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Jhargram Lok Sabha constituency

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{{short description|Lok Sabha Constituency in West Bengal}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = LS
| name = Jhargram {{Small|WB-33}}
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Lok Sabha constituencies/2019/West Bengal/Jhargram.map}}
| map_caption = Interactive Map Outlining Jhargram Lok Sabha Constituency
| established = 1962
| reservation = ST
| mp = [[Kalipada Soren]]
| party = {{Party index link|Trinamool Congress}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| assembly_cons = [[Nayagram Assembly constituency|Nayagram]] [[Gopiballavpur Assembly constituency|Gopiballavpur]] [[Jhargram Assembly constituency|Jhargram]] [[Garbeta Assembly constituency|Garhbeta]] [[Salboni Assembly constituency|Salboni]] [[Binpur Assembly constituency|Binpur]] [[Bandwan Assembly constituency|Bandwan]]
| electors = 17,79,794 (2024)<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://elections24.eci.gov.in/docs/WYKXFehhEH.pdf | title=EC releases absolute number of voters for all completed phases | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526095942/https://elections24.eci.gov.in/docs/WYKXFehhEH.pdf | archive-date=26 May 2024 }}</ref>
}}

'''Jhargram Lok Sabha constituency''' is one of the 543 constituencies of the [[Lok Sabha|lower house of parliament]] in [[India]].

The constituency centres on [[Jhargram]] in [[West Bengal]]. The seat is reserved for [[Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes|scheduled tribes]]. Four of the seven assembly segments of No. 33 Jhargram Lok Sabha constituency are in [[Jhargram district]], two in [[Paschim Medinipur district]] and one assembly segment is in [[Purulia district]].

==Assembly segments==
[[File:Westbengalen Wahlkreise Lok Sabha.svg|thumb|350 px|right|'''Parliamentary constituencies in West Bengal''' - 1. Cooch Behar, 2. Alipurduars, 3. Jalpaiguri, 4. Darjeeling, 5. Raiganj, 6. Balurghat, 7. Maldaha Uttar, 8. Maldaha Dakshin, 9. Jangipur, 10. Baharampur, 11. Murshidabad, 12. Krishnanagar, 13. Ranaghat, 14. Bangaon, 15. Barrackpore, 16. Dum Dum, 17. Barasat, 18. Basirhat, 19. Jaynagar, 20. Mathurapur, 21. Diamond Harbour, 22. Jadavpur, 23. Kolkata Dakshin, 24. Kolkata Uttar, 25. Howrah, 26. Uluberia, 27. Serampore, 28. Hooghly, 29. Arambagh, 30. Tamluk, 31, Kanthi, 32. Ghatal, 33. '''Jhargram''', 34. Medinipur, 35. Purulia, 36. Bankura, 37. Bishnupur, 38. Bardhaman Purba, 39. Bardhaman Durgapur, 40. Asansol, 41. Bolpur, 42. Birbhum]]

As per order of the [[Delimitation Commission]] issued in 2006 in respect of the [[delimitation of constituencies]] in the West Bengal, parliamentary constituency no. 33 Jhargram, reserved for [[Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes|Scheduled tribes (ST)]], is composed of the following segments:<ref name =delimitation>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/WestBengal/FINAL%20ORDER%20NOTIFICATION_English.pdf | title = Delimitation Commission Order No. 18 | access-date = 2009-05-27 | work = Table B – Extent of Parliamentary Constituencies | publisher =Government of West Bengal}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! #
! Name
! District
! Member
! colspan="2" |[[2026 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2026 Winner]]
! colspan="2" |2024 Lead
|-
|220
|[[Nayagram Assembly constituency|Nayagram]] (ST)
| rowspan="3" |[[Jhargram district|Jhargram]]
|Amiya Kisku
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=7}}
|{{party name with color|Trinamool Congress|rowspan=7}}
|-
|221
|[[Gopiballavpur Assembly constituency|Gopiballavpur]]
|Rajesh Mahata
|-
|222
|[[Jhargram Assembly constituency|Jhargram]]
|Lakshmikanta Sau
|-
|233
|[[Garbeta Assembly constituency|Garbeta]]
|rowspan="2" |[[Paschim Medinipur district|Paschim Medinipur]]
|Pradip Lodha
|-
|234
|[[Salboni Assembly constituency|Salboni]]
|Biman Mahata
|-
|237
|[[Binpur Assembly constituency|Binpur]] (ST)
|[[Jhargram district|Jhargram]]
|Pranat Tudu
|-
|238
|[[Bandwan Assembly constituency|Bandwan]] (ST)
|[[Purulia district|Purulia]]
|Labsen Baskey
|}

Prior to delimitation, Jhargram Lok Sabha constituency was composed of the following assembly segments:<ref>{{cite web| url =http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/LS_2004/Vol_III_LS_2004.pdf | title = Statistical Report on General Elections, 2004 to the 14th Lok Sabha | access-date = 2010-10-01 | work = Volume III Details For Assembly Segments Of Parliamentary Constituencies | publisher = Election Commission of India }}</ref> [[Garbeta Assembly constituency|Garhbeta East]] (assembly constituency no. 220), [[Garbeta Assembly constituency|Garhbeta West (SC)]] (assembly constituency no. 221), [[Salboni Assembly constituency|Salbani]] (assembly constituency no. 222), [[Nayagram Assembly constituency|Nayagram (ST)]] (assembly constituency no. 229), [[Gopiballavpur Assembly constituency|Gopiballavpur]] (assembly constituency no. 230), [[Jhargram Assembly constituency|Jhargram]] (assembly constituency no. 231), [[Binpur Assembly constituency|Binpur (ST)]] (assembly constituency no. 232)

== Members of Parliament ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Lok Sabha!!Duration!!Constituency!!Name of M.P.!!colspan=2|Party Affiliation
|-
|[[3rd Lok Sabha|Third]]||1962-67||Jhargram||[[Subodh Chandra Hansda]]||{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<ref name=loksabha1962>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1962/Vol_I_LS_62.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1962- Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 2 June 2014}}</ref>
|-
|[[4th Lok Sabha|Fourth]]||1967-71||||[[Amiya Kumar Kisku]]||{{Full party name with color|Bangla Congress}}<ref name=loksabha1967>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1967/Vol_I_LS_67.pdf |title=General Elections, India, 1967 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404203524/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1967/Vol_I_LS_67.pdf |archive-date= 4 April 2014 }}</ref>
|-
|[[5th Lok Sabha|Fifth]] ||1971-77||||[[Amiya Kumar Kisku]]||{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<ref name=loksabha1971>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1971/Vol_I_LS71.pdf |title=General Elections, India, 1971 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404195218/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1971/Vol_I_LS71.pdf |archive-date= 4 April 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[6th Lok Sabha|Sixth]]||1977-80||||[[Jadunath Kisku]]||{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|dab=yes|rowspan=10}}<ref name=loksabha1977>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1977/Vol_I_LS_77.pdf |title=General Elections, 1977 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718185438/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1977/Vol_I_LS_77.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[7th Lok Sabha|Seventh]]||1980-84||||rowspan="3" |[[Matilal Hansda]]<ref name=loksabha1980>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1980/Vol_I_LS_80.pdf |title=General Elections, 1980 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718175926/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1980/Vol_I_LS_80.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014 }}</ref>
|-
|[[8th Lok Sabha|Eighth]]||1984-89||<ref name=loksabha1984>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1984/Vol_I_LS_84.pdf |title=General Elections, 1984 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718184911/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1984/Vol_I_LS_84.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[9th Lok Sabha|Ninth]]||1989-91||<ref name=loksabha1989>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1989/Vol_I_LS_89.pdf |title=General Elections, 1989 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718183934/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1989/Vol_I_LS_89.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[10th Lok Sabha|Tenth]]||1991-96||||rowspan="5" |[[Rupchand Murmu]]<ref name=loksabha1991>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1991/VOL_I_91.pdf |title=General Elections, 1991 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718183558/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1991/VOL_I_91.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[11th Lok Sabha|Eleventh]]||1996-98||<ref name=loksabha1996>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1996/Vol_I_LS_96.pdf |title = General Elections, 1996 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 2 June 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[12th Lok Sabha|Twelfth]]||1998-99||<ref name=loksabha1998>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1998/Vol_I_LS_98.pdf |title=General Elections, 1998 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718181833/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1998/Vol_I_LS_98.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[13th Lok Sabha|Thirteenth]]||1999-04||<ref name=loksabha1999>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1999/Vol_I_LS_99.pdf |title=General Elections, 1999 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718183222/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1999/Vol_I_LS_99.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2014 }}</ref>
|-
|[[14th Lok Sabha|Fourteenth]]||2004-09||<ref name=loksabha2004>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_2004/Vol_I_LS_2004.pdf |title = General Elections, 2004 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 2 June 2014 }}</ref>
|-
|[[15th Lok Sabha|Fifteenth]]||2009-14||||[[Pulin Bihari Baske|Dr. Pulin Bihari Baske]]<ref name=loksabha2009>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2009/Stats/VOLI/25_ConstituencyWiseDetailedResult.pdf |title=General Elections, 2009 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811090059/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2009/Stats/VOLI/25_ConstituencyWiseDetailedResult.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| [[16th Lok Sabha|Sixteenth]]||2014-2019||||[[Uma Saren|Dr. Uma Saren]]||{{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}<ref name=loksabha2014>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2014/33%20-%20Constituency%20wise%20detailed%20result.pdf |title = General Elections 2014 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 19 June 2016 }}</ref>
|-
| [[17th Lok Sabha|Seventeenth]]||2019-2024||||[[Kunar Hembram]]||{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<ref name=loksabha2019>{{cite web| url = http://results.eci.gov.in/pc/en/constituencywise/ConstituencywiseS2533.htm?ac=33 |title = General Elections 2019 - Constituency Wise Detailed Results |work = West Bengal | publisher = Election commission of India |access-date = 24 June 2019 }}</ref>
|-
| [[18th Lok Sabha|Eighteenth]]||2024-''Incumbent''||||[[Kalipada Soren]]||{{Full party name with color|Trinamool Congress}}
|}

==Election results==

===General election 2024===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Indian general elections]]: [[Jhargram]]<ref name="2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Jhargram">{{cite news |title=2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Jhargram |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S2533.htm |access-date=22 July 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250722053212/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S2533.htm |archive-date=22 July 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Jhargram Constituency Lok Sabha Election Results 2014 - 2024">{{cite news |title=Jhargram Constituency Lok Sabha Election Results 2014 - 2024 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/lok-sabha-constituencies/west-bengal/jhargram |access-date=22 July 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250722053135/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/lok-sabha-constituencies/west-bengal/jhargram |archive-date=22 July 2025 |language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = [[Kalipada Soren]]
|votes = 7,43,478
|percentage = 49.87
|change = {{increase}}6.15
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Dr. Pranat Tudu
|votes = 5,69,430
|percentage = 38.20
|change = {{decrease}}6.36
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = Sonamani Murmu (Tudu)
|votes = 77,302
|percentage = 5.19
|change = {{decrease}}0.19
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Jharkhand People's Party
|candidate = [[Surya Singh Besra]]
|votes = 19,494
|percentage = 1.31
|change = ''N/A''
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|votes = 15,920
|percentage = 1.07
|change ={{down}}0.19
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 1,74,048
|percentage =11.67
|change = {{up}}10.83
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 14,90,843
|percentage = 83.76
|change ={{up}}1.95
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Trinamool Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General Election 2019===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Indian general election]]:Jhargram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Kunar Hembram]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 626,583
|percentage = 44.56
|change = +34.83
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Birbaha Soren|party=All India Trinamool Congress|votes=614,816|percentage=43.72|change=-10.88}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Deblina Hembram|party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|votes=75,680|percentage=5.38|change=-21.12}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Joggeshwar Hembram|party=Indian National Congress|votes=20,754|percentage=1.48|change=-1.74}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=None of the above|party=None of the above|votes=17,692|percentage=1.26|change=}}
{{Election box majority|votes=11,767|percentage=0.84|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=1,407,231|percentage=85.71|change=}}

{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = All India Trinamool Congress
|swing = +22.86
}}

{{Election box end}}

===General election 2014===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general elections]]:Jhargram<ref name=loksabha2014/><ref>CEO West Bengal. ''[http://ceowestbengal.nic.in/Form_7A/Phase%204/Form7A_33_Jhargram.pdf Form 7A - 33 Jhargram]''</ref> }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[Uma Saren|Dr. Uma Saren]]|party=All India Trinamool Congress|votes=6,74,504|percentage=54.60|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[Dr. Pulin Bihari Baske]]|party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|votes=3,26,621|percentage=26.50|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=Bikash Mudi|votes=1,22,459|percentage=9.74|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Anita Hansda|party=Indian National Congress|votes=40,513|percentage=3.22|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=None of the above|party=None of the above|votes=22,935|percentage=1.82|change=+1.82}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Buddhadeb Mandi|party=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|votes=15,114|percentage=1.20|change=}}
{{Election box majority|votes=3,47,883|percentage=27.66|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=12,57,613|percentage=85.26|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = All India Trinamool Congress
|loser = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election 2009===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Indian general elections]]:Jhargram<ref name=loksabha2009/>
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|candidate=[[Pulin Bihari Baske|Dr. Pulin Bihari Baske]]|votes=5,45,231|percentage=56.92|change=-7.28}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Amrit Hansda|votes=2,52,886|percentage=26.40|change=}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = JKP (N)
|candidate = Chunibala Hansda
|votes = 48,175
|percentage = 5.00
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=Nabendu Mahali|votes=45,425|percentage=4.70|change=}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = [[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|candidate = Aditya Kisku
|votes = 26,945
|percentage = 2.80
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = [[Independent (politician)|IND]]
|candidate = Sunil Mandi
|votes = 19,198
|percentage = 2.00
|change =
}}

{{Election box majority|votes=2,92,345|percentage=30.52|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=9,58,374|percentage=77.19|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election 2004===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Indian general elections|General Election, 2004]]:Jhargram<ref name=loksabha2009/>
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|candidate=[[Rupchand Murmu]]|votes=509,045|percentage=64.24|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=All India Trinamool Congress|candidate=Nityananda Hembram|votes=157,702|percentage=19.90|change=}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = Jharkhand Party (Naren)
|candidate = Khangendranath Hembrom
|votes = 57,650
|percentage = 7.30
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|candidate=Mongal Soren|votes=37,921|percentage=4.80|change=}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = [[Independent (politician)|Independent]]
|candidate = Surja Mandi
|votes = 13,338
|percentage = 1.70
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = [[Independent (politician)|Independent]]
|candidate = Masang Hembram
|votes = 10,223
|percentage = 1.30
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = [[Independent (politician)|Independent]]
|candidate = Leba Chand Tudu
|votes = 9,433
|percentage = 1.20
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|votes=351,343|percentage=44.34%|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=795,312|percentage=77.19|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|loser = All India Trinamool Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General election 1999===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1999 Indian general election|General Election, 1999]]:Jhargram<ref name=loksabha2009/>
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|candidate=[[Rupchand Murmu]]|votes=402,325|percentage=50.82%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=All India Trinamool Congress|candidate=Dakhin Murmu|votes=293,644|percentage=37.09%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate
|party = [[Jharkhand Party|JKP(N)]]
|candidate = Biswanath Murmu
|votes = 84,332
|percentage = 10.65%
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha|candidate=Aloke Kumar Mandi|votes=9,592|percentage=1.21%|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=Gopi Nath Mandi|votes=1,807|percentage=023%|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=791,700|percentage=79.85%|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|loser = All India Trinamool Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===General elections 1962-2004===
Most of the contests were multi-cornered. However, only winners and runners-up are mentioned below:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Winner
!colspan=2"|Party
!Runner-up
!colspan=2"|Party
!Ref.
|-
|1962
|[[Subodh Chandra Hansda|Subodh Hansda]]
| {{Party name with colour|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|Gopinath Saren
| {{Party name with colour|Communist Party of India}}
|<ref name=loksabha1962/>
|-
|1967
| rowspan="2" |[[Amiya Kumar Kisku]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Jadunath Kisku|Jadu Nath Kisku]]
| {{Party name with colour|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=2 }}
|<ref name=loksabha1967/>
|-
|1971
|<ref name=loksabha1971/>
|-
|1977
|[[Jadunath Kisku|Jadu Nath Kisku]]
| {{Party name with colour|Communist Party of India (Marxist)| rowspan=9}}
|[[Amiya Kumar Kisku]]
| {{Party name with colour|Indian National Congress}}
|<ref name=loksabha1977/>
|-
|1980
| rowspan="3" |[[Matilal Hansda]]
|Tushar Tudu
| {{Party name with colour|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|<ref name =loksabha1980/>
|-
|1984
|Amiya Kumar Kisku
| {{Party name with colour|Indian National Congress| rowspan=2}}
|<ref name=loksabha1984/>
|-
|1989
|Panchanan Hansda
|<ref name=loksabha1989/>
|-
|1991
| rowspan="5" |[[Rupchand Murmu]]
|Amiya Kumar Kisku
| {{Party name with colour|Jharkhand Party|shortname=JKP}}
|<ref name=loksabha1991/>
|-
|1996
|Subodh Hansda
| {{Party name with colour|Indian National Congress}}
|<ref name=loksabha1996/>
|-
|1998
|Samay Mandi
| {{Party name with colour|All India Trinamool Congress| rowspan=3}}
|<ref name=loksabha1998/>
|-
|1999
|Dakhin Murmu
|<ref name=loksabha1999/>
|-
|2004
|Nityananda Hembram
|<ref name=loksabha2004/>
|-
|}

==See also==
* [[Jhargram]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.indiaelections2014.info/parliament/2019/states/west_bengal/jhargram/lok_sabha_parliamentary_election_2019_results.html Jhargram lok sabha constituency election 2019 result details]

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of West Bengal}}
{{Paschim Medinipur topics}}

{{coord|22.45|87.00|display=title}}

{{West Bengal elections}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jhargram Lok Sabha constituency}}
[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Politics of Paschim Medinipur district]]

Rekha Kamat

2026-05-03T19:10:59Z

Olympiados:

{{Short description|Indian Actress (1932–2022)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rekha Kamat
| image = Rekha Kamat.png
| birth_name = Kumud Sukhtankar
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1933|08|17}}
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| death_date = {{death date and given age|2022|1|11|89|df=y}}
| death_place = Mumbai
| alma_mater = [[SNDT Women's University|SNDT college]]
| occupation = Actress
| known_for =
| spouse = {{marriage|G. R. Kamat|1953}}
| relatives = Chitra Navathe (sister)
}}
'''Rekha Kamat''' (born '''Kumud Sukhtankar'''; 17 August 1933– 11 January 2022) popularly known as '''Rekha''' was an Indian film and television actress.

== Early life and education ==
Kamat was born on 17 August 1933 in [[Mahim]], [[Mumbai]].<ref name="Veteran Marathi Actress Rekha Kamat Chat With Loksatta Shekhar Joshi">
{{cite news |title=Veteran Marathi Actress Rekha Kamat Chat With Loksatta Shekhar Joshi |url=https://www.loksatta.com/manoranjan/veteran-marathi-actress-rekha-kamat-chat-with-loksatta-shekhar-joshi-1472411/ |access-date=26 November 2022 |work=[[Loksatta]] |date=14 May 2017 |language=Marathi}}
</ref><ref>
{{Cite web|title=Veteran actress Rekha Kamat behind the scenes|url=https://www.esakal.com/manoranjan/veteran-actress-rekha-kamat-passes-away-slv92|website=esakal}}
</ref> Her father was a clerk in the [[Indian Navy]]. Her family consisted of seven siblings (five sisters and two brothers). Chitra Navathe (born as Kusum Sukhtankar) was her younger sister. Her father worked as a lipik at Army and Navy store in Mumbai.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=ज्येष्ठ अभिनेत्री रेखा कामत – Marathisrushti Articles |url=https://www.marathisrushti.com/articles/senior-actress-rekha-kamat/ |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=www.marathisrushti.com}}</ref>

She took her primary education (up to class IV) at a school in Kumbharwada area on Bhawani Shankar Road and matriculated in 1949 from General Education Society Chabildas.<ref>
{{Cite web |title=आज्जी.. |url=https://www.loksatta.com/manoranjan/veteran-marathi-actress-rekha-kamat-chat-with-loksatta-shekhar-joshi-1472411/ |access-date=2022-11-26 |website=Loksatta |language=mr}}
</ref> Further education from [[SNDT Women's University|SNDT college]]. In 1953, Kamat married G.R. Kamat.<ref name=":0" /> She has two daughters, Sanjeevani and Madhavi.

She learned singing from Vasantrao Kulkarni.

[[G. D. Madgulkar]] gave both sisters their respective reel names, Rekha and Chitra, during the meet for 1954 Marathi film ''[[Lakhachi Gosht|Lakhachi Goshta]]''. This also became the occasion for G. R. Kamat to meet both sisters and know them.<ref name=":0" />

== Plays ==

* Kalpavruksha Kannesathi
* Runanubadha
* Ekach Pyala
* Ghosht Janmantarichi
* Tarun Turka Mhatare Arka
* Sangeet Punyaprabhav as Kinkini
* Bhavbandha
* Sanshaykallol
* Saubhadra
* Dilya Ghari Tu Sukhi Raha
* Tujha Aahe Tujpashi
* Lagnachi Bedi
* Premachya Gava Jave
* Diva Jalu De Sari Raat
* Kaal Chakra<ref>{{Cite web |last=शिंदे |first=चंद्रकांत |date=2022-01-11 |title=Plays performed by Rekha |url=https://marathi.abplive.com/entertainment/bollywood/rekha-kamat-veteran-marathi-actress-rekha-kamat-passes-away-at-the-age-of-89-1024889 |access-date=2022-11-26 |website=marathi.abplive.com |language=mr}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
===Films===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Role
!Notes
|-
|1952
|''[[Lakhachi Gosht]]''
|Rekha
|Debut film
|-
| rowspan="3" |1953
|''Kuberacha Dhan''
|Rekha
|
|-
|''Kon Kunacha''
|Rekha
|
|-
|''Mazi Zameen''
|Varsha
|
|-
|1954
|''Kanchan Ganga''
|Kanchan
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1955
|''Ganget Ghoda Nhahale''
|Rani
|
|-
|''Bal Maza Navsacha''
|Mother
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1956
|''[[Pasant Aahe Mulgi (1956 film)|Pasant Aahe Mulgi]]''
|Bride
|
|-
|''Disata Tasa Nasta''
|Kishori
|
|-
|1957
|''Gruh Devata''
|Rekha/Chitra
|Double Role
|-
|1960
|''[[Jagachya Pathivar]]''
|
|
|-
|1963
|''Baiko Maheri Jaate''
|Gautam's wife
|
|-
|1978
|''Netaji Palkar''
|Palkar's wife
|
|-
|1979
|''[[Sinhasan]]''
|Jivajirao's Wife
|
|-
|1982
|''Smruti Chitre''
|Bhikutai
|
|-
|1986
|''Dhakti Soon''
|Sasubai
|
|-
|2003
|''[[Bhoot (film)|Bhoot]]''
|Vishal's Neighbour
|
|-
|2004
|''[[Aga Bai Arrecha!]]''
|Ranga's Aaji
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2005
|''[[Pak Pak Pakaak]]''
|Tribal old woman
|
|-
|''Mi Tulas Tujhya Angani''
|
|
|-
|2006
|''Shubhmangal Savdhan''
|Aaji
|
|-
|2010
|''Har Har Mahadev''
|Aaji
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2014
|''[[Hawaa Hawaai]]''
|Harishchand's mother
|
|-
|''[[Yashwantrao Chavan: Bakhar Eka Vaadalaachi]]''
|
|
|}

===Television===

* ''Janta Janardhan'' (1998)
* ''Prapanch''
* [[Eka Lagnachi Dusri Goshta|''Eka'' ''Lagnachi Dusri Gosht'']]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Veteran Marathi actress Rekha Kamat passes away at 89 |url=https://www.lokmattimes.com/entertainment/veteran-marathi-actress-rekha-kamat-passes-away-at-89-a475/ |website=Loksatta}}</ref>

== Death ==
Rekha Kamat died on 11 January 2022, aged 89.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-11 |title=Rekha Kamat : ज्येष्ठ अभिनेत्री रेखा कामत यांचं निधन |url=https://gnptimes.in/rekha-kamat-veteran-actress-rekha-kamat-passes-away/ |access-date=2022-11-26 |website=The GNP Marathi Times |language=mr-IN |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111112229/https://gnptimes.in/rekha-kamat-veteran-actress-rekha-kamat-passes-away/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>
{{Cite web |date=2022-01-12 |title=Senior Marathi Film TV Actor Rekha Kamat Dies Aged 89 |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/senior-marathi-film-tv-actor-rekha-kamat-dies-aged-89-4647767.html |access-date=2022-11-26 |website=News18 |language=en}}
</ref><ref>
{{Cite web|title=Veteran actress Rekha Kamat breathed her last at her residence behind the curtain of time|url=https://maharashtratimes.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/bollywood-news/veteran-marathi-actress-rekha-kamat-passes-away-in-mumbai/articleshow/88832936.cms|website=[[Maharashtra Times]]}}
</ref><ref>
{{Cite web|title=Kamat passes away, Marathi industry mourns her death|url=https://punemirror.com/entertainment/bollywood/veteran-actress-rekha-kamat-passes-away-marathi-industry-mo/cid6216935.htm|website=Pune mirror}}
</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb name|id=1817379/}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kamat, Rekha}}
[[Category:1933 births]]
[[Category:2022 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:People from Mumbai City district]]

Neerja Chowdhury

2026-04-30T00:03:11Z

Olympiados: made a details

{{Short description|Indian journalist, columnist}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
'''Neerja Chowdhury''' is an Indian journalist, columnist and political commentator. Chowdhury was the political editor of the ''[[Indian Express]]'' for ten years, and is currently a contributing editor for the ''Indian Express''.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Inner Workings of Power Neerja Chowdhury in conversation with Ramya Kannan | website=The Hindu | date=11 January 2024 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/litfest/the-hindu-lit-for-life-the-inner-workings-of-power-neerja-chowdhury-in-conversation-with-ramya-kannan/article67726435.ece | access-date=11 February 2024 }}</ref>

==Awards==
In 1981 Chowdhury won the inaugural [[Chameli Devi Jain Award for Outstanding Women Mediapersons]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/chameli-devi-award-for-cnn-ibn-journo-261621.html | title=Chameli Devi Award for CNN-IBN journo | date=24 March 2007 | website=[[News18]] | access-date=11 February 2024 }}</ref> In 2009 she was awarded the [[Prem Bhatia Award]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Journalists Neerja Chowdhury, Gargi Parsai get Prem Bhatia award | website=Indian Express | date=9 May 2009 | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/journalists-neerja-chowdhury-gargi-parsai-get-prem-bhatia-award/ | access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref>

==Books==
* ''How Prime Ministers Decide''. Rupa Publications, 2023. {{ISBN|9789390652457}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chowdhury, Neerja}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian journalists]]
[[Category:Indian women journalists]]
[[Category:Indian Express Limited people]]
[[Category:Chameli Devi Jain Award for Outstanding Women Mediapersons winners]]

{{India-journalist-stub}}

Narayan R. Kamath

2026-04-28T04:30:33Z

Olympiados:

{{Short description|Indian engineer}}
{{EngvarB|date = September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Narayan Rangappa Kamath
| image = Narayan_R._Kamath.jpg
| caption = Narayan R. Kamath
| office1 =
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 =
| constituency1 = {{flag|India}}
| birth_date = {{birth date |1914|09|08}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{death date |1983|08|}}
| occupation =
}}

'''Narayan Rangappa Kamath''' (September 8, 1914 - August 1983) was an academic leader of the [[Indian Institutes of Technology]] (IITs) and engineering education in India, an academic administrator, chemical engineer, educator, advisor to dozens of companies, and historian of technology. He was also called NRK.

== Early life and education ==
He was born in Mulki, a small town on the banks of the river Shambhavi near Mangalore in Karnataka. He completed his early education in Mulki and high school at Government College, Mangalore, in 1930.

NRK earned his B.Sc. at [[St. Xavier's College, Mumbai]] in 1934 with the unique distinction of securing 100 percent marks in chemistry, a record in Bombay University. He then joined Bombay University’s Department of Chemical Technology (UDCT), now [[Institute of Chemical Technology]] (ICT), in 1934—as the first batch of the B.Sc. (Tech) in chemical engineering—and graduated with Distinction in 1936.

After graduation, NRK was awarded the [https://www.sonatech.ac.in/sona-facility/students-scholarship.php Nathubhai Mangaldas Scholarship] by [[University of Mumbai]] for higher studies abroad. He joined [[University College London]], where he completed a postgraduate diploma in chemical engineering and then started his doctoral research under the guidance of Professor [[H. E. Watson]] on the drying of pigments. Then in 1939, at the start of [[World War II]], the laboratory where he worked was shut down, and his research was interrupted. NRK took a temporary job at the [https://openlibrary.org/authors/OL4885205A/London_Shellac_Research_Bureau. London Shellac Research Bureau] hoping that his laboratory would reopen. But as the war situation worsened, the lab was completely bombed out, destroying his work which ended all his hopes of a doctoral degree. “Everything I had worked for was blasted away,” he once told his former students. Yet, it had very little impact on his career as a quintessential professor.

== Faculty positions ==
After the war, NRK got many attractive job offers in the U.K., but he chose to return to India in 1946. He joined the faculty of his alma mater UDCT, Mumbai. There, he founded the Department of Paints, Pigments and Varnishes (now the Department of Polymer and Surface Engineering) and served as its head. He also started courses in plastics, pigments, paints and varnishes, expanding laboratories in those areas.

NRK joined [[IIT Bombay]] in March 1959 as a Professor and Head of the Chemical Engineering Department, where he continued till his retirement in September 1974. He concurrently headed the chemistry and humanities departments for several years. He was also Deputy Director (provost) of IIT Bombay from 1960 to 1966 and 1970 to 1974. As Deputy Director, he was the chief academic officer of the institute. His responsibilities covered degree programs, research, and liaison with the industry.

Around 1959-1961, he was offered the choice between the position of Director of IIT Delhi or IIT Madras. He did not take it because he and Mrs. Ruzena Kamath did not want to leave Mumbai.

== Leadership roles ==
The demands for academic leaders—professors and scholars—in India during the first 25 years after independence (1947) were far more onerous than those on their counterparts in the US which had a critical mass of top scholars in every discipline and sub-discipline and each top scholar a super expert in their narrow subfield. Their expertise helped them in guiding research and providing expert advice to companies. At the time, India needed academic leaders who would build institutions and provide leadership in teaching, research, and service to the industry.

In addition, from NRK’s perspective, India, particularly Mumbai at that time, was the hub of India’s chemical industry. It had very few academic experts in chemical engineering and related fields. Thus, NRK, instead of spending all his efforts on research on a few narrowly focused topics, constantly remained on the leading edge of knowledge using three means: pursuing research with MTech and Ph.D. students that was focused mostly on applied topics, keeping up with the literature, and maintaining a close relationship with the industry. He regularly read 150 or so periodicals in science and engineering. He mostly read them during his commute in a chauffeur-driven car or the evening at home.

Since the [[Government of India]] rules put a limit on paid consulting, NRK often provided pro-bono consulting. Besides, he constantly talked to engineers, executives, and scientists at social get-togethers, professional conferences, and while visiting companies.

When he retired in 1974, in an interview with his students, NRK said, “I do not teach. I am not a teacher. I am not qualified to be a teacher. I am not even competent to be a teacher. I always said that I am an educator. Anyone who would like to be educated, I will help. Anyone who would like to learn, I will help by guiding them.”

=== Educational leader ===
When India became independent after the British occupation for 190 years, it had many economic, political, and social challenges. The new constitution came into existence on January 26, 1950, and it was a milestone toward equal political and social rights for all. The major economic challenges involved building infrastructure and promoting education at all levels. One giant step in this pursuit was the establishment of five IITs with the charter that they would pursue world-class research and offer world-class education. The undergraduate IIT education's success depended on two parameters: the selection of students and the curriculum. Professor Kamath assumed leadership roles in both.

With diverse standards in various states, there was a need to have a common set of standards for admission. Thus, when the IITs initiated a Joint Entrance Examination (JEE) in 1963, the challenge was to design the examination in chemistry, English, mathematics, and physics that evaluates fundamental knowledge without relying on the easy-to-grade option of multiple choice questions that the United States uses for its SAT and GRE examinations. Professor Kamath was responsible for designing, administering, and grading the examination. The contributions of IIT alums all over the world testify to the effectiveness of the examination. This examination still retains its central role in selecting students for admission to the undergraduate programs at the 23 IITs and is widely regarded as a key strength of the IITs.

The curriculum was the other important parameter for a world-class undergraduate program. IIT Bombay was the second IIT after Kharagpur. Here again, Professor Kamath took the leadership role. Whereas the curriculum was designed only for IIT Bombay, it had spillover effects not only on other IITs but also on other engineering and polytechnic colleges. At the time, the IITs offered a five-year undergraduate program after 11 years of schooling. Under NRK’s leadership, IIT Bombay designed a program that was arguably the most rigorous in the world. For each of the ten semesters, students had to attend lectures, tutorials, or labs for 35 hours a week. The program had three important dimensions. First, for each engineering branch (major)—chemical, civil, electrical, mechanical, and metallurgical—the program was a union of the sets of courses included in similar programs at [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]], [[Imperial College London|Imperial College]], [[MIT]], or [[Stanford University|Stanford]], that is, it included almost every science or engineering subject that was included in those programs. Second, several final-year courses were designed to be equivalent to the master's level courses in breadth and rigor in the leading engineering schools in the world. Third, the program had a multidisciplinary character. For example, a mechanical engineering student was required to take certain courses in chemical, civil, electrical, and metallurgical engineering. For NRK, both depth and breadth were necessary for rigor because most problems in the real world are not confined to a single branch of engineering, and one often needs to connect the dots.

NRK also included economics, English, ethics, logic, and social philosophy. He followed the traditions of Nalanda and Takshashila, the world’s two oldest universities located in India, which had four required courses: economics, language, logic, and mathematics.

NRK also led the design of the M.Tech. and Ph.D. programs. Most US master’s programs are a yearlong, primarily consisting of coursework only. [[IIT Kharagpur]], the only other IIT at the time, had a 14-month M.Tech. programs. NRK persuaded the education ministry, which oversaw all IITs, and IIT Kharagpur to have two-year master’s programs in engineering. The first year was spent on the coursework, and the second year on a thesis project. The M.Tech. graduates had four career options: go to industry, start a company, pursue a Ph.D. program, or teach in undergraduate programs in one of the dozens of engineering or polytechnic colleges in India. Indeed, many M.Tech. students were sponsored by those colleges. Given the goals of the students, most theses were on applied topics.

The Ph.D. programs in science and engineering followed the British model and required no formal coursework. The British model requires customized readings of scholarly books and research papers. The thesis work had complete flexibility, and its scope included all three domains: purely theoretical (non-empirical) work, lab-based work, and work dealing with real-world problems in India. At least some students used their work to start their companies.

=== Research ===
His work during the years 1940-46 at Shellac resulted in 18 publications on lac utilization.<ref>Research on Shellac in India: IN 1925, the Indian Government founded the Lac Research Institute ([https://www.nature.com/articles/136545c0). Also, see https://www.shellac.net/The%20Story%20of%20Shellac.pdf The Story of Shellac]</ref> Shellac was a critical ordnance item during the Second
World War.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top Secret World War 2: Imperial Japan, Nazi Germany and their Submarine Trade Missions |url=http://www.historyisnowmagazine.com/blog/2022/6/3/top-secret-world-war-2-imperial-japan-nazi-germany-and-their-submarine-trade-missions |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=History is Now Magazine, Podcasts, Blog and Books {{!}} Modern International and American history |date=3 June 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> On his return to India, he published a paper “Iodometric Determination of Acid Value of Lac” with V. B. Mainkar in ''Analytical Chemistry''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kamath |first1=N. R. |last2=Mainkar |first2=V. B. |date=1950-05-01 |title=Iodometric Determination of Acid Value of Lac |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ac60041a035 |journal=Analytical Chemistry |language=en |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=724–726 |doi=10.1021/ac60041a035 |issn=0003-2700|url-access=subscription }}</ref> He published his works on [[castor oil]] with B. Sreenivasan and JG Kane.<ref>castor oil. I. Fatty acid composition of castor oil. <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02612549</nowiki> and Studies on castor oil. II. Hydrogenation of castor oil <nowiki>https://aocs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1007/BF02638830</nowiki></ref>

=== Educator ===
NRK taught several chemical engineering courses at the postgraduate and undergraduate levels. He also developed and taught a course on economics of chemical industries. He was an effective teacher. Rekha Rege Nadkarni (1968 Chemical), the first woman to graduate in chemical engineering from an IIT, says, “Professor Kamath’s unique style of teaching, using humor to drive a point home, is something I have cherished all these years.”.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4qMXQki9hqU&t=757s | title=A Tribute to a Guru - Prof N R Kamath | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref>

As an educator, NRK always connected with his students. As an example, when Rajendra Shende, a newly admitted undergraduate student, first met him, NRK asked him, “Tell me how you are doing, my friend.” Mr. Shende, in response, told him in his messy English that he was from a small village and asked NRK how he should study to get good grades. NRK responded, <blockquote>“You come from a small village? Me too! And remember, those from small villages will have no problem learning chemical engineering at IIT. Everything that takes place in the villages is chemical engineering. Right from making fertilizer from cow dung to making jaggery and desi liquor by fermentation, it is all chemical engineering, my friend. So, you are in the right place. Come to me if you have any difficulties.’’ <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Masselos |first=Jim |date=December 1987 |title=Hugh Owen : A tribute |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00856408708723097 |journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=1–3 |doi=10.1080/00856408708723097 |issn=0085-6401|url-access=subscription }}</ref></blockquote>Shende felt reassured.

History of Technology: A Unique Required Course Taught by NRK: For an engineer, despite the IITs’ innovative education, future technological developments are always uncertain and largely unknown. The only way one can deal with rapidly evolving developments is to have knowledge about the past. This was the goal of the first-year required course, History of Technology. NRK taught all three sections. When he came to the first lecture on the history of technology, he wrote the raison ďetre of the course on the backboard, “Where there is no knowledge of the past, there is no vision for the future.” At his urging, one of his students, [[Kalyan Singhal]], who has spent over five decades in academia, pursued research in the history of technology and published several papers, two of which he dedicated to NRK.<ref>Kalyan Singhal and Jaya Singhal, 2022a. Technology, knowledge, and manufacturing before the Industrial Revolution. ''Production and Operations Management'', 31(12). Kalyan Singhal and Jaya Singhal, 2022b. Technology and manufacturing-and-service operations since the Industrial Revolution. ''Production and Operations Management'', 31(12). Kalyan Singhal and Jaya Singhal, 2019. Technology and manufacturing in China before the Industrial Revolution and glimpses of the future. ''Production and Operations Management'', 28(3) 508-515. Kalyan Singhal, 2001. History of technology, manufacturing, and the Industrial Revolution: An alternate perspective on Schmenner’s hypotheses. ''Production and Operations Management'', 10(1) 97-102.</ref>

=== Philanthropy ===
When Professor Kamath retired in 1974 and heard that his childhood school had financial difficulties, he donated the equivalent of his three years’ salary to the school. When Mrs. Kamath died in 2008, she left all their assets to charities, primarily to the professional societies, including the Colour Society, that Professor Kamath had founded.

=== Awards and honors ===
At the Silver Jubilee celebrations of the All India Manufacturers’ Association in 1973, India’s President [[V. V. Giri]] honored Professor Kamath with an award for his contributions to chemical engineering.

Professor Kamath’s students have established Professor N. R. Kamath Chair Professorship. Outstanding academic leaders are appointed annually. The goal is to raise the world academic rankings of IIT Bombay from the present 150-200 to the top 20 tier.

In 2012, ICT has instituted the "Professor N. R. Kamath Book Authors’ Award" for ICT faculty, students, and alumni for their textbooks, monographs, or edited volumes on science, technology and management. The award is supported by an endowment from his former students.

Management and Business Review (MBR), a journal for executives and managers, has established a biennial Teck-Hua Ho ([[National University of Singapore]]) and N. R. Kamath ([[IIT Bombay]] at Mumbai) Award for Research in Engineering and Technology that has benefitted organizations and society. MBR is sponsored by a dozen leading business schools: [[UCLA Anderson School of Management]], [[China Europe International Business School]], [[City University of Hong Kong]], [[University of Virginia Darden School of Business]], [[Indian School of Business]], [[INSEAD]], [[Samuel Curtis Johnson Graduate School of Management]], [[Robert G. Merrick School of Business]], [[Owen Graduate School of Management]], [[Ross School of Business]], [[Tepper School of Business]] at [[Carnegie Mellon University]], and the [[Tuck School of Business]] at [[Dartmouth College]].

=== Legacy ===
His legacy is that the IITs are today regarded among the top engineering schools in the world. The United States CBS' 60 Minutes newsmagazine described the IITs as "Harvard, MIT, and Princeton put together.” The Business Week magazine published a cover story on the IITs. IIT Bombay at Mumbai ranks as India’s Number 1 university in India in all global and national rankings.

== Personal life ==
NRK met his future Czechoslovakia-born wife Ruzena at an opera in the spring of 1939 in London, and they got married in 1942. Mrs. Kamath, to her credit, not only enthusiastically motivated the young Narayan Kamath to return to India but settled in very well to her new life in Mumbai. They had no children, but thousands of NRK’s students revered her as a mother figure even after he was no more.<ref>{{Cite web |title=METROMOD {{!}} Public Interface |url=https://archive.metromod.net/viewer.p/69/2951/types/all/geo/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=METROMOD Archive |language=en}}</ref>

== Vision of India ==
NRK explained that the history of technology had taught us that we needed to exploit our resources because that is what India had done in the last 4,000 years and the Western countries had done in the last 400 years. India is rich in national resources. He listed water, chunam, straw, and agriculture waste, among others. He then pointed out that our land and coastline have yet to be explored fully for minerals, oil, and gas. He added that we should revive technologies developed in India before independence.

NRK said that to exploit our resources, India needed scientists a lot more than it needed engineers and that material science should be India's prime focus of research. He also pointed out that in the absence of research in science, our elite would simply follow the Western model in infrastructure, equipment, and consumption, making lives unnecessarily complex for themselves and hopeless for the rest of the population. His insight was profound in view of the current urban congestion, pollution, and continuing poverty.

He was a strong advocate of women’s education but was quite aware of the issues young girls in low-income families faced. He was delighted that IITB, at his time, had some female students and hoped their number would increase.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Wealth of India : An Encyclopedia of India's Raw Material Resources 23 Volumes Set |url=https://dattanibookagency.in/products/the-wealth-of-india-an-encyclopedia-of-india-s-raw-material-resources-23-volumes-set |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Dattani Book Agency |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kamath, K. V.}}
[[Category:Academic staff of IIT Bombay]]
[[Category:1914 births]]
[[Category:1983 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian engineers]]

Cyclone Vayu

2026-04-18T06:15:51Z

Olympiados:

{{Short description|North Indian cyclone in 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox weather event
| name = Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Vayu
| image = Vayu 2019-06-13 0825Z (alternate).jpg
| alt = A satellite image of a strong tropical cyclone with a distinct eye evident amid a circular disc of clouds.
| caption = Vayu at peak intensity on 13 June, just off the coast of [[Gujarat]]'s [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra Peninsula]]
| formed = 10 June 2019
| remnant = 17 June 2019
| dissipated = 18 June 2019
}}{{Infobox weather event/IMD
| winds = 80
| pressure = 970
}}{{Infobox weather event/JTWC
| winds = 100
| pressure = 948
}}{{Infobox weather event/Effects
| year = 2019
| fatalities = 8 total
| damage = 140000
| areas = [[Maldives]], India, Pakistan, [[Oman]]
}}{{Infobox weather event/Footer
| season = [[2019 North Indian Ocean cyclone season]]
}}
'''Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Vayu'''{{efn|The name ''Vayu'' ([[Hindi language|Hindi]]: वायु, [[Help:IPA/Hindi|[ʋäːjuː]]]) was contributed by [[India]] and means "wind, air" in [[Hindi language|Hindi]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/cyclone-vayu-changes-course-moves-away-from-gujarat-coast-10-points-2052405|title=Cyclone Vayu Won't Hit Gujarat, Changes Course Overnight: 10 Points|last=Varma|first=Shylaja|date=13 June 2019|work=NDTV|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613082245/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/cyclone-vayu-changes-course-moves-away-from-gujarat-coast-10-points-2052405|archive-date=13 June 2019}}</ref>}} was a strong [[tropical cyclone]] that caused moderate damage in India during June 2019. It was the strongest tropical cyclone to affect the [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra Peninsula]] of northwestern India since the [[1998 Gujarat cyclone]].<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite news|url=https://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/powerful-cyclone-vayu-to-pass-dangerously-close-to-gujarat-india/70008502|title=Powerful Cyclone Vayu to pass dangerously close to Gujarat, India|last=Pydynowski|first=Kristina|date=13 June 2019|work=AccuWeather|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613082911/https://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/powerful-cyclone-vayu-to-pass-dangerously-close-to-gujarat-india/70008502|archive-date=13 June 2019}}</ref> Vayu was the third tropical depression, third cyclonic storm and second [[Tropical cyclone scales#North Indian Ocean|very severe cyclonic storm]] of the [[2019 North Indian Ocean cyclone season]], and the first of which to form in the [[Arabian Sea]]. Vayu originated from a low-pressure area that was first noted by the [[India Meteorological Department]] (IMD) on 9 June, near the northern [[Maldives]]. After consolidating into a depression, the storm tracked slowly north-northwestward over the eastern Arabian Sea, and reached cyclonic storm intensity late on 10 June. Steady strengthening continued into 11 June, and the storm underwent [[rapid intensification]] late in the day. Vayu reached peak intensity as a high-end very severe cyclonic storm at 06:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] on 12 June, with three-minute [[Maximum sustained wind|sustained winds]] of {{convert|150|km/h|mph|abbr=on|round=5}} and a minimum [[Atmospheric pressure|pressure]] of 970 [[Pascal (unit)|hPa]] (28.64 [[Inch of mercury|inHg]]).<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/preliminary-report/vayu.pdf|title=Very Severe Cyclonic Storm "VAYU" over southeast & adjoining eastcentral Arabian Sea and Lakshadweep (10 June – 17 June, 2019): Summary|publisher=India Meteorological Department|access-date=28 September 2019}}</ref> Despite initially being forecast to make landfall in the state of [[Gujarat]], Vayu turned abruptly to the west on 13 June and moved away from the coast. The system weakened gradually as it tracked slowly towards the [[Arabian Peninsula]], then weakened more quickly after beginning to accelerate back towards India on 16 June. Vayu was downgraded to a deep depression the following morning, and further to a depression a few hours later. The system degenerated into a well-marked low-pressure area late on 17 June, just before crossing the Gujarat coast. Vayu's remnants continued inland for several more hours, before dissipating on 18 June.

