin=Results />{{election table|title=Summary of results of the 1952 Coorg Legislative Assembly election<ref name="CoorgECI1951">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4106-coorg-1951/ | title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 : To the Legislative Assembly of Coorg | publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] | access-date=2020-05-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022013656/http://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_COORG.pdf |archive-date=22 October 2013}}</ref> |sortable=yes}}
!colspan=8|[[File:India Coorg Legislative Assembly 1952.svg]]
|- style="background-color:#E9E9E9; text-align:center;"
! class="unsortable" |
! Political party !! Flag !! Candidates !! Won !! % of Seats !! Votes !! Vote %
|- style="background: #90EE90;"
| {{party color cell|Indian National Congress}}
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Indian National Congress]]
| [[File:Flag of Indian National Congress.png|70px]]
| 24 || 15 || 62.50 || 48,845 || 55.54
|-
| {{Party name with colour|Independent politician}}
|
| 34 || 9 || 37.50 || 37,716 || 42.88
|-
| {{party color cell|Communist Party of India}}
| style="text-align:left;" |[[Communist Party of India]]
| [[File:South Asian Communist Banner.png|70px]]
| 2 || 0 || || 1,386 || 1.58
|- class="unsortable" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"
!colspan=3|Total
!
! 24
!colspan=3|Voters: 138,440 Turnout 87,947 (63.53%)
|}<section end=Results />

===Members of the Coorg Legislative Assembly, 1952===

'''Keys: '''
{{legend2|#00FFFF|[[Indian National Congress]] (15) |border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#D3D3D3|[[Independent politician|Independent]] (9) |border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}
{|class="sortable wikitable"
! No.
! Constituency
! Name of elected MLA
! Party affiliation
|-
| rowspan=2 |1 || rowspan=2 | [[Sanivarasanthe Assembly constituency|Sanivarasanthe]]|| P. K. Chennayya || bgcolor=#00FFFF | [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| [[Kuttur Mallappa|K. Mallappa]] || bgcolor=#00FFFF | [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 2 || [[Somwarpet North Assembly constituency|Somwarpet North]] || C. K. Kalappa || bgcolor=#00FFFF | [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
| 3 || [[Somwarpet South Assembly constituency|Somwarpet South]]|| H. T. Muthanna || bgcolor=#D3D3D3| [[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-
| 4 || [[Fraserpet Assembly constituency|Fraserpet]]|| G. Lingarajayya || bgcolor=#00FFFF | Indian National Congress
|-
| rowspan=2| 5 || rowspan=2| [[Suntikoppa Assembly constituency|Sunticoppa]]|| [[Gundugutti Manjanathaya]] || bgcolor=#00FFFF | Indian National Congress
|-
| P. Lakha || bgcolor=#00FFFF | Indian National Congress
|-
| 6 || [[Mercara Town Assembly constituency|Mercara Town]]|| B. S. Kushalappa || bgcolor=#00FFFF | Indian National Congress
|-
| 7 || [[Murnad Assembly constituency|Murnad]]|| C. A. Mandanna || bgcolor=#00FFFF | Indian National Congress
|-
| 8 || [[Mercara Nad Assembly constituency|Mercara Nad]]|| P. D. Subbaiah || bgcolor=#00FFFF | Indian National Congress
|-
| rowspan=2| 9 || rowspan=2| Srimangala Nad || K. P. Karumbayya ||bgcolor=#D3D3D3| Independent
|-
| G. Subbaiah || bgcolor=#D3D3D3| Independent
|-
| 10 || Hudikeri || K. K. Ganapathy || bgcolor=#D3D3D3| Independent
|-
| 11 || Berriath Nad || [[C. M. Poonacha]] || bgcolor=#00FFFF | Indian National Congress
|-
| rowspan=2 |12 ||rowspan=2| Ponnampet Nad || Yeravara Belli || bgcolor=#00FFFF | Indian National Congress
|-
| P. Nanamaya || bgcolor=#00FFFF | Indian National Congress
|-
| 13 || Virajpet Town || N. G. Ahamed || bgcolor=#D3D3D3| Independent
|-
| rowspan=2| 14 || rowspan=2 | Virajpet Nad || Harijan Nanja || bgcolor=#D3D3D3| Independent
|-
| P. C. Uthayya || bgcolor=#D3D3D3| Independent
|-
| 15 || Ammathi Nad || [[Pandyanda Belliappa]] || bgcolor=#D3D3D3| Independent
|-
| rowspan=2| 16 || rowspan=2| Siddapur || Bettakurubara Kala || bgcolor=#00FFFF | Indian National Congress
|-
| Muruvanda Machaiah || bgcolor=#00FFFF | Indian National Congress
|-
| 17 || Napoklu Nad || A. C. Thimmaiah || bgcolor=#D3D3D3| Independent
|-
| 18 || [[Bhagamandala Nad Assembly constituency|Bhagamandala Nad]] || Konana Devaiah || bgcolor=#00FFFF | Indian National Congress
|}

After the election, Poonacha formed a two-member cabinet, consisting of himself as Chief Minister and Kuttur Mallapa (elected to the assembly from the [[Sanivarasanthe Assembly constituency|Sanivarasanthe]] constituency) as Home Minister.<ref name="TheHindu"/>

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Politics}}
* [[1951–52 elections in India]]
* [[1952 Mysore Legislative Assembly election]]
* [[1957 Mysore Legislative Assembly election]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Karnataka elections}}

[[Category:Elections in Coorg State]]
[[Category:State Assembly elections in Karnataka]]
[[Category:1952 State Assembly elections in India|Coorg]]
[[Category:March 1952 in Asia]]

Mohammad Mohibul Haque

2026-02-28T15:02:19Z

PaulineBarwell2: Created.

{{Short description|Aligarh Muslim University professor}}
{{distinguish|Mohibul Haque}}
{{Multiple issues|{{Notability|Academics|date=January 2020}}}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}{{Use Indian English|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Mohammad Mohib Al-Haque
| native_name = {{Nastaliq|محمد محب الحق}}
| image = Dr.Mohammad Muhibul Haq.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Mohammad Mohib Al Haque
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1971|03|03}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = Indian
| other_names =
| known_for =
| occupation = Professor, author, Islamic scholar
| awards =
}}
'''Mohammad Mohib-Al-Haque''' ({{langx|ur|{{Nastaliq|محمد محب الحق}}}}, born 3 March, 1971), also known as '''Muhibul Haque''', is an Indian scholar and professor. He is a scholar of [[Sunni Islam]] and currently teaches [[international relations]], [[Politics of India|Indian politics]], [[minority rights]], and [[human rights]] at [[Aligarh Muslim University|Aligarh Muslim University.]]

==Professional life and political views==
During his postgraduate studies at [[Aligarh Muslim University]], Haque completed his PhD, earning the [[Shankar Dayal Sharma|Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma]] Gold Medal for academic excellence. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Prof. Mohammad Haque - Department of Political Science {{!}} AMU |url=https://www.amu.ac.in/faculty/political-science/mohammad-mohibul-haque |access-date=2025-01-07 |website=Aligarh Muslim University |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=M. Mohibul Haque {{!}} Aligarh Muslim University - Academia.edu |url=https://amu-in.academia.edu/MohibulHaque/CurriculumVitae |access-date=2025-01-13 |website=amu-in.academia.edu}}</ref>
=== Indo–Palestinian relations ===
Haque has made claims about India's position on [[Palestine]], believing that India should pursue relations with Palestine, instead of [[Israel]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Headline |first1=Times |date=2018-01-13 |title=Israel has 'Hand in Glove' with ISIS: Prof Mohibul Haque |work=The Times Headline |url=https://timesheadline.com/india/israel-has-hand-in-glove-with-isis-prof-mohibul-haque-14139.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026055404/https://timesheadline.com/india/israel-has-hand-in-glove-with-isis-prof-mohibul-haque-14139.html |archive-date=2019-10-26}}</ref>
===Terrorism===
Haque has defined [[terrorism]] as an act against humanity, stating that:<blockquote>"An act of terror which involves the killing of innocent people is contrary to the spirit of the [[Quran]] and [[Islam]] because the holy book itself declares that to kill one human life is to kill all humanity and to save one human life is to save entire humanity. (Quran, [[Al-Ma'idah|5:32]]). Islamic militancy is a misnomer in another sense as well. The so-called Islamic militancy has killed more [[Muslims]] than any other community, and the Muslims are the worst affected victims of terrorism."<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://sabrangindia.in/ann/islamic-terrorism-myth-or-reality|title = Islamic terrorism: Myth or reality|date = 2007-04-30|access-date = 4 November 2019|archive-date = 26 October 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191026055417/https://sabrangindia.in/ann/islamic-terrorism-myth-or-reality|url-status = dead}}</ref></blockquote>

==Bibliography==
* International Terrorism and Violence: A Human Rights Perspective, Manak Publications, New Delhi, in collaboration with Aligarh Muslim University Press, Aligarh, 2011.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Mohibul Haque | first1=M. | title=International Terrorism and Violence: A Human Rights Perspective | date=2011 | publisher=Aligarh Muslim University Press | isbn=978-81-7831-269-9 }}</ref>
* Corporate Globalization and its Impact on Women in India, in Debalina Banerjee (ed), Boundaries of the Self: Gender, Culture and Spaces, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K., 2014.<ref>{{ISBN|978-1-4438-5706-2}}, pp. 180-195</ref>
* Endangered Minorities in India: Understanding the Role of Police, in Asghar Ali Engineer and A.S. Narang (eds), Minorities and Police in India, Manohar Publications, New Delhi, 2006.<ref>{{ISBN|81-7304-678-6}}. Pp. 111–121.</ref>
* The UN in the Unipolar World, in T.A. Nizami (ed) Jawahar Lal Nehru: The Architect of India’s Foreign Policy, Icon Publications, New Delhi, 2006.<ref>{{ISBN|81-88086-33-9}}.pp.326</ref>
* Police Atrocities and Endangered Minorities in India, Abdulrahim Bijapur (ed.) Implementing Human Rights in the Third World: Essays on Human Rights, Dalits and Minorities, Manak Publications, New Delhi, 2008.<ref>{{ISBN|81-7827-192-3}}, pp. 195–209</ref>
* Appeasement of Muslims: Myth and Reality, Resurging India: National and International Scenario, Icon publications, New Delhi, 2009.<ref>pp. 85–98</ref>
* Police and Minorities, Santosh Bharatiya (ed), Dalit and Minority Empowerment, Rajkamal Prakashan, New Delhi, 2008.<ref>{{ISBN|978-81-267-1599-2}}, pp. 315–321</ref>
* Perspectives on Sir Syed and the Aligarh Movement, A. R. Kidwai (ed)Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Muslim Renaissance Man of India, a Bicentenary Commemorative Volume, Viva Books, New Delhi,2017.<ref>{{ISBN|978-93-86243-55-3}}, pp. 38–55</ref>
* Indian Constitution and Rights of Minorities: An Overview in Arshi Khan(ed.) Exclusion of Muslims in India: Tolerance, Participation, and Legitimacy of the State. Genuine Publications, New Delhi, 2017.<ref>{{ISBN|978-93-89965-71-1}}. pp. 53–74</ref>
* Indian Judiciary and Minority Rights: A study of Select Cases, in Arshi Khan(ed.) Exclusion of Muslims in India, Tolerance, Participation and Legitimacy of the State, Genuine Pub, New Delhi, 2017.<ref>{{ISBN|978-93-89965-71-1}}. pp. 155–78</ref>
* Constituent Assembly Debates on Minority Rights”, P-09, Human Rights of Minorities, Module-04, UGC E-pathshala.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/ahl.php?csrno=828 | title=The MHRD Project - National Mission on Education through ICT | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104083059/http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/ahl.php?csrno=828 |archive-date=4 November 2018 }}.</ref>
* National Commission for Minorities: Protecting the Legal and Constitutional Rights of Minorities in India, P-09, Human Rights of Minorities, Module -08, UGC E-pathshala.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/ahl.php?csrno=828 |title=Archived copy |access-date=4 November 2019 |archive-date=4 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104083059/http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/ahl.php?csrno=828 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Links==
*[[Irfan Habib]]
*[[Faizan Mustafa]]
*[[Shakeel Ahmed Samdani]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0bNSJKrURJM AMU's connection with Turkey | A talk by Dr Mohibul Haq | Janpatr] {{Dead link|date=November 2025}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=urrbK9vlab0 Second High Profile Conference: Feedback: Dr Mohibul Haque]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v4DyEmFZHeA Dr. M. Mohibul Haque's Address on Sir Syed Day Celebrations 2015]
* [https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=dr.m.mohibul+haq Some lectures and speeches of MM Haque]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Haque, Mohammad Mohibul}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Aligarh Muslim University]]
[[Category:Aligarh Muslim University alumni]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Indian political scientists]]
[[Category:Indian international relations scholars]]
[[Category:Indian Sunni Muslims]]
[[Category:Indian scholars of Islam]]

Ballia railway station

2026-02-26T06:32:17Z

PaulineBarwell2: updated structure further after review

{{short description|Railway Station in Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Ballia Railway Station
| type = [[Indian Railways]] station
| style = Indian Railways
| image = BalliaUp60.jpg
| image_caption = Ballia railway station
| address = [[Ballia]], [[Ballia district]], Uttar Pardesh
| country = India
| coordinates = {{coord|25.7591|84.1485|type:railwaystation_region:IN|display=inline}}
| map_type = India#India Uttar Pradesh
| line = [[Varanasi]]–[[Ballia]]-[[Chhapra]] line, Chhapra-[[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh|Jaunpur]] line (via [[Aunrihar]] junction),Ballia - Mau -Shahgang line,Ballia-[[Aara, Uttar Pradesh|Aara]] line.
| other = Bus Stand, Auto Stand
| elevation = {{convert|65|m|ft}}
| structure = [[Intersection_(road)#At_grade_railways|At grade]]
| platform = 4 platforms
| depth =
| levels =
| tracks = 12
| parking = Yes
| bicycle =
| opened = 1892
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = Yes(electrified in 2018)
| accessible = {{Access icon|20px}} Available
| code = {{Indian railway code
| code = BUI
| zone = [[North Eastern Railway zone|North Eastern Railway]]
| division = {{rwd|Varanasi}}
}}
| owned = [[Indian Railways]]
| operator = [[North Eastern Railway zone|North Eastern Railway]] ([[Gorakhpur]])
| status = Functioning
| former = Ballia
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| passengers = 70000-80000 on Daily Basis
| services = Daily
}}
'''Ballia Railway station''' is a railway station in [[Ballia, Uttar Pradesh]] with station code '''BUI'''. It serves [[Ballia]] city.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ballia RailFan - YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/balliarailfan|access-date=2021-09-01|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref> The station consists of four platforms and new 26 coach Modern lhb washing pit.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indiarailinfo.com/station/map/ballia-bui/692 | title=BUI/Ballia | publisher=indiarailinfo | access-date=2 March 2017}}</ref> The station catering to about 92 trains including two [[Rajdhani Express]]es. The station is well developed and include facilities like a waiting room, two bridges, a ticket counter, enquiry, three entrance gates, escalator, four platforms, food counters, a bookstall, vehicle parking, lifts, etc.

The station comes under A category railway station.

Ballia is a very important and busy railway station and in future with the completions of mau-Gazipur-Dildarngar line Ballia will be directly connected to Howrah-Amritsar mainline and will become more important and busy and will serve to more than 115 train.

A new line has been passed by railway between Ballia and Aara and With implementation of this line thousands of people will get benefits and will get good connectivity with Aara , Patna and other cities of Bihar and will also be connected to Howrah-Amritsar Mainline.

Bhrigu Superfast, Ballia Sealdah, Kamayani Express & Ballia Humsafar Express are few Express Trains which runs from Ballia.

The code for the station is BUI. The station serves as the connection point to various places like [[Varanasi]], [[Ahmedabad]], [[Mumbai]], [[Delhi]], [[Chennai]], [[Kolkata]], [[Bhopal]], [[Udhna]], [[Lucknow]], [[Jaipur]], [[Patna]], [[Kanpur]], [[Aligarh]], [[Amritsar]], [[Dibrugarh]], [[Guwahati]], [[Ajmer]], [[Gorakhpur]], [[Chhapra]], and [[Mau, Uttar Pradesh|Mau]] etc. It is on the border of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

==Trains running through Ballia==

The station on a daily basis caters to 80 trains including 2 Rajdhani Express that pass by.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cleartrip.com/trains/stations/BUI |title=Ballia railway station |publisher=cleartrip.com |access-date=26 April 2017}}</ref>

Few major trains that connect through Ballia for locations that are of religious or tourist speciality include: [[Bhrigu Superfast Express]], [[Sealdah Ballia Express]], [[Kamayani Express]], [[Sarnath Express]], [[Sabarmati Express]], [[Sadbhawna Express (via Sagauli)|Sadhbhawna Express]], [[Ganga Kaveri Express]], [[Kishanganj–Ajmer Garib Nawaz Express]], [[Dr. Ambedkar Nagar–Kamakhya Weekly Express]], ''[[Dibrugarh Rajdhani Express]],'' Anand Vihar Terminal Clone Special.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://etrain.info/in?STATION=BUI |title=Arrival And Departure at Ballia railway station |publisher=etrain.info |access-date=26 April 2017}}</ref>

The connectivity of the trains joins Ballia from the rest of India be it in the west, north, south, or east. The notable attraction of the town is Dadri Mela which is the second largest cattle fair of India. The fair also attracts a lot of people from across cities to come and witness this fair.

==Services==

Some of the important trains that originate/terminate

*22427/22428 [[Bhrigu Superfast Express]]
*04055/04056 Ballia Delhi Clone Special Express
*[[Sealdah–Ballia Express]]
*[[Kamayani Express]]
*Ballia–Prayagraj Rambag Passenger
*Ballia New Delhi SF express
*Ballia Dadar special
*Ballia-Patliputra Memu

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Railway stations in Uttar Pradesh}}

[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 1892]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Ballia district]]
[[Category:Varanasi railway division]]
[[Category:Ballia]]

{{UttarPradesh-railstation-stub}}

Rajbari-1

2026-02-20T20:35:03Z

PaulineBarwell2: done

{{short description|Constituency of Bangladesh's Jatiya Sangsad}}
{{Infobox constituency
|name = Rajbari-1
|type =
|constituency_link =
|parl_name = [[Jatiya Sangsad]]
|map1 =
|map_size =
|image = রাজবাড়ী-১.svg
|map_entity =
|map_year =
|caption =
|map2 =
|image2 =
|caption2 =
|district_label =
|district = [[Rajbari District]]
|region_label = Division
|region = [[Dhaka Division]]
|population =
|electorate = 346,619 (2018)<ref name="2018results" />
|towns =
|future =
|year = 1984
|abolished_label =
|abolished =
|members_label =
|members = Vacant
|party_label = 
|party =
|next =
|previous =
|module = {{align|left|← [[Narayanganj-4|208 Narayanganj-5]]}}{{align|right|[[Rajbari-2|210 Rajbari-2]] →}}
}}
'''Rajbari-1''' is a constituency represented in the [[Jatiya Sangsad]] (National Parliament) of [[Bangladesh]]. Since 6 August 2024, the constituency remains vacant.

== Boundaries ==
The constituency encompasses [[Goalanda Upazila|Goalanda]] and [[Rajbari Sadar Upazila|Rajbari Sadar]] upazilas.<ref name="maps" /><ref name="ecs" />

== History ==
The constituency was created in 1984 from a Faridpur constituency when the former Faridpur District was split into five districts: [[Rajbari District|Rajbari]], [[Faridpur District|Faridpur]], [[Gopalganj District (Bangladesh)|Gopalganj]], [[Madaripur District|Madaripur]], and [[Shariatpur District|Shariatpur]].<ref name="faridpur" />

== Members of Parliament ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="2"|Election!!Member!!Party
|-
|style="background-color:{{party color|Jatiya Party (Ershad)}}" |
| [[1986 Bangladeshi general election|1986]]
| [[Akkas Ali Miah]]
| [[Jatiya Party (Ershad)|Jatiya Party]]<ref name="1986results" />
|-
|
| [[1988 Bangladeshi general election|1988]]
| [[Munshi Abdul Latif]]
| <ref name="1988results" />
|-
|style="background-color:{{party color|Bangladesh Awami League}}" |
| [[1991 Bangladeshi general election|1991]]
| [[Md. Abdul Wajed Chowdhury]]
| [[Awami League]]
|-
|style="background-color:{{party color|Bangladesh Awami League}}" |
| 1992 by-election
| [[Kazi Keramat Ali]]
| [[Awami League]]
|-
|style="background-color:{{party color|Bangladesh Nationalist Party}}" |
|[[February 1996 Bangladeshi general election|February 1996]]
|[[Jahanara Begum (Politician)|Jahanara Begum]]
|[[Bangladesh Nationalist Party|BNP]]
|-
|style="background-color:{{party color|Bangladesh Awami League}}" |
|[[June 1996 Bangladeshi general election|June 1996]]
|Kazi Keramat Ali
|Awami League
|-
|style="background-color:{{party color|Bangladesh Nationalist Party}}" |
| [[2001 Bangladeshi general election|2001]]
| [[Ali Newaz Mahmud Khaiyam]]
| BNP
|-
|style="background-color:{{party color|Bangladesh Awami League}}" |
| [[2008 Bangladeshi general election|2008]]
| Kazi Keramat Ali
| Awami League
|-
|style="background-color:{{party color|Bangladesh Nationalist Party}}" |
| [[2026 Bangladeshi general election|2026]]
| Ali Newaz Mahmud Khaiyam
| BNP
|}

== Elections ==

=== Elections in the 2010s ===
Kazi Keramat Ali was re-elected unopposed in the [[2014 Bangladeshi general election|2014 general election]] after opposition parties withdrew their candidacies in a boycott of the election.<ref name="2014results" />

=== Elections in the 2000s ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2008 Bangladeshi general election|General Election 2008]]: Rajbari-1<ref name="maps" /><ref name="2008results" /><ref name="2008nomination" />}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Awami League
|candidate = [[Kazi Keramat Ali]]
|votes = 141,561
|percentage = 59.9
|change = +16.9
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Nationalist Party
|candidate = [[Ali Newaz Mahmud Khaiyam]]
|votes = 83,933
|percentage = 35.5
|change = -12.7
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = Zaker Party
|candidate = Md. Ali Zakir Shomsheri Dablu Molla
|votes = 8,964
|percentage = 3.8
|change = +3.7
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Khilafat Andolan
|candidate = Md. Habibur Rahman
|votes = 1,190
|percentage = 0.5
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Tarikat Federation
|candidate = Asadujjaman Shalem
|votes = 346
|percentage = 0.1
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = Bangladesh Kalyan Party
|candidate = SM Shariful Islam
|votes = 302
|percentage = 0.1
|change = ''N/A''
}}

{{Election box majority|
|votes = 57,628
|percentage = 24.4
|change = +19.2
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 236,296
|percentage = 88.5
|change = +18.9
}}
{{Election box gain with party link without swing|
|winner = Bangladesh Awami League
|loser = Bangladesh Nationalist Party
}}
{{Election box end}}

{{Election box begin | title=[[2001 Bangladeshi general election|General Election 2001]]: Rajbari-1<ref name="votemonitor" />}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Nationalist Party
|candidate = [[Ali Newaz Mahmud Khaiyam]]
|votes = 95,266
|percentage = 48.2
|change = +23.7
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Awami League
|candidate = [[Kazi Keramat Ali]]
|votes = 85,057
|percentage = 43.0
|change = +7.8
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Islami Jatiya Oikya Front
|candidate = Md. Emdadul Haq Biswas
|votes = 14,843
|percentage = 7.5
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Workers Party of Bangladesh
|candidate = Joyti Sankar Jhantu
|votes = 1,680
|percentage = 0.9
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Jatiya Party (Manju)
|candidate = Iman-Ul-Karim
|votes = 232
|percentage = 0.1
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Kazi Monirul Amin
|votes = 171
|percentage = 0.1
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = Zaker Party
|candidate = Md. Zayedul Islam Joadder
|votes = 156
|percentage = 0.1
|change = +3.9
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = Desh Prem Party
|candidate = Marshal Shah Alam
|votes = 99
|percentage = 0.1
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = Bangladesh Progressive Party
|candidate = Md. Raqib Uddin
|votes = 75
|percentage = 0.0
|change = ''N/A''
}}

{{Election box majority|
|votes = 10,209
|percentage = 5.2
|change = -1.0
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 197,579
|percentage = 69.6
|change = -10.0
}}
{{Election box gain with party link without swing|
|winner = Bangladesh Nationalist Party
|loser = Bangladesh Awami League
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== Elections in the 1990s ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[June 1996 Bangladeshi general election|General Election June 1996]]: Rajbari-1<ref name="votemonitor" />}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Awami League
|candidate = [[Kazi Karamat Ali]]
|votes = 51,965
|percentage = 35.2
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Jatiya Party (Ershad)
|candidate = Golam Mustafa
|votes = 42,881
|percentage = 29.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Nationalist Party
|candidate = Jahanara Begum
|votes = 36,222
|percentage = 24.5
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = Zaker Party
|candidate = Md. Zayedul Islam Joadder
|votes = 5,924
|percentage = 4.0
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami
|candidate = Md. Abdur Rab Mollah
|votes = 5,385
|percentage = 3.6
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Workers Party of Bangladesh
|candidate = Manjurul Alam
|votes = 2,816
|percentage = 1.9
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Khilafat Andolan
|candidate = Amzad Hossain Zowarder
|votes = 815
|percentage = 0.6
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Islami Oikya Jote
|candidate = Abdul Hannan Mollah
|votes = 752
|percentage = 0.5
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Md. Indadul Haque Biswas
|votes = 403
|percentage = 0.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Freedom Party
|candidate = Md. Oliur Rahman
|votes = 395
|percentage = 0.3
|change =
}}

{{Election box majority|
|votes = 9,084
|percentage = 6.2
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 147,558
|percentage = 79.6
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link without swing|
|winner = Bangladesh Awami League
}}
{{Election box end}}

Md. Abdul Wajed Chowdhury died in office.<ref name="Hakim1994" /> Kazi Keramat Ali was elected in an October 1992 by-election.<ref name="Akhter2001" /><ref name="ds3Jan2018" />

{{Election box begin | title=[[1991 Bangladeshi general election|General Election 1991]]: Rajbari-1<ref name="votemonitor" />}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Awami League
|candidate = [[Md. Abdul Wajed Chowdhury]]
|votes = 33,187
|percentage = 28.6
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Nationalist Party
|candidate = A. Khalek
|votes = 30,489
|percentage = 26.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Jatiya Party (Ershad)
|candidate = Golam Mustafa
|votes = 13,390
|percentage = 11.5
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = Zaker Party
|candidate = [[Akkas Ali Miah]]
|votes = 13,088
|percentage = 11.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = United Communist League of Bangladesh
|candidate = [[Ali Newaz Mahmud Khaiyam]]
|votes = 11,776
|percentage = 10.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami
|candidate = Nurul Islam
|votes = 10,345
|percentage = 8.9
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = Bangladesh Janata Party
|candidate = Nazrul Haq
|votes = 2,160
|percentage = 1.9
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal
|candidate = Md. Monirul Haq
|votes = 1,160
|percentage = 1.0
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = [[Munshi Abdul Latif]]
|votes = 187
|percentage = 0.2
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Kamran Hossein Chowdhury
|votes = 164
|percentage = 0.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Jatiya Samajtantrik Dal (Siraj)
|candidate = Bishwanath Karmakar
|votes = 84
|percentage = 0.1
|change =
}}

{{Election box majority|
|votes = 2,698
|percentage = 2.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 116,030
|percentage = 62.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link without swing|
|winner = Bangladesh Awami League
|loser =
}}
{{Election box end}}

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="2018results">{{cite news |title=Rajbari-1 |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/bangladesh-national-election-2018/seats?s=Rajbari-1&d=dhaka |work=The Daily Star |access-date=31 December 2018}}</ref>
<ref name="maps">{{cite web |url=http://123.49.39.5/delimitation_pdF/const_book_2008.pdf |title=Constituency Maps of Bangladesh |author= |date=2010 |website=Bangladesh Election Commission |format=PDF |access-date=13 August 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="ecs">{{cite web |url=http://www.ecs.gov.bd/NewsFilesEng/101.PDF |title=Delimitation of Constituencies |author= |date=2013 |website=Bangladesh Election Commission |format=PDF |language=bn |access-date=23 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727220238/http://www.ecs.gov.bd/NewsFilesEng/101.PDF |archive-date=27 July 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="faridpur">{{cite web |url=http://www.faridpur.gov.bd/site/page/3911aad7-2013-11e7-8f57-286ed488c766 |script-title=bn:জেলা প্রশাসনের পটভূমি |trans-title=Background of District Administration |author= |language=bn |website=Faridpur District |access-date=13 August 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="1986results">{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.gov.bd/images/pdf/formermp/3rd.pdf |title=List of 3rd Parliament Members |author= |website=Bangladesh Parliament |language=bn |access-date=13 August 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="1988results">{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.gov.bd/images/pdf/formermp/4th.pdf |title=List of 4th Parliament Members |author= |website=Bangladesh Parliament |language=bn |access-date=13 August 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="2014results">{{cite news |last=Ahmed |first=Taib |date=15 December 2013 |title=AL closer to majority before voting |url=http://archive.newagebd.net/260342/al-closer-to-majority-before-voting/ |newspaper=New Age |location=Dhaka |access-date=12 August 2014 |archive-date=3 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503164909/http://archive.newagebd.net/260342/al-closer-to-majority-before-voting/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="2008results">{{cite web |url=http://amardesh.com/EADetailsYear.php?sol=201&Year=2008 |title=Bangladesh Parliament Election - Detail Results |author= |website=Amar Desh |access-date=8 February 2018}}</ref>
<ref name="2008nomination">{{cite web |url=http://www.ecs.gov.bd/Bangla/nomination_info.php?findconstall=1 |title=Nomination submission List |author= |website=Bangladesh Election Commission |language=bn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180211190041/http://www.ecs.gov.bd/Bangla/nomination_info.php?findconstall=1 |archive-date=11 February 2018 |access-date=9 February 2018}}</ref>
<ref name="votemonitor">{{cite web |url=http://votemonitor.net:80/bangladesh/EADetails_1991_1996_2001.php?EA=207 |title=Parliament Election Result of 1991, 1996, 2001 Bangladesh Election Information and Statistics |author= |website=Vote Monitor Networks |access-date=11 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081228235259/http://votemonitor.net:80/bangladesh/EADetails_1991_1996_2001.php?EA=207 |archive-date=28 December 2008}}</ref>
<ref name="Hakim1994">{{cite journal |last=Hakim |first=Muhammad A. |date=August 1994 |title=The Mirpur Parliamentary by-Election in Bangladesh |journal=Asian Survey |volume=34 |issue=8 |page=741 |jstor=2645261|doi=10.2307/2645261}}</ref><ref name="Akhter2001">{{cite book |last=Akhter |first=Muhammad Yeahia |year=2001 |title=Electoral Corruption in Bangladesh |publisher=Ashgate |page=243 |isbn=0-7546-1628-2}}</ref>
<ref name="ds3Jan2018">{{Cite news |last=Hasan |first=Rashidul |date=3 January 2018 |title=Council of Ministers: Three new faces sworn in |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/council-ministers-three-new-faces-sworn-1514116 |newspaper=The Daily Star |access-date=8 June 2018}}</ref>
</references>

==External links==
* {{Cite web |url=http://psephos.adam-carr.net/countries/b/bangladesh/ |title=People's Republic of Bangladesh |website=Psephos}}

{{Parliamentary constituencies in Bangladesh}}
{{Coord|23.76|N|89.64|E|region:BD_type:adm3rd|display=title}}

[[Category:Parliamentary constituencies in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Rajbari District]]
[[Category:Long stubs with short prose]]

{{Bangladesh-geo-stub}}

Girish Chandra Ghosh

2026-02-18T15:13:57Z

PaulineBarwell2: started the entry with sources...

{{Short description|Bengali actor, director, and writer (1844–1912)}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Girish Chandra Ghosh
| native_name = গিরিশচন্দ্র ঘোষ
| native_name_lang = bn
| image = Girish ghosh.JPG
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1844|02|28|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Baghbazar]] in [[Calcutta]], [[Bengal Presidency]], British India
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1912|02|08|1844|02|28|df=y}}
|death_place = [[Calcutta]], [[Bengal Presidency]], British India
| alma_mater = [[Hare school]]
| spouse = Pramodini Devi
| occupation = Actor, director, and writer
| footnotes =
}}

'''Girish Chandra Ghosh''' (28 February 1844 – 8 February 1912) was a [[Bengali people|Bengali]] actor, director, and writer. He was largely responsible for the golden age of [[Bengali theatre]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chatterjee |first1=Sudipto |last2=Ferdous |first2=Hasan |author1-link=Sudipto Chatterjee |editor1-last=Natarajan |editor1-first=Nalini |chapter=Twentieth-Century Bengali Literature |title=Handbook of Twentieth-Century Literatures of India |year=1996 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-313-28778-3 |pages=47–48}}</ref><ref name="kundu">Kundu, Pranay K. ''Development of Stage and Theatre Music in Bengal.'' Published in Banerjee, Jayasri (ed.), ''The Music of Bengal''. Baroda: Indian Musicological Society, 1987.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Sisir Kumar Das |year=1991 |title=History of Indian Literature: 1800–1910 : Western Impact, British Response |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sHklK65TKQ0C&pg=PA282 |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |page=283 |isbn=8172010060}}</ref> He cofounded the Great National Theatre, the first Bengali professional theatre company, in 1872; wrote nearly 40 plays and acted and directed many more;<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/232777/Girish-Chandra-Ghosh |title=Girish Chandra Ghosh |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=27 March 2009 |archive-date=23 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323021110/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/232777/Girish-Chandra-Ghosh |url-status=live}}</ref> and later in life became a noted householder disciple of [[Sri Ramakrishna]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Christopher Isherwood |author-link=Christopher Isherwood |year=1980 |title=Ramakrishna and his disciples |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6qVMrumO-g0C&pg=PA247 |publisher=Vedanta Press |page=247 |isbn=087481037X}}</ref>
[[File:House of Girish Ghosh.jpg|thumb|right|Home of Girish Ghosh]]

==Biography==
[[Image:GirishChandraGosh group photo.jpg|thumb | right |Girish Chandra Ghosh, with [[Swami Adbhutananda]], [[Mahendranath Gupta]] and other disciples and devotees of [[Ramakrishna]]]]

===Early days===
Born in [[Bagbazar]], [[Kolkata]], on 28 February 1844,<ref>{{cite book |last=Chetanananda |first=Swami |date=2009 |title=Girish Chandra Ghosh, A Bohemian Devotee of Sri Ramakrishna |publisher=Vedanta Society of St. Louis |page=12 |isbn=978-0-916356-93-4}}</ref> the eighth child to his parents, Nilkamal and Raimani, he received his early education at [[Oriental Seminary]] and later studied at [[Hare School]] in the city but did not complete his education. His father, Nilkamal Ghosh, was a generous and kind-hearted person, and Girish retained some of his father's large heartedness. Girish said of his parents, "My father was an expert accountant and had a tremendous managerial capacity and worldly wisdom. My mother was very gentle and had great devotion for God... I inherited from my father a sharp intellect and pragmatic approach to life, and from my mother a love for literature and devotion to God" <ref>{{cite book |last=Chetanananda |first=Swami |date=2009 |title=Girish Chandra Ghosh, A Bohemian Devotee of Sri Ramakrishna |publisher=Vedanta Society of St. Louis |page=23 |isbn=978-0-916356-93-4}}</ref> He lost his parents early in life and went on to educate himself. After the death of his father, he married Promodini Devi, the daughter of Nabin Chandra Deb, and re-entered in class - I in the Oriental Seminary. After leaving school in 1862, Girish acquired an apprenticeship with a British Company in bookkeeping.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chetanananda |first=Swami |date=2009 |title=Girish Chandra Ghosh, A Bohemian Devotee of Sri Ramakrishna |publisher=Vedanta Society of St. Louis |page=34 |isbn=978-0-916356-93-4}}</ref> It was around this time that Girish became acquainted with Ishwar Chandra Gupta and began writing plays, songs, and poetry.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Ghosh,_Girish_Chandra |title=Ghosh, Girish Chandra |website=Banglapedia |access-date=4 February 2017 |archive-date=25 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225122931/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Ghosh,_Girish_Chandra |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Professional career===
[[File:Star Theatre Arnab Dutta.jpg|thumb|Star Theatre, founded by Girish Chandra Ghosh.]] Girish was a prominent actor in the Bagbazar Amateur Theatre where he had [[Ardhendu Sekhar Mustafi]], another great contemporary actor, as his partner. Together they performed in ''Sadhabar Ekadashi'' by the famous playwright [[Dinabandhu Mitra]], which became very popular. Later, Bagbazar Amateur was renamed in 1871 as the National Theatre. However, Girish left the National Theatre and went on to form the Great National Theatre in 1873. In 1877 Girish staged his first play ''Agamani'' there.<ref name=":0" /> Later he also worked at the Minerva Theatre and went on to become the manager. In 1883 Girish opened the [[Star Theatre, Kolkata|Star Theatre]] with his own money and managed it under his direction.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isherwood |first=Christopher |date=1965 |title=Ramakrishna and His Disciples |publisher=Methuen & Co. Ltd. |page=248}}</ref> The first play produced at the Star Theatre was ''Daksha Jagna'' by Girish Chandra Ghosh on the auspicious day of 21 July 1883. With [[Binodini Dasi]], he staged his play, ''Chaitanyalila'', at the [[Star Theatre, Calcutta|Star Theatre]] on 20 September 1884, with [[Sri Ramakrishna]] in the audience.

Girish wrote about 86 plays, most of which were based upon stories from the Purana, Ramayana, and Mahabharata. Among his famous works were ''Buddhadev Charit'', ''Purna Chandra'', ''Nasiram'', ''Kalapahar'', ''Ashoka'', ''Shankaracharya'', ''Chaitanyalila'', ''Nimai Sannyas'', ''Rup-Sanatan'', ''Vilwamangal'', and ''Prahlad Charit''. Most of his plays were performed in Star Theatre in Calcutta.<ref>[http://www.frankreport.com/Vivekananda/PPlHeKnew/RKPPL/GirishGhosh/Girishbio.html Girish Chandra Ghosh] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219100631/http://www.frankreport.com/Vivekananda/PPlHeKnew/RKPPL/GirishGhosh/Girishbio.html |date=19 February 2012}}</ref> Girish also translated Shakespeare's Macbeth play into Bangla in 1893.<ref name=":0" />

===Influence of Sri Ramakrishna===
Girish first met Sri Ramakrishna in the ancestral home of his neighbour Kalinath Bose. On 21 September 1884, Sri Ramakrishna went to watch Chaitanya Lila in the Star Theatre. It is said that Girish's first meeting with Sri Ramakrishna was not very cordial. He saw Sri Ramakrishna in divine ecstasy and thought it to be some kind of a trick. But later, when Ramakrishna met him, the Master told him that the incident was no trick and Girish was extremely surprised to find the master reading his thoughts. Later, when the Master went to visit his theatre, he and Girish repeatedly went on exchanging salutes, and ultimately Girish had to give up. Girish later said about this incident that in this Iron Age the best weapon is "pranamastra" or the "salute weapon" with which God kills His enemies. In his play ''Nasiram'', Girish used much of the teachings of Sri Ramakrishna.<ref name="ReferenceA">Contemporary Bengali Literature – I, by Hiranmoy Mukherjee, Vedanta Kesari, April 2010</ref> There are many scenes in ''[[The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna]]'' involving Girish and Sri Ramakrishna.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nikhilananda |first=Swami |year=1992 |orig-year=First published 1942 |title=The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna |location=New York |publisher=Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center |page=721 |isbn=978-0-911206-01-2}}</ref> Sri Ramakrishna went to watch several of his plays in Star Theatre. He also blessed Binodini Dasi, one of the lead actresses.

Many of the followers of Sri Ramakrishna were shocked that Girish was held in such high regard by the Master. Girish was known to visit houses of prostitution, get falling-down drunk, and even curse Ramakrishna, yet he came to regard Ramakrishna as an [[Avatar]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Chetanananda |first=Swami |date=2009 |title=Girish Chandra Ghosh, A Bohemian Devotee of Sri Ramakrishna |publisher=Vedanta Society of St. Louis |page=21 |isbn=978-0-916356-93-4}}</ref>

===Power of attorney===
After testing Sri Ramakrishna for years, seeking to find fault or hypocrisy but finding none, Girish finally asks what spiritual practices to adopt.
<blockquote>
Ramakrishna answered, "Try and call on God three times a day."

Girish says, "I'm sorry. I can't promise to. I may forget."

Then the Master said, "Do it twice a day. Do it once."

Girish, in dismay, "No, no, I can't promise anything."

Finally, Ramakrishna says, "All right, then give me your [[Power of attorney]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Isherwood |first=Christopher |date=1980 |title=My Guru and His Disciple |publisher=Farrar Straus Giroux |page=199 |isbn=978-0-374-21702-0}}</ref> I'll be responsible for you. Now you have no will at all. You will only say, 'I do whatever the Lord wills'. Don't ever say again, 'I will do this' or 'I will do that'.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chetanananda |first=Swami |date=2009 |title=Girish Chandra Ghosh, A Bohemian Devotee of Sri Ramakrishna |publisher=Vedanta Society of St. Louis |page=18 |isbn=978-0-916356-93-4}}</ref>
</blockquote>
At first, he felt relieved, thinking he could go on doing whatever he liked. But slowly he came to realize that he had to be honest with himself and ask, is this something God wants me to do, or just my lower nature?<ref>{{cite book |last=Chetanananda |first=Swami |date=2009 |title=Girish Chandra Ghosh, A Bohemian Devotee of Sri Ramakrishna |publisher=Vedanta Society of St. Louis |page=316 |isbn=978-0-916356-93-4}}</ref>

===Christopher Isherwood and Girish Ghosh===

World famous English author [[Christopher Isherwood]] was a beloved disciple of [[Swami Prabhavananda]], and closely identified with Girish. He wrote and gave lectures on the Bengali playwright. In Isherwood's autobiographical book, ''My Guru and his Disciple'', he said, "Girish became a kind of patron saint for me - I felt closer to him than any other member of the Ramakrishna circle.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isherwood |first=Christopher |date=1980 |title=My Guru and His Disciple |publisher=Farrar Straus Giroux |page=196 |isbn=978-0-374-21702-0}}</ref>"

On December 7, 1975, Isherwood gave the Sunday lecture at the [[Santa Barbara Vedanta Temple]] titled ''Girish Ghosh'', where he describes the parallels in their two lives - coming from a state of worldly drunkenness and debauchery to accepting the teachings of a holy man, who offered them unconditional love and brings them to God. The lecture was recorded and released on CD by mondayMEDIA.<ref>[https://www.allmusic.com/album/girish-ghosh-mw0002040682 Girish Ghosh, a lecture by Christopher Isherwood]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|40em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Chinmoy |first=Sri |author-link=Sri Chinmoy |year=1991 |title=From The Undivine Tree to the Divine Fruit: Girish Chandra Ghosh |url=https://www.srichinmoylibrary.com/utd}}
* {{cite book |last=Dutta |first=Utpal |author-link=Utpal Dutta |year=1992 |title=Girish Chandra Ghosh |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |ISBN=817-201-197-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Chetanananda |first=Swami |year=2009 |title=Girish Chandra Ghosh: A Bohemian Devotee of Sri Ramakrishna |publisher=Vedanta Society of St. Louis |ISBN=978-0-916356-92-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Isherwood |first=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Isherwood |year=1980 |title=My Guru and His Disciple |publisher=[[Farrar Straus Giroux]] |ISBN=978-0-374-21702-0}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|1346250}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}
* [https://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/gospel/introduction/girish.htm Biography of Grish Chandra Ghosh]
* [https://belurmath.org/girish-chandra-ghosh/ Biography of Grish Chandra Ghosh by Belur Math]

{{Bengali Theatre}}
{{Ramakrishna}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ghosh, Girish Chandra}}
[[Category:Bengali writers]]
[[Category:19th-century Bengali poets]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Indian theatre directors]]
[[Category:Indian male stage actors]]
[[Category:1844 births]]
[[Category:1912 deaths]]
[[Category:Writers from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Lay disciples of Ramakrishna]]
[[Category:Bengali theatre personalities]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:People from British India]]
[[Category:Hare School alumni]]
[[Category:Oriental Seminary alumni]]
[[Category:Indian male dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Indian male poets]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Dramatists and playwrights from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Novelists from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Poets from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Male actors from Kolkata]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian male writers]]

Telo de Mascarenhas

2026-02-12T03:30:54Z

PaulineBarwell2: Created entry

{{short description|Indian writer and poet (1899–1979)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name=
| image = File:Telo de Mascarenhas in 1940s.jpg
| caption = Mascarenhas in 1940s
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1899|3|23|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Marmagoa]], [[Goa]], [[Portuguese India]]
| death_date = {{dya|1979|1899}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Writer|poet|journalist|freedom fighter}}
| alma_mater = [[University of Coimbra]] (1930)
| years_active = 1920s–1970s
| movement = [[Goa liberation movement]]
}}

'''Telo de Mascarenhas''' (23 March 1899 – 1979) was an Indian writer, poet, journalist and [[freedom fighter]].

==Biography==
In 1920, Mascarenhas travelled to Portugal to study, graduating in law from the [[University of Coimbra]] in 1930, where he was taught by Portuguese statesman [[António de Oliveira Salazar]], amongst others. During this period he founded Lisbon's [[Centro Nacionalista Hindu]] in 1926, and the periodical ''[[Índia Nova]]'', alongside fellow poet [[Adeodato Barreto]] and other émigré [[Goan]] intellectuals. Through the 1930s and 1940s, Mascerenhas worked in the Portuguese judicial system, first in the [[Algarve]] and then in the [[Alentejo]].<ref name="auto">Paul Melo e Castro, ''Lengthening Shadows'', 2 vols (Saligão, India: Goa, 1556, 2016), I p. 27.</ref>

After India's independence from Britain in 1948, Mascerenhas returned to the subcontinent and actively participated in the [[Goa liberation movement]]. Although he spent some time in Goa, he was forced into exile and spent the years 1950-58 in [[Bombay]]. During his years of exile in Bombay, he published clandestinely ''Ressurge Goa'', a political newspaper from 1950 to 1959. Returning to Goa in 1959, he was arrested, and the Portuguese rulers deported him to Portugal where he was jailed, first in [[Cadeia do Aljube|Aljube prison]] and then in [[Fort of King Luís I|Caxias]]. Some years after the [[annexation of Goa]] he was released by the Government of Portugal in 1970 in exchange for the release of the Goan priest [[Chico Monteiro]], who had been placed under house arrest by the Indian authorities for refusing to give up his Portuguese nationality.<ref name="auto"/>

On his return to Goa from Portugal in 1970, Mascarenhas founded the [[Círculo de Amizade Indo-Portuguesa]] (the Indo-Portuguese Friendship Society)<ref name="auto"/> and restarted ''Ressurge Goa'' as a cultural and political paper.

==Works==
Mascarenhas was a prolific poet in Portuguese<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vicente |first=Filipa Lowndes |date=2022-01-09 |title=Arlindo Vicente e Telo de Mascarenhas: a oposição a Salazar e o fim da "Índia portuguesa" |url=https://www.publico.pt/2022/01/09/mundo/investigacao/arlindo-vicente-telo-mascarenhas-oposicao-salazar-fim-india-portuguesa-1990877 |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=PÚBLICO |language=pt}}</ref> and also did a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] translation of the autobiography of anti-colonial nationalist [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and of many novels by Bengali poet [[Rabindranath Tagore]].

=== Poetry in Portuguese ===

Mascarenhas published two volumes of poetry: ''Poemas de Desespero e Concolação'' (Poems of Despair and Consolation, 1971) and ''Ciclo Goês'' (Goan Cycle, 1973).

*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110722230226/https://elgg.leeds.ac.uk/smlpmmec/weblog/19425.html Dois Poemas]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110722230254/https://elgg.leeds.ac.uk/smlpmmec/weblog/19715.html As Sementeiras]
*[https://archiveofgoanwritinginportuguese.blogspot.com/2011/09/telo-de-mascarenhas-primavera-chegou.html A Primavera Chegou]

===Prose writing in Portuguese===

Mascarenhas published an English-language autobiography, ''When the Mango-Trees Blossomed'', in 1975. In it Mascarenhas claims to have written a novel and a novella during his incarceration in Portugal. The novel, ''Jogos Malabares'' (Malarbar Games), which he had to hide from the prison authorities, appears to have been lost. The novella was his ''Sinfonia Goesa'', written in 1962 while Mascerenhas was imprisoned in [[Cadeia do Aljube|Aljube gaol]]. Though it was never published in its entirety, several fragments saw the light of day in the post-Liberation Portuguese-language press. Some of Mascarenhas's writing has been published in English translation.<ref>Paul Melo e Castro, ''Lengthening Shadows'', 2 vols (Saligão, India: Goa, 1556, 2016), I pp. 27-28 (quoting p. 28); II pp. 5-17.</ref>

*[https://archiveofgoanwritinginportuguese.blogspot.com/2011/10/telo-de-mascarenhas-cronica-de-viagem.html Crónica de Viagem a Bombaim]

== External references ==
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=m2FmAAAAMAAJ&q=Telo+Mascarenhas&dq=Telo+Mascarenhas Bio entry on Mascarenhas]
*[https://archiveofgoanwritinginportuguese.blogspot.com/2011/03/telo-de-mascarenhas-obituary-1979.html Obituary of Telo de Mascarenhas (in Portuguese)]
*[https://archiveofgoanwritinginportuguese.blogspot.com/2011/03/telo-de-mascarenhas-o-nosso-passado.html Text by Mascarenhas recollecting his political past (in Portuguese)]
*[https://archiveofgoanwritinginportuguese.blogspot.com/2011/06/telo-de-mascarenhas-carta-de-rendicao.html Mascarenhas memories of the Liberation of Goa as accompanied from his prison cell (in Portuguese)]
*[https://archiveofgoanwritinginportuguese.blogspot.com/2011/09/eduardo-pereira-de-andrade-doutor-telo.html Poem dedicated to Mascarenhas by Eduardo Pereira de Andrade (in Portuguese)]

==References==

{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Public Affairs}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mascarenhas, Telo de}}
[[Category:Poets from Goa]]
[[Category:1899 births]]
[[Category:1979 deaths]]
[[Category:Goa liberation activists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Journalists from Goa]]
[[Category:Indian male poets]]
[[Category:Indian male novelists]]
[[Category:Portuguese-language writers]]
[[Category:People from Mormugao]]
[[Category:Writers from South Goa district]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian journalists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in public affairs]]
[[Category:Novelists from Goa]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male writers]]

First Battle of Ypres

2026-02-09T02:23:58Z

PaulineBarwell2: fix

{{Short description|1914 battle of the First World War}}
{{For|a list of the Battles of Ypres|Battle of Ypres}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict = First Battle of Ypres
|partof = the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] of the [[First World War]]
|image = File:Locations of the Allied and German armies, 19 October 1914.png
| image_upright = 1.0
|caption = Positions of the Allied and German armies, 19 October 1914
|date = 19 October – 22 November 1914
|place = [[Ypres]], Belgium
|coordinates = {{Coord|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
|map_type = Belgium
|map_caption = {{centre|Ypres, a Belgian [[Municipalities in Belgium|municipality]] located in the [[Flemish Region|Flemish]] [[Provinces of Belgium|province]] of [[West Flanders]]}}
|map_label = Ypres
|result = Indecisive
|combatant1 = {{Plainlist}}
* {{flagcountry|French Third Republic}}
* {{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Belgian government at Sainte-Adresse|Belgium]]
* {{flagcountry|UKGBI}}
* {{flag|British Empire}}
{{Endplainlist}}
|commander1 = {{Plainlist}}
* {{flagicon|French Third Republic}} [[Joseph Joffre]]
* {{flagicon|French Third Republic}} [[Ferdinand Foch]]
* {{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Albert I of Belgium|Albert I]]
* {{flagicon|UKGBI}} [[John French, 1st Earl of Ypres|John French]]
{{Endplainlist}}
|combatant2 = {{flag|German Empire}}
|commander2 = {{Plainlist}}
* {{flagicon|German Empire}} [[Erich von Falkenhayn]]
* {{flagicon|German Empire}} [[Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg|Albrecht of Württemberg]]
* {{flagicon|German Empire}} [[Rupprecht of Bavaria]]
* {{flagicon|German Empire}} [[Max von Fabeck]]
* {{flagicon|German Empire}} [[Alexander von Linsingen]]
{{Endplainlist}}
|strength1 = {{Plainlist}}
* {{flagicon|French Third Republic}} 3,989,103
* {{flagicon|Belgium}} {{circa| 247,000}}
* {{flagicon|British Empire}} 163,897
* '''Total: 4,400,000'''
{{Endplainlist}}
|strength2 = {{flagicon|German Empire}} 5,400,000
|casualties1 = {{Plainlist}}
* {{flagicon|French Third Republic}} 50,000–85,000
* {{flagicon|British Empire}} 58,155
* {{flagicon|Belgium}} 21,562
{{Endplainlist}}
|casualties2 = {{Plainlist}}
* {{flagicon|German Empire}} 80,000
*
*
*
{{Endplainlist}}
|notes = 134,315 German casualties in Belgium and northern France, 15 October – 24 November
| campaignbox =
{{Campaignbox Western Front (World War I)}}
{{Campaignbox Military Operations: Belgium and northern France 1914}}
{{Campaignbox Race to the Sea}}
}}
The '''First Battle of Ypres''' ({{langx|fr|Première Bataille des Flandres}}, {{langx|de|Erste Flandernschlacht}}, {{nowrap|19 October}} – {{nowrap|22 November 1914)}} was a battle of the [[First World War]], fought on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] around [[Ypres]], in [[West Flanders]], Belgium. The battle was part of the First Battle of Flanders, in which [[German Army (German Empire)|German]], [[French Army in World War I|French]], [[Belgian Land Component|Belgian]] armies and the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War I)|British Expeditionary Force]] (BEF) fought from [[Arras]] in France to [[Nieuwpoort, Belgium|Nieuwpoort]] (Nieuport) on the Belgian coast, from 10 October to mid-November. The battles at Ypres began at the end of the [[Race to the Sea]], reciprocal attempts by the German and Franco-British armies to advance past the northern flank of their opponents. North of Ypres, the fighting continued in the [[Battle of the Yser]] {{nowrap|(16–31 October),}} between the German [[4th Army (German Empire)|4th Army]], the Belgian army and French marines.

The fighting has been divided into five stages, an encounter battle from 19 to 21 October, the Battle of Langemarck from 21 to 24 October, the battles at [[Battle of La Bassée|La Bassée]] and [[Battle of Armentières|Armentières]] to 2 November, coincident with more [[Allies of World War I|Allied]] attacks at Ypres and the Battle of Gheluvelt {{nowrap|(29–31 October),}} a fourth phase with the last big German offensive, which culminated at the Battle of Nonne Bosschen on 11 November, then local operations which faded out in late November. [[Brigadier (United Kingdom)|Brigadier-General]] [[James Edward Edmonds|James Edmonds]], the British official historian, wrote in the [[History of the Great War]], that the [[II Corps (United Kingdom)|II Corps]] battle at La Bassée could be taken as separate but that the battles from Armentières to Messines and Ypres, were better understood as one battle in two parts, an offensive by [[III Corps (United Kingdom)|III Corps]] and the [[Cavalry Corps (United Kingdom)|Cavalry Corps]] from 12 to 18 October against which the Germans retired and an offensive by the German [[6th Army (German Empire)|6th Army]] and 4th Army from 19 October to 2 November, which from 30 October, took place mainly north of the [[Leie|Lys]], when the battles of Armentières and [[Battle of Messines (1914)|Messines]] merged with the Battles of Ypres.{{efn|Four battles involving the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War I)|British Expeditionary Force]] (BEF) occurred simultaneously during the First Battle of Flanders: the [[Battle of La Bassée]] {{nowrap|(10 October – 2 November)}} from the Beuvry–Béthune road to a line from Estaires to Fournes, the [[Battle of Armentières]] {{nowrap|(13 October – 2 November)}} from Estaires to the Douve river, the [[Battle of Messines (1914)|Battle of Messines]] {{nowrap|(12 October – 2 November)}} from the Douve to the Ypres–Comines Canal and the Battles of Ypres {{nowrap|(19 October – 22 November),}} comprising the Battle of Langemarck {{nowrap|(21–24 October),}} the [[Battle of Gheluvelt]] {{nowrap|(29–31 October)}} and the [[Battle of Nonne Bosschen]] (11 November) from the Ypres–Comines Canal north to Houthulst Forest.}}

Attacks by the BEF ([[Field marshal (United Kingdom)|Field Marshal]] Sir [[John French, 1st Earl of Ypres|John French]]) the Belgians and the French [[Eighth Army (France)|Eighth Army]] in Belgium made little progress beyond Ypres. The German 4th and 6th Armies took small amounts of ground, at great cost to both sides, during the Battle of the Yser and further south at Ypres. [[General of the Infantry (Germany)|General]] [[Erich von Falkenhayn]], head of the {{lang|de|[[Oberste Heeresleitung]]}} (OHL, the [[German General Staff]]), then tried a limited offensive to capture Ypres and [[Mont Kemmel]] (Kemmelberg), from 19 October to 22 November. Neither side had moved forces to [[Flanders]] fast enough to obtain a decisive victory and by November both sides were exhausted. The armies were short of ammunition, suffering from low morale and some infantry units refused orders. The autumn battles in Flanders had become static, attrition operations, unlike the battles of manoeuvre in the summer. French, British and Belgian troops, in improvised field defences, repulsed German attacks for four weeks. From 21 to 23 October, German reservists had made mass attacks at Langemarck (Langemark), with losses of up to {{nowrap|70 per cent,}} to little effect.