In total, as many as 6.6 million people in northwestern India were impacted by the cyclone.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.news.com.au/world/asia/tropical-cyclone-vayu-huge-cyclone-threatens-millions-in-india/news-story/65aad20bec63d628efaed100a3ad4cbb|title=Tropical Cyclone Vayu: Huge cyclone threatens millions in India|last=Backhouse|first=Andrew|date=12 June 2019|work=news.com.au|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613083633/https://www.news.com.au/world/asia/tropical-cyclone-vayu-huge-cyclone-threatens-millions-in-india/news-story/65aad20bec63d628efaed100a3ad4cbb|archive-date=13 June 2019}}</ref> Approximately 300,000 residents of coastal Gujarat were evacuated on 12 June in preparation for the system's arrival,<ref name=":02" /> and thousands of personnel were deployed to the region to assist with preparations, rescue operations and clean up efforts. As of 18 June, eight people are reported to have been killed either directly or indirectly by the cyclone, and at least 12 more injured.<ref name=":8">{{Cite news|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/mumbai/other/cyclone-vayu-no-alert-in-mumbai-but-stay-away-from-venturing-into-the-sea/articleshow/69752037.cms|title=Rains and strong winds hit Mumbai; 1 killed, 2 injured as portion of cladding collapses at Churchgate Railway Station|date=12 June 2019|work=Mumbai Mirror|access-date=14 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614135719/https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/mumbai/other/cyclone-vayu-no-alert-in-mumbai-but-stay-away-from-venturing-into-the-sea/articleshow/69752037.cms|archive-date=14 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/gujarat-six-killed-ahead-of-cyclone-vayu-landfall-5777982/|title=Gujarat: Six killed, 2 injured in 3 districts ahead of Vayu landfall|last1=Saiyed|first1=Kamal|date=13 June 2019|work=The Indian Express|access-date=14 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614135916/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/gujarat-six-killed-ahead-of-cyclone-vayu-landfall-5777982/|archive-date=14 June 2019|last2=Mohanty|first2=Aishwarya}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/485121-elderly-man-apparently-dies-due-to-heat-stroke-as-weathermen-predicts-another-very-hot-humid-day-on-sunday|title=Elderly man apparently dies due to heat stroke as weathermen predicts another very hot, humid day on Sunday|last=Waqar Bhatti|first=M.|date=15 June 2019|work=The News International|access-date=16 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616120118/https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/485121-elderly-man-apparently-dies-due-to-heat-stroke-as-weathermen-predicts-another-very-hot-humid-day-on-sunday|archive-date=16 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":84">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theborneopost.com/2019/06/14/cyclone-veers-away-from-indian-coast/|title=Cyclone veers away from Indian coast|date=13 June 2019|work=The Borneo Post|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613171021/https://www.theborneopost.com/2019/06/14/cyclone-veers-away-from-indian-coast/|archive-date=13 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":132">{{Cite news|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/cyclone-vayu-continues-to-wreak-havoc-in-mumbai/21143175|title=Cyclone Vayu continues to wreak havoc in Mumbai|date=14 June 2019|work=mid-day.com|access-date=14 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614022400/https://www.mid-day.com/articles/cyclone-vayu-continues-to-wreak-havoc-in-mumbai/21143175|archive-date=14 June 2019}}</ref>

== Meteorological history ==
{{storm path|Vayu 2019 path.png|300px|left|colors=new}}
In early June, a strong pulse of the [[Madden–Julian oscillation]] (MJO) tracked eastwards into the [[Tropics|tropical]] [[Indian Ocean]], leading to increased cloudiness and rainfall across the region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/tropical-note/|title=Weekly Tropical Climate Outlook|date=4 June 2019|website=Australian Bureau of Meteorology|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610211431/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/tropical-note/|archive-date=10 June 2019|access-date=10 June 2019|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> The presence of the pulse also contributed to enhanced [[Convection|convective]] activity, and generated conditions which were supportive of [[tropical cyclogenesis]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|title=Tropical Weather Outlook|date=9 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610011752/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|archive-date=10 June 2019|access-date=10 June 2019}}</ref> On 9 June, the [[India Meteorological Department]] (IMD) noted the development of a low-pressure area over the southeastern [[Arabian Sea]], to the north of the [[Maldives]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian_1560069239.pdf|title=Informatory Message 1|last=Gopal|first=Neetha|date=9 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609151443/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian_1560069239.pdf|archive-date=9 June 2019|access-date=9 June 2019}}</ref> Organisation increased throughout the day, and owing to the improved structure of the system, the United States' [[Joint Typhoon Warning Center]] (JTWC) issued a [[Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert]] at 22:30 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io9319web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert|date=9 June 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610011155/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io9319web.txt|archive-date=10 June 2019|access-date=10 June 2019}}</ref> At 00:00 UTC the following day, the IMD indicated that the low-pressure area had consolidated into a tropical depression, and assigned it the designation ARB 01.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian_1560142065.pdf|title=National Bulletin #1|last=Kumar|first=Naresh|date=10 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610050657/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian_1560142065.pdf|archive-date=10 June 2019|access-date=10 June 2019}}</ref> Conditions were favourable for further intensification, with improving upper-level [[Outflow (meteorology)|divergence]], and ample energy being provided by extremely warm [[sea surface temperature]]s of 31 °[[Celsius|C]] (88 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]).<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|title=Special Tropical Weather Outlook (03Z)|last=Gopal|first=Neetha|date=10 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610080303/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|archive-date=10 June 2019|access-date=10 June 2019}}</ref> [[Wind shear#Vertical component|Vertical wind shear]] also continued to decrease as the depression tracked steadily north-northwestwards parallel to the western coast of India under the influence of an [[anticyclone]] over central India.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|title=Special Tropical Weather Outlook (12Z)|last=Mishna|first=Krishna|date=10 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610165608/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|archive-date=10 June 2019|access-date=10 June 2019}}</ref> Deep convection strengthened around the low-level circulation centre, and the system was upgraded to a deep depression at 06:00 UTC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|title=Special Tropical Weather Outlook (06Z)|last=Gopal|first=Neetha|date=10 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610110208/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|archive-date=10 June 2019|access-date=10 June 2019}}</ref> Six hours later, the JTWC assessed one-minute [[Maximum sustained wind|sustained winds]] as having reached {{convert|65|km/h|mph|abbr=on|round=5}}, and designated the system as Tropical Cyclone 02A.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone Warning #1 (12Z)|date=10 June 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610142445/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|archive-date=10 June 2019|access-date=10 June 2019}}</ref> At 18:00 UTC on 10 June, the system strengthened into the third cyclonic storm of the season, and was named Vayu by the IMD.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/tcac.pdf|title=TCAC Bulletin (18Z)|date=10 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611010758/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/tcac.pdf|archive-date=11 June 2019|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref>

Vayu continued to steadily strengthen after intensifying into a cyclonic storm. A formative [[Eye (cyclone)|eye]] began to develop on 11 June, as intense deep convection wrapped tightly around the system. Vayu became a severe cyclonic storm by 12:00 UTC, and reached Category 1 tropical cyclone status on the [[Saffir–Simpson scale|Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale]] (SSHWS).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone Warning #4 (09Z)|date=11 June 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611123509/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|archive-date=11 June 2019|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> Shortly afterwards, the cyclone began a period of [[rapid intensification]]; however, the rate of intensification was tempered somewhat by strong vertical wind shear. Vayu was upgraded to a very severe cyclonic storm at 18:00 UTC, and continued to strengthen through 00:00 UTC on 12 June, at which point the system became a Category 2-equivalent tropical cyclone on the SSHWS.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone Warning #7 (00Z)|date=12 June 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612034726/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|archive-date=12 June 2019|access-date=12 June 2019}}</ref> One-minute sustained winds increased to {{convert|165|km/h|mph|abbr=on|round=5}} six hours later as a ragged eye developed on [[Visible spectrum|visible-light]] [[satellite imagery]], surrounded by strong deep convection, particularly in the western semicircle of the storm.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone Warning #8 (06Z)|date=12 June 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612092600/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|archive-date=12 June 2019|access-date=12 June 2019}}</ref> The intensification trend then slowed, however, with three-minute sustained winds only increasing further to {{convert|150|km/h|mph|abbr=on|round=5}} by 12:00 UTC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|title=Tropical Cyclone Advisory Bulletin #12 (12Z)|last=Gopal|first=Neetha|date=12 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612170803/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|archive-date=12 June 2019|access-date=12 June 2019}}</ref> Vayu's intensity soon plateaued as [[ocean heat content]] began to decrease and drier air began to infiltrate the cyclone's circulation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|title=Tropical Cyclone Advisory Bulletin #16 (00Z)|last=Devi|first=Sunitha|date=13 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613040040/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|archive-date=13 June 2019|access-date=13 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone Warning #11 (00Z)|date=13 June 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613040151/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|archive-date=13 June 2019|access-date=13 June 2019}}</ref> As Vayu approached the coastline of the state of [[Gujarat]] in northwestern India, the influence of a strengthening [[Horse latitudes|subtropical ridge]] over [[Saudi Arabia]] caused the system to gradually slow down and turn towards the west.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|title=Tropical Cyclone Advisory Bulletin #18|last=Gopal|first=Neetha|date=13 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613120624/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|archive-date=13 June 2019|access-date=13 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone Warning #12 (06Z)|date=13 June 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613122628/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|archive-date=13 June 2019|access-date=13 June 2019}}</ref> At 12:00 UTC on 13 June, the JTWC indicated that lower vertical wind shear had allowed Vayu to strengthen, noting that the eye had become more distinct. Vayu's intensity was now equivalent to a minimal Category 3 major hurricane on the SSHWS, with one-minute sustained winds of {{convert|185|km/h|mph|abbr=on|round=5}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone Warning #13|date=13 June 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613153921/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|archive-date=13 June 2019|access-date=13 June 2019}}</ref>

Vayu began to weaken on 14 June as it tracked slowly westward, away from the Gujarat coastline.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|title=Tropical Cyclone Advisory Bulletin #25 (03Z)|last=Devi|first=Sunitha|date=14 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614101049/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|archive-date=14 June 2019|access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref> Despite the low wind shear and warm ocean, upper-level outflow from the storm had begun to diminish, allowing the dry air entrainment from the northwest to start eroding the cyclone.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone Warning #16|date=14 June 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614102247/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|archive-date=14 June 2019|access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref> The [[central dense overcast]] and circulation centre became increasingly ragged and elongated as deep convection diminished and started to become displaced. Vayu weakened to Category 1-equivalent tropical cyclone status at 12:00 UTC,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone Warning #17|date=14 June 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614144730/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|archive-date=14 June 2019|access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref> as the loose central convection expanded to leave a ragged eye 55 km (35 mi) in diameter.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone Warning #18|date=14 June 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190615020420/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|archive-date=15 June 2019|access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref> Vayu's slow westward track through the weak competing steering environment over the northern Arabian Sea brought the system into an environment of high easterly vertical wind shear.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone Warning #23|date=16 June 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616041606/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|archive-date=16 June 2019|access-date=16 June 2019}}</ref> The majority of deep convection became confined to the cyclone's southern quadrants,<ref name=":9" /> causing the system to weaken to a severe cyclonic storm at 00:00 UTC on 16 June.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|title=Tropical Cyclone Advisory Bulletin #40|last=Pattanaik|first=D. R.|date=16 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616041237/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|archive-date=16 June 2019|access-date=16 June 2019}}</ref> An approaching mid-latitude trough weakened the areas of high pressure centred to the west and northeast,<ref name=":14" /> Vayu recurved sharply to the northeast.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian_1560724457.pdf|title=National Bulletin #53|last=Kumar|first=Naresh|date=16 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617023418/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian_1560724457.pdf|archive-date=17 June 2019|access-date=17 June 2019}}</ref> Upon weakening further to a cyclonic storm, strong low-level southwesterly flow caused the system to accelerate northeastwards through the break in the blocking high-pressure ridge, back towards the Gujarat coast.<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|title=Tropical Cyclone Advisory Bulletin #47|last=Kumar|first=Naresh|date=16 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617025515/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/rsmc.pdf|archive-date=17 June 2019|access-date=17 June 2019}}</ref> Strong vertical wind shear and dry air ingestion from the western semicircle of the storm's circulation continued to erode the cyclone, and Vayu weakened into a deep depression at 03:00 UTC on 17 June,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian_1560753551.pdf|title=National Bulletin #56|last=Devi|first=Sunitha|date=17 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617070248/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian_1560753551.pdf|archive-date=17 June 2019|access-date=17 June 2019}}</ref> with the JTWC issuing their final advisory at this time.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|title=Tropical Cyclone Warning #27|date=17 June 2019|website=Joint Typhoon Warning Center|publisher=Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617025725/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/io0219web.txt|archive-date=17 June 2019|access-date=17 June 2019}}</ref> The system was downgraded further to a depression by the IMD six hours later.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian__1560771722.pdf|title=National Bulletin #58|last=Devi|first=Sunitha|date=17 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617135048/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian__1560771722.pdf|archive-date=17 June 2019|access-date=17 June 2019}}</ref> Soon afterwards, the IMD issued their final advisory on the system after Vayu degenerated into a well-marked low-pressure area, just before crossing the Gujarat coast near the India–Pakistan border.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian_1560800281.pdf|title=National Bulletin #61 (18Z)|last=Pattanaik|first=D. R.|date=17 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618004921/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/indian_1560800281.pdf|archive-date=18 June 2019|access-date=18 June 2019}}</ref> On 18 June, Vayu's remnants slowly moved inland, while continuing to weaken, before dissipating later that day.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

== Preparations ==

=== First approach to land ===
[[File:Vayu 2019-06-11 1746Z.jpg|thumb|Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Vayu during its first approach]]
As the system intensified into a deep depression, the IMD issued a pre-cyclone watch for the coastline of the state of Gujarat. The agency indicated that further strengthening into a cyclonic storm within the following 24 hours was very likely. Fishermen were warned not to venture into the Arabian Sea near the developing system or in the forecast path of the cyclone, and mariners already at sea were urged to return to the coast.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/Indian_1560160521.pdf|title=National Bulletin #3|last=Kumar|first=Naresh|date=10 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610103309/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/cyclone_pdfs/Indian_1560160521.pdf|archive-date=10 June 2019|access-date=10 June 2019}}</ref> The pre-watch for the Gujarat coastline was upgraded to a yellow cyclone alert at 12:00 UTC on 10 June, with forecasts predicting landfall as a very severe cyclonic storm on 12 June.<ref name=":2" /> This was further upgraded to an orange alert on 11 June.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/indian.pdf|title=National Bulletin #10 (09Z)|last=Devi|first=Sunitha|date=11 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611124858/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/indian.pdf|archive-date=11 June 2019|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> The IMD warned that thatched houses in the path of the cyclone were likely to be completely destroyed, and that [[kutcha house]]s could sustain significant damage. The IMD also indicated that a storm surge of 1.5–2.0 m (4.9–6.6 ft) was possible, and had the potential to inundate low-lying coastal areas.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/indian.pdf|title=National Bulletin #15 (00Z)|last=Pattanaik|first=D.R.|date=12 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612035431/http://www.rsmcnewdelhi.imd.gov.in/images/bulletin/indian.pdf|archive-date=12 June 2019|access-date=12 June 2019}}</ref>

Tropical cyclones are relatively infrequent in northwestern India and the northern Arabian Sea. Gujarat had not experienced a [[Beaufort scale|hurricane-force]] tropical cyclone landfall since an [[1998 Gujarat cyclone|unnamed system]] struck the region as an extremely severe cyclonic storm in June 1998, causing more than 10,000 fatalities.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/06/11/world/cyclone-vayu-india/index.html|title=India evacuates 300,000 people ahead of Tropical Cyclone Vayu|last1=Miller|first1=Brandon|date=12 June 2019|work=CNN|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613074707/https://edition.cnn.com/2019/06/11/world/cyclone-vayu-india/index.html|archive-date=13 June 2019|last2=Ward|first2=Taylor|last3=Pokharel|first3=Sugam}}</ref> As Vayu was initially forecast to make landfall as a very severe cyclonic storm, the potential for major impacts prompted significant preparation measures in the state. Beginning on the morning of 12 June, the Indian government evacuated approximately 300,000 people living in coastal regions of Gujarat to 2000 shelter homes,<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite news|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idAFKCN1TD0HA|title=India evacuates hundreds of thousands as cyclone Vayu builds fury|last1=Jadhav|first1=Rajendra|date=12 June 2019|work=Reuters|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613080902/https://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idAFKCN1TD0HA/|archive-date=13 June 2019|last2=Mukherjee|url-status=dead|first2=Promit}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/cyclone-vayu-veers-away-from-gujarat-but-state-not-breathing-easy-yet/articleshow/69780583.cms|title=Cyclone Vayu veers away from Gujarat, but state not breathing easy yet|date=14 June 2019|work=The Times of India|access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref> as well as 10,000 people from the nearby island of [[Diu, India|Diu]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/cyclone-vayu-live-updates-lakhs-evacuated-trains-and-flights-stopped-2052412|title=Cyclone Vayu Highlights: Lakhs Evacuated; Trains And Flights Stopped|last=Jha|first=Prionka|date=13 June 2019|work=NDTV|access-date=14 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614132112/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/cyclone-vayu-live-updates-lakhs-evacuated-trains-and-flights-stopped-2052412|archive-date=14 June 2019}}</ref> All schools and colleges in the area were also closed to safeguard students and staff.<ref name=":02" /> All flights at airports in [[Porbandar Airport|Porbandar]], Diu, [[Bhavnagar Airport|Bhavnagar]], [[Keshod Airport|Keshod]] and [[Kandla Airport|Kandla]] were grounded from midnight [[Indian Standard Time|local time]] on 13 June, and 77 train services cancelled and 38 others shortened.<ref name=":112"/> In [[Mumbai]], ferry services were suspended,<ref name=":5" /> more than 128 train services were cancelled or shortened,<ref name=":132"/> and approximately 400 flights were affected by delays or diversions as the cyclone passed to the west on 12–13 June.<ref name=":4" /> All ports in Gujarat suspended operations from 12 June, and many vessels which had been berthed there departed the ports for safety.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":32">{{Cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/06/cyclone-vayu-threatens-india-pakistan-190611090703282.html|title=Cyclone Vayu poised to hit India as year's second major storm|date=12 June 2019|work=Al Jazeera|access-date=12 June 2019}}</ref>

Approximately 2,300 personnel in 52 teams from the [[National Disaster Response Force]] were deployed to Gujarat help local authorities with evacuation efforts, as well as to aid in search, rescue and relief operations after the cyclone.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":4" /> Personnel from the state reserve police were deployed to the region, as well as 300 commandos from the state marine police. Boats and aircraft were sent to various locations across Gujarat to enable and assist search and rescue operations if required.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/cyclone-vayu-live-updates-news-gujarat-landfall-tracking-1547757-2019-06-13|title=Cyclone Vayu Updates: Storm heads away from Gujarat, strong winds, heavy rain to hit coastal areas|last=Bansal|first=Kritika|date=13 June 2019|work=India Today|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613100340/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/cyclone-vayu-live-updates-news-gujarat-landfall-tracking-1547757-2019-06-13|archive-date=13 June 2019}}</ref> The [[Indian Coast Guard]], [[Indian Army|Army]], [[Indian Navy|Navy]] and [[Indian Air Force|Air Force]] were also all put on alert, with about 2,400 army personnel in 34 teams placed on standby, and naval diving teams assembled to conduct water rescues if necessary.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-48608773|title=Cyclone Vayu: India cyclone changes course overnight|date=13 June 2019|work=BBC News|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613083259/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-48608773|archive-date=13 June 2019|publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref> Police officers also conducted night patrols to ensure that no residents were left behind in evacuated areas.<ref name=":6" />

=== Second approach to land ===
After local governments were informed that Cyclone Vayu was likely to return to the coast of Gujarat, further preparations were undertaken, albeit minor due to the significantly weakened nature of the system. The IMD warned that heavy rainfall and large waves were expected, and had the potential to inundate low-lying areas such as the coastal [[salt marsh]]es. As a precaution, the local government in the [[Kutch district|Kutch]] district of northern Gujarat asked [[Salt evaporation pond|salt pan]] workers in coastal areas from [[Bhachau]] to [[Mundra]] to stay home from work. The government noted that five teams from the NDRF that had been deployed in the initial large-scale preparatory measures would remain in Kutch for the anticipated landfall, and that several teams of local officers had been formed to help maintain safety and security throughout the event. Plans were made to evacuate local residents at short notice if required.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/weather/cyclone-vayu-to-weaken-before-recurving-towards-gujarat-coast-5783296/|title=Cyclone Vayu to cross north Gujarat by Monday midnight as depression, coastal areas on alert|date=16 June 2019|work=The Indian Express|access-date=17 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617041751/https://indianexpress.com/article/weather/cyclone-vayu-to-weaken-before-recurving-towards-gujarat-coast-5783296/|archive-date=17 June 2019}}</ref>

== Impacts ==
Despite not making [[landfall]], Cyclone Vayu tracked close enough to the Indian coastline to produce minor impacts. Strong winds, heavy rainfall and large waves were experienced along large sections of the country's western coast, particularly in Gujarat.<ref name=":172">{{Cite news|url=https://www.news.com.au/world/breaking-news/india-braces-as-cyclone-vayu-approaches/news-story/9e54d26c803157eab0a119a5f61e616d|title=Cyclone Vayu veers away from Indian coast|last=Solanki|first=Ajit|date=13 June 2019|work=News.com.au|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190615153307/https://www.news.com.au/world/breaking-news/india-braces-as-cyclone-vayu-approaches/news-story/9e54d26c803157eab0a119a5f61e616d|archive-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> Numerous thatched houses were either damaged or destroyed by gusty winds, with many [[kutcha house]]s having their roofs torn off.<ref name=":10" /> A large number of tin sheds were blown away, and many trees were uprooted along the Saurashtra coast and on the island of Diu.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":102">{{Cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/cyclone-spares-guj-changes-course-to-oman/787415.html|title=Cyclone spares Guj, changes course to Oman|last=Dasgupta|first=Manas|date=14 June 2019|work=The Tribune|access-date=14 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614015305/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/cyclone-spares-guj-changes-course-to-oman/787415.html|archive-date=14 June 2019}}</ref> Strong winds caused the 150-year-old Bhuteshwar Mahadev temple in Porbandar to collapse and a metal shed at [[Somnath temple|Somnath Temple]] to be damaged.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":93">{{Cite news|url=https://scroll.in/latest/926946/cyclone-vayu-skirts-gujarat-as-it-moves-towards-oman-state-to-remain-on-high-alert-for-24-hours|title=Cyclone Vayu skirts Gujarat as it moves towards Oman, state to remain on high alert for 24 hours|date=13 June 2019|work=Scroll.in|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613170635/https://scroll.in/latest/926946/cyclone-vayu-skirts-gujarat-as-it-moves-towards-oman-state-to-remain-on-high-alert-for-24-hours|archive-date=13 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":112">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/cyclone-vayu-veers-away-but-gujarat-still-on-high-alert/articleshow/69781061.cms|title=Cyclone Vayu veers away, but Gujarat still on high alert|date=14 June 2019|work=The Times of India|access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref> Damage to power lines and electricity poles caused power cuts in more than 2,250 villages in Gujarat, with blackouts lasting for several days in some locations.<ref name=":212">{{Cite news|url=http://www.uniindia.com/even-though-danger-of-storm-vayu-is-gone-need-to-be-alert-gujarat-cm/west/news/1631004.html|title=Even though danger of storm VAYU is gone, need to be alert: Gujarat CM|date=13 June 2019|work=United News of India|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613172554/http://www.uniindia.com/even-though-danger-of-storm-vayu-is-gone-need-to-be-alert-gujarat-cm/west/news/1631004.html|archive-date=13 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":202">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/rajkot/gale-rough-sea-leaves-several-fishing-boats-damaged/articleshow/69795393.cms|title=Gale, rough sea leaves several fishing boats damaged|date=15 June 2019|work=The Times of India|access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> The prolonged strong winds generated waves of around 4 m (13 ft) high along large parts of the coastline.<ref name=":112" /> Many low-lying coastal areas on the Saurashtra coast and southern Gujarat were flooded by waves and tides of up to 6 m (20 ft) in height,<ref name=":102" /> and severe damage was caused to at least 15 houses in the city of [[Ullal]].<ref name=":223">{{Cite news|url=https://www.newkerala.com/news/read/157970/heavy-rains-tidal-waves-damage-properties-in-mangalurus-ullal.html|title=Heavy rains, tidal waves damage properties in Mangaluru's Ullal|date=15 June 2019|work=ANI|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190615160628/https://www.newkerala.com/news/read/157970/heavy-rains-tidal-waves-damage-properties-in-mangalurus-ullal.html|archive-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> Local fishermen in [[Porbandar]] sustained [[Indian rupee|₹]]10 million (US$140,000) in damages as strong winds and waves caused as many as 25 small boats to sink, and one larger boat to receive significant damage. In [[Veraval]], about 20 small boats and five larger boats were also damaged.<ref name=":202" /> Fishermen complained that there had been inadequate room to safely anchor their vessels during the cyclone, which was responsible for the damage.<ref name=":232">{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/gujarat-fishermen-claim-heavy-losses-due-to-cyclone-vayu-seek-government-assistance-2053497|title=Fishermen Claim Heavy Losses Due To Cyclone Vayu, Seek Government Help|date=14 June 2019|work=ANI|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190615155717/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/gujarat-fishermen-claim-heavy-losses-due-to-cyclone-vayu-seek-government-assistance-2053497|archive-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> Some fishermen in Veraval also had to be rescued after their boats capsized in the large waves, with one person being hospitalised due to their injuries.<ref name=":84" /><ref name=":242">{{Cite news|url=https://www.9news.com.au/world/world-news-cyclone-vayu-india-weather-to-pass-dangerously-close-to-gujarat-news-updates/3b59a794-b8e0-4b66-9891-d1ea4fa67e4b|title=Six million people could be affected by Tropical Cyclone Vayu|date=13 June 2019|work=9News|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613101956/https://www.9news.com.au/world/world-news-cyclone-vayu-india-weather-to-pass-dangerously-close-to-gujarat-news-updates/3b59a794-b8e0-4b66-9891-d1ea4fa67e4b|archive-date=13 June 2019}}</ref>

[[File:Rain due to impact of Cyclone Vayu 18 June 2019 01.ogv|thumb|Rain in [[Mehsana]] city of Gujarat on 18 June 2019 due to impact of Cyclone Vayu]]
Moderate to heavy rainfall occurred in more than 100 [[tehsil]]s across Gujarat. The highest observed rainfall total was at [[Talala, Gujarat|Talala]] in the [[Gir Somnath district|Gir-Somnath]] district, where {{convert|160|mm|in}} of precipitation was recorded.<ref name=":182">{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/cyclone-vayu-may-not-hit-kutch-will-weaken-after-recurve-1549370-2019-06-15|title=Cyclone Vayu: Centre says storm may hit Gujarat's Kutch, IMD contradicts|date=15 June 2019|work=India Today|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190615153930/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/cyclone-vayu-may-not-hit-kutch-will-weaken-after-recurve-1549370-2019-06-15|archive-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> Veraval also experienced heavy rainfall, with {{convert|67|mm|in}} falling in just six hours.<ref name=":272">{{Cite news|url=https://www.skymetweather.com/content/home-page-top-right/veraval-records-67-mm-rain-in-six-hours-as-cyclone-vayu-skirts-the-gujarat-coast/|title=VERAVAL RECORDS 67 MM RAIN IN SIX HOURS AS CYCLONE VAYU SKIRTS THE GUJARAT COAST|date=14 June 2019|work=Skymet Weather|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190615162308/https://www.skymetweather.com/content/home-page-top-right/veraval-records-67-mm-rain-in-six-hours-as-cyclone-vayu-skirts-the-gujarat-coast/|archive-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> In southern Gujarat, lightning strikes killed five people and injured two others. Many of the victims had been working on farms during heavy rain and [[thunderstorm]]s when they were struck.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":84" /> A motorist was also killed after being hit by a falling tree on the side of the road while driving home.<ref name=":10" /> In the town of [[Chamba, Himachal Pradesh|Chamba]] in northern India, houses and roads were damaged by [[flash flood]]ing and hail from a severe thunderstorm associated with Vayu.<ref name=":6" /> Rainfall associated with Vayu continued for several days in the state of [[Maharashtra]], with the city of [[Nashik]] receiving 92.{{convert|1|mm|in}} of precipitation in a 24-hour period on 15–16 June.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.skymetweather.com/content/weather-news-and-analysis/rain-in-pune-kolhapur-sangli-and-satara-to-continue-despite-cyclone-vayu-moving-away/|title=Rain in Pune, Kolhapur, Sangli and Satara to Continue, Despite Cyclone Vayu Moving Away|date=16 June 2019|work=Skymet Weather|access-date=16 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616120935/https://www.skymetweather.com/content/weather-news-and-analysis/rain-in-pune-kolhapur-sangli-and-satara-to-continue-despite-cyclone-vayu-moving-away/|archive-date=16 June 2019}}</ref>

Cyclone Vayu also caused impacts in other parts of India. Mumbai experienced strong sustained winds which peaked just below [[Beaufort scale|gale-force]] at 58 km/h (36 mph) after midday on 12 June. Several trees fell throughout the city, resulting in at least four injuries, and blocking a road for many hours.<ref name=":132" /> A pedestrian was killed and two others were injured when an aluminium cladding sheet fell from [[Churchgate railway station]]. The family of the deceased victim received ₹500,000 (US$7,000) as an [[Ex gratia|''ex gratia'' payment]] from the railway company.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/mumbai/other/man-killed-as-portion-of-cladding-collapses-at-churchgate-railway-station/articleshow/69757169.cms|title=Man killed as portion of cladding collapses at Churchgate railway station|date=12 June 2019|work=Mumbai Mirror|access-date=16 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616084508/https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/mumbai/other/man-killed-as-portion-of-cladding-collapses-at-churchgate-railway-station/articleshow/69757169.cms|archive-date=16 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Three pedestrians were injured by an acrylic sheet that had fallen from a skywalk due to strong winds.<ref name=":8" /> A hoarding also collapsed near a train station in [[Thane]], although no injuries were reported.<ref name=":132" /> Strong winds also produced a large dust storm in the Indian capital, [[New Delhi]], on 12 June.<ref name=":25">{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/cyclone-vayu-killed-the-afghan-dust-storm-but-triggered-a-local-dust-storm-in-delhi/story-Q5wkHP39eQ44jX6mnpYlJM.html|title=Dust storm in Delhi–NCR, mercury drops; light rain forecast for today|date=13 June 2019|work=Hindustan Times|access-date=13 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613101229/https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/cyclone-vayu-killed-the-afghan-dust-storm-but-triggered-a-local-dust-storm-in-delhi/story-Q5wkHP39eQ44jX6mnpYlJM.html|archive-date=13 June 2019}}</ref> Crude oil and [[plastic waste]] were washed up onto beaches on the [[Raigad district|Raigad]], [[Ratnagiri district|Ratnagiri]] and [[Sindhudurg district|Sindhudurg]] coasts by waves generated by Vayu.<ref name=":28">{{Cite news|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-fishermen-raise-concern-over-oil-being-washed-ashore-off-raigad-and-ratnagiri-coast-2760588|title=Fishermen raise concern over oil being washed ashore off Raigad and Ratnagiri coast|date=14 June 2019|work=DNA India|access-date=14 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614020408/https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-fishermen-raise-concern-over-oil-being-washed-ashore-off-raigad-and-ratnagiri-coast-2760588|archive-date=14 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":29">{{Cite news|url=https://www.asianage.com/metros/mumbai/150619/fishermen-spot-oil-tar-tracks-on-mahas-beaches.html|title=Fishermen spot oil, tar tracks on Maha's beaches|date=15 June 2019|work=The Asian Age|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190615160751/https://www.asianage.com/metros/mumbai/150619/fishermen-spot-oil-tar-tracks-on-mahas-beaches.html|archive-date=15 June 2019}}</ref>

Enhanced waves and ocean swell generated by Cyclone Vayu while it was located in the northern Arabian Sea also affected some coastal areas of Oman, including the [[Ash Sharqiyah South Governorate|South Al Sharqiyah governorate]]. The waves caused minor flooding of low-lying areas in various towns along the coast, including [[Suwayq|Al Suwaih]] and [[Ras al Hadd|Ras Al Hid]]. Seawater caused some houses to become flooded, as well as local beaches and surrounding areas. Floodwaters also caused several vehicles to drift from where they were parked.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofoman.com/article/1462281|title=Seawater enters homes in South Al Sharqiyah coast|date=16 June 2019|work=The Times of Oman|access-date=17 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617042311/https://timesofoman.com/article/1462281|archive-date=17 June 2019}}</ref> Large waves also caused minor flooding in about ten villages in coastal regions of southern Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://arynews.tv/en/weather-karachi-cyclone-vayu-subsides/|title=Weather in Karachi returns to normalcy as cyclone Vayu subsides|date=17 June 2019|work=ARY News|access-date=17 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617140414/https://arynews.tv/en/weather-karachi-cyclone-vayu-subsides/|archive-date=17 June 2019}}</ref>

The onset of the [[Monsoon of South Asia|Indian monsoon]] had been delayed past its usual commencement by about one week due to near-[[El Niño]] conditions in the tropical Pacific Ocean throughout 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/tropical-note/|title=Weekly Tropical Climate Note|date=4 June 2019|website=Australian Bureau of Meteorology|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617215114/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/tropical-note/|archive-date=17 June 2019|access-date=16 June 2019|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.imd.gov.in/pages/monsoon_main.php|title=Advance of Southwest Monsoon 2019|date=16 June 2019|website=India Meteorological Department|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616101839/http://www.imd.gov.in/pages/monsoon_main.php|archive-date=16 June 2019|access-date=16 June 2019}}</ref> The formation of Cyclone Vayu caused a further week's delay in the monsoon's progression towards northern India by drawing clouds and moisture over the Arabian Sea, away from the developing [[monsoon trough]].<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":30">{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/cyclone-vayu-monsoons-in-maharashtra-likely-to-be-delayed-by-one-week-2053262|title=Monsoon In Maharashtra Likely To Be Delayed By 1 Week Due To Cyclone Vayu|date=14 June 2019|work=ANI News|access-date=14 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614103925/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/cyclone-vayu-monsoons-in-maharashtra-likely-to-be-delayed-by-one-week-2053262|archive-date=14 June 2019}}</ref> The severe [[heat wave]] in Pakistan was also exacerbated by Vayu. The anticlockwise rotation of the cyclone's wind field caused typical cool onshore winds to be replaced by hot winds from the desert to the north.<ref name=":31">{{Cite news|url=https://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/weeks-long-heat-wave-tightening-its-grip-on-pakistan-and-it-wont-let-up-for-weeks/70008559|title=Weeks-long heat wave tightening its grip on Pakistan, and it won't let up for weeks|last=Navarro|first=Adriana|date=14 June 2019|work=AccuWeather|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190615155327/https://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/weeks-long-heat-wave-tightening-its-grip-on-pakistan-and-it-wont-let-up-for-weeks/70008559|archive-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> Temperatures of above {{convert|40|C|F}} were experienced in numerous cities across the country, including the coastal city of [[Karachi]].<ref name=":31" /><ref name=":322">{{Cite news|url=https://www.samaa.tv/environment/2019/06/karachis-temperature-to-soar-as-cyclone-vayu-nears-india/|title=Karachi's temperature to soar as Cyclone Vayu nears India|last=Shahnawaz Ali|first=S|date=13 June 2019|work=SAMAA TV|access-date=14 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614131520/https://www.samaa.tv/environment/2019/06/karachis-temperature-to-soar-as-cyclone-vayu-nears-india/|archive-date=14 June 2019|publisher=Jaag Broadcasting Systems}}</ref> One elderly resident in Karachi died of heat stroke on 15 June, and numerous other people were treated in hospitals and medical clinics for symptoms such as [[dehydration]], [[dizziness]] and [[Fatigue|exhaustion]].<ref name=":11" />

== See also ==
{{Portal|Tropical cyclones}}
*[[1998 Gujarat cyclone]]—an extremely deadly and damaging tropical cyclone to make landfall in Gujarat
*[[2001 India cyclone]]—a powerful tropical cyclone which followed a similar track to Vayu
*[[Cyclone Gonu]]—the most powerful tropical cyclone on record in the Arabian Sea, occurring in June 2007
*[[2015 Gujarat cyclone]]—a weak but deadly and damaging tropical cyclone that made landfall in Gujarat as a deep depression
*[[Cyclone Ockhi]]—a strong tropical cyclone in the Arabian Sea in December 2017 which also affected western India
*[[2019 North Indian Ocean cyclone season#Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm Maha|Cyclone Maha]]—a strong tropical cyclone that took a similar path later in the season
*[[Cyclone Tauktae]]—an extremely damaging tropical cyclone, and the most recent to make landfall in Gujarat
*[[Cyclone Biparjoy]]—a damaging cyclone in 2023, also with a similar path

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Cyclone Vayu}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20190617222827/http://imd.gov.in/Welcome%20To%20IMD/Welcome.php India Meteorological Department]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20171222221633/http://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/jtwc.html Joint Typhoon Warning Center]

{{2019 North Indian Ocean cyclone season buttons}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vayu (2019)}}
[[Category:Tropical cyclones in 2019]]
[[Category:2019 North Indian Ocean cyclone season]]
[[Category:Tropical cyclones in India]]
[[Category:Tropical cyclones in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Tropical cyclones in Oman]]
[[Category:2010s in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Very severe cyclonic storms]]
[[Category:Disasters in Gujarat]]

Gondia, Odisha Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:07:15Z

Olympiados: stub

{{Short description|Former constituency of the Odisha Legislative Assembly}}
{{for|the current constituency in Maharashtra|Gondiya Assembly constituency}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Gondia
| type = SLA
| constituency_no =
| state = [[Odisha]]
| district = [[Dhenkanal district|Dhenkanal]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Dhenkanal (Lok Sabha constituency)|Dhenkanal]]
| established = 1961
| reservation = None
| abolished = 2008
| electors =
}}

'''Gondia''' was an Assembly constituency from [[Dhenkanal district]] of [[Odisha]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Election Commission of India |url=http://archive.org/details/dpaco-1961 |title=1961 Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order of India |date=1961-12-07}}</ref> It was established in 1961 and abolished in 2008. After 2008 delimitation, It was subsumed by the [[Dhenkanal Assembly constituency]].<ref name="dpaco2008">{{cite web |title=The Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order - 2008 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3931-delimitation-of-parliamentary-assembly-constituencies-order-2008/ |page=321}}</ref>

== Elected members ==
Between 1961 & 2008, 11 elections were held.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/orissaannualreference/ORA-2011/pdf/453-501.pdf |title=Odisha Reference Annual – 2011: List of Members of Odisha Legislative Assembly (1951–2004) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217121136/http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/orissaannualreference/ORA-2011/pdf/453-501.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-17 |access-date=2025-09-12 |website=orissa.gov.in}}</ref>

List of members elected from Gondia constituency are:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Member
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
| [[1961 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1961]]
| Kalia Dehuri
| {{Full party name with color|All India Ganatantra Parishad}}
|-
| [[1967 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| Haladhar Mishra
| {{Full party name with color|Swatantra Party}}
|-
| [[1971 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1971]]
| Brundaban Tripathy
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1974 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1974]]
| Sribatsa Nayak
| {{Full party name with color|Utkal Congress}}
|-
| [[1977 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
| rowspan="2" | Haladhar Mishra
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1980 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (Urs)|dab=yes}}
|-
| [[1985 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| Prafulla Kumar Bhanja
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1990 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Nandini Satpathy]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1995 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2000 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2000]]
| [[Nabin Nanda]]
| {{Full party name with color|Biju Janata Dal}}
|-
| [[2004 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
| Saroj Kumar Samal
| {{Full party name with color|Biju Janata Dal}}
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Dhenkanal district}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Odisha}}

[[Category:Dhenkanal district]]
[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Odisha]]
[[Category:Politics of Odisha]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1961]]
[[Category:1961 establishments in Orissa]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2008]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in India]]

{{Dhenkanal-geo-stub}}
{{India-constituency-stub}}

List of colleges affiliated to the Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala

2026-04-05T23:12:45Z

Olympiados: made details - done

{{Short description|none}}
{{more citations needed|date=March 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}

'''Mahatma Gandhi University''' is a system of universities throughout the Indian state of [[Kerala]]. A number of institutes of higher learning can be found within this university system, including those focused on both Engineering and the humanities.

== Engineering ==
Engineering colleges are affiliated to [[Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala]] till 2014-15. From 2015-16 engineering colleges in Kerala state are affiliated to [[A P J Abdul Kalam Technological University|KTU]].

# [[Adi Shankara Institute of Engineering and Technology]], Kalady
# Adarsh management institute of India, Mumbai
# [[Al Azhar College of Engineering and Technology]], [[Thodupuzha]]
# [[Albertian Institute of Science and Technology]], [[Kalamassery]]
# [[Amal Jyothi College of Engineering]], Kanjirappally
# [[Baselios Thomas I Catholicose College of Engineering And Technology|Base]]
# [[Caarmel Engineering College]], Pathanamthitta
# [[Christ Knowledge City]]
# [[Federal Institute of Science And Technology]], Angamaly
# [[Government Engineering College, Idukki]]
# [[Gurudeva Institute of Science And Technology]], Puthuppally, [[Kottayam]]
# [[Holy Kings College of Engineering and Technology]], Muvattupuzha
# [[Ilahia College of Engineering Technology]], Mulavoor, Moovattupuzha
# [[Ilahia School of Science And Technology]], Pezhakkapilly, Muvattupuzha
# [[Indira Gandhi Institute of Engineering and Technology]]
# [[Jai Bharath College of Management and Engineering]], Perumbavoor
# [[KMEA Engineering College]], Edathala, Aluva
# [[Kottayam Institute of Science and Technology]]
# [[Mahatma Gandhi University college of engineering]], Thodupuzha
# [[Mangalam College of Engineering]], [[Ettumanoor]], [[Kottayam]]
# [[Mar Athanasius College of Engineering]], Kothamangalam
# [[Mar Baselios Christian College of Engineering and Technology]], Kuttikanam, Idukki
# [[Mar Baselios Institute of Technology and Science]], Kothamangalam
# [[Matha College of Technology]], Manakappadi, North Paravur
# [[Musaliar College of Engineering and Technology]], Pathanamthitta
# [[MES College of Engineering]], Aluva
# [[Rajagiri School of Engineering & Technology]], Kakkanad
# [[Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology, Kottayam|Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology]], Pampady, [[Kottayam]]
# [[Saintgits College of Engineering]], [[Pathamuttom]], [[Kottayam]]
# SCMS School of Engineering and Technology, Karukutty
# [[Sree Buddha College of Engineering for Women]], Ayathil, Elavumthitta, Pathanamthitta
# [[Sree Narayana Guru Institute of Science and Technology]], North Paravur
# [[Sree Narayana Gurukulam College of Engineering]], Kadayiruppu, Kolenchery
# [[Sree Narayana Mangalam Institute of Management & Technology]], Maliankara
# [[St. Joseph’s College of Engineering and Technology]], Pala
# [[Vijnan Institute of Science and Technology]], Elanji
# [[Viswajyothi College of Engineering and Technology]], Vazhakulam, Moovattupuzha.
# [[Cochin Institute of science and Technology]], Moovattupuzha
# [[Toms College of Engineering for Startups]], Mattakara P.O, Kottayam

==Art and Sciences==

#Alphonsa College, Palai
#Al-Ameen College, Edathala
#Aquinas College Edakochi
#Al Azhar College, Thodupuzha
#[[Bharata Mata College]], [[Thrikkakkara]]
#Bhavans College of Arts and Commerce, [[Kakkanad]]
#Baselios Poulose Second College
#Baselius College, Kottayam
#[[Bishop Abraham Memorial College, Thurithicadu]]
# BCM College, Kottayam
# Bishop Kurialacherry College for Women
#[[BPC College Piravom]]
# B.V.M holycross college cherpunkal
#[[Catholicate College Pathanamthitta]]⭐
# Chinmaya College of Arts, Commerce and Science, Tripunithura
#Cochin College, Cochin⭐
# College of Applied Science (IHRD), Kattappana
# College of Applied Science (IHRD), Thodupuzha
# [[CMS College Kottayam|CMS College, Kottayam]]⭐
# DC School of Management and Technology, Vagamon
#[[Deva Matha College, Kuravilangad]]
#[[Dewaswom Board College]], [[Thalayolaparambu]]
# De Paul Institute of Technology, Angamaly
#[[Ettumanoorappan College, Ettumanoor]]
#Girideepam Institute of Advanced Learning, [[Kottayam]]
#Government College, Kottayam
#Government College, Kattappana
#Government College, Manimalakkunnu, [[Koothattukulam]]
#Government College, Santhanpara
#Government College, Tripunithura
#[[Henry Baker College]], [[Melukavu]]
# Holy Cross College of Management & Technology, Puttady, [[Idukki]]
#Jawaharlal Nehru Institute of Arts & Science, Balagram, [[Idukki]]
# JPM College of Arts & Science, Labbakkada, [[Idukki]]
# Kristu Jyoti College of Management & Technology, Changanassery, Kottayam
#[[Kuriakose Elias College, Mannanam]]
# KG College Pampady
#KMM College of Arts and Science, Thrikkakara
#[[Maharaja's College, Ernakulam|Maharajas College, Kochi]]⭐
# MES college, Erattupetta
# MES College, Nedumkandam
# Mannam Memorial N.S.S. College, Konni
# Mar Augusthinose College, Ramapuram
#Mar Kuriakose College, Puthuvely
#[[Mar Thoma College]], Thiruvalla
#[[Mar Athanasios College for Advanced Studies, Tiruvalla]]
# Marthoma College of Management and Technology, Perumbavoor
#Marian College Kuttikkanam, [[Idukki]]
#[[MES College Marampally, Aluva]]
# MES College, Erumely
# MES College, Edathala
# Mount Carmel College, Karukadom, Kothamangalam
# [http://musaliarartscollege.in/ Musaliar College of Arts and Science], [[Pathanamthitta]]
#[[Newman College, Thodupuzha]]⭐
#[[NSS Hindu College, Changanassery]]
#NSS College Rajakumari
#[[Nirmala College, Muvattupuzha]]⭐
# Pavanatma College, Murickassery
# PGM College, Kangazha
# Parumala Mar Gregorios College, Thiruvalla
#
#Morning Star Home Science College, Angamaly
# PRDS Arts and Science College, Changanassery
#[[RLV College of Music and Fine Arts]], Tripunithura
# Rajagiri College of Social Science, Kalamassery
# Rawther Academy of Arts and Science, Vallana, Erumakkad PO, Pathanamthitta Dist., Near Chengannur
# SAS SNDP YOGAM College, Konni
# Santhigiri college of Computer Sciences, Vazhithala
# Santhigiri Institute of Management, Vazhithala
# SCMS School of Technology and Management, Kalamassery
# SNM College, Maliankara, Moothakunnam
# [[St. Ephrem Ecumenical Research Institute|St. Ephrem Ecumenical Research Institute, Kottayam]]
# Siena College of Professional Studies, Edacochin
# Sree Vidyadhi Raja N S S College, Vazhoor
# [[St. Berchmans College|St. Berchmans College, Changanacherry]]⭐
# [[St. Teresa's College|St. Teresa College, Ernakulam]]⭐
# St Johns College, Prakkanam
#[[St. Dominic's College]], [[Kanjirapally]]⭐
#Sree Sabareesa College, Mundakayam
# St. Johns Institute of Technology, Pathanamthitta
# St. Mary’s College, Manarcaud, Kottayam
#St.Paul's College, Kalamassery<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.stpauls.ac.in/|title=St.Paul's College Kalamassery, Ernakulam, Kerala, India|website=www.stpauls.ac.in|access-date=2019-03-07}}</ref>
#St. Peter's College, Kolenchery
# St. Stephen’s College, Uzhavoor.⭐
#[[St. Thomas College, Palai]]⭐
# St. Thomas College, Puthencruz
#[[St. Xavier's College for Women, Aluva]]
#St. Xavier's College, Kothavara
# St. Xavier's College, Vaikom
# St. George's College, Aruvithura
#[[St. Thomas College, Kozhencherry|St. Thomas College, Kozhencheri]]
# St. Thomas College, Konni
# St. Kuriakose College of Management and Science, Kuruppampady
# St. Thomas college, Ranni
# Seth Ram Bhadhur Singh Gujarati College, mattancherry
# Swami Saswatheekananda College, Poothotta
#[[Union Christian College, Aluva]]⭐
# Yeldo Mar Baselios College

==Art Education Centre==
# The Institute of Fine Arts

==Teachers colleges==
# [[University College of Teacher Education]], Vaikom
# John Paul Memorial B.Ed. College, Kattappana
# [[Titus II Teachers College, Thiruvalla]]
# [[NSS Training College, Changanacherry]]

==Architecture Colleges==

# [https://www.asadi.edu.in/ Asian School of Architecture & Design Innovation, Ernakulam, Kerala]

==References==
<references />

[https://www.mgu.ac.in/affiliated-colleges/]

# [http://musaliarartscollege.in/ Musaliar College of Arts and Science, Pathanamthitta]

[[Category:Colleges affiliated to Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala| ]]
[[Category:Engineering colleges in Kerala|Mahatma Gandhi University]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges in Kerala|Mahatma Gandhi University]]
[[Category:Lists of colleges affiliated to universities in India|Mahatma Gandhi University]]
[[Category:Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala|*]]

Asha Sinha

2026-04-05T14:22:57Z

Olympiados: added first stub first draft

{{short description|Indian police general}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{BLP sources|date=March 2021}}
{{BLP no footnotes|date=March 2021}}
}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Asha Sinha
| image = Asha Sinha, IPS.png
| alt =
|office = [[Director General of Police]]
| caption = '''First Lady Commandant of a Paramilitary Force in India'''
| birth_name = Asha Thampan
| birth_date = 24 March 1956
| birth_place = [[Kottayam|Kottayam, Kerala]]
| education = MA ([[Economics]])
| alma_mater = [[Government College for Women, Thiruvananthapuram]]
| occupation = [[Indian Police Service]]
| awards = [[File:IND Police Medal for Meritorious Service.png|30px]] Police Medal for Meritorious Service.
| spouse = Sanjoy Sinha
| children = 2
| parents = P K Thampan and Valsamma Thampan
}}
[[File:Director General of Police.png|thumb|Insignia of an [[Indian Police Service]] officer with rank of Director General of Police]]

'''Asha Sinha''' is a former [[Director General of Police]] in [[Jharkhand Police]]. She has the distinction of being appointed the first Woman Commandant of any of police force in the year 1992. She is a retired [[Indian Police Service]] (IPS) Officer of 1982-Batch. She has held several important assignments in the States of Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Bihar and Government of India culminating in the appointment to the senior most position, as Director General of Police in the year 2013.

==Personal life and education==

Asha Sinha was born as Asha Thampan in [[Kottayam]], [[Kerala]], [[India]] to PK Thampan, a [[Chartered Accountant]] working for the [[Kerala State Electricity Board]] and Smt. Valsamma Thampan, a house maker. She did her schooling from the [[Holy Angel's Convent Trivandrum]] and completed her graduation and Post-Graduation from the [[Government College for Women, Thiruvananthapuram]].

After a brief stint of Teaching in [[All Saints College, Thiruvananthapuram]] and [[S. N. College, Kannur]], she qualified and joined the [[General Insurance Corporation of India]] as a Direct Recruit Asst. Administrative. She left the GIC to join the Indian Police Service in the year 1982. She met her future spouse Sanjoy Sinha at the General Insurance Company who also cleared the Civil Services in the year 1983 and joined the Indian Customs. They have two children: Abhishek Sinha, an advocate and Vaishnavi Sinha, a journalist.