Warfare between mass armies, equipped with the weapons of the [[Industrial Revolution]] and its later developments, proved to be indecisive, because field fortifications neutralised many classes of offensive weapon. The defensive firepower of [[artillery]] and [[machine gun]]s dominated the battlefield and the ability of the armies to supply themselves and replace casualties prolonged battles for weeks. Thirty-four German divisions fought in the Flanders battles, against twelve French, nine British and six Belgian divisions, along with marines and dismounted cavalry. Over the winter, Falkenhayn reconsidered Germany strategy because {{lang|de|Vernichtungsstrategie}} and the imposition of a dictated peace on France and Russia had exceeded German resources. Falkenhayn devised a new strategy to detach either [[Russian Empire|Russia]] or France from the Allied coalition through diplomacy as well as military action. A strategy of [[attrition warfare|attrition]] ({{lang|de|Ermattungsstrategie}}) would make the cost of the war too great for the Allies, until one dropped out and made a separate peace. The remaining belligerents would have to negotiate or face the Germans concentrated on the remaining front, which would be sufficient for Germany to inflict a decisive defeat.
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Background==

===Strategic developments===

====Eastern Front====
{{Main|Eastern Front (World War I)|l1=Eastern Front}}

On 9 October, the First German offensive against Warsaw began with the battles of Warsaw (9–19 October) and Ivangorod (9–20 October). Four days later, Przemyśl was relieved by the advancing Austro-Hungarians and the Battle of Chyrow {{nowrap|13 October – 2 November)}} began in Galicia. Czernowitz in Bukovina was re-occupied by the Austro-Hungarian army on 22 August and then lost again to the Russian army on 28 October. On 29 October, the Ottoman Empire commenced hostilities against Russia, when Turkish warships bombarded Odessa, Sevastopol and Theodosia. Next day Stanislau in Galicia was taken by Russian forces and the Serbian army began a retreat from the line of the Drina. On 4 November, the Russian army crossed the frontier of Turkey-in-Asia and seized Azap.{{sfn|Skinner|Stacke|1922|pp=13–14}}

Britain and France declared war on Turkey on 5 November and next day, Keupri-Keni in Armenia was captured, during the [[Bergmann Offensive]] (2–16 November) by the Russian army. On 10 October, Przemysl was surrounded again by the Russian army, beginning the Second Siege; Memel in East Prussia was occupied by the Russians a day later. Keupri-Keni was recaptured by the Ottoman army on 14 November, the [[Sultan]] proclaimed [[Jihad]], next day the Battle of Cracow (15 November – 2 December) began and the Second Russian Invasion of North Hungary (15 November – 12 December) commenced. The Second German Offensive against Warsaw opened with the [[Battle of Łódź (1914)|Battle of Łódź]] (16 November – 15 December).{{sfn|Skinner|Stacke|1922|pp=14–16}}

====Great Retreat====
{{Main|Great Retreat}}

The Great Retreat was a long withdrawal by the French and British armies to the [[River Marne|Marne]], from 24 August to 28 September 1914, after the success of the German armies in the [[Battle of the Frontiers]] {{nowrap|(7 August – 13 September).}} After the defeat of the French [[Fifth Army (France)|Fifth Army]] at the [[Battle of Charleroi]] (21 August) and the BEF in the [[Battle of Mons]] (23 August), both armies made a rapid retreat to avoid envelopment.{{efn|German armies are rendered in numbers: "7th Army" and Allied armies in words: "Second Army".}} A counter-offensive by the French and the BEF at the [[First Battle of Guise]] {{nowrap|(29–30 August),}} failed to end the German advance and the Franco-British retreat continued beyond the Marne. From 5 to 12 September, the [[First Battle of the Marne]] ended the retreat and forced the German armies to retire towards the [[Aisne (river)|Aisne]] river, where the [[First Battle of the Aisne]] was fought from 13 to 28 September.{{sfn|James|1990|pp=1–3}}

===Tactical developments===

====Flanders====
{{Main|Siege of Maubeuge}}
After the retreat of the French Fifth Army and the BEF, local operations took place from August–October. General Fournier was ordered on 25 August to defend the fortress at Maubeuge, which was surrounded two days later by the German VII Reserve Corps. Maubeuge was defended by fourteen forts, a garrison of {{nowrap|30,000 French}} territorials and {{circa| 10,000 French,}} British and Belgian stragglers. The fortress blocked the main [[Cologne]]–Paris rail line, leaving only the line from [[Trier]] to [[Liège]], [[Brussels]], [[Valenciennes]] and [[Cambrai]] open to the Germans, which was needed to carry supplies southward to the armies on the Aisne and transport troops of the 6th Army northwards from Lorraine to Flanders.{{sfn|Strachan|2001|pp=241, 266}} On 7 September, the garrison surrendered, after super-heavy artillery from the [[Siege of Namur (1914)|Siege of Namur]] demolished the forts. The Germans took {{nowrap|32,692 prisoners}} and captured {{nowrap|450 guns.}}{{sfn|Herwig|2009|p=255}}{{sfn|Strachan|2001|pp=241, 266}} Small detachments of the Belgian, French and British armies conducted operations in Belgium and northern France, against German cavalry and [[Jäger (military)|Jäger]].{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|pp=39–65}}

On 27 August, a squadron of the [[Royal Naval Air Service]] (RNAS) flew to [[Ostend]], for reconnaissance sorties between [[Bruges]], [[Ghent]] and Ypres.{{sfn|Raleigh|1969|pp=371–374}} [[Royal Marines]] landed at [[Dunkirk]] on the night of {{nowrap|19/20 September}} and on 28 September, a battalion occupied [[Lille]]. The rest of the brigade occupied [[Cassel, Nord|Cassel]] on 30 September and scouted the country in motor cars; an RNAS Armoured Car Section was created, by fitting vehicles with bullet-proof steel.{{sfn|Raleigh|1969|pp=375–390}}{{sfn|Corbett|2009|pp=168–170}} On 2 October, the Marine Brigade was sent to [[Antwerp]], followed by the rest of the [[63rd (Royal Naval) Division]] on 6 October, having landed at Dunkirk on the night of {{nowrap|4/5 October.}} From 6 to 7 October, the [[7th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|7th Division]] and the [[3rd Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)|3rd Cavalry Division]] landed at [[Zeebrugge]].{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|p=405}} Naval forces collected at Dover were formed into a separate unit, which became the [[Dover Patrol]], to operate in the Channel and off the French-Belgian coast.{{sfn|Corbett|2009|pp=170–202}}

====BEF====
In late September, Marshal [[Joseph Joffre]] and Field Marshal [[John French, 1st Earl of Ypres|John French]] discussed the transfer of the BEF from the Aisne to Flanders, to unify British forces on the Continent, shorten the British lines of communication from England and to defend Antwerp and the [[Channel Ports]]. Despite the inconvenience of British troops crossing French lines of communication, when French forces were moving north after the Battle of the Aisne, Joffre agreed subject to a proviso, that French would make individual British units available for operations as soon as they arrived. On the night of {{nowrap|1/2 October,}} the transfer of the BEF from the Aisne front began in great secrecy. Marches were made at night and billeted troops were forbidden to venture outside in daylight. On 3 October, a German wireless message was intercepted, which showed that the BEF was still believed to be on the Aisne.{{sfn|Edmonds|1926|pp=405, 407}}

II Corps moved from the night of {{nowrap|3/4 October}} and III Corps followed from 6 October, leaving a brigade behind with I Corps, which stayed until the night of {{nowrap|13/14 October.}} II Corps arrived around [[Abbeville]] from 8 to 9 October and concentrated to the north-east around [[Gennes-Ivergny]], [[Gueschart]], [[Le Boisle]] and Raye, preparatory to an advance on [[Béthune]]. The [[2nd Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)|2nd Cavalry Division]] arrived at St Pol and [[Hesdin]] on 9 October and the [[1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)|1st Cavalry Division]] arrived a day later. GHQ left [[Fère-en-Tardenois]] and arrived at [[Saint-Omer]] on 13 October. III Corps began to assemble around Saint-Omer and [[Hazebrouck]] on 11 October, then moved behind the left flank of II Corps, to advance on [[Bailleul, Somme|Bailleul]] and Armentières. I Corps arrived at Hazebrouck on 19 October and moved eastwards to Ypres.{{sfn|Edmonds|1926|p=408}}

====Race to the Sea====
{{Main|Race to the Sea}}

[[File:German and Allied operations, Artois and Flanders, September- November 1914.png|thumb|{{centre|German and Allied operations, Artois and Flanders, September–November 1914}}]]
After a tour of the front on 15 September, the new chief of the [[German General Staff]] (''[[Oberste Heeresleitung]], OHL''), General [[Erich von Falkenhayn]] planned to continue the withdrawal of the right flank of the German armies in France from the Aisne, to gain time for a strategic regrouping, by moving the 6th Army from Lorraine. A decisive result ({{lang|de|Schlachtentscheidung}}), was intended to come from the offensive of the 6th Army but on 18 September, French attacks endangered the German northern flank instead and the 6th Army used the first units from Lorraine to repulse the French as a preliminary.{{sfn|Foley|2007|p=101}}{{efn|Writers and historians have criticised the term ''Race to the Sea'' and used several date ranges. In 1925, [[James Edward Edmonds|James Edmonds]] the British [[official historian]], used dates of {{nowrap|15 September – 15 October}} and {{nowrap|17 September – 19 October,}} in 1926.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|pp=27–100}}{{sfn|Edmonds|1926|pp=400–408}} In 1929 in {{lang|de|Der Weltkrieg}} the German Official Historian, Hermann Mertz von Quirnheim, described German outflanking attempts, without labelling them.{{sfn|Mertz von Quirnheim|1929|p=14}} In 2001, Strachan used {{nowrap|15 September – 17 October.}}{{sfn|Strachan|2001|pp=266–273}} In, 2003 Clayton gave dates from 17 September to 7 October.{{sfn|Clayton|2003|p=59}} In 2005, Doughty used the period from 17 September to 17 October and Foley from 17 September to {{nowrap|10–21 October.}}{{sfn|Doughty|2005|p=98}}{{sfn|Foley|2007|pp=101–102}} In 2010, Sheldon placed the "erroneously named" race, from the end of the Battle of the Marne, to the beginning of the [[Battle of the Yser]].{{sfn|Sheldon|2010|p=x}}}} The French used undamaged rail and communications networks, to move troops faster than the Germans but neither side could begin a decisive attack, having to send units forward piecemeal, against reciprocal attacks of the opponent, in the Race to the Sea (The name is a [[misnomer]], because neither side raced to the sea but tried to outflank their opponent before they reached it and ran out of room.){{sfn|Foley|2007|pp=101–102}}

A German attack on 24 September, forced the French onto the defensive and Joffre reinforced the northern flank of the Second Army. As BEF units arrived, operations began piecemeal on the northern flank; the Belgian army refused a request by Joffre to leave the [[National redoubt of Belgium]] and [[sortie]] against German communications. A Franco-British offensive was substituted towards Lille and Antwerp. The allied troops managed to advance towards Lille and the Lys river but were stopped by German attacks in the opposite direction on 20 October.{{sfn|Doughty|2005|pp=98–102}} The "race" ended on the Belgian coast around 17 October, when the last open area from [[Diksmuide]] to the North Sea, was occupied by Belgian troops withdrawing from Antwerp after the [[Siege of Antwerp (1914)|Siege of Antwerp]] (28 September – 10 October). The [[flanking maneuver|outflanking attempts]] resulted in indecisive [[meeting engagement|encounter battles]] through Artois and Flanders, at the Battle of La Bassée {{nowrap|(10 October – 2 November),}} the Battle of Messines {{nowrap|(12 October – 2 November)}} and the Battle of Armentières {{nowrap|(13 October – 2 November).}}{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|pp=125–172, 205–223, 225–234}}{{sfn|Doughty|2005|pp=102–103}}{{efn|The British Battles Nomenclature Committee (1920), recorded four simultaneous battles, the [[Battle of La Bassée]] {{nowrap|(10 October – 2 November),}} the [[Battle of Armentières]] {{nowrap|(13 October – 2 November),}} the Battle of Messines {{nowrap|(12 October – 2 November)}} and the Battles of Ypres {{nowrap|(19 October – 22 November),}} comprising the Battle of Langemarck {{nowrap|(21–24 October),}} the [[Battle of Gheluvelt]] {{nowrap|(29–31 October)}} and the [[Battle of Nonne Bosschen]] (11 November).{{sfn|James|1990|pp=4–5}} In 1925, [[James Edward Edmonds|James Edmonds]], the British [[History of the Great War|Official Historian]], wrote that the II Corps battle at La Bassée was separate but the battles from Armentières to Messines and Ypres, were better understood as one battle in two parts, an offensive by III Corps and the Cavalry Corps from 12 to 18 October and the offensive by the German 6th and 4th armies from 19 October to 2 November, which after 30 October, took place north of Armentières, when the battles of Armentières and Messines merged with the First Battle of Ypres.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|pp=125–126}}}}

==Prelude==

===Terrain===
The far north of France and the north-west Belgium are known as Flanders. West of a line between [[Arras]] and [[Calais]] in the north-west are chalk downlands, covered with soil sufficient for arable farming. East of the line, the land declines in a series of spurs into the Flanders plain, bounded by canals linking [[Douai]], Béthune, Saint-Omer and Calais. To the south-east, canals run between [[Lens, Pas-de-Calais|Lens]], Lille, [[Roubaix]] and [[Courtrai]], the Lys river from Courtrai to Ghent and to the north-west lies the sea. The plain is almost flat, apart from a line of low hills from Cassel, eastwards to [[Mont des Cats]], Mont Noir, Mont Rouge, Scherpenberg and Mont Kemmel. From Kemmel, a low ridge lies to the north-east, declining in elevation past Ypres through [[Wytschaete]] (Wijtschate), [[Gheluvelt]] and [[Passendale|Passchendaele]] (Passendale), curving north then north-west to Diksmuide where it merges with the plain. A coastal strip is about {{cvt|10|mi}} wide, near sea level and fringed by sand dunes. Inland the ground is mainly meadow, cut by canals, dykes, drainage ditches and roads built up on causeways. The [[Lys (river)|Lys]], [[Yser]] and upper [[Scheldt]] are canalised and between them, the water level underground is close to the surface, rises further in the autumn and fills any dip, the sides of which then collapse. The ground surface quickly turns to a consistency of cream cheese and on the coast movement is confined to roads, except during frosts.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|pp=73–74}}

In the rest of the Flanders Plain were woods and small fields, divided by hedgerows planted with trees and fields cultivated from small villages and farms. The terrain was difficult for infantry operations because of the lack of observation, impossible for mounted action because of the many obstructions and awkward for artillery because of the limited view. South of [[La Bassée]] Canal around Lens and Béthune was a coal-mining district full of slagheaps, pitheads ({{lang|fr|fosses}}) and miners' houses ({{lang|fr|corons}}). North of the canal, the city of Lille, [[Tourcoing]] and Roubaix formed a manufacturing complex, with outlying industries at [[Armentières]], [[Comines, Nord|Comines]], [[Halluin]] and [[Menen|Menin]] (Menen), along the Lys river, with isolated sugar beet and alcohol refineries and a steelworks near [[Aire-sur-la-Lys]]. Intervening areas were agricultural, with wide roads, which in France were built on shallow foundations or were unpaved mud tracks. Narrow {{lang|fr|pavé}} roads ran along the frontier and inside Belgium. In France, the roads were closed by the local authorities during thaws to preserve the surface and marked by {{lang|fr|Barrières fermėes}} signs, which were ignored by British lorry drivers. The difficulty of movement after the end of summer absorbed much of the labour available on road maintenance, leaving field defences to be built by front-line soldiers.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|pp=74–76}}

===Tactics===
In October, [[Herbert Kitchener]], the British [[Secretary of State for War]], forecast a long war and placed orders for the manufacture of a large number of field, medium and heavy guns and howitzers, sufficient to equip a {{nowrap|24-division}} army. The order was soon increased by the [[War Office]] but the rate of shell manufacture had an immediate effect on operations. While the BEF was still on the Aisne front, ammunition production for field guns and howitzers was {{nowrap|10,000 shells}} a month and only {{nowrap|100 shells}} per month were being manufactured for {{nowrap|60-pounder}} guns; the War Office sent another {{nowrap|101 heavy}} guns to France during October. As the contending armies moved north into Flanders, the flat terrain and obstructed view, caused by the number of buildings, industrial concerns, tree foliage and field boundaries, forced changes in British artillery methods. Lack of observation was remedied in part by decentralising artillery to infantry brigades and by locating the guns in the front line but this made them more vulnerable and several batteries were overrun in the fighting between Arras and Ypres. Devolving control of the guns made concentrated artillery-fire difficult to arrange, because of a lack of field telephones and the obscuring of signal flags by mists and fog.{{sfn|Farndale|1986|pp=67, 69}}

Co-operation with French forces to share the British heavy artillery was implemented and discussions with French gunners led to a synthesis of the French practice of firing a field artillery {{lang|fr|rafale}} (squall) before infantry moved to the attack and then ceasing fire, with the British preference for direct fire at observed targets, which was the beginning of the development of creeping [[Barrage (artillery)|barrages]]. During the advance of the III Corps and an attack on [[Méteren]], the [[4th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|4th Division]] issued divisional artillery orders, which stressed the concentration of the fire of the artillery, although during the battle the gunners fired on targets of opportunity, since German positions were so well camouflaged. As the fighting moved north into Belgian Flanders, the artillery found that [[Shrapnel shell]]s had little effect on buildings and called for [[Explosive material|high explosive]] ammunition. During a general attack on 18 October, the German defenders achieved a defensive success, due to the disorganised nature of the British attacks, which only succeeded where close artillery support was available. The unexpected strength of the German [[4th Army (German Empire)|4th Army]] opposite, compounded British failings, although the partly trained, poorly led and badly equipped German reserve corps suffered high casualties.{{sfn|Farndale|1986|pp=69–71}}

German tactics developed during the battles around Ypres, with cavalry still effective during the early manoeuvring, although just as hampered by hedges and fenced fields, railway lines and urban growth as the Allied cavalry, which made the ground far better suited to defensive battle. German accounts stress the accuracy of Allied sniper fire, which led troops to remove the spike from ''[[Pickelhaube]]'' helmets and for officers to carry rifles to be less conspicuous. Artillery remained the main infantry-killer, particularly French [[Canon de 75 modèle 1897|75 mm field]] guns, firing shrapnel at ranges lower than {{cvt|1000|yd}}. Artillery in German reserve units was far less efficient, due to lack of training and shells often fell short.{{sfn|Sheldon|2010|p=viii}} In the lower ground between Ypres and the higher ground to the south-east and east, the ground was drained by many streams and ditches, divided into small fields with high hedges and ditches, roads were unpaved and the area was dotted with houses and farmsteads. Observation was limited by trees and open spaces could be commanded from covered positions and made untenable by small-arms and artillery fire. As winter approached, the views became more open as woods and copses were cut down by artillery bombardments and the ground became much softer, particularly in the lower-lying areas.{{sfn|Farndale|1986|p=71}}

===Plans===
{{Main|First Battle of Ypres order of battle}}

The French, Belgian and British forces in Flanders had no organisation for unified command but General [[Foch]] had been appointed {{lang|de|commandant le groupe des Armées du Nord}} on 4 October by Joffre. The Belgian army managed to save {{nowrap|80,000 men}} from Antwerp and retire to the Yser and although not formally in command of British and Belgian forces, Foch obtained co-operation from both contingents.{{sfn|Sheldon|2010|p=x}} On 10 October, Foch and French agreed to combine French, British and Belgian forces north and east of Lille, from the Lys to the Scheldt.{{sfn|Foch|1931|p=143}} Foch planned a joint advance from Ypres to Nieuwpoort, towards a line from [[Roeselare]] (Roulers), [[Thourout]] and [[Gistel]], just south of Ostend. Foch intended to isolate the German III Reserve Corps, which was advancing from Antwerp, from the main German force in Flanders. French and Belgian forces were to push the Germans back against the sea, as French and British forces turned south-east and closed up to the Lys river from Menin to Ghent, to cross the river and attack the northern flank of the German armies.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|p=127}}

Falkenhayn sent the 4th Army headquarters to Flanders, to take over the III Reserve Corps and its heavy artillery, twenty batteries of heavy field howitzers, twelve batteries of [[21 cm Mörser 16|210 mm howitzers]] and six batteries of [[10 cm K 04|100 mm guns]], after the Siege of Antwerp {{nowrap|(28 September – 10 October).}} The XXII, XXIII, XXVI and XXVII Reserve corps, of the six new reserve corps formed from volunteers after the outbreak of the war, were ordered from Germany to join the III Reserve Corps on 8 October. The German reserve corps infantry were poorly trained and ill-equipped but on 10 October, Falkenhayn issued a directive that the 4th Army was to cross the Yser, advance regardless of losses and isolate Dunkirk and Calais, then turn south towards Saint-Omer. With the 6th Army to the south, which was to deny the Allies an opportunity to establish a secure front and transfer troops to the north, the 4th Army was to inflict an annihilating blow on the French, Belgian and BEF forces in French and Belgian Flanders.{{sfn|Foley|2007|p=102}}

===Battle of the Yser===
{{Main|Battle of the Yser}}

French, British and Belgian troops covered the Belgian and British withdrawal from Antwerp towards Ypres and the Yser from Diksmuide to Nieuwpoort, on a {{cvt|35|km|order =flip}} front. The new German 4th Army was ordered to capture Dunkirk and Calais, by attacking from the coast to the junction with the 6th Army.{{sfn|Foley|2007|p=102}} German attacks began on 18 October, coincident with the battles around Ypres and gained a foothold over the Yser at Tervaete. The French 42nd Division at Nieuwpoort detached a brigade to reinforce the Belgians and German heavy artillery was countered on the coast, by Allied ships under British command, which bombarded German artillery positions and forced the Germans to attack further inland.{{sfn|Sheldon|2010|p=79}} On 24 October, the Germans attacked fifteen times and managed to cross the Yser on a {{cvt|5|km|order=flip}} front. The French sent the rest of the 42nd Division to the centre but on 26 October, the Belgian Commander [[Félix Wielemans]], ordered the Belgian army to retreat, until over-ruled by the Belgian king. Next day [[sluice gate]]s on the coast at Nieuwpoort were opened, which flooded the area between the Yser and the railway embankment, running north from Diksmuide. On 30 October, German troops crossed the embankment at Ramscapelle (Ramskapelle) but as the waters rose, were forced back the following evening. The floods reduced the fighting to local operations, which diminished until the end of the battle on 30 November.{{sfn|Strachan|2001|pp=275–276}}

==Battle==

===Battle of Langemarck===
[[File:Battle of Langemarck, from 21-24 October 1914.png|thumb|{{centre|Battle of Langemarck, from 21 to 24 October 1914}}]]The Battle of Langemarck took place from 21 to 24 October, after an advance by the German 4th and 6th armies which began on 19 October, as the left flank of the BEF began advancing towards Menin and Roeselare. On 20 October, [[Langemarck]] (Langemark), north-east of Ypres, was held by a French territorial unit and the British IV corps to the south. I Corps (Lieutenant-General [[Douglas Haig]]) was due to arrive with orders to attack on 21 October. On 21 October, it had been cloudy and attempts to reconnoitre the German positions during the afternoon had not observed any German troops movements; the arrival of four new German reserve corps was discovered by prisoner statements, wireless interception and the increasing power of German attacks; {{frac|5|1|2}} infantry corps were now known to be north of the Lys, along with the four cavalry corps, against {{frac|7|1|3}} British divisions and five allied cavalry divisions. The British attack made early progress but the 4th army began a series of attacks, albeit badly organised and poorly supported. The German 6th and 4th armies attacked from Armentières to Messines and Langemarck. The British IV Corps was attacked around Langemarck, where the 7th Division was able to repulse German attacks and I Corps was able to make a short advance.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|pp=xv, 166–167}}

[[File:German nighttime assault on the English trenches near Langemarck, October 28 1914.png|thumb|left|German night assault on the English trenches near Langemarck, 28 October 1914 (illustration by G. C. Koch)]]
Further north, French cavalry was pushed back to the Yser by the XXIII Reserve Corps and by nightfall was dug in from the junction with the British at Steenstraat to the vicinity of Diksmuide, the boundary with the Belgian army.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|pp=xv, 166–167}} The British closed the gap with a small number of reinforcements and on 23 October, the French IX Corps took over the north end of the Ypres salient, relieving I Corps with the 17th Division. Kortekeer Cabaret was recaptured by the [[History of the British 1st Division during the World Wars|1st Division]] and the [[2nd Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|2nd Division]] was relieved. Next day, I Corps had been relieved and the 7th Division lost [[Polygon Wood]] temporarily. The left flank of the 7th Division was taken over by the 2nd Division, which joined in the counter-attack of the French IX Corps on the northern flank towards Roeselare and [[Torhout]], as the fighting further north on the Yser impeded German attacks around Ypres.{{sfn|Strachan|2001|p=276}} German attacks were made on the right flank of the 7th Division at Gheluvelt.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|pp=166–167}} The British sent the remains of I Corps to reinforce IV Corps. German attacks from 25 to 26 October were made further south, against the 7th Division on the Menin Road and on 26 October part of the line crumbled until reserves were scraped up to block the gap and avoid a rout.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|p=202}}

===Battle of Gheluvelt===
On 28 October, as the 4th Army attacks bogged down, Falkenhayn responded to the costly failures of the 4th and 6th armies by ordering the armies to conduct holding attacks while a new force, {{lang|de|Armeegruppe Fabeck}} (General [[Max von Fabeck]]) was assembled from XV Corps and the II Bavarian Corps, the 26th Division and the 6th Bavarian Reserve Division, under the XIII Corps headquarters.{{efn|{{lang|de|Armeegruppe}} was a German term for a formation larger than a corps and smaller than an army, usually improvised and not a group of armies, which was a {{lang|de|Heeresgruppe}}.}} The {{lang|de|Armeegruppe}} was rushed up to Deûlémont and [[Werviq]] (Wervik), the boundary between the 6th and 4th armies, to attack towards Ypres and [[Poperinge]]. Strict economies were imposed on the 6th Army formations further south, to provide artillery ammunition for {{nowrap|250 heavy}} guns supporting an attack to the north-west, between Gheluvelt and Messines. The XV Corps was to attack on the right flank, south of the Menin–Ypres road to the Comines–Ypres canal and the main effort was to come from there to Garde Dieu by the II Bavarian Corps, flanked by the 26th Division.{{sfn|Sheldon|2010|pp=223–224}}

[[File:Battle of Gheluvelt 1 November 1914.png|thumb|{{centre|Battle of Gheluvelt (1 November 1914)}}]]
On 29 October, attacks by the XXVII Reserve Corps began against I Corps north of the Menin Road, at dawn, in thick fog. By nightfall, the Gheluvelt crossroads had been lost and {{nowrap|600 British}} prisoners taken. French attacks further north, by the 17th Division, [[18th Infantry Division (France)|18th Division]] and 31st Division recaptured Bixschoote and Kortekeer Cabaret. Advances by {{lang|de|Armeegruppe Fabeck}} to the south-west against I Corps and the dismounted Cavalry Corps further south, came to within {{cvt|3|km|order=flip}} of Ypres along the Menin road and brought the town into range of German artillery.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|pp=xvii–xviii, 275–276}} On 30 October, German attacks by the [[54th Reserve Division]] and the [[30th Division (German Empire)|30th Division]], on the left flank of the BEF at Gheluvelt, were repulsed but the British were pushed out of [[Zandvoorde, Zonnebeke|Zandvoorde]], Hollebeke and Hollebeke Château as German attacks on a line from Messines to Wytschaete and St Yves were repulsed. The British rallied opposite Zandvoorde with French reinforcements and "Bulfin's Force" a command improvised for the motley of troops. The BEF had many casualties and used all its reserves but the French IX Corps sent its last three battalions and retrieved the situation in the I Corps sector. On 31 October, German attacks near Gheluvelt broke through until a counter-attack by the [[Worcestershire Regiment|2nd Worcestershire]] restored the situation.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|pp=xviii, 278–301}}

===Battle of Nonne Bosschen===

[[File:2nd Ox & Bucks, Nonne Bosschen, defeating the Prussian Guard 1914 by W.B. Wollen.jpeg|thumb|{{centre|Fanciful painting of the 2nd Battalion, [[Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry]], Nonne Bosschen, defeating the Prussian Guard, 1914 ([[William Barnes Wollen|William Wollen]])}}]]
The French XVI Corps reached the area from St Eloi to Wytschaete on 1 November, to reinforce the cavalry Corps and the IX Corps attacked further north near [[Becelaere]] (Beselare), which relieved the German pressure on both flanks of I Corps. By 3 November, {{lang|de|Armeegruppe Fabeck}} had lost {{nowrap|17,250 men}} in five days and of {{nowrap|84 infantry}} battalions in the BEF which had come to France with about {{nowrap|1,000 officers}} and men each, {{nowrap|75 had}} fewer than {{nowrap|300 men,}} of which {{nowrap|18 battalions}} were under {{nowrap|100 men}} strong, despite receiving replacements up to 28 October. Foch planned an offensive towards Messines and Langemarck for 6 November, to expand the salient around Ypres. The attack was forestalled by German attacks on the flanks from 5 to 9 November. On 9 November, the Germans attacked the French and Belgians between Langemarck and Diksmuide, forcing them back to the Yser, where the Belgians blew the crossings. After a lull, the German attacks resumed in great force from 10 to 11 November, mainly on the 4th Army front from Langemarck to Diksmuide. On 10 November, {{frac|12|1|2}} German divisions of the 4th and 6th Armies, {{lang|de|Armeegruppe Fabeck}} and XXVII Reserve Corps attacked from Nonne Bosschen (Nun's Copse) and the edge of Polygon Wood, to Gheluvelt and across the Menin Road to Shrewsbury Forest in the south.{{sfn|Beckett|2006|pp=213–214}}

On 11 November, the Germans attacked from Messines to Herenthage, Veldhoek woods, Nonne Bosschen and Polygon Wood. Massed small-arms fire repulsed German attacks between Polygon Wood and Veldhoek. The German [[3rd Division (German Empire)|3rd Division]] and [[26th Division (German Empire)|26th Division]] broke through to St Eloi and advanced to [[Zwarteleen]], some {{cvt|3000|yd}} east of Ypres, where they were checked by the British 7th Cavalry Brigade. The remains of II Corps from La Bassée, held a {{cvt|3500|yd}} front, with {{nowrap|7,800 men}} and {{nowrap|2,000 reserves}} against {{nowrap|25 German}} battalions with {{nowrap|17,500 men.}} The British were forced back by the German [[4th Division (German Empire)|4th Division]] and British counter-attacks were repulsed.{{sfn|Beckett|2006|pp=213–214}} Next day, an unprecedented bombardment fell on British positions in the south of the salient between Polygon Wood and Messines. German troops broke through along the Menin road but could not be supported and the advance was contained by 13 November.{{sfn|Strachan|2001|pp=277–278}} Both sides were exhausted by these efforts; German casualties around Ypres had reached about {{nowrap|80,000 men}} and BEF losses, August – 30 November, were {{nowrap|89,964;}} {{nowrap|(54,105 at}} Ypres). The Belgian army had been reduced by half and the French had lost {{nowrap|385,000 men}} by September, {{nowrap|265,000 men}} having been killed by the end of the year.{{sfn|Strachan|2001|p=278}}

===Local operations, 12–22 November===
[[File:Langemark 3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|{{centre|Langemark, October 1914}}]]
The weather became much colder, with rain from 12 to 14 November and a little snow on 15 November. Night frosts followed and on 20 November, the ground was covered by snow. Frostbite cases appeared and the physical strain increased, among troops occupying trenches half-full of freezing water, falling asleep standing up and being sniped at and bombed from opposing trenches {{cvt|100|yd}} away.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|p=448}} On 12 November, a German attack surprised the French IX Corps and the British [[8th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|8th Division]] arrived at the front on 13 November and more attacks were made on the II Corps front from 14 November. Between {{nowrap|15–22 November,}} I Corps was relieved by the French IX and XVI corps and the British line was reorganised.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|pp=xxi, 447–460}} On 16 November, Foch agreed with French to take over the line from Zonnebeke to the Ypres–Comines canal. The new British line ran {{cvt|21|mi}} from Wytschaete to the La Bassée Canal at Givenchy. The Belgians held {{cvt|15|mi}} and the French defended some {{cvt|430|mi}} of the new Western front. On 17 November, [[Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg|Albrecht]] ordered the 4th Army to cease its attacks; the III Reserve Corps and XIII Corps were ordered to move the Eastern Front, which was discovered by the Allies on 20 November.{{sfn|Beckett|2006|pp=219–224}}

==Aftermath==

===Analysis===
[[File:WWI Trench ending in Switerland - CH-BAR - 3238320.jpg|thumb|alt=B&W of WWI ending in Switzerland|{{centre|After the First Battle of Ypres, trenches stretched from Switzerland to the Belgian coast}}]]
Both sides had tried to advance after the "open" northern flank had disappeared, the Franco-British towards Lille in October, followed by attacks by the BEF, Belgians and a new French [[Eighth Army (France)|Eighth Army]] in Belgium. The German 4th and 6th armies took small amounts of ground at great cost to both sides, at the Battle of the Yser {{nowrap|(16–31 October)}} and further south at the Battles of Ypres. Falkenhayn then tried a limited goal of capturing Ypres and Mont Kemmel, from 19 October to 22 November. By 8 November, Falkenhayn had accepted that the coastal advance had failed and that taking Ypres was impossible. Neither side had moved forces to Flanders fast enough to obtain a decisive victory and both were exhausted, short of ammunition and suffering from collapses in morale, with some infantry units refusing orders. The autumn battles in Flanders had quickly become static, attrition operations, unlike the battles of manoeuvre in the summer. French, British and Belgian troops in improvised field defences repulsed German attacks for four weeks in mutually costly attacks and counter-attacks. From 21 to 23 October, German reservists had made mass attacks at Langemarck, with losses of up to seventy per cent.{{sfn|Foley|2007|pp=102–104}}

Industrial warfare between mass armies had been indecisive; troops could only move forward over heaps of dead. Field fortifications had neutralised many classes of offensive weapon and the defensive firepower of artillery and machine-guns had dominated the battlefield; the ability of the armies to supply themselves and replace casualties kept battles going for weeks. The German armies engaged {{nowrap|34 divisions}} in the Flanders battles, the French twelve, the British nine and the Belgians six, along with marines and dismounted cavalry.{{sfn|Philpott|2014|pp=62, 65}} Falkenhayn reconsidered German strategy; {{lang|de|Vernichtungsstrategie}} and a dictated peace against France and Russia had been shown to be beyond German resources. Falkenhayn intended to detach Russia or France from the Allied coalition, by diplomatic as well as military action. A strategy of attrition ({{lang|de|Ermattungsstrategie}}), would make the cost of the war too great for the Allies to bear, until one enemy negotiated an end to the war. The remaining belligerents would have to come to terms or face the German army concentrated on the remaining front and capable of obtaining a decisive victory.{{sfn|Foley|2007|pp=105–107}}

====Mad minute====
In 2010, Jack Sheldon wrote that a "[[mad minute]]" of accurate rapid rifle-fire, was held to have persuaded German troops that they were opposed by machine-guns. This was a ''false notion'', picked out of a translation of {{lang|de|Die Schlacht an der Yser und bei Ypern im Herbst 1914}} (1918), which the official historians used, in lieu of authoritative sources, during the writing of the 1914 volumes of the British ''[[History of the Great War]]'', the first editions of which were published in 1922 and 1925.