==Career==
Asha Sinha joined the [[Indian Police Service]] in 1982 and has served the country in several capacities for almost 34 years. She has served the Union Central Government and also the State governments of Maharashtra, Bihar and Jharkhand.

As an IPS Officer she held various positions Asst. [[Superintendent of Police]], Patna. Sub-Divisional Police Officer, Sitamarhi, Bihar, S.P, C.I.D, Bihar. After her Services were loaned to the Government of Maharashtra, she served as Chief Editor, Dakshata and thereafter for three years she was posted in the Anti-Corruption Bureau, DCP-I, Greater Mumbai.

After completing her State to State Deputation with the Government of Maharashtra, she returned to the parent cadre. Thereafter she was selected for deputation to C.I.S.F and was posted as Commandant, C.I.S.F, [[Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited]], a sensitive defence installation in the year 1992, thereby earning the distinction of becoming the First Lady Commandant of any Para-Military Force in India. She later held the posts of Group Commandant, C.I.S.F looking after the security of large Public Sector Undertakings of Pimpri, Nava Sheva Port, Raigad.

After being allotted Jharkhand Cadre, she held several important assignments for the State including D.I.G. (Special Branch), D.I.G (H.R), Inspector General (C.I.D), After promotion assignments held by her were Inspector General (Training), Addtl. Director General (Special Branch), Addtl Director General (C.I.D), After promotion to the Highest Ranks she held the positions of Director General and Commandant General (Home Guard and Fire Services) and Director General (Training).

== Achievements ==
Mrs Asha Sinha chartered history by becoming the first lady officer to command a Para-Military force in India, as commandant, C.I.S.F, Mazagoan Docks, Mumbai. She also became the first I.P.S Lady Officer to head the Intelligence Department in Special Branch and later Crime Investigation Department (C.I.D) in the State of Jharkhand.
After the tragic killing of Inspector Francis Indwar by the Naxalites in 2009 which was a huge Intelligence failure, Mrs Asha Sinha was chosen to head the State Intelligence Wing. She not only restored the unit's sagging morale but also saw to it that the [[Lok Sabha]] (Parliament) and [[Vidhan Sabha]] (State Assembly) elections in 2009 was relatively incident free, in spite of the Naxalite threats.

== Awards ==
In recognition of her services she was awarded the Presidents Medal for Meritorious Service in the year 2010.

== Sources ==
*http://www.ashasinha.in/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101081031/http://www.ashasinha.in/ |date=2020-11-01 }}
*https://www.jhpolice.gov.in/medals/smt-asha-sinha-15193-1367846379 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325071941/https://www.jhpolice.gov.in/medals/smt-asha-sinha-15193-1367846379 |date=2020-03-25 }}
*https://jhpolice.gov.in/sites/default/files/documents-reports/jhpolice_IPS-disposition-list_100815.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215031254/http://jhpolice.gov.in/sites/default/files/documents-reports/jhpolice_IPS-disposition-list_100815.pdf |date=2017-02-15 }}
*[https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/intelligence-wing-gets-more-teeth/cid/584073 ]
*https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/reshuffle-in-jharkhand-police-department-113031100643_1.html
*[https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/home-guard-dg-to-huddle-on-graft-issue/cid/1425931 ]
*https://news.webindia123.com/news/articles/india/20091018/1363721.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325071934/https://news.webindia123.com/news/articles/india/20091018/1363721.html |date=2020-03-25 }}
*[https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/blaze-brigade-rolls-out/cid/1428884 ]
*[https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/police-station-turns-friendly/cid/326153 ]
*https://informatics.nic.in/news/341
*https://dtf.in/wp-content/files/Indian_Police_Service_IPS_-_Civil_List_2014.htm
*[https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/first-kid-friendly-thana-shut-in-capital/cid/222887 ]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20210901165311/https://www.igovernment.in/articles/31458/five-senior-ips-officers-reshuffled-in-jharkhand]
*https://www.dailypioneer.com/2014/state-editions/company-commanders-take-oath-of-service.html
*[https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/trainers-arrested-in-jawan-drowning/cid/732441 ]
*https://www.jhpolice.gov.in/news/आशा-सिन्हा-डीजी-और-एसएन-प्रधान-एडीजी-बने-14127-1363071091 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901165319/https://www.jhpolice.gov.in/news/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%B0-%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87-14127-1363071091 |date=2021-09-01 }}
*[https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/police-at-ease-with-pen-and-pistol/cid/862257 ]
*[https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/44-member-fleet-to-fight-fire-even-in-bylanes-relief-for-blazing-infrastructure-shortfall-as-new-vehicles-wait-to-be-customised-into-tenders-big-and-small/cid/203356 ]
*https://jhpolice.gov.in/cid-adgp-succession-board {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901165720/https://jhpolice.gov.in/cid-adgp-succession-board |date=2021-09-01 }}
*[https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/2-yrs-on-heroes-recognised/cid/557504 ]
*https://122.15.233.169/news/रांची-में-चल-रहा-यातायात-जागरुकता-अभियान-23987-1431689789{{Dead link|date=June 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20210901165311/https://www.igovernment.in/articles/31458/five-senior-ips-officers-reshuffled-in-jharkhand]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20240206184022/https://thespeedpost.com/jharkhand-dg-hg-stresses-on-physical-fitness-of-homeguards/]
*http://viewpointjharkhand.com/2015/06/12/कंपनी-कमांडर-को-शपथ-दिलाय/{{Dead link|date=July 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*[https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/ranchi-gets-a-new-ssp-in-cop-reshuffle/cid/733877 ]
*https://www.jhpolice.gov.in/news/डीजी-प्रशि0-आशा-सिन्हा-को-जैप-वन-ग्राउंड-में-दी-गई-विदाई-26270-1459422534 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901175849/https://www.jhpolice.gov.in/news/%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF0-%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%AA-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82-%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%88-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88-26270-1459422534 |date=2021-09-01 }}
*https://www.bhaskar.com/news/c-181-1892186-ra0024-NOR.html
*http://www.svpnpa.gov.in/memories/alumni-gallery/378-1982-batch

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sinha, Asha}}
[[Category:Indian women police officers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian police officers]]
[[Category:Indian Police Service officers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1956 births]]

Richmond Town, Bengaluru

2026-04-05T06:28:50Z

Olympiados: adding a place w/ refs!

{{Other uses|Richmondtown, Staten Island|Richmond Township (disambiguation){{!}}Richmond Township}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Richmond Town, Bangalore
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name = Sir Mirza Ismail Nagara
| settlement_type = Neighbourhood
| image_skyline = File:Bangalore Richmond Road Sacred Heart Church 1-4-2009 3-28-33 PM.JPG
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Sacred Heart Church on Richmond Road
| nickname =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|12|57|45|N|77|36|14|E|type:city_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type2 = Metro
| subdivision_name2 = Bengaluru
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]], [[English language|English]], [[Urdu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<ref>{{Cite web| title=The Karnataka local authorities (official language) act, 1981 | url=https://indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/7897/1/30_of_1981_%28e%29.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825152248/https://indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/7897/1/30_of_1981_(e).pdf | archive-date=2019-08-25}}</ref>
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 560025
}}

'''Richmond Town''', is a neighbourhood in central [[Bangalore]]. It is named after Thomas Richmond, a barrister in the [[British India]] government. "He was an [[Anglo-Indian people|Anglo-Indian]] philanthropist and the president of the [[All India Anglo-Indian Association]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Shekhar |first=Divya |date=2015-12-31 |title=Want to revisit colonial past? Walk down Richmond Town |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/want-to-revisit-colonial-past-walk-down-richmond-town/articleshow/50392168.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-02-17 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

A part of the [[Bangalore Cantonment]] area, Richmond Town was established during [[British Raj|British rule]] in 1883. During the period, the area mainly consisted of British residents, Anglo-Indians, Muslim traders from Persia, and Parsis. Like Kadamba Nagara, Sri Krishnaraja Wadiyar Nagara and Langford Town, this area was known for its [[Colonial architecture|colonial design]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gautam|first1=Shwetha|title=Resident Warrior: Cosy Cantonment then, busy education hub now|url=http://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/resident-warrior-cosy-cantonment-then-busy-education-hub-now/articleshow/57484098.cms|access-date=8 March 2017|work=Bangalore Mirror|date=6 March 2017}}</ref>

In recent years, the locality has seen modernization and increase in real estate demand. Important landmarks in Richmond Town include [[Bangalore Hockey Stadium]] and Johnson Market.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Altrock |first1=Uwe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRJ-DwAAQBAJ&dq=bangalore+hockey+stadium+richmond+town&pg=PA283 |title=Quartiersentwicklung im globalen Süden: Jahrbuch Stadterneuerung 2018 |last2=Kurth |first2=Detlef |last3=Kunze |first3=Ronald |last4=Schmidt |first4=Holger |last5=Schmitt |first5=Gisela |date=2018-12-08 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |isbn=978-3-658-24153-7 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Bhattacharya |first=Akash |title=Johnson Market,Bangalore |date=2010-10-03 |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/akashb/5066942433/ |access-date=2024-02-17}}</ref>

==Notable residents==
[[Sir Mirza Ismail 22nd Diwan of Mysore]]

[[Sir Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar 24th Diwan of Mysore]]

[[Maharani Sethu Lakshmi Bayi of Travancore]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Neighbourhoods of Bangalore}}

{{BangaloreUrban-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Central Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Bangalore Civil and Military Station]]

Hidayatullah Khan

2026-04-05T03:39:29Z

Olympiados: starting page.

{{Short description|Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire from 1711 to 1713}}
{{for|the Indian politician|Mohammad Hidayatullah Khan}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Hidayatullah Khan
| image =
| caption =
| office = [[List of Mughal grand viziers|Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire]]
| term_start = 1711
| term_end = 1713
| predecessor = [[Munim Khan II]]
| successor = [[Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jung|Zulfiqar Khan]]
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| party =
| spouse =
| children =
| parents = [[Inayatullah Kashmiri]]
| alma_mater =
| profession =
}}

'''Hidayatullah Khan''', also known as '''Wazarat Khan''', was the [[Grand Vizier]] of [[Bahadur Shah I]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oEpuAAAAMAAJ&q=hidayatullah++wazir |title= Proceedings - Punjab History Conference: Volumes 29-30 |date= 1998 |publisher= Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University |isbn= 9788173804601 }}</ref>

He was born as the son of [[Inayatullah Kashmiri]].<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NXsBAAAAMAAJ&q=hidayatullah+inayatullah+kashmiri |title= A Mughal Statesman of the Eighteenth Century, Khan-i-Dauran, Mir Bakshi of Muhammad Shah, 1719-1739 |page= 26 |author= Zahiruddin Malik |date= 1973 |publisher= Centre of Advanced Study, Department of History, Aligarh Muslim University |isbn= 9780210405444 }}</ref> After his appointment as Wazir, he was known as Wazarat Khan,<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ak5oFjTys8MC&dq=hidayatullah+saadullah+khan&pg=PA128 |title= Later Mughal |author= William Irvine |date= 1971 }}</ref> After a short time, Wazarat Khan asked for the title of [[Saadullah Khan (Mughal Empire)|Saadullah Khan]] which was the title of the most renowned Wazir of Shah Jahan. The Emperor replied, "It is not easy to be a Sadullah Khan, let him be known as Saidullah Khan." Nonetheless, he was popularly known by the name of Saadullah Khan.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ak5oFjTys8MC&dq=hidayatullah+title+saadullah&pg=PA128 |title= Later Mughal |author= William Irvine |date= 1971 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hidayatullah Khan}}

[[Category:Grand viziers of the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Year of death unknown]]
[[Category:18th-century Mughal Empire people]]

History of Wayanad

2026-04-03T17:11:03Z

Olympiados: starting a data.

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Keralahistory}}
'''[[Wayanad district]]''', which is home to [[Edakkal Caves]], has human settlement from prehistoric era. [[Wayanad]] is the sole [[Plateau]] in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book
| author = William Logan | year=1887
| title= Malabar Manual (Volume-II) | publisher=Madras Government Press
| url= https://archive.org/details/malabar_manual_volume2/mode/2up
}}</ref> The tribal dialects of Wayanad like the [[Ravula language]] and the [[Paniya language]] are closely related to [[Malayalam]].

==Pre-history==
[[File:Wayanad-district-map-en.svg|400px|thumb|[[Wayanad district]]]]
Historians believe that the human settlements existed in these parts for at least ten centuries [[Before Christ|B.C.]] Much evidence of [[New Stone Age]] civilisation can be seen in the hills throughout the present day Wayanad district. The [[Edakkal Caves]] has 6000-year-old rock engravings from the Neolithic age. The recorded history of this district is available only from the 18th century.

==Ezhimala kingdom==
{{main|Ezhimala}}
{{See also|Mushika dynasty}}
In the earliest part of the recorded history of Wayanad District, Kasaragod-Kannur-Wayanad-Kozhikode Districts in the northern part of present-day Kerala were ruled by the Nannans ([[Mushika dynasty]]) who later came to be known as the [[Kolathiri]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Census of India, 2001: Wayanad |year=2004 |publisher=Controller of Publications |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s3AfkDDN5vYC |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Census of India, 1991: pt. 2A. General population tables |year=1995 |publisher=Controller of Publications |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bze2EMoZ4GEC |language=en}}</ref> Politically the area was part of the [[Ezhimala Kingdom]] with its Capital at [[Ezhimala]] in present-day [[Kannur district]]. The most famous King of Ezhimala was Nannan whose Kingdom extended up to [[Gudalur, Nilgiris]] and northern parts of [[Coimbatore]]. It is said that Nannan took refuge at Wayanad hills in the 5th century CE when he was lost to [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]], just before his execution in a battle, according to the [[Sangam literature|Sangam works]].<ref name="wnd"/> Wayanad was a part of the ''Karkanad'' which included the eastern regions of Ezhimala kingdom (Wayanad-[[Gudalur, Nilgiris|Gudalur]] areas including part of [[Kodagu]] (Coorg)).<ref name="wnd"/> ''Karkanad'' along with ''Poozhinadu'', which contained much of the coastal belt wedged between [[Mangalore]] and [[Kozhikode]] was under Ezhimala kingdom with the headquarters at [[Ezhimala]].

Some linguists claim that an inscription found from [[Edakkal Caves]], [[Wayanad]], which belongs to the 3rd century CE (approximately 1,800 years old), is the oldest available inscription in [[Malayalam]], as they contain two modern Malayalam words, ''Ee'' (This) and ''Pazhama'' (Old), those are not found even in the [[Old Tamil|Oldest form of Tamil]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}

==Kolathunadu==
{{Main|Kolathunadu}}
The [[Mooshika dynasty]] were considered descendants of Nannan of [[Ezhimala]]. By the 14th century, [[Mooshika dynasty|Mooshaka Kingdom]] was known as Kolathirinad and the Rulers as [[Kolathiri]]s. The Kolathunad Kingdom at the peak of its power reportedly extended from
[[Netravati River]] ([[Mangalore]]) in the north<ref name="Kola Swaroopam">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=''Kerala Charitram'' |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |location=Kottayam |isbn=978-8126415885 |edition=2007 |page=175 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |access-date=19 July 2020}}</ref> to [[Korapuzha]] ([[Kozhikode]]) in the south with Arabian Sea on the
west and [[Kodagu]] hills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands of [[Lakshadweep]] in [[Arabian Sea]].<ref name="Census_Handbook">{{Cite book|title=District Census Handbook, Kasaragod (2011)|publisher=Directorate of Census Operation, Kerala|location=Thiruvananthapuram|pages=9|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3201_PART_B_KASARAGOD.pdf}}</ref>

==Kingdom of Kottayam==
{{main|Kingdom of Kottayam}}
[[File:Veera Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja.jpg|thumb|upright|''Veera Kerala Varma [[Pazhassi Raja]]'', painting by [[Raja Ravi Varma]]]]
The Kolathiri Dominion emerged into independent 10 principalities, i.e., [[Kadathanadu]] ([[Vadakara]]), [[Dharmadom|Randathara]] or Poyanad ([[Dharmadom]]), [[Kingdom of Kottayam|Kottayam]] ([[Thalassery]]), [[Nileshwaram]], Iruvazhinadu ([[Panoor (Municipality)|Panoor]]), [[Kurumbranad]], etc., under separate royal chieftains due to the outcome of internal dissensions.<ref name="wnd"/><ref name="Logan">{{Cite book|title=Malabar Manual (Volume-I)|last=Logan|first=William|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=2010|isbn=9788120604476|location=New Delhi|pages=631–666}}</ref> The [[Nileshwaram]] dynasty on the northernmost part of [[Kolathiri]] dominion, were relatives to both [[Kolathunadu]] as well as [[Zamorin]] of [[Calicut]], in the early medieval period.<ref name="Neeleswaram fete">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/neeleswaram-fete-to-showcase-its-heritage/article2645520.ece | title=Neeleswaram fete to showcase its heritage | author=The Hindu staff reporter | website=The Hindu | date=21 November 2011 | access-date=24 November 2016 }}</ref> The origin of the [[Kingdom of Kottayam|Kottayam royal family]] (the Kottayam referred here is [[Kottayam-Malabar]] near [[Thalassery]], not to be confused with [[Kottayam]] in Southern Kerala) is lost in obscurity. It has been stated that the Raja of Kottayam set up a semi-independent principality of his own at the expense of Kolathiris. In the 10th century AD, the region comprised erstwhile Taluks of Kottayam, Wayanad and Gudallur was called ''Puraikizhanad'' and its feudal lord ''Puraikizhars''. The [[Thirunelly]] Inscriptions refer to the division of the Puraikizhar family into two branches viz., Elder (''Muthukur'') and Younger (''Elamkur'') in the beginning of the 11th century. In the 17th century, [[Kottayam-Malabar]] was the capital of the Puraikizhanad (Puranattukara) rajas. It was divided into three branches i.e., Eastern, Western and Southern under separate dignitaries known as Mootha, Elaya and Munnarkur Rajas. The Kottayam Rajas extended their influence up to the border of [[Kodagu]]. By the end of the 17th century, they shared the area of [[Thalassery]] Taluk with the Iruvazhinadu Nambiars and were in possession of North Wayanad and the small village of [[Thamarassery]] which formed the Eastern portion of the present Vadakara, Quilandy and Thamarassery Taluks.<ref name="wnd">{{cite book
| author = Government of India | year=2014–15
| title= District Census Handbook – Wayanad (Part-B) 2011 | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3203_PART_B_WAYANAD.pdf
}}</ref>

==The Kutumbiyas (Kudumbiyas)==
The two caves of Ampukuthimala (Edakal Caves) in [[Sulthan Bathery]], with pictures on their walls and pictorial writings, speak volumes of a bygone civilisation. At the foot of the Edakal Male (hill) caves, [[Kannada]] inscriptions belonging to Canarese chieftain Vishnu Varma of Kutumbiya (Kudumbiya) clan of Mysore dating to c. 5th century CE were discovered which read – '''Palapulitaanamtakaari''<nowiki/>' or 'Pala pulinânam ta-kâri', ''Sri Vishnu Varma Kutumbiya Kulavardhanasya li..it..a..''<nowiki/>'. As per Hultzch, an epigraphist from the department of epigraphy, Madras, it speaks of the glorious descendant of Kutumbiya clan, Kannada chieftain, Vishnu Varma, as one who killed many tigers. Some scholars speculate this Kutumbiya to mean Kutumbin or householder.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sankaranarayanan |first=S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rA9uAAAAMAAJ&q=kutumbiya+householder |title=Śāṅkaram: Recent Researches on Indian Culture : Professor Srinivasa Sankaranarayanan Festschrift |date=2000 |publisher=Harman Publishing House |isbn=978-81-86622-34-6 |language=en|quote=His original understanding that the word kutumbiya was a corruption of Kutumbin, 'a householder', seems to be convincing. It may be interpreted that the record was written for the growth of the family of the householder Vişnuvarmma.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAhuAAAAMAAJ&q=kudumbiya |title=The Paniyas: An Ex-slave Tribe of South India |last=Aiyappan |first=A. |publisher=Institute of Social Research and Applied Anthropology |year=1992 |location=The University of Michigan |pages=20, 28–29, 80}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ignca.nic.in/rockart_2015/Field_Documentation_Report_Kerala_2015.pdf |title=Multidisciplinary Documentation of Rock Art and its Allied Subjects in Kerala |last=Peter |first=Jenee |date=24 October 2015 |website=INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL CENTRE FOR THE ARTS |publisher=IGNCA |page=2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbbpAAAAMAAJ&q=Sri+Vishnu+Varma+Kutumbiya+Kulavardhanasya |title=Rock Art in Kerala |last=Mathpal |first=Yashodhar |publisher=Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts |year=1998 |isbn=9788173051302 |location=The University of Michigan |pages=28}}</ref>

==The (Western) Gangas==
The recorded history of the [[Wayanad district]] exists only from the 10th century onward. In 930 AD, emperor Erayappa of [[Western Ganga dynasty|'''Ganga Dynasty''']] led his troops to south west of Mysore and after conquering, called it '''Bayalnad''' meaning the land of swamps. After Erayappa, his sons Rachamalla and Battunga fought each other for the new kingdom of their father's legacy. Rachamalla was killed and Battunga became the undisputed ruler of Bayalnad.

==The Kadambas==
In the 12th century CE, Gangas were dethroned from Bayalnad by [[Kadamba dynasty]]<ref>The Kadamba Kula, A History of Ancient and Mediaeval [[Karnataka]], By [[George M. Moraes]], BX Furtado & sons, Bombay, 1931.</ref> of North Canara.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/kadambakula035210mbp |title=The Kadamba Kula |work=Internet Archive|publisher=Bombay B X Furtado And Sons |year=1931 }}</ref> Wayanad, called Bayalnad (Kannada) since beginning, was at that time divided into two portions – Bira Bayalnad and Chagi Bayalnad. One of the Mysore inscriptions (alluding perhaps to the treacherous beauty of the country, which attracted the stranger and then laid him low with malaria) says 'an adulteress with black waving curls, as adulteress with full-moon face, an adulteress with endless side-glances, an adulteress with adorned slim figure was this storeyed mansion, the double Bayalnad'.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Madras District Gazetteers: The Nilgiris |last=Francis |first=Walter |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1908 |isbn=978-81-2060-546-6 |volume=1 |location=New Delhi |pages=90–94, 102–105}}</ref> Kadamba Bayalnad emerged as a rule in the 11th century under their chief Raviyammarasa with Kirttipura (present Kittur town, Heggadadevanakote taluk, Mysuru, which got submerged in the backwaters of the Kabini river dam) in Punnad (Punnata) their capital. Kanthirava (1090 CE) was described as ruling Chagi-Bayalnad. Iravi-Challamma (1108 CE) was the ruler of Bira-Bayalnad.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=http://historyofindia-madhunimkar.blogspot.in/2009/09/introduction-kadamba-dynasty-345-525-ce.html |title=Kingdom of Kadambas |last=Nimkar |first=Madhu |date=18 September 2009 |website=History of India |publisher=Atom}}</ref>

==The Western Chalukyas (Kalyani Chalukyas)==

Under emperor [[Tailapa II]] (973–997 CE) many Jain Basthis were built in south India. The Jain centres and agricultural villages of Wayanad came in to existence during this time. There are many proofs, which justify the existence of Jainism in Wayanad.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kurup|first=Dr. K K N|title=Jain society of Wayanad, Sri Ananthanatha Swami Kshetram, Kalpetta, Platinum Jubilee souvenir|year=2008|pages=45}}</ref>

==The Hoysalas==
In 1104 CE Vishnuvardhana of [[Hoysala]] invaded Bayalnad and Nilgiris and annexed them followed by [[Vijayanagara]] dynasty in the 14th century. A Kadamba king, Mukkanna-Kadamba ruled Bayal-nad in and around 1138 CE.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://scans.library.utoronto.ca/pdf/5/22/epigraphiacarnat05mysouoft/epigraphiacarnat05mysouoft_bw.pdf |title=Epigraphica Carnatica |last=Rice |first=B. Lewis |publisher=Government of India |year=1902 |location=Mangalore |pages=24, 28, 32}}</ref>

==The Vijayanagara empire==
A feudatory chieftain of Sangama dynasty (1336-1485 CE) of Vijayanagara empire, Immadi Kadamba Raya Vodeyayya of Bayalnad Kadambas, is said to have ruled Bayalnad.<ref name=":0" />

==The Mysore Wodeyars and the sultans==
In 1610 CE Udaiyar Raja Wadiyar of Mysore drove out Vijayanagara General and became the ruler of Bayalnad and the Nilgiris. Bayalnad is the present Wayanad.

An inscription discovered from a Jain Basti at Varadur near Panamaram dated to Saka era 1606 which is 1684 CE, shows that Jainism was still very powerful even in the 17th century. The inscription which was noticed by noted epigraphist and historian Dr. M. R. Raghava Varriar, has reference about the earliest Jain settlements and temples in Wayanad. The copper plate inscription which was placed under a water fountain at Varadur Ananthanatha Swami temple deals with the grant of various ritual materials to the Jain Basathis of Wayanad by Lalithappa, the younger son of Bommarasa of the Karkala Aremane Basathi.

The Kannada inscription dated Sakavarsha 1606 (i.e., 1684 CE) Rakthakshi Samvatsara Jeshtabahula Shukravara reads:

'''Karkala aremane basthiya bommarasanu mommaga lalithappanu devapooje chinna belli thamra kanchu upakaranagalu madisi kotta bibara''<nowiki/>'.

The Jain Chaithyalayas or temples referred in the inscription are Arepathra, Bennegodu, Palagondu, Hanneradubeedhi, Puthangadi (Muthangadi) and Hosangadi. The Arepathra Chaityalaya is not yet identified. It is believed that it was at the hilltop near to the Panamaram river. The other Kannada touch place names are identified with their present Malayalam version names as Venniyode, Palukunnu, Sultan Batheri, Puthangadi and Mananthavady respectively.<ref>{{Cite book|last=M V|first=Sreyamskumar|title=Article on Jain influence on wayanad, Sri Ananthanatha swami Kshetram, Kalpetta, Platinum Jubilee souvenir|year=2008|pages=55}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=O K|first=Johny|title=Wayanad Rekhakal|pages=56}}</ref> Raghava Varriar says that there were seven Jain centres in Wayanad viz. Manikyapuri, Ksheerapuri, Kalpathi, Vennayode, Palagondu, Hosangadi and Hanneradubeedhi. It is believed that Manikyapuri was at the present day Manichira. The location of Ksheerapuri is not yet identified. Kalpathi may be Kalpetta, the present day Wayanad district headquarters, Anjukunnu was then Hanjugondu, etc.<ref>{{Cite book|last=M. R.|first=Dr. Raghava Varriar|title=Jainamatham Keralathil, Kottayam|year=2012|pages=45}}</ref>

When Wayanad was under [[Hyder Ali]]'s rule, the ghat road from Vythiri to Thamarassery was constructed.<ref>Madrass District Gazetteeers, The Nilgiris. By W. Francic. Madras 1908 Pages 90–104</ref> Then the British rulers developed this route to Carter road.<ref>Report of the Administration of Mysore 1863–64. British Parliament Library</ref> When Wayanad was under Tipu Sultan's rule British invasion started. Tussle and turbulent times followed. The British claimed Wayanad under the 1792 treaty of [[Srirangapatna]] citing it was part of Malabar. [[Tipu Sultan]] went in appeal before the [[Governor General]]. Considering his arguments, relying on the successive Karnataka rule for centuries in Wayanad and its geographical detachment from Malabar, in 1798, Governor General [[Lord Mornington]] declared by proclamation<ref name="ReferenceA">Proclamation No:CLXXXLL, A. Collection of treaties and engagements, By W.Logan, Calicut 1879</ref> that Wayanad had not been ceded to the East India Company by the treaty of 1792. Consequently, the British troops withdrew from Wayanad conceding to Tipu's rule. In 1799, after the fall of Sultan, the British handed over Wayanad by the treaty of 1799 to the Raja of Mysore. But by a supplementary treaty dated 29 December 1803 the East India Company repossessed Wayanad and thereafter administrated by Col. Arthur Wellesley from Srirangapatna and North Wayanad came under the rule of the [[Pazhassi Raja]] dynasty of ancient Kottayam.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

==Mysore Sultans==
{{See also|Kingdom of Mysore}}
When Wayanad was under [[Hyder Ali]]'s rule, the ghat road from Vythiri to Thamarassery invented.<ref>Madrass District Gazetteeers, The Nilgiris. By W. Francic. Madras 1908 Pages 90-104</ref> Then the British rulers developed this route to Carter road.<ref>Report of the Administration of Mysore 1863-64. British Parliament Library</ref> After Hyder Ali, his son [[Tipu Sultan]] took control over the territory.

==Veerakerala Varma Pazhassi Raja==
People of Wayanad live in absolute harmony with each other. Wayanad is famous for the unparalleled freedom fight against the British and martyrdom of Pazhasshi Raja with the help of the Kurichya sect of the tribal community in association with Hindus and Muslims of the Malabar region. Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of [[Pazhassi Raja|Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja]], who had popular support in [[Thalassery]]-Wayanad region.<ref name="Pazhassi">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=''Kerala Charitram'' |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |location=Kottayam |isbn=978-8126415885 |edition=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82}}</ref>

==British rule==
{{See also|Malabar District|North Malabar}}
[[File:Malabar 1854.jpg|thumbnail|A map of the erstwhile [[Malabar District]] in 1854. Note that a major portion of present-day [[Nilgiris district]] was also part of Wayanad Taluk in Malabar District.]]
The British claimed Wayanad under 1792 treaty of '''[[Srirangapatna]]''' citing it was part of Malabar. Tipu Sultan went in appeal before the [[Governor General]]. Considering his arguments, relying on the successive Karnatic rule for centuries in Wayanad and its geographical detachment from Malabar, in 1798, Governor General [[Lord Mornington]] declared by proclamation<ref name="ReferenceA"/> that Wayanad had not been ceded to the [[East India Company]] by the treaty of 1792. Consequently, the British troops withdrew from Wayanad conceding to Tipu's rule. In 1799, after the fall of Sultan, the British handed over Wayanad by treaty of 1799 to the Raja of Mysore. But by a supplementary treaty dated 29 December 1803 the East India Company repossessed South Wayanad and thereafter administrated by Col. Arthur Wellesley from Srirangapatna and North Wayanad came under the rule of the [[Pazhassi Raja]] dynasty of ancient Kottayam.

Wayanad eventually became part of Kerala despite its geographical delimitations and political descent in 1956 on State's reorganisation. Even now there is a considerable Kannada speaking population and the reminiscence of centuries old Karnataka rule is omnipresent in Wayanad. Agriculture Cultivation started broadly after 1900 A.D onwards. The British authorities opened up the plateau to cultivation of tea and other cash crops by constructing roads across the dangerous slopes of Wayanad, to [[Kozhikode]] and [[Thalassery]]. Later, they extended these new roads to the cities of [[Mysore]] and [[Ooty]] through Gudalur. Settlers emigrated from all parts of Kerala and the fecund lands proved a veritable goldmine with incredible yields of cash crops. When the State of Kerala came into being in November 1956, Wayanad was part of [[Kannur]] district. Later, south Wayanad was added to Kozhikode district. To fulfil the aspirations of the people of Wayanad for development, North Wayanad and South Wayanad were carved out and joined to form the present district of Wayanad. This district came into being on 1 November 1980 as one of the twelve districts of Kerala,<ref name="wayanad">{{cite web|url=http://wayanad.nic.in/history.htm|title=Official Web Site of Wayanad District|publisher=ayanad.nic.in|accessdate=2014-01-29}}</ref> consisting of three [[taluk]]s; [[Vythiri]], [[Mananthavady]], and [[Sulthan Bathery]].

==Formation of Wayanad District==
[[File:Subdistricts of Wayanad.png|thumbnail|[[Tehsil|Taluk]]s in [[Wayanad district]]]]
During [[British Raj]], Wayanad was a Taluk in the erstwhile [[Malabar District]].<ref>{{cite book
| author = Government of Madras | year=1953
| title= 1951 Census Handbook- Malabar District | publisher=Madras Government Press
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/6425/1/20493_1951_MAL.pdf
}}</ref> The regions included in the Taluks of [[Gudalur, Nilgiris|Gudalur]] and [[Pandalur]] in present-day [[Nilgiris district]], which is also known as ''Southeast Wayanad'', also formed part of the erstwhile Wayanad Taluk.<ref name="Logan_2">{{cite book |last1=Logan |first1=William |title=Malabar Manual (Volume-2) |date=1887 |publisher=PRINTED BY R. HILL, AT THE GOVERNMENT PRESS. |location=Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/malabar_manual_volume2/page/n7/mode/2up}}</ref> Southeast Wayanad was a part of Malabar District until 31 March 1877, when it was transferred to the neighbouring [[Nilgiris district]] due to the heavy population of Malabar and the small area of Nilgiris.<ref name="Logan_2"/> Wayanad was a separate Revenue Division with the [[Malabar District]] until 1924.<ref name="Mbsp">{{cite book |url=https://www.tamildigitallibrary.in/admin/assets/book/TVA_BOK_0023302_The_Madras_Presidency_1881_1931.pdf |title=The Madras Presidency (1881-1931) |last=Boag |first=GT |publisher=Government of Madras |location=Madras |year=1933 |page=10 |archive-date=9 June 2021 |access-date=9 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609102848/https://www.tamildigitallibrary.in/admin/assets/book/TVA_BOK_0023302_The_Madras_Presidency_1881_1931.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

During the States Reorganisation of 1956 after the independence of India, the [[Mysore state]] (present-day [[Karnataka]]) claimed for Wayanad due to its historical and geographical peculiarities. However, on the linguistic survey of 1951 census of India, it was found that 87.5% of the total population of Wayanad were native speakers of [[Malayalam]] at that time, while [[Kannada language|Kannada]] was confined to just 6.2% of the total population.<ref name="census1951">{{cite book | author = J. I. Arputhanathan | year=1955
| title= South Kanara, The Nilgiris, Malabar and Coimbatore Districts (Village-wise Mother-tongue Data for Bilingual or Multilingual Taluks) | publisher=Madras Government Press
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/6447/1/50056_1951_SOU.pdf}}</ref>

On 1 January 1957, the erstwhile [[Malabar District]] was divided into three: [[Kannur district|Kannur]], [[Kozhikode district|Kozhikode]], and [[Palakkad district|Palakkad]].<ref name="1961_kkd">{{Cite book|title=District Census Handbook (2) – Kozhikode (1961)|last=Devassy|first=M. K.|publisher=Government of Kerala|year=1965|location=Ernakulam|url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5665/1/22059_1961_KOZ.pdf}}</ref> On the same day Wayanad Taluk was split up into North Wayanad and South Wayanad.<ref name="1961_cnr">{{cite book
| author = M. K. Devassy | year=1965
| title= 1961 Census Handbook- Cannanore District | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala and The Union Territory of Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5668/1/22055_1961_CAN.pdf
}}</ref> Initially both of the Taluks of Wayanad were included in newly formed [[Kannur district]].<ref name="1961_cnr"/> However, after two months on 15 March 1957, South Wayanad Taluk was transferred into [[Kozhikode district]].<ref name="1961_kkd"/> The North Wayanad Taluk was transferred to Kozhikode district on 1 January 1979.<ref name="w1981">{{cite book
| author = M. Vijayanunni | year=1983
| title= 1981 Census Handbook- Wayanad District (Part-A&B) | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5755/1/29610_1981_WAY.pdf
}}</ref>

Wayanad district was formed by incorporating the Taluks of North Wayanad and South Wayanad on 1 November 1980 as the 12th [[List of districts of Kerala|district of Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wayanad.gov.in/history/|title=History of Wayanad|website=wayanad.gov.in}}</ref> On the same date, North Wayanad Taluk was renamed as [[Mananthavady]], and South Wayanad was bifurcated to form the Taluks of [[Sultan Bathery]] and [[Vythiri]].<ref name="w1981"/> [[Kalpetta]] in [[Vythiri]] Taluk became the headquarters of new district.<ref name="w1981"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Citation
| author = William Logan | year=1887
| title= Malabar Manual (Volume-I) | publisher=Madras Government Press
| url= https://archive.org/details/malabarmanual0000loga/mode/2up
}}
* {{Citation
| author = William Logan | year=1887
| title= Malabar Manual (Volume-II) | publisher=Madras Government Press
| url= https://archive.org/details/malabar_manual_volume2/mode/2up
}}
* {{Citation
| author = Charles Alexander Innes | year=1908
| title= Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-I) | publisher=Madras Government Press
| url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358941/mode/2up
}}
* {{Citation
| author = Charles Alexander Innes | year=1915
| title= Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-II) | publisher=Madras Government Press
| url= https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.30521
}}
* {{Citation
| author = Government of Madras | year=1953
| title= 1951 Census Handbook- Malabar District | publisher=Madras Government Press
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/6425/1/20493_1951_MAL.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = J. I. Arputhanathan | year=1955
| title= South Kanara, The Nilgiris, Malabar and Coimbatore Districts (Village-wise Mother-tongue Data for Bilingual or Multilingual Taluks) | publisher=Madras Government Press
| url= https://www.tamildigitallibrary.in/admin/assets/book/TVA_BOK_0013294_Census_of_India_1951.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = M. K. Devassy | year=1965
| title= 1961 Census Handbook- Cannanore District | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala and The Union Territory of Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5668/1/22055_1961_CAN.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = K. Narayanan | year=1973
| title= 1971 Census Handbook- Cannanore District (Part-A&B) | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5695/1/25255_1971_CAN.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = K.Narayanan | year=1973
| title= 1971 Census Handbook- Cannanore District (Part-C) | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5711/1/28874_1971_CAN.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = M. Vijayanunni | year=1983
| title= 1981 Census Handbook- Cannanore District (Part-A&B) | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5747/1/27978_1981_CAN.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = M. K. Devassy | year=1965
| title= 1961 Census Handbook- Kozhikode District | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala and The Union Territory of Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5665/1/22059_1961_KOZ.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = K. Narayanan | year=1973
| title= 1971 Census Handbook- Kozhikode District (Part-A&B) | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5691/1/24948_1971_KOZ.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = K.Narayanan | year=1973
| title= 1971 Census Handbook- Kozhikode District (Part-C) | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5710/1/28877_1971_KOZ.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = M. Vijayanunni | year=1983
| title= 1981 Census Handbook- Kozhikode District (Part-A&B) | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5754/1/29196_1981_KOZ.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = M. Vijayanunni | year=1983
| title= 1981 Census Handbook- Wayanad District (Part-A&B) | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5755/1/29610_1981_WAY.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = N. M. Samuel | year=1993
| title= 1991 Census Handbook- Wayanad District (Part-A&B) | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5790/1/36538_1991_WAY.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = Sheela Thomas | year=2003
| title= 2001 Census Handbook- Wayanad District (Part-A&B) | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/5810/1/37459_2001_WAY.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = Government of India | year=2014–15
| title= District Census Handbook – Wayanad (Part-A) 2011 | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3203_PART_A_WAYANAD.pdf
}}
* {{Citation
| author = Government of India | year=2014–15
| title= District Census Handbook – Wayanad (Part-B) 2011 | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3203_PART_B_WAYANAD.pdf
}}

{{Wayanad district}}
{{Kerala}}
{{Kerala topics}}

[[Category:History of Kerala by district]]
[[Category:Wayanad district]]

Duhamel plan

2026-04-01T17:41:06Z

Olympiados: new

{{short description|Proposed Russian invasion of India during the Crimean War}}
[[File:Dyugamel'.jpg|thumb|A near contemporary depiction of Duhamel]]

The '''Duhamel plan''' was a proposed Russian invasion of [[British-ruled India]] during the [[Crimean War]], a war in which Russia was fighting [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], [[Second French Empire|France]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The plan was drawn up by General {{ill|Alexander Osipovich Duhamel|ru|Дюгамель, Александр Осипович}} and proposed to Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] in 1854. Duhamel proposed five alternative routes but his preference was to march through [[Qajar Iran|Persia]] and [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] and invade British India through the [[Khyber Pass]]. The plan would have required the support of the Afghans and Persians.

Duhamel hoped that Afghan tribesmen would join his force in the hope of winning loot and territory and that the Persians might attack the Ottomans. He also hoped that the [[Sikh Empire]], [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|defeated by Britain in 1849]], might attack the British and that other Indians, particularly among the Muslim population, might rise in rebellion. Because of the demands of the Crimean War the invasion did not progress. The British considered that they could have defeated any potential invasion from the [[Military history of the North-West Frontier|North-West Frontier]].

== Background ==
Russian demands to exert control over some [[Ottoman Empire]] territories on its borders had led the Ottoman Empire to declare war in October 1853, beginning the [[Crimean War]]. Britain and France, wary of Russian expansion, declared war in March 1854. Allied forces would join the Ottomans at [[Varna, Bulgaria]], in June and invade the Russian territory of Crimea in September.<ref>{{cite web |title=Crimean War |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Crimean-War |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=12 June 2021 |language=en}}</ref> During this year General {{ill|Alexander Osipovich Duhamel|ru|Дюгамель, Александр Осипович}} submitted a plan to Russian Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] for an invasion of [[British India]].<ref name=druhe>{{cite book |last1=Druhe |first1=David N. |title=Russo-Indian Relations, 1466-1917 |date=1970 |publisher=Vantage Press |pages=139–140 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4pEbAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> Duhamel had been a Russian envoy to Persia between 1838 and 1841 and, in 1848, been sent by Nicholas to suppress [[Wallachian Revolution of 1848|the uprising]] against [[Regulamentul Organic|the Russian administration]] of nominally Ottoman [[Wallachia]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burton |first1=June K. |last2=White |first2=Carolyn W. |title=Essays in European History: Selected from the Annual Meetings of the Southern Historical Association, 1988-1989 - Vol. II |date=1996 |publisher=University Press of America |isbn=978-0-7618-0317-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3vA8uhGCuCoC |language=en}}</ref><ref name=druhe/> Britain maintained a relatively small standing army compared to other world powers and the demands of the Crimean War even led her to deploy militia to the theatre.<ref>{{cite web |title=Victorian armies |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/private-lives/yourcountry/overview/victorianarmies/ |website=British Parliament |access-date=13 June 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Duhamel considered that a Russian intervention against India would force Britain to withdraw regular units opposing Russian forces in the [[Near East]].<ref name=hopkirk>{{cite book |last1=Hopkirk |first1=Peter |title=The Great Game: On Secret Service in High Asia |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280232-3 |page=284 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_41VGoCYU8C |language=en}}</ref>

==Plan ==
{{location map+ |West Asia |float=center |width=600|caption=Duhamel's preferred route. Locations in Russian Empire in white, Persia in green, Afghanistan in black and British India in red.|places=
{{Location map~ |West Asia|label=Astrakhan|position=top|lat=46.35|long=48.05|mark=White pog.svg |marksize=8}}
{{Location map~ |West Asia|label=Gorgan|position=left|lat=36.84|long=54.43|mark=Green pog.svg |marksize=8}}
{{Location map~ |West Asia|label=Sochi (Circassia)|position=left|lat=43.59|long=39.72|mark=White pog.svg |marksize=8}}
{{Location map~ |West Asia|label=Meshed|position=top|lat=36.3|long=59.6|mark=Green pog.svg |marksize=8}}
{{Location map~ |West Asia|label=Herat|position=left|lat=34.34|long=62.20|mark=Location dot black.svg |marksize=8}}
{{Location map~ |West Asia|label=Kandahar|position=left|lat=31.62|long=65.72|mark=Location dot black.svg |marksize=8}}
{{Location map~ |West Asia|label=Kabul|position=left|lat=34.53|long=69.18|mark=Location dot black.svg |marksize=8}}
{{Location map~ |West Asia|label=Jalalabad|position=top|lat=34.43|long=70.45|mark=Location dot black.svg |marksize=8}}
{{Location map~ |West Asia|label=Peshawar|position=bottom|lat=34.02|long=71.58|mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=8}}
{{Location map~ |West Asia|label=Attock Khurd|position=right|lat=33.9|long=72.23|mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=8}}
{{Location map~ |West Asia|label=Lahore|position=right|lat=31.55|long=74.34|mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=8}}
{{Location map~ |West Asia|label=Delhi|position=left|lat=28.61|long=77.23|mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=8}}
}}
In his proposal Duhamel considered that India was Britain's "only vulnerable point". He noted that in the Napoleonic era Russian Emperor [[Paul I of Russia|Paul I]] had stationed a force near to Russia's southern frontier that had caused alarm in British India and that ever since British intelligence had been preoccupied by the possibility of an invasion through central Asia. Duhamel noted that the same route had been taken by [[Alexander the Great]], [[Genghis Khan]], [[Tamerlane]], [[Babur]] and [[Nader Shah]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=Henry Sutherland |title=Russian Projects Against India from the Czar Peter to General Skobeleff |date=1885 |publisher=Remington & Company |page=267 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XUIAAAAQAAJ |language=en}}</ref>

Duhamel considered that only a small Russian force would be required as he hoped to attract support from Afghanistan, Persia and, perhaps, the former [[Sikh Empire]]. Once the expedition reached India he hoped that the movement of British garrison troops to the north-west frontier would trigger a broad revolt against British rule. Duhamel based his expedition's route on previous Russian plans.<ref name=hopkirk/> He suggested five options to reach the Indian frontier:<ref name=hopkirk/><ref name=edwards268>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=Henry Sutherland |title=Russian Projects Against India from the Czar Peter to General Skobeleff |date=1885 |publisher=Remington & Company |page=268|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XUIAAAAQAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref name=edwards269/>
*From [[Orenburg]] (Russia), via [[Khiva]] and [[Merv]] ([[Khanate of Khiva]]) and to [[Herat]], [[Kandahar]] and [[Kabul]] (Afghanistan)
*From [[Orsk]] or Orenburg (Russia), via [[Bukhara]] ([[Emirate of Bukhara]]) to [[Balkh]] and Kabul (Afghanistan)
*From Orsk or [[Troitsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast|Troitsk]] (Russia) with two options for the middle portion:
**via [[Aral, Kazakhstan|Aralsk]] and [[Kyzylorda|Ak-Mechet/Fort Perovski]] (Russia) and [[Tashkent]] ([[Khanate of Kokand]])
**via [[Petropavl]]ovsk ([[Kazakhstan]])
:Then on through [[Kokand]] (Khanate of Kokand), Kalum and [[Bamyan]] to Kabul (Afghanistan)
*An initial route with the Russian force split:
**The infantry and artillery would travel from [[Astrakhan]] (Russia) across the [[Caspian Sea]] to [[Gorgan]] (Persia)
**The cavalry would travel from [[Circassia]] (Russia) overland to Persia
:Then the combined force taking a route via Resushan or Shahnid to [[Mashhad|Meshed]] (Persia) then to Herat, Kandahar and Kabul.
*From [[Julfa, Azerbaijan (city)|Dsuelfa [Julfa]]] (Russia) via [[Tabriz]], Tehran, Meshed (Persia) to Herat, Kandahar and Kabul.