{{blockquote|The British and French artillery fired as rapidly as they knew how and over every bush, hedge and fragment of wall floated a thin film of smoke, betraying a machine-gun rattling out bullets.|Sheldon{{sfn|Schwink|1919|p=94}}}}

Sheldon wrote that the translation was inaccurate and ignored many references to the combined fire of rifles and machine-guns,

{{blockquote|The British, most of whom had experience gained through long years of campaigning against cunning opponents in close country, let the attackers get to close range then, from hedges, houses and trees, opened up with withering rifle and machine-gun fire from point blank range.{{sfn|Sheldon|2010|p=xi}}}}

The British fired short bursts at close range, to conserve ammunition. Sheldon also wrote that German troops knew the firing characteristics of machine-guns and kept still until French [[Hotchkiss M1909]] and [[Hotchkiss M1914]] machine-guns, which had ammunition in {{nowrap|24- and 30-round}} strips, were reloading.{{sfn|Sheldon|2010|pp=xi–xii}}

===={{lang|de|Kindermord}}====
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|+BEF casualties August–December 1914{{sfn|War Office|1922|p=253}}
|-
! Month
! No.
|-
| August||14,409
|-
| September||15,189
|-
| October||30,192
|-
| November||24,785
|-
| December||11,079
|-
| '''Total'''||'''95,654'''
|}
Sheldon wrote that a German description of the fate of the new reserve corps as a {{lang|de|Kindermord}} (massacre of the innocents), in a communiqué of 11 November 1914, was misleading. Claims that up to {{nowrap|75 per cent}} of the manpower of the reserve corps were student volunteers, who attacked while singing [[Deutschlandlied|''Deutschland über alles'']] began a myth. After the war, most regiments which had fought in Flanders, referred to the singing of songs on the battlefield, a practice only plausible when used to identify units at night.{{sfn|Sheldon|2010|pp=xii–xiii}} In 1986, Unruh, wrote that {{nowrap|40,761 students}} had been enrolled in six reserve corps, four of which had been sent to Flanders, leaving a maximum of {{nowrap|30 per cent}} of the reserve corps operating in Flanders made up of volunteers. Only {{nowrap|30 per cent}} of German casualties at Ypres were young and inexperienced student reservists, others being active soldiers, older members of the ''[[Landwehr]]'' and army reservists. Reserve Infantry Regiment 211 had {{nowrap|166 men}} in active service, {{nowrap|299 members}} of the reserve, which was composed of former soldiers from 23 to 28 years old, {{nowrap|970 volunteers}} who were inexperienced and probably 18 to 20 years old, {{nowrap|1,499 ''Landwehr''}} (former soldiers from 28 to 39 years old, released from the reserve) and one {{lang|de|Ersatzreservist}} (enrolled but inexperienced).{{sfn|Unruh|1986|p=65}}

===Casualties===

In 1925, the British official historian, [[James Edward Edmonds|James Edmonds]], recorded that the Belgians had suffered a great number of casualties from 15 to 25 October, including {{nowrap|10,145 wounded.}} British casualties from 14 October to 30 November were {{nowrap|58,155, French}} casualties were {{nowrap|86,237 men}} and of {{nowrap|134,315 German}} casualties in Belgium and northern France, from 15 October to 24 November, {{nowrap|46,765}} were incurred on the front from the Lys to Gheluvelt, from 30 October to 24 November.{{sfn|Edmonds|1925|pp=466–468}} In 2003, Ian Beckett recorded {{nowrap|50,000 to 85,000 French}} casualties, {{nowrap|21,562 Belgian}} casualties, {{nowrap|55,395 British}} losses and {{nowrap|134,315 German}} casualties.{{sfn|Beckett|2006|p=176}} In 2010, Jack Sheldon recorded {{nowrap|54,000 British}} casualties, {{circa| 80,000 German}} casualties, that the French had many losses and that the Belgian army had been reduced to a shadow.{{sfn|Sheldon|2010|p=xiv}} Sheldon also noted that Colonel [[Fritz von Lossberg]] had recorded that up to 3 November, casualties in the 4th Army were {{nowrap|62,000 men}} and that the 6th Army had suffered {{nowrap|27,000 casualties,}} {{nowrap|17,250 losses}} of which had occurred in {{lang|de|Armeegruppe Fabeck}} from 30 October to 3 November.{{sfn|Sheldon|2010|p=264}}

===Subsequent operations===
[[File:A-Photo-of-German-Soldiers-During-the-Battle-of-Ypres-352029188390.jpg|thumb|right|German soldiers in a trench at Ypres, December 1914]]
{{Main|Winter operations 1914–1915}}

Winter operations from November 1914 to February 1915 in the Ypres area, took place in the Attack on Wytschaete (14 December).{{sfn|James|1990|p=6}} A reorganisation of the defence of Flanders had been carried out by the Franco-British from 15 to 22 November, which left the BEF holding a homogeneous front from Givenchy to Wytschaete {{cvt|21|mi}} to the north.{{sfn|Edmonds|Wynne|1995|p=4}} Joffre arranged for a series of attacks on the Western Front, after receiving information that German divisions were moving to the Russian Front. The Eighth Army was ordered to attack in Flanders and French was asked to participate with the BEF on 14 December. Joffre wanted the British to attack along all of the BEF front and especially from Warneton to Messines, as the French attacked from Wytschaete to Hollebeke. French gave orders to attack from the Lys to Warneton and Hollebeke with II and III Corps, as IV and Indian corps conducted local operations, to fix the Germans to their front.{{sfn|Edmonds|Wynne|1995|pp=16–17}}

French emphasised that the attack would begin on the left flank, next to the French and that units must not move ahead of each other. The French and the [[3rd Division (United Kingdom)|3rd Division]] were to capture Wytschaete and Petit Bois, then [[Spanbroekmolen British Cemetery|Spanbroekmolen]] was to be taken by II Corps attacking from the west and III Corps from the south, only the 3rd Division making a maximum effort. On the right the [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Division]] was only to pretend to attack and III Corps was to make demonstrations, as the corps was holding a {{cvt|10|mi}} front and could do no more.{{sfn|Edmonds|Wynne|1995|pp=16–17}} On the left, the French XVI Corps failed to reach its objectives and the 3rd Division got to within {{cvt|50|yd}} of the German line and found uncut wire. One battalion took {{cvt|200|yd}} of the German front trench and took {{nowrap|42 prisoners.}} The failure of the attack on Wytschaete resulted in the attack further south being cancelled but German artillery retaliation was much heavier than the British bombardment.{{sfn|Edmonds|Wynne|1995|pp=18–20}}

Desultory attacks were made from 15 to 16 December which, against intact German defences and deep mud, made no impression. On 17 December, XVI and II corps did not attack, the French IX Corps sapped forward a short distance down the Menin road and small gains were made at Klein Zillebeke and Bixschoote. Joffre ended attacks in the north, except for operations at Arras and requested support from French who ordered attacks on 18 December along the British front, then restricted the attacks to support of XVI Corps by II Corps and demonstrations by II Corps and the Indian Corps. Fog impeded the Arras attack and a German counter-attack against XVI Corps led II Corps to cancel its supporting attack. Six small attacks were made by the 8th, 7th, 4th and Indian divisions, which captured little ground, all of which was found to be untenable due to mud and water-logging; Franco-British attacks in Flanders ended.{{sfn|Edmonds|Wynne|1995|pp=18–20}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |title=Ypres: The First Battle, 1914 |last=Beckett |first=I. |year=2006 |orig-year=2003 |publisher=Longmans |location=London |edition=pbk. |isbn=978-1-4058-3620-3}}
* {{cite book |title=Paths of Glory: The French Army 1914–18 |last=Clayton |first=A. |year=2003 |publisher=Cassell |location=London |isbn=978-0-304-35949-3}}
* {{cite book |series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |title=Naval Operations |volume=I |last=Corbett |first=J. S. |year=2009 |orig-year=1938 |publisher=Longman |location=London |edition=Imperial War Museum and Naval & Military Press |url=https://archive.org/details/navaloperations01corb |access-date=5 March 2015 |isbn=978-1-84342-489-5}}
* {{cite book |author1-link=Robert A. Doughty |last=Doughty |first=R. A. |title=Pyrrhic victory, French Strategy and Operations in the Great War |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Belknap Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-674-01880-8}}
* {{cite book |series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |title=Military Operations France and Belgium, 1914: Antwerp, La Bassée, Armentières, Messines and Ypres October–November 1914 |volume=II |last=Edmonds |first=J. E. |author-link=James Edward Edmonds |year=1925 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |oclc=220044986}}
* {{cite book |series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |title=Military Operations France and Belgium 1914: Mons, the Retreat to the Seine, the Marne and the Aisne August–October 1914 |volume=I |last=Edmonds |first=J. E. |author-link=James Edward Edmonds |year=1926 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |edition=2nd |oclc=58962523}}
* {{cite book |series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |title=Military Operations France and Belgium, 1915: Winter 1915: Battle of Neuve Chapelle: Battles of Ypres |volume=I |last1=Edmonds |first1=J. E. |last2=Wynne |first2=G. C. |year=1995 |orig-year=1927 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |edition=Imperial War Museum and Battery Press |isbn=978-0-89839-218-0}}
* {{cite book |title=History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, Western Front 1914–18 |last=Farndale |first=M. |year=1986 |publisher=Royal Artillery Institution |location=London |isbn=978-1-870114-00-4}}
* {{cite book |title=Mémoire pour servir à l'histoire de la guerre 1914–1918: avec 18 gravures hors-texte et 12 cartes |trans-title=The Memoirs of Marshal Foch |language=fr |last=Foch |first=F. |author-link=Ferdinand Foch |year=1931 |publisher=Plon |location=Paris |edition=Heinemann |others=trans. T. Bentley Mott |url=http://www.hautefort-notre-patrimoine.fr/cities/727/documents/o6lhvd83h1dsyr.pdf |access-date=5 March 2015 |oclc=86058356 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303190845/http://www.hautefort-notre-patrimoine.fr/cities/727/documents/o6lhvd83h1dsyr.pdf |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |title=German Strategy and the Path to Verdun: Erich von Falkenhayn and the Development of Attrition, 1870–1916 |last=Foley |first=R. T. |year=2007 |orig-year=2005 |publisher=CUP |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-04436-3}}
* {{cite book |title=The Marne, 1914: The Opening of World War I and the Battle that Changed the World |last=Herwig |first=H. |year=2009 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4000-6671-1}}
* {{cite book |title=A Record of the Battles and Engagements of the British Armies in France and Flanders 1914–1918 |last=James |first=E. A. |year=1990 |orig-year=1924 |publisher=Gale & Polden |location=Aldershot |edition=London Stamp Exchange |isbn=978-0-948130-18-2}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Mertz von Quirnheim |editor-first=Hermann |title=Der Weltkrieg 1914 bis 1918: Militärischen Operationen zu Lande, Der Herbst-Feldzug im Osten bis zum Rückzug, Im Westem bis zum Stellungskrieg Fünfter Band |trans-title=The World War 1914–1918 Military land operations, The Autumn Campaign in the East and the West until the Withdrawal to the Positional War |volume=V |year=1929 |publisher=Verlag Ernst Siegfried Mittler & Sohn |location=Berlin |language=de |edition=online scan |oclc=838299944 |via=Oberösterreichische Landesbibliothek (Upper Austrian Provincial Library) |url=http://digi.landesbibliothek.at/viewer/image/AC01859873/1/LOG_0003/ |access-date=5 March 2015}}
* {{cite book |title=Attrition: Fighting the First World War |last=Philpott |first=W. |year=2014 |publisher=Little, Brown |location=London |isbn=978-1-4087-0355-7}}
* {{cite book |title=The War in the Air, Being the Story of the Part played in the Great War by the Royal Air Force |volume=I |last=Raleigh |first=W. A. |year=1969 |orig-year=1922 |publisher=OUP |location=Oxford |edition=Hamish Hamilton |url=https://archive.org/details/warinairbeingst01rale |access-date=5 March 2015 |oclc=785856329}}
* {{cite book |title=Die Schlacht an der Yser und bei Ypern im Herbst 1914 |last=Schwink |first=O. |year=1919 |orig-year=1918 |publisher=Gerhard Stalling |location=Oldenburg |edition=Eng. trans. Constable, London |translator-last=Wynne |translator-first=G. C. |trans-title=Ypres, 1914, an Official Account Published by Order of the German General Staff |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924027945199 |language=de |format=online scan |access-date=29 June 2015 |oclc=3288637}}
* {{cite book |title=The German Army at Ypres 1914 |last=Sheldon |first=J. |year=2010 |publisher=Pen and Sword Military |location=Barnsley |edition=1st |isbn=978-1-84884-113-0}}
* {{cite book |series=History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence |title=Principal Events 1914–1918 |last1=Skinner |first1=H. T. |last2=Stacke |first2=H. Fitz M. |year=1922 |publisher=[[HMSO]] |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/principalevents100grea |access-date=5 March 2015 |oclc=17673086}}
* {{cite book |ref={{harvid|War Office|1922}} |title=Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War, 1914–1920 |author= |year=1922 |publisher=HMSO |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/statisticsofmili00grea |access-date=5 March 2015 |oclc=610661991 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160802130005/https://archive.org/details/statisticsofmili00grea |archive-date=2 August 2016}}
* {{cite book |volume=I |title=The First World War: To Arms |last=Strachan |first=H. |year=2001 |publisher=OUP |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-926191-8}}
* {{cite book |title=Langemarck: Legende und Wirklichkeit |trans-title=Langemarck: Legend and Reality |language=de |last=Unruh |first=K. |year=1986 |publisher=Bernard & Graefe |location=Koblenz |isbn=978-3-7637-5469-4}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}

===Books===
* {{cite book |title=Armée Belgique: The war of 1914 Military Operations of Belgium in Defence of the Country and to Uphold Her Neutrality |author= |year=1915 |publisher=W. H. & L Collingridge |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/warof1914militar01belg |access-date=5 March 2015 |oclc=8651831}}
* {{cite book |last=Ashby |first=J. |title=Seek Glory Now Keep Glory: The Story of the 1st Battalion Royal Warwickshire Regiment, 1914–1918 |publisher=Helion |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-874622-45-1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Beckett |first1=I. |last2=Simpson |first2=K. |title=A Nation in Arms: A Social Study of the British Army in the First World War |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7190-1737-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bidwell |first1=S. |last2=Graham |first2=D. |author-link1=Shelford Bidwell |title=Fire-Power: The British Army Weapons and Theories of War, 1904–1945 |year=1982 |publisher=Pen & Sword |location=London |isbn=978-1-84415-216-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chapman-Huston |first1=D. |last2=Rutter |first2=O. |title=General Sir John Cowans, G.C.B., G.C.M.G: The Quartermaster-General of the Great War |volume=I |location=London |publisher=Hutchinson |year=1924 |oclc=792870994}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Erdmann |editor-first1=K. D. |title=Kurt Riezler: Tagebücher, Aufsätze, Dokumente |trans-title=Kurt Riezler: Diaries, Articles, Documents |year=1972 |location=Göttingen |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=978-3-525-35817-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Evans |first=M. M. |title=Passchendaele and the Battles of Ypres 1914–1918 |publisher=Osprey |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-85532-734-4}}
* {{cite book |title=Death of an Army |last=Farrar-Hockley |first=A. |author-link=Anthony Farrar-Hockley |year=1998 |orig-year=1967 |publisher=Barker |location=London |edition=Wordsworth Editions |isbn=978-1-85326-698-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Gardner |first=N. |title=Trial by Fire: Command and the British Expeditionary Force in 1914 |publisher=Pearson |location=London |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-582-50612-1}}
* {{cite book |title=Battle Tactics of the Western Front: The British Army's Art of Attack 1916–1918 |last=Griffith |first=P. |year=1996 |publisher=Yale |location=London |isbn=978-0-300-06663-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Holmes |first=R. |author-link=Richard Holmes (military historian) |title=The Oxford Companion to Military History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-860696-3}}
* {{cite book |title=The Fifth Division in the Great War |last1=Hussey |first1=A. H. |last2=Inman |first2=D. S. |year=1921 |publisher=Nisbet & Co |location=London |edition=online scan |url=https://archive.org/details/fifthdivisioning00huss |via=Archive Foundation |access-date=5 March 2015 |oclc=865491406}}
* {{cite book |title=The War in the Air, Being the Story of the Part played in the Great War by the Royal Air Force |volume=II |last=Jones |first=H. A. |year=2002 |orig-year=1928 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=London |edition=facs. repr. Imperial War Museum and Naval & Military Press |url=https://archive.org/details/warinairbeingsto02rale |access-date=5 March 2015 |isbn=978-1-84342-413-0 |via=Archive Foundation}}
* {{cite book |last=Lomas |first=D. |title=First Ypres 1914: The Birth of Trench Warfare |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-275-98291-1}}
* {{cite book |title=A Short History of the 6th Division August 1914 – March 1919 |last=Marden |first=T. O. |year=1920 |publisher=Hugh Rees |location=London |edition=online scan |url=https://archive.org/details/hist6thdivision00marduoft |via=Archive Foundation |access-date=5 March 2015 |oclc=752897173}}
* {{cite book |last=McGreal |first=S. |title=Boesinghe: Battleground Ypres |publisher=Pen & Sword |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-84884-046-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Van Pul |first=P. |title=In Flanders Flooded Fields, before Ypres there was Yser |publisher=Pen & Sword Military |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84415-492-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pawly |first1=R. |last2=Lierneux |first2=P. |title=The Belgian Army in World War I |publisher=Men at Arms |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-84603-448-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Prior |first1=R. |last2=Wilson |first2=T. |title=Command on the Western Front: The Military Career of Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1914–1918 |year=2004 |orig-year=1992 |publisher=Basil Blackwell |edition=Pen & Sword |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-84415-103-5}}
* {{cite book |title=An Analysis of 1,000 Wounds and Injuries Received in Action, with Special Reference to the Theory of the Prevalence of Self-Infliction (Secret) |last=Seton |first=B. |year=1915 |publisher=War Office |location=London |url=http://www.bl.uk/collection-items/analysis-of-1000-wounds-injuries-received-in-action |access-date=5 March 2015 |id=IOR/L/MIL/17/5/2402 (no ISBN) |archive-date=25 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025211928/https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/analysis-of-1000-wounds-injuries-received-in-action |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sheffield |first1=G. |last2=Todman |first2=G. |author-link1=Gary Sheffield (historian) |title=Command and Control on the Western Front: The British Army's Experience 1914–18 |year=2004 |publisher=Spellmount |location=London |isbn=978-1-86227-420-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=T. |title=The Myriad Faces of War: Britain and the Great War, 1914–1918 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Polity Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-7456-0645-3}}
* {{cite book |title=The History of the Second Division, 1914–1918 |volume=I |last=Wyrall |first=E. |year=2002 |orig-year=1921 |publisher=Thomas Nelson and Sons |location=London |edition=Naval & Military Press |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofsecondd01wyra |via=Archive Foundation |access-date=5 March 2015 |oclc=800898772}}

===Journals===
* {{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=M. G. |title=Land Transportation in the Late War |journal=Journal of the Royal United Service Institution |volume=66 |issue=464 |pages=699–722 |year=1921 |issn=0035-9289 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1934606 |access-date=11 September 2019 |doi=10.1080/03071842109434650}}

===Websites===
* {{cite web |title=Siege of Maubeuge, 25 August – 7 September 1914 |last=Rickard |first=J. |date=1 September 2007 |url=http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/siege_maubeuge.html |access-date=5 March 2015}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|First Battle of Ypres}}
{{Portal|Belgium}}
* [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/ypres_battles_of Spencer Jones Battles of Ypres]
* [https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/great-war-on-land/britain-allies/383-gaz-tommy.html Tommy's Gazetteer of French and Belgian Place Names] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020033217/http://www.westernfrontassociation.com/great-war-on-land/britain-allies/383-gaz-tommy.html |date=20 October 2017 }}
* [http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/1stypres_joffre.htm General Joffre's report]
* [http://www.firstworldwar.com/battles/ypres1st.htm Battles: The First Battle of Ypres, 1914]
* [https://www.carto1418.fr/19141019.php Situation map 19 October 1914]
* [https://www.carto1418.fr/19141119.php Situation map 19 November 1914]
* [http://digi.landesbibliothek.at/viewer/image/AC01859899/526/ ''Der Weltkrieg'' situation map, November 1914]

{{World War I}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ypres 1}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1914]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving France]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Germany]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving Belgium]]
[[Category:Battles of World War I involving British India]]
[[Category:Battles of the Western Front (World War I)]]
[[Category:1914 in Belgium]]
[[Category:1914 in France]]
[[Category:1914 in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Ypres|First Battle of Ypres]]
[[Category:Ypres Salient]]
[[Category:October 1914 in Europe]]
[[Category:November 1914 in Europe]]

Shoebite

2026-02-04T21:28:42Z

PaulineBarwell2: improved article

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{More citations needed|date=May 2012}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Shoebite
| image = Shoe Bite.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name = 
| director = [[Shoojit Sircar]]
| producer = [[Ronnie Screwvala]]
| writer =
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on = 
| starring = {{ubl|[[Amitabh Bachchan]]|[[Sarika]]|[[Dia Mirza]]|[[Jimmy Sheirgill]]}}
| narrator =
| music =
| cinematography =
| editing =
| studio = [[UTV Motion Pictures]]
| distributor = 
| released = 
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Shoebite''''' is an unreleased film and is the story of a man in his early 60s played by [[Amitabh Bachchan]]. The film is based on a story '''''Labour Of Love''''' by [[M. Night Shyamalan]]. It is directed by [[Shoojit Sircar]] and produced by [[UTV Software Communications|UTV Motion Pictures]]. The lyrics are penned by [[Gulzar]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/shyamalan-stalls-release-of-big-b-film/story-CQRWJOLK0YKvOCPSZYA7eO.html|title=Shyamalan stalls release of Big B film?|date=2012-03-17|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|access-date=2020-04-17|archive-date=25 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325232539/https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/shyamalan-stalls-release-of-big-b-film/story-CQRWJOLK0YKvOCPSZYA7eO.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

During production, the movie was titled '''''Johnny Mastana''''' and later '''''Johnny Walker'''''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://deadline.com/2014/01/berlin-sixth-senses-m-night-shyamalan-bruce-willis-re-team-for-labor-of-love-673107/|title=Berlin: 'Sixth Sense's M. Night Shyamalan, Bruce Willis Re-Team For 'Labor Of Love'|last=Fleming|first=Mike Jr.|date=2014-01-29|website=Deadline|language=en|access-date=2020-04-17|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315172008/https://deadline.com/2014/01/berlin-sixth-senses-m-night-shyamalan-bruce-willis-re-team-for-labor-of-love-673107/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Plot==
''Shoebite'' is the story of a man in his early 60s named John Pereira who sets out on a journey of self-discovery.

==Cast==
* [[Amitabh Bachchan]] as John Pereira<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apunkachoice.com/titles/joh/johnny-mastana/mid_25508/photos/mopho_25508_40840_2/2.html |title=Johnny Mastana Photo - Hindi Movie |accessdate=2012-07-27 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308123044/http://www.apunkachoice.com/titles/joh/johnny-mastana/mid_25508/photos/mopho_25508_40840_2/2.html |archivedate=8 March 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* [[Sarika]] as Aditi<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/us |title=Archived copy |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=27 July 2012 |archive-date=3 January 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103103053/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-17/news-interviews/28553964_1_child-labour-love-story-shoebite/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Shrysh Zutshi]] as Young John Pereira
* [[Sanjeeda Shaikh]] as Young Aditi
* [[Dia Mirza]]
* [[Jimmy Sheirgill]]
* [[Nawazuddin Siddiqui]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Bollywood/Ive-grown-up-watching-C-grade-movies-Nawazuddin-Part-1/Article1-882169.aspx/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808053902/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Bollywood/Ive-grown-up-watching-C-grade-movies-Nawazuddin-Part-1/Article1-882169.aspx|url-status=dead|title=Ive grown up watching C grade movies: Nawazuddin Part 1|archivedate=8 August 2012}}</ref>
* Apurva Mathur
* [[Preeti Nigam]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://telanganatoday.com/pretty-preetis-performance-peps-small-screen|title=Pretty Preeti's performance peps up small screen|first=T Lalith|last=Singh|website=Telangana Today|access-date=22 June 2020|archive-date=25 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625034210/https://telanganatoday.com/pretty-preetis-performance-peps-small-screen|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Suresh Gera

==Production==
===Filming===
During the [[Manali, Himachal Pradesh|Manali]] schedule of the film, the shooting unit converted the [[Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment]] (SASE) into a hospital.<ref>[http://www.apunkachoice.com/titles/joh/johnny-mastana/mid_25508/photos/mopho_25508_40840_2/2.html "Johnny Mastana"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308123044/http://www.apunkachoice.com/titles/joh/johnny-mastana/mid_25508/photos/mopho_25508_40840_2/2.html |date=8 March 2012 }},''Apunkachoice'', URL Retrieved on 8 April 2010</ref>

==Production==
[[Percept Picture Company]] announced a film called ''Johnny Walker'' starring Bachchan and directed by Sircar, but the film was never made. Sircar took the film to [[UTV Motion Pictures]], renaming it ''Shoebite''. Percept filed a lawsuit against UTV seeking to prevent ''Shoebite'' from being made. After a long legal battle, the lawsuit was dismissed in 2012.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.filmibeat.com/bollywood/news/2008/shoebite-delhi-high-court-order-240708.html |title=Amitabh's Shoebite in trouble |work=OneIndia |date=2008-07-24 |access-date=2012-07-27 |archive-date=16 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216045928/http://entertainment.oneindia.in/bollywood/news/2008/shoebite-delhi-high-court-order-240708.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The production of the film has been speculated to be stalled.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bollywood.com/shyamalan-stalls-release-amitanh-bachchan-film |title=Archived copy |access-date=17 September 2012 |archive-date=27 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120627063011/http://www.bollywood.com/shyamalan-stalls-release-amitanh-bachchan-film |url-status=live }}</ref> The director of the film [[Shoojit Sircar]] made film ''[[Vicky Donor]]'' and got it released since he started to face delays in Shoebite.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/entertainment-others/never-expected-families-to-turn-up-for-vicky-donor-says-director/|title=Never expected families to turn up for 'Vicky Donor',says director|date=1 May 2012|access-date=28 March 2024|archive-date=2 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802084926/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/entertainment-others/never-expected-families-to-turn-up-for-vicky-donor-says-director/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="tehelka2012">{{cite web|url=http://archive.tehelka.com/story_main52.asp?filename=hub120512VICKY.asp|title=Vicky Donor is born|last=Vol 9, Issue 19|date=2012-05-12|website=|publisher=Tehelka|accessdate=2013-08-23|archive-date=3 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603225524/http://archive.tehelka.com/story_main52.asp?filename=hub120512VICKY.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> In March 2018, Bachchan requested the makers to release the film in his tweet, saying ''Yes... put aside the internal debate, issues, or personal view points and give this labour of love from Shoojit Sircar a chance for others to appreciate this novel story and film... Please..'' <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/amitabh-bachchan-put-aside-issues-give-shoebite-a-chance/articleshow/63428907.cms |title=Amitabh Bachchan: Put aside issues, give 'Shoebite' a chance | Hindi Movie News - Times of India |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=7 June 2018 |archive-date=24 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324223825/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/amitabh-bachchan-put-aside-issues-give-shoebite-a-chance/articleshow/63428907.cms |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120301153022/http://entertainment.oneindia.in/bollywood/gupshup/2008/amitabh-bachchan-shoebite-290108.html ''Article on oneindia.com'']

{{Shoojit Sircar}}
{{UTV Movies}}

[[Category:Unreleased Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Cancelled films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Films directed by Shoojit Sircar]]
[[Category:UTV Motion Pictures films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Manali, Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Films set in Manali, Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Films about marriage]]
[[Category:Films based on American short stories]]

Barbigha Municipal Council

2026-02-04T19:41:03Z

PaulineBarwell2: made details

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}

{{Infobox legislature
| name = Barbigha Municipal Council
| native_name = बरबीघा नगर परिषद
| transcription_name =
| legislature =
| coa_pic =
| coa_res =
| coa_alt =
| house_type = Local Authority
| body = Barbigha
| foundation = 2017
| houses =
| leader1_type = Chairperson
| leader1 = Shonu kumar
| party1 =
| election1 =
| leader2_type = Executive Officer <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sheikhpuranews.com/np/|title=बरबीघा नगर परिषद कार्यपालक को दी गई विदाई|access-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226035420/http://www.sheikhpuranews.com/np/|archive-date=26 December 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| leader2 = Sandeep kumar
| party2 =
| leader3_type =
| leader3 =
| party3 =
| election2 =
| members = 26
| structure1 =
| structure1_res =
| structure1_alt =
| structure2 =
| structure2_res =
| structure2_alt =
| political_groups1 =
| political_groups2 =
| committees1 =
| committees2 =
| joint_committees =
| voting_system1 =
| voting_system2 =
| last_election1 = 2017 <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/news/patna/story/994955.html|title=निकाय चुनाव-2017 : ऐसी बने नगर सरकार, कर दे शहर को शानदार}}</ref>
| last_election2 =
| previous_election1 =
| previous_election2 =
| session_room =
| session_res =
| session_alt =
| meeting_place = Barbigha
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''The Barbigha Municipal Council''' or Barbigha Nagar Parishad, is the civic body that governs [[Barbigha]]. Barbigha [[Municipal council|Municipal Council]] consists of democratically elected members, is headed by a [[Chairperson]] and administers the city's [[infrastructure]], public services and supplies. Members from the state's leading various [[List of political parties in India|political parties]] hold elected offices in the [[council]].