Duhamel selected the fourth route, across the Caspian, as his preferred. He considered it the least exhausting being the shortest and avoiding deserts, mountains, major river crossings and hostile tribes.<ref name=hopkirk/><ref name=edwards269>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=Henry Sutherland |title=Russian Projects Against India from the Czar Peter to General Skobeleff |date=1885 |publisher=Remington & Company |page=269|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XUIAAAAQAAJ |language=en}}</ref> Duhamel considered that the Persians were "incapable of any serious resistance" against the Russian forces and would be left no option but to allow their passage.<ref name=edwards269/> He thought that a forward Russian base could be established in the Eastern Persian [[Greater Khorasan]].<ref name=edwards269/>

[[File:The Khyber Pass with the fortress of Alimusjid - lithograph by James Rattray - 1848 (2).jpg|thumb|left|An 1848 depiction of the Khyber Pass]]
The onward thrust into India would be launched from Kabul or Kandahar. Duhamel preferred Kabul as it offered the quickest route, via the [[Khyber Pass]], to the Indian cities of [[Lahore]] and [[Delhi]], where he hoped that large numbers of rebels would rise to join his forces.<ref name=hopkirk/> It also offered the best prospects of loot and territorial gains for his Afghan allies.<ref name=edwards271/> This march from Kabul would be made via [[Jalalabad]] (Afghanistan), through the British Indian cities of [[Peshawar]] and [[Attock Khurd]]. Duhamel had hopes that the Muslim tribal population of this region would rebel and assist the expedition.<ref name=edwards271>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=Henry Sutherland |title=Russian Projects Against India from the Czar Peter to General Skobeleff |date=1885 |publisher=Remington & Company |page=271 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XUIAAAAQAAJ |language=en}}</ref> Duhamel had two alternatives for a Kandahar route: running through [[Quetta]], [[Dadu, Pakistan|Dadu]] and [[Shikarpur, Gujarat|Shikarpur]] or via [[Ghazni|Ghazna]] and [[Dera Ismail Khan Subdivision|Dera Ismail Khan]].<ref name=edwards270>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=Henry Sutherland |title=Russian Projects Against India from the Czar Peter to General Skobeleff |date=1885 |publisher=Remington & Company |page=270 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XUIAAAAQAAJ |language=en}}</ref> Duhamel noted that the Kandahar route would be the same as that taken by the [[First Anglo-Afghan War|1839 British invasion of Afghanistan]], but in reverse.<ref name=edwards271/> There was little detailed logistical planning. For example, he assumed that the Russian forces could consistently cover {{convert|25|verst|km}} a day across Persia and Afghanistan.<ref name=jervis>{{cite book |last1=Jervis |first1=Robert |last2=Snyder |first2=Jack L. |title=Dominoes and Bandwagons: Strategic Beliefs and Great Power Competition in the Eurasian Rimland |date=1991 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-506246-5 |page=253 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjXnCwAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref>

Duhamel considered the possibility of a British counter-expedition via the [[Persian Gulf]] but considered that they were unlikely to have time to do so. He thought that the Persian shah would be unlikely to ally with Britain provided Russia guaranteed that he could retain his throne. Duhamel thought that Persia may even attack Ottoman Turkey if Russia guaranteed the restoration of Ottoman-held Baghdad, Kerseldi and part of [[Kurdistan]] in any subsequent peace treaty.<ref name=edwards270/> Duhamel thought that Afghan support was vital to the expedition and was more important than any support from Persia or the former Sikh Empire.<ref name=edwards271/> Duhamel considered that Persia could be won over by a mixture of "threats and intimidation, presents and pensions". The Sikhs were to be encouraged to participate by the prospect of revenge against the British for the annexation of the [[Punjab]] in 1849 after the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]].<ref name=jervis/>

Duhamel considered that Russian forces need only be relatively small: "only a small army is needed, to form the kernel of the invasion round which all the conquered tribes would cluster, and which might be gradually reduced as a general rising caused the attacking forces to swell".<ref name=edwards271/> He also noted that "we do not invade India with a view to making conquests, but to overthrow the English rulers - or at least to weaken English power".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Druhe |first1=David N. |title=Russo-Indian Relations, 1466-1917 |date=1970 |publisher=Vantage Press |page=141 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4pEbAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>

== Impact ==
[[File:Взятие Ташкента.jpg|thumb|Russian troops occupying Tashkent, Kokand in 1865]]

Due to the demands of the war, no Russian troops could be spared for the operation and it was not carried out.<ref name=hopkirk/> A second invasion plan was proposed in 1854 by naval officer {{ill|Nikolai Chikhachev|ru|Чихачёв, Николай Матвеевич}} and a third by General {{ill|Stepan Khrulev|ru|Хрулёв, Степан Александрович}} in 1855 (the [[Khrulev plan]]) though, again, these were not progressed.<ref name=druhe/> The British historian [[Peter Hopkirk]], writing in 2001, notes that the British authorities in India were confident that any invasion of India via the [[Military history of the North-West Frontier|North-West Frontier]] could be defeated. Hopkirk considers that the Duhamel plan was unlikely to succeed, relying as they did on co-operation between Afghanistan and Persia and for their populations to allow a foreign army to march across their lands.<ref name=hopkirk/>

Duhamel was correct about the vulnerability of India to rebellion: the [[Indian Mutiny]] broke out there in 1857.<ref name=hopkirk/> The Crimean War had ended with Russian defeat in 1856 and Russia lent no support to the Indian rebels during the mutiny.<ref name=druhe11>{{cite book |last1=Druhe |first1=David N. |title=Soviet Russia and Indian Communism, 1917–1947: With an Epilogue Covering the Situation Today |date=1959 |publisher=Bookman Associates |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4E8iAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> In the following years Russia [[Russian conquest of Central Asia|consolidated its power in Central Asia]]: it [[Russian conquest of Bukhara|annexed Bukhara]] in 1868, [[Khivan campaign of 1873|Khiva in 1873]] and Kokand in 1876.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Coates |first1=William Peyton |last2=Coates |first2=Zelda Kahan |title=Soviets in Central Asia |date=1969 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-8371-2091-1 |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NIUrAQAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tompkins |first1=Stuart Ramsay |title=Russia Through the Ages: From the Scythians to the Soviets |date=1940 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |page=721 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fP3TAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Khrulev plan]], alternative contemporary Russian plan to invade India
* [[Indian March of Paul]], Napoleonic era plan to invade India in cooperation with France
* ''[[Flashman at the Charge]]'', novel by [[George MacDonald Fraser]] featuring the Duhamel plan as a plot element

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:1854 in British India]]
[[Category:Cancelled military operations involving the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Cancelled or proposed Russian and Soviet invasions of British India]]
[[Category:Russia–United Kingdom relations]]
[[Category:19th century in Delhi]]

Saare Jahan Se Accha (2025 TV series)

2026-03-30T11:46:08Z

Olympiados: adding basic data w/ refs!

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Saare Jahan Se Accha (2025 series) poster.jpg
| caption = Promotional poster
| creator = Gaurav Shukla
| writer = {{plainlist|
* Bhavesh Mandalia
* Gaurav Shukla
* Meghna Srivastava
* Abhijeet Khuman
* Shivam Shankar
* Kunal Kushwah
* Ishraq Shah
}}
| director = Sumit Purohit
| starring = {{plainlist|
* [[Pratik Gandhi]]
* [[Sunny Hinduja]]
* [[Suhail Nayyar]]
* [[Kritika Kamra]]
* [[Tillotama Shome]]
* [[Rajat Kapoor]]
* [[Anup Soni]]
}}
| music = Ketan Sodha
| cinematography = Dmytro Nedria Debojeet Ray Jay I. Patel
| editor = Aarif Sheikh
| country = India
| language = {{ubl|[[Hindi]]|[[Urdu]]|[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]}}
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 6
| producer = Bombay Fables
| network = [[Netflix]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|2025|08|13|df=y}}
}}

'''''Saare Jahan Se Accha''''' is an Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[action thriller]] [[Spy film|spy television]] series created by Gaurav Shukla. The series was developed by [[Netflix]] and released on 13 August 2025.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yp-eXwOALwo |title=Saare Jahan Se Accha {{!}} Official Teaser {{!}} Pratik Gandhi, Tillotama, Sunny Hinduja {{!}} Netflix India |date=2025-02-03 |last=Netflix India |access-date=2025-04-10 |via=YouTube}}</ref> A resilient Indian spy must defeat his counterpart across the border in Pakistan, in a battle of wits and tradecraft to sabotage [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|its nuclear program]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Blockbusters, Originals and Iconic Returns — You're Not Ready for What's Next on Netflix India in 2025 |url=https://about.netflix.com/en/news/next-on-netflix-india-2025 |access-date=2025-04-10 |website=About Netflix |language=en}}</ref>

== Plot ==
In 1960s, after [[India]] has endured two conflicts within a space of five years, renowned Indian nuclear physicist, [[Homi J. Bhabha|Dr. Homi J. Bhabha]], makes a public statement advocating India to become a nuclear power. This draws the attention of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], which begins covert operations to sabotage India's nuclear program.

A junior operative in Indian [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]], Vishnu Shankar uncovers the classified details about Bhabha's travel plans having been leaked to American agents, he races to thwart an impending assassination plot. Despite his efforts, Bhabha dies when his flight to Geneva [[Air India Flight 101|explodes in 1966]], effectively stalling India's nuclear program. This event leads to creation of [[Research and Analysis Wing|Research & Analysis Wing]], India's specialised espionage organisation in enemy territories, headed by [[R. N. Kao]].

In 1972, in the aftermath of the [[Simla Agreement|Shimla Agreement]], [[Pakistan]]'s Prime Minister [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] decides to scale up his country's nuclear program. Kao gets this intelligence from his counterpart in [[Mossad]], and sends his intelligence officer, Vishnu Shankar to [[Islamabad]] on a covert mission to sabotage Pakistan's nuclear program. Once in Islamabad, Vishnu gets to work in finding out where Pakistan is building its nuclear facilities.

Meanwhile, Murtaza Malik, head of [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]], has taken on the task of cleaning out foreign secret operatives in Pakistan. He is brother-in-law and colleague of brigadier Naushad Ahmed, a high ranking official in the [[Pakistan Army|Pakistani Army]]. Naushad is an informant to R&AW under duress, and supplies the crucial information to Vishnu Shankar that Pakistan is buying nuclear reactors instead of creating them from scratch as previously assumed. Soon after, Naushad is caught and killed by Murtaza.

Naushad's intel changes the focus of Vishnu's mission to tracking down who Pakistan is buying the reactors from. Through his covert operatives, Sukhbir (operating under the false identity of [[Karachi Stock Exchange|Karachi Stock]] Trader, Rafiq) and Vikram operating in [[Paris]], he figures out that Pakistan is making secret payments to a French company, HGN, to secure these reactors. Vikram, collaborates with his Mossad counterpart, Maria, and two other R&AW agents in Paris to track and murder the ISI agent in charge overseeing these payments.

In Islamabad, Vishnu seeks to fill the void left by Naushad's death. He recruits Fatima Khan, the Editor of Haqeeqat newspaper who is critical of the ongoing regime and is the niece of [[Munir Ahmad Khan|Munir Khan]], the nuclear physicist leading Pakistan's nuclear mission. With Fatima's intel, Vishnu obtains the time and location of the incoming shipment from France that contains disassembled nuclear reactor, and blows up the ship, losing four Indian agents and several Pakistani soldiers in the process.

The end credits chronicle that India tested its first nuclear weapon shortly afterwards, [[Smiling Buddha|in 1974]], and Pakistan [[Chagai-I|in 1998]] - 24 years later.

== Cast ==

* [[Pratik Gandhi]] as Vishnu P. Shankar, under [[official cover]] senior [[Research & Analysis Wing|R&AW]] officer working at [[High Commission of India, Islamabad]]
* [[Sunny Hinduja]] as Ali Murtaza Malik, [[Director-General of Inter-Services Intelligence|Director-General]] of [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]], Pakistan
* [[Rajat Kapoor]] as [[R. N. Kao]], [[Secretary of R&AW]], India
* [[Suhail Nayyar]] as Sukhbir/Rafiq, R&AW agent, disguised as a stock broker in Pakistan
* [[Tillotama Shome]] as Mohini Shankar {{née}} Nath, Vishnu's wife
* [[Ninad Kamat]] as Nirmal Raibhan Adhikari, R&AW officer at High Commission of India, [[Islamabad]]
* [[Kritika Kamra]] as Fatima Khan, editor journalist at Haqeeqat Newspaper, Pakistan
* [[Anup Soni]] as [[Brigadier general|Brigadier]] Naushad Javed Ahmed, [[Pakistan Army]], brother in law of Ali Murtaza
* [[Nakul Roshan Sahdev]] as Ghulam
* Atul Kumar as [[Munir Ahmad Khan]], Pakistani [[Nuclear physics|nuclear physicist]] working on making of Pakistan's first atomic bomb
* Kunal Mann as Junaid Bawa
* [[Hemant Kher]] as [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]], [[President of Pakistan|President]] and [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]]
* [[Rajesh Khera]] as Bilal Jahangir Baweja, arms dealer for the ISI, [[British Pakistanis|Pakistani in the UK]]
* Scott Alexander Young as [[Henry Kissinger]], 56th [[United States Secretary of State]]
* Satyen Chaturvedi as [[Brotherly Leader and Guide of the Revolution|Brotherly Leader]] [[Colonel]] [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Ruler of [[Libya]]
* Vivek Tandon as [[Homi Jehangir Bhabha]], Indian [[Nuclear Physicist]]
* Kunal Thakur as [[Vikram Sarabhai]], Indian [[Physicist]]
* Avantika Akerkar as [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Indira Gandhi]]
* Tibor Kákonyi as Ben Adler, Director of [[Mossad]]
* Stephanie Schlesser as Marya, a Mossad agent, supporting a group of agents of R&AW in [[Paris]]
* Kunal Thakur as Vikram, a R&AW agent in Paris
* Diksha Juneja as Naseem Q. Siddiqui
* Kapil Radha as Rizwan Ahmad Anwar

== Production ==
The series features several true events in its storyline during the [[India–Pakistan wars and conflicts#Risk of nuclear conflict|nuclear tensions between Indian and Pakistan]] in 1960s and 1970s, including:<ref>{{Cite web |title=India and Pakistan -- On the Nuclear Threshold |url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB6/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=nsarchive2.gwu.edu}}</ref>

* [[Homi J. Bhabha|Dr. Homi J. Bhabha]]'s claims to build India's nuclear weapons within 18 months and his death in a plane crash in 1966, and the allegations of assassination.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Perkovich |first=George |title=India's nuclear bomb: the impact on global proliferation |date=1999 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-21772-0 |location=Berkeley}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=1966-01-25 |title=Plane Crash Victim Led India's Nuclear Effort; Dr. Bhabha Was His Country's Foremost Atomic Scientist Denied Secret Preparations to Set Off an Explosion (Published 1966) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1966/01/25/archives/plane-crash-victim-led-indias-nuclear-effort-dr-bhabha-was-his.html |access-date=2025-08-15 |language=en}}</ref>
* Creation of [[Research & Analysis Wing|R&AW]] in 1968.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bajoria |first=Jayshree |title=RAW: India’s External Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/raw-indias-external-intelligence-agency |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |language=en}}</ref>
* The [[Simla Agreement|Shimla Agreement]] in 1972.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Treaty Detail |url=http://mea.gov.in/TreatyDetail.htm?1578 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630064929/http://mea.gov.in/TreatyDetail.htm?1578 |archive-date=2022-06-30 |access-date=2025-08-15 |work=[[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs]], [[Government of India]] |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]]'s establishment of [[Project-706|Project 706]], which brought over several Pakistani nuclear physicists living abroad including [[Munir Ahmad Khan]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Feroz |title=Eating Grass: The Making of the Pakistani Bomb |date=2014 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8480-1 |location=Redwood City}}</ref>

==Reception==
[[Deepa Gahlot]] of ''[[Rediff.com]]'' gave 3.5 stars and observed that "The always dependable Pratik Gandhi finds a match in Sunny Hinduja and they are surrounded by a top notch supporting cast."<ref>{{Cite web |first=Deepa|last=Gahlot|title=Saare Jahan Se Accha Review: Gripping Thriller |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/saare-jahan-se-accha-review/20250813.htm|access-date=2025-08-13 |website=Rediff.com}}</ref>
[[Shubhra Gupta]] of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' gave 2.5 stars out of 5 and said that "The best thing about the handsomely-mounted show is that it steers clear of vicious jingoism while waving the flag. You wish it didn’t peter off towards the end."<ref>{{Cite web |first=Shubhra|last=Gupta|title=Saare Jahan Se Accha review: Sunny Hinduja and Suhail Nayyar steal the show, which peters off towards the end|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/saare-jahan-se-accha-review-sunny-hinduja-and-suhail-nayyar-steal-the-show-which-peters-off-towards-the-end-10186635/|access-date=2025-08-13 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref>
Lachmi Deb Roy of ''[[Firstpost]]'' rated 3.5/5 stars and said that "The show may be wanting in many departments, but it mostly gets everything right and that’s what makes it a must-watch."<ref>{{Cite web |first=Lachmi Deb|last=Roy|title=Netflix ‘Saare Jahan Se Accha’ Review: Flawless performances by Pratik Gandhi, Anup Soni, Sunny Hinduja, Suhail Nayyar in a sharp espionage show|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/netflix-saare-jahan-se-accha-review-flawless-performances-by-pratik-gandhi-anup-soni-sunny-hinduja-suhail-nayyar-in-a-sharp-espionage-show-13924309.html|access-date=2025-08-13 |website=Firstpost}}</ref>

Anuj Kumar of ''[[The Hindu]]'' observed that "Despite strong performances and a powerful premise, the six-episode espionage drama ‘Saare Jahan Se Accha’ feels like a mission that has been compromised."<ref>{{Cite web |first=Anuj|last=Kumar|title=‘Saare Jahan Se Accha’ series review: Know your spy with Pratik Gandhi and Sunny Hinduja|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/saare-jahan-se-accha-series-review-pratik-gandhi-sunny-hinduja-sumit-purohit/article69940306.ece|access-date=2025-08-13 |website=The Hindu}}</ref>
Rashmi Vasudeva of ''[[Deccan Herald]]'' rated it 3/5 stars and said that "It has got quite the perfectly-timed release. Although far from perfect, it is atmospheric in parts and largely engaging."<ref>{{Cite web |first=Rashmi|last=Vasudeva|title='Saare Jahan Se Accha' web series review: Spy drama marked by restraint|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/saare-jahan-se-accha-web-series-review-spy-drama-marked-by-restraint-3683129|access-date=2025-08-13 |website=Deccan Herald}}</ref>
Sana Farzeen of ''[[India Today]]'' gave 3.5 stars outof 5 and said that "In the end, 'Saare Jahan Se Accha' works because it's not the story of any James Bond but regular-looking, Indian family men, who believe serving their country is their only duty. It also understands that espionage is not just about pointing guns or indulging in mindless killings."<ref>{{Cite web |first=Sana|last=Farzeen|title=Saare Jahan Se Accha review: Taut tale of spies and sacrifice with impactful performances|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/entertainment/ott/story/saare-jahan-se-accha-review-spy-drama-india-pakistan-nuclear-tensions-2770654-2025-08-13|access-date=2025-08-13 |website=India Today}}</ref>

Rahul Desai of ''[[The Hollywood Reporter India]]'' commeneted that "The six-episode spy thriller is compromised by its own mixed identity".<ref>{{Cite web |first=Rahul|last=Desai|title=‘Saare Jahan Se Accha' Series Review: Pratik Gandhi's Espionage Drama Is Lost In Translation|url=https://www.hollywoodreporterindia.com/reviews/streaming/saare-jahan-se-accha-series-review-pratik-gandhis-espionage-drama-is-lost-in-translation|access-date=2025-08-13 |website=The Hollywood Reporter India}}</ref>
Shreyanka Mazumdar of ''[[News 18]]'' rated 3.5/5 stars and said that "A sharp, edge-of-the-seat political thriller driven by powerhouse performances. You will want to watch it in one go."<ref>{{Cite web |first=Shreyanka|last=Mazumdar|title=Saare Jahan Se Accha Review: Pratik Gandhi, Sunny Hinduja Keep You Hooked In This Taut Spy Thriller|url=https://www.news18.com/movies/web-series/saare-jahan-se-accha-review-pratik-gandhi-sunny-hinduja-keep-you-hooked-in-this-taut-spy-thriller-9500276.html|access-date=2025-08-13 |website=News 18}}</ref>
Aishwarya Vasudevan of ''[[OTT Play]]'' rated 2.5/5 stars and said that "Saare Jahan Se Accha boasts strong performances by Pratik Gandhi and Sunny Hinduja, but safe execution, predictable plot, & lack of real thrills keep this espionage drama from reaching its potential."<ref>{{Cite web |first=Aishwarya|last=Vasudevan|title=Saare Jahan Se Accha review: Pratik Gandhi anchors a safe spy thriller that avoids real risks|url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/saare-jahan-se-accha-review-pratik-gandhi-anchors-safe-spy-thriller-that-avoids-real-risks/c0bee843ee627|access-date=2025-08-13 |website=OTT Play}}</ref>

Dhaval Roy of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave 3.5 stars out of 5 and commented that "The spy drama is a must-watch for its pulse-pounding tension, taut narrative, and stellar performances that leave a lasting impression."<ref>{{Cite web |first=Dhaval|last=Roy|title=Saare Jahan Se Accha: The Silent Guardians Season 1 Review : A taut, tense spy thriller that delivers in every scene|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/hindi/saare-jahan-se-accha-the-silent-guardians/season-1/seasonreview/123253009.cms|access-date=2025-08-13 |website=The Times of India}}</ref>
Subhash K Jha of ''[[News 24 (Indian TV channel)|News 24]]'' gave rated it 2/5 stars and said that "Everyone tries to look involved and busy. But the lame execution of the plot fells any lofty aspirations. The lack of funds is visible everywhere: Islamabad looks like Chandni Chowk on a dry day."<ref>{{Cite web |first=Subhash K|last=Jha|title=‘Sare Jahan Se Achcha’ Review: Flat Direction, Uneven Performances, Weak Climax…But Jai Hind|url=https://news24online.com/entertainment/sare-jahan-se-achcha-review-flat-direction-uneven-performances-weak-climaxbut-jai-hind/614046/|access-date=2025-08-13 |website=News 24}}</ref>
Nandini Ramnath of ''[[Scroll.in]]'' observed that "Saare Jahan Se Accha goes into fantasy mode at times to assert [[Research and Analysis Wing|RAW’s]] Mossad-like prowess. The factor of doubt over the human cost of espionage survives the imperative to show Pakistan on the back foot yet again."<ref>{{Cite web |first=Nandini|last=Ramnath|title=‘Saare Jahan Se Accha’ review: Show about Pakistan’s nuclear bomb has a welcome unruly element|url=https://scroll.in/reel/1085195/saare-jahan-se-accha-review-show-about-pakistans-nuclear-bomb-has-a-welcome-unruly-element|access-date=2025-08-13 |website=Scroll.in}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
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Northern Andamanese language

2026-03-29T05:36:59Z

Olympiados:

{{Short description|Native language of North Andaman Island, India}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Northern Andamanese
| states = [[India]]
| region = [[Andaman Islands]]; North Andaman island
| ethnicity = [[Andamanese]]
| speakers = 3
| date = 2020
| ref = <ref>{{e25|akj|Akajeru}}</ref>
| familycolor = Andamanese
| fam1 = [[Great Andamanese languages|Great Andamanese]]
| fam2 = Northern Andamanese – [[Akakede|Kede]]
| dia1 = [[Akacari]] (Cari) {{extinct}}
| dia2 = [[Akakhora]] (Kora) {{extinct}}
| dia3 = [[Akabo dialect|Akabo]] (Bo) {{extinct}}
| dia4 = [[Akajeru]] (Jeru)
| glotto = nort2678
| glottorefname = Northern Great Andamanese
| map2 = Lang Status 20-CR.svg
| mapcaption2 = {{center|Great andamanese {{sic}} is classified as Critically Endangered according to the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.<ref>{{cite report |title=Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger |publisher=UNESCO |edition=3rd |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026/PDF/187026eng.pdf.multi |date=2010 |page=31}}</ref>}}
| lc1 = aci
| lc2 = ack
| lc3 = akj
| lc4 = akm
| ld1 = Aka-Cari
| ld2 = Aka-Kora
| ld3 = Aka-Jeru
| ld4 = Aka-Bo
}}

'''Northern Andamanese''' is the critically endangered native language of [[North Andaman Island]]. It is closely related to [[Akakede language|Akakede]] and seems to have consisted of four [[mutually intelligible]] dialects: [[Akachari dialect|Akachari]] (Cari), [[Akakhora dialect|Akakhora]] (Kora), [[Akabo dialect|Akabo]] (Bo), and [[Akajeru dialect|Akajeru]] (Jeru). Jeru is the only one with speakers remaining.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zamponi |first=Raoul |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10137813/1/A-Grammar-of-Akajeru.pdf.pdf |title=A grammar of Akajeru: fragments of a traditional North Andamanese dialect |last2=Comrie |first2=Bernard |date=2021 |publisher=UCL Press |isbn=978-1-80008-093-5 |series=Grammars of world and minority languages |location=London}}</ref><ref>Bernard Comrie & Raoul Zamponi. 2019. Subgrouping and lexical distance in the Great Andamanese family. In Wortschätze & Sprachwelten, ''Beiträge zu Sprachtypologie, kontrastiver Wort- bzw. Wortschatzforschung und Pragmatik'', edited by Michail L. Kotin, 35–57. Berlin: Peter Lang</ref>

When the North Andamanese people were resettled to [[Strait Island]], [[Mixed Great Andamanese|a ''koiné'']] developed from the resulting mixture of dialects. It went extinct in the early 2000s.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Andamanese languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Great Andamanese languages]]
[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[Category:Critically endangered languages]]

Kiran Bedi

2026-03-24T14:58:57Z

Olympiados:

{{Short description|First female Indian Police Service Officer (born 1949) first IPS}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2016}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Kiran Bedi
| image = Dr. Kiran Bedi in 2017 (cropped).jpg
| caption =
| birth_name = Kiran Peshawaria
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1949|06|09}}
| birth_place = [[Amritsar]], [[Punjab]], [[India]]
| citizenship = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| honorific_prefix = [[Her Excellency]]
| honorific_suffix = [[President's Police Medal|PPMG]] [[United Nations Medal|PNBB]]
| residence = [[New Delhi]]
| education = Sacred Heart Convent School Cambridge College
| alma_mater = S.R. Govt. College ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] [[Honours degree|Hons]]) ([[Master of Arts|MA]]) [[Delhi University]] ([[Bachelor of Laws|LLB]]) [[IIT Delhi]] ([[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]])
| office = 24th [[Lieutenant Governor of Pondicherry]]
| term_start = {{Start date|2016|05|28|df=yes}}
| term_end = {{End date|2021|02|16|df=yes}}
| 1blankname = Chief Minister
| 1namedata = [[V. Narayanasamy]]
| predecessor = [[A. K. Singh]]
| successor = [[Tamilisai Soundararajan]] ''(additional charge)''
| title1 = Director General of [[Bureau of Police Research and Development]]
| term_start1 = {{Start_date|2005||}}
| term_end1 = {{End_date|2007||}}
| successor1 =
| title2 = Police Adviser and Director of [[United Nations Police]]
| term_start2 = {{Start_date|2003||}}
| term_end2 = {{End_date|2005||}}|
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| otherparty = [[National Democratic Alliance]]
| spouse = {{Marriage|Brij Bedi|1972|2016|reason=died}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/Kiran-Bedis-Husband-Brij-Bedi-Passes-Away-in-Gurgaon/2016/01/31/article3254670.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202180727/http://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/Kiran-Bedis-Husband-Brij-Bedi-Passes-Away-in-Gurgaon/2016/01/31/article3254670.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 February 2016 |title=Kiran Bedi's Husband Brij Bedi Passed Away in Gurgaon |date=31 January 2016 |newspaper=The New Indian Express }}</ref>
| children = 1
| parents = {{ubl|Prakash Lal Peshawaria|Prem Lata}}
| relatives = [[Anu Peshawaria]] (Sister), Tek Chandra Arora
| awards = {{ubl|[[United Nations Medal]], 2004|[[Ramon Magsaysay Award]], 1994|[[President's Police Medal]], 1979}}
| website =
| footnotes =
| occupation = Athlete ,Police Officer and Politician
}}
'''Kiran Bedi''' {{post-nominals|list=[[President's Police Medal|PPMG]] [[United Nations Medal|PNBB]]}} (born 9 June 1949) is a former tennis player who became the first Indian woman to join the officer ranks of the [[Indian Police Service|Indian Police Service (IPS)]] in 1972 and was the 24th lieutenant governor of Puducherry from 28 May 2016 to 16 February 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kiran Bedi removed as Lt Governor of Puducherry |url=https://www.netindian.in/news/national/kiran-bedi-removed-as-lt-governor-of-puducherry |website=NetIndian |date=16 February 2021 |access-date=17 February 2021 |last1=Network |first1=Netindian News }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abplive.com/news/india/kiran-bedi-removed-as-lg-of-puducherry-1776010|title= किरण बेदी को पुडुचेरी के उपराज्यपाल पद से हटाया गया, सीएम ने जताई खुशी|website= Abp Live|date= 16 February 2021|language=hi |access-date=2021-02-16}}</ref>{{sfn|Iyer|2012|p=26}} She remained in service for 35 years before taking voluntary retirement in 2007 as Director General, Bureau of Police Research and Development.

As a teenager, Bedi was crowned the national junior tennis champion in 1966. Between 1965 and 1978, she won several titles at various national and state-level championships. After joining the IPS, Bedi served in [[Delhi]], [[Goa]], [[Chandigarh]] and [[Mizoram]]. She started her career as an [[Assistant superintendent of police|Assistant Superintendent of Police]] (ASP) in the [[Chanakyapuri]] area of Delhi, and won the [[President's Police Medal]] in 1979. Next, she moved to [[West Delhi]], where she brought about a reduction in crimes against women. Subsequently, as a [[traffic police]] officer, she oversaw traffic arrangements for the [[1982 Asian Games]] in Delhi and the [[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 1983]] in Goa. As [[Deputy commissioner of police (India)|Deputy Commissioner of Police]] of [[North Delhi]], she launched a campaign against [[drug abuse]], which evolved into the Navjyoti Delhi Police Foundation (renamed to Navjyoti India Foundation in 2007).

In May 1993, Bedi was posted to the Delhi Prisons as Inspector General (IG). She introduced several reforms at [[Tihar Jail]], which won her the [[Ramon Magsaysay Award]] in 1994. In 2003, Bedi became the first Indian and first woman to be appointed head of the [[United Nations Police]] and Police Advisor in the [[United Nations Department of Peace Operations]]. She resigned in 2007, to focus on social activism and writing. She runs the India Vision Foundation. During 2008–11, she hosted a [[court show]] ''[[Aap Ki Kachehri]]''. She was one of the key leaders of the [[2011 Indian anti-corruption movement]], and joined the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in January 2015. She unsuccessfully contested the [[2015 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2015 Delhi Assembly election]] as the party's chief minister candidate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kiran Bedi: India's Pioneering IPS Officer Who Redefined Policing and Public Service |url=https://www.brutimes.com/news/social/kiran-bedi-indias-pioneering-ips-officer-who-redefined-policing-and-public-service |website=Bru Times News |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Kiran Peshawaria was born on 9 June 1949 in [[Amritsar]], [[Punjab]], [[India]], into a [[Punjabis|Punjabi]] business family. She is the second child of Prakash Lal Peshawaria and Prem Lata (born Janak Arora).<ref name="AT_2015_joins"/> She has three sisters: Shashi, Reeta, and Anu.<ref name="BP_2014_serve">{{cite news |url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/print/402718/ |title=Living to serve |newspaper=Bangkok Post |date=31 March 2014 |last1=Viboonchart |first1=Nalin }}</ref> Her great-great-grandfather Lala Hargobind had migrated from [[Peshawar]] to Amritsar, where he set up a business. Bedi's upbringing was not very religious, but she was brought up in both [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Sikhism|Sikh]] traditions (her grandmother was a [[Sikh]], although her other family members were [[Hindu]]).{{sfn|Iyer|2012|p=15}} Prakash Lal helped with the family's textile business, and also played [[Tennis]].

Bedi's grandfather Muni Lal controlled the family business and gave an [[allowance (money)|allowance]] to her father. He cut this allowance when Bedi's elder sister Shashi was enrolled in the Sacred Heart Convent School, Amritsar. Although the school was 16 km away from their home, Shashi's parents believed it offered a better education than other schools. Muni Lal was opposed to his grandchild being educated in a Christian school. However, Prakash Lal declared financial independence and enrolled all his daughters, including Kiran, in the same school.<ref name="Deepa_2005">{{cite book |title=Our Leaders |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ch5YDhFPKhEC&pg=PA137 |publisher=Children's Book Trust |isbn=978-81-7011-988-3 |pages=137–160 |chapter=Kiran Bedi |author=Deepa Agarwal |editor=Geeta Menon |year=1989 }}</ref> Bedi started her formal studies in 1954, at the Sacred Heart Convent School in Amritsar. She participated in [[National Cadet Corps (India)|National Cadet Corps]] (NCC), among other extra-curricular activities. At that time, Sacred Heart did not offer science; instead, it had a subject called "[[Home Science|household]]", which was aimed at grooming girls into being good [[housewife|housewives]].

When Bedi was in Class 9, she joined the Cambridge College, a private institute that offered science education and prepared her for the [[Matriculation in India|matriculation]] exam. By the time her former schoolmates at Sacred Heart cleared Class 9, she cleared the Class 10 (matriculation) exam.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|p=20}} Bedi graduated in 1968, with a [[Bachelor of Arts]] ([[Honours degree|Honours]]) in English, from Government College for Women at Amritsar. The same year, she won the NCC Cadet Officer Award. In 1970, she obtained a [[master's degree]] in [[political science]] from [[Panjab University]] in [[Chandigarh]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.rediff.com/getahead/slide-show/slide-show-1-achievers-meet-indias-best-students-kiran-bedi-shyam-benegal/20100315.htm |title=India's best students: Kiran Bedi, CV Raman |date=15 March 2010 |publisher=rediff/Careers360 }}</ref>

From 1970 to 1972, Bedi taught as a lecturer at [[Khalsa College, Amritsar|Khalsa College]] for Women in Amritsar. She taught courses related to political science. Later, during her career in the Indian Police Service, she also earned a [[Bachelor of Law|Bachelors of Law degree]] from the [[Faculty of Law, University of Delhi]] in 1988 and a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Doctorate of Philosophy]] from the [[IIT Delhi|Indian Institute of Technology - Delhi]]'s Department of Humanities and Social Sciences in [[New Delhi]] in 1993.<ref name="BP_2014_serve"/>

==Tennis career==

Inspired by her father, Bedi started playing [[tennis]] at the age of nine. As a teenage tennis player, she cut her hair short as it interfered with her game.<ref name="IE_comic_2014">{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ludhiana/kiran-bedis-biography-released-in-the-form-of-32-page-comic/ |title=Kiran Bedi's biography released in the form of 32-page comic |author=Divya Goyal |date=21 November 2014 |newspaper = Indian Express }}</ref> In 1964, she played her first tournament outside Amritsar, participating in the national junior lawn tennis championship at Delhi Gymkhana. She lost in early rounds, but came back to win the trophy two years later, in 1966.<ref name="Pradip_2001">{{cite book |author1=Pratip Kumar Datta |title=A century of Indian tennis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0OCBAAAAMAAJ |year=2001 |publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India |isbn=978-81-230-0783-0 |page=95 }}</ref> As the national champion, she was eligible for entry to the Wimbledon junior championship, but was not nominated by the Indian administration.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ratna Joshi |title=Inner Journey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fCqtAloT5TkC&pg=PA32 |date=2010 |publisher=Dorrance Publishing |isbn=978-1-4349-0452-2 |page=32 }}</ref>

Between 1965 and 1978, Bedi won several tennis championships in India, including:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Title
! Year
! Place
! Notes / Source
|-
| Junior National Lawn Tennis Championship
| 1966
| [[Amritsar]]
| <ref name="Pradip_2001"/>
|-
| All-India Intervarsity Tennis Title
| 1968
| [[Vishakhapatnam]]
| With her younger sister Reeta.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/andhra-university-tennis-team-confident-of-retaining-title/article982129.ece |title=Andhra University tennis team confident of retaining title |date=27 December 2010 |newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref> The pair won the championship three years in a row.<ref name="RMAF_1994">{{cite web |url=http://www.rmaf.org.ph/newrmaf/main/awardees/awardee/biography/155 |title=Biography of Kiran Bedi |publisher=Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation |access-date=19 January 2015 |year=1994 |archive-date=21 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221004245/http://www.rmaf.org.ph/newrmaf/main/awardees/awardee/biography/155 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| Northern India Lawn Tennis Championship
| 1970
| [[Chandigarh]]
| {{sfn|Saxena|2000|p=232}}
|-
| Asian Lawn Tennis Championship
| 1972
| [[Pune]]
| {{sfn|Saxena|2000|p=232}}
|-
| All-India Hard Court Tennis Championship
| 1974
|
| <ref name="Pradip_2001"/>
|-
| All India Interstate Women's Lawn Tennis Championship
| 1975
| New Delhi
| {{sfn|Iyer|2012|p=22}}
|-
| National Women's Lawn Tennis Championship
| 1976
| Chandigarh
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Kiran-Bedi/articleshow/30881197.cms |title=Kiran Bedi |newspaper=The Times of India |date=10 December 2002 |author=Shivangi Yadav }}</ref>
|-
| Gold medal, National Sports Festival for Women
| 1976
| New Delhi
| With her sister Anu<ref name="RMAF_1994"/>
|}

Bedi was also a part of the Indian team that beat [[Sri Lanka]] to win the Lionel Fonseka Memorial Trophy in [[Colombo]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Careers Digest, Volume 10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qlYhAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1142 |year=1973 |page=1142 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2004/09/12/fea15.html |title=Kiran Bedi : She dared to care |newspaper=[[Sunday Observer (Sri Lanka)|Sunday Observer]] |date=12 September 2004 |access-date=22 January 2015 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924120802/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2004/09/12/fea15.html |url-status=live }}</ref> She continued playing tennis until the age of thirty, when she started focusing on her Indian Police Service career. In 1972, she married fellow tennis player Brij Bedi; the two had met on Service Club courts in Amritsar.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Kiran Bedi |journal=Frontline |volume=12 |issue=10–13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZadKAQAAIAAJ |date=June 1995 }}</ref>

==Indian Police Service Career==

As a young woman, Bedi frequented the Service Club in Amritsar, where interaction with senior civil servants inspired her to take up a public service career. On 16 July 1972, Bedi started her police training at the [[Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration|National Academy of Administration]] in [[Mussoorie]]. She was the only woman in a batch of 80 men, and became the first woman IPS officer. After a 6-month foundation course, she underwent another 9 months of police training at Mount Abu in Rajasthan, and further training with Punjab Police in 1974. Based on a draw, she was allocated to the [[union territory]] cadre (now called AGMUT or [[Arunachal Pradesh]]-[[Goa]]-[[Mizoram]]-Union Territories cadre).{{sfn|Iyer|2012|p=26}}

=== First posting in Delhi ===

Bedi's first posting was to the [[Chandni Chowk]]subdivision of Delhi in 1975. The same year, she became the first woman to lead the all-male contingent of the Delhi Police at the [[Delhi Republic Day parade|Republic Day Parade]] in 1975.<ref name="AT_2015_joins">{{cite news |url=http://www.asiatimes.com.au/kiran-bedi-joins-bjp-could-be-next-cm-of-delhi/ |title=Kiran Bedi joins Bharat Janata Party(BJP)|newspaper=Asia Times |date=15 February 2015 |access-date=22 January 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402081245/http://www.asiatimes.com.au/kiran-bedi-joins-bjp-could-be-next-cm-of-delhi/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Her daughter Sukriti (later Saina) was born in September 1975.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|p=26}}

Chandni Chowk was an affluent area that included the [[Sansad Bhavan|Parliament building]], fish markets, and the residences of the [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]] and the [[Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi|president]]. The crimes in the area were mainly limited to minor thefts, but political demonstrations (which sometimes turned violent) were a regular occurrence. During the 1980s, there were many clashes between [[Nirankari]] and [[Akali Dal|Akali]] Sikhs. On 3 December, a group of Nirankaris held a congregation near India Gate. A contingent of 700–800 Akalis organized a demonstration against them. DCP Bedi's [[platoon]] was deployed to stop the protesters and prevent violence. As the protesters resorted to brick-batting, Bedi charged them with a cane, although there was no tear gas squad to support her unit. One of the demonstrators ran towards her with a naked sword, but she charged him as well as other demonstrators with a cane. Ultimately, her unit was able to disperse the demonstrators. For this action, Bedi was awarded the [[President's Police Medal]] for Gallantry (1979), in October 1980.{{sfn|Saxena|2000|p=33}}

In 1979, Bedi was posted to Delhi's [[West Delhi|West District]], where there were not enough officers to handle the high volume of criminal activity. To compensate, she started recruiting civilian volunteers. Each village in the district was night patrolled by six civilians led by an armed policeman. She enabled anonymous reporting of any knowledge about crimes. She clamped down on bootlegging and the illicit liquor business to reduce crimes in the area. Bedi implemented an open door policy, which encouraged citizens to interact with her. She implemented a "beat box" system: a complaint box was installed in each ward, and the beat constables were instructed to have their lunch near this box at a set time each day. She regularly asked people if they knew about the [[beat (police)|beat constable]] assigned to their area, and also walked with the constables to raise their self-esteem. Within 3 months, there was a reduction in crimes. There was a drop in cases related to "[[eve teasing]]" (sexual harassment of women) and wife beating. This gained her the goodwill of local women, who also volunteered their services to help fight crime in the area.<ref name="RMAF_1994"/>

In October 1981, Bedi was made DCP (Traffic). The preparation for the [[1982 Asian Games]] had caused traffic snarls in the city. The construction of 19 sports [[stadium]]s and several [[overpass|flyovers]] had resulted in a number of blockades and diversions. Bedi encouraged coordination between the [[Municipal Corporation of Delhi]], [[Delhi Vidyut Board|Delhi Electric Supply Undertaking]] and [[Delhi Development Authority]]. She clamped down on errant motorists with a heavy hand. She replaced challans ([[traffic ticket]]s) with spot fines. Her team towed improperly parked vehicles using six [[tow truck]]s ("[[Truck-mounted crane|cranes]]") for traffic control. This earned her the nickname "Crane Bedi". On 5 August 1982, an Ambassador car (DHI 1817) belonging to [[Prime Minister's Office (India)|Prime Minister Office]] was towed away by sub-inspector Nirmal Singh, as it was wrongly parked outside the Yusufzai Market at [[Connaught Place, New Delhi|Connaught Place]]. Singh was fully supported by Bedi and her superior Ashok Tandon.<ref name="Deepa_2005"/>{{sfn|Saxena|2000|p=149}}

To raise funds for traffic guidance materials, Bedi presented Asian Games traffic management plan to a group of sponsors. The sponsors committed to providing road safety and other educational material worth {{INR}}35 lakh. She also bought traffic police jeeps for her officers; for the first time, four wheelers were allocated to inspectors in the traffic unit. After the Asian Games were over, she was given ''Asian Jyoti'' award for excellence. She refused to accept the award for herself alone, and recommended that it be given to entire traffic unit.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|pp=32–33}}

Bedi did not spare errant motorists from the rich and influential section of society, which resulted in a powerful lobby against her. Her victims included the director of the Central Bureau of Investigation and her own sister-in-law.<ref name="IT_1988_comeback">{{cite journal |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/special-report/story/19880430-my-goal-is-not-just-equality-but-to-be-very-independent-kiran-bedi-797203-1988-04-29 |title='I'm a comeback girl' |author=Raj Chengappa |date=30 April 1988 |journal=India Today }}</ref> After the Asian Games were over, she was transferred to Goa for 3 years. According to contemporary rumours, Indira Gandhi's aides [[R. K. Dhawan]] and Yashpal Kapoor, as well as her yoga instructor [[Dhirendra Brahmachari]] (whom Bedi had personally fined for a wrongly parked car), played a role in her transfer.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.abplive.in/author/rasheedkidwai/2015/01/20/article480352.ece/Throwback-Kiran-Bedis-brush-with-power |title=Throwback: When Kiran Bedi booked the PM's car |author=[[Rasheed Kidwai]] |date=20 January 2014 |publisher=ABP News }}</ref> According to another theory, the loss of revenue resulting from her experiment of holding classes for traffic violators (instead of fining them) was a major factor in her transfer.{{sfn|Saxena|2000|p=78}}

Her 7-year-old daughter suffered from [[nephritic syndrome]] since the age of 3, and was seriously ill at the time. Bedi requested the Home Ministry not to transfer her out of Delhi until her daughter's condition became stable.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|pp=34–35}} According to Bedi, she had put herself in a "very vulnerable situation", and the only people who could help her were the ones "who had been offended by my 'equal enforcement of law'".<ref name="RMAF_1994"/> Her request was not entertained, and she had to leave behind her daughter, who was too ill to accompany her.

=== Goa ===

Bedi arrived in Goa in March 1983, on a three-year assignment. A few months after her arrival, the [[Zuari Bridge]] was completed but not opened to public; the state government wanted Indira Gandhi to come from Delhi and inaugurate it formally. However, they were not able to secure confirmation from Indira Gandhi for several days. The public had to use ferries to transfer their vehicles across the [[Zuari River]]. One day, during a patrol, Bedi noticed that there was a huge mass at the ferry boarding point. She drove to the bridge, removed the blockades and diverted the traffic waiting at ferry to the bridge. This unofficial inauguration angered many politicians.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|p=36}} In November 1983, Goa hosted the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meet (CHOGM). Bedi involved NCC cadets in Goa for traffic regulation along the VIP routes.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|p=36}}

Shortly after the CHOGM ended, her daughter's medical condition worsened. Bedi applied for leave, so that she could go to Delhi and take care of her daughter. Until this point, she had not taken [[privilege leave]] in her decade-long career, and her leaves had always lapsed.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|pp=37–38}}<ref name="IT_1988_comeback"/> Inspector General of Police (IGP) Rajendra Mohan recommended her leave application, but the leave was not officially sanctioned by the Goa government. Bedi left for Delhi anyway, since she had enough leaves in her account. Her daughter was hospitalised at [[All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi|AIIMS]] for one week. After her daughter was discharged from hospital, Bedi decided to stay in Delhi until her recovery. Bedi sent a personal letter to the IGP, as well as a detailed explanation to the Goa government, with medical reports and certificates. However, in a statement to United News of India (UNI), the Goa Chief Minister [[Pratapsingh Rane]] declared her absconding and absent without leave. After seeing Bedi's daughter's condition in Delhi, UNI published a rebuttal to the chief minister's statement. This made Goa government even more hostile to Bedi.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|pp=37–38}}

=== Back to Delhi ===

After being declared absent without sanctioned leave, Bedi was not given any assignment for six months. When her daughter's condition became stable, she met the Union Home Secretary [[T. N. Chaturvedi]], who reinstated her. She was assigned to the [[Railway Protection Force]] in New Delhi, as a Deputy Commandant. Six months later, after appealing to a senior official in Prime Minister's Office, she was reassigned to the Department of Industrial Development, as a deputy director. There, she worked under the Directorate General of Industrial Contingency (DGIC), as a strike mediator between labor and management. Bedi left DGIC in October 1985, and shortly after her departure, the organization was wound up as part of an economy drive.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|p=38}}

In 1985, Police Commissioner [[Ved Marwah]] made a special request for Bedi to be assigned to the police headquarters. There, Bedi cleared several pending files and sanctioned 1,600 promotions in a single day to motivate the staff.<ref name="Deepa_2005"/>

==== Campaign against drugs ====

In 1986, Bedi became DCP of Delhi's North District, where the primary problem was rampant [[substance abuse|drug abuse]]. At that time, Delhi had only one centre for treatment of [[substance dependence|drug addicts]] – ''Ashiana'', which was run by the New Delhi Municipal Corporation. With help from her superiors, Bedi set up a [[drug detoxification|detox]] center in one of the police premises. The center relied on community donations of furniture, blankets, medicines and other supplies. It also received voluntary services from doctors and [[yoga]] teachers. Within a year, five more detox centers were set up. Each center was intended to serve up to 30 patients, but at one time, each center catered to around 100 patients. The initiative was widely noticed, and Bedi travelled all over India, giving presentations and lectures on the programme. Before she was transferred to a new post, she and 15 other police officers institutionalized the detox centers as Navjyoti Police Foundation for Correction, De-addiction and Rehabilitation. Bedi served as the general secretary of the foundation.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|pp=40–41}}

==== Lawyers' strike ====

In the 1980s, Bedi attracted the ire of Delhi politicians and lawyers. First, she ordered [[lathi charge]] on a [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) assembly in Red Fort area, and arrested its leaders. A few months later, she arrested [[Congress(I)]] [[Member of Parliament|MP]] [[Jai Parkash Aggarwal|J.P. Agarwal]] for violating curfew orders.<ref name="IT_1988_comeback"/>

In January 1988, the Delhi Police caught a man stealing from a girl's purse at [[St. Stephen's College, Delhi|St. Stephen's College]]. A few weeks later, he was arrested again for trespassing into a women's toilet and writing obscene [[graffiti]] inside.<ref name="TLC_1988">The Lawyers Collective – A Legal Journal, Volume 3, Number 4, May 1988, Page 3</ref> One of Bedi's officers arrested and handcuffed the man. When he was produced in the court, he was recognized as Rajesh Agnihotri, a lawyer practicing at the [[Tis Hazari]] Courts Complex. The man had given a different name when he was arrested, and his lawyer colleagues claimed that he had been falsely framed.<ref name="Deepa_2005"/> The protesters also argued that lawyers must not be handcuffed even if there are proper grounds for their arrest. Bedi vociferously defended her officer's action.<ref name="IT_1988_comeback"/> The lawyers organized a strike and led a procession to DCP (North) office. Not finding DCP Bedi at the office, the lawyers manhandled Additional DCP Sandhu. This led to a scuffle between the cops and the lawyers. The lawyers escalated their strike, and several politicians supported the lawyers in demanding suspension of Bedi.<ref name="Deepa_2005"/>

On 21 January, the police baton-charged the striking lawyers in Tis Hazari complex.<ref>{{cite book |title=Surya India Volume 12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WVg8AAAAMAAJ |year=1987 |publisher=A. Anand |page=30 }}</ref> This further enraged the lawyers. On 17 February, a mob of an estimated 600–1000 people led by the Congress [[municipal corporation|corporator]] Rajesh Yadav arrived at Tis Hazari court. The mob was armed with brickbats, hockey sticks and small rods. It raised slogans in support of Bedi and Prime Minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]]. It stoned the lawyers' chambers and smashed the windscreens of their cars. The police force deployed in the area did not try to stop the mob violence, although some individual policemen tried to control the mob. Bedi denied any connivance in the incident.<ref name="Maya2005"/><ref name="NYT_1988">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/28/world/india-lawyer-s-handcuffing-spurs-bitter-fight.html |title=India Lawyer's Handcuffing Spurs Bitter Fight |date=28 February 1988 |newspaper=The New York Times |author=Sanjoy Hazarika }}</ref> The police later arrested Rajesh Yadav, and charged him with rioting and conspiracy. The Congress distanced itself from Yadav and ousted him.<ref name="NYT_1988"/>

For the next two months, the lawyers stopped courts from functioning in Delhi and neighbouring states, demanding Bedi's resignation. The strike was called off after the Delhi High Court constituted a two-judge committee to investigate the matter. Known as Wadhwa Commission, the committee consisted of Justice DP Wadhwa and Justice NN Goswamy. KK Venugopal, the lawyers' counsel, produced evidence that on 17 February, all police stations in the zone knew that a 2000-strong mob was heading towards Tis Hazari Courts Complex, where the lawyers were on a hunger strike. Despite this, no police force was deputed to protect them. In its interim report, the Commission expressed concern over police lapses. The judges said that they wanted to investigate the matter further, and recommended transfer of five police officers (including Bedi) out of North Delhi, during the investigation period. Even before the report was made public, in April 1988, the Union Government transferred Bedi to the post of deputy director (Operations) in the [[Narcotics Control Bureau]] (NCB), also in Delhi. Two days later, the four other officers mentioned in the report were also transferred.<ref name="Maya2005">{{cite book |author=Maya Majumdar |title=Encyclopaedia of Gender Equality Through Women Empowerment |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPMg73Inw5cC&pg=PA172 |date=2005 |publisher=Sarup & Sons |isbn=978-81-7625-548-6 |pages=172–175 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/special-report/story/19880430-kiran-bedi-is-transferred-but-nobody-is-happy-797187-1988-04-29 |title=Battle for prestige: Kiran Bedi is transferred but nobody is happy |author=Raj Chengappa |date=30 April 1988 |publisher=India Today }}</ref>

The members of the Delhi Bar Association were not satisfied with Bedi's transfer, and wanted her suspended. However, the Police Commissioner Ved Marwah refused to suspend Bedi.<ref name="Maya2005"/> The commission's final report, released in April 1990, censured all the parties.<ref name="Deepa_2005"/> The report stated that the arrest of Rajesh Agnihotri was justified, but his handcuffing was illegal. It also concluded that an "indiscriminate and unjustified" lathi-charge on the lawyers was ordered by Bedi, and that she had connived with the municipal councillor to organize the mob attack on the lawyers.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19900515-kiran-bedi-idicted-in-tiz-hazari-episode-812569-1990-05-14 |title=In the dock |author=Raj Chengappa |journal=India Today |date=15 May 1990 }}</ref> The scholarly legal commentary was divided, with some supporting Bedi, citing her "unblemished" service record.<ref name="TLC_1988"/>

=== Mizoram ===

After Bedi was censured by the Wadhwa Commission, it was decided to transfer her out of Delhi. She wanted a challenging posting in either [[Andaman Islands|Andamans]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]] or [[Mizoram]]. She hoped that this would lead to her reassignment to Delhi Police after a few years (after "hard" postings, government servants are unofficially entitled to a post they desire). She requested Joint Secretary (Union Territories) to transfer her to Mizoram, a remote border state in North-East India. When she didn't get any firm response, she wrote to the home secretary Naresh Kumar. Along with Bedi's batchmate Pardeep Singh, Naresh Kumar convinced the joint secretary to transfer her to Mizoram. They pointed out that officers who were given Mizoram posting refused to go there, while Bedi was volunteering to go there. Bedi reported to the Mizoram Government in [[Aizawl]] on 27 April 1990. Her designation was Deputy Inspector General (Range). Her parents and her daughter also moved to Mizoram.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|pp=42–43}}

Consumption of alcohol, especially [[homebrewing|home-brewed]] [[rice wine|rice liquor]] ''Zu'', was very common in Mizoram. Several of Bedi's officers were [[alcoholism|alcoholics]]. At first, she didn't stop them since ''Zu'' was a part of Mizo culture, and she didn't want to be seen as someone who interfered with the local culture. Later, she opened an indoor de-addiction facility for alcoholic policemen. The major crime in the district was [[heroin]] smuggling across the [[Indo–Myanmar barrier|Burmese border]]. A number of teenagers were drug addicts, with [[dextropropoxyphene|proxyvon]] and heroin being the most common drugs. Most of the repeat criminal offenders were alcoholic. Since Mizoram was a [[Christianity in Mizoram|Christian]]-majority state, Bedi utilized Christian prayers to reduce drug and alcohol-induced criminal behavior. She declared Saturdays "prayer and rehabilitation day" at district police stations, despite protests from the superintendent of police, who was an atheist. Every Saturday, past criminals would be brought to the police station to pray and learn and to receive treatment for alcoholism.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|pp=43–44}}

While in Mizoram, she completed a major part of her Ph.D. research. (Later, in September 1993, she was awarded a doctorate by [[IIT Delhi]]'s Department of Social Sciences, for her thesis on Drug Abuse and Domestic Violence.){{sfn|Iyer|2012|p=43}} During her stay in Mizoram, she also started writing her autobiography.