==History==
Earlier Barbigha had nagar panchayat status. In 2017,Barbigha Nagar Panchayat was promoted to Barbigha Municipal Council or Barbigha Nagar Parishad. It is the 2nd town in [[Sheikhpura district]] to get [[Municipal council|Municipal Council]] status.

==Administration==
Barbigha Municipal Council consists of 26 Ward councillors including a chairperson and a deputy chairperson. It is under the direct control of [[Executive officer|Executive Officer]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord missing|Bihar}}

[[Category:Politics of Sheikhpura district]]

{{Sheikhpura-geo-stub}}

Hijab Imtiaz Ali

2026-01-22T23:11:39Z

PaulineBarwell2: New some bio w/ refs

{{Short description|Indo-Pakistani writer and pilot (1908-1999)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Hijab Imtiaz Ali
| image = Imtiaz_Ali 1937.jpg
| birth_date = 1908
| birth_place = [[Hyderabad]], [[Hyderabad State]], [[British India]] (now Hyderabad, India)
| death_date = 19 March 1999 at age 90 or 91
| death_place = [[Lahore]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]]
| occupation = Writer, editor, pilot
| spouse = [[Imtiaz Ali Taj]]
| children = [[Yasmeen Tahir]] (daughter)
| relatives = [[Naeem Tahir]] (son-in-law) [[Faran Tahir]] (grandson) [[Ali Tahir]] (grandson)
}}
'''Hijab Imtiaz Ali''' (1908–1999) was a Pakistani writer, editor and diarist. She is a well known name in [[Urdu literature]] and a pioneer of romanticism in Urdu.<ref name=TheNation/><ref name=DailyTimes>{{Cite news|date=2016-01-15|title=The 'Taj' remains intact|url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/95967/the-taj-remains-intact/|access-date=2025-10-19|newspaper=Daily Times newspaper|language=en-US|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 March 2022|author=Muhammad Ali|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310191511/https://dailytimes.com.pk/95967/the-taj-remains-intact/}}</ref> She is also considered as the first female Muslim pilot after she obtained her official pilot license in 1936, although [[Zuleykha Seyidmammadova]] from [[Soviet Azerbaijan]] had qualified as a pilot two years earlier, in 1934.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gilded Letters - Asymptote|url=https://www.asymptotejournal.com/poetry/hijab-imtiaz-ali-gilded-letters/|access-date=2025-10-19|website=asymptotejournal.com|language=en}}</ref><ref name=ARYNEWS>{{Cite web|date=2015-04-13|title=World's first ever Muslim female pilot – Hijab Imtiaz Ali|url=https://arynews.tv/en/worlds-first-muslim-female-pilot-hijab-imtiaz/|access-date=2025-10-19|website=ARY TV NEWS website|language=en-US|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 August 2015|author=Shahjahan Khurram|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150802194853/https://arynews.tv/en/worlds-first-muslim-female-pilot-hijab-imtiaz/}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Hijab was born in 1908 in [[Chennai|Madras]], British India.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=ʿAlī |first1=Ḥijāb Imtiyāz |title=Belles-lettres: writings of Hijab Imtiaz Ali |last2=Akhtar |first2=Sascha Aurora |date=2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-013264-4 |location=New Delhi}}</ref> She was from an aristocratic family of the princely state of Hyderabad [[Deccan sultanates|Deccan]].<ref name=TheNation/> Her mother, Abbasi Begum, was a writer who wrote for [[Tehzeeb-e-Niswan]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1-djAAAAMAAJ&q=Abbasi+Begum |title=Parwaaz: A Selection of Urdu Short Stories by Women |page=3 |translator1=Ṣug̲h̲rā Mahdī |translator2=Syeda Saiyidain Hameed |publisher=Kali for Women |date=1996 |isbn=9788185107400 }}</ref>

Hijab is a notable name in Urdu literature. She started writing at a very young age.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Farooqi |first=Mehr Afshan |title=The Oxford India Anthology of Modern Urdu Literature |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-567639-6 |location=New Delhi |pages=29 |language=en}}</ref> One of her best-known works "Meri Natamam Mohabbat", which is considered one of the best love stories ever written in Urdu literature, was written at the age of twelve.<ref name=TheNation>{{Cite news|date=2015-12-07|title=Hijab Imtiaz Ali: The Queen of Urdu Romanticism|url=https://nation.com.pk/07-Dec-2015/hijab-imtiaz-ali-the-queen-of-urdu-romanticism|access-date=2025-10-19|newspaper=The Nation newspaper|language=en|archive-date=27 October 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027064256/https://nation.com.pk/07-Dec-2015/hijab-imtiaz-ali-the-queen-of-urdu-romanticism|author=Haroon Ashraf}}</ref>

In the 1930s, Hijab married [[Imtiaz Ali Taj]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-05-18|title=Website launched to acquaint people with works of Urdu dramatist Imtiaz Ali Taj -|url=https://theindiaobserver.com/website-launched-to-acquaint-people-with-works-of-urdu-dramatist-imtiaz-ali-taj/|access-date=2020-11-12|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=TheNation/> a well-known writer and journalist who wrote for many films, dramas and radio channels. She moved to [[Lahore]] with him. Hijab had one daughter, [[Yasmeen Tahir]] who went on to become a notable voice for [[Radio Pakistan]]. Hijab's grandsons, [[Faran Tahir]] and [[Ali Tahir]] are well-known actors.<ref name=TheNation/><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-11|title=Ali Tahir opens up on being part of an illustrious family|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/2135094/ali-tahir-opens-part-illustrious-family|access-date=2020-11-12|website=The Express Tribune|language=en}}</ref>

== Career ==
=== Pilot ===
Hijab was passionate about flying. She trained at the Lahore Flying Club and also took part in many competitions organised by the club. Hijab obtained her pilot's license in 1936. In 1939, ''The International Women’s News'' reported that Hijab had become the first Muslim woman in the [[British Empire]] to obtain an ‘A’ license as an air pilot.<ref name=ARYNEWS/> [[Sarla Thukral|Sarla Thakral]], is often claimed as the first Indian pilot, however, both Sarla and Hijab obtained the license around the same time but Hijab was the first to do so.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Salim|first=Saquib|title=Begum Hijab Imtiaz Ali: The First Indian Muslim Pilot|url=http://heritagetimes.in/begum-hijab-imtiaz-ali-the-first-indian-muslim-pilot/|access-date=2020-11-12|website=HeritageTimes|date=13 September 2020 |language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Writer ===
Hijab, whose writing career spans more than 60 years, is known for her romantic stories in Urdu literature. Her stories revolve around romance, women, nature and psychology. Her writing was often related to reality and contained a lot of imagery of life. Her repeated use of words and a unique construction of sentences, stands out in her writing. Hijab's stories used the same characters in different stories and scenarios. Some of the famous and memorable characters from her novels are Dr Gaar, Sir Harley, Dadi Zubeida, and Habshan Zonash.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=International Journal Of Eurasia Social Sciences|url=http://www.ijoess.com/DergiTamDetay.aspx?ID=1958&Detay=Ozet|access-date=2020-11-12|website=www.ijoess.com|volume=8|issue=28|last1=Şahbaz|first1=Davut|archive-date=4 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804060018/http://www.ijoess.com/DergiTamDetay.aspx?ID=1958&Detay=Ozet|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Hijab became an author at an early age. She published her first short story at the age of 9. Her story was published in '[[Tehzeeb-e-Niswan]]' and was well received by the readers. Her stories were published by two popular magazines of the era, namely ‘Tehzeeb-e-Nizwaan’ and ‘Phool’. She also worked as an editor for both the magazines. At the age of 12, Hijab wrote her first novel "Meri Natamam Mohabbat" which is considered one of the best love stories written in the Urdu language. Some of her other famous works include ''Lail-o-Nehar'', ''Sanober Kay Saey Mein'' and ''Tasveer-e-Butaa’n''. She is considered the first woman in the Indian subcontinent to publish short stories that gained recognition.<ref name=DailyTimes/>

She published a few short story collections and also translated [[Louisa May Alcott|Louisa May Alcott's]] famous novel ''[[Little Women]]'' in Urdu.

Hijab was also a diarist.<ref name=TheNation/> Her diaries were published in magazines and some of them were also published as books. One of her novels, ''Mombatti ke Samne (''In Front of the Candle) was based on her experiences in Lahore during the 1965 [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1965|Indo-Pak war]]. The name came because Hijab used to write the diary in candlelight during the war blackouts. Her experience of the war also inspired her to write her award-winning novel ''Pagal Khana'' (Madhouse), which was also her last novel.

Hijab studied [[Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud's]] work in detail and was fascinated by his concept of the [[subconscious mind]]. Freud's work provided background material for another of her great novels ''Andhera Khwab'' (Dark Dream).<ref name=TheNation/>

== Publications ==
Some of her well-known publications are:<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Hijab Imtiaz Ali|url=https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/6387271.Hijab_Imtiaz_Ali|access-date=2020-11-12|website=www.goodreads.com}}</ref>

* ''Zalim Muhabbat''<ref name=TheNation/><ref name=DailyTimes/>
* ''Lail-o-Nehar''
* ''Sanober Kay Saey Mein''<ref name=DailyTimes/>
* ''Adab-e-Zerin, İhtiyat-e-Aşk''
* ''Pagal Khana'' (Mad House)<ref name=TheNation/>
* ''Tasveer-e-Butaa’n''
* ''Voh Baharin, Yeh Khizayan''
* ''Andhera Khwab'' (Dark Dream)<ref name=TheNation/>
* ''Meri Na Tamam Mohabbat''<ref name=TheNation/><ref name=DailyTimes/>

== Death ==
Hijab Imtiaz Ali died at her home in [[Model Town, Lahore]] on 19 March 1999 at age 90 or 91.<ref name=TheNation/><ref name=Samaa>{{Cite web|title=Urdu writer Hijab Imtiaz being remembered today|url=https://www.samaa.tv/culture/2012/03/urdu-writer-hijab-imtiaz-being-remembered-today/|access-date=19 October 2025|website=Samaa TV website|language=en-US|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112193505/https://www.samaa.tv/culture/2012/03/urdu-writer-hijab-imtiaz-being-remembered-today/}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Qurratulain Hyder]]
* [[Ismat Chughtai|Ismat Chughtayi]]

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
* [https://www.rekhta.org/authors/imtiyaz-ali-taj/profile Imtiyaz Ali biography]
* [https://www.rekhta.org/authors/hijab-imtiyaz-ali/ebooks Hijab Imtiaz Ali books]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ali, Hijab Imtiaz}}
[[Category:1908 births]]
[[Category:1999 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Pakistani women writers]]
[[Category:Indian women aviators]]
[[Category:Pakistani women aviators]]
[[Category:People from Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Pakistani people of Hyderabadi descent]]
[[Category:Writers from Lahore]]
[[Category:Urdu-language Pakistani writers]]
[[Category:Urdu-language writers from British India]]

Sholaga people

2026-01-12T16:03:54Z

PaulineBarwell2: Created a stub

{{One source|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Soliga
| image = Soliga Girl DSC 7287.jpg
| caption = A Soliga girl
| pop = 40,000
| popplace = {{flag|India}}
| languages = '''[[First language]]''' [[Sholaga language|Sholaga]] '''[[Second language]]''' [[Kannada language|Kannada]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]],
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| religions =
| region1 = [[Karnataka]]
| region2 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| pop1 = 33,819
| pop2 = 5,965
| related = [[Koraga people|Koraga]], [[Irulas|Irula]], [[Yerukala people|Yerukala]]
}}
[[File:Castes and tribes of southern India. Assisted by K. Rangachari (1909) (14587489297).jpg|thumb|A Soliga man]]
'''Sholaga''', ({{ipa|sle|ʃoːlɐɡɐ, s-|ipa}}, also spelled '''S(h)olega''', '''S(h)oliga''' and '''S(h)ōlaga'''), is an ethnic group of [[India]]. Its members inhabit the mountain ranges mostly in the [[Chamarajanagar]] district of southern [[Karnataka]] and [[Erode]] district of [[Tamil Nadu]]. They are also found in [[Bengaluru South district|Ramanagara district]] in smaller numbers. Many are concentrated in the [[Biligiriranga Hills]] and associated ranges, mainly in the [[taluka]]s [[Yelandur]], [[Kollegal]] and [[Chamarajanagar]] of Karnataka. The Soliga speak [[Sholaga language|Sholaga]], which belongs to the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] family. Under Indian law, they are recognised as a [[scheduled tribe]], they have a population of around 40,000.

==Etymology==
The term comes from ''śōla'' "forest" and ''-ga'' "people".{{sfnp|Zvelebil|1990|p=}}

==Origin==
The Soliga tribe trace their origin to Karayya, son of the deity Maleya Mahadeshwara, swamy of Maleya Mahadeshwara Hills, Karnataka.<ref name="singh "/> Legend says that on seeing Karayya's affinity towards wild animals, Maleya Mahadeshwara swamy asked Karayya to reside in forests, whereas the other son Biliyayya resided in plains and became the forefather of Lingayats.<ref name="singh "/>

==Language==
The Soliga speak the [[Sholaga language]] (Soliganudi) as a mother tongue. A member of the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] family, it is most closely related to [[Kannada]] with several [[Tamil language|Tamil]] influences.<ref name=Buchanan>{{cite book|last=Buchanan|first=Francis|title=A Journey from Madras Through the Countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar|year=1870|publisher=Higginbotham and Co.|isbn=1108116302|url=https://archive.org/details/ajourneyfrommad00compgoog}}</ref>

==Groups==
There are five sub groups of Soligas:<ref name="singh "/>

* Male Soliga: Kannada speakers residing in [[Karnataka]]
* Urali Soliga: Kannada and Tamil speakers, residing in border areas of [[Tamil Nadu]]
* Pujari group: reside in Maleya Mahadeshwara Hills
* Kadu Soliga: reside near Bandipur Forest
* Burude Soliga: reside in [[Heggadadevanakote]] Taluk and [[Kodagu]]

Furthermore, these groups have several sub-groups.<ref name="singh ">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Nagendra Kr |title=Global Encyclopaedia of the South Indian Dalit's Ethnography, Volume 1 |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xcpa_T-7oVQC&q=soliga&pg=PA760 |accessdate=6 September 2012 |edition=2006 |publisher=Global Vision Publication House |location=New Delhi |isbn=9788182201682 |pages=759–763}}</ref>

==Occupation and social status==
The Soliga used to practice [[shifting cultivation]], but have more or less given up this practice now. They grow ''Ragi'' ([[Finger millet]], ''Eleusine coracana'') for subsistence. Their main source of income is harvesting and sale of Non-timber Forest Produce (NTFP) like honey, ''nellikai'' (gooseberry, ''[[Phyllanthus|Emblica officinalis]]''), bamboo, ''Paasi'' (Lichen), algae, wild turmeric, Indian blackberry, soapnut and nennari (wild root). They also make baskets using bamboo.<ref name="singh "/>

They are increasingly being brought to the "mainstream" with active Government and NGO initiative. Many have been given lands closer to 'civilised areas' and most of the forest-dwelling population have been brought together into clusters called ''Podus''. Most of the forest area they stay comes under wild life protection area. The Biligiriranga Hills is a Wildlife Sanctuary under Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, the Male Mahadeswara Hills is a Reserve Forest, and [[Bandipur]] is a National Park. Their rights on harvesting NTFP is being sought to be withdrawn citing conservation concerns, sparking a debate about the rights of indigenous people. The Soligas later won a court case to stay on their land.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rajappa|first=Amoolya|title=How a tribe in Karnataka fought and won a legal battle to stay in a tiger reserve|url=https://scroll.in/article/896580/how-a-tribe-in-karnataka-fought-and-won-a-legal-battle-to-stay-in-a-tiger-reserve|access-date=26 June 2020|website=Scroll.in|date=5 October 2018 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Religion==
Soliga people follow naturism and animism along with following Hindu practices and their main deities are Madeshwara, Rangaswamy of Biligirirangana Hills (who is considered the brother-in-law of the clan), [[Karayya]], [[Kyate Devaru]] and [[Jadeswamy]].<ref name="singh "/>her deities worshipped by them include Madeshwara, Basaveshwara and Nanjundeshwara and Sri Alamelu Ranganayaki smetha Sri hanuma.<ref name="singh "/>

==See also==
*[[Koraga language|Koraga]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.survivalinternational.org/news/7843 Indian tribe secures unprecedented rights to tiger reserve ] Survival International
* [http://www.biodiversityofindia.org/index.php?title=The_Soligas_of_Karnataka_and_their_intimate_relationship_with_nature The Soligas of Karnataka and their intimate relationship with nature] ''on Biodiversity of India wiki''

[[Category:Dravidian peoples]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of South Asia]]
[[Category:Social groups of Karnataka]]

Alexander Montague Stow

2026-01-11T12:27:51Z

PaulineBarwell2: made new pg

'''Sir Alexander Montague Stow''', KCIE, OBE (13 December 1873 – 27 June 1936) was an administrator in British India. A member of the [[Indian Civil Service]], he was [[Chief Commissioner of Delhi]] from 1926 to 1928 and a member of the Executive Council of the Governor of Punjab from 1928 to 1930.

His son [[John Montague Stow|Sir John Montague Stow]] was [[Governor-General of Barbados]].

== References ==

* "Sir Alexander Snow", ''The Times'', 29 June 1936, p. 16
* "Sir Alexander Stow", ''The Daily Telegraph'', 30 June 1936, p. 17
* https://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/10.1093/ww/9780199540891.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-217725

[[Category:1873 births]]
[[Category:1936 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian Civil Service (British India) officers]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire]]
[[Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:People educated at Harrow School]]
[[Category:Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:British civil servants in British India]]
[[Category:20th-century British civil servants]]

Hogenakkal Falls

2026-01-10T14:36:16Z

PaulineBarwell2: minor edit

{{Short description|Waterfall on Karnataka-Tamil Nadu border}}
{{pp-sock|small=yes}}
{{Infobox waterfall
| name = Hogenakkal Falls
| photo = Hogenakkal Falls Close.jpg
| photo_caption = Hogenakkal Falls
| location = [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]]
| elevation = {{convert|700|m|abbr=on}}
| coords = {{coord|12.1182|77.77385|format=dms|type:landmark|display=inline, title}}
| type =
| height =
| height_longest = {{convert|20|m|abbr=on}}
| average_width =
| number_drops =
| average_flow =
| watercourse = [[Kaveri river]]
| world_rank =
| website =
| alt_name=
}}
'''Hogenakkal Falls''' is a [[waterfall]] in [[South India]] on the [[Kaveri]] river on the border between [[Dharmapuri district]] of [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Chamarajanagar district|Chamrajnagar district]] of [[Karnataka]].<ref>Upon entering Tamil Nadu, the Kaveri continues through a series of twisted wild gorges until it reaches Hogenakal Falls and flows through a straight, narrow gorge.... {{cite encyclopedia|title=Kaveri River|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100477/Kaveri-River|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=6 March 2012}}</ref> It is located {{Convert|46|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Dharmapuri]] and {{Convert|199|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Chamrajnagar]]. [[Carbonatite]] rocks in this site are considered to be the oldest of its kind in [[South Asia]] and one of the oldest in the world.<ref>{{cite journal |id={{INIST|3910799}} |doi=10.1016/0301-9268(94)90104-X |title=2.0 Ga old pyroxenite-carbonatite complex of Hogenakal, Tamil Nadu, South India |year=1994 |last1=Natarajana |first1=M |last2=Bhaskar Rao |first2=B |last3=Parthasarathy |first3=R |last4=Kumar |first4=Anil |last5=Gopalan |first5=K |journal=Precambrian Research |volume=65 |issue=1–4 |pages=167–81}}</ref> The [[Government of Tamil Nadu]] made a proposal to convert the falls into providing drinking water for the state.

==Etymology==
According to the consensus, the name ''Hogenakal'' is derived from [[Kannada]] ({{Lang|kn|ಹೊಗೆನಕಲ್}}) and means ‘Smoky Rocks’. The river when falls on the rock below, the gushing force of water resembles like smoke emanating from the rocks.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hogenakkal Falls, Dharmapuri {{!}} Dharmapuri District, Government of Tamil Nadu {{!}} India |url=https://dharmapuri.nic.in/gallery/hogenakkal-falls/ |access-date=2022-08-10 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="kannada">{{cite web
|url=http://www.tamilnadutourism.org/places/citiestowns/Dharmapuri.aspx?CatId=C1&SubCat1Id=C1S1&SubCat2Id=C1S1S16
|title=Dharmapuri district - places of interest
|publisher=tamilnadutorism.org
|access-date=2006-11-11
}}</ref> It is also called as ''Marikottayam'' by the people of Tamil Nadu.

However, another etymology related to the Tamil language has recently emerged. Some argue, in relation to the modern [[Pure Tamil]] politics in the state of Tamil Nadu, that ''Hogenakkal'' is derived from the Tamil ''Uguneer Kal'' ({{Lang|ta|உகுநீர் கல்}} ; possibly meaning ‘Milky water Rocks’).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=வள்ளல் அதியமான் கோலோச்சிய பூமி: தகடூர் நாடு என்று புகழ் பெற்ற நம்ம தர்மபுரி |url=https://www.dinakaran.com/news_detail.asp?Nid=629341 |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=www.dinakaran.com}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2021-12-28 |title=கர்நாடகா தமிழகம் உரிமை கொண்டாடும் ஒகேனக்கல் அருவியின் சிறப்புகள் |url=https://in4net.com/hogenakkal-falls-features/ |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=IN4NET - Dotcom for information |language=en-US}}</ref>

== History ==
Hogenakkal falls is mentioned in [[Sangam literature|Sangam Literature]] as Thalaineer aruvi (தலைநீர் அருவி). All the areas around this waterfalls are called Thalaineer Naadu (தலைநீர் நாடு). It was ruled by the King named Adiyaman Neduman Anji. References to this King and the Falls are found in the [[Sangam literature|Sangam Literatures]] like [[Purananuru|Purananooru]] ([[:ta:புறநானூறு|புறநானூறு]]), [[Agananuru|Agananooru]] ([[:ta:அகநானூறு|அகநானூறு]]), [[Kuṟuntokai|Kurunthogai]] ([[:ta:குறுந்தொகை|குறுந்தொகை]]) etc.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

==River==
{{main|Kaveri river}}

The Kaveri is considered to form at [[Talakaveri]] in the [[Brahmagiri (hill)|Brahmagiri hills]] in the [[Western Ghats]] of [[south India]] and gathers momentum as the land drops in elevation. It becomes larger as various tributaries feed into it on the way down.<ref name=law>[http://lawmin.nic.in/ncrwc/finalreport/v2b3-6.htm ARTICLE 262 AND INTER-STATE DISPUTES RELATING TO WATER] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409234827/http://lawmin.nic.in/ncrwc/finalreport/v2b3-6.htm |date=9 April 2009 }} ''Ministry of Law, Government of India''</ref> At Hogenakkal, the Kaveri, now a large river, drops and creates numerous waterfalls as the water cuts through the rocky terrain. In places the water falls as much as {{convert|20|m|abbr=on}} and is said to sound like continual thunder.{{citation needed|date=July 2011}} The river carries [[sediment]] which makes the downriver land fertile.
At Hogenakkal the river spreads out over a wide area of sandy beaches, then flows south to the [[Mettur Dam]] and creates a {{convert|60|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}. lake called [[Stanley Reservoir]]. Built in 1934, this project improved irrigation and provided [[hydropower]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cauvery.com/cauvery_river.html
|title=Cauvery River in Southern India
|publisher=cauvery.com
|access-date=2006-11-11
}}</ref>

==Weather==

The best season to visit is soon after the monsoons, when the river is in full spate. But some tourists prefer to visit during off-season to skip the crowd. The water temperature in summer varies between {{convert|23|-|34|°C|°F}} while during the winter it ranges from {{convert|13|-|27|°C|°F}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hogenakkal.com/services.html|title=Overview - Visit India Travel Guide Hogenakkal Adventure|publisher=Hogenakkal.com|access-date=2014-02-07|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224105605/http://www.hogenakkal.com/services.html|archive-date=24 February 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Boating==
{{See also|Indian coracles}}

[[File:Parisal Boating in Hogenakkal falls in tamil nadu.jpg|thumb|Parisal Boating in Hogenakkal falls|alt=|left]]

Boating in Hogenakkal is allowed during the dry-season as the falls are not strong enough to disrupt the passage of the boats. This is the main source of income for boat operators. The coracles are about {{convert|2.24|m|abbr=on}} in diameter and can carry eight people at a time.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070527173311/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/05/12/stories/2007051251900500.htm The Hindu - Row, row, row your boat]</ref> These coracles are made of [[bamboo]], and with all materials available takes about a day to build. The bottom of the boats are made waterproof by the use of [[Hide (skin)|hides]], but sometimes with sheets of plastic.<ref>{{cite journal |id={{INIST|13550447}} |doi=10.1080/02666030.2001.9628601 |title=Hide Boats at Hogenakal on the River Kaveri, Tamil Nadu |year=2001 |last1=Palmer |first1=Colin |last2=Blue |first2=Lucy |last3=McGrail |first3=Sean |journal=South Asian Studies |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=199–207|s2cid=192182900 }}</ref> Use of plastics in the Hogenakkal vicinity, not just for boats, has been criticised due to problems with pollution.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050407043024/http://www.hindu.com/2005/02/22/stories/2005022204900600.htm Garbage ruining Hogenakkal's beauty - The Hindu]</ref> These boats are steered and propelled using a single paddle, making them unique. The coracles are locally called ''parisal'' in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and ''teppa'' or {{Transliteration|ka|harigolu}} in [[Kannada language|Kannada]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hogenakkal Waterfalls, Hogenakkal Falls, Activities at Hogenakkal, Tour to Hogenakkal Waterfalls India|url=http://www.ecoindia.com/waterfalls/hogenakkal.html|website=www.ecoindia.com|access-date=2020-05-02}}</ref>

Freshly caught fish are sold by the gorge and also various vendors selling water and snacks up and down the gorge rowing their coracles is not uncommon. The fish caught include {{Transliteration|ka|katla}}, {{Transliteration|ka|robu}}, {{Transliteration|ka|kendai}}, {{Transliteration|ka|keluthi}}, {{Transliteration|ka|valai}}, {{Transliteration|ka|mirgal}}, {{Transliteration|ka|aranjan}} and {{Transliteration|ka|jilaby}}. After leaving the gorge, on the left shore one can find improvised stalls set up on the sand. There, one can let the fresh fishes be prepared in one of the many kitchens. Also, many people can be found swimming or bathing around there.

==Hogenakkal water project==
{{main|Hogenakkal Integrated Drinking Water Project}}
Hogenakal Falls<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dharmapuri.nic.in/tourist-place/hogenakkal-falls/|title=Hogenakkal Falls|website=dharmapuri.nic.in|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> is the location for the Hogenakkal Integrated Drinking Water Project proposed by the [[Government of Tamil Nadu|Tamil Nadu Government]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080408041355/http://www.hindu.com/2008/04/05/stories/2008040557820100.htm The Hindu - The 1998 story of Hogenakkal]</ref> The objective of this project is to provide safe drinking water to the urban and rural areas in Krishnagiri and Dharmapuri districts.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121020195600/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-04-16/chennai/27762465_1_fluorosis-fluoride-hogenakkal-water-project Times of India - Hogenakkal project: Water of hope]</ref> In February 2008, The Japan Bank for International Cooperation agreed to fund the Rs 1,340-crore project.<ref>[http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2008/02/07/stories/2008020751992100.htm Business Line - Japan Bank agrees to fund Hogenakkal water project]</ref>

== Gallery ==
{{Gallery
|title=Gallery
|File:Mountain near the hogenakkal falls.jpg
|Mountain near the hogenakkal falls
|File:Whirlpool damaged mountain portion in hogenakkal falls in tamil nadu.jpg
|Whirlpool damaged mountain portion in Hogenakkal Falls in Tamil Nadu
|File:HoggenekkalLandingParisalsPanorama2.jpg
|Area near Hogenakkal falls with the coracles beached for picnics
|File:Hogenakkal Falls bathing area.jpg
|Hogenakkal Falls bathing area
}}

==See also==
*[[List of waterfalls]]
*[[List of waterfalls in India]]
*[[Hogenakkal, Dharmapuri|Hogenakkal]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Hogenakkal Falls}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070825031019/http://www.hindu.com/2005/09/22/stories/2005092213820300.htm Protest against `encroachment' of island near Hogenekal Falls]

{{Kaveri River}}
{{Hydrography of Tamil Nadu}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}

[[Category:Kaveri River]]
[[Category:Dharmapuri district]]
[[Category:Waterfalls of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Internal territorial disputes]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Chamarajanagar district]]
[[Category:Waterfalls of Karnataka]]

Rajesh Balia

2026-01-09T12:24:49Z

PaulineBarwell2: adding new bio

{{Short description|Indian Judge}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
'''Rajesh Balia''' (born 3 March 1946) is a retired Indian judge and a former Chief Justice of the Patna High Court.

==Early life and education==
Balia was born in 1946 in a business family. His father, the Late Manak Lal Sa Balia, was a businessman and influenced by the [[Gandhian Movement]]. Balia passed B.Com. and [[LL.B]]. and started practice on 9 April 1967 in the [[Rajasthan High Court]].

== Career ==
He was appointed an additional judge of the Rajasthan High Court on 21 October 1991 and confirmed as a permanent judge of the same High Court in 1992. He was transferred to [[Gujarat High Court]] and then named the Acting Chief Justice of Rajasthan High Court from 12 November 2007 to 4 January 2008. Justice Balia was elevated as the Chief Justice of [[Patna High Court]] on 5 January 2008 and retired on 3 March 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://patnahighcourt.gov.in/Judges_RET_CJ.aspx|title=LIST OF RETIRED CHIEF JUSTICE|access-date=28 February 2019}}</ref> After his retirement, he was appointed Chairman of [[Rajasthan State Human Rights Commission]] on 31 August 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rhcla.com/Article_Master/ARTICLE_MASTER_1.pdf|title=REFERENCE|access-date=28 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://daily.bhaskar.com/news/RAJ-JPR-raj-govt-selects-shrc-chairman-state-chief-info-commissioner-2392936.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817132845/http://daily.bhaskar.com/news/RAJ-JPR-raj-govt-selects-shrc-chairman-state-chief-info-commissioner-2392936.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 August 2016|title=Raj govt selects SHRC chairman, state chief info commissioner|agency=PTI|date=31 August 2011|publisher=DailyBhaskar.com|access-date=7 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.webindia123.com/news/articles/india/20110901/1823758.html|title=Raj Human Rights Commission constituted|website=news.webindia123.com|access-date=28 February 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Balia, Rajesh}}
[[Category:1946 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Rajasthani people]]
[[Category:Chief justices of the Patna High Court]]
[[Category:Judges of the Gujarat High Court]]
[[Category:Judges of the Rajasthan High Court]]
[[Category:Chief justices of the Rajasthan High Court]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian lawyers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian judges]]

Dubashi

2026-01-06T10:13:19Z

PaulineBarwell2: started new info more to come...

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox film
|starring = [[Raja Krishnamoorthy]] [[Dhaneshwar Rao]] [[B.S.Karthik]] [[Usha (actor)|Usha]] [[Nasser (actor)|Nasser]] [[Delhi Ganesh]]
|director = [[K. Hariharan (director)|K. Hariharan]]
|released = {{Film date|1999}}
|runtime = 96 min
|country = India
}}
'''Dubashi''' (Meaning: '''''The Translator''''') is a 1999 Indian children's film directed by [[K. Hariharan (director)|K Hariharan]] and produced by the Children's Film Society of India (CFSI).<ref name=Shedde>{{cite news|last1=Shedde|first1=Meenakshi|title=Children's film fest opens in city|publisher=[[Times of India]]|date=10 March 2002}}</ref>

It tells the story of Gopal Roa, a 12-year-old boy and his desire to get a bicycle. The Film explores the undying spirit of a young boy and how he helps the family cope with the day-to-day crisis, He motivates his brother, co-operates with his father and acts as a source of inspiration.<ref name=Kavitha>{{cite news|last1=Kavitha|first1=A.A.|title=Through the eyes of children|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=2 December 2005}}</ref><ref name=Krithika>{{cite news|last1=Krithika|first1=R.|title=Empowering children|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2001/11/17/stories/13171102.htm|access-date=12 January 2016|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=17 November 2001}}{{dead link|date=April 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

== Plot ==
The story revolves around Gopal Rao, a 12-year-old boy who is intelligent, an extrovert, confident and has a flair for languages. His father Rama Rao ([[Kitty (actor)|Raja Krishnamoorthy]]) is a clerk-cum-translator who has retired. They are a descendant of a [[Thanjavur Marathi people|Marathi family]] settled in [[Thanjavur]]. His elder brother Raghu, is the other side of the coin, inclined towards Sculpture and an introvert.<ref name=EyesofChildren>{{cite news|title=Through the eyes of children|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=13 October 2007}}</ref>

Gopal's dream is to have his own bicycle. Rahgu's bicycle is damaged in a road accident. Raghu and Rama Rao tell Gopal that the Government has put up and policy that all old bicycles would be taken over by the government and will be replaced by new cycles. One day While searching for firewood, Gopal find out the part of the broken cycle and realizes that his father and brother have lied to him. He then decides to rebuild the cycle on his own. One day while searching a scrapyard for spares, he comes across a group of thugs who chase him. Gopal runs away and goes to a temple where he meets two Japanese Tourists and the Thanjore King. The Japanese tourists are on India tour for their research work on Indian Sculpture. Gopal uses this opportunity and takes them to his home. The Couple visit Gopal's home and ask Rama Rao's permission to take Raghu. Rahgu is initially hesitant but Gopal convinces his brother to take up the job as a Guide to Japanese Couple due to impressive knowledge on Sculpture.

Meanwhile, Rama Rao and Gopal help the neighbors by translating the telecast of television serial [[Ramayan (1986 TV series)|Ramayan]] into Tamil. This goes on few days till Rama Rao falls ill. The Family Doctor ([[Delhi Ganesh]]) advises him to stop his translation as this would further aggravate his sickness. The Tanjore Maharaja meanwhile finds a number of literary work which he has inherited and most of it being in Marathi. He wishes to translate to Tamil and make it popular. On Inquiry he finds about Rama Roa's family and visits them. The King offers Rama Rao work at the Royal Palace. Raghu and the Japanese couple return to Tanjore after a long southern Indian Tour. Raghu's mother is pleasantly surprised to find that her elder son Raghu had slowly overcome his introvert character and become more confident. He is fluent in English and also learns few Japanese words from the couple.

The film ends on a positive note with Raghu getting a bicycle for Gopal and Rama Rao taking up the Job of translating the literary work at the Royal Palace.

== Cast ==
*[[Kitty (actor)|Raja Krishnamoorthy]] as Rama Rao, a translator by profession. Rama Rao's ancestors are originally from Maharashtra and later generations has settle in Tanjore.
*Dhaneshwar Rao as Gopal Rao, 11-year-old boy which intelligent, witty and good in Languages.
*B.S.Karthik as Raghu, ender brother of Gopal, an introvert but could not complete his education due to his stammering problem. But has excellent knowledge of Indian sculpture and also trained in sculpting.
*Usha as Wife of Rama Rao
*[[Nassar (actor)|Nasser]] as Tanjore Mahara
*[[Delhi Ganesh]] as the Family Doctor

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
http://cfsindia.org/dubashi-the-translator/

[[Category:1999 films]]
[[Category:Indian children's films]]
[[Category:1999 Indian films]]

Naoba Singh Thokchom

2025-12-20T01:04:48Z

PaulineBarwell2: Stub.

{{short description|Indian footballer}}
{{Western name order|Thokchom Naoba Singh}}
{{Meitei name|Thokchom|Naoba|Singh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox football biography
| name = Naoba Singh
| image = Naoba Singh.jpg
| image_size = 200
| fullname = Naoba Singh Thokchom
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1988|3|1|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Manipur]], [[India]]
| height = {{height|m=1.73}}
| currentclub = Yarkhok United
| clubnumber =
| position = [[Defender (association football)|Defender]]
| youthyears1 =
| youthclubs1 = [[Tata Football Academy|Tata FA]]
| years1 = 2006–2010
| clubs1 = [[Churchill Brothers S.C.|Churchill Brothers]]
| caps1 =
| goals1 =
| years2 = 2010–2014
| clubs2 = [[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]
| caps2 = 36
| goals2 = 0
| years3 = 2014
| clubs3 = [[Delhi Dynamos FC|Delhi Dynamos]]
| caps3 = 5
| goals3 = 0
| years4 = 2015
| clubs4 = [[Royal Wahingdoh F.C.|Royal Wahingdoh]]
| caps4 = 11
| goals4 = 1
| years5 = 2015
| clubs5 = [[Delhi Dynamos FC|Delhi Dynamos]]
| caps5 = 1
| goals5 = 0
| years6 = 2015–2016
| clubs6 = [[Mumbai F.C.|Mumbai]]
| caps6 = 0
| goals6 = 0
| years7 = 2017–2018
| clubs7 = [[NEROCA F.C.|NEROCA]]
| caps7 = 11
| goals7 = 0
| clubs8 = Yarkhok United
| years8 = 2019–
| nationalyears1 = 2009–2010
| nationalteam1 = [[India national under-23 football team|India U23]]
| nationalcaps1 = 8
| nationalgoals1 = 0
| pcupdate = 19:06, 1 September 2015 (UTC)
| ntupdate =
}}

'''Naoba Singh Thokchom''' ({{langx|mni|Thokchom Naoba Singh}}, born 1 March 1988) is an Indian professional [[association football|footballer]] who last played as a [[defender (association football)|defender]] for [[NEROCA F.C.|NEROCA]] in the [[I-League]].

==Career==

===East Bengal===
After spending his youth career with the famed [[Tata Football Academy]], Naoba signed for [[Churchill Brothers S.C.|Churchill Brothers]] of the [[I-League]].<ref name=SAFFCup2009>{{cite web|title=Churchill Youngster Naoba Singh: We Need To Work Hard At The SAFF Cup|url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/2716/players-to-watch/2009/11/02/1598946/churchill-youngster-naoba-singh-we-need-to-work-hard-at-the-saff-|work=Goal.com|accessdate=5 November 2012}}</ref> While with Churchill Brothers Singh scored one goal which came against [[Mahindra United]] in the I-League on 3 March 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=CHURCHILL BROTHERS VS. MAHINDRA UNITED 1 - 4|url=https://int.soccerway.com/matches/2010/03/03/india/i-league/churchill-brothers-sc/mahindra-united/914334/|work=Soccerway|accessdate=5 November 2012}}</ref> Later in 2010 Singh signed for [[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]] who also play in the I-League.<ref>{{cite web|title=Naoba Singh|url=http://eastbengalfootballclub.com/player.php?team=1&player=thokchom-naoba-singh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608012642/http://eastbengalfootballclub.com/player.php?team=1&player=thokchom-naoba-singh|url-status=usurped|archive-date=8 June 2012|work=East Bengal|accessdate=5 November 2012}}</ref> Naoba represented [[Delhi Dynamos FC]] during the [[2014 Indian Super League]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiansuperleague.com/isl-2014/teams/delhi-dynamos-fc/defender-10658-naoba-singh-playerprofile|title=Thokchom Naoba Singh profile - Goals, Passes and more}}</ref> before signing for I-League newcomers, [[Royal Wahingdoh F.C.|Royal Wahingdoh]] for the [[2014-15 I-League|2014-15 season]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://int.soccerway.com/players/thockchom-naoba-singh/66454/|title = India - Thockchom Singh - Profile with news, career statistics and history - Soccerway}}</ref> In July 2015 Singh was drafted to play for [[Delhi Dynamos FC|Delhi Dynamos]] in the [[2015 Indian Super League]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Noronha |first=Anselm |title=Cavin Lobo to Kerala, Keegan Pereira to Mumbai and the comprehensive Indian Super League Draft |url=http://www.goal.com/en-india/news/136/india/2015/07/10/13460302/cavin-lobo-to-kerala-keegan-pereira-to-mumbai-and-the?ICID=SP_HN_1 |work=Goal.com |date=10 July 2015 |accessdate=10 July 2015}}</ref>

==International==
Singh made eight appearances for the [[India national under-23 football team|India U23]] team, and played in the [[2009 SAFF Championship|2009 SAFF Cup]].<ref name=SAFFCup2009/>

==Honours==

'''India U23'''
*[[SAFF Championship]]: [[2009 SAFF Championship|2009]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.indiansuperleague.com/players/defender-10658-naoba-singh-profile Profile]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Naoba}}
[[Category:1988 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian men's footballers]]
[[Category:Footballers from Manipur]]
[[Category:East Bengal Club players]]
[[Category:I-League players]]
[[Category:Churchill Brothers FC players]]
[[Category:Odisha FC players]]
[[Category:Royal Wahingdoh FC players]]
[[Category:Indian Super League players]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Men's association football defenders]]
[[Category:Mumbai FC players]]
[[Category:NEROCA FC players]]
[[Category:India men's youth international footballers]]

Meghalaya State Commission for Women

2025-12-03T07:14:27Z

PaulineBarwell2: Stub.

{{Short description|Statutory body for women's rights, India}}
{{Infobox government agency
| agency_name = Meghalaya State Commission for Women
| nativename =
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| formed = 15 October 2004
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| jurisdiction = [[Government of Meghalaya]]
| headquarters = Meghalaya State Commission for Women, Meghalaya State Commission for Women, Lower Lachumiere, Shillong, Meghalaya. 36, Lachumiere, Shillong, Meghalaya.<ref name="mew ref1">{{cite web |title=Meghalaya State Commission for Women |url=http://ncw.nic.in/important-links/list-state-women-commissions#Meghalaya |website=Meghalaya State Commission for Women |access-date=14 January 2022}}</ref><ref name="mew ref2">{{cite web |title=Meghalaya State Commission for Women |url=http://mscw.gov.in/ |website=Meghalaya State Commission for Women |access-date=14 January 2022}}</ref>
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| chief1_name = Iamon M Syiem
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{{Official website|http://ncw.nic.in/important-links/list-state-women-commissions#Meghalaya}}
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'''Meghalaya State Commission for Women''' is a [[statutory]] body constituted in the year 1993 to deal with the issues relating to [[Violence against women|crime against women]] in the state of [[Meghalaya]]. The commission for welfare of women in the state was set up by [[Government of Meghalaya|Meghalaya Government]] as a [[Quasi-judicial body|quasi-judicial]] body.

== History and objectives ==

Meghalaya State Commission for Women was formed to investigate specific problems relating to women and apart from studying women related issues from the state.<ref name="scw ref1">{{cite news |last1=Rajagopalan |first1=Swarna |title=Why National and State Women’s Commissions are important and should be held accountable |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-why-national-and-state-women-s-commissions-are-important-and-should-be-held-accountable-2217939 |access-date=9 January 2022 |publisher=dnaindia.com |date=30 May 2016}}</ref> The Commission is equipped with powers to safeguard rights of women and ensure their protection and equality against any form of harassment and issues faced in the family and community.

The commission was created with the following objectives:

* Ensuring protection and welfare of women.

* Handle gender-based issues through timely intervention in case of any violation of relevant laws or opportunity denial or depriving the women of any rights.

* Recommending to state government on women-based issues.

* The commission occasionally takes steps to create awareness in public regarding the women-based legislation in the state.<ref name="mew ref6">{{cite news |title=Meghalaya State Commission for Women organises legal awareness |url=https://shillongtoday.com/meghalaya-state-commission-for-women-organises-legal-awareness/ |access-date=14 January 2022 |publisher=shillongtoday.com |date=30 June 2018}}</ref>

== Composition ==

Meghalaya State Commission for Women was formed with a chairperson and other members. The social welfare department of the state makes modalities for appointing the Chairman of the State Commission for Women. Their salary and other emoluments are fixed by state government and revised from time to time.

Smt Iamon M Syiem is the Chairperson of the Meghalaya State Commission for Women as of 2025.<ref name="mew ref3">{{cite news |title=MSCW gets new chairperson |url=https://theshillongtimes.com/2021/12/18/mscw-gets-new-chairperson/ |access-date=14 January 2022 |publisher=theshillongtimes.com |date=18 December 2021}}</ref> She along with other members will hold office for a period of 3 years.

== Activities ==

Meghalaya State Commission for Women was formed in 2006 to perform below activities:

* Commission should ensure that it adheres to the provision and protection guaranteed for women under [[Constitution of India]] and women related legislations.<ref name="mew ref4">{{cite web |title=Meghalaya State Commission For Women Act, 2005 |url=http://bareactslive.com/MEG/meg133.htm |website=Meghalaya State Commission For Women Act, 2005 |access-date=14 January 2022}}</ref>

* In case any agency in the state fails to implement protective measures against women, getting the same to the notice of Government.

* Making recommendations for the amendments in any law if it fails on provision of justice to the women of the state.

* Taking up with concerned authorities any issue of violation of women's rights and recommending follow-up action to them.<ref name="mew ref7">{{cite news |title=Meghalaya State Commission for Women seeks report on alleged molestation case |url=https://www.ifp.co.in/614/meghalaya-state-commission-for-women-seeks-report-on-alleged-molestation-case |access-date=14 January 2022 |publisher=ifp.co.in |date=15 June 2020}}</ref>

* Women who have complaints of violation of their rights and non-implementation of their protective measures guaranteed under the Constitution of India can directly approach Women Commission for redressal.

* Counselling and assisting women who are victims of atrocities and discrimination in the state.

* Financing litigation expenses for any issues involving mass group of women and occasionally make reports to the state government relating to them.

* Inspecting any premises, jail or other remand home where women prisoners are lodged or any other case and bringing them to the notice of respective authorities, in case of need.

* Enquire, study and investigate any specific women-based issues.

* Initiate educational research or undertaking any promotional method and recommend ways for ensuring women representation in all areas and identifying reasons depriving them of their rights.

* To enquire suo-moto or any complaints of any issue which deprives women of their rights or women protection laws not being implemented or noncompliance of any policies relating to them or failure of following instructions relating to women welfare and relief associated with them.

== Related Articles ==

[[National Commission for Women]]

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://mscw.gov.in/ Official Website]
* {{Official website|http://ncw.nic.in/important-links/list-state-women-commissions#Meghalaya}}



[[Category:State agencies of India]]
[[Category:Commissions in India]]
[[Category:Women's rights in India]]
[[Category:Women's organisations based in India]]

Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi

2025-11-30T12:14:46Z

PaulineBarwell2: started some info basic info

{{Short description|One of the five great Tamil epics}}
{{use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{italic}}
[[File:Civakacintamani 1887 title page.png|250px|thumb|right|Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi book in printed format]]
{{Tamil literature}}
'''''Civaka Cintamani''''' ({{langx|ta|சீவக சிந்தாமணி|lit=Jivaka, the Fabulous Gem|translit=Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi}}), also spelled as '''''Jivaka Chintamani''''', is one of the [[Five Great Epics|five great]] [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[Epic poetry|epic]]s. Authored by a Madurai-based [[Jain]] ascetic Tiruttakkatēvar in the early 10th century, the [[Epic poetry|epic]] is a story of a prince who is the perfect master of all arts, perfect warrior and perfect lover with numerous wives. The ''Civaka Cintamani'' is also called the '''''Mana Nool''''' ({{langx|ta|மண நூல்|lit=book of marriages|translit=Maṇa nūl}}).{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=136–137}}<ref name="Ram">Ramaswamy 2007, pp. 102-103</ref> The epic is organized into 13 [[Canto|cantos]] and contains 3,145 [[quatrains]] in ''viruttam'' poetic meter. Its Jain author is credited with 2,700 of these quatrains, the rest by his ''guru'' and another anonymous author.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=136–137}}{{sfn|David Shulman|2016|pp=176–182}}

The epic begins with the story of a treacherous coup, where the king helps his pregnant queen escape in a peacock-shaped flying machine but is himself killed. The queen gives birth to a boy. She hands him over to a loyal servant to raise, becoming a nun herself.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=136–137}} The boy, Jivaka, grows up into a man, rather a superman, one who is perfect in every art, every skill, every field of knowledge. He excels in war and erotics, kills his enemies, wins over and marries every pretty girl he meets, then regains the kingdom his father had lost. After enjoying power, sex and begetting many sons with his numerous wives, the epic ends with him renouncing the world and becoming a [[Jain]] ascetic.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=136–137}}{{sfn|David Shulman|2016|pp=176–178}}

The Tamil epic ''Civakacintamani'' is probably a compilation of many older, fantasy-filled unreal Tamil folk stories. The poet skillfully couples the martial adventures of the extraordinarily talented superman with graphic sexual descriptions of his affairs,<ref name=ryanp68a/> along with lyrical interludes of his virtues such as kindness, duty, tenderness and affection for all living beings.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=136–138}} The epic's love scenes are sensuous and loaded with [[double entendre]] and metaphors.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=136–138}} The poetic style of the ''Civakacintamani'' epic is found in Tamil poetic literature that followed among Hindu and Jain scholars, attesting to its literary significance.{{sfn|David Shulman|2016|pp=176–182}}{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=136–138}}

Portions of the epic were ceremonially recited by members of the Tamil Jain community in the 19th century.<ref name="Ryan1998"/> Rare copies of its palm-leaf manuscripts were preserved by Tamil Hindus. U V Swaminatha Aiyar – a Shaiva pundit and Tamil scholar, discovered two copies of it in 1880 at the encouragement of the chief abbot of a Shaiva Hindu monastery in Kumbhakonam, one copy given by Tamil enthusiast Ramaswami Mutaliyar{{refn|group=note|Mutaliyar was from the Vellalar community, traditionally farmers and the champions of Tamil literary arts and learning.}} and the other by the monastery. Aiyar studied the epic's manuscripts under oil lamps,{{sfn|Sumathi Ramaswamy|1997|pp=179–184}} with guidance from Appasami Nayinar – a Jaina community leader, established a critical edition and published the first paper version of the epic in 1887.<ref name="scholarsarchive.byu.edu">Dennis Hudson (1981), ''[https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/ccr/vol7/iss7/5 Renaissance in the Life of Saminata Aiyar: A Tamil Scholar]'', Comparative Civilizations Review, Volume 7, Issue 7, pp. 54–68</ref>{{refn|group=note|Kamil Zvelebil mentions the Hindu discrimination against this text around 18th century, when it was one of the texts that Caminata Tecikar calls as "inferior writings which one should not read wasting one's time". However, Eva Wilden states that the Tecikar note has been quoted out of its context, and Tecikar's note was in the context of understanding and interpreting Sutra 7 given the standard Tamil references for grammar and interpretation. A careful reread suggests Tecikar did not mean it that way, states Wilden.{{sfn|Eva Maria Wilden|2014|pp=347–349}}}}

==Author and date==
{{Jainism}}
''Civaka Cintamani'' – as it has survived into the modern era – is an epic of 3,145 stanzas, each stanza of four highly lyrical lines. According to the final verses of the epic, it consists of 2,700 (86%) verses.{{sfn|David Shulman|2016|pp=176–177}} According to the 14th-century [[Nachinarkiniyar|Naccinarkkiniyar]] commentary, the 2,700 verses were composed by Thiruthakkadevar (Tiruttakkatevar) of the Chola race who in his youth became a Jain ascetic and moved to Madurai.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=136–137}}{{refn|group=note|According to James Ryan, Tiruttakkatevar was an ascetic of the [[Digambara]] subtradition of Jainism.}} The authorship of the remaining quatrains is unknown. According to a Jain tradition, 2 of the quatrains were composed by the teacher and counselor of Thiruthakkadevar, while the rest were anonymously added. The larger Tamil tradition believes that 445 quatrains were composed by Kantiyar, a poetess and inserted into the original.{{sfn|David Shulman|2016|pp=176–177}} The entire epic is sometimes credited to just Thiruthakkadevar by casual writers.<ref>Arathoon 2008, p. 42</ref>

Some non-Jaina Tamil poets, states Zvelebil, have questioned whether Thiruthakkadevar was really a Jain ascetic, since one of the mandatory five ''[[Mahavratas|mahāvratas]]'' (great vows) for ascetics in Jainism is strict abstinence from sex in "action, words and thought", but the epic is loaded with sexually-explicit verses.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|p=137}} According to the tradition, Thiruthakkadevar proved his ascetic purity by an ordeal.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|p=137}}

According to a note in 1857 by the colonial-era missionary P Percival, his acquaintances informed him that Thiruthakkadevar, also called Tirudevar, was a learned Jain scholar who lived 2,000 years ago, and who was acquainted with ''[[Akattiyam]]'' and ''[[Tolkappiyam]]'', the celebrated Tamil grammar works.<ref name="Madras1"/> He is also believed to have deep acquaintance in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Vedas]]. His epic, said Percival, was quoted by Tamil grammarians because it was believed to be of "undoubted authority" on Tamil language.<ref name="Madras1">Peter Percival (1857), Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, p. 45</ref>

Later Tamil literature scholarship places Thiruthakkadevar about 1,000 years later than Percival's colonial-era note. The story in ''Civakacintamani'', states Kamil Zvelebil, is the story found in the older Sanskrit text ''Kshattracudamani'' by Vadibhasinha, which itself was based on Gunabhadra's ''[[Uttarapurana]]''.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=136–137}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Norman Cutler|editor=Sheldon Pollock|title=Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ak9csfpY2WoC |year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-22821-4|pages=272 with footnote 1}}</ref> The latter text can be firmly dated to 897–898 CE (derived from Hindu calendar) based on the notes in its ''prasasti''. Therefore, the epic was composed after 898 CE. It is now broadly accepted by scholars that the ''Civakacintamani'' epic was composed in the early 10th century on a foundation of the 9th-century Sanskrit originals.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=136–137}}{{sfn|David Shulman|2016|pp=176–182}}

==Contents==

The work contains 3147 quatrains and is divided into 13 cantos called ''illambakams'' (Skt: ''lambaka'').{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=136–138}}<ref name="Madras2">Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society 1856, p. 46</ref> The 13 cantos were summarized in 1857 by the Christian missionary [[Peter Percival]] as follows:

* Namagal ''Ilambagam'' contains 408 verses detailing the story prior to the birth of the hero, Jivakan. It also details his birth, his mother fleeing from the assassin who murdered her husband, the king and the rescue of baby Jivakan from the forest by a merchant Chitty.<ref name="Madras2"/>
* Kovindiyar ''Ilambagam'' relates to the exploits of young Jivakan; his bravery detailed when he attacks the gang of freebooters who loot the city; his marriage to Kovindeyar, the daughter of a citizen in the city named Pasukavalam who gets impressed by his bravery. The section has 84 stanzas.<ref name="Madras2"/>
* Kandarvatatteyar ''Illambagam'' is derived from the celebrated musician, Tatteyar whose skill on [[Veena]], an Indian string instrument was almost unrivalled. She was resolute not to marry anyone until her challenge is surpassed. Jivaka won the competition. She and Jivaka marry. The events are accounted in 358 stanzas in this section.<ref name="Madras3">Percival, Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society 1856, p. 47</ref>
* Gundmaleyar ''Ilambagam'' contains 415 stanzas and presents two young women namely Gunamelai and Churamanjiri of high family contended for their superiority in possessing scented powders. The identical scents were difficult to differentiate and when Jivagan did it, Gunamelai agreed to marry him. Sudarshana Jakshadeva, who got transformed to a dog due to a sin is restored to his former form by Jivaka. Churamanjiri is rescued by Jivaka from an angry charging elephant.<ref name="Madras3"/>
* Pathumeiyar ''Ilambagam'' narrates the travel of Jivaka to foreign lands in 246 verses. Jivaka saves Pathumai when she was bitten by a serpent while collecting flowers. They get married.<ref name="Madras3"/>
* Kemasariyar ''Ilambagam'' contains 145 verses and it describes the visit of Jivaka to Kshemadesam where he performs austerities that gains him admiration from the king. Kshema Sundari and Jivaka get married.<ref name="Madras3"/>
* Kanagamaleyar ''Ilambagam'' depicts the hero in a place called Susandesam where the king suspends on a high mark, promising to give his daughter in marriage to the person who succeeds in displacing the mark with an arrow. Jivaka wins the competition and marries the king's daughter namely Chisanti. The heroics is depicted in 30 stanzas.<ref name="Madras4">Percival, Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society 1856, p. 48</ref>
* Kimaleyar ''Ilambagam'' has 107 stanzas, where Jivaka proceeds to Nanaadu where he meets his mother in Tandakarenyam and salutes her. When he returns to the city, a merchant, who gets wealthy on account of Jivaka bestows his daughter Vimalei in marriage.<ref name="Madras4"/>
* In the ninth ''ilambagam'', Jivaka marries Churamanjari, who once vowed not to marry anyone during the perfume episode.<ref name="Madras4"/>
* Manamagal ''Ilambagam'' contains 358 stanzas and narrates the victory of Jivaga in marrying the daughter of his maternal uncle, the king of Videkam. Jivaka wins the competition of hitting the target with arrow and his fame spreads across. The assassin who killed Jivaka's father plans to seize him and put him to death, but Jivaga wins and ascends the throne of his ancestors.<ref name="Madras4"/>
* Purmagal ''Illambagam'' contains 51 stanzas that narrates the conquest of Jivaka of the dominions of his father's assassin. The country was called Emangadesam.<ref name="Madras4"/>
* Ilakaneiyar ''Illambagam'' contains 221 verses describing the nuptials of Jivaga and his maternal uncle's daughter, Illakanei.<ref name="Madras5">Percival, Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society 1856, p. 49</ref>
* Mutti ''Illambagam'' is the last canto of the epic. Jivaka renounces, partitions his dominions to his sons, and becomes an ascetic.<ref name="Madras5"/>