In September 1992, her daughter Sukriti applied for a seat in [[Lady Hardinge Medical College]] (Delhi), under a quota for Mizoram residents. Students of Mizoram launched a violent agitation against the allocation, on the grounds that she was a non-[[Mizo people|Mizo]]. Sukriti had topped the merit list with 89% marks, and was given seat from the Central pool, according to the government guidelines. Mizoram's chief minister [[Lal Thanhawla]] asked her to surrender the seat in "the larger interests of the state", although he accepted that "there was nothing illegal in her daughter getting the seat". Bedi refused to surrender the seat, saying that her daughter deserved the seat.<ref name="IT_1992_middle">{{cite journal |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19921015-kiran-bedi-determination-is-her-middle-name-766996-2012-12-26 |title=Fighting back, again |journal=India Today |author=Harinder Baweja |date=15 October 1992 |access-date=18 January 2015 }}</ref>

As the protests turned violent, Bedi received threats that her house would be set on fire. Her superiors told her that they could no longer protect her.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|p=44}} She left Aizawl after submitting her leave application. Her parents and daughter had already left for Delhi by this time. Lal Thanhawla accused her of insubordination.<ref name="IT_1992_middle"/>

=== As Delhi Prisons Inspector-General ===

After leaving her Mizoram assignment incomplete in September 1992, Bedi had to wait eight months for a new posting. In May 1993, she was posted to the Delhi Prisons as Inspector General (IG). The [[Tihar Jail]] of Delhi was built as a four-jail complex with a capacity of 2,500 prisoners. However, by the time Bedi became its in-charge, its prisoner population varied from 8,000 to 9,500. About 90% of its inmates were undertrials, who had been accused of non-bailable offences. Some of them had been waiting for years to get a trial in a badly clogged court system. The prison had a budget of {{INR}}15 [[crore]], which was just enough to pay for basic expenditure, leaving little for welfare programmes. Tihar was notorious as a violent and unmanageable place, and no officer wanted to be posted there. The post had been lying vacant for nine months, before Bedi was posted there.<ref name="IT_1995_Inside">{{cite journal |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/special-report/story/19950531-kiran-bedi-brought-her-vision-of-social-reform-to-tihar-808377-1995-05-30 |title=Inside Tihar |journal=India Today |date=31 May 1995 }}</ref>

==== Reforms at Tihar ====

Bedi decided to turn Tihar into a model prison. She introduced several reforms. She arranged separate barracks for the hardened criminals, who had been using their time in prison to recruit gang members, sell contraband and extort money. These prisoners unsuccessfully challenged Bedi in court for unfairly segregating them.<ref name="RMAF_1994"/>

For other prisoners, Bedi arranged vocational training with certificates, so that they could find a job after their release. During her tenure, [[Indira Gandhi National Open University]] and [[National Institute of Open Schooling|National Open School]] set up their centers inside the prison.<ref name="AT_2015_joins"/> Legal cells were set up to help the undertrials.<ref name="IT_1995_Inside"/> Bedi banned smoking in the prison. The move faced a lot of resistance from the staff as well as the prisoners. She introduced yoga and [[Vipassana meditation]] classes to change the prisoners' attitudes. She organized additional activities such as sports, prayer, and festival celebrations. She also established a de-addiction center, and pulled up or imprisoned the staff members involved in drug supply.<ref name="Deepa_2005"/> A bank was also opened inside the prison.<ref name="AT_2015_joins"/> A bakery and small manufacturing units, including carpentry and weaving units, were set up in the jail. The profits from the products sold were put into the prisoners' welfare fund.<ref name="Deepa_2005"/>

Bedi went on daily prison tours, observing the staff, listening to prisoners'complaints, inspecting food quality and evaluating overall management. She developed a [[Panchayati raj in India|panchayat]] system, where prisoners who were respected for their age, education, or character represented other inmates and met every evening with senior officers to sort out problems. She also established petition boxes so that prisoners could write to the IG about any issue. While the jail had suggestion boxes earlier too, the jail staff would destroy the complaints received through these boxes. On the other hand, the prisoners writing to Bedi received acknowledgment and information about the status of their petition.<ref name="Deepa_2005"/>

In this prison reform programme, Bedi involved outsiders – including NGOs, schools, civilians and former inmates.<ref name="IT_1995_Inside"/> As a result of Bedi's reforms, there was a drop in the fights and disturbances in the jail.<ref name="Deepa_2005"/> Even the hardened criminals, who had been isolated in separate barracks, started behaving well. Bedi then arranged for them to attend education and meditation courses.<ref name="RMAF_1994"/>

In May 1994, Bedi organized a 'health day', during which around 400 doctors and paramedics were invited to attend to Tihar's patients. Based on visits to two of Tihar's adolescent wards, a cardiologist associated with the Delhi Government's [[AIDS]] Control Programme, claimed that two-thirds of the inmates had acknowledged engaging in homosexual acts. He recommended distribution of [[condom]]s in the prison, a move supported by Delhi's Health Minister [[Harsh Vardhan (Delhi politician)|Harsh Vardhan]] and [[National AIDS Control Organisation]]. However, Kiran Bedi opposed the move pointing out that there were no [[HIV+]] prisoners in Tihar. She stated that the distribution of condoms would encourage homosexual activity (illegal as per [[Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code|Section 377]]) among criminals. Based on a survey conducted through petition boxes, she claimed that incidence of consensual homosexual activity was negligible, and that the doctor's claim had hurt her prisoners. In response, the activist group [[AIDS Bhedbhav Virodhi Andolan|ABVA]] filed a writ petition in the [[Delhi High Court]] demanding distribution of condoms in Tihar. Bedi termed the move as an attempt to force "western solutions" on "Tihar [[Ashram]]", and filed a counter affidavit opposing the demand.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19940531-tihar-jail-bans-condoms-809220-1994-05-30 |title=Safe custody? |date=31 May 1994 |author=Kai Friese |journal=India Today }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lawyerscollective.org/files/Written%20Submissions%20FINAL%20AS%20FILED.pdf |title=Special Leave Petition (Civil) No. 15436 of 2009 (Supreme Court of India) |publisher=Lawyers Collective |access-date=29 January 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304185646/http://www.lawyerscollective.org/files/Written%20Submissions%20FINAL%20AS%20FILED.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==== Removal from Tihar ====

Bedi's reform programme at Tihar received worldwide acclaim. But it also attracted envy from her superiors, who accused her of diluting prison security for personal glory. She was not on good terms with her immediate supervisor in the government, the minister for prisons Harsharan Singh Balli. Many members of Balli's party, the BJP, had not forgiven Bedi for her [[lathi charge]] on the party's assembly in the 1980s. However, until March 1995, Bedi was on good terms with BJP's Delhi Chief Minister [[Madan Lal Khurana]]. Khurana was a prisoner in Tihar during [[The Emergency (India)|the Emergency]], and appreciated her work for prisoners.<ref name="IT_wages_1995">{{cite journal |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/special-report/story/19950531-kiran-bedi-transferred-from-tihar-on-charges-of-security-breach-despite-her-prison-reforms-807385-1995-05-30 |title=Wages of success |author=M Rahman |journal=India Today |date=31 May 1995 }}</ref>

In 1994, Bedi was awarded the [[Ramon Magsaysay Award]] and the [[Jawarharlal Nehru Fellowship|Nehru Fellowship]]. The Magsaysay Foundation recognized her leadership and innovations in crime control, drug rehabilitation, and humane prison reform. The US president [[Bill Clinton]] invited her to [[National Prayer Breakfast]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] When the Delhi Government refused to let her accept the invitation, Bedi lobbied with the Union Home Ministry to get the clearance. However, the Home Minister [[Shankarrao Chavan|S.B. Chavan]] declined the permission. Clinton repeated the invitation in 1995, and this time, Bedi approached the media. The ''[[New York Times]]'' published a report stating that "several politicians and her superiors were feeling cut up with her assertive style and the success that followed her". Under pressure from the public and the media, Chavan allowed Bedi to attend the Breakfast. However, this episode won her several detractors in the government.<ref name="IT_wages_1995"/><ref name="TimMcG_1995"/>

Sometime later, Bedi was invited by the [[United Nations]] to discuss social reintegration of prisoners at the Copenhagen Social Summit. When the Delhi Government refused to permit her, Bedi met the minister of state for home [[Rajesh Pilot]] on 4 March 1995. The meeting got extended, because of which Bedi had to cancel an appointment she had with the Chief Minister Khurana. Pilot gave her the permission, but this irked Khurana, who later exclaimed "If she thinks we have no importance, then why does she want to work for the Delhi Government?"<ref name="IT_wages_1995"/> While Bedi was in Copenhagen, the prominent farmers' leader [[Mahendra Singh Tikait]] was imprisoned in Tihar after a rally, and sought the BJP leaders' help in getting a [[hookah]] inside. However, the jail authorities refused to give permission for a hookah, since Bedi had earlier declared Tihar a no-smoking zone.<ref name="IT_wages_1995"/>

Subsequently, Delhi's [[List of lieutenant governors of Delhi|lieutenant governor]] P.K. Dave wrote a letter to the Union Home Secretary K. Padmanabhiah, accusing Bedi of "manipulating foreign trips", and leveled other charges against her. Dave accused Bedi of "compromising" the prison's security by allowing visitors – including American officials and foreign TV crews – inside the jail, without the Delhi government's permission. Another charge was that she had allowed [[National Human Rights Commission|NHRC]] representatives to meet [[Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act|TADA]] detainees from [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Kashmir]], who had raised anti-national slogans. In her defence, Bedi argued that the TADA detainees had gone on a relay hunger strike demanding speedy trials. She also stated that the foreign TV crews had only shot the Vipassana meditation classes, and that she had the right to admit them under the rules. She also pointed out that the Union Government had itself asked her to allow the Americans – [[Lee P. Brown]] and Christine Wisner (wife of [[Frank G. Wisner]]) – inside the prison.<ref name="IT_wages_1995"/>

Another charge against Bedi was giving undue favours to the notorious criminal [[Charles Sobhraj]]. At that time, the ''Delhi Jail Manual'' (written in 1894 and modified in 1988) listed a number of prohibited articles, one of which was a [[typewriter]]. However, the manual also gave the jail superintendent the power to allow any of these prohibited items in special cases. Using this power, Bedi permitted Sobhraj the use of an electronic typewriter (Sobhraj had already been given a manual typewriter before Bedi became the officer in-charge). Bedi had also allowed NGOs to start typing classes for prisoners, but Sobhraj claimed that he was using the typewriter to write her biography, which gave the authorities a reason to accuse Bedi of misusing her powers. Khurana also alleged that Sobhraj had been supplied with a [[smoking pipe|pipe]] and foreign-made [[cigars]], a charge refuted by the testimony of Sobhraj's former cell-mate. The prison manual also had an antiquated rule which stated that "caught escapees will wear a red cap". Sobhraj had escaped in 1986, before he was recaptured. Khurana alleged that Bedi had specially exempted him from wearing a red cap. However, a senior jail officer stated that he had never seen the 'red cap' rule being implemented in Tihar.<ref name="TimMcG_1995">{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/rough-justice-for-prison-heroine-1618574.html |title=Rough justice for prison heroine |date=7 May 1995 |author=Tim McGirk |newspaper=The Independent }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/special-report/story/19950531-kiran-bedi-accused-of-permitting-charles-sobhraj-use-of-typewriter-808379-1995-05-30 |title=Of typewriters and red caps |journal=India Today |date=31 May 1995 }}</ref> PK Dave and Madan Lal Khurana got Bedi removed as the prisons in-charge on 3 May 1995.<ref name="IT_wages_1995"/> When her transfer was announced, the Tihar inmates went on a hunger strike to protest it, while some of the warders celebrated it by distributing sweets.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/123581894/ |author=Christopher Kremmer |title=The caged birds sing |newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=6 February 1999 |page=304 }}</ref> Bedi accused "unethical politicians" of "telling lies, making false allegations and misinforming people". She alleged that her supervisors in the government had no "interest, vision or leadership". She argued that she should not have been transferred on the basis of unverified charges, and demanded an inquiry committee. Rajesh Pilot defended her publicly, but the Union Government did not officially support her. [[Khushwant Singh]] described her transfer as "a victory for a handful of small-minded, envious people over a gutsy woman".<ref name="IT_wages_1995"/>

=== After Tihar ===
After her removal from Tihar, Bedi was posted as head of training at the police academy on 4 May 1995.<ref name="TimMcG_1995"/> Her designation was Additional Commissioner (policy and planning).<ref name="IT_wages_1995"/> She served as the Joint Commissioner of Police of Delhi Police. Later, she served as the Special Commissioner (Intelligence) of Delhi Police.

On 5 April 1999, she was appointed as Inspector-General of Police in [[Chandigarh]]. Her mother accompanied her, but soon suffered a [[stroke]] and went into [[coma]]. Bedi requested a transfer back to Delhi, where her family would be able to take care of her mother. The Union Ministry of Home Affairs transferred her back to Delhi on 15 May. However, her mother died in Delhi three days later, after having been in coma for 41 days.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|p=72}}

In 2003, Bedi became the first woman to be appointed the United Nations civilian police adviser. She worked in the Department of Peacekeeping Operations.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.rediff.com/us/2003/jan/11bedi.htm |title=Kiran Bedi named first woman UN Civilian Police Adviser |work=rediff.com |author=Suman Guha Mozumder |date=11 January 2003 }}</ref> In 2005, she returned to Delhi after her UN stint. The Delhi Bar Association lobbied to ensure that she didn't get a post that would put her on track to become Delhi's police chief. The lawyers, referring to the 1988 controversy, wrote to government authorities arguing that Bedi's appointment to a top post might "unnecessarily create a conflict between the legal fraternity and the police".<ref>{{cite news|title=Lawyers renew Bedi battle|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050824/asp/nation/story_5148897.asp|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204155309/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050824/asp/nation/story_5148897.asp|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 February 2013|access-date=9 September 2011 |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=24 August 2005}}</ref> She was made the director general, [[Home Guard (India)|Home Guards]]. Before her retirement, she was serving as the director general of the [[Bureau of Police Research and Development]].

In 2007, Bedi applied for the post of Delhi Police Commissioner. She was overlooked in favour of Yudhvir Singh Dadwal, who was junior to her, reportedly because the senior bureaucrats saw her as too "outspoken and radical". Bedi alleged bias, and stated that her merit had been overlooked.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/dadwal-new-police-chief-of-delhi-bedi-cries-bias/45603-3.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150124190337/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/dadwal-new-police-chief-of-delhi-bedi-cries-bias/45603-3.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2015 |title=Dadwal new police chief of Delhi, Bedi cries bias |date=25 June 2007 |publisher=IBNLive }}</ref> She also proceeded for a three-month 'protest leave', but canceled it later.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.tehelka.com/the-khakhi-gamble/ |title=The Khakhi Gamble |journal=Tehelka |issue=5 |volume=12 |author=Pradyot Lal |date=31 January 2015 |access-date=1 February 2015 |archive-date=1 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150201221526/http://www.tehelka.com/the-khakhi-gamble/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Journalists like [[Karan Thapar]] and Pankaj Vohra criticized her for crying bias, and stated that her service record was tainted with controversies like incomplete Goa, Mizoram and Chandigarh assignments; the lawyers' strike controversy; and the removal from Tihar.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/columnskaranthapar/ten-questions-for-kiran-bedi/article1-240600.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120053131/http://www.hindustantimes.com/columnskaranthapar/ten-questions-for-kiran-bedi/article1-240600.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 January 2015 |title=Ten questions for Kiran Bedi |newspaper=Hindustan Times |author=Karan Thapar |date=5 April 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/columnspankajvohra/gender-s-worked-for-bedi/article1-239513.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125120814/http://www.hindustantimes.com/columnspankajvohra/gender-s-worked-for-bedi/article1-239513.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 January 2015 |title=Gender's worked for Bedi |author=Pankaj Vohra |date=29 June 2007 |newspaper=Hindustan Times }}</ref>

Bedi resigned from police service in November 2007, citing personal reasons. She stated that she wanted to focus on academic and social work.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7115753.stm |title=First female police officer quits |author=Tinku Ray |work=BBC News |date=27 November 2007 }}</ref>

==Social activism==
[[File:Kiran Bedi at the SWIM Conference.JPG|thumb|left|Bedi at ''Successful Women in Management'' (SWIM) Conference in 2009]]
[[File:Womans in Navjyoti India Foundation.jpg|thumb|Group of women in the Navjyoti India Foundation]]
The Navjyoti Delhi Police Foundation founded by Bedi and her colleagues was renamed to Navjyoti India Foundation in 2007. Over the next 25 years, it provided residential treatment to nearly 20,000 drug and alcohol addicts. It also started crime prevention programmes such as education of street children and slum kids. It established 200 single-teacher schools, vocational training centers, health care facilities and counselling centers for the vulnerable sections of society. In 2010, it also established the Navjyoti Community College, affiliated to IGNOU.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|pp=40–41}}

Bedi set up India Vision Foundation (IVF) in 1994. IVF works in fields of police reforms, prison reforms, women empowerment and rural and community development.<ref>{{cite web|title=India Vision Foundation – Objective being to save the NEXT VICTIM|url=http://www.indiavisionfoundation.org/objectives.asp|access-date=10 September 2011|archive-date=3 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903182524/http://www.indiavisionfoundation.org/objectives.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> In police reform area, Bedi emphasized better training, while opposing hazing of trainees. She opposed frequent transfers, stating that these lead to poor cadre management. She also proposed creation of a new level of police administration, which would protect rank-and-file officers from politicians and bureaucrats. In women's rights area, she has advocated equitable educational opportunities and property ownership (including co-ownership) for women. She has emphasized faster empowerment of rural women.<ref name="RMAF_1994"/>

She is a social commentator and trainer and frequently speaks on various social issues like education, domestic violence & others. During 2008–11, Bedi hosted the reality TV show ''[[Aap Ki Kachehri]]'' on [[STAR Plus]]. In this [[court show]], Bedi resolved everyday conflicts in a simulated courtroom.<ref>{{cite book|author=Shoma Munshi|title=Remote Control: Indian Television in the New Millennium |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fdGATZeZWJcC&pg=PT123|date=15 December 2012|publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-81-8475-755-2 |page=123}}</ref> In 2008, she launched the website<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saferindia.com/kiranbedi/|title=Kiran Bedi |website=Mission Safer India|access-date=16 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701031647/http://www.saferindia.com/kiranbedi/|archive-date=1 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> to help people whose complaints are not accepted by the local police.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-newdelhi/kiran-bedi-launches-website/article1172141.ece|title=Kiran Bedi launches website|date=4 January 2008|newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref> As an activist for women's safety across the nation, Bedi heavily slammed former [[Samajwadi Party]] chief [[Mulayam Singh Yadav]] for his comments of "Boys are boys, they make mistakes, why hand them for rape" during the 2014 General Elections.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/mulayam-singh-yadav-backs-rapists-for-votes/articleshow/33579716.cms?from=mdr|title= Mulayam Singh Yadav backs rapists for votes|newspaper= The Economic Times|date= 11 April 2014}}</ref>

[[File:Kiran Bedi with Anna Hazare.jpg|thumb|Kiran Bedi with Anna Hazare.]]

Bedi was one of the speakers in [[Bhagavad Gita]] Summit (from 10–14 December 2021) during [[Gita Jayanti]] at [[Dallas]], [[Texas]], US along with other notable personalities such as [[Mukundananda|Swami Mukundananda Ji]], [[Menas Kafatos|Dr. Menas Kafatos]], [[Shiv Khera|Mr. Shiv Khera]], [[Gloria Arieira|Brahmacharini Gloria Arieira]] and others.<ref>{{cite web|title=JKYog Bhagavad Gita Summit {{!}} RKTemple|url=https://www.radhakrishnatemple.net/jkyog-bhagavad-gita-summit|website=adhakrishnatemple.net|publisher=[[Radha Krishna Temple]]|access-date=5 January 2022|archive-date=19 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519113705/https://www.radhakrishnatemple.net/jkyog-bhagavad-gita-summit|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Anti-corruption movement ===
[[File:Kiran Bedi at Ramlila maidan.jpg|thumb|right|Kiran Bedi at Ramlila maidan for Jan Lokpal Bill.]]

In October 2010, [[Arvind Kejriwal]] invited Bedi to join him in exposing the [[CWG scam]]. Bedi accepted the invitation, and by 2011, the two had allied with other activists, including [[Anna Hazare]], to form [[India Against Corruption]] (IAC) group. Their campaign evolved into the [[2011 Indian anti-corruption movement]].<ref name="IT_2011_game">{{cite journal |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/supplement/story/20110919-the-game-changer-747540-2011-09-07 |title=Kiran Bedi: The game changer |date=8 September 2011 |journal=India Today |author=Kruttika Kallury }}</ref> Anna Hazare planned an indefinite [[hunger strike]] to demand the passage of a stronger [[Jan Lokpal Bill]] in the Indian Parliament. On 16 August 2011, Bedi and other key members of IAC were detained by the police, four hours before the hunger strike could start.<ref>{{cite web |title=Anna Hazare IS the movement |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/report/anna-hazare-is-the-movement/20110823.htm |publisher=Rediff |access-date=24 August 2011 }}</ref> Bedi and other activists were released later on the same day.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kiran-Bedi-Swami-Agnivesh-join-protest-outside-Tihar/articleshow/9633366.cms |title=Kiran Bedi, Swami Agnivesh join protest outside Tihar |newspaper=The Times of India |date=17 August 2011 }}</ref> After twelve days of protests and many discussions between the government and the activists, the Parliament passed a resolution to consider [[2011 Indian anti-corruption movement#Sense of the House|three points]] in drafting of Lokpal bill.<ref>{{cite news|title=Agreed! says Parliament to Anna; fast ends at 10 am |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/absolutely-says-parliament-to-anna-no-vote-required-fast-ends-at-10-am-129474 |access-date=29 August 2011 |newspaper=NDTV |date=28 August 2011}}</ref>

Some members of parliament proposed to bring a breach of privilege motion against Bedi and other activists for allegedly mocking the parliamentarians during the Lokpal bill protests,<ref>{{cite news|title=Privilege notices in Parliament against Om Puri, Kiran Bedi |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/privilege-notices-in-parliament-against-om-puri-kiran-bedi/article2408522.ece |newspaper=The Hindu |date=29 August 2011 |access-date=2 December 2019 |last1=Dhar |first1=Aarti }}</ref> however they withdrew these notices later.<ref>{{cite news|title=Congress MP withdraws privilege notice against Anna's aides|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Congress-MP-withdraws-privilege-notice-against-Annas-aides-/articleshow/9904549.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131222183141/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-08/india/30129589_1_privilege-notice-privilege-motion-anna-hazare|url-status=live|archive-date=22 December 2013|access-date=10 September 2011|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=8 September 2011}}</ref>

During the anti-corruption movement, Bedi faced controversy when some newspapers questioned discrepancies in her past travel expenses between 2006 and 2011. In 2009, for example, Bedi was invited as the keynote speaker at a conference arranged by Aviation Industry Employees Guild. She accepted the invitation without a speaking fee, but her NGO was to be reimbursed for travel expenses. Bedi's travel agent Flywell, invoiced her hosts business class fare for air tickets, but arranged Bedi to travel in economy class.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2568506.ece |location= Mumbai, India | work= The Hindu |title= Kiran Bedi overcharged us for travel, says NGO |date= 25 October 2011}}</ref> Between 2006 and 2011, there were several discrepancies in travel-related expense statements, as well as instances where she travelled at no cost to her hosts for a cause. In these cases, Bedi stated she did not personally receive or incur the disputed difference, only India Vision Foundation did, an NGO she headed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kiran Lokpal Bedi buys discount air tickets, gets hosts to pay full fare |url= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/kiran-lokpal-bedi-buys-discount-air-tickets-gets-hosts-to-pay-full-fare/862515/ |access-date= 27 October 2011 |newspaper= Indian Express |date= 20 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title='No Personal Gain' on Inflated Air Tickets: Kiran Bedi |url=http://news.outlookindia.com/items.aspx?artid=738857 |access-date=27 October 2011 |newspaper=Outlook India |date=20 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021051140/http://news.outlookindia.com/items.aspx?artid=738857 |archive-date=21 October 2011 }}</ref> In November 2011, the Delhi Police, under directions of the additional chief metropolitan magistrate, registered an [[First Information Report|FIR]] – police case for cognizable offense – against Bedi for allegedly misappropriating funds through Indian Vision Foundation and other NGOs.<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/news/court-orders-fir-against-bedi-for-misuse-of-funds/880990/ Court orders FIR against Bedi for misuse of funds]. Indian Express (27 November 2011). Retrieved on 13 March 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Delhi-Police-registers-case-against-Kiran-Bedi/articleshow/10890250.cms | archive-url=https://archive.today/20120720203159/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-11-27/delhi/30446897_1_devinder-singh-chauhan-kiran-bedi-delhi-police | url-status=live | archive-date=20 July 2012 | work=[[The Times of India]] | title=Delhi Police registers case against Kiran Bedi | date=27 November 2011}}</ref> The investigation that followed found no evidence of fraud against her or of siphoning of NGO funds for personal use, and subsequently filed closure of the case.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Clean-chit-to-Kiran-Bedi-in-fund-abuse-case/articleshow/14967809.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130202221536/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-16/delhi/32697161_1_devinder-singh-chauhan-india-vision-foundation-microsoft-and-vedanta-foundation | url-status=live | archive-date=2 February 2013 | title=Clean chit to Kiran Bedi in fund abuse case | date=16 July 2012 | work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=16 February 2014}}</ref>

==Politics==
[[File:The book "Moditva – the Idea behind the Man" being launched by Rajnath Singh.jpg|thumb|right|Bedi (right) at the launch of a book on [[Narendra Modi]] in March 2014]]

Bedi split from IAC after a faction led by Arvind Kejriwal formed the [[Aam Aadmi Party]] (AAP) in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Anti-corruption body abandons Janlokpal |first=Nivedita |last=Khandekar |publisher=Hindustan Times |date=3 September 2013 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/newdelhi/anti-corruption-body-abandons-janlokpal/article1-1116543.aspx |access-date=14 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008024743/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/newdelhi/anti-corruption-body-abandons-janlokpal/article1-1116543.aspx |archive-date= 8 October 2014 }}</ref> AAP went on to form a short-lived [[minority government]] in Delhi with Kejriwal as chief minister. During the [[2014 Indian general election]], Bedi publicly supported [[Narendra Modi]], the prime ministerial candidate of [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://archive.financialexpress.com/news/expressed-support-for-narendra-modi-as-an-independent-citizen-kiran-bedi/1217584 |title=Kiran Bedi: Expressed support for Narendra Modi as an 'independent citizen' |date=11 January 2014 |newspaper=Financial Express |access-date=22 January 2015 |archive-date=15 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115201828/http://archive.financialexpress.com/news/expressed-support-for-narendra-modi-as-an-independent-citizen-kiran-bedi/1217584 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Kejriwal, on the other hand, contested the election against Modi. After Modi won and became the prime minister of India, Bedi stated that she was ready to be BJP's CM candidate in Delhi, if such an offer was made to her.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/politics/kiran-bedi-ready-to-be-bjps-delhi-cm-candidate/ |title=Kiran Bedi ready to be BJP's Delhi CM candidate |date=31 May 2014 |newspaper=Indian Express }}</ref> Eight months after Modi's election, she joined BJP in 2015. She was BJP's chief ministerial candidate for the [[2015 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2015 Delhi Assembly elections]], in which Arvind Kejriwal was AAP's CM candidate.<ref>{{cite news|title=Kiran Bedi to be BJP's CM candidate in Delhi: Amit Shah |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/delhi-elections-2015/top-stories/Kiran-Bedi-to-be-BJPs-CM-candidate-in-Delhi-Amit-Shah/articleshow/45945499.cms |date=19 January 2015 |newspaper=Times of India }}</ref> She lost the election from Krishna Nagar constituency to AAP candidate SK Bagga by a margin of 2277 votes, and AAP came to power again with an absolute majority after one year.<ref>[http://www.ndtv.com/elections/delhi/krishna-nagar-mla-results Krishna Nagar 2015 results]. ndtv.com</ref>

Earlier, on 22 May 2016, Bedi was appointed as the [[List of Lieutenant Governors of Puducherry|lieutenant governor]] of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]].<ref>{{cite news | title=Former IPS officer Kiran Bedi appointed Lt Governor of Puducherry | website=The Indian Express | date=22 May 2016 | url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/kiran-bedi-appointed-puducherry-lt-governor-elections-dmk-congress-win/ | access-date=22 May 2016}}</ref>

==Lieutenant Governor of Puducherry==
[[File:Lt. Governor Dr. Kiran Bedi.jpg|thumb|250px| Bedi as Lt. Governor of Puducherry]]
Bedi took oath as the Lieutenant Governor of Puducherry on 29 May 2016, stating that she was aiming to make Puducherry prosperous through "trust, empowerment and accountability."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/kiran-bedi-assumes-charge-as-lieutenant-governor-of-puducherry/articleshow/52492499.cms |title=Kiran Bedi assumes charge as Lieutenant Governor of Puducherry |work=The Economic Times |access-date=2020-03-13}}</ref>

One of the first practices she initiated as the lieutenant governor was to open the gates of [[Raj Niwas, Pondicherry|Raj Nivas]] - the official residence of the Governor - to the public, thereby making it the "People’s Nivas". She started an 'open house' process where the public could visit Raj Nivas from Monday to Wednesday at 17:00 to meet the lieutenant governor in person and have their grievances addressed.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/puducherry/Kiran-Bedi-reaches-out-to-people-conducts-open-house/article14379929.ece |title=Kiran Bedi reaches out to people, conducts open house |work=The Hindu |access-date=2020-03-13}}</ref> She undertook morning rounds on bicycle to inspect public amenities and interact with people.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/puducherry/lt-governor-bedi-pushes-for-pedal-power-in-pondy/articleshow/58796861.cms |title=Lt governor Bedi pushes for pedal power in Pondy |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=2017-05-23}}</ref>

[[File:Dr.Kiran Bedi leading a rally at Karaikal.jpg|thumb|250px|Bedi leading a cycle rally at [[Karaikal]].]]
[[File:Dr.Kiran Bedi with Sanitation Workers during a cleaning campaign at Puducherry.jpg|thumb|250px| Dr.Kiran Bedi with Sanitation Workers during a cleaning campaign at Puducherry]]
Raj Nivas dedicated "visitor hours" every day from 12:00 to 13:30, during which the general public was allowed to enter and see the French heritage building and to meet the lieutenant governor, and take a picture with her.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/puducherry/raj-nivas-to-be-open-to-public/article18264218.ece |title=Raj Nivas to be open to public |work=The Hindu |date=2017-04-28}}</ref>

In 2017, Bedi received public complaints about corrupt practices in postgraduate medical college admissions process organized by the Centralized Admission Committee (CENTAC), a government body. She visited the CENTAC office, and directed the officials to revoke their decision of surrendering government-quota seats to the managements of private colleges. She also ordered them to ensure fairness and transparency in the process. Some private colleges had denied admissions to government-quota students stating that the fees prescribed by CENTAC was too low. Bedi directed the management of these colleges to admit the students, and asked them to take up the issue of low fees with the government.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/puducherry/bedi-pulls-up-admission-committee-for-private-medical-colleges-institutions/articleshow/58917456.cms |title=Kiran Bedi pulls up admission committee for private medical colleges, institutions |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=2017-05-31}}</ref>

Another project by Bedi has been ‘Mission Water Rich Puducherry’.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/puducherry/continuing-the-mission-to-make-puducherry-water-rich/article26425244.ece|title=Continuing the mission to make Puducherry water rich|date=2019-03-03|work=The Hindu|access-date=2020-02-07|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> When she heard that the PWD{{clarify|date=August 2022}} did not have enough funds to de-silt water channels and the drains, she brought in community support in the form of CSR{{clarify|date=August 2022}}, connected donors with JCB{{clarify|date=August 2022}} machine contractors, and had the channels de-silted in short notice. Today, this model is being emulated across the country.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/from-clogged-drains-to-flowing-canals-the-puducherry-water-rich-model/ |title=From clogged drains to flowing canals: The Puducherry Water Rich Model |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2020-03-13}}</ref> In 2019, as she celebrated her 70th birthday, she began 'Mission Green Puducherry' by planting saplings along the Kanagan lake in Puducherry. Since then, many students and volunteers have taken this forward by organizing tree planting drives.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/puducherry/bedi-launches-greenery-programme/article27706263.ece |title=Bedi launches greenery programme |work=The Hindu |date=2019-06-10}}</ref>

[[File:The Lt. Governor of Puducherry, Ms. Kiran Bedi performing Yoga along with other participants, on the occasion of the 2nd International Day of Yoga – 2016, at Beach Road, Puducherry on June 21, 2016.jpg|thumb|200px| Bedi performing Yoga along with other participants, on the occasion of the 2nd [[International Day of Yoga]] – 2016, at Beach Road, Puducherry on June 21, 2016]]

At the 50th Governors Conference in Delhi, Bedi outlined several best practices that she introduced in Puducherry to ensure financial prudence, bring in community support, and grievance redressal through open house.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/puducherry/bedi-outlines-pondys-good-practices-at-governors-meet/articleshow/72199860.cms |title=Kiran Bedi outlines Puducherry's good practices at governors' meet |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=2019-11-24}}</ref>

She removed as the lieutenant governor of Puducherry on 16 February 2021. The governor of Telangana, [[Tamilisai Soundararajan]] was given additional charge of the Union territory.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-02-16|title=Kiran Bedi removed as Puducherry LG amid political crisis in Union territory|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/kiran-bedi-removed-as-puducherry-s-lieutenant-governor-101613490356384.html|access-date=2021-02-16|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>

==Author==

[[File:Ms. Kiran Bedi presents her book “Creating Leadership” to the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, in New Delhi on January 13, 2016.jpg|thumb|250px| Kiran Bedi presents her book "Creating Leadership" to the prime minister, [[Narendra Modi]], in New Delhi on January 13, 2016]]

Bedi has authored the following works:

* {{cite book |author=Kiran Bedi |title=Demand for Swaraj: (1905–1930) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4P9KNAAACAAJ |year=1985 |publisher=ABS }}
* {{cite book |author=Kiran Bedi |title=It's Always Possible: One Woman's Transformation of Tihar Prison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qIXHHQT4txMC |year=2006 |publisher=Himalayan Institute Press |isbn=978-0-89389-258-6}}
** Translated into Marathi as ''इट्स ऑलवेज पॉसिबल'' ({{ISBN|8177663534}})
* {{cite book |author1=Kiran Bedi |author2=Parminder Jeet Singh |author3=Sandeep Srivastava |title=Government @ Net: New Governance Opportunities for India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_uJAAAAMAAJ |year=2001 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-0-7619-9569-2}}
* {{cite book |author=Kiran Bedi |title=As I see |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CBu56vOnzLQC |year=2003 |publisher=Sterling |isbn=978-81-207-2938-4}}
* {{cite book |author1=Kiran Bedi |author2=T M Dak |title=What Went Wrong?…….And Continues |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IyXeomPZp4QC |date=1 January 2005 |publisher=UBSPD |isbn=978-81-7476-444-7}}
** Translated into Marathi by Leena Sohoni as ''व्हॉट वेंट रॉंग?'' ({{ISBN|8177664700}})
* {{cite book |author=Kiran Bedi |title=It's Always Possible: One Woman's Transformation of Tihar Prison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qIXHHQT4txMC |year=2006 |publisher=Himalayan Institute Press |isbn=978-0-89389-258-6}}
* {{cite book |author=Kiran Bedi |title=Galti Kiski |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQ_Ne9xkLuYC |publisher=Diamond |language=hi |isbn=978-81-7182-899-9 |year=2006}}
* {{cite book |author=Kiran Bedi |title=Yeha Sambhav Hai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S4fhTbWM-qgC |publisher=Diamond |language=hi |isbn=978-81-288-0466-3 |year=2006 }}
* {{cite book |author=Kiran Bedi |title=Empowering Women… As I See… by Kiran Bedi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LTGlJFba5coC |publisher=Sterling |isbn=978-81-207-9126-8 |year=2008}}
** Translated into Marathi by Madhuri Shanbhag as ''अ‍ॅज आय सी… स्त्रियांचे सक्षमीकरण…'' ({{ISBN|8177664875}})
* {{cite book |author=Kiran Bedi |title=Leadership & Governance… As I See… by Kiran Bedi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wC-pg7yLNXAC |publisher=Sterling |isbn=978-81-207-9168-8 |year=2008 }}
** Translated into Marathi by Madhuri Shanbhag as ''ऍज आय सी… नेतृत्व आणि प्रशासन…'' ({{ISBN|8177664875}})
* {{cite book |author=Kiran Bedi |title=Indian Police… As I See… |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PoSuX4uG_vcC |year=2008 |publisher=Sterling |isbn=978-81-207-3790-7 }}
** Translated into Marathi by Madhuri Shanbhag as ''अॅज आय सी… भारतीय पोलीस सेवा…'' ({{ISBN|8177664875}})
* {{cite book |author1=Kiran Bedi |author2=Pavan Choudary |title=Broom & Groom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQi2cQAACAAJ |year= 2010 |publisher=Wisdom Village |isbn=978-93-80710-01-3}}
** Translated into Hindi as ''कायदे के फायदे'' ({{ISBN|9789380710037}})
** Translated into Marathi as ''कायदे नेक फायदे अनेक'' ({{ISBN|9789380710044}})
** Translated into Gujarati as ''આવો આપણે સભ્યતા કેળવીએ'' ({{ISBN|9789380710051}})
* {{cite book |author=Kiran Bedi |title=Be the Change: Fighting Corruption |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZEeAgAAQBAJ |publisher=Sterling |isbn=978-81-207-9174-9 |page=2012 }}
* {{cite book |author=Kiran Bedi |title=Dare to Do, for the New Generation |year=2012 |publisher=Wisdom Village |isbn=9789381431436 }}
** Translated into Hindi as ''निडर बनो'' ({{ISBN|9789380710341}})
* {{cite book |author1=Kiran Bedi |author2=Pavan Choudary |title=Uprising 2011: Indians Against Corruption |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R-hzmwEACAAJ |year=2013 |publisher=Wisdom Village Publications |isbn=978-93-80710-44-0}}
* Kiran Bedi;(2016). [https://www.diamondbook.in/dr-kiran-bedi-creating-leadership.html Dr. Kiran Bedi : Creating Leadership.]. Diamond Books Publications {{ISBN|978 93 51659-78-5}}
* Kiran Bedi (2016). [http://www.diamondbook.in/himmat-hai-kiran-bedi.html Himmat Hai Kiran Bedi] Diamond Books Publication. {{ISBN|978-81-7182-991-0}}
* {{cite book |author=Shivani Arora |title=Where Kindness Spoke: Best Practices of a Lieutenant Governor Dr. Kiran Bedi Through Her Leadership |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5nlmzQEACAAJ |year=2020 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Limited |isbn=9788194400714}}
* {{cite book |author=Kiran Bedi |title=Fearless Governance |date=12 January 2022 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qb1YEAAAQBAJ |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-9354866029 }}

== Personal life ==

Kiran Bedi was born Kiran Peshawaria, daughter of Prakash Lal Peshawaria and his wife Prem Lata Peshawaria. She is one of four sisters. Indian-American lawyer [[Anu Peshawaria]] is Bedi's younger sister.

Kiran met her future husband Brij Bedi on the tennis courts of Amritsar. Brij, who was nine years older than her, played university-level tennis at the time. On 9 March 1972, the two were married at a simple ceremony at the local [[Shiva]] temple.{{sfn|Iyer|2012|p=26}} The couple had a happy marriage initially, and Brij Bedi was extremely supportive of his wife's aspirations. In an interview given after she became the first woman to be accepted into the ultra-elite [[Indian Police Service|IPS]], Kiran Bedi described her husband as "my personal God" and attributed her success to him. However, once she had become the first-ever IPS officer, Kiran Bedi's parents moved into the government house allotted to her and also brought along their two youngest (unmarried) daughters. Brij and Kiran had a daughter three years after the wedding, but after her birth, Brij Bedi's parents and siblings were hardly able to see the baby due to the total domination of Kiran's family in the household. Brij Bedi felt suffocated and relations with his live-in in-laws deteriorated. He moved out not long after the birth of his daughter and thereafter, the two lived separately for the rest of their lives.{{cn|date=March 2025}} However, they never got divorced, and Brij Bedi has attributed that decision to the fact that they have a child together.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.punjabmonitor.com/2013/04/the-unhappy-husband-of-kiran-bedi.html |title=The unhappy husband of Kiran Bedi |newspaper=Punjab Monitor |year=2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.firstpost.com/politics/qa-i-was-once-a-kejriwal-supporter-says-kiran-bedis-husband-2057833.html |title=Q&A: I was once a Kejriwal supporter, says Kiran Bedi's husband |date=21 January 2015 |author=Tarique Anwar }}</ref>

The couple had a daughter in 1975; originally named Sukriti, she later changed her name to Saina.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://lifepositive.com/heartspeak-life-of-piety-and-purity/ |title=Heartspeak – Life of Piety and Purity |author=Saina Bedi |date=1 August 2003 |publisher=LifePositive }}</ref> Brij Bedi died on 31 January 2016.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

== Awards and recognitions ==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Award
! By
! For
! Source
|-
| 1968
| Cadet Officer Award
| [[National Cadet Corps (India)|National Cadet Corps]]
| Performance as an NCC cadet
| <ref name="RMAF_1994"/>
|-
| 1979
| [[President's Police Medal]] for Gallantry
| President of India
| Conspicuous courage in preventing violence during Akali-Nirankari clashes
| {{sfn|Saxena|2000|p=33}}
|-
| 1991
| Asia Region Award
| [[International Organization of Good Templars]], Norway
| Drug prevention and control
| <ref>{{cite web |url=http://rbcsgroup.com/OT/November-2004/interview.htm |title=Interview of Dr. Kiran Bedi |year=2004 |publisher=RBCS Group |work=Opportunities Today |access-date=22 January 2015 |archive-date=12 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112032432/http://www.rbcsgroup.com/OT/November-2004/interview.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| 1994
| [[Ramon Magsaysay Award]]
| Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation, Philippines
| Government service
| <ref name="RMAF_1994"/>
|-
| 1995
| [[Aurelius Maschio#Fr Maschio Humanitarian Award|Fr Maschio Humanitarian Award]]
| Fr Maschio Platinum Jubilee Celebration Committee, [[Don Bosco High School, Matunga|Don Bosco Matunga]]
| Social reforms and community services
| <ref name="Meera2010">{{cite book |author=Meera Johri |title=Greatness of spirit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j1iegDJAYakC&pg=PA137 |publisher=Rajpal & Sons |year=2010 |isbn=978-81-7028-858-9 |page=137 }}</ref>
|-
| 1995
| Lion of the Year
| [[Lions Clubs International|Lions Club]], [[K. K. Nagar, Chennai|KK Nagar]]
| Community service
| <ref name="Meera2010"/>
|-
| 1997
| Joseph Beuys Prize
| Joseph Beuys Foundation, Germany
| Holistic and Innovative Management (Prison reform)
|
|-
| 1999
| Pride of India
| American Federation of Muslims of Indian Origin (AFMI)
| Commitment towards human welfare
| <ref name="Meera2010"/>
|-
| 1999–2000
| IIT Delhi Alumni Award
| Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi Alumni Association
| Outstanding Contribution to National Development
| <ref>{{cite web |url=http://iitdalumni.com/news/nomination-iit-delhi-alumni-award-outstanding-contribution-national-development-2010 |title=Nomination for IIT Delhi Alumni Award for Outstanding Contribution to National Development 2010 |date=21 January 2015 |publisher=IIT Delhi Alumni Association }}</ref>
|-
| 2001
| Morrison Tom Gitchoff Award
| Western Society of Criminology, United States
| Actions that have significantly improved the quality of justice in India
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030112/nation.htm#1 |title=Kiran Bedi is UN Police Adviser |newspaper=The Tribune |date=12 January 2003 }}</ref>
|-
| 2004
| [[United Nations Medal]]
| [[United Nations]]
| Outstanding service
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kiran-Bedi-honoured-with-UN-medal/articleshow/707426.cms |title=Kiran Bedi honoured with UN medal |date=29 May 2004 |newspaper=The Times of India }}</ref>
|-
| 2005
| [[Mother Teresa Awards|Mother Teresa Memorial National Award]] for Social Justice
| All India Christian Council
| Reforms in prison and penal systems
| <ref name="Meera2010"/>
|-
| 2006
| Most Admired Woman in the Country
| ''[[The Week (Indian magazine)|The Week]]''
|
| <ref name="Meera2010"/>
|-
| 2008
| FICCI Award of Excellence
| [[FICCI]] Ladies Organisation
| Being an outstanding woman achiever
| <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/kiran-bedi-given-award-of-excellence/article1216649.ece |title=Kiran Bedi given 'Award of Excellence' |date=9 March 2008 |newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref>
|-
| 2008
| Kumarappa-Reckless Award
| Indian Society of Criminology
| Outstanding contribution in the areas of criminal justice administration
| <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.oneindia.com/2008/01/20/kiran-bedi-gets-kumarappa-reckless-award-1200902080.html |title=Kiran Bedi gets Kumarappa-Reckless Award |publisher=One India |date=21 January 2008 }}</ref>
|-
| 2013
| Nomura Award
| [[Nomura Group]]
| Humanitarian work
| <ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-06-11/news/39899536_1_kiran-bedi-award-function-reward-money |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122101347/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-06-11/news/39899536_1_kiran-bedi-award-function-reward-money |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 January 2015 |title=Kiran Bedi honoured with Nomura Award |date=11 June 2013 |newspaper=Economic Times }}</ref>
|-
| 2014
| L’Oreal Paris Femina Women Award
| [[L'Oréal]] and [[Femina (India)|Femina]]
| Social impact
| <ref>{{cite news |url=https://gulfnews.com/arts-entertainment/celebrity/l-oreal-paris-femina-honour-indian-women-achievers-1.1309774 |title=L'Oreal Paris, Femina honour Indian women achievers |date=28 March 2014 |publisher=GulfNews }}</ref>
|}

In 2005, [[CUNY School of Law]] awarded her an honorary [[Doctor of Law]] degree in recognition of her "humanitarian approach to prison reforms and policing".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/kiran-bedi-gets-honorary-doctorate-from-us-university_218691.html |title=Kiran Bedi gets honorary doctorate from US university |date=23 May 2005 |publisher=Zee News }}</ref>

The Navjyoti Delhi Police Foundation received the 1999 Serge Sotiroff Memorial Award for outstanding contributions to international drug control efforts.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/press/en/1999/19990625.SOCNA805.html |title=Sotiroff Award presented to Navjyoti Delhi Police Foundation |publisher=United Nations |date=25 June 1999 }}</ref>

She was conferred with Acharya Tulsi Kartritva Puraskar in 2005 by [http://www.abtmm.in Akhil Bhartiya Terapanth Mahila Mandal].