Percival noted that the Jivaka story is also found in the older Sanskrit Jaina text, called ''Maha Purana'' and that the Jains did not consider it to be a part of their 18 celebrated Puranas.<ref>Percival, Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society 1856, p. 45</ref>

===Story===
The epic begins with the story of a treacherous coup by a minister of the king.<ref name="Ryan1998">{{cite book|author=James Ryan|editor=John E. Cort|title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WWfnXbVWjKcC|year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-3786-5|pages=67–70}}</ref> The king had given temporary responsibility for the capital while the king and queen were traveling. The king helps his pregnant queen escape in a peacock-shaped flying machine but gets himself killed by the minister's army. The queen gives birth to a boy as she hid in a remote cremation grounds. She hands over her baby she named Jivaka to a loyal servant to raise, becoming a nun herself.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=136–137}}<ref name="Ryan1998"/> The boy grows up into a man, rather a superman, one who is perfect in every art, every skill, every field of knowledge. Jivaka the superhero excels in war and erotics, kills his enemies, wins over and marries every beautiful girl he meets, then regains the kingdom his father had lost. After enjoying power, sex and begetting many sons with his numerous wives, the epic ends with Jivaka renouncing the world and converting into a Jaina ascetic.{{sfn|Zvelebil|1974|pp=136–137}}{{sfn|David Shulman|2016|pp=176–178}}<ref name="Ryan1998"/>

The epic concludes that all the worldly pleasures Jivaka enjoyed was nothing but illusions distracting him from the path of spiritual salvation.<ref name="Ram"/>

==Significance==
{{Quote box
|quote = '''Sex in Civaka Cintamani'''
<poem>
His garlands ripped,
the saffron on him was ruined,
his chaplet was charred,
– because
of the enthusiasm of intercourse,
her girdles broke,
her beautiful anklets cried out,
and the honeybees were scared off,
as the young couple made love.
</poem>
|source = —''Civaka Cintamani 1349'' Translator: James Ryan, ''Erotic Excess and Sexual Danger in Civakacintamani''<ref name="Ryanp67">{{cite book|author=James Ryan|editor=John E. Cort|title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WWfnXbVWjKcC|year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-3786-5|page=67}}</ref>
|bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|align = right
|width = 25%
}}
The epic is unusual in many respects. Authored by a Jain ascetic, it presents a story that is unlike the generally accepted view of historic Jainism being an "austerely ascetic" religious tradition.{{sfn|David Shulman|2016|pp=176–178}} The hero of the epic, Jivaka, indulges in a life of sensual pursuits with numerous women, marries many women and carries out a sexual affair with a dancing girl without marrying her, violently kills his enemies including those who had participated or supported the coup against his father, seeks and enjoys power.{{sfn|David Shulman|2016|pp=176–178}}<ref name=ryanp68a/> Thus, his life is anything but one of non-violence, sexual fidelity, restraint and non-possessiveness – some of the traditionally understood virtues for householders in Jainism. Ultimately, the hero converts into a Jain ascetic, yet the epic writer is generally accepted to be a Jaina ascetic.{{refn|group=note|The epic is a dense collection of erotic descriptions, and to some unused to the Indian literary culture and openness, the explicit descriptions seem obscene. According to James Ryan – a professor of Asian Studies and Religion, "the Digambaras, with the rigorously ascetic views, would seem unlikely candidates for the creation of a text of highly erotic character such as the ''Civacintamani''."<ref name=ryanp68a>{{cite book|author= James Ryan|editor=John E. Cort|title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WWfnXbVWjKcC|year= 1998|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn= 978-0-7914-3786-5|pages= 68–72}}</ref>}} The epic has explicit and lyrical descriptions of sensual gratifications and sex. According to David Shulman, the epic questions the long-held scholarly views of Jainism and the teachings of its most celebrated historic scholars.{{sfn|David Shulman|2016|pp=176–178}} According to James Ryan, a proposed explanation is that the Digambara Jains were living with Hindus, the epic was influenced by the Hindu beliefs and outlook on life, and it reflects a synthetic work that fused the values and virtues of Hinduism and Jainism.<ref name=ryanp68a/> An alternate explanation, states Ryan, is that the epic includes explicit eros and graphic descriptions of sex not to praise or recommend such values or practices in the way some early Hindu texts do, the epic includes this so as to examine and criticize it from the Jain perspective.<ref name=ryanp68a/>

According to Arathoon, the work stands as a proof of secular outlook of [[Chola]] kings during the period. Though they were [[Hindus]], they encouraged the Jain education and arts.<ref>Arathoon 2008, p. 69</ref> The epic was influential on other Tamil poets, and it "may have served as a poetic model for both ''[[Ramavataram|Kamban Ramayana]]'' and Cekkilar", states David Shulman.{{sfn|David Shulman|2016|pp=176–178}}

The epic hints of no persecution or violence between the Tamil Shaiva and Jaina community. Its composition, reception, and influence in the Hindu community suggest that the Jain–Hindu relations in the Tamil region were cordial and collaborative at least through the 10th century.<ref>{{cite book|author=James D. Ryan|title=The Cīvakacintāmaṇi in Historical Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KOdIAQAAMAAJ |year=1985|publisher=University of California, Berkeley|pages=73–79}}</ref>

The Tamil epic is notable for the high number of Sanskrit loan words, likely because it is a late medieval text. It is also notable, according to Vaidyanathan for chronologically being the first Tamil text where the caste-related term [[Shudra]] appears (Tamil: ''cūttiraṇ'') in verse 1287, line 4.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Vaidyanathan | first=S. | title=Indo-Aryan Loan Words in the Cīvakacintāmaṇi | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | publisher=American Oriental Society | volume=87 | issue=4 | year=1967 | doi=10.2307/597587 | pages=430–434| jstor=597587 }}</ref>

It is considered one of the [[The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature|five great Tamil epics]] according to later Tamil literary tradition, the others being ''[[Manimekalai]]'', ''[[Silappadikaram]]'', ''[[Valayapathi]]'' and ''[[Kundalakesi]]''.<ref name="Muk1">Mukherjee 1999, p. 277</ref> In its form, it anticipates the [[Ramayana]] of [[Kambar (poet)|Kambar]]. ''Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi'' was much appreciated by the [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] king who was its patron and was well received at his Chola court. It has been admired for its poetic form, appealing story-line, and theological message.

==Manuscripts and translations==
[[U. V. Swaminatha Iyer]] (1855-1942 CE) – a practicing Shaiva Brahmin and Tamil scholar, discovered two copies of the epic in 1880 at the encouragement of his ''guru'', the chief abbot of a Shaiva Hindu monastery in Kumbhakonam. The first copy came from Tamil enthusiast Ramaswami Mutaliyar whom the abbot had introduced to Iyer (also spelled Aiyar), and the other came from the monastery's large collection of ancient texts. The palm-leaf manuscripts decay and degrade relatively quickly in the tropical climate of south India, and must be re-copied every few decades or about a century, a step that introduces scribal errors. The two copies of the manuscripts were different, and one included commentary from the 14th century. Aiyar studied the two versions of the manuscripts under oil lamps.{{sfn|Sumathi Ramaswamy|1997|pp=179–184}} With help from Appasami Nayinar – a Jaina community leader, Aiyar established a critical edition and published the first paper print of the epic in 1887.<ref name="scholarsarchive.byu.edu"/>

Between 2005 and 2019, James Ryan and G Vijayavenugopal published the English translation of ''Civaka Cintamani'' in three volumes.<ref>{{cite book|author=Tiruttakkatēvar|title=Cīvakacintāmaṇi: The Hero Cīvakan̲, the Gem that Fulfills All Wishes (Verses 1 - 1165)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlqbBmjeEn0C |year=2005|publisher=Jain Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-89581-854-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Tiruttakkatēvar|title=Civakacintamani: The Hero Civakan, the Gem That Fulfills All Wishes (Verses 1166 - 1888) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gu98tDr0g5cC |year=2012|publisher=Jain Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-89581-847-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Tiruttakkatevar|title=Civakacintamani: The Hero Civakan, the Gem that Fulfills All Wishes (Verses 1889 - 3145)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIKIDwAAQBAJ |year=2019|publisher=Jain Publishing|isbn=978-0-89581-848-5}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Verses 1–1164 were translated by James Ryan, the remaining translations were a collaborative work and appeared in two volumes in 2012 and 2019.}}

==See also==
*[[Tamil Jain]]
* [[Five Great Epics]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{cite book | title=Our Story So Far 4| last=Arathoon| year=2008| publisher=Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd. |location=New Delhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5O39Jk9bF54C&pg=PA44 |isbn=978-81-7758-905-4}}
* {{cite book | title=Culture India| last=Kulasrestha| first=Mahendra | year=2008| publisher=Lotus Press |location=New Delhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MKQznGABS_cC&pg=PA198 |isbn=978-81-8382-013-4}}
* {{cite book | title=The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature (Volume Five) (Sasay To Zorgot), Volume 5| last=Lal| first=Mohan |author2=Sāhitya Akādemī| year=2001| publisher=Sāhitya Akādemī|location=New Delhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&pg=PA4256 |isbn=81-260-1221-8}}
* {{cite book | title=The Tamil Epic Chintamani, Madras Journal of Literature and Science| publisher=Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society | author= P Percival| year=1857| location=Madras|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AVoYAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA46 }}
* {{cite book | title=A Dictionary of Indian Literature: Beginnings-1850| last=Mukherjee| first=Sujit | year=1999| publisher=Orient Longman Limited|location=New Delhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCJrUfVtZxoC&pg=PA150 |isbn=81-250-1453-5}}
* {{cite book | title=Tamil Literature| last=Pillai| first=M. S. Purnalingam | year=1994| pages=115| publisher=Asian Educational Services|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIeqvcai5XQC&pg=PA115 |isbn=978-81-206-0955-6}}
* {{cite book | title=A Primer of Tamil Literature| last=Pillai| first=M. S. Purnalingam | year=1904| publisher=Ananda Press|location=Madras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JwkrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA66 }}
* {{cite book|author=Sumathi Ramaswamy|title=Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891–1970 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=La8wDwAAQBAJ |year=1997|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-20805-6}}
*{{Cite book |last=Ramaswamy |first=Vijaya |title=Historical dictionary of the Tamils |year=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press |location=United States|isbn=978-0-470-82958-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC&pg=PA368 }}
* Ryan, James. 1998. "Erotic Excess and Sexual Danger in the Civakacintamani."
* {{cite book |editor=John E. Cort |editor-link=John E. Cort |title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoHfm7BgqTgC |publisher=State University of New York Press |date=1998 |isbn=0-7914-3785-X |pages=67–83 }}
* Ryan, James, trans. 2005. ''Civakacintamani: The Hero Civakan, the Gem that Fulfills All Wishes.'' Fremont, CA: Jain Publishing Company.
* {{cite book|author=David Shulman|title=Tamil: A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fG8NDQAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-97465-4}}
*{{cite book| author=Eva Maria Wilden|title=Manuscript, Print and Memory: Relics of the Cankam in Tamilnadu|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KuPmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|year=2014|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-035276-4}}
* {{citation | title=A History of Indian literature Vol.10 (Tamil Literature)| last=Zvelebil| first=Kamil |author-link=Kamil Zvelebil| year=1974| publisher=Otto Harrasowitz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQ33i496MsIC |isbn = 3-447-01582-9}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last=Tiruttakkatevar |title=Civakacintamani: The Hero Civakan, the Gem That Fulfills All Wishes: Verses 1166-1888 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gu98tDr0g5cC |year=2012 |publisher=Jain Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-89581-847-8 }}

{{Tamil language}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Civaka Cintamani}}
[[Category:Jain texts]]
[[Category:Epic poems in Tamil]]
[[Category:Tamil Jain literature]]

Vedganga River

2025-10-27T14:12:48Z

PaulineBarwell2:

{{Short description|River in India}}
The '''Vedganga River''' is a river in [[India]], which joins the [[Dudhganga River]]. Further, Dudhganga joins the [[Krishna River]]. Several villages like Jatrat, Barawad, Kunnur in Karnataka are dependent on Vedganga for water.
{{Infobox river
| name = Vedganga River
| native_name =
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| image = File:Vedganga river.jpg
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| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[India]]
| subdivision_type2 = State
| subdivision_name2 = [[Maharashtra]], [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type3 =
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| length = 92 km
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| source1 = [[Western Ghats]]
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| mouth = [[Dudhganga River]]
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}}
The Vedganga River rises at an elevation of 900 m in the [[Kolhapur District]] of [[Maharashtra State]] from the eastern slopes of the [[Western Ghats]]. The river flows mostly north-eastwards in Maharashtra State and thereafter continues to flow eastwards in Karnataka state to join the [[Dudhganga River]] at Barawad in Karnataka, [[Dudhganga River]] flowing eastwards joining the [[Krishna River]] in Kallol Yedur in Karnataka from the right bank.<ref name="Wapcos">{{Cite web |url=http://powermin.nic.in/whats_new/PFR/Maharastra/Hiranyakeshi.pdf |title=PFR Studies of Hiranyakeshi Hydroelectric Project |access-date=2014-08-31 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040923/http://powermin.nic.in/whats_new/PFR/Maharastra/Hiranyakeshi.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The rugged terrain is cut with valleys of dentritic pattern of streams feeding the tributaries of the Krishna River system. The sub-tributaries and tributaries of Ghatprabha and Malprabha located on the right bank of the Krishna River offer good sites for hydro-electric development through dam-toe-power stations.<ref name="Wapcos" />

== References ==
<references />

{{coord|16|33|N|74|26|E|display=title|region:IN_type:river_source:GNS-enwiki}}

[[Category:Rivers of Maharashtra]]

K. Tokugha Sukhalu

2025-10-21T11:26:02Z

PaulineBarwell2:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}

'''K. Tokugha Sukhalu''' (born 1955)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=K Tokugha Sukhalu(NDPP):Constituency- ZUNHEBOTO (ST)(ZUNHEBOTO) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://myneta.info/Nagaland2023/candidate.php?candidate_id=6801 |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=myneta.info}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[Nagaland]]. He is an [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Zünheboto Assembly constituency|Zunheboto Assembly constituency]], which is reserved for [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Tribes]], in [[Zünheboto district|Zunheboto District]]. He won the [[2023 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election]], representing Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party. He is an advisor to the Nagaland chief minister, on food and civil supply, and legal metrology.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Advisors to Chief Minister {{!}} Nagaland State Portal |url=https://nagaland.gov.in/advisors |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=nagaland.gov.in}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Sukhalu is from [[Zünheboto|Zunheboto]], Nagaland. He is the son of late Kawoto. He completed his M.A. in 1977 at [[North-Eastern Hill University|North Eastern Hill University]], Shillong.<ref name=":0" /> He was formerly with the [[Indian Administrative Service]].

== Career ==
Sukhalu won from the Zunheboto constituency representing [[Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party]] in the 2023 Nagaland assembly election. He polled 15,921 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Akavi Sumi of the [[Naga People's Front]], by a margin of 3,061 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=K Tokugha Sukhalu in Nagaland Assembly Elections 2023 |url=https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2023/nagaland/k-tokugha-sukhalu-zunheboto-candidate-s17a035c001/ |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref> Earlier in 2021, he was advisor to the chief minister on school education.<ref>{{Cite web |title=K. Tokugha Sukhalu IAS (Rtd) Advisor School Education Government of Nagaland |url=https://www.morungexpress.com/k-tokugha-sukhalu-ias-rtd-advisor-school-education-government-of-nagaland#google_vignette |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=MorungExpress}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-30 |title=Advisor Urges To Shun ‘proxy Culture’ - Eastern Mirror |url=https://easternmirrornagaland.com/advisor-urges-to-shun-proxy-culture/ |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=easternmirrornagaland.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sukhalu, K. Tokugha}}
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Naga People's Front politicians]]
[[Category:Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party politicians]]
[[Category:Nagaland MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:People from Zünheboto district]]

{{Nagaland-politician-stub}}

Sidek Ali

2025-10-17T10:08:08Z

PaulineBarwell2: Created new bio

{{Short description|Bruneian diplomat}}
{{Malay name|Sidek|Ali| note = on}}
{{use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix = [[His Excellency]] [[Dato Paduka]]
| name = Sidek Ali
| native_name = {{no bold|صديق علي}}
| honorific_suffix = [[Order of Seri Paduka Mahkota Brunei|DPMB]]
| image = The Ambassador of Brunei to India, Mr. Dato Paduka Sidek Ali calling on the Vice President, Shri Mohd. Hamid Ansari, in New Delhi on November 12, 2015.jpg
| caption = Sidek (left) and [[Vice President of India|Vice President]] [[Mohammad Hamid Ansari]] in 2015
| office = [[Brunei–Singapore relations|High Commissioner of Brunei to Singapore]]
| term_start = 29 September 2020
| predecessor = [[Saifulbahri Mansor]]
| office1 = [[List of high commissioners of Brunei to India|High Commissioner of Brunei to India]]
| term_start1 = 16 May 2008
| term_end1 = 2020
| predecessor1 = [[Abdul Ghafar Ismail]]
| successor1 = [[Alaihuddin Taha]]
| office2 = [[Brunei–Laos relations|Ambassador of Brunei to Laos]]
| term_start2 = 2006
| term_end2 = 2008
| successor2 = [[Johan Thani Abdullah]]
| birth_place = [[Brunei]]
| occupation = {{flatlist|
*Diplomat
*civil servant}}
| spouse = Mariaratnah Mohd Apong
| children = 5
| term_end = 17 August 2024
| successor = [[Noor Qamar Sulaiman]]
}}
'''Sidek bin Ali''' is a [[Brunei]]an diplomat who formerly held the position of [[ambassador]] to [[Laos]] from 2006 to 2008, [[high commissioner]] to [[India]] from 2008 to 2020, and [[Singapore]] since 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.mfa.gov.bn/singapore/SitePages/chancery.aspx.aspx |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=www.mfa.gov.bn}}</ref>

== Diplomatic career ==
In 1979, Sidek started working for the [[Ministry of Education (Singapore)|Ministry of Education]] as an education officer in the Brunei Civil Service. When Brunei gained [[National Day (Brunei)|independence in 1984]], the Diplomatic Service Department, which he had joined in 1981, changed its name to the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Brunei)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]]. From 1997 to 1999, he was stationed in the Bruneian Embassy in [[Indonesia]]. Between 2006 and 2008, he served as Brunei's ambassador to [[Laos]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Borneo Bulletin |date=2006-01-15 |title=Two new Brunei envoys appointed |url=http://sultanate.com/news_server/2006/15_jan_1.html |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=sultanate.com}}</ref> In March 2006, he welcomed [[Crown prince|Crown Prince]] [[Al-Muhtadee Billah]] and [[Sarah, Crown Princess of Brunei|Princess Sarah]] during their state visit to Laos.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-03-25 |title=Their Royal Highnesses end their three-day official visit to Laos |url=http://sultanate.com/news_server/2006/25_mar_2.html |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=sultanate.com}}</ref>

=== India ===
From 2008 until 2020, he served as Bruneian high commissioner to [[India]]. During his tenure in India, he served as both the [[non-resident ambassador]] of Brunei to [[Nepal]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brunei Darussalam – Ministry of Foreign Affairs Nepal MOFA |url=https://mofa.gov.np/brunei-darussalam/ |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=mofa.gov.np}}</ref> and the non-resident high commissioner of Brunei to [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2020-09-29 |title=Presentation of Credentials, 29 September 2020 |url=http://www.mfa.gov.sg/Newsroom/Press-Statements-Transcripts-and-Photos/2020/09/20200829-POC |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=www.mfa.gov.sg |language=en}}</ref> When [[Hassanal Bolkiah|Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah]] and his delegation arrived at [[Palam Air Force Station]] on 20 December 2012, he welcomed them.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-12-20 |title=Their Majesties Arrive In India |url=https://www.theborneopost.com/2012/12/20/their-majesties-arrive-in-india/ |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=Borneo Post Online |language=en-US}}</ref> He escorted [[Romaizah Mohd Salleh|Datin Romaizah]] to the 2018 ASIAN Summit on Education & Skills (ASES) in [[New Delhi]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dk Siti Farhana Binti Pg Hj Yusof |date=2018-04-10 |title=Deputy Minister of Education Attend ASIAN Summit on Education & Skills (ASES) 2018 New Delhi India |url=https://www.moe.gov.bn/Lists/Announcement/DispFormCustom.aspx?ID=409&ContentTypeId=0x010400335E5DEA2740C344B3905EA7B342601C |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=www.moe.gov.bn}}</ref> On 28 February 2019, Brunei's representative, Dato Sidek, signed the Agreement for the Exchange of Information and Assistance in Collection with regard to Taxes (TIEA) between India and Brunei.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-03-04 |title=High Commission of India, Brunei Darussalam : Important Notice/Alerts |url=https://www.hcindiabrunei.gov.in/alert_detail/?alertid=14 |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=www.hcindiabrunei.gov.in}}</ref> He also participated in the 2019 India ASEAN Expo and Summit on behalf of Brunei.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-21 |title=FICCI : Industry's Voice for Policy Change |url=https://www.ficci.in/api/press_release_details/3357 |access-date=2024-05-08 |website=www.ficci.in |language=en}}</ref>

=== Singapore ===
As the newly appointed high commissioner to Singapore, Dato Sidek had a meeting with Al-Muhtadee Billah on 9 December 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-09 |title=DYTM DPMM MENERIMA MENGADAP PESURUHJAYA TINGGI NEGARA BRUNEI DARUSSALAM KE REPUBLIK SINGAPURA |url=http://www.infofoto.gov.bn/main.php?g2_itemId=973848 |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=www.infofoto.gov.bn}}</ref> On 29 September, he gave [[President of Singapore|President]] [[Halimah Yacob]] his [[letter of credence]] during a ceremony held at the [[The Istana|Istana]].<ref name=":0" /> On 24 to 25 August 2022, he hosted Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah and [[Queen Saleha of Brunei|Queen Saleha]] during their state visit to Singapore.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-23 |title=Keberangkatan Negara ke Republik Singapura |url=https://www.jpm.gov.bn/Lists/Berita%20JPM%202022/NDispForm.aspx?ID=172&InitialTabID=Ribbon.Read&source=/ |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=www.jpm.gov.bn |language=ms}}</ref> On 18 July 2023, the [[Supreme Court of Singapore|Supreme Courts of Singapore]] and [[Supreme Court of Brunei Darussalam|Brunei Darussalam]] signed a [[memorandum of understanding]] (MoU) to improve cooperation, communication, and coordination on matters pertaining to the avoidance and settlement of disputes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-03 |title=MoU further seals Brunei-Singapore judicial ties |url=https://borneobulletin.com.bn/mou-further-seals-brunei-singapore-judicial-ties/ |access-date=2024-05-07 |website=borneobulletin.com.bn |language=en-US}}</ref> He was succeeded by Noor Qamar Sulaiman on 17 August 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 August 2024 |title=HIS MAJESTY THE SULTAN AND YANG DI-PERTUAN OF BRUNEI DARUSSALAM PRESENTS AND RECEIVES LETTERS OF CREDENCE FOR NEWLY-APPOINTED ENVOYS |url=https://www.mfa.gov.bn/Lists/News%20Headlines/NDispForm.aspx?ID=304 |access-date=2024-08-25 |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Datin Mariaratnah binti Haji Mohd Apong and Sidek are married, and together they have five children.<ref name=":0" />

== Honours ==
[[File:The High Commissioner of Brunei Darussalam to India, Mr. Sidek Bin Ali presented his credentials to the President, Smt. Pratibha Devisingh Patil, at Rashtrapati Bhavan, in New Delhi on May 16, 2008.jpg|thumb|Sidek presenting his letters of credence to [[President of India|President]] [[Pratibha Patil]] in 2008]]
Sidek has earned the following honours;<ref name=":0" />

'''National'''
* [[File:Second_Class_of_the_Order_of_Seri_Paduka_Mahkota_Brunei_(DPMB).svg|50x50px]] [[Order of Seri Paduka Mahkota Brunei]] Second Class (DPMB; 15 July 2010) – ''Dato Paduka''<ref name=":422">{{Cite news |last=Hezlinawati Haji Abd. Karim |date=17 July 2010 |title=85 dikurniakan Bintang-Bintang Kebesaran |url=https://www.pelitabrunei.gov.bn/Arkib%20Dokumen/2010/Julai/PB170710.pdf |access-date=2024-12-15 |work=Pelita Brunei |pages=14 |language=ms}}</ref>
* [[File:Third_Class_of_the_Order_of_Seri_Paduka_Mahkota_Brunei_(SMB).svg|50x50px]] Order of Seri Paduka Mahkota Brunei Third Class (SMB)
* [[File:Excellent_Service_Medal_(PIKB).svg|50x50px]] Excellent Service Medal (PIKB)
* [[File:Long_Service_Medal_(PKL).svg|50x50px]] Long Service Medal (PKL)
'''Foreign'''
* {{flag|Laos}}:
** Friendship Medal Award

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-dip}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Saifulbahri Mansor]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Brunei–Singapore relations|High Commissioner of Brunei to Singapore]]
| years = 29 September 2020 – 17 August 2024
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Noor Qamar Sulaiman]]
}}
{{s-bef
| before = [[Abdul Ghafar Ismail]]
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[List of high commissioners of Brunei to India|High Commissioner of Brunei to India]]
| years = 16 May 2008 – 2020
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Alaihuddin Taha]]
}}
{{s-bef
| before = –
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Brunei–Laos relations|Ambassador of Brunei to Laos]]
| years = 2006–2008
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Johan Thani Abdullah]]
}}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sidek, Ali}}
[[Category:1951 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bruneian Muslims]]
[[Category:Bruneian diplomats]]
[[Category:High commissioners of Brunei to Singapore]]
[[Category:High commissioners of Brunei to India]]
[[Category:High commissioners of Brunei to Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of Brunei to Laos]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of Brunei to Nepal]]

Shimon Lev

2025-08-18T21:07:49Z

PaulineBarwell2: Created new data

{{Short description|Israeli multidisciplinary artist}}
{{BLP sources|date=January 2014}}
[[image:Shimon Low.JPG|right|thumb|200px|upright|Shimon Lev (Low)]]

'''Shimon Lev (Low)''' ({{langx|he|שמעון לב}}; born August 1, 1962) is an Israeli [[Multidisciplinary approach|multidisciplinary]] artist, writer, photographer, curator and researcher in the fields of [[Indian Studies]], art and literature, [[religion]], and [[travel]]. He holds a Doctoral degree on the subject of the mutual influence of the Jewish and Indian cultures. Lev teaches at the [[Hadassah Academic College]].

Lev is the author of "Soulmates", the story of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[Hermann Kallenbach]] (Orient BlackSwan, 2012), the first comprehensive study analyzing the unique and enigmatic relationship between Gandhi and his closest intimate friend and supporter, Hermann Kallenbach, in the context of his developing in his formative years in [[South Africa]], and in the understanding of his relationship to the [[Zionism|Zionist movement]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.orientblackswan.com/display.asp?categoryID=34&isbn=978-81-250-4699-8 |title=Orient Blackswan PVT. LTD. |accessdate=2014-01-26 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20140126221714/http://www.orientblackswan.com/display.asp?categoryID=34&isbn=978-81-250-4699-8 |archivedate=2014-01-26 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.thebookreviewindia.org/articles/archives-1247/2013/May/5/understanding-gandhis-convictions.html A review] on the book at thebookreviewindia.org</ref> ''The Hindu'' found it "insightful" and "a valuable addition to Gandhi studies for the historian".<ref name=hindu>{{cite news|title=The Mahatma's strange friend|url=http://www.thehindu.com/books/the-mahatmas-strange-friend/article4161064.ece|accessdate=28 January 2014|newspaper=The Hindu|date=December 3, 2012}}</ref> In particular the book debunks the idea that Gandhi and Kallenbach had a homosexual relationship.<ref>{{cite news|last=Saks|first=David|title=Gandhi, Kallenbach and the controversial 'Vaseline' reference|url=http://www.thoughtleader.co.za/davidsaks/2013/04/18/gandhi-kallenbach-and-the-controversial-vaseline-reference/|accessdate=28 January 2014|newspaper=Thought Leader/Mail & Guardian|date=April 18, 2013}}</ref>

Following the publication of the unique relationships between Gandhi and Kallenbach in "Soulmates", The Government of [[Lithuania]] decided to put a statue of the two men in the city of [[Rusnė]] in the republic.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sinha|first=Kounteya|title=Hermann Kallenbach was Mahatma Gandhi's 'soulmate'|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/uk/Hermann-Kallenbach-was-Mahatma-Gandhis-soulmate/articleshow/49023560.cms|newspaper=The Times of India|date=19 September 2015}}</ref>

Lev also wrote "Vesheyodea Lishol" (Hebrew for "And He who Knows how to Ask", Xargol Publisher, Israel 1998), which is a collection of life stories of people who abandoned the Jewish Orthodox religion, written in a form of monologues.