== In popular culture ==

The following films, documentaries and TV programmes are based on Bedi's life:

* ''[[Karthavyam (1990 film)|Karthavyam]]'' (1990), is a [[Telugu language|Telugu]] film based on Bedi. It was dubbed into [[Tamil language|Tamil]] as ''Vyjayanthi IPS''. The movie was remade in Hindi as ''Tejaswini''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Diptakirti Chaudhuri |title=Bollybook: The Big Book of Hindi Movie Trivia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gq-CBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT133 |date=12 September 2014 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-93-5118-799-8 |page=133}}</ref>
* ''[[Doing time, Doing Vipassana]]'' (1997), documents Bedi's initiatives for the practice of Vipassana meditation at Tihar
* ''I Gandhis fotspor'' / ''In Gandhi's Footsteps: Kiran Bedi's Humanitarian Revolution'' (2004), a documentary by the Norwegian filmmaker Oystein Rakkenes. Awarded Best Documentary at the Indo-American Film Festival in Atlanta in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nfi.no/english/norwegianfilms/search/Film?key=35689 |title=In Gandhi's Footsteps |work=Norwegian Film Database |publisher=Norwegian Film Institute |access-date=22 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214650/http://www.nfi.no/english/norwegianfilms/search/Film?key=35689 |archive-date= 3 March 2016 }}</ref>
* ''Kiran Bedi: Yes Madam, Sir'' (2008), a documentary produced by Australian filmmaker Megan Doneman.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/A-movie-on-Kiran-Bedi/articleshow/10267294.cms |title=A movie on Kiran Bedi |author=Suruchi Sharma |date=8 October 2011 |newspaper=The Times of India }}</ref> Narrated by [[Helen Mirren]] it was filmed over a six-year period and premiered in 2009.<ref>White, Tom (August 2009). [http://www.documentary.org/feature/meet-filmmakers-megan-doneman-yes-madam-sir "Meet the Filmmakers: Megan Doneman--'Yes Madam, Sir'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205094016/http://www.documentary.org/feature/meet-filmmakers-megan-doneman-yes-madam-sir |date=5 February 2015 }}. ''Documentary Magazine''. Retrieved 5 February 2015.</ref> It was adjudged the "Best Documentary" at the [[Santa Barbara International Film Festival]].
* ''[[Kannadadda Kiran Bedi]]'' (2009) is a [[Kannada language|Kannada]] film, starring [[Malashri]] as a fictionalized interpretation of Bedi.
*''Koi To Ho Ardhnarishwar'', a television series aired from 2010 on [[DD National]]. It was an adaptation of a novel by [[Vishnu Prabhakar]], the novel in turn took its inspiration from Bedi's life.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Koi To Ho Ardhnarishwar|url=https://nettv4u.com/about/Hindi/tv-serials/koi-to-ho-ardhnarishwar|access-date=|website=nettv4u|language=en}}</ref>
* ''[[Carve Your Destiny]]'', a 2014 film directed by [[Anubhav Srivastava]], features Bedi.

Biographies of Bedi include:

* {{cite book |author=Parmesh Dangwal |title=Panjabi di daler dhi: Kiran Bedi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tv8EcgAACAAJ |year=1996 |publisher=Abhishek |language=pa }}
* {{cite book |author=Meenakshi Saxena |title=Kiran Bedi, the Kindly Baton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M5PaAAAAMAAJ |year=2000 |publisher=Books India International |page=232 }}
* {{cite book |author=Parmesh Dangwal |title=I Dare!: Kiran Bedi: a Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4WGf2J2WUTgC |year=2004 |publisher=UBS |isbn=978-81-7476-483-6}}
** Translated into Sinhalese as {{cite book |author=Parmesh Dangwal |title=Man baya nâ |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ePK-AAAACAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Samayavardhana Pothala |isbn=978-955-570-325-3}}
* {{cite book |author=Siddharth Iyer |title=Kiran Bedi: The Woman of Substance |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RS0AAwAAQBAJ |year=2012 |publisher=Diamond |isbn=978-93-5083-669-9 }}
* {{cite book |author1=Reeta Peshawaria Menon |author2=Anu Peshawaria |title=Kiran Bedi – Making of Top Cop |url=http://www.diamondbook.in/strip/kiran-bedi.html |year=2014 |publisher=Diamond |isbn=9789351654988 |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-date=22 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122110458/http://www.diamondbook.in/strip/kiran-bedi.html |url-status=dead }}. A 32-page comic book biography authored by Kiran Bedi's sisters Reeta and Anu<ref name="IE_comic_2014"/>
Kiran Bedi was featured in National Geographic's Series "Mega Icons" (2018), which revolves around her life.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |first=Siddharth |last=Iyer |title=Kiran Bedi: The Woman of Substance |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RS0AAwAAQBAJ |year=2012 |publisher=Diamond |isbn=978-93-5083-669-9 }}
* {{cite book |first=Meenakshi |last=Saxena |title=Kiran Bedi, the Kindly Baton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M5PaAAAAMAAJ |year=2000 |publisher=Books India International }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{commons category-inline}}
* {{Official website|https://kiranbedi.com/|Kiran Bedi's official website}}
* [https://navjyoti.org.in/ Navjyoti India Foundation]
* {{TED speaker}}
* {{IMDb name|nm17891567|Kiran Bedi}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-gov}}
{{s-bef|before=[[A. K. Singh]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Lieutenant Governors of Puducherry|28th Lieutenant Governor of Puducherry]]|years=2016–2021}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Tamilisai Soundararajan]] Additional Charge}}
|-
{{s-civ|pol}}
{{s-bef|before=}}
{{s-ttl|title=Director General of [[Bureau of Police Research and Development]]|years=2005–2007}}
{{s-aft|after=}}
{{s-bef|before=}}
{{s-ttl|title=Director General of Civil Defence & Fire Services|years=2005–2005}}
{{s-aft|after=}}
{{s-bef|before=}}
{{s-ttl|title=Special Commissioner (Intelligence) of [[Delhi Police]]|years=}}
{{s-aft|after=}}
{{s-dip}}
{{s-bef|before=}}
{{s-ttl|title=Police Adviser and Director of [[United Nations Police]]|years=2003–2005}}
{{s-aft|after=}}
{{s-end}}

{{RMA winners of India}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bedi, Kiran}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian police chiefs]]
[[Category:Writers from Amritsar]]
[[Category:Ramon Magsaysay Award winners]]
[[Category:Indian civil rights activists]]
[[Category:Indian anti-corruption activists]]
[[Category:Indian women police officers]]
[[Category:Faculty of Law, University of Delhi alumni]]
[[Category:Panjab University alumni]]
[[Category:IIT Delhi alumni]]
[[Category:Politicians from Delhi]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Delhi]]
[[Category:Indian female tennis players]]
[[Category:Prison reformers]]
[[Category:Indian Police Service officers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:Women in Delhi politics]]
[[Category:Drug rehabilitation]]
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Dipankar Das Sarma

2026-03-23T19:12:30Z

Olympiados:

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Dipankar Das Sarma
| image =

| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_date = 15 September 1955
| birth_place = [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| restingplace =
| restingplacecoordinates =
| othername =
| occupation = Solid State and Structural Chemist
| yearsactive =
| known for =
| spouse = Abha Das Sarma
| domesticpartner =
| children =
| parents =
| website = {{url|http://sscu.iisc.ernet.in/DDSarma/index.html|Profile on Indian Institute of Science}}
| awards = [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology|S. S. Bhatnagar Prize]] [[Indian National Science Academy|INSA]] Young Scientist Medal [[UNESCO]] Biennial Javed Husain Prize Materials Research Society of India Medal [[Sir C. V. Raman]] Award [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]] Hari Om Ashram Trust Award G. D. Birla Award [[Indian Institute of Science|IISc]] Alumni Award [[FICCI]] Award [[TWAS Prize]] in Physics [[Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur|IITK]] Distinguished Alumni Award [[H K Firodia awards|H. K. Firodia Award]] Knight of "The Order of the Star of Italy" Honorary Doctorate, Uppsala University
}}
'''Dipankar Das Sarma''', popularly known as '''D.D. Sarma''', is an Indian scientist<ref name="The Indian Scientists">{{cite web | url=http://indian-scientists.padakshep.org/subjectareas/chemical-sciences/chem-bhatnagar-prize-winners/dipankar-das-sarma | title=The Indian Scientists | publisher=The Indian Scientists | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> and structural chemist,<ref name="Business Week">{{cite news | url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/presidency-university-hosting-stalwarts-of-science-113120900657_1.html | title=Business Week | publisher=v | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015| newspaper=Business Standard India }}</ref> known for his researches in the fields of Solid State Chemistry, Spectroscopy, [[Condensed Matter Physics]], Materials Science, and [[Nanoscience]].<ref name="INSA">{{Cite web |url=http://insaindia.res.in/detail.php?id=p01-1303 |title=INSA |date=2017-11-08 |publisher=INSA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813094423/http://insaindia.org.in/detail.php?id=p01-1303 |archive-date=13 August 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=2017-11-08}}</ref><ref name="CRANN">{{cite web | url=http://www.crann.tcd.ie/About-Us/Management-Governance/Scientific-Advisory-Board/Prof-Dipankar-Das-Sarma.aspx | title=CRANN | publisher=CRANN | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="SERB">{{cite web | url=http://www.serb.gov.in/pdfs/research/Prof_Dipankar_Das_Sarma.pdf | title=SERB | publisher=SERB | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="IAS">{{cite web | url=http://www.ias.ac.in/php/fell_detail.php3?name=Sarma&intials=Dipankar&year=15-09-1955 | title=IAS | publisher=IAS | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> He is a former MLS Chair Professor of Physics and Chairman of the Centre for Advanced Materials<ref name="IACS">{{cite web | url=http://www.iacs.res.in/news.html | title=IACS | publisher=IACS | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="IISC">{{cite web | url=https://sscu.iisc.ernet.in/DDSarma/our-group-dd-sarma.html | title=IISC | publisher=IISC | date=2014 | access-date=16 January 2015 | archive-date=18 January 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118123711/https://sscu.iisc.ernet.in/DDSarma/our-group-dd-sarma.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> and the GAST Professor of [[Uppsala University]], Sweden,<ref name="Uppsala University">{{cite web | url=http://katalog.uu.se/empinfo/?languageId=1&id=N11-509 | title=Uppsala University | publisher=Uppsala University | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> A recipient of [[TWAS]] Physics Prize and the [[UNESCO]] Biennial Javed Husain Prize,<ref name="IISC" /> Sarma was honored by the [[Council for Scientific and Industrial Research]] (CSIR), [[Government of India]], in 1994, with the [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology]].<ref name="CSIR HRDG">{{cite web | url=http://csirhrdg.res.in/ssb.pdf | title=CSIR HRDG | publisher=CSIR HRDG | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721181119/http://csirhrdg.res.in/ssb.pdf | archive-date=21 July 2011 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Short description|Indian scientist}}

==Early life and education==
[[File:A building at IIT Kanpur.jpg|thumb|240px|left|IIT Kanpur-Sarma's alma mater]]
Dipankar Das Sarma was born on 15 September 1955<ref name="CSIR HRDG" /> in [[Kolkata]],<ref name="DNA India">{{cite web | url=http://www.dnaindia.com/pune/report-two-city-scientists-to-get-hk-firodia-excellence-awards-1911498 | title=DNA India | publisher=DNA India | date=31 October 2013 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> in [[West Bengal]].<ref name="Vidwan">{{cite web | url=http://vidwan.inflibnet.ac.in/searchr.php?id=1054 | title=Vidwan | publisher=Vidwan | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="SSB Prize">{{cite web | url=http://ssbprize.gov.in/Content/Detail.aspx?AID=36 | title=SSB Prize | publisher=SSB Prize | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> He did a five-year integrated masters course in Physics from the [[Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur]] in 1977<ref name="IISC" /> and enrolled for research at the [[Indian Institute of Science]], (IISc) Bengaluru from where he secured his PhD<ref name="Vidwan" /> in 1982 under the tutelage of renowned solid state chemist, [[C. N. R. Rao]].<ref name="INSA" />

== Work ==
He worked as a research associate at IISc for one year (1982–83), moved to [[Forschungszentrum Jülich]], (Jülich Research Centre) Germany as a guest scientist in 1984 and returned to IISc as a lecturer in 1986.<ref name="INSA" /> He stayed at IISc where he became the assistant professor in 1989, associate professor in 1993 and a professor in 1999.<ref name="INSA" /> He remains a professor at Solid State and Structural Chemistry Unit at the institution.<ref name="CRANN" /><ref name="IISC" /><ref name="Vidwan" /> He also served as a visiting professor at the [[University of Tokyo]] (2001–02) and at the [[National Research Council (Italy)|Istituto di Struttura della Materia, CNR]] at their Rome and Trieste centres in 2002.<ref name="INSA" />

==Positions==
[[File:Sheeju iisc.jpg|thumb|240px|right|[[Indian Institute of Science]].]]
Prof. Sarma holds a number of academic positions in India and abroad. Presently, he is J.N. Tata Chair Professor at the Solid State and Structural Chemistry Unit of the [[Indian Institute of Science]]. Besides heading the Solid State and Structural Chemistry Unit, he served as a guest professor at the [[Uppsala University]], Sweden,<ref name="CRANN" /> a Distinguished Scientist at the [[Council for Scientific and Industrial Research|CSIR]]-Network Institutes of Solar Energy,<ref name="CRANN" /> an honorary professor at the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research]], Bengaluru<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="CRANN" /> and a distinguished visiting professor at the [[Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science]], Kolkata.<ref name="IISC" /> He has also been an adjunct professor at the [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]], Mumbai<ref name="CRANN" /> till October 2014 for a second term, the initial tenure being a six-year period from 2003 to 2009.<ref name="IISC" /> He also held the position of the distinguished visiting professor at the [[Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science]], Kolkata for two terms, from 2004 to 2006 and from 2009 to 2014. He has also been the adjunct professor of the [[Indian Institute of Science Education and Research]], Kolkata (2007–09),<ref name="INSA" /> a senior associate at the [[S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences]] (2003-2006),<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="IISC" /> a member of faculty at the [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]]-[[Department of Atomic Energy|DAE]] Consortium for Scientific Research.<ref name="IUC">{{cite web | url=http://www.iuc.res.in/staff.html | title=IUC | publisher=IUC | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> and an MLS Chair professor of the Centre for Advanced Materials.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="CRANN" /><ref name="IACS" />

Prof. Sarma is a member of many professional bodies such as the Council of Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Tachnology, Indore, the Steering Committee for the Sophisticated Analytical Instrument Facilities (SAIF) programme of the [[Department of Science and Technology (India)|Department of Science and Technology]], [[Government of India]] and the Academic Advisory Committee of the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research]] and is the coordinator of the group set up by the [[Government of India]] for India's collaboration with the [[International Centre for Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science Applications in the Middle East]] (SESAME). He sits in various committees of the [[Department of Science and Technology (India)|Department of Science and Technology]] and the [[Council for Scientific and Industrial Research]].<ref name="IISC" /> He holds the chair of the Research Council of the [[National Chemical Laboratory]], Pune and has held the chairs of the Proposal Review Committee of [[ELETTRA|Elettra Synchrotron Centre]], Trieste and the Scientific Advisory Committee of the [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]]-[[Department of Atomic Energy|DAE]] Consortium for Scientific Research of which he has also served as a member of the governing body and the governing council.<ref name="IISC" />

D. D. Sarma is a former member of the Scientific Advisory Boards of [[CRANN]] and [[Trinity College Dublin]], the Scientific Advisory Committees of the Inter University Consortium, Departamento de Asistencia Económica y Financiera, (DAEF) and the Inter University Accelerator Centre, New Delhi, the Academic Program Advisory Committee of the [[S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences]], Kolkata and the councils of the [[Indian National Science Academy]] and the [[Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology]], Indore.<ref name="IISC" /> He has also served the scientific council of the Indo-French Centre for the Promotion of Advanced Research (IFCPAR), the general council of the Asia Pacific Centre for Theoretical Physics, [[Pohang University of Science and Technology|Pohang]], Korea, and the working group of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) for the formulation of the 12th Five Year Plan, 2011 as a member.<ref name="IISC" />

Prof. Sarma is a Senior Editor of [https://pubs.acs.org/page/aelccp/editors.html ACS Energy Letters] and a member of the editorial boards of several peer reviewed journals such as ''J. Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena'',<ref name="Vidwan" /><ref name="J. Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena">{{cite book | url=http://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-electron-spectroscopy-and-related-phenomena/editorial-board/ | title=J. Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena | publisher=J. Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> ''Solid State Communication'',<ref name="Solid State Communication journal">{{cite book | url=http://www.journals.elsevier.com/solid-state-communications/editorial-board/ | title=Solid State Communication journal | publisher=Solid State Communication | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> ''Indian Journal of Physics'',<ref name="Indian Journal of Physics">{{cite web | url=https://www.springer.com/physics/journal/12648?detailsPage=editorialBoard | title=Indian Journal of Physics | publisher=Indian Journal of Physics | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> and ''Surface and Interface Analysis''.<ref name="Surface and Interface Analysis">{{cite journal | url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1096-9918/homepage/EditorialBoard.html | title=Surface and Interface Analysis | journal=Surface and Interface Analysis | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015| doi=10.1002/(ISSN)1096-9918 | citeseerx=10.1.1.575.7678 }}</ref> He has also been associated with ''Advances in Physical Chemistry'', ''Pramana – Journal of Physics'', [[Journal of Physical Chemistry]], The Open Condensed Matter Physics Journal and Research Letters in Physical Chemistry, as an editorial board member.<ref name="IISC" /> He is the Series Editor of ''Advances in Condensed Matter Science'',<ref name="Vidwan" /> the South Asian regional Editor for ''J. Experimental Nanoscience'' and the Associate Editor of ''Applied Physics''. He is a reviewer for many scientific magazines and the [[American Physical Society]] selected him as an ''Outstanding Referee'' in 2009.<ref name="IISC" />

==Legacy==
Dipankar Das Sarma is credited with extensive research on [[nanomaterials]] and strongly correlated materials.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="CRANN" /><ref name="IAS" /> His contribution is reported in discovering the existence of ''a new phase in solid state materials through high-energy spectroscopies and theory''.<ref name="CSIR HRDG" /> His researches have been documented by way of several articles published in various peer reviewed journals.<ref name="IISC" /><ref name="Indian Express">{{cite web | url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/science-in-india-experiencing-extraordinary-growth/ | title=Indian Express | publisher=Indian Express | date=31 October 2013 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="ResearchGate">{{cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dr_Dipankar_Das | title=ResearchGate | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> Google Scholar, an online repository of scientific articles has listed 656 of Sarma's articles and has accorded him an [[h-index]] of 43 (since 2015)<ref name="Indian Express" /> and an [[i10-index]] of 167 (since 2015) and his articles have been cited over 20000 times.<ref name="Google Scholar">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=2yLbffsAAAAJ&hl=en | title=Google Scholar | publisher=Google Scholar | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> He holds many patents<ref name="IISC" /> and Justia Patents has an online record of 16 of them.<ref name="Patents">{{cite web | url=http://patents.justia.com/inventor/dipankar-das | title=Patents | publisher=Justia | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref>

Sarma is credited with the establishment of the Centre for Advanced Materials,<ref name="CRANN" /><ref name="CAM">{{cite web | url=http://www.iacs.res.in/cam/ | title=CAM | publisher=CAM | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150902183029/http://www.iacs.res.in/cam/ | archive-date=2 September 2015 }}</ref> a centre for advanced research on nanomaterials, smart materials, functional polymers, [[spintronics]], strongly correlated electron systems, biomaterials and biology-inspired materials at the [[Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science]].<ref name="INSA" /> He has attended many national and international seminars and conferences where he has delivered plenary lectures and keynote addresses.<ref name="IISC" /> He has also mentored many research students for their PhD theses.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="IISC" />

==Awards and recognitions==
Sarma received the Sir J. C. Ghosh Medal in 1981 and the ''Young Scientist Medal''<ref name="Vidwan" /> from the [[Indian National Science Academy]] in 1983.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="IISC" /> [[UNESCO]] awarded him the Biennial Javed Hussain Prize in 1989<ref name="Vidwan" /> and a year later, in 1990, he received the medal of excellence<ref name="Vidwan" /> from the Materials Research Society of India.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="IISC" /> The [[Government of India]] awarded him the [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize]] in 1994<ref name="Vidwan" /><ref name="SSB Prize" /> and he received the [[C. V. Raman]] Award in 2004.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="IISC" /> The year 2005 brought him three awards, the ''Hari Om Ashram Trust Award'' by the [[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission]], G. D. Birla Award and the Alumnus Award for Excellence in Research<ref name="TOI">{{cite web | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/IIT-K-celebrates-55th-foundation-day/articleshow/45014897.cms | title=TOI | publisher=TOI | date=2014 | access-date=17 January 2015}}</ref> from the [[Indian Institute of Science]].<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="IISC" /> He received [[FICCI]] Award in 2006, [[TWAS Prize]] in Physics in 2007,<ref name="INSA" /> the National Research Award in 2009 and [[H K Firodia awards|H. K. Firodia Award]] in 2013.<ref name="IISC" /><ref name="DNA India" /> He was honored with the Knight of "The Order of the Star of Italy" in 2014, and an [[Honorary degree|Honorary Doctorate]]<ref>{{Cite web|title = Three new honorary doctors in Science and Technology - Uppsala University, Sweden|url = http://www.uu.se/en/media/news/article/?id=3690&typ=artikel&area=2&lang=en|website = www.uu.se|access-date = 2016-02-02}}</ref> from the Faculty of Science and Technology at [[Uppsala University]] in 2015.

Sarma, an elected Fellow of the [[Indian National Science Academy]], delivered three INSA lectures in 2006, ''Dr. Jagdish Shankar Memorial Award Lecture'', ''Professor R. P. Mitra Memorial Award Lecture'' and ''A. V. Rama Rao Foundation Lecture''.<ref name="INSA" /> Two years later, he delivered the INSA [[Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao Memorial Lecture Award|Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao Memorial Lecture]] in 2008.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="IACS" /> Some of the other lectures delivered by Das Sarma are ''CSIR Foundation Day Lecture'', ''Distinguished Public Lecture'', ''8th Atma Ram Memorial Lecture'' and the ''Joy Kissen Memorial Lecture'', ''CNR Rao Prize Lecture''.<ref name="IISC" />

He is an elected Fellow of the [[American Physical Society]], [[The Academy of Sciences for the Developing World]], the [[National Academy of Sciences, India]], and the [[Indian Academy of Sciences]]<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="CRANN" /><ref name="IAS" /><ref name="Vidwan" /> and holds the fellowship of the Asia-Pacific Academy of Materials (APAM).<ref name="IISC" /> He is also a [[J. C. Bose]] National Fellow and [[Homi J. Bhabha|Homi Bhabha]] Fellow.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="IISC" />

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Indian Institute of Science]]
* [[Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur]]
* [[Spintronics]]
* [[Nanotechnology]]
{{div col end}}
{{portal|India|Science}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sarma, D. D.}}
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian chemical engineers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology]]
[[Category:Scientists from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award in Chemical Science]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian inventors]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy]]
[[Category:Solid-state chemistry]]
[[Category:Indian Institute of Science alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Indian Institute of Science]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian chemists]]
[[Category:TWAS laureates]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Physical Society]]
[[Category:Homi Bhabha Fellows]]

S. P. Singh (academic)

2026-03-23T06:35:17Z

Olympiados: adding basic bio v1!

{{Short description|Indian professor}}
{{Multiple issues|
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{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix = Prof.
| name = Surendra Pratap Singh
| citizenship = Indian
| occupation = Academic, Professor
| title =
| employer =
| education =
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{{Draft article|nomove=yes}}

'''S. P. Singh,''' or '''Surendra Pratap Singh,''' is an Indian academic who served as the Vice Chancellor of [[Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University]], Srinagar-Garhwal (Uttaranchal) from 10 May 2005 to 9 May 2008.<ref>{{cite web |title= Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal) OUR VICE CHANCELLORS, Page, 11 | url= https://www.hnbgu.ac.in/sites/default/files/2020-12/Smarika%20Convocation%202020_0.pdf | website= HNBGU |access-date= October 24, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= First Meet of Himalayan Young Researchers | url= https://gbpihedenvis.nic.in/him-yrf-2014/Mentors,%20Resource,%20Core%20Teams/Surendra%20Pratap%20Singh.pdf | website= G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190805130849/https://gbpihedenvis.nic.in/him-yrf-2014/Mentors,%20Resource,%20Core%20Teams/Surendra%20Pratap%20Singh.pdf |access-date= October 23, 2025 | archive-date= 5 August 2019 }}</ref>

== Career ==
He is a Fellow of the [[Indian National Science Academy]] (INSA),<ref>{{cite web |title= INSA Fellowship | url= https://insajournal.in/intranetinsa/fellow_detail.php?id=P03-1346| website= INSA |access-date= October 23, 2025}}</ref> and a Fellow of the [[National Academy of Sciences, India]].<ref>{{cite web |title= Surendra Pratap Singh | url= https://nasi.org.in/fellows/singh-surendra-pratap | website= NASI |access-date= October 23, 2025}}</ref>

He is Chair of Excellence in Biodiversity and Ecology, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, Uttarakhand,<ref>{{cite web |title= Faculty Cellulose and Paper Technology | url= http://fridu.edu.in/page/facultycpt | website= Forest Research Institute |access-date= October 29, 2025}}</ref> served as the Advisor, Planning Commission, Uttarakhand, the Chairman,<ref>{{cite web |title= Dignitary Visits | url= https://www.ciil-ntsindia.net/Dignitaryvisit.aspx | website= CIIL |access-date= October 29, 2025}}</ref> Expert Committee of Climate Change Programme (CCP) of DST,<ref>{{cite web |title= Office Memorandum | url= https://dst.gov.in/sites/default/files/Mission%20Steering%20Committee.pdf| website= DST Gov |access-date= October 29, 2025}}</ref> Chairman, UGC, Review Committee for SATAT Framework for Eco-Friendly and Sustainable Campus Development in Higher Educational Institutions

== Books ==

Books he contributed to, edited include the following:
* ''Ecology of Himalayan Treeline Ecotone<ref>{{cite book | editor-first1= S. P.| editor-first2= Zafar Ahmad| editor-first3= Rajesh| editor-last1= Singh| editor-last2= Reshi| editor-last3= Joshi|title=Ecology of Himalayan Treeline Ecotone | url= https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-19-4476-5| website= Springer | date= 2023| doi= 10.1007/978-981-19-4476-5| isbn= 978-981-19-4475-8|access-date= October 24, 2025}}</ref>''
* ''Interpreting mountain treelines in a changing world<ref>{{cite web |title=Interpreting mountain treelines in a changing world | url= https://lib.icimod.org/records/skwgm-0pp55 | website= International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) |access-date= October 23, 2025}}</ref>''
* ''Forests of the Himalaya: Structure, Functioning, and Impact of Man, Gyanodaya Prakashan'', 1992.''<ref>{{cite book |title= Forests of the Himalaya: Structure, Functioning, and Impact of Man| url= https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/22754 | website= Gyanodaya Parakashan | date= 1992 | isbn= 978-81-85097-25-1 | access-date= October 29, 2025}}</ref>''
* ''Ecology, environmental science & conservation'', S. Chand Publishing. 2025<ref>{{cite web |title=Ecology, environmental science & conservation | url= https://www.schandpublishing.com/books/higher-education/biology/ecology-environmental-science-conservation-2e/9789364681124/ | website= S Chand Publishing | access-date= October 29, 2025}}</ref>

== Awards and recognition==

Some of the selected awards received by him include the following:

* Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy (INSA)
* Fellow of the National Academy of Sciences, India
* Dr. Birbal Sahni Medal (2003), Awarded by The Indian Botanical Society <ref>{{cite web |title= Birbal Sahni Medal | url= https://indianbotsoc.org/award_archivers | website= The Indian Botanical Society |access-date= October 23, 2025}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Surendra Pratap}}
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[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy]]
[[Category:Fellows of the National Academy of Sciences, India]]
{{Improve categories|date=October 2025}}

Angkor Wat

2026-03-23T06:24:38Z

Olympiados: General improvements to article content

{{Short description|Buddhist temple complex in Cambodia}}
{{For-multi|the band|Angkor Wat (band)|the Yes song|Union (Yes album)}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox religious building
| name = Angkor Wat
| native_name = {{lang|km|អង្គរវត្ត}}
| native_name_lang = km
| image = Buddhist monks in front of the Angkor Wat.jpg
| image_size = 270px
| caption = Front side of the main complex
| map_type = Cambodia
| map_caption = Location in Cambodia
| location = [[Siem Reap]], Cambodia
| coordinates = {{coord|13|24|45|N|103|52|0|E|type:landmark_region:KH|display=inline,title}}
| religious_affiliation = [[Buddhism]]
| status = Active
| functional_status = Active
| architecture_type = Temple complex
| architecture_style = [[Khmer architecture]]
| founded_by = [[Suryavarman II]]
| established = {{circa|1150}}
| height_max = 65 m
| site_area = 162.6 hectares
| country = Cambodia
|designation1 = WHS
|designation1_offname= Angkor
|designation1_type = Cultural
|designation1_criteria = i, ii, iii, iv
|designation1_number = 668
|designation1_date = 1992 (16th session)
|designation1_free1name = Region
|designation1_free1value = Asia and the Pacific
}}

'''Angkor Wat''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|ŋ|k|ɔːr|_|ˈ|w|ɒ|t}}; {{langx|km|អង្គរវត្ត}}, 'City/Capital of [[Wat|Temples]]') is a [[Theravada Buddhism|Theravada Buddhist]] temple complex and the largest religious complex in the world. Located on a site measuring {{convert|162.6|ha|km2 acre|1}} within the ancient capital of [[Angkor]], it was constructed between 1113 and 1150 CE during the reign of the Khmer king [[Suryavarman II]] as a [[Hindu temple]] dedicated to [[Vishnu]]. From the late 13th century onward, the complex was gradually transformed into a [[Buddhist temple]] and has remained an active center of Buddhist worship for centuries. Angkor Wat is noted for its monumental scale, extensive bas-reliefs, and architectural unity characteristic of [[Khmer architecture]], and unlike most Angkorian temples it is oriented toward the west. It is a national symbol of Cambodia and appears on the [[Flag of Cambodia|Cambodian national flag]].

The temple was commissioned by [[Suryavarman II]] in [[Yaśodharapura]], the capital of the [[Khmer Empire]], as a state temple and is generally considered to have been intended as his mausoleum. Its architectural design combines the [[Khmer architecture#Temple mountain|temple-mountain]] and [[Khmer architecture#Gallery|galleried temple]] forms characteristic of [[Khmer architecture]]. The overall layout is commonly interpreted as a symbolic representation of [[Mount Meru]], a cosmological concept shared by both Hindu and Buddhist traditions. The complex is surrounded by a broad [[moat]] and enclosed by an outer wall, within which three progressively elevated galleries rise toward a central [[quincunx]] of towers.

From the late 13th century onward, Angkor Wat became predominantly associated with [[Theravada Buddhism|Theravāda Buddhism]]. The monument was adapted for Buddhist worship and has remained in continuous religious use, a factor that contributed to its preservation and to its enduring role as a major religious, cultural, and national symbol of Cambodia.

The temple complex fell into disuse before being restored in the 20th century with various international agencies involved in the project.

Restoration was coordinated by the International Coordinating Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC-Angkor), established in 1993 under [https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/angkor-stands-model-entrepreneurship-scientific-reference-performance-and-excellence-be-shared-world UNESCO]. Major contributors included [[France]] (via the [[French School of the Far East|École française d'Extrême-Orient]]), [[Japan]] (JASA), [[India]] ([[Archaeological Survey of India]]), [[Germany]] (GACP), the [[United States]] ([[World Monuments Fund]]), [[South Korea]], [[China]], and [[Italy]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Archeological Research & Conservation - APSARA National Authority |url=https://apsaraauthority.gov.kh/our-work/archeological-research-conservation/ |access-date=2026-03-03 |work=APSARA National Authority |language=en-US}}</ref>

The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensive [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]] and [[devata]]s adorning its walls. The Angkor area was designated as a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in 1992. The Angkor Wat is a major tourist attraction and attracts more than 2.5 million visitors every year.

==Etymology==
The modern name ''Angkor Wat'', means "Temple City" or "City of Temples" in [[Khmer language]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Khmer dictionary|publisher=Buddhist institute of Cambodia|page=1424|year=2007}}</ref> ''Angkor'' ({{lang|km|អង្គរ}} {{transliteration|km|ângkôr}}), meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular form of the word ''nokor'' ({{lang|km|នគរ}} {{transliteration|km|nôkôr}}), which comes from the [[Sanskrit]]/[[Pali]] word ''nagara'' ([[Devanāgarī]]: नगर).<ref>{{cite book|title=Khmer Dictionary|first=Chuon|last=Nath|year=1966|publisher=Buddhist Institute|location=[[Phnom Penh]]}}</ref> ''[[Wat]]'' ({{lang|km|វត្ត}} {{transliteration|km|vôtt}}) is the word for "temple grounds", also derived from Sanskrit/Pali ''vāṭa'' ([[Devanāgarī]]: वाट), meaning "enclosure".<ref>{{cite book|title=Cambodian-English Dictionary|author1=Robert K. Headley|author2=Kylin Chhor|author3=Lam Kheng Lim|author4=Lim Hak Kheang|author5=Chen Chun|year=1977|publisher=Catholic University Press}}</ref> The original name of the temple was ''Vrah Viṣṇuloka'' or ''Parama Viṣṇuloka'' meaning "the sacred dwelling of Vishnu".<ref name="Falser">{{cite book|last=Falser|first=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wjrEDwAAQBAJ&q=Vrah+Visnuloka+Parama+Visnuloka&pg=PA12|title=Angkor Wat – A Transcultural History of Heritage: Volume 1: Angkor in France. From Plaster Casts to Exhibition Pavilions. Volume 2: Angkor in Cambodia. From Jungle Find to Global Icon|date=16 December 2019|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG|isbn=978-3-11033-584-2|page=12|access-date=8 November 2020|archive-date=31 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031080402/https://books.google.com/books?id=wjrEDwAAQBAJ&q=Vrah+Visnuloka+Parama+Visnuloka&pg=PA12#v=onepage&q=Vrah%20Visnuloka%20Parama%20Visnuloka&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Apsara">{{cite web|title=Angkor Wat|url=https://apsaraauthority.gov.kh/2021/06/14/angkor-wat/|access-date=7 February 2024|work=Apsara, [[Government of Cambodia]]|date=13 June 2021 }}</ref> The term might also mean "The king who has gone to the supreme world of Vishnu", referring to Suryavarman II posthumously and intended to venerate his glory and memory.<ref name="Falser"/>

==History==
===Construction===
Angkor Wat was commissioned by the [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] king [[Suryavarman II]] (ruled 1113–{{circa|1150}}) in the early 12th century in [[Yaśodharapura]] (present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire. The construction of the temple commenced in 1122 CE and was completed in 1150 CE.<ref name="Ancient Southeast Asia">{{cite book |last1=Miksic |first1=John |last2=Yian |first2=Goh |title=Ancient Southeast Asia |date=14 October 2016 |publisher=Routledge |page=378 |isbn=978-1-31727-904-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjklDwAAQBAJ&dq=suryavarman+chola+mother&pg=PA376 |access-date=4 July 2022 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411141146/https://books.google.com/books?id=zjklDwAAQBAJ&dq=suryavarman+chola+mother&pg=PA376 |url-status=live }}</ref> The temple complex was constructed on the suggestion of Divākarapaṇḍita(1040–{{circa|1120}}).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Divākarapaṇḍita|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=19 March 2022|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Divakarapandita}}</ref> The temple was dedicated to [[Hindu]] god [[Vishnu]] and the original religious motifs were derived from [[Hinduism]].<ref name="Brit">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Angkor Wat {{!}} Description, Location, History, Restoration, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Angkor-Wat|access-date=7 February 2021|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|archive-date=10 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810081546/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Angkor-Wat|url-status=live}}</ref> It was built as the king's state temple in the capital city. Historians have often thought that Angkor Wat served as a “temple-city,” but modern analyses of the site suggest that it housed a population of between 3000 and 4300 residents.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Stark |first=Miriam T. |last2=Evans |first2=Damian |last3=Rachna |first3=Chhay |last4=Piphal |first4=Heng |last5=Carter |first5=Alison |date=7 December 2015 |title=Residential patterning at Angkor Wat |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/abs/residential-patterning-at-angkor-wat/AC4417003B453463101D0DA66B3F2357 |journal=Antiquity |language=en |volume=89 |issue=348 |pages=1439–1455 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2015.159 |issn=0003-598X|via=Cambridge University Press|url-access=subscription }}</ref> As there are no foundation [[Stele|stela]] or any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple's name that have been found, its original name is unknown and it may have been known as ''Vrah Viṣṇuloka'' after the presiding deity.<ref name="Falser"/> The work on the temple ceased after the king's death, leaving some of the [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-relief]] decoration unfinished.<ref name="Ohio">{{cite web |url=http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/seasia/angkor.html |title=Angkor Wat, 1113–1150 |access-date=27 April 2008 |publisher=College of the Arts, The Ohio State University |work=The Huntington Archive of Buddhist and Related Art |archive-date=6 January 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060106041557/http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/seasia/angkor.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Buddhist temple===
In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by the [[Champa|Chams]], the traditional enemies of the Khmer.<ref>{{cite book|last= Coedès|first= George|author-link= George Coedès|editor= Walter F. Vella|others= trans.Susan Brown Cowing|title= The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|date= 1968|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1 |page=164}}</ref> Thereafter, the Khmer empire was restored by [[Jayavarman VII]], who established a new capital at [[Angkor Thom]] and the [[Bayon]] as the state temple, situated to the north. The temple was dedicated to [[Buddhism]] as the king's wife [[Indradevi]] was a devout [[Mahayana Buddhism|Mahayana Buddhist]] who encouraged him to convert. Angkor Wat was therefore also gradually converted into a Buddhist site with many Hindu sculptures replaced by Buddhist art.<ref name="Brit"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Atlas of the World's Religions|page=93|publisher=Oxford university press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19533-401-2}}</ref><ref name="cyark">{{cite web|url=http://www.cyark.org/news/recycling-monuments-the-hinduismbuddhism-switch-at-angkor|title=Recycling Monuments: The Hinduism/Buddhism Switch at Angkor|author=Ashley M. Richter|date=8 September 2009|publisher=[[CyArk]]|access-date=7 June 2015|archive-date=30 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190630094240/https://www.cyark.org/news/recycling-monuments-the-hinduismbuddhism-switch-at-angkor|url-status=live}}</ref>

After the transformation from a Hindu centre of worship to [[Buddhism]] towards the end of the 12th century, Angkor Wat has continued to serve as a Buddhist center until the present day.<ref name="cyark"/> Historical records show that Chinese envoy [[Zhou Daguan]] and traveller [[Zheng He]] visited the Angkor Wat in the 13–14th centuries. Zheng He studied the temple architecture which was later incorporated in the Dabaoen Temple and Glazed Pagoda.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.iseas.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/ISEAS_Perspective_2017_48.pdf|title=Cambodia Embraces China's Belt and Road Initiative|author=Vannarith Chheang|year=2018}}</ref> Archaeologists have also theorized that Angkor Wat was used as a defensive fortification during this period, with gateway blockages and holes in the outer wall potentially implying the presence of a defensive structure. It is thought that these fortifications would have been constructed alongside the fortifications to the Khmer capital, [[Angkor Thom]], in response to the encroaching threat of the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya Empire]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brotherson |first=David |date=7 December 2015 |title=The fortification of Angkor Wat |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/abs/fortification-of-angkor-wat/C41151612FA49D3D79720053C12488E5 |journal=Antiquity |language=en |volume=89 |issue=348 |pages=1456–1472 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2015.140 |issn=0003-598X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> After Khmer’s fall to the Ayutthaya in 1431, Angkor Wat continued to be inhabited, with dating showing regular maintenance of the site’s ponds during this period.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Carter |first=Alison |last2=Stark |first2=Miriam |last3=Quintus |first3=Seth |last4=Zhuang |first4=Yijie |last5=Wang |first5=Hong |last6=Heng |first6=Piphal |last7=Chhay |first7=Rachna |date=18 June 2019 |title=Temple occupation and the tempo of collapse at Angkor Wat, Cambodia |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/epdf/10.1073/pnas.1821879116 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=116 |issue=25 |pages=12226-12231}}</ref> Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was largely neglected after the 16th century, it was never completely abandoned.{{sfn|Glaize|1944|p=59}} Fourteen inscriptions dated from the 17th century, discovered in the Angkor area, state that [[Japanese people|Japanese]] Buddhist pilgrims had established small settlements alongside Khmer locals.<ref>{{cite web |title=Japanese Diaspora – Cambodia |author1=Masako Fukawa |author2=Stan Fukawa |date=6 November 2014 |work=Discover Nikkei |url=http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/journal/2014/11/6/japanese-diaspora-cambodia/ |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515040929/http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/journal/2014/11/6/japanese-diaspora-cambodia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The inscription also tells of [[Ukondayu Kazufusa]], who celebrated the [[Khmer New Year]] at Angkor Wat in 1632.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Cambodia, Post-Angkor Era (1431 – present day) |work=Cambodia Travel |url=http://www.cambodia-travel.com/khmer/post-angkor.htm |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=11 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911082903/http://www.cambodia-travel.com/khmer/post-angkor.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Modifications of the temple also occurred in the 17th century, with findings suggesting the demolition of several towers in the mid 1600s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sonnemann |first=Till F. |last2=O'Reilly |first2=Dougald |last3=Rachna |first3=Chhay |last4=Fletcher |first4=Roland |last5=Pottier |first5=Christophe |date=7 December 2015 |title=The buried ‘towers’ of Angkor Wat |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/abs/buried-towers-of-angkor-wat/CF1D33BB3C7D25D15229C570720861DA |journal=Antiquity |language=en |volume=89 |issue=348 |pages=1420–1438 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2015.179 |issn=0003-598X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== European rediscovery ===
[[File:Angkor1866.jpg|thumb|Photograph of Angkor Wat by [[Emile Gsell]], c. 1866]]
[[File:View of the West Entrance of Angkor Wat by Delaporte 1873.jpg|thumb|View of the West Entrance of Angkor Wat by Delaporte 1873]]
In the 16th century, Portuguese traders and missionaries discovered a vast stone city hidden in the northern Cambodian forests, that had seemed abandoned for over 150 years. This city contained temples, including Angkor Wat—the largest religious monument—which dominated the site. One of the first recorded visitors was [[António da Madalena]], a [[Capuchin friar]] who explored the ruins in 1586. Three years later, he relayed his observations to [[Diogo do Couto]], the official historian of the Portuguese Indies. Do Couto documented the friar's account in his historical writings as follows:{{sfn|Higham|2001|p=1}}

{{Blockquote|text=Half a league from this city is a temple called Angar. It is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of. There are many smaller towers of similar style, in the same stone, which are gilded. The temple is surrounded by a moat, and access is by a single bridge, protected by two stone tigers so grand and fearsome as to strike terror into the visitor.|author=Diogo do Couto}}

In 1860, the temple was effectively rediscovered by French naturalist and explorer [[Henri Mouhot]] with the help of French missionary Father Charles-Émile Bouillevaux. Mouhot popularised the site in the West through the publication of travel notes, in which he wrote:{{cquote|One of these temples, a rival to [[Solomon's Temple|that of Solomon]], and erected by some ancient [[Michelangelo]], might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us by [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] or [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.cambodianview.com/documents/articles/Brief_Presentation.pdf|title=Brief Presentation by Venerable Vodano Sophan Seng|author=Sophan Seng|access-date=23 August 2006}}</ref>
}}

[[File:AngkorWat_Delaporte1880.jpg|thumb|Sketch of Angkor Wat, a drawing by [[Louis Delaporte]], c. 1880]]

Mouhot's work was published posthumously in 1864 through the [[Royal Geographical Society]] with descriptions of Angkor under the title ''Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China, Siam, Cambodia and Laos''. In 1861, German anthropologist [[Adolf Bastian]] undertook a four-year trip to [[Southeast Asia]] and his account of this trip titled ''The People of East Asia,'' ran to six volumes and was published in 1868. The books detailed the Angkor monuments but lacked drawings of the Angkorian sites.<ref>{{cite news |date=19 January 2014 |title=Das Geheimnis von Angkor Wat |language=de-DE |work=Der Tagesspiegel Online |url=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/gesellschaft/kambodscha-das-geheimnis-von-angkor-wat/9349890.html |access-date=17 March 2022 |issn=1865-2263 |archive-date=17 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317024527/https://www.tagesspiegel.de/gesellschaft/kambodscha-das-geheimnis-von-angkor-wat/9349890.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

France adopted Cambodia as a [[protectorate]] on 11 August 1863 partly due to the artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region and invaded [[Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)|Siam]]. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern corner of the country including [[Siem Reap]], [[Battambang]], and [[Sisophon]] which were under Siamese rule from 1795 to 1907.<ref>{{cite book|author=Penny Edwards|year=2007|title=Cambodge: The Cultivation of a Nation, 1860–1945|publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2923-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Karnjanatawe, K.|date=26 November 2015|title=Sights of Sa Kaeo|work=Bangkok Post|access-date=5 April 2022|url=https://www.bangkokpost.com/travel/777225/see-the-sights-of-sa-kaeo}}</ref> Following [[Archaeological excavation|excavations]] at the site, there were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement such as cooking utensils, weapons, or items of clothing usually found at ancient sites.<ref name="Southeast Asia">{{cite book|title=Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Southeast Asia: A Past Regained|year=1995|publisher=Time Life|isbn=978-0-80949-112-4|pages=67–99}}</ref>

=== Restoration and challenges ===
In the 20th century, a considerable effort was launched to clear the plant overgrowth and restore the temple complex. Conservation d'Angkor (Angkor Conservancy) was established by the [[École française d'Extrême-Orient]] (EFEO) in 1908.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wmf.org/sites/default/files/wmf_publication/Considerations_for_the_Conservation_and_Preservation_of_the_Historic_City_of_Angkor_Report_I.pdf |title=Considerations for the Conservation and Presentation of the. Historic City of Angkor |work=World Monuments Fund |page=65 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516174411/http://www.wmf.org/sites/default/files/wmf_publication/Considerations_for_the_Conservation_and_Preservation_of_the_Historic_City_of_Angkor_Report_I.pdf |archive-date=16 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.efeo.fr/base.php?code=217 |title=The Siem Reap Centre, Cambodia |publisher=EFEO |access-date=9 July 2015 |archive-date=10 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710001549/http://www.efeo.fr/base.php?code=217 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Conservation d'Angkor was responsible for the research, conservation, and restoration activities carried out at Angkor until the early 1970s with major restoration works undertaken in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.autoriteapsara.org/en/angkor/history/conservation.html |title=The Modern Period: The creation of the Angkor Conservation |work=APSARA Authority |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=12 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060212040635/http://www.autoriteapsara.org/en/angkor/history/conservation.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5UTelRMB4BAC&pg=PA157 |title=Cambodia |page=157 |date=2010|publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-74179-457-1}}</ref> Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953 and has controlled Angkor Wat since then.

[[File:Bullet holes at angkor wat.jpg|thumb|Bullet holes left by a shoot-out between the [[Khmer Rouge]] and Vietnamese forces at Angkor Wat]]

Restoration work was interrupted by the [[Cambodian Civil War]] when the [[Khmer Rouge]] took control of the country during the 1970s and 1980s. Work on Angkor was abandoned during [[Democratic Kampuchea|the Khmer Rouge era]] and the Conservation d'Angkor was disbanded in 1975.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UWKTmJ8iR84C&pg=PA220 |title=Asian Heritage Management: Contexts, Concerns, and Prospects|editor= Kapila D. Silva|editor2= Neel Kamal Chapagain |pages=220–221|publisher=Routledge |date= 2013 |isbn=978-0-415-52054-6 }}</ref> Camping Khmer Rouge forces used whatever wood remained in the building structures for firewood, and a shoot-out between Khmer Rouge and Vietnamese forces caused a few bullet holes in bas reliefs. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, far more damage was done to the reliefs by [[art thieves]] working out of Cambodia who lopped off many sculptures and other structures, including earlier reconstructions.<ref name="Angkor Battle">{{cite magazine|title=The Battle of Angkor Wat|magazine=New Scientist|pages=52–57|date=14 October 1989|author=Russell Ciochon|author2=Jamie James|name-list-style=amp}}</ref> As with most other ancient temples in Cambodia, Angkor Wat also faced extensive damage and deterioration by a combination of plant overgrowth, fungi, ground movements, war damage, and theft, though the war damage to Angkor Wat's temples was limited compared to the rest of Cambodia's temple ruins.<ref name="Angkor Battle"/>

[[File:Angkor Wat naga and guardian lion.JPG|thumb|left|The restored head of a [[nāga]] beside an unrestored lion sculpture leading to the entrance of Angkor Wat]]

Between 1986 and 1992, the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] carried out restoration work on the temple as France did not recognise the Cambodian government at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://asi.nic.in/asi_abroad.asp|title= Activities Abroad#Cambodia|publisher= Archaeological Survey of India|access-date= 5 January 2009|archive-date= 29 May 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180529211556/http://asi.nic.in/asi_abroad.asp|url-status= live}}</ref> Criticisms have been raised about both the early French restoration attempts and the later Indian work, with concerns over the damage done to the stone surface by the use of various chemicals and cement.<ref name="Angkor Battle"/><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/1992/06/21/magazine/washing-buddha-s-face.html |title= Washing Buddha's Face |author= Phillip Shenon |date= 21 June 1992 |work= [[The New York Times]] |access-date= 14 February 2017 |archive-date= 10 August 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210810023915/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/06/21/magazine/washing-buddha-s-face.html |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3ofDt_8kyYcC&pg=PA223 |title= Asian Heritage Management: Contexts, Concerns, and Prospects |editor= Kapila D. Silva |editor2= Neel Kamal Chapagain |page= 223 |publisher= Routledge |date= 2013 |isbn= 978-0-415-52054-6 |access-date= 21 September 2020 |archive-date= 31 October 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231031081853/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ofDt_8kyYcC&pg=PA223#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status= live }}</ref>

In 1992, the site was declared as a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/668/|title=Angkor site|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref> Simultaneously, Angkor Wat was listed in UNESCO's [[World Heritage in Danger]] (later removed in 2004) following an appeal for help by [[Norodom Sihanouk]] together with an appeal by UNESCO to the international community to save Angkor.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIMECAAAQBAJ&pg=PA253 |title=Cultural Heritage as Civilizing Mission: From Decay to Recovery |editor=Michael Falser |page=253 |publisher=Springer International |isbn=978-3-319-13638-7 |year=2015 |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=31 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031081854/https://books.google.com/books?id=zIMECAAAQBAJ&pg=PA253#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1miIRLRaLEoC&pg=PA290 |title=Poverty Alleviation and Environmental Law |author=Albert Mumma |author2=Susan Smith |page=290 |publisher=ElgarOnline |isbn=978-1-78100-329-9 |year=2012 |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=31 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031081855/https://books.google.com/books?id=1miIRLRaLEoC&pg=PA290#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Zoning of the area was designated to protect the Angkor site in 1994, [[APSARA|Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap (APSARA)]] was established in 1995 to protect and manage the area, and a law to protect Cambodian heritage was passed in 1996.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.autoriteapsara.org/en/apsara/about_apsara/legal_texts/decree3.html |title=Royal Decree establishing Protected Cultural Zones |work=APSARA |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=11 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711102458/http://www.autoriteapsara.org/en/apsara/about_apsara/legal_texts/decree3.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1W6BWEWdJWQC&pg=PA123 |title=Marketing Heritage: Archaeology and the Consumption of the Past |author=Yorke M. Rowan |author2=Uzi Baram |page=123 |publisher=AltaMira Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-7591-0342-9 |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=31 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031082452/https://books.google.com/books?id=1W6BWEWdJWQC&pg=PA123#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Hing |last=Thoraxy |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20010303123306/http://www.lideekhmer.org.kh/publication_roundtable5.htm|archive-date= 3 March 2001 |url=http://www.lideekhmer.org.kh/publication_roundtable5.htm |title=Achievement of "APSARA": Problems and Resolutions in the Management of the Angkor Area}}</ref>

[[File:WMF Angkor Wat.ogv|A [[World Monuments Fund]] video on conservation of Angkor Wat|thumb]]

In the 21st century, teams from several countries including France, India, Japan and China are involved in Angkor Wat conservation projects. The [[German Apsara Conservation Project]] (GACP) was launched to protect the [[devata]]s, and other bas-reliefs that decorate the temple from further damage when the organization's survey found that around 20% of the reliefs were in very poor condition mainly because of natural erosion and deterioration of the stone, but also in part also due to earlier restoration efforts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ospiti.thunder.it/gacp|access-date=5 February 2009|title=Conservation, Risk Map|page=2|work=[[German Apsara Conservation Project]]|archive-date=5 February 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050205015542/http://ospiti.thunder.it/gacp/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Microbial biofilms degraded sandstone at Angkor Wat.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Microbial biofilms on the sandstone monuments of the Angkor Wat Complex, Cambodia|journal=Current Microbiology|date=Feb 2012|pages=85–92|volume=64|author1=Gaylarde CC|author2=Rodríguez CH|author3=Navarro-Noya YE|author4=Ortega-Morales BO|doi=10.1007/s00284-011-0034-y|pmid=22006074|issue=2|s2cid=14062354}}</ref> Other work involved the repair of collapsed sections of the structure and prevention of further collapse. For example, the west facade of the upper level was buttressed by scaffolding in 2002. A Japanese team completed the restoration of the north library of the outer enclosure in 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.autoriteapsara.org/en/apsara/about_apsara/publication/yashodhara/yashodhara_6.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120526071420/http://www.autoriteapsara.org/en/apsara/about_apsara/publication/yashodhara/yashodhara_6.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 May 2012|title=Infrastructures in Angkor Park|access-date=25 April 2008|work=Yashodhara no. 6: January – June 2002|publisher=APSARA Authority}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.autoriteapsara.org/en/apsara/about_apsara/news/angkorvat_ceremony.html |title=The Completion of the Restoration Work of the Northern Library of Angkor Wat |access-date=25 April 2008 |date=3 June 2005 |publisher=APSARA Authority |archive-date=9 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509092835/http://www.autoriteapsara.org/en/apsara/about_apsara/news/angkorvat_ceremony.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Replicas have been made to replace some of the lost or damaged sculptures.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-19279491 |title=Restoring ancient monuments at Cambodia's Angkor Wat |author=Guy De Launey |date=21 August 2012 |work=BBC |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=10 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810022418/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-19279491 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In December 2015, it was announced that a research team from the [[University of Sydney]] found a previously unseen ensemble of buried towers that were built and demolished during the construction of Angkor Wat, as well as a massive structure, with wooden fortifications, of unknown purpose on its south side. The findings included evidence of low-density residential occupation, a road grid, ponds and mounds in the region. These discoveries indicated that the temple precinct, bounded by a moat and wall, may not have been used exclusively by the priestly elite, as was previously thought.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2015/12/09/new-discoveries-redefine-angkor-wat-s-history.html| title=Recent research has transformed archaeologists' understanding of Angkor Wat and its surroundings| publisher=University of Sydney| date=9 December 2015| access-date=10 December 2015| archive-date=14 December 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214161444/http://sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2015/12/09/new-discoveries-redefine-angkor-wat-s-history.html| url-status=live}}</ref>

== Architecture ==
Angkor Wat is a [[Buddhists|Buddhist]] temple complex. Located on a site measuring {{cvt|162.6|ha|m2 acre}} within the ancient [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] capital city of [[Angkor]], it is considered as the [[List of largest Hindu temples|largest religious structure in the world]] by ''[[Guinness World Records]]''.<ref name="Guinness">{{cite web|title=Largest religious structure|work=Guinness World Records|url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/largest-religious-structure/|access-date=3 March 2023|archive-date=16 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016035654/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/largest-religious-structure|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Site and plan ===
{{main|Angkor Wat Equinox}}

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Angkor Wat is a unique combination of the [[Khmer architecture#Temple mountain|temple mountain]] (the standard design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of concentric [[Khmer architecture#Gallery|galleries]], most of which were originally derived from religious beliefs of [[Hinduism]].<ref name="Brit"/> Angkor Wat also served a practical purpose for the Khmer Empire as well, with its dam and resulting moats serving as both connections to the Angkor water network and a means of storing water between the monsoon and dry seasons of the region.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> The construction of Angkor Wat suggests that there was a celestial significance with certain features of the temple. This is observed in the temple's east–west orientation, and lines of sight from terraces within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise location of the solstice at sunrise.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fleming |first1=Stuart |title=Science Scope: The City of Angkor Wat: A Royal Observatory on Life? |journal=Archaeology |date=1985 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=62–72 |jstor=41731666}}</ref> The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns with the morning sun of the [[Angkor Wat Equinox|spring equinox]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.msn.com/en-ca/news/world/how-countries-around-the-world-celebrate-the-spring-equinox/ss-BBKsKZB#image=20|title=How countries around the world celebrate the spring equinox|website=www.msn.com|language=en-CA|access-date=4 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004185657/https://www.msn.com/en-ca/news/world/how-countries-around-the-world-celebrate-the-spring-equinox/ss-BBKsKZB#image=20|archive-date=4 October 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/seasia/angkorwat/awsite.html|title=Ankgor Wat, Cambodia|website=www.art-and-archaeology.com|access-date=4 October 2018|archive-date=3 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603203343/http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/seasia/angkorwat/awsite.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The temple is a representation of [[Mount Meru]], the home of the gods according to [[Hindu]] mythology: the central [[quincunx]] of towers symbolise the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolise the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean.{{sfn|Freeman|Jacques|1999|p=48}} Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level.{{sfn|Glaize|1944|p=62}}

[[File:Angkor-Wat-from-the-air.JPG|thumb|left|An aerial view of Angkor Wat]]

Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east. This has led scholars including [[Maurice Glaize]] and [[George Coedès]] to hypothesize that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary temple.<ref name="Coedes">{{cite book|last= Coedès|first= George|author-link= George Coedès|editor= Walter F. Vella|others= trans.Susan Brown Cowing|title= The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|date= 1968|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1 |page=162 }}</ref> Further evidence for this view is provided by the [[Relief#Bas-relief or low relief|bas-reliefs]], which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—''[[Mandir|prasavya]]'' in [[Hindu]] terminology—as this is the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services.{{sfn|Glaize|1944|p=59}} Archaeologist [[Charles Higham (archaeologist)|Charles Higham]] also describes a container that may have been a funerary jar that was recovered from the central tower.{{sfn|Higham|2001|p=118}} It has been nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of a corpse.<ref name="Scarre">{{cite book |editor-last=Scarre |editor-first=Chris |year=1999 |title=The Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World |location=London |publisher=Thames & Hudson |pages=81–85}}</ref> Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples of [[Angkor]] depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to [[Vishnu]], who was associated with the west.{{sfn|Freeman|Jacques|1999|p=48}}

Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka argues that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King [[Suryavarman II]]: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above."<ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720024524/http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/seasia/angkor.html |archive-date=20 July 2011|first= Eleanor|last= Mannikka|url= http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/seasia/angkor.html |title=Angkor Wat, 1113–1150}} (This page does not cite an author's name.)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stencel |first1=Robert |last2=Gifford |first2=Fred |last3=Morón |first3=Eleanor| title=Astronomy and Cosmology at Angkor Wat|journal=Science|volume= 193 |issue=4250 |date=1976|pages= 281–287 |doi=10.1126/science.193.4250.281 |pmid=17745714 |bibcode=1976Sci...193..281S }}</ref> Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles. She distances herself from the speculations of others, such as [[Graham Hancock]], that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellation [[Draco (constellation)|Draco]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grahamhancock.com/horizon/horizon_script_2.htm |title=Atlantis Reborn|access-date=16 March 2010|work= [[BBC Two|BBC2]] |date=4 November 1999}}</ref> The oldest surviving plan of Angkor Wat dates to 1715 and is credited to Fujiwara Tadayoshi. The plan is stored in the Suifu Meitoku-kai Shokokan Museum in [[Mito, Ibaraki|Mito]], Japan.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ishizawa |first1=Yoshiaki |title=The World's Oldest Plan of Angkor Vat: The Japanese So-Called Jetavana, an Illustrated Plan of the Seventeenth Century |journal=UDAYA, Journal of Khmer Studies |date=2015 |volume=13 |page=50}}</ref>

=== Style ===
[[File:Angkor Vat (6931599619).jpg|thumb|Side view showing the [[Gopuram]]s and galleries]]

Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of [[Khmer architecture]]—the Angkor Wat style—to which it has given its name. Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include the [[Ogive|ogival]], redented towers shaped like [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus]] buds; half-[[Architecture of Cambodia#Gallery|galleries]] to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are [[Architecture of Cambodia#Apsara and devata|devatas (or apsaras)]], [[bas-relief]]s, [[pediment]]s, extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work.<ref>{{cite web|work=APSARA authority|url=http://www.autoriteapsara.org/en/angkor/art/styles/angkorian/angkor_vat.html|title=Angkor Vat Style|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060212163453/http://www.autoriteapsara.org/en/angkor/art/styles/angkorian/angkor_vat.html |archive-date=12 February 2006|url-status=live }}</ref> Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time, including [[gilding|gilded]] [[stucco]] on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors.{{sfn|Freeman|Jacques|1999|p=29}}

The temple has drawn praise for the harmony of its design. According to [[Maurice Glaize]], the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity, and style."{{sfn|Glaize|1944|p=25}} Architect Jacques Dumarçay believes the layout of Angkor Wat borrows Chinese influence in its system of galleries which join at right angles to form courtyards. However, the axial pattern embedded in the plan of Angkor Wat may be derived from [[Southeast Asian]] cosmology in combination with the [[mandala]] represented by the main temple.<ref name="Ancient Southeast Asia" />

=== Features ===
==== Outer enclosure ====
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The temple complex is surrounded by an outer wall, {{cvt|1024|m|ft}} by {{cvt|802|m|ft}} and {{cvt|4.5|m|ft|0}} high. It is encircled by a {{cvt|30|m|ft}} apron of open ground and a moat {{cvt|190|m|ft}} wide and over {{cvt|5|km}} in perimeter.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jarus |first1=Owen |title=Angkor Wat: History of Ancient Temple |url=https://www.livescience.com/23841-angkor-wat.html |access-date=28 July 2018 |work=Live Science |publisher=Purch |date=5 April 2018 |archive-date=10 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230610114716/https://www.livescience.com/23841-angkor-wat.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The moat extends {{cvt|1.5|km}} from east to west and {{cvt|1.3|km}} from north to south.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Roland |first2=Damian |last2=Evans |first3=Christophe |last3=Pottier |first4=Chhay |last4=Rachna |title=Angkor Wat: An introduction |journal=Antiquity |date=December 2015 |volume=89 |issue=348 |page=1395 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2015.178 |s2cid=162553313 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286412358 |access-date=27 March 2020 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge.{{sfn|Freeman|Jacques|1999|p=49}} There is a [[Gopuram]] at each of the [[cardinal point]]s with the western one being the largest and consisting of three partially ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper.{{sfn|Glaize|1944|p= 61}} The main enclosure also served as a residential area, having been built on a grid system of residential “blocks.” These blocks consist of mounds and ponds indicative of a basic Khmer hamlet structure, with the mounds serving as the basis for residences and ponds providing a means of water storage for inhabitants.<ref name=":2" />

[[File:Statue in Cambodia.jpg|thumb|left|''Ta Reach'', originally an eight-armed statue of [[Vishnu]]]]

Under the southern tower is a statue known as ''Ta Reach'', originally an eight-armed statue of Vishnu that may have occupied the temple's central shrine.{{sfn|Freeman|Jacques|1999|p=49}} Galleries run between the towers and two further entrances on either side of the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they are large enough to admit those animals. These galleries have square pillars on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The ceiling between the pillars is decorated with [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus]] rosettes. The west face of the wall is decorated with dancing figures and the east face of the wall consists of windows with balusters, decorated with dancing figures, animals and [[Devata|devatas]].

The outer wall encloses a space of {{cvt|203|acre}}, which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by people from the city and the royal palace to the north of the temple. Similar to other secular buildings of Angkor, these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing remains of them except the outline of some of the streets with most of the area now covered by vegetation.{{sfn|Freeman|Jacques|1999|p=50}} A {{cvt|350|m|ft}} causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper, with [[Architecture of Cambodia#Naga|naga]] shaped balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the outside on either side. Each side also features a [[Architecture of Cambodia#Library|library]] with entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure.{{sfn|Freeman|Jacques|1999|p=50}}

==== Central structure ====
The temple stands on a raised terrace within the walled enclosure. It is made of three rectangular [[Architecture of Cambodia#Gallery|galleries]] rising to a central tower, each level higher than the last. The two inner galleries each have four large towers at their [[Cardinal direction|ordinal]] corners (that is, North-west, North-east, South-east, and South-west) surrounding a higher fifth tower. This pattern is sometimes called a [[quincunx]] and is believed to represent the mountains of Meru. Because the temple faces west, the features are set back towards the east, leaving more space to be filled in each enclosure and gallery on the west side; for the same reason, the west-facing steps are shallower than those on the other sides.

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| caption2 = One of the four corner towers of Angkor Wat
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Mannikka interprets the galleries as being dedicated to the king, [[Brahma]], [[Chandra|the moon]], and [[Vishnu]].<ref name="Ohio" /> Each gallery has a [[gopura]] with the outer gallery measuring {{cvt|187|m|ft}} by {{cvt|215|m|ft}}, with pavilions at the corners. The gallery is open to the outside of the temple, with columned half-galleries extending and buttressing the structure. Connecting the outer gallery to the second enclosure on the west side is a cruciform cloister called ''Preah Poan'' (meaning "The Thousand Buddhas" gallery).<ref name="Apsara" /> [[The Buddha|Buddha]] images were left in the cloister by pilgrims over the centuries, although most have now been removed. This area has many inscriptions relating to the good deeds of pilgrims, most written in [[Khmer language|Khmer]] but others in [[Burmese language|Burmese]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. The four small courtyards marked out by the cloister may originally have been filled with water.{{sfn|Glaize|1944|p=63}} North and south of the cloister are [[Architecture of Cambodia#Library|libraries]].

[[File:Angkor (IV).jpg|thumb|left|A view of the outer gallery of Angkor Wat]]

Beyond, the second and inner galleries are connected to two flanking libraries by another cruciform terrace, again a later addition. From the second level upwards, [[Architecture of Cambodia#Apsara and devata|devata]] images are abound on the walls, singly or in groups of up to four. The second-level enclosure is {{cvt|100|m|ft}} by {{cvt|115|m|ft}}, and may originally have been flooded to represent the [[ocean]] around [[Mount Meru]].{{sfn|Ray|2002|p=195}} Three sets of steps on each side lead up to the corner towers and gopuras of the inner gallery. The steep stairways may represent the difficulty of ascending to the kingdom of the gods.{{sfn|Ray|2002|p=199}} This inner gallery, called the ''Bakan'', is a {{cvt|60|m|ft}} square with axial galleries connecting each gopura with the central shrine and subsidiary shrines located below the corner towers.

The roofings of the galleries are decorated with the motif of the body of a snake ending in the heads of lions or [[garuda]]s. Carved [[Architecture of Cambodia#Lintels and pediments|lintels and pediments]] decorate the entrances to the galleries and the shrines. The tower above the central shrine rises {{cvt|43|m|ft}} to a height of {{cvt|65|m|ft}} above the ground; unlike those of previous temple mountains, the central tower is raised above the surrounding four.{{sfn|Briggs|1951|p=199}} The shrine itself, originally occupied by a statue of Vishnu and open on each side, was walled in when the temple was converted to [[Theravada Buddhism]], the new walls featuring standing Buddhas. In 1934, the conservator George Trouvé excavated the pit beneath the central shrine: filled with sand and water it had already been robbed of its treasure, but he did find a sacred foundation deposit of [[gold leaf]] two metres above ground level.{{sfn|Glaize|1944|p=65}}

==== Decoration ====
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}}

Integrated with the architecture of the building, one of the causes for its fame is Angkor Wat's extensive decoration, which predominantly takes the form of [[bas-relief]] friezes. The inner walls of the outer gallery bear a series of large-scale scenes mainly depicting episodes from the [[Hindu]] epics the [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]]. Higham has called these "the greatest known linear arrangement of stone carving".{{sfn|Higham|2003|p=318}} From the north-west corner anti-clockwise, the western gallery shows the Battle of Lanka from the Ramayana, in which [[Rama]] defeats [[Ravana]]; and the [[Kurukshetra War]] from the Mahabharata, depicting the mutual annihilation of the [[Kaurava]] and [[Pandava]] armies. On the southern gallery, the only historical scene, a procession of Suryavarman II is depicted along with the 32 [[hell]]s and 37 [[heaven]]s of Hinduism.{{sfn|Glaize|1944|p=68}}

On the eastern gallery is one of the most celebrated scenes, the [[Kurma|Churning of the Sea of Milk]], showing 92 [[asura]]s and 88 [[deva (Hinduism)|devas]] using the serpent [[Vasuki (snake)|Vasuki]] to churn the [[Kshira Sagara|sea of milk]] under Vishnu's direction. Mannikka counts only 91 asuras and explains the asymmetrical numbers as representing the number of days from the [[winter solstice]] to the [[spring equinox (Northern Hemisphere)|spring equinox]], and from the equinox to the summer [[solstice]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Buckley|first=Michael|title=Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos Handbook|year=1998|publisher=Avalon Travel Publications|url=http://www.veloasia.com/library/buckley/churning_milk.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619170121/https://www.veloasia.com/library/buckley/churning_milk.html |archive-date=19 June 2021|url-status=live }}</ref> It is followed by reliefs showing Vishnu defeating [[asura]]s, which was a 16th-century addition. The northern gallery shows Krishna's victory over [[Banasura|Bana]].{{sfn|Glaize|1944|p=69}}

Angkor Wat is decorated with depictions of [[apsaras]] and [[devata]]s with more than 1,796 documented depictions of devatas in the research inventory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.devata.org/2010/02/angkor-wat-devata-inventory/|title=Angkor Wat devata inventory |access-date=1 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100423123631/http://www.devata.org/2010/02/angkor-wat-devata-inventory/ |archive-date=23 April 2010| url-status=live }}</ref> The architects also used small apsara images ({{cvt|30-40|cm|in|0|disp=or}}) as decorative motifs on pillars and walls. They incorporated larger devata images (full-body portraits measuring approximately {{cvt|95-110|cm|in|0|disp=or}}) more prominently at every level of the temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the high towers. In 1927, Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable diversity of their hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewellery, and decorative flowers depicted in the reliefs, which Marchal concluded were based on actual practices of the Angkor period.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sappho Marchal|title=Khmer Costumes and Ornaments of the Devatas of Angkor Wat|year=1927}}</ref>

===Construction techniques===
By the 12th century, Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use of [[sandstone]] rather than brick or [[laterite]] as the main building material. Using [[SAP2000]], a popular and effective structural analysis tool, [[Greywacke|graywacke]], a durable sandstone usually found in or near water, has been found to make up much of the structures.<ref>Svamivastu, Vacharee, and Komsan Maleesee. "Study of Architectural Form and Structural Analysis of Central Tower Cluster of Angkor Wat." ''Sensors and Materials'' 37.12 (2025): 5323-5341.</ref> Recent LIDAR scans have also revealed that the temple was built upon roughly 3 million cubic meters of fill.<ref name=":1" /> Most of the visible areas are sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the outer wall and hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified, although natural [[resin]]s or [[slaked lime]] have been suggested.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gacp-angkor.de/|work=German Apsara Conservation Project|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323165359/https://gacp-angkor.de/ |archive-date=23 March 2021|title= Building Techniques|url-status=live|page=5}}</ref> The monument was made of five to ten million sandstone blocks with a maximum weight of 1.5 tons each.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/24440-angkor-wat-canals.html|title=Mystery of Angkor Wat Temple's Huge Stones Solved|date=31 October 2012|last=Ghose|first=Tia|work=livescience.com|access-date=1 February 2015|archive-date=10 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210100534/http://www.livescience.com/24440-angkor-wat-canals.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The sandstone was quarried and transported from Mount Kulen, a quarry approximately {{cvt|25|mi|km|order=flip}} northeast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/specials/ancient-mysteries/angkor-wat-temples/|title=Lost City of Angkor Wat|work=National Geographic|access-date=1 February 2015|archive-date=3 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303200948/http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/specials/ancient-mysteries/angkor-wat-temples/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The route has been suggested to span {{cvt|35|km|mi}} along a canal towards [[Tonlé Sap]] lake, another {{cvt|35|km|mi}} crossing the lake, and finally {{cvt|15|km|mi|0}} against the current along [[Siem Reap River]], making a total journey of {{cvt|90|km|mi|round=5}}. In 2011, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of [[Waseda University]] in [[Tokyo]] discovered a shorter {{cvt|35|km|mi|adj=on}} canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor Wat using satellite imagery and believe that the Khmer used this route instead.<ref>{{cite journal| first1=Etsuo |last1=Uchida |first2=Ichita |last2=Shimoda |title=Quarries and transportation routes of Angkor monument sandstone blocks |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=40 |issue=2 |date=2013 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2012.09.036 |issn=0305-4403 |pages=1158–1164| bibcode=2013JArSc..40.1158U }}</ref>

Most of the surfaces, columns, lintels and roofs are carved with reliefs illustrating scenes from [[Indian literature]] including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots, as well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader, and celestial dancing girls with elaborate hairstyles. Others depicted boats and other architectural structures.<ref name=Tan>{{Cite journal |last=Tan |first=Noel Hidalgo |last2=Sokrithy |first2=Im |last3=Than |first3=Heng |last4=Chan |first4=Khieu |date=June 2014 |title=The hidden paintings of Angkor Wat |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/abs/hidden-paintings-of-angkor-wat/C240B6324B44F1BF4DE0818F132546AD |journal=Antiquity |language=en |volume=88 |issue=340 |pages=549–565 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00101176 |issn=0003-598X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The gallery wall is decorated with almost {{cvt|1,000|sqm}} of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets which were highly prized in ancient times and were prime targets for robbers. Based on experiments, the labour force to quarry, transport, carve and install so much sandstone probably ran into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lehner, Mark|year=1997|title=The Complete Pyramids|publisher=Thames and Hudson|pages=202–225|isbn=0-500-05084-8}}</ref> The skills required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years earlier, as demonstrated by some artefacts that have been dated to the seventh century, before the Khmer came to power.<ref name="Southeast Asia"/><ref name="Scarre"/>
=== Astronomical and cosmological alignment ===
{{Main|Angkor Wat Equinox}}

Following its conversion to Buddhism, the temple came to be interpreted within Buddhist cosmological and ritual frameworks. Scholars have noted that the monument's westward orientation, which is uncommon among [[Khmer architecture|Khmer temples]], may have facilitated later Buddhist symbolic reinterpretations rather than reflecting its original function within the [[Khmer Empire]].{{sfn|Higham|2001|p=}}{{pn|date=December 2025}}

Several studies have observed that during the spring and autumn [[equinox]]es, the rising sun aligns with the central tower when viewed from the western entrance causeway. While interpretations vary, this alignment is generally regarded as intentional and indicative of astronomical considerations in the temple's design.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stencel |first=Robert |last2=Gifford |first2=Christopher |last3=Moron |first3=Eleanor |title=Astronomy and Cosmology at Angkor Wat |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1976}}</ref>

In later Buddhist interpretations, the temple's central towers, vertical axis, and concentric galleries have been understood as representing a symbolic cosmological structure centered on [[Mount Meru]], the sacred axis of the universe in both Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. Within a Buddhist framework, this symbolism emphasizes spiritual progression rather than divine kingship and aligns with concepts found in [[Theravada Buddhism|Theravāda Buddhist]] thought that developed in mainland Southeast Asia. Chronologically, the moat and wall symbolize the separational boundary between earth and the home of the gods. Progressing on the journey towards the central structure, towers increase in size, representing the spiritual journey towards the mountain dwelling of the gods, represented by the largest, central structure.<ref name=Tan /> Such reinterpretations contributed to Angkor Wat's continued use as a place of worship, distinguishing it from many other monuments of the Angkor region that were abandoned after the decline of the Khmer state.<ref>{{cite book |last=Coe |first=Michael D. |title=Angkor and the Khmer Civilization |publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=978-0500284681}}</ref>

== Symbolism and popular culture ==
[[File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg|thumb|[[Flag of Cambodia|Cambodian national flag]] showing Angkor Wat]]
Due to the global attention that it has received and the millions of visitors it attracts, the Angkor Wat has become a prominent image that is associated with Cambodia, and in this way has become a symbol of Cambodia itself. A depiction of Angkor Wat has been a part of [[Flag of Cambodia|Cambodian national flag]] since the introduction of the first version in 1863.<ref>{{cite web|title=Flags of the World: Cambodian Flag History|url=http://flagspot.net/flags/kh_hstry.html|access-date=13 September 2016|work=Flagspot}}</ref>

From a historical and trans-cultural perspective, however, the temple of Angkor Wat did not become a symbol of national pride by itself but had been inscribed into a larger politico-cultural process of French-colonial heritage productions. Angkor Wat caught the attention and imagination of a wider audience in Europe when the pavilion of [[French protectorate of Cambodia]], as part of [[French Indochina]], recreated the life-size replica of Angkor Wat presented in French [[Paris Colonial Exposition|colonial and universal exhibitions]] in [[Paris]] and [[Marseille]] between 1889 and 1937.<ref>{{cite web|author=Falser, Michael|year=2011|url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/ojs/index.php/transcultural/article/view/9083|title=Krishna and the Plaster Cast. Translating the Cambodian Temple of Angkor Wat in the French Colonial Period|access-date=10 February 2012|archive-date=10 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210193009/http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/ojs/index.php/transcultural/article/view/9083|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://transversal.at/transversal/1007/kuster/en|title=On the international colonial exhibition in Paris 1931 {{!}} transversal texts|first=Brigitta|last=Kuster|website=transversal.at|access-date=23 April 2020|archive-date=29 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629001155/https://www.transversal.at/transversal/1007/kuster/en|url-status=live}}</ref> It was on display in the plaster cast museum of [[Louis Delaporte]] called ''musée Indo-chinois'' which existed in the Parisian [[Musée d'Ethnographie du Trocadéro|Trocadero Palace]] from c.1880 to the mid-1920s.<ref>{{cite web|author=Falser, Michael|year=2013|url=http://www.riha-journal.org/articles/2013/2013-apr-jun/falser-musee-indo-chinois|title=From Gaillon to Sanchi, from Vézelay to Angkor Wat. The Musée Indo-Chinois in Paris: A Transcultural Perspective on Architectural Museums|access-date=25 November 2020}}</ref>

== Myths ==
Myths associated with Angkor Wat reflect the influence of [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] traditions that developed in [[Cambodia]] over several centuries. By the 16th and 17th centuries, [[Theravada Buddhism]] had become the dominant religious system in the region, contributing to a gradual reinterpretation of the monument from a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] temple into a sacred Buddhist site.<ref>{{cite book|last=Harris|first=Ian|title=Buddhism in Cambodia: Rupture and Continuity|publisher=Silkworm Books|date=2005|pages=22–30}}</ref> During this period, Buddhism reshaped local narratives regarding the purpose and meaning of the temple, and several myths emerged relating the structure to Buddhist cosmology.

In the 17th century, [[Japan|Japanese]] pilgrims travelling in [[Southeast Asia]] identified Angkor Wat as [[Jetavana]], the monastic garden associated with the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] in ancient [[Magadha]] (present-day [[India]]).<ref>{{cite journal |title=Au-dela du plan Japonais du XVII siècle d'Angkor Vat, (A XVII century Japanese map of Angkor Wat) |author=Abdoul-Carime Nasir |url=http://aefek.free.fr/iso_album/carteangkor_jetavana.pdf |language=fr |access-date=18 October 2015 |journal=Bulletin de l'AEFEK |archive-date=23 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223055631/http://aefek.free.fr/iso_album/carteangkor_jetavana.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Surviving Japanese inscriptions and maps depict the complex as a Buddhist holy site, and some accounts describe it as a place visited or inhabited by the Buddha.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shimoda |first=Takashi |title=Japanese Networks in Early Modern Southeast Asia |journal=Journal of Asian Studies |date=1998 |pages=55–60}}</ref> This interpretation linked Angkor Wat to broader regional pilgrimage practices and contributed to Buddhist-oriented mythic traditions surrounding the monument.

Local Cambodian traditions also reframed Angkor Wat within Buddhist cosmological narratives. Folklore identifies the temple as a site of merit-making, meditation, and spiritual ascent, sometimes described as a gateway between human and divine realms.<ref>{{cite book|last=Coedès|first=George|title=Angkor and the Khmer Civilization|publisher=University of Chicago Press|date=1968|pages=196–205}}</ref> Additional myths propose that the temple’s extensive [[Bas-relief|bas-reliefs]] encode hidden Buddhist teachings, despite their depiction of [[Hindu mythology|Hindu epics]].{{sfn|Glaize|1944|pp=201–205}} Such traditions contributed to the temple’s perception as a universal sacred monument rather than a site tied to a single religious identity.

By the 18th and 19th centuries, evidence indicates a continuous Buddhist monastic presence at Angkor Wat, including the establishment of shrines, carvings of [[Buddhist art|Buddha images]], and ritual activity at the site.<ref>{{cite book|last=Freeman|first=Michael|title=A Guide to Angkor|publisher=River Books|date=2012|page=46}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hansen|first=Anne R. |title=How Buddhism Shaped Modern Cambodia|publisher=Routledge|date=2019|pages=41–45}}</ref> Myths from this period portray the temple as a functioning monastery guarded by spiritual beings such as [[nāga]]s and [[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chandler|first=David|title=Myth, Memory and Meaning in Cambodia|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|date=1999|pages=10–15}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Forest|first=Alain|title=Buddhism and Popular Religion in Cambodia|journal=South East Asia Research|date=2002|pages=45–47}}</ref>

Modern scholarship indicates that the religious transformation of Angkor Wat took place over several centuries and involved gradual structural and ritual modifications.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jacques|first=Claude |title=From Devaraja to Buddha Raja: Religious Transformation in Angkor |journal=Journal of Khmer Studies |date=2007|pages=21–33}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Stark|first=Miriam T.|title=Angkor Wat: Archaeology, Astronomy and Architecture|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=2021|pages=115–118}}</ref> These developments reflect the sustained influence of Buddhist practices, beliefs, and myths on the interpretation of the monument.

The role of Buddhism in shaping both popular and scholarly understandings of Angkor Wat remains significant. The monument is widely regarded as a symbol of the country’s Buddhist heritage and continues to feature prominently in contemporary cultural and religious identity.<ref>{{cite book|last=Harris|first=Ian|title=Cambodian Buddhism: History, Thought and Practice|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|date=2008|pages=105–112}}</ref>

== Tourism ==
{{See also|Tourism in Cambodia}}
[[File:2016 Angkor, Angkor Wat, Główna świątynia (27).jpg|thumb|Buddhist Monks at Angkor Wat, Cambodia]]

Since the 1990s, Angkor Wat has become a major tourist destination. In 1993, there were only 7,650 visitors to the site and by 2004, government figures show that 561,000 foreign visitors had arrived in Siem Reap province that year, approximately 50% of all foreign tourists in Cambodia.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/feb/25/travel.travelnews |title= Tourist invasion threatens to ruin glories of Angkor Wat |author= Justine Smith |date= 25 February 2007 |work= The Observer |access-date= 13 December 2016 |archive-date= 25 May 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210525023443/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/feb/25/travel.travelnews |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tourismcambodia.com/Statistics/index.asp?Year=2005 |title=Executive Summary from Jan–Dec 2005 |access-date=25 April 2008 |work=Tourism of Cambodia |publisher=Statistics & Tourism Information Department, Ministry of Tourism of Cambodia| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080413115411/http://www.tourismcambodia.com/Statistics/index.asp?Year=2005| archive-date= 13 April 2008 |url-status= dead}}</ref> The number reached over a million in 2007 and over two million by 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tourismcambodia.org/images/mot/statistic_reports/tourism_statistics_annual_report_book_2007.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics: Annual Report |page=60 |work=Ministry of Tourism |access-date=21 December 2018 |archive-date=27 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161027011524/http://www.tourismcambodia.org/images/mot/statistic_reports/tourism_statistics_annual_report_book_2007.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tourismcambodia.org/images/mot/statistic_reports/tourism_statistics_annual_report_2012.pdf |title=Tourism Annual Report 2012 |work=Ministry of Tourism |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=27 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161027011521/http://www.tourismcambodia.org/images/mot/statistic_reports/tourism_statistics_annual_report_2012.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Angkor Wat received over two million foreign tourists in 2013 and 2.6 million by 2018.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/ticket-sales-angkor-wat-exceed-2-million |title=Ticket sales at Angkor Wat exceed 2 million |work=The Phnom Penh Post |date=21 January 2015 |access-date=10 July 2015 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728024700/https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/ticket-sales-angkor-wat-exceed-2-million |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/angkor-hosts-26m-visitors |title=Angkor hosts 2.6M visitors |date=2 January 2019 |author=Cheng Sokhorng |work=The Phnom Penh Post |access-date=9 March 2020 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726045013/https://www.phnompenhpost.com/business/angkor-hosts-26m-visitors |url-status=live }}</ref>

The site was managed by the private [[Sokimex|SOKIMEX]] group between 1990 and 2016, which rented it from the [[Cambodian government]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Vannak|first1=Chea|title=Ticket revenue at Angkor complex up 8 percent|url=https://www.khmertimeskh.com/50564897/ticket-revenue-at-angkor-complex-up-8-percent/|website=Khmer Times|access-date=2 May 2019|date=2 January 2019|archive-date=31 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031082457/https://www.khmertimeskh.com/564897/ticket-revenue-at-angkor-complex-up-8-percent/|url-status=live}}</ref> The influx of tourists has caused damage such as [[graffiti]] on the walls. Other concerns, such as air and water pollution, require stronger waste control measures to protect the integrity of the [[Siem Reap River]] and other natural water sources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Miura |first=Keiko |date=2006-2009 |title=A note on the current impact of tourism on Angkor and its environs |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1179/175355206x265841 |journal=Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=132–135 |doi=10.1179/175355206x265841 |issn=1350-5033|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ropes and wooden steps have been introduced to protect the bas-reliefs and floors, respectively. Tourism has also provided some additional funds for maintenance—as of 2000 approximately 28% of ticket revenues across the entire [[Angkor]] site was spent on the temples—although most work is carried out by teams sponsored by foreign governments rather than by the Cambodian authorities.<ref>{{cite web|work=Tales of Asia|url=http://www.talesofasia.com/cambodia-interviews-AC.htm|title=Preserving Angkor: Interview with Ang Choulean|date=13 October 2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617214219/http://www.talesofasia.com/cambodia-interviews-AC.htm |archive-date=17 June 2017|url-status=live }}</ref>

Since Angkor Wat has seen significant growth in tourism throughout the years, UNESCO and its International Co-ordinating Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC), in association with representatives from the Royal Government and APSARA, organised seminars to discuss the concept of "cultural tourism", emphasising the importance of providing high-quality accommodation and services to the tourists and for the Cambodian government to benefit economically, while also incorporating and protecting the richness of Cambodian culture. In 2001, this incentive resulted in the concept of the "Angkor [[Tourist city|Tourist City]]" which would be developed about traditional Khmer architecture, contain leisure and tourist facilities, and provide luxurious hotels capable of accommodating large numbers of tourists.<ref name="SD">{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.annals.2006.06.004|title=Rethinking tourism in asia|date=2007|last1=Winter|first1=Tim|journal=Annals of Tourism Research|volume=34|pages=27–44}}</ref>

[[File:Angkor Wat with its reflection (cropped).jpg|thumb|Angkor Wat with its reflection in the outer pool]]

The prospect of developing such large tourist accommodations has encountered concerns from both APSARA and the ICC, claiming that previous tourism developments in the area have neglected construction regulations and that more of these projects have the potential to damage landscape features. Also, the large scale of these projects have begun to threaten the quality of the nearby town's water, sewage, and electricity systems. It has also been noted that such high frequency of tourism and growing demand for infrastructure has had a direct effect on the underground water table, subsequently straining the structural stability of the temples at Angkor Wat.<ref name="SD"/> Locals of Siem Reap have also voiced concern that the atmosphere of their town have been compromised to entertain tourism. Since this local atmosphere is the key component to projects like Angkor Tourist City, the local officials continue to discuss how to successfully incorporate future tourism without sacrificing local values and culture.<ref name="SD"/> At the [[ASEAN]] Tourism Forum 2012, it was agreed that [[Borobudur]] and Angkor Wat would become sister sites and sister provinces.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/01/13/borobudur-angkor-wat-become-sister-sites.html |title=Borobudur, Angkor Wat to become sister sites |newspaper=[[The Jakarta Post]] |date=13 January 2012 |access-date=13 January 2012 |archive-date=15 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115075327/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/01/13/borobudur-angkor-wat-become-sister-sites.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2020, the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Cambodia]] led to [[Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic|travel restrictions]] being introduced across the world, which had a severe impact on Cambodia's tourism sector. As a result, visitors to Angkor Wat plummeted, leaving the usually crowded complex almost deserted.<ref>{{cite web|date=6 June 2020|title=Tourists amazed about seeing Angkor Wat without usual crowds|url=https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/travel-leisure/article/3087755/few-visitors-angkor-wat-revel-near-solitude-10000|access-date=22 May 2021|website=South China Morning Post|language=en|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417065604/https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/travel-leisure/article/3087755/few-visitors-angkor-wat-revel-near-solitude-10000|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2 November 2020|title='How Long Can We Survive?': Angkor Visitors Dip, Holiday Bump Minimal|url=https://vodenglish.news/how-long-can-we-survive-angkor-visitors-dip-holiday-bump-minimal/|access-date=22 May 2021|website=VOD|language=en-GB|archive-date=12 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512150550/https://vodenglish.news/how-long-can-we-survive-angkor-visitors-dip-holiday-bump-minimal/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Hunt|first=Luke|title=Cambodians Reclaim Angkor Wat as Global Lockdowns Continue to Bite|url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/06/cambodians-reclaim-angkor-wat-as-global-lockdowns-continue-to-bite/|access-date=22 May 2021|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US|archive-date=2 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210802192306/https://thediplomat.com/2020/06/cambodians-reclaim-angkor-wat-as-global-lockdowns-continue-to-bite/|url-status=live}}</ref> Cambodia, including Angkor Wat, reopened to international visitors in late 2021, but as of the end of 2022 had only received a fraction of its pre-pandemic traffic: a total of 280,000 tourists visited the complex in 2022, versus 2.6 million in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|date=17 March 2023|title=Cambodia Relocates Angkor Wat Communities in Controversial Tourism Touch-Up|url=https://skift.com/2023/03/17/cambodia-relocates-angkor-wat-communities-in-controversial-tourism-touch-up/|access-date=26 March 2023|website=Skift|language=en|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326183445/https://skift.com/2023/03/17/cambodia-relocates-angkor-wat-communities-in-controversial-tourism-touch-up/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2023, the temple saw an increase in numbers over the previous year, having over 400,000 tourists by late July.<ref>{{cite web |last=Babis |first=Daniel |date=28 July 2023 |title=Why Right Now Is the Best Time to Visit Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia |url=https://thegoguy.com/why-right-now-is-the-best-time-to-visit-angkor-wat-in-siem-reap-cambodia/ |access-date=28 July 2023 |website=The Go Guy |language=en-US |archive-date=28 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728152301/https://thegoguy.com/why-right-now-is-the-best-time-to-visit-angkor-wat-in-siem-reap-cambodia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Tourists reenacting the 2011 game series ''[[Temple Run]]'' in mid-2024 for social media have drawn criticism from conservationists who warn that it risks damaging Angkor Wat's structures and carvings and is [[culturally insensitive]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=K Oanh |first=Ha |date=22 August 2024 |title=TikTok Tourists Trample Angkor Wat Mimicking Temple Run Game |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-08-22/tiktok-tourists-trample-on-angkor-wat-in-viral-temple-run-recreation |access-date=23 August 2024 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref> Because of this, the heavy tourism of such a culturally significant site has become increasingly controversial, even pushing critics to advocate for the closing of Angkor Wat as a tourist attraction, as its controversial naming as a World Heritage Site seemed to threaten the lives of nearby native villages and individuals who's heritage relied on Angkor's historical integrity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UNESCO to Investigate Alleged Rights Abuses at Angkor Wat |url=https://thediplomat.com/2024/07/unesco-to-investigate-alleged-rights-abuses-at-angkor-wat/ |access-date=2026-03-17 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}</ref> This uproots the question of whether heavy tourism is ethical within archaeological sites.

==See also==
{{Portal|Buddhism|Cambodia|Architecture
| border = True
}}
* [[Indosphere]]
* [[Greater India]]
* [[Buddhism in Cambodia]]
* [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia]]
* [[Buddhist architecture]]
* [[Bayon]]
* [[List of Buddhist temples]]
* [[List of tallest structures built before the 20th century]]

==References==
{{cols|colwidth=26em}}
{{Reflist}}
{{colend}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|last=Albanese|first= Marilia|title=The Treasures of Angkor|location=Vercelli|publisher=White Star Publishers|date=2006|type=Paperback|isbn=978-8-85440-117-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Briggs|first=Lawrence Robert|orig-year=1951|year=1999|title=The Ancient Khmer Empire|publisher=White Lotus Companuy|isbn=978-9-74843-493-3|ref={{sfnref|Briggs|1951}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Falser|first=Michael|year=2020|title=Angkor Wat – A Transcultural History of Heritage. Volume 1: Angkor in France. From Plaster Casts to Exhibition Pavilions. Volume 2: Angkor in Cambodia. From Jungle Find to Global Icon|publisher=Berlin-Boston DeGruyter|isbn=978-3-11033-584-2}}
* {{cite book|last1=Forbes|first1=Andrew |last2=Henley|first2=David|year=2011|title=Angkor, Eighth Wonder of the World|publisher=Cognoscenti Books|asin=B0085RYW0O}}
* {{cite book|last1=Freeman|first1=Michael|last2=Jacques|first2=Claude|year=1999|title=Ancient Angkor|publisher=River Books|isbn=978-0-83480-426-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Glaize|first=Maurice|title=Les monuments du groupe d'Angkor|trans-title=Monuments of the Angkor Group|orig-year=1944|year=1993|publisher=J. Maisonneuve|isbn=978-2-72001-091-0|ref={{sfnref|Glaize|1944}} }}
* {{cite book|last=Higham|first=Charles|year=2001|title=The Civilization of Angkor|publisher=Phoenix|isbn=978-1-84212-584-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Higham|first=Charles|year=2003|title=Early Cultures of Mainland Southeast Asia|publisher=Art Media Resources|isbn=978-1-58886-028-6}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jessup|first1=Helen Ibbitson|last2=Brukoff|first2=Barry|title=Temples of Cambodia – The Heart of Angkor|location=Bangkok|publisher=River Books|date=2011|type=Hardback|isbn=978-6-16733-910-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Petrotchenko|first=Michel|year=2011|title=Focusing on the Angkor Temples: The Guidebook|publisher=Amarin Printing and Publishing|isbn=978-6-16305-096-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Ray|first=Nick|year=2002|title=Lonely Planet guide to Cambodia|edition=4th|isbn=978-1-74059-111-9}}

==External links==
{{Commons and category|Angkor Wat|Angkor Wat}}
{{wikivoyage|Angkor Archaeological Park}}
{{Contains special characters|Khmer}}
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}
* [https://www.topworldimages.com/streetview/Angkor_Wat Multimedia Resources of Angkor Wat] March 2023
* [http://poncar.de/gallery.cfm?kategorien_id=3 Angkor Wat and Angkor photo gallery by Jaroslav Poncar] May 2010

{{Angkorian sites|state=collapsed}}
{{SiemReapProvince}}
{{National parks of Cambodia}}
{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Angkor Wat| ]]
[[Category:1150 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1150]]
[[Category:Religious buildings and structures completed in the 1150s]]
[[Category:12th-century Hindu temples]]
[[Category:12th-century Buddhist temples]]
[[Category:Angkorian sites in Siem Reap province]]
[[Category:Khmer Empire]]
[[Category:Archaeoastronomy]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Cambodia]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimage sites in Cambodia]]
[[Category:Buddhist temples in Siem Reap province]]
[[Category:National symbols of Cambodia]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Cambodia]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Siem Reap province]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Cambodia]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Former Hindu temples in Cambodia]]
[[Category:Vishnu temples]]

Sejal Nagjee

2026-03-22T06:13:19Z

Olympiados: Added new info nd citations.