==Education==
Shimon Lev studied photography at the [[Hadassah Academic College]], Jerusalem (graduated 1988). He earned [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]]degree and [[Master of Arts|M.A.]] Degree (Cum Laude), Faculty of Humanities (2010), the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. He earned his [[Doctorate]] from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2016. His dissertation is about the cultural and political meeting between the Jewish world and the Indian World – A comparative research in light of the Indian and Zionist national movements.

==Books==

===Author===
* ''Soulmates – The Story of Mahatma Gandhi and Hermann Kallenbach'', Gandhi Studies Serial, Black Swan Publishing House, India 2012.
* ''Gideon in a Barral on Top of the World'', in: ''The Life I would Love to Live - Twenty Israeli Travel Stories'' (Hebrew), Moshe Gilad (editor), [[Am Oved]] Publisher, 2003.
* ''Vesheyodea Lishol'' (Hebrew for "And He who Knows how to Ask"), Xargol Publishers, 1998 (in the list of Haaretz Daily best sellers, 1998).<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w23mfKZUJ_0&list=ELhpFrgu4uAkM&index=11 Lev interviews] about the book, on YouTube</ref>
* ''Clear are the Paths of India: The Cultural and Political Encounter Between Indians and Jews in the Context of their Respective National Movements.'' 2018. Based on Lev's Doctoral thesis.
*''From Lithuania to Santiniketan: [[Schlomith Flaum]] & Rabindranath Tagore''. Iithuanian Embassy in New Delhi, New Delhi, 2018

===Photographer===
* "Mor'e Derech" (Hebrew for: "Travel Guide"), Menachem Markus (writer), Mapa Publishing, 2009.
* "Das Land der Bible," Wolfgang Sottil (writer), Styria, Gratz, Austria 1995.

===Academic Editor===
* Gandhi, M.K. "Shilton Atzmi" (Hebrew for: "Home Rule"), with Tolstoy's "Letter to a Hindu". Adam Olam, Tel Aviv 2016; Hebrew edition of [[Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule]]. Including a paper by the editor.<ref>[http://www.gandhi.co.il/%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%98%D7%9E%D7%94-%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%99/ The book's web page (Hebrew)]</ref>
* ''Satygraha in South Africa'', autobiography by M. K Gandhi, Hebrew version, Babel 2014.
* ''The Camera Man - Women and Men Photographing Jerusalem 1900- 1950'', Exhibition Catalog. [[Tower of David]] Museum, 2016. Including a paper by the editor.<ref>[http://www.tod.org.il/en/exhibition/the-photographers/ Exhibition web page]</ref><ref>[http://www.tod.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/IN-PHOTOS_-Jerusalem-Through-a-Different-Lens-Culture-Haaretz.pdf Ha'aretz daily article]</ref><ref>[http://www.tod.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/The-International-Jerusalem-Post-The-Camera-Man.pdf The Jerusalem Post article]</ref>

==Art==
Lev has produced 28 exhibitions worldwide, and participated in more than 50 others.<ref>A partial [http://www.agripas12gallery.com/%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%9F-%D7%9C%D7%91/ list of events] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226010208/http://www.agripas12gallery.com/%d7%a9%d7%9e%d7%a2%d7%95%d7%9f-%d7%9c%d7%91/ |date=2014-02-26 }} (Hebrew)</ref> In addition, he contributed photographs for a number of art books. He also directed three television films.

In an exhibition summarizing one hundred years of photography in the [[Land of Israel]], Lev was chosen to represent the 1990s.

In 2014 Lev created, together with the Austrian artist [[Friedemann Derschmidt]], an exhibition of photographs, video clips and [[Performance art]] about his father's family, titled "Two Family Archives".<ref>Exhibition [http://www.twofamilyarchives.com web site]</ref> Derschmidt exhibited documents and photography works of his own family, some of whom have been [[Austrian National Socialism|Nazi party]] members. Following the exhibit, Lev reported, a few of them boycotted the artist and threatened to file charges against him. The exhibition received broad coverage.<ref>A Die-Presse [http://diepresse.com/home/zeitgeschichte/3835579/Zwei-Familienarchive_Im-Dialog-mit-den-Erben-der-NSMorder article]</ref><ref>A Jerusalem Post [https://www.jpost.com/Edition-fran%C3%A7aise/Affaires-Palestiniennes/Deux-familles-une-histoire-369291 article] (in French)</ref>
<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vanleer.org.il/en/event/4-x-sally-%E2%80%93-video-installation|title = תוצאות החיפוש: 4-x-sally-–-video-installation}}</ref>

Lev was the chief [[curator]], researcher and catalogue editor for the historical research exhibition at the [[Tower of David]] Museum, Jerusalem: "The Camera Men: Women and Men Photograph Jerusalem, 1900–1950", May 2016.

==Papers==
Among his published papers are:
* ''Gandhi and his Jewish Theosophist Supporters in South Africa'', in: Chajes, J. and Huss B, (Editors). Theosophical Appropriations, Goren Goldstein Library of Jewish Thought, Ben Gurion University Press (forthcoming, 2016).<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/26560204/Theosophical_Appropriations_Introduction Introduction by the editors]</ref>
* "Melting Hitler's 'Heart of Stone' - Gandhi's Attitude to the Holocaust," ''The Journal of Judeo Indo Studies'', Vol. 13, 2013 (German version in: SudAsien 33. Jahrgang, Nr. 3/2013).

* "From a Failing Lawyer to A Mass Movement Leader," Article and academic editing of the Hebrew translation to "Gandhi's Satyagraha in South Africa," Babel, 2014.
* "Changing a Tiger with another Tiger" (Hebrew), [http://www.haokets.org/2012/05/06/%D7%9C%D7%94%D7%97%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A3-%D7%98%D7%99%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A1-%D7%91%D7%98%D7%99%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A1/ "Haokets"], May 6, 2012.
* "Laga'at Baor" ("Hebrew for "Touching Skin"), a short story, "Massa Acher" Magazine, 1999.
“Clear Are the Paths of India”: The Representation of Tagore in Jewish Literature, The Journal of Indo-Judaic Studies (2017).
“Tolstoy Farm”, Zemanin, special volume on India, vol. 122 (2013), The Open University (Hebrew).
“Objekte der Erinnerung" in: Friedemann Derschmidt, (Edt) Sag Du Deinem Kinde! Natinonal-sozialismus in der eigenen Familie, Vienna: Löcker, 2015, (German), 296-329.

==Films==
* "The Heart of the Memory" (Director), Jewish Eye Festival, Tel Aviv Cinematheque, 2005.
* "Berliner City Tour" (Director), independent, 1999.
* "The Sons of David," Co-director with Ido Glass, a Documentary ([[Channel 1 (Israel)|Israeli TV Channel 1]], 1998).
* "Bei uns nichts Neues" (German for: "No news on our side"; Director and Producer)<ref>[http://www.twofamilyarchives.com/cinema-screening-in-berlin-bei-uns-nichts-neues-by-shimon-lev/ Web site] of the film</ref><ref>[https://www.facebook.com/BeiUnsNichtsNeuesDerFilm/?fref=nf Facebook page] (Hebrew)</ref>

==Family==
Shimon Lev is the son of [[Ze’ev Lev]] (Low), a physicist, Torah scholar, and founder of the [[Jerusalem College of Technology]]. Shimon Lev has three children: Gideon, Tamar and Ilay, and he lives in Yafo ([[Jaffa]]), Israel.

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* [http://art-in-process.com/en/2011/06/shimon-lev-en]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lev, Shimon}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1962 births]]
[[Category:Israeli photographers]]

Nanjanagud banana

2025-07-10T18:20:06Z

PaulineBarwell2: Stub.

{{Short description|Edible fruit cultivar}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox geographical indication
| name = Nanjanagud banana
| color = Blue
| image = Rasa BaLe HaNNu.JPG
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Nanjangud rasabalehannu a special variety of [[banana]]
| alternative names = Nanjangud rasabalehannu
| description = 
| type = 
| area = [[Mysore]] & [[Chamrajnagar]] 
| country = India
| registered = 2005
| material =
| official website = {{URL|ipindia.nic.in}}
}}

The '''Nanjangud banana''' (''{{Langx|kn|Nanjanagudu rasabale}}'') is a variety of [[banana]] from [[Nanjangud]], Mysore district, Karnataka. This fruit has a unique taste and aroma, and is locally popular. It has been given Geographical Indication Tag Number 29.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gowda |first=Varsha |title=Mysuru's Nanjangud banana slipping out of farmers' favour |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/mysurus-nanjangud-banana-slipping-out-of-farmers-favour-1237125.html |access-date=2024-06-20 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

== Agriculture ==
Nanjangud banana cultivation requires specific soil conditions and climate, and it is mostly grown in the village of Devarasanahalli near Nanjangudu. The region's traditional farming practices and natural environment are critical to maintaining banana quality. Black saline alluvial soil naturally formed on the banks of the [[Kabini River|Kapila]] is required. Experts believe that the secret of this taste and aroma lies in its genes.<ref>{{Cite journal |date= |title=Geographical Indications Journal |url=http://ipindia.nic.in/girindia/journal/8.pdf |website=ipindia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809224647/http://ipindia.nic.in/girindia/journal/8.pdf |archive-date=9 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=GI Tagged Nanjangud Banana - GI Tagged from of India |url=https://www.gitagged.com/nanjangud-banana/ |access-date=2024-06-20 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Description ==
Nanjangud bananas are often used in traditional festivals and religious ceremonies. This banana also brings significant economic benefits to the local farmers. The GI tag helps protect the authenticity of the banana. The fruit is small in size and buttery soft to eat. It is usually eaten without the peel. As it cannot be grown in foreign areas, its availability is less and hence there is a good demand for it. They are available at banana market in [[Sargur]], Mysore district, Karnataka, India. Recently, due to the heavy use of chemical fertilizers, its taste, shape, and aroma are changing.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-01-25 |title=Mangoes and grapes give K'taka farmers sweet taste of success |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/Mangoes-and-grapes-give-Ktaka-farmers-sweet-taste-of-success/articleshow/50711434.cms |access-date=2024-06-20 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-02-02 |title=Farmers Come Together to Save Nanjangud Rasabale - The New Indian Express |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/Farmers-Come-Together-to-Save-Nanjangud-Rasabale/2015/04/29/article2788718.ece |access-date=2024-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202195819/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/Farmers-Come-Together-to-Save-Nanjangud-Rasabale/2015/04/29/article2788718.ece |archive-date=2 February 2016 }}</ref>

The size of the Nanjangud banana is smaller than other bananas. It is 5-8 cm long, and the diameter of the middle tube part of the fruit is 2-3 cm. Its peel is thin. When organic, Nanjangud bananas are well-ripened, the peel is eaten with the fruit, or the peel is eaten separately (raw or as a vegetable).

Geographical Indication
The Horticulture Department of the Government of Karnataka obtained a patent for the Nanjangudu banana under the Geographical Indications (Geographical Indications) Act, 1999. The Controller General of Designs and Trademarks Office granted trademark rights to the Nanjangudu banana and its products to Mysore farmers. It was granted Geographical Indication registration in 2005.

==See also==
* [[Bangalore Blue]]
* [[Byadagi chilli]]
* [[Coorg Green Cardamom|Coorg green cardamom]]
* [[Coorg orange]]
* [[List of Geographical Indications in India]]
* [[Mattu gulla]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Banana cultivars]]
[[Category:GI Tagged banana varieties of India]]
[[Category:Mysore district]]
[[Category:Geographical indications in Karnataka]]

Porbandar Bird Sanctuary

2025-06-06T14:28:42Z

PaulineBarwell2:

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}

{{Infobox protected area
| name = Porbandar Bird Sanctuary
| iucn_category = IV
| map = India Gujarat#India
| relief = 1
| mapframe = Yes
| location = Porbandar district, Gujarat, India
| area_km2 = 0.09
| established = 1988
}}

'''Porbandar Bird Sanctuary''' is a [[Animal sanctuary|bird sanctuary]] in the [[Porbandar District]] of [[Gujarat]] state, [[India]], which was dedicated in 1988.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gujarattourism.com/destination/details/5/275|title=Porbandar Bird Sanctuary|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=25 September 2016}}</ref>

It is the only bird sanctuary in Gujarat that provides legal protection to the birds which nest there. It is small, only covering {{convert|9.33|ha|sqkm}}.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2023-03-03 |title=Porbandar bird sanctuary needs Narmada water, say activists |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/raipur/porbandar-bird-sanctuary-needs-narmada-water-say-activists/articleshow/98376769.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-03-20 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The sanctuary has a lake attracting [[migratory birds]] and other birds such as [[Anas|teals]], [[fowls]], [[flamingos]], [[ibis]] and [[curlews]].<ref name=":0" />

== History ==
The area was dedicated as a sanctuary in 1988 by the governance of the Porbandar District. In 1990 the sanctuary came under the oversight of the Gujarat Forest Department.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Porbandar Bird Sanctuary - Wildlife Sanctuaries |url=https://www.gujaratexpert.com/porbandar-bird-sanctuary/ |access-date=2023-03-20 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Arid Forest Research Institute]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Bird Sanctuaries}}

{{coord|21.635|69.619|type:landmark_region:IN|display=title}}
[[Category:1988 establishments in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Bird sanctuaries of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Porbandar district]]
[[Category:Protected areas with year of establishment missing]]

{{Porbandar-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Tourism in Gujarat]]

Cavalry Barracks railway station

2025-03-03T03:48:24Z

PaulineBarwell2:

{{Short description|Railway station in Hyderabad, Telangana, India}}
{{refimprove|date=February 2025}}

{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Cavalry Barracks
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| style = Indian Railways
| symbol_location =
| symbol =
| type = [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|30px]] [[Indian Railways]] and [[Hyderabad MMTS]] station
| image = AMI - TPTY SF (26752151732).jpg
| alt =
| caption = [[Tirupati–Amravati Express|Amaravati - Tirupati SF Express]] at Cavalry Barracks railway station
| address = [[Bolarum]], Hyderabad 500010
| borough = Telangana
| country = India
| coordinates = {{coord|17|29|43.16|N|78|31|8.35|E|region:IN|display=inline}}
| map_type = India Hyderabad#India Telangana#India
| owned = Indian Railways
| operator = South Central Railways
| line = [[Secunderabad–Bolarum route|Secunderabad–Bolarum line]]
| distance =
| platforms = 3
| tracks =
| train_operators = Indian Railways
| connections =
| structure =
| parking =
| bicycle =
| code = CVB
| zone =
| website =
| opened = 
| closed = 
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_rank =
| services =
| other_services =
}}

'''Cavalry Barracks ''' is a [[railway station]] in [[Hyderabad]], India, located on the Manmad- Secunderabad section of the South Central Railway. The [[Secunderabad Cantonment Board|cantonment area]] is accessible from this station.

==Lines==
*[[Hyderabad Multi-Modal Transport System]]
*[[Secunderabad–Bolarum route]]
{| class="wikitable"
|Code
|Name
|km {{reference required|date=February 2025}}
|-
|'''CVB'''
|'''Cavalry Barracks'''
|0
|-
|ALW
|Alwal
|1
|-
|AMQ
|Ammuguda
|1
|-
|AMGU
|Ammuguda C
|1
|-
|RKO
|Ramakistapuram
|2
|-
|BDNH
|Bhudevi Nagar
|2
|-
|NRDMT
|Neredmet
|3
|-
|BOZ
|Bolarum Bazaar
|3
|-
|DYE
|Dayanand Nagar
|4
|-
|SFX
|Safilguda
|4
|-
|BMO
|Bolarum
|5
|-
|MJF
|Malkajgiri
|5
|-
|MLY
|Moula Ali
|6
|-
|LGDH
|Lalaguda Gate
|6
|-
|STPD
|Sitafalmandi
|7
|-
|SC
|Secunderabad
|8
|-
|}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080523155101/http://www.scrailway.gov.in/mmts/mmtstable.php MMTS Timings] as per [[South Central Railway]]

{{BS Route (MMTS)}}
{{MMTS Stations}}

[[Category:MMTS stations in Hyderabad]]
[[Category:Hyderabad railway division]]

{{Telangana-railstation-stub}}

Statue of Queen Victoria, Bangalore

2024-12-02T16:01:11Z

PaulineBarwell2: Improved readability and structure

#REDIRECT [[Statue of Queen Victoria, Bengaluru]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Miyani

2024-11-01T07:38:58Z

PaulineBarwell2: Done.

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Miyani
| official_name =
| native_name = {{langx|gu|મિયાણી}}
| image_skyline =
| image_caption =
| imagesize =
| settlement_type = [[Village]]
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Subdivisions of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flag|Gujarat}}
| subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of Gujarat|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Porbandar District|Porbandar]]
| coordinates = {{coord|21.84015|N|69.38200|E}}
| pushpin_map = Gujarat#India
| demographics_type1 = Language
| demographics1_title1 = Majority
| demographics1_info1 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| demographics1_title2 =
| demographics1_info2 =
| elevation_m =
| website =
| timezone1 = [[UTC+5:30|IST]]
| coor_pinpoint =
| established_title = 
| image_map1 =
| blank1_name_sec2 =
| blank1_info_sec1 =
| blank1_name_sec1 =
| map_caption1 =
| map_caption =
| image_map =
| blank1_info_sec2 =
}}

'''Miyani''' is a beach village in Porbandar Taluka in [[Porbandar District|Porbandar]], [[Gujarat]], [[India]]. It is located 39 km north from the district headquarters of [[Porbandar]] and 429 km from the state capital of [[Gandhinagar]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Gujarat State Gazetteers: Junagadh District |date=1975 |publisher=Directorate of Government Print., Stationery and Publications, Gujarat State |pages=827 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NygbAAAAIAAJ&q=miyani+porbandar |access-date=31 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Miyani is situated on a creek and is a fishing center in a fresh fish zone.<ref name=a>{{cite book |last1=Mishra |first1=Susan Verma |last2=Ray |first2=Himanshu Prabha |title=The Archaeology of Sacred Spaces: The temple in western India, 2nd century BCE–8th century CE |date=5 August 2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-19374-6 |pages=65–86, 280 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CtDLDAAAQBAJ&q=miyani+&pg=PA86 |access-date=31 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref> It is located on the coastline of Gujarat with beaches on the [[Arabian Sea]].

==Religious significance==

The village is a pilgrimage center for Hindus and Jains. Temples of the goddess [[Harsiddhi]] are located here, including an ancient temple on the mountain Koyla Dungar which overlooks the sea. The present temple is located in the foothills of the mountain, and the site where the deity is now worshiped is said to be built by the Jain merchant [[Jagdusha]] in the 13th century.<ref name=a/>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Coord|21.84015|N|69.38200|E|display=title}}

[[Category:Villages in Porbandar district]]
[[Category:Hindu pilgrimage sites in India]]

{{Porbandar-geo-stub}}

Puram

2024-02-02T11:44:24Z

PaulineBarwell2: adding new post

{{Short description|Classic poetry genre}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
'''''Puram''''' ({{indic|lang=ta|indic=புறம்|trans=puṟam}}, ''Lit.'' exterior) is one of two genres of [[Sangam literature|Classical Tamil poetry]]. The concept of the lifestyle of human beings falls in two categories: personal and public. The genre dealing with poems about love affairs is called ''[[Akam (poetry)|Akam]]'' (அகம்), while ''Puram'' concerns many subjects including wars, kings, poets and personal virtues.<ref name="EBNarrLit">{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/556016/South-Asian-arts/65174/Narrative-literature | title="South Asian arts" | publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | year=2014 |access-date=7 December 2014}}</ref>

''[[Tolkāppiyam]]'', the earliest work of Tamil grammar and literature available in Tamil, divides each genre into seven strands ([[Thinai]]), comparing and connecting the two categories of lifestyle.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/amit/books/hart-2002-four-hundred-songs.html | title=The Four Hundred Songs of War and Wisdom: An Anthology of Poems from Classical Tamil, the Purananuru | publisher=Columbia University Press | access-date=15 April 2014}}</ref>

Works in the ''Puram'' genre reflect on different people's lifestyles, especially that of kings. The works identify personal names, unlike in the ''Akam'' genre.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aex_vpsu3gwC&pg=PA111 | title=The Courts of Pre-colonial South India: Material Culture and Kingship | publisher=[[Routledge]] | author=Howes, Jennifer | year=2002 | pages=111 | isbn=978-0-7007-1585-5}}</ref> Because they include the names of kings, poets, and places, Tamil literary scholars consider them a historical record.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veSItWingx8C&pg=PA72 | title=Songs of Experience: The Poetics of Tamil Devotion | publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] | author=Cutler, Norman | year=1987 | pages=72 | isbn=978-0-253-35334-4}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Sangam literature]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*{{Citation | last=Peterson | first=Indira Viswanathan | author-link=Indira Viswanathan Peterson | title=Poems to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints | publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] | year=1991 | isbn=978-8120807846}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.tamilnation.co/literature/anthologies.htm Eight Anthologies: 'Puram' Poetry]

{{Tamil language}}

[[Category:Tamil poetics]]
[[Category:Sangam literature]]

1988–89 Duleep Trophy

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{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox cricket tournament
| name = 1988–89 Duleep Trophy
| image =
| imagesize =
| fromdate = 10 September 1988
| todate = 27 September 1988
| caption =
| administrator = [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]]
| cricket format = [[First-class cricket]]
| tournament format = [[Single-elimination tournament|Knockout]]
| host =
| champions = shared by [[North Zone cricket team|North Zone]] (7th title) and [[West Zone cricket team|West Zone]] (13th title)
| count =
| participants = 5
| matches = 4
| attendance =
| most runs = [[Arun Lal]] (NZ) (161)<ref>{{cite web|title=Batting and Fielding in Duleep Trophy 1988/89 (Ordered by Runs) |url-access=subscription |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/1/Duleep_Trophy_1988-89/Batting_by_Runs.html|publisher=CricketArchive|access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref>
| most wickets = [[Maninder Singh (cricketer)|Maninder Singh]] (NZ) (7)<ref>{{cite web|title=Bowling in Duleep Trophy 1988/89 (Ordered by Wickets) |url-access=subscription |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/1/Duleep_Trophy_1988-89/Bowling_by_Wickets.html|publisher=CricketArchive|access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref>
| website =
| previous_year = 1987–88
| previous_tournament = 1987–88 Duleep Trophy
| next_year = 1989–90
| next_tournament = 1989–90 Duleep Trophy
}}

The '''1988–89 Duleep Trophy''' was the 28th season of the [[Duleep Trophy]], a [[first-class cricket|first-class]] cricket tournament contested by five zonal teams of India: [[Central Zone cricket team|Central Zone]], [[East Zone cricket team|East Zone]], [[North Zone cricket team|North Zone]], [[South Zone cricket team|South Zone]] and [[West Zone cricket team|West Zone]].

The title was shared by North Zone and West Zone.

==Results==
{{5TeamBracket
| RD1=Quarterfinal
| RD2=Semifinals
| RD3=Final

| RD1-seed1=
| RD1-team1=[[Central Zone cricket team|Central Zone]]
| RD1-score1=
| RD1-seed2=
| RD1-team2='''[[East Zone cricket team|East Zone]]'''
| RD1-score2=FIL

| RD2-seed1=
| RD2-team1='''[[North Zone cricket team|North Zone]]'''
| RD2-score1=FIL
| RD2-seed2=
| RD2-team2=[[East Zone cricket team|East Zone]]
| RD2-score2=

| RD2-seed3=
| RD2-team3=[[South Zone cricket team|South Zone]]
| RD2-score3=
| RD2-seed4=
| RD2-team4='''[[West Zone cricket team|West Zone]]'''
| RD2-score4=FIL

| RD3-seed1=
| RD3-team1=[[North Zone cricket team|North Zone]]
| RD3-score1=
| RD3-seed2=
| RD3-team2=[[West Zone cricket team|West Zone]]
| RD3-score2=
}}

===Final===
{{Test match | date = 22–27 September 1988
| team1 = [[West Zone cricket team|West Zone]] | team2 = [[North Zone cricket team|North Zone]]
| score-team1-inns1 = 285 (105.2 overs)
| runs-team1-inns1 = [[Kiran More]] 113
| wickets-team1-inns1 = [[Kapil Dev]] 3/43
| score-team2-inns1 = 18/0 (4 overs)
| runs-team2-inns1 = [[Manoj Prabhakar]] 8*
| wickets-team2-inns1 =
| score-team1-inns2 =
| runs-team1-inns2 =
| wickets-team1-inns2 =
| score-team2-inns2 =
| runs-team2-inns2 =
| wickets-team2-inns2 =
| venue = [[Feroz Shah Kotla Ground]], [[Delhi]]
| toss = North Zone won the toss and elected to field.
| report = [https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/50/50539.html Scorecard]
| result = Match drawn; Trophy shared
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/1/Duleep_Trophy_1988-89.html Series home at CricketArchive]

{{Duleep Trophy}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:1988-89 Duleep Trophy}}
[[Category:Duleep Trophy seasons]]
[[Category:Domestic cricket competitions in 1988–89|Duleep Trophy]]
[[Category:1988 in Indian cricket|Duleep Trophy]]

{{Indian-domestic-cricket-competition-stub}}

Susie (film)

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#REDIRECT [[Soosi]]

Sirsi, Raebareli

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{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Sirsi
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_map = Dih block map.png
| map_caption = Map showing Sirsa (#328) in Dih CD block
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|26.142999|N|81.438224|E|display=inline,title}}<ref name="GeoNames">{{cite web |url=https://geonames.nga.mil/namesgaz/ |website=Do a radial search using these coordinates here|title=Geonames Search}}</ref>
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Raebareli district|Raebareli]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011"/>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 2.622
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 1395
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011"/>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = UP-35
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Sirsi''' is a village in [[Dih, Raebareli|Dih]] block of [[Rae Bareli district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]].<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Uttar Pradesh District Census Handbook - Rae Bareli, Part A (Village and Town Directory) |pages=393–409 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/09/0927_PART_A_DCHB_RAE%20BARELI.pdf |website=Census 2011 India|access-date=14 October 2021}}</ref> It is located 25 km from [[Raebareli]], the district headquarters.<ref name="Census 1981"/> As of 2011, it has a population of 1,395 people, in 261 households.<ref name="Census 2011"/> It has one primary school and no healthcare facilities, and it hosts both a permanent market and a weekly [[haat]].<ref name="Census 2011"/> It belongs to the [[nyaya panchayat]] of [[Birnawan, Dih, Raebareli|Birnawan]].<ref name="Census 1991"/>

The [[1951 Census of India|1951 census]] recorded Sirsi as comprising 6 hamlets, with a total population of 462 people (241 male and 221 female), in 108 households and 96 physical houses.<ref name="Census 1951">{{cite book |title=Census of India, 1951: District Census Handbook Uttar Pradesh (42 - Rae Bareli District) |date=1955 |location=Allahabad |pages=168–9 |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/933/1/23644_1951_RAE.pdf |access-date=14 October 2021}}</ref> The area of the village was given as 684 [[acre]]s.<ref name="Census 1951"/> 7 residents were literate, all male.<ref name="Census 1951"/> The village was listed as belonging to the [[pargana]] of [[Rokha]] and the [[thana]] of [[Nasirabad, Raebareli|Nasirabad]].<ref name="Census 1951"/>

The [[1961 Census of India|1961 census]] recorded Sirsi as comprising 4 hamlets, with a total population of 455 people (229 male and 226 female), in 102 households and 102 physical houses.<ref name="Census 1961">{{cite book |title=Census 1961: District Census Handbook, Uttar Pradesh (39 - Raebareli District) |date=1965 |location=Lucknow |pages=cii-ciii of section "Salon Tahsil" |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1047/1/22852_1961_RAE.pdf |access-date=14 October 2021}}</ref> The area of the village was given as 684 acres.<ref name="Census 1961"/>

The [[1981 Census of India|1981 census]] recorded Sirsi as having a population of 759 people, in 171 households, and having an area of 276.81 [[hectare]]s.<ref name="Census 1981">{{cite book |title=Census 1981 Uttar Pradesh: District Census Handbook Part XIII-A: Village & Town Directory, District Rae Bareli |date=1982 |pages=207–8 |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1298/1/50861_1981_RAE.pdf |access-date=14 October 2021}}</ref> The main staple foods were listed as wheat and rice.<ref name="Census 1981"/>

The [[1991 Census of India|1991 census]] recorded Sirsi as having a total population of 711 people (378 male and 333 female), in 142 households and 142 physical houses.<ref name="Census 1991">{{cite book |title=Census 1991 Series-25 Uttar Pradesh Part-XII B Village & Townwise Primary Census Abstract District Census Handbook District Raebareli |date=1992 |pages=xxiv-xxviii, 241–2 |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1443/1/36846_1991_RAE.pdf |access-date=14 October 2021}}</ref> The area of the village was listed as 263 hectares.<ref name="Census 1991"/> Members of the 0-6 age group numbered 152, or 21% of the total; this group was 59% male (89) and 41% female (63).<ref name="Census 1991"/> Members of [[scheduled castes]] made up 55% of the village's population, while no members of [[scheduled tribes]] were recorded.<ref name="Census 1991"/> The [[literacy rate]] of the village was 25% (146 men and 31women).<ref name="Census 1991"/> 245 people were classified as main workers (184 men and 61 women), while 40 people were classified as marginal workers (all women); the remaining 426 residents were non-workers.<ref name="Census 1991"/> The breakdown of main workers by employment category was as follows: 142 cultivators (i.e. people who owned or leased their own land); 87 agricultural labourers (i.e. people who worked someone else's land in return for payment); 0 workers in livestock, forestry, fishing, hunting, plantations, orchards, etc.; 0 in mining and quarrying; 3 household industry workers; 2 workers employed in other [[manufacturing]], processing, service, and repair roles; 1 [[construction worker]]; 0 employed in trade and commerce; 0 employed in transport, storage, and communications; and 10 in other services.<ref name="Census 1991"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Raebareli district}}

[[Category:Villages in Raebareli district]]

Hira Lall Sibal

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National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2005)

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