{{Short description|Indian Business Women and Table Tennis player}}
{{orphan|date=October 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}{{Infobox person
| name = Sejal Nagjee
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Sejal Shah
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1967|06|30}}
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]], India
| other_names =
| occupation = Interior/Landscape Designer, [[table tennis]] player
| years_active =
| known_for = [[table tennis]], [[Designing]]
| notable_works =
}}

'''Sejal Nagjee''' is an Indian [[businesswoman]], [[designer]], and former professional [[table tennis]] player.<ref name="TN">{{cite web |last1=Denman |first1=Selina |title=Sejal Nagjee, the gardening guru with an eye for open space |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/lifestyle/home/sejal-nagjee-the-gardening-guru-with-an-eye-for-open-space-1.402393 |website=The National |publisher=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sejal Nagjee: Transforming Dubai's luxury market through innovation, discipline |url=https://gulfnews.com/gn-focus/sejal-nagjee-transforming-dubais-luxury-market-through-innovation-discipline-1.500469570 |website=Gulf News |language=en |date=11 March 2026}}</ref>

She is the founder and Creative Director of Milestone Dubai, a design and build company based in the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Journey of Excellence - Sejal Nagjee |url=https://features.gulfnews.com/books/nayf/#p=165 |website=online.fliphtml5.com |publisher=[[Gulf News]]}}</ref><ref name="FE">{{cite web |title=Femina's Fab 65: Sejal Nagjee, Founder – Milestone Dubai {{!}} Femina.in |url=https://www.femina.in/trending/achievers/feminas-fab-65-sejal-nagjee-founder-milestone-dubai-285385.html |website=www.femina.in |publisher=[[Femina (India)]] |language=en}}</ref>

Prior to her business career, she represented India in [[Table tennis]] at multiple international championships.<ref>{{cite web |title=Where every design creates a milestone |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/where-every-design-creates-a-milestone |website=Khaleejtimes.com |publisher=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life & Education==
Sejal Shah was born on 30 June 1967 in [[Mumbai]], India, to Shirish Shah and Aruna Shah. Her father, an electrical engineer and serial entrepreneur, is a sitar player for over 77 years and significantly contributed as her coach and mentor during her athletic career. Her mother possessed a master's degree in sociology and psychology and was an accomplished artist specializing in Batik. She instructed at SNDT College in Mumbai and fostered her daughters' creative growth.<ref name="TN"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Milestone Dubai: Sejal Nagjee's Story of Transforming Spaces {{!}} The Enterprise World |url=https://theenterpriseworld.com/sejal-nagjees-story-of-transforming-spaces |website=Theenterpriseworld.com |language=en |date=13 March 2025}}</ref>

She did her schooling from New Era School in Mumbai and then got a Bachelor of Commerce degree in accounting and finance from Mumbai University. Along with her studies, she learned Bharatanatyam dance, Indian classical music, Painting, Ikebana and Bonsai.<ref>{{cite web |title=Greatest Leaders Asia-America-Africa 2024 |url=https://asiaone.co.in/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Coffee-Table-Book-Latest-compressed-1.pdf |website=Asiaone.co.in}}</ref>

==Career==
===Sports career===
Nagjee was active in professional table tennis from the early 1980s through the mid-1990s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Milestone Dubai: Sejal Nagjee's Story of Transforming Spaces {{!}} The Enterprise World |url=https://theenterpriseworld.com/sejal-nagjees-story-of-transforming-spaces |website=Theenterpriseworld.com |date=13 March 2025}}</ref>

Sejal Nagjee represented India at the [[1983 Asian Junior Table Tennis Championships]] in [[Bahrain]]. She also won gold with the Indian women’s team and women’s double at the [[1987 South Asian Games|3rd South Asian Federation (SAF) Games in 1987]].<ref name="BPJ">{{cite journal |title=Sejal Shah |journal=BPCL Journal |issue=June/July 1991 |page=45 |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1CjbjXhm4Fp1pc2pZWNIDoLsWkwTDHaPL/view |publisher=Bharat Petroleum Journal}}</ref>

Nagjee also won bronze in women’s doubles at the 4th SAF Games in 1989.<ref name="BPJ"/>

She also represented India at the [[1990 Asian Table Tennis Championships|1990 10th Asian Table Tennis Championships]] and the [[1991 World Table Tennis Championships|41st World Table Tennis Championships in 1991]].<ref name="BPJ"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Women Leaders In Middle East - October - 2024 {{!}} Women Entrepreneurs Review Magazine |url=https://www.womenentrepreneursreview.com/digital-magazine/women-leaders-in-middle-east-october-2024/#page=14 |website=Womenentrepreneursreview.com}}</ref>

===Design career===
In 2000, Sejal Nagjee launched Pure Joy, her first design company, which began by producing and selling more than 25,000 floral artifacts through lifestyle stores in Mumbai.<ref name="KT">{{cite web |title=Rest if you must but do not you quit! |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/lifestyle/rest-if-you-must-but-dont-you-quit |website=KhaleejTimes.com |publisher=[[Khaleej Times]] |language=en}}</ref>

Nagjee moved to Dubai in 2003, where she established her second floral design studio. Her work quickly attracted recognition from hotels and event clients, leading to the expansion of services into interior design, landscaping, and pool design within a year.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Sejal Nagjee Turned Her Athletic Discipline into a Design Dynasty in Dubai |url=https://uaestories.com/sejal-nagjee |website=Uaestories.com |date=10 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How Sejal Nagjee Turned Her Athletic Discipline into a Design Dynasty in Dubai |url=https://uaestories.com/sejal-nagjee/ |website=Uaestories.com |date=10 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sejal Nagjee unveils new landscape project - Design Middle East |url=https://design-middleeast.com/sejal-nagjee-unveils-new-landscape-project/ |website=design-middleeast.com |date=23 May 2018}}</ref>

Sejal Nagjee founded Milestone Dubai, which has since completed over a thousand residential and commercial projects in the UAE. The company provides services in villa renovations, interior fit-outs, landscaping, swimming pools, and carpentry.<ref name="FE"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Sejal Nagjee unveils new landscape project |url=https://design-middleeast.com/sejal-nagjee-unveils-new-landscape-project |website=design-middleeast.com |date=23 May 2018 }}</ref>

==Personal life==
Sejal has been married for over 25 years to the Indian businessman Rajesh Nagjee. Together, they have a son named Jay.<ref name="KT"/>

==Awards & honors==
*Luxury Lifestyle Awards, 2025<ref>{{cite web |title=EXCLUSIVE INTERVIEW: Sejal Nagjee on Milestone's Modern Luxury Homes |url=https://luxurylifestyleawards.com/experience/exclusive-interview-sejal-nagjee-milestone-dubai |website=Luxury Lifestyle Awards}}</ref>
*Top 10 Best Women Founders in the Middle East 2024<ref>{{cite web |title=Sejal Nagjee: From Sporting Laurels To Building Legacy Through Smart Design Approach |url=https://www.womenentrepreneursreview.com/magazine/october-2024-women-leaders-in-middle-east-YQQ509408973.html |website=Womenentrepreneursreview.com}}</ref>
*Greatest Leaders 2023-24<ref>{{cite web |title=Instagram |url=https://www.instagram.com/p/C9SAeKqylBu |website=www.instagram.com |publisher=AsiaOne Magazine}}</ref>
*[[Shiv Chhatrapati Award]] (1991-92) for her contributions to Indian sports in 1994.<ref>{{cite news |title=Posthumous Award for Sportsperson |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=29 June 1994 |location=Bombay |page=11}}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:21st-century Indian sportswomen]]
[[Category:1970s births]]
[[Category:Indian female table tennis players]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:People from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Maharashtra]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Nagjee, Sejal}}
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Battle of Hong Kong

2026-03-22T04:56:48Z

Olympiados:

{{Short description|One of the first battles of the Pacific campaign of World War II}}
{{For|the Japanese film in 1942|The Battle of Hong Kong (film)}}
{{Use Hong Kong English|date=November 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Hong Kong
| partof = the [[Pacific War|Pacific Theatre]] of [[World War II]]
| image = Battle of HK 03.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Japanese troops take [[Tsim Sha Tsui]]
| date = 8–25 December 1941
| place = [[British Hong Kong]]
| territory = [[Japanese occupation of Hong Kong]]
| result = Japanese victory
| combatant1 = '''{{Flag|British Empire}}''' {{bulleted list|{{Flag|United Kingdom}}|{{flagcountry|British Hong Kong|1876}}|{{flagcountry|British Raj}}}}{{flag|Canada|1921}} {{flagcountry|Republic of China (1912–1949)}} {{flag|Free France}}
| combatant2 = '''{{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}}'''
| commander1 = {{unbulleted list|{{nowrap|{{flagdeco|UK}} [[Mark Aitchison Young|Mark Young]]{{Surrendered}}}}|{{nowrap|{{flagdeco|British India|army}} [[Christopher Maltby]]{{Surrendered}}}}|{{nowrap|{{flagdeco|British India|army}} [[Cedric Wallis]]{{Surrendered}}}}|{{flagdeco|Canada|army-1939}} [[John K. Lawson]]{{KIA}}|{{flagdeco|Republic of China (1912-1949)|naval}} [[Chan Chak|Andrew Chan]]|{{flagdeco|Republic of China (1912-1949)|naval}} [[Henry Hsu]]}}
| commander2 = {{unbulleted list|{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Takashi Sakai]]|{{nowrap|{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Tadamichi Kuribayashi]]}}|{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Tadayoshi Sano]]|{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|naval}} [[Masaichi Niimi]]}}
| strength1 = 10,976<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2UrqAQAAQBAJ Banham, 2003, p316]</ref>–14,564 troops<ref>{{cite journal|title=Operations in the Far East, From 17th December 1940 to 27th December 1941|journal=London Gazette|date=22 January 1948|volume=38183|issue=20 January 1948|page=573|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/38183.pdf|access-date=29 November 2017}}</ref> 5 planes 1 destroyer 4 [[gunboat]]s 1 minelayer 8 [[Motor torpedo boat|MTB]]s
| strength2 = 26,928 troops<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2UrqAQAAQBAJ Banham (2003)], pp 330-33</ref> 51 planes 1 cruiser 3 destroyers 4 [[torpedo boat]]s 3 gunboats
| casualties1 = 1,560–2,278 killed or missing 2,300 wounded 10,947 captured{{efn|British 5,072, Canadian 1,689, Indian 3,829, others 357<ref name="CACasualties"/>}} 1 destroyer captured 4 gunboats sunk 1 minelayer sunk 3 MTBs sunk 5 planes lost
| casualties2 = 675 killed 2,079 wounded{{sfn|Ishiwari|1956|pp=47–48}} 2 planes damaged{{sfn|Carew|1960|pp=80}}
| casualties3 = '''Civilian casualties:''' 4,000 killed 3,000 severely wounded{{efn|Figures taken from [[Selwyn Selwyn-Clarke]], the Director of Medical Services in Hong Kong.{{sfn|Banham|2005|p=318}}}}
| notes =
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Pacific 1941}}
{{Campaignbox Second Sino-Japanese War}}
{{Campaignbox Pacific War}}
{{Japanese colonial campaigns}}
{{Campaignbox World War II}}
}}
The '''Battle of Hong Kong''' (8–25 December 1941), also known as the '''Defence of Hong Kong''' and the '''Fall of Hong Kong''', was one of the first battles of the [[Pacific War]] in [[World War II]]. On the same morning as the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], forces of the [[Empire of Japan]] attacked the British [[Crown colony]] of [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] around the same time that Japan declared war on Britain. The Hong Kong garrison consisted of [[British Army during the Second World War|British]], [[Indian Army during World War II|Indian]] and [[Military history of Canada during World War II|Canadian]] units, the Auxiliary Defence Units, and the [[Royal Hong Kong Regiment|Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Corps]] (HKVDC).

Of the three territories of Hong Kong, the defenders abandoned the two mainland territories of [[Kowloon]] and [[New Territories]] within a week. Less than two weeks later, with their last territory [[Hong Kong Island]] untenable, the colony surrendered. The fall of the city is regarded as '''Black Christmas''' as it marked the beginning of a brutal [[Japanese occupation of Hong Kong|occupation by Japan]] that would last until its liberation in the summer of 1945. Britain's defeat in Hong Kong alongside the [[Fall of Singapore]] in 1942 would irreparably damage its reputation in Asia as a major military power.
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Background==
Britain first thought of Japan as a threat with the ending of the [[Anglo-Japanese Alliance]] in 1921, a threat that increased throughout the 1930s with the escalation of the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] as well as the [[Japanese invasion of French Indochina]]. On 21 October 1938, the Japanese occupied [[Guangzhou|Canton]] (Guangzhou) and Hong Kong was surrounded.{{sfn|Fung|2005|p=129}} British defence studies concluded that Hong Kong would be extremely hard to defend in the event of a Japanese attack, but in the mid-1930s work began on improvements to defences including along the [[Gin Drinkers' Line]]. By 1940, the British determined to reduce the [[British Forces Overseas Hong Kong|Hong Kong Garrison]] to only a symbolic size. Air Chief Marshal Sir [[Henry Robert Moore Brooke-Popham|Robert Brooke-Popham]], the [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[British Far East Command]] argued that limited reinforcements could allow the garrison to delay a Japanese attack, gaining time elsewhere.{{sfn|Harris|2005|p=}} [[Winston Churchill]] and the general staff named Hong Kong as an [[outpost (military)|outpost]], and decided against sending more troops. In September 1941, they reversed their decision and argued that additional reinforcements would provide a military deterrent against the Japanese and reassure Chinese leader [[Chiang Kai-shek]] that Britain was serious about defending the colony.{{sfn|Harris|2005|p=}}

The plan for the defence of Hong Kong was that a delaying action would be fought in the [[New Territories]] and [[Kowloon]] peninsula to allow the destruction of vital infrastructure and stores there. The Gin Drinker's Line was expected to hold out for at least three weeks, following which all defenders would withdraw to [[Hong Kong Island]] which would be defended and use of the harbour denied until reinforcements could arrive from [[Singapore]] or the [[Philippines]].{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=35}}

According to the history manual of the United States Military Academy: "Japanese control of Canton, Hainan Island, French Indo-China, and Formosa virtually sealed the fate of Hong Kong well before the firing of the first shot".<ref>{{cite book|title=The War With Japan, Parts 1, 2, And 3 (December 1941 To January 1945)|date=1951|publisher=United States Military Academy|page=[https://archive.org/details/TheWarWithJapanParts12And3December1941ToAugust1945-nsia/page/n37 31]|url=https://archive.org/details/TheWarWithJapanParts12And3December1941ToAugust1945-nsia}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Stobie|first1=James R.|title=More to the Story: A Reappraisal of U.S. Intelligence Prior to the Pacific War|date=13 September 2012|publisher=BiblioScholar|isbn=978-1249373070|url=http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA471458|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122085345/http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA471458|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 January 2020}}</ref> The British military in Hong Kong grossly underestimated the capabilities of the Japanese forces and downplayed assessments that the Japanese posed a serious threat as 'unpatriotic' and 'insubordinate'.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Terry|first1=Copp|title=The Defence of Hong Kong: December 1941|journal=Canadian Military History|date=2001|volume=10|issue=4|pages=3–5, 7|url=http://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol10/iss4/2/|language=en|issn=1195-8472}}</ref>

US Consul Robert Ward, the highest ranking US official posted to Hong Kong in the period preceding the outbreak of hostilities, offered a first-hand explanation for the rapid collapse of defences in Hong Kong by saying that the local British community had insufficiently prepared itself or the Chinese populace for war.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Defeat still cries aloud for explanation: Explaining C Force dispatch to Hong Kong|journal=Canadian Military Journal|volume=11 number 4|issue=Autumn 2011|page=46|url=http://www.journal.forces.gc.ca/vo11/no4/doc/Page%2037%20Perras%20Article%20English.pdf|access-date=30 November 2017}}</ref> He highlighted the prejudiced attitudes held by those governing the Crown Colony of Hong Kong: "several of them (the British rulers) said frankly that they would rather turn the island over to the Japanese rather than to turn it over to the Chinese, by which they meant rather than employ Chinese to defend the colony they would surrender it to the Japanese".{{sfn|Horne|2004|pp=75, 76}}

Colonel Reynolds Condon, a US Army assistant military attaché who witnessed the battle and was taken prisoner by the Japanese, wrote up his observations on military preparedness before the commencement of hostilities and on the execution of operations thereafter.{{sfn|Macri|2011}}

==Order of battle==
{{Further|Battle of Hong Kong order of battle}}

===Allied order of battle===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Strengths of all personnel mobilised at Hong Kong Garrison on 8 December 1941 !! 14,564<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |date=22 January 1948 |title=Operations in the Far East, From 17th December 1940 to 27th December 1941 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/38183.pdf |url-status=live |journal=London Gazette |volume=38183 |issue=20 January 1948 |page=573 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917021027/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/38183.pdf |archive-date=2017-09-17 |access-date=29 November 2017}}</ref>
|-
| British || 3,652<ref name=":0" />
|-
| Local Colonial || 2,428<ref name=":0" />
|-
| Indian || 2,254<ref name=":0" />
|-
| Auxiliary Defence Units || 2,112<ref name=":0" />
|-
| Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Corps || 1,787<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=oGKrzQEACAAJ&q=hong+kong+volunteers+in+battle Stewart 2020], p. 68</ref>
|-
| Canadian || 1,982<ref name=":0" />
|-
| Nursing Detachment || 136<ref name=":0" />
|}

====Indian Army====
[[File:Mount Davis Battery F2.jpg|thumb|Indian gunners manning a [[BL 9.2-inch Mk IX–X naval gun|9.2-inch naval artillery gun]] at [[Mount Davis, Hong Kong|Mount Davis]] Battery on Hong Kong Island]]
The [[Rajput Regiment#The Two World Wars|5/7th Battalion, Rajput Regiment]]{{sfn|Roland|2001|p=[https://archive.org/details/longnightsjourne00rola/page/n32 4]}} took up garrison at Hong Kong in June 1937 followed by the [[14th Punjab Regiment#Second World War|2/14th Battalion, Punjab Regiment]] in November 1940.{{sfn|Chi Man|Yiu Lun|2014|pp=165–219}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Scudieri|first1=James D.|title=The Indian Army in Africa and Asia, 1940-42: Implications for the Planning and Execution of Two Nearly-Simultaneous Campaigns.|url=http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA300990|website=Department of Defence|publisher=School of Advanced Military Studies, US Army Command and General Staff College, FORT LEAVENWORTH|access-date=30 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717145048/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord|archive-date=17 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Indian troops were also incorporated within several overseas regiments, for example the Hong Kong Singapore Royal Artillery Regiment which had Indian (Sikh) gunners.{{sfn|Chi Man|Yiu Lun|2014|pp=144–145}}{{sfn|Macri|2011|p=67}} The Hong Kong Mule Corps was staffed almost entirely by [[Dogras]] and [[Punjabi Muslims]].{{sfn|White|1994|p=32}} Medical personnel from the [[Indian Medical Service]] tended to those injured in combat. Ex-servicemen from India serving as security guards in Hong Kong also suffered "appallingly huge" casualties.{{sfn|White|1994|p=41}}

====Hong Kong and Singapore Royal Artillery====
Coastal defence batteries, including those at [[Stonecutters Island]], [[Pak Sha Wan]], [[Lyemun fort]], Saiwan, [[Mount Collinson]], [[Mount Parker (Hong Kong)|Mount Parker]], Belchers, [[Mount Davis, Hong Kong|Mount Davis]], Jubilee Hill, Bokara, and Stanley, provided artillery support for ground operations until they were put out of action or they surrendered.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nicholson|first1=K. W. Maurice-Jones; with a foreword by Cameron|title=The history of coast artillery in the British Army|date=1957|publisher=Naval and Military Press in association with Firepower, the Royal Artillery Museum|location=Uckfield|isbn=978-1845740313|pages=258, 259, 261}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=G.D.Johnson|title=The Battle of Hong Kong|journal=After the Battle|date=1984|issue=46|pages=2, 3, 19, 20|publisher=Battle of Briton Prints|issn=0306-154X}}</ref> Hong Kong and Singapore Royal Artillery, which was raised with troops recruited from Undivided India, also suffered heavy casualties during the Battle of Hong Kong and are commemorated with names inscribed on panels at the entrance to Sai Wan War Cemetery: 144 killed, 45 missing and 103 wounded.{{sfn|Banham|2005|page=315}}

====Canadian Army (C Force)====
{{Main|C Force}}
[[File:Canadian Contingent in Hong Kong - 1941.jpg|thumb|Three weeks before the battle, a Canadian military contingent arrived to reinforce the garrison]]
In late 1941, the British government accepted an offer by the Canadian Government to send a battalion of the [[Royal Rifles of Canada]] (from [[Quebec]]) and one of the [[Winnipeg Grenadiers]] (from [[Manitoba]]) and a brigade headquarters (1,975 personnel) to reinforce the Hong Kong garrison. "C Force", as it was known, arrived on 16 November on board the [[troopship]] {{HMT|Awatea||2}} and the [[armed merchant cruiser]] {{HMCS|Prince Robert}}. A total of 96 officers, two Auxiliary Services supervisors and 1,877 other ranks disembarked. Included were two medical officers and two nurses ([[wikt:supernumerary|supernumerary]] to the regimental medical officers), two Canadian Dental Corps officers with assistants, three chaplains and a detachment of the Canadian Postal Corps. A soldier of the [[Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps]] (RCAMC) had stowed away and was sent back to Canada.{{sfn|Stacey|1956|p=448}}

The Royal Rifles had served only in the [[Dominion of Newfoundland]] and [[Saint John, New Brunswick|New Brunswick]], prior to posting to Hong Kong. The Winnipeg Grenadiers had been deployed to [[Jamaica]]. Few Canadian soldiers had field experience, but were nearly fully equipped. However, the battalions had only two [[Anti-tank rifle|anti-tank rifles]] and no ammunition for [[Two-inch mortar|2-inch]] and [[ML 3-inch mortar|3-inch]] mortars or signal pistols. These were intended to be supplied after they arrived in Hong Kong.{{sfn|Stacey|1956|pp=448–449}} The C Force didn't receive its vehicles, as the US merchant ship ''San Jose'' carrying them was, at the outbreak of the Pacific War, diverted to [[Manila]], in the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Philippine Islands]], at the request of the US Government.{{sfn|Stacey|1956|p=449}}

====Royal Navy====
The Royal Navy presence at Hong Kong was little more than a token display of defence, with three World War I vintage destroyers, four river gunboats, a new but almost unarmed minelayer and the 2nd [[Motor Torpedo Boat]] Flotilla.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=23}}

====Royal Marines====
There were 40 Royal Marines attached to [[HMS Tamar (shore station)|HMS ''Tamar'']] (a shore station). When the battle began, the Royal Marines fought against Japanese forces in Magazine Gap, alongside HKVDC and Royal Engineers. They also manned machine guns on Mount Cameron. Commanding officer, Major Giles RM instructed his men to defend the island "to the last man and last round".<ref>{{cite journal|title= The Capture of Hong Kong in 1941 – The Naval Battle|journal= Naval Historical Society of Australia|date=December 2011|url= https://www.navyhistory.org.au/the-capture-of-hong-kong-in-1941-the-naval-battle/|access-date=27 May 2018}}</ref>

====Royal Air Force====
The Royal Air Force station at Hong Kong's [[Kai Tak Airport]] ([[RAF Kai Tak]]) had only five aeroplanes: two [[Supermarine Walrus]] [[amphibious aircraft]] and three outdated [[Vickers Vildebeest]] torpedo-reconnaissance bombers, flown and serviced by seven officers and 108 airmen. An earlier request for a fighter squadron had been rejected and the nearest fully operational [[RAF Kota Bharu|RAF base]] with fighters (two [[RAAF]] squadrons with [[Brewster F2A Buffalo]]) was in [[Kota Bharu]], [[British Malaya|Malaya]], nearly {{convert|2250|km|mi|abbr=on}} away.

====Other forces====
The [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Chinese]] Military Mission to Hong Kong, initiated in 1938, was headed by Rear Admiral [[Chan Chak|Andrew Chan]] and his aide Lieutenant Commander [[Henry Hsu]].{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=12, 79}} It had the objective of coordinating Chinese war aims with the British in Hong Kong.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=48}} Working with the British police, Chan organized pro-British agents among the population and rooted out triad factions that were sympathetic to the Japanese.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=12, 79}}

A squad of [[Free French]] under Captain Rodéric Egal, of the Free French in Shanghai who happened to be in Hong Kong when the battle broke out, fought alongside the HKVDC at the North Point power station. They were all World War I veterans (as were the local HKVDC) and acquitted themselves well.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=54}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://digital.lib.hkbu.edu.hk/1941hkbattle/en/data.php?show=item&id=FW00070|title=[Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Corps] Jean-Baptiste Étienne Rodéric Égal|publisher=Hong Kong Baptist University Library|access-date=17 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hongkongfp.com/2016/12/08/wwii-sacrifice-free-french-defending-hong-kong/|title=The WWII sacrifice of 'Free French' defending Hong Kong|publisher=AFP|date=8 December 2016|access-date=17 November 2022}}</ref>

==Battle==

===New Territories and Kowloon===
[[File:Battle of Hong Kong, 1941-en.svg|thumb|right|Map of the battle]]
[[File:Japanese Artillery Firing at Hong Kong, WWII.JPG|thumb|Japanese artillery firing at Hong Kong]]

Defending the New Territories was the 2nd Battalion, [[Royal Scots]] in the west, the 2/[[14th Punjab Regiment|14th Punjab]] in the center and the [[Rajput Regiment|5/7th Rajput]] in the east.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lindsay |first1=Oliver |last2=Harris |first2=John R. |title=The battle for Hong Kong 1941–1945: Hostage to Fortune |year=2005 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-962-209-779-7 |pages=65, 75, 80, 81, 137}}</ref> In front of them was a thin screen of 2/14th Punjab infantry supported by four [[Bren Gun Carrier]]s and two armoured cars and engineers at [[Sheung Shui]] and [[Tai Po]].{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=37}} At 04:45 on 8 December 1941 ([[Hong Kong Time]]), roughly 2.5 hours after the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] (which happened at 07:49 Hawaii Time<ref>In 1941, Hawaii was a half-hour different from the majority of other time zones. See [[UTC−10:30]]</ref> or 02:19 Hong Kong Time the next day because of [[International Date Line]]) [[Radio Tokyo]] announced that war was imminent and General [[Christopher Maltby|Maltby]] and [[Governor of Hong Kong|Governor]] [[Mark Aitchison Young|Young]] were informed. At 05:00 the engineers detonated their charges destroying bridges on likely invasion routes.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=37–38}}

Japanese forces had been assembling north of the [[Sham Chun River]] since the beginning of December. The Japanese attack began at 06:00 when the [[Imperial Japanese Army|IJA]] 230th, 229th and 228th Regiments (arranged from west to east) crossed the Sham Chun River. In the west the 230th Regiment advanced towards [[Yuen Long]], [[Castle Peak Bay]] and [[Tai Mo Shan]]. In the center, the 229th Regiment advanced from [[Sha Tau Kok]] towards [[Chek Nai Ping]] and across [[Tide Cove]] to [[Tai Shui Hang]]. In the east, the 228th Regiment crossed at [[Lok Ma Chau]] and [[Lo Wu]] and advanced towards [[Lam Tsuen]] and [[Needle Hill]].{{Sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=37}}

At 08:00, the Japanese bombed Kai Tak Airport. Two of the three Vildebeest and the two Walruses were destroyed by 12 Japanese bombers. The attack also destroyed several civil aircraft including all but two of the aircraft used by the air unit of the [[Royal Hong Kong Regiment|Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Corps]]. The RAF and air unit personnel from then fought on as ground troops. The [[Pan Am|Pan-Am Airways]] flying boat ''[[Sikorsky S-42|Hong Kong Clipper]]'' was dive-bombed and destroyed. The Japanese also bombed [[Sham Shui Po Barracks]] causing minimal damage.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=38}}

The first significant exchanges of fire were at 15:00 when the 2/14th Punjab engaged the IJA who had crossed into Laffan's Plain. 2/14th Punjab eliminated several IJA platoons at 18:30 just south of Tai Po and HKVDC armoured cars and Bren Gun Carriers also successfully engaged IJA forces. Despite these successes, the 2/14th Punjab withdrew towards [[Grassy Hill]] in the afternoon to avoid being outflanked and the IJA forces advanced down the [[Tai Po Road]] towards [[Sha Tin]]. Late that night all units were ordered to withdraw to the Gin Drinker's Line.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=39}}

On 9 December, the 2nd Royal Scots held in the west, a reserve company of the 5/7th Rajputs moved forward to [[Smuggler's Ridge]], the HKVDC held [[Fo Tan]] and the 2/14th Punjab held at Tide Cove.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=39}} By 13:00 the IJA 228th Regiment had reached Needle Hill and its commander Colonel Doi was reconnoitring the [[Shing Mun Redoubt]] area of the Gin Drinker's Line which he found to be unprepared for an attack. Despite the area being outside of his regimental boundary he developed an attack plan and began moving his men into position. The redoubt was defended by A Company, 2nd Royal Scots supplemented by other units giving a total strength of three officers and 39 soldiers. The defenders and the nearby D Company, 5/7th Rajputs conducted patrols north of the redoubt and around Needle Hill but failed to detect the two IJA battalions in the area or the 150-man attacking force which had crossed the [[Shing Mun Reservoir|Jubilee Dam]] and was in position just below one of the redoubt's pillboxes. At 23:00 the defenders detected movement and opened fire as the IJA began their attack. As the Japanese progressively overran the complex of trenches and tunnels, many of the defenders found themselves locked in the redoubt's artillery observation post (OP). Pillbox 402 was destroyed by IJA sappers at 02:30 on the 10th and the rest of the 3/228th Regiment joined the assault moving through the redoubt and into the valley, running into the 5/7th Rajputs who were moving to support the redoubt. The 5/7th Rajputs forced the Japanese back toward the redoubt. The Japanese eventually blew open the OP, capturing the 15 survivors. Artillery at Stonecutter's Island and Mount Davis pounded the redoubt until 05:00, but apart from one position which held out until the afternoon the redoubt was lost. The IJA had only lost a mere two soldiers in the attack.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=39–43}}

At 21:30 on the 9th, {{HMS|Thanet|H29|6}} and HMS ''Scout'' were ordered to leave Hong Kong for Singapore, successfully evading the IJN blockade. Only one destroyer, [[HMS Thracian (1920)|HMS ''Thracian'']], several gunboats and a flotilla of MTBs remained.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=39}} Between 8 and 10 December, eight American plus a number of Chinese pilots of the [[China National Aviation Corporation]] (CNAC) and their crews flew 16 sorties between Kai Tak Airport and landing fields in [[Nanxiong]] and [[Chongqing]] (Chungking), the wartime capital of the Republic of China.{{efn|Articles in the New York Times and the Chicago Daily of 15 December 1941,<ref>[http://www.cnac.org/scott01.htme http://www.cnac.org]{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> the pilots were Charles L. Sharp,<ref>[http://www.cnac.org/charlessharp01.htm Charles L. Sharp]</ref> Hugh L. Woods,<ref>[http://www.cnac.org/hughwoods01.htm Hugh L. Woods]</ref> Harold A. Sweet,<ref>[http://www.cnac.org/sweet01.htm Harold A. Sweet]</ref> William McDonald,<ref>[http://www.cnac.org/williamcmcdonald01.htm William McDonald]</ref> Frank L. Higgs,<ref>[http://www.cnac.org/higgs01.htm Frank L. Higgs]</ref> Robert S. Angle,<ref>[http://www.cnac.org/angle01.htm Robert S. Angle]</ref> P. W. Kessler<ref>[http://www.cnac.org/kessler01.htm P.W. Kessler]</ref> and S. E. Scott.<ref>[http://www.cnac.org/kessler01.htm S.E. Scott]</ref>}} The crew evacuated 275 people, including [[Soong Ching-ling|Mme Sun Yat-Sen]], the widow of [[Sun Yat-sen]] and the Chinese Finance Minister [[H. H. Kung|Kung Hsiang-hsi]].{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=39}}

On 10 December, the IJA 228th Regiment continued to move troops into the Shing Mun Redoubt while sending out small patrols along the rest of the line but otherwise failed to capitalize on their success. Maltby saw the loss of the redoubt as a disaster that undermined the entire defensive line and the 2nd Royal Scots were ordered to counterattack at dawn on the 11th, but their commander Lieutenant Colonel S. White refused on the basis that it had no chance of success.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=43}}

At dawn on the 11th, the IJA 228th Regiment attacked [[Golden Hill, Hong Kong|Golden Hill]] and was engaged by the 5/7th Rajputs supported by fire from HMS ''Cicala''. D Company, 2nd Royal Scots counterattacked and regained the hill. At midday, Maltby having decided that the New Territories and Kowloon were untenable and that the defence of Hong Kong island was the priority, ordered the evacuation of all his forces. Demolition works were carried out and the 2nd Royal Scots and supporting forces withdrew south to Sham Shui Po Barracks and [[Jordan, Hong Kong|Jordan]] pier, while the 5/7th Rajputs withdrew to [[Ma Yau Tong]] where they would hold [[Devil's Peak, Hong Kong|Devil's Peak peninsula]] protecting the narrow [[Lye Moon Passage]].{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=45–47}} The guns on Stonecutter's Island were destroyed and the base was abandoned that night.{{sfn|Ko|Wordie|1996|p=63}}

Also on the morning of the 11th, the IJA landed on [[Lamma Island]] and were engaged by guns of Jubilee Battery and Aberdeen Battery. That afternoon the Japanese attempted a landing near Aberdeen Island ([[Ap Lei Chau]]) but were driven off by machine gun fire.{{sfn|Ko|Wordie|1996|p=129}}

The 2/14th Punjab were to join the Rajputs on the Ma Yau Tong line, but during their march on the night of 11/12, December became split up, with one group reaching the Devil's Peak area while the other descended into Kai Tak and marched into Kowloon on the morning of the 12th, where they were engaged by the IJA 3/320th Regiment which had infiltrated into the area. The Punjabis fought their way down to [[Tsim Sha Tsui]] and were evacuated by [[Star Ferry]]. [[HMS Tamar (1863)|HMS ''Tamar'']] was scuttled in the harbour to prevent its use by the Japanese. On the night of the 12th the 5/7th Rajputs withdrew from Ma Yau Tong further down the Devil's Peak peninsula and at 04:00 on the 13th they began boarding boats to take them to Hong Kong island with the evacuation being completed by the morning of 13 December 1941.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=47}}<ref>{{cite news|title=The Battle of Hong Kong: Eyewitness Accounts|url=https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/long-reads/article/2054842/battle-hong-kong-through-eyes-people-who-lived|access-date=20 June 2017|work=South China Morning Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Raghavan |first=Srinath |title=India's War: World War II and the Making of Modern South Asia |year=2016|publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-465-03022-4 |page=234}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Luff |first=John |title=The Hidden Years |work=South China Morning Post|location=Hong Kong |pages=7, 25, 27, 28, 33, 36, 83 |year=1967 |oclc=205901}}</ref>

===Hong Kong Island===
[[File:Hong Kong 18-25 December 1941.png|thumb|right|Map of the battle of Hong Kong Island]]

Maltby organized the defence of the island, splitting it between an East Brigade and a West Brigade. The West Brigade commanded by Brigadier [[John K. Lawson]] had its headquarters at the top of [[Wong Nai Chung Gap]], a strategic passage between the north and south of the island. The West Brigade comprised the 2/14th Punjab covering the shoreline from [[Causeway Bay]] to Belcher's Point; the Winnipeg Grenadiers defended the southwest corner of the island and Lawson's headquarters; [[Middlesex Regiment|the Middlesex Regiment]] was dispersed across 72 pillboxes along the island shoreline; the 2nd Royal Scots reinforced by the HKVDC were held in reserve at [[Wanchai]] Gap; and the HKVDC had companies located at [[High West]], Mt Davis, [[Pinewood Battery]], [[Magazine Gap Road|Magazine Gap]], [[Jardine's Lookout]] and [[Ap Lei Chau|Aberdeen Naval Base]]. The East Brigade commanded by Brigadier [[Cedric Wallis]] had its headquarters at [[Tai Tam Country Park|Tai Tam Gap]]. The East Brigade comprised the 5/7th Rajputs holding pillboxes along the northeast shoreline with a company and their headquarters in the hills behind [[Taikoo Dockyard]] and a reserve company in [[Tai Hang]]; the Royal Rifles of Canada defended the island's northeast all the way around to [[Stanley, Hong Kong|Stanley]]; and two companies of the HKVDC were located at Tai Tam and Pottinger Gap.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=49–52}}

On the morning of 13 December, a Japanese delegation crossed the harbour to offer terms of surrender, which were rejected. The Japanese then began an artillery bombardment of Hong Kong Island disabling one of the [[BL 9.2-inch Mk IX – X naval gun|9.2-inch guns]] on Mt Davis and hitting Belcher's Fort in [[Pok Fu Lam]]. On the 14th Japanese artillery destroyed a 3-inch gun at Mt Davis. On the 15th Japanese artillery moved to target pillboxes and other defensive positions along the shoreline. The Japanese mounted six air attacks on positions on the west of the island and bomb damage forced the abandonment of Pinewood Battery.{{sfn|Ko|Wordie|1996|p=133}}

On the morning of the 17th, the Japanese again offered terms of surrender which were rejected. That night a reconnaissance team from the IJA 3/229th Regiment successfully explored the Taikoo area. The IJA had moved its forces closer to Hong Kong Island with the 23rd Army headquarters at Tai Po and the 38th Division near Kai Tak.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=49, 52}}

[[File:Battle of HK 04.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese artillery in North Point]]

On 18 December, the Japanese bombardment of the island shoreline increased and the oil storage tanks were hit. The IJA forces were organized into two assault units: the west assault unit comprised the 228th and 230th Regiments and would leave from the Kai Tak area, and the east assault unit comprised the 229th Regiment (less 1/229th held as Divisional reserve) and would leave from the Devil's Peak area. The attack order was issued at 18:00 and at 20:00 the first wave from the 2/228th and 3/230th began paddling towards the Taikoo Dockyard and [[Taikoo Sugar Refinery|sugar refinery]] under cover of artillery fire. As they approached the shore the boats were illuminated by searchlights and fired on by the 5/7th Rajputs. The boats scattered and both battalion commanders were wounded so Colonel Doi crossing with the second wave assumed command of the assault. At 21:40 the artillery barrage moved to targets further inshore and at 21:45 the 3/230th landed at North Point, followed by the 2/228th. At 21:38 the 2/229th landed at [[Sai Wan]] and the 3/229th landed at [[Aldrich Bay]]. By midnight all six IJA battalions were ashore but were held up on the beaches by barbed wire, fire from the 5/7th Rajputs and the general confusion of night operations. The Japanese eventually moved inshore overwhelming the Rajputs, bypassing or destroying the strong points as they generally headed towards the high ground. Maltby, believing that the landing only comprised two battalions and was a diversion for a direct assault across the harbor on [[Victoria, Hong Kong|Victoria]], sent minimal reinforcements to block any IJA movement west towards Victoria and five HKVDC armored cars to protect the East Brigade headquarters.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=52–54}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Ted |title=Desperate Siege: The Battle of Hong Kong |publisher=Doubleday Canada |location=Scarborough, Ont |pages=99, 151, 152, 168 |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-17-601524-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lindsay |first1=Oliver |last2=Harris |first2=John R. | title=The Battle for Hong Kong 1941–1945: Hostage to Fortune|year=2005|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-209-779-7|pages=88, 100, 105, 114}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hong Kong War Diary |url=http://www.hongkongwardiary.com/book1thebattle.html |website=hongkongwardiary.com |access-date=20 June 2017}}</ref> The 2/230th moved west towards Victoria but was stopped by an HKVDC, Free French and miscellaneous force in the [[North Point Power Station]] led by Major [[John Johnstone Paterson]]. Radioing for assistance, Maltby sent an HKVDC armoured car and a platoon from the 1st Middlesex, but they were ambushed on the way and only nine men made it to the station. The Japanese then directed artillery fire on the station and the surviving defenders withdrew at 01:45 continuing to fight the Japanese on [[Electric Road]] and [[King's Road (Hong Kong)|King's Road]] until all were killed or captured.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=54–56}}

In the early hours of 19 December, the IJA 3/229th moved uphill towards Mt Parker, while the 2/229th moved southeast towards the Lyemun fortifications. The 2/229th engaged a platoon of the Royal Rifles sent to check on A Company of the Rajputs and then quickly overwhelmed the Fort's garrison. The 2/229th then captured Sai Wan Battery killing six gunners from the HKVDC 5th Anti-Aircraft Battery and then proceeded to bayonet 20 prisoners, with only two surviving.{{sfn|Ko|Wordie|1996|p=89}}{{Sfn|Linton|2017|p=|loc=WO235/1030}} C Company, Royal Rifles attempted to retake the Victorian era Sai Wan Fort with two platoons but were unable to scale the walls and lost nine killed. A company from the 2/229th entered the [[Salesians of Don Bosco|Salesian Mission]] in [[Shau Kei Wan]], which was being used as a dressing station and they proceeded to kill all those inside, however, four men survived.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=xv}}<ref name=ww2db>{{cite web|title=Battle of Hong Kong 8 Dec 1941 – 25 Dec 1941|url=http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=61|work=World war II Database}}</ref> According to Captain Stanley Martin Banfill of the Royal Rifles, who witnessed his men being executed, the leading Japanese officer stated that "Order is all captives must die".{{Sfn|Linton|2017|loc=WO235/1030|p=}} The rest of the 2/229th were engaged by C Company, Royal Rifles who inflicted heavy casualties, but the Japanese were able to move past the Canadians while also inflicting heavy losses, forcing C Company to withdraw and leaving only A Company on Mt Parker. At 03:00 a platoon from D Company was sent to reinforce Mt Parker, but they became lost in the dark and only arrived at 07:30 to find over 100 Japanese on Mt Parker and A Company withdrawing and so Mt Parker was abandoned to the Japanese. In addition to East Brigade's infantry losses, the coastal batteries at [[Cape D'Aguilar]] and [[Cape Collinson]] were abandoned, while several of 965 Battery's guns were destroyed in error or left to the Japanese.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=56–61}} Wallis withdrew his headquarters from Tai Tam Gap to Stanley.{{sfn|Ko|Wordie|1996|p=39}}

In the West Brigade area, Lawson sent three platoons from the Winnipeg Grenadiers forward to block the IJA advance from their landing sites, deploying one platoon on each of Jardine's Lookout and Mt Butler and one forward on Wong Nei Chung Gap Road. Meanwhile, the 3/230th was advancing along Sir Cecil's Ride on the side of Jardine's Lookout, the 2/230th towards Jardine's Lookout, the 2/228th advanced on the other side of Jardine's Lookout, the 1/228th moved through Quarry Gap and the 3/229th advanced up Tai Tam Reservoir Road. The Japanese swept aside the weak infantry screens and while pillboxes inflicted casualties the Japanese were able to bypass such strong points and captured Jardine's Lookout. At 06:20 Pillbox PB1 occupied by No. 3 Company, HKVDC fired on an estimated 400 IJA advancing along Sir Cecil's Ride. Several IJA battalions advancing along the catchwaters captured the anti-aircraft positions on Tai Tam Reservoir Road east of Wong Nei Chung Gap, after a heavy firefight. In the early morning Lawson brought forward A Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers to recapture Jardine's Lookout and they then successfully retook Jardine's Lookout, but only for a couple of hours before the hill fell after an intense artillery bombardment and frontal assaults by IJA 230th and 228th Regiment. The IJA forces descended from [[Wong Nai Chung Reservoir Park|Wong Nei Chung Reservoir]] and attacked the police station and Postbridge House at the summit of Wong Nei Chung Gap. By 07:00 the 3/230th closed in on the West Brigade headquarters, Maltby sent A Company, 2nd Royal Scots to reinforce them approaching Wong Nei Chung Gap Road, but only 15 men made it through while a group of sailors approaching from the south up Repulse Bay Road were also ambushed. The 3/230th cleared out positions south and east of the headquarters despite fire from HKSRA artillery in Happy Valley. At 10:00 Lawson radioed that his headquarters were surrounded and that he was "going outside to shoot it out"; he and his entire command group were then hit by Japanese machine gun fire from across the gap and Lawson died of blood loss on the hill behind his bunker.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=62–63}} By midday only elements of D Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers and British and Chinese engineers held positions above the West Brigade Headquarters, while Pillboxes PB 1 and PB 2 on the lower slopes of Jardine's Lookout continued to resist.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=69}}

At 08:45, six MTBs assembled off [[Green Island, Hong Kong|Green Island]] and then moved east in pairs into Hong Kong Harbour to attack boats transporting IJA soldiers across the harbour. As they neared [[Kowloon Bay]] MTB 7 attacked three Japanese boats, sinking two and damaging others before being disabled by Japanese fire and towed out by MTB 2. MTB 9 damaged a further four Japanese boats.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=53, 60}}

At 13:30, Maltby issued Operation Order No. 6 for a general counterattack to commence at 15:00. A and D Companies, 2/14th Punjab was to attack east towards North Point to relieve the HKVDC still holding out there, however, the order never reached them. Headquarters Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers, the rest of 2/14th Punjab and the 2nd Royal Scots were to attack east from Middle Gap towards Wong Nei Chung Gap, but the Royal Scots were late and so the HQ Company moved along the front of Mt Nicholson separately. D Company, 2nd Royal Scots and D Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers were then ordered to advance up Wong Nei Chung Gap Road but were hit by Japanese fire from Jardine's Lookout and were pinned down for the rest of the day. By 18:00 PB1 and PB2 were abandoned. At 22:00 a Japanese counterattack on Mt Butler was repulsed by A Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=63–67, 69}}

At 02:00 on the 20th, the Royal Scots attacked the police station at the top of Wong Nei Chung Gap, but were repulsed as was another attack an hour later. An attack on Jardine's Lookout by C Company, 2nd Royal Scots also failed. Maltby ordered the Headquarters Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers to advance on Wong Nei Chung Gap, but they suffered heavy casualties before being stopped 300m short of the road, they then moved back along Black's Link and encountered approximately 500 unprepared Japanese and proceeded to attack them. At 15:00, after exhausting their ammunition, A Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers on Mt Butler surrendered to the Japanese, however in a final exchange of fire Sergeant-major [[John Robert Osborn]] smothered a Japanese grenade with his body, an action for which he was later posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]]. By 17:45 elements of the HKSRA under Major, Edward De Vere were ordered to attack the police station. The attack was launched at 22:00 supported by two armoured cars. This attack was successful and the unit managed to recapture the police station, but only for a few hours until the Japanese captured the police station using reinforcements from Stanley Gap (the old name for the Tai Tam Reservoir Road.)

The new West Brigade commander Colonel H.B. Rose of the HKVDC developed a plan to retake the Gap using the 2nd Royal Scots and the Winnipeg Grenadiers. B Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers was brought from Pok Fu Lam in the afternoon but was unable to locate the 2nd Royal Scots who had inexplicably moved off the eastern slopes of Mt Nicholson. This lapse allowed Colonel Doi to order three companies of the 1/228th to occupy Mt Nicholson in the afternoon under cover of a rain storm. B Company, Winnipeg Grenadiers moved in two columns in the dark and rain around the north and south of Mt Nicholson, meeting up above the gap which was to be their starting point for the next day's attack. However, they were then engaged by the Japanese and all their officers and NCOs and 29 men became casualties and they retreated around the north of Mt Nicholson.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=75}}

Elsewhere on the 20th, the 2nd and 3rd battalions, 229th Regiment had advanced down the Tytam Road and captured the X roads, Red Hill and Bridge Hill. They captured the 4.5-inch battery at Red Hill, which was abandoned the previous day. A handful of British civilians who were at the nearby pumping station were blindfolded and bayonetted at the beach in front of the pumping station. Meanwhile, the Japanese in the area south of Tai Tam Reservoir and into the hills above [[Repulse Bay]] where they encountered A Company, Royal Rifles and two HKVDC platoons preparing to attack Wong Hei Chung Gap from [[Violet Hill (Hong Kong)|Violet Hill]]. Maltby sent A Company, 2/14th Punjab to support the forces in Repulse Bay, but they were engaged by a Japanese force on [[Shouson Hill]] and were forced to retreat with their commander Colonel Kidd killed in the action. Further east the 1/229th and 2/228th advanced from Tai Tam and Sai Wan towards Stanley.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=70-1}} HMS ''Cicala'' which had been providing gunfire support in [[Deep Water Bay]] was hit by Japanese bombers and sank in the Lamma Channel.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=75}}

At 09:15 on the 21st, Wallis launched a new attack into Tai Tam to try to reach Wong Nei Chung Gap, with D Company, Royal Rifles, No. 1 Company, HKVDC, a medium machine gun section and two Bren Gun Carriers advancing from Stanley Mound. They were soon hit by Japanese mortar fire from [[Red Hill (Hong Kong)|Red Hill]] and then engaged by infantry from 1/229th and 1/230th on Bridge Hill and Red Hill. By 1400 hours, the Commonwealth forces managed to capture the summit of Bridge Hill, the X roads and the summit of Red Hill. The Japanese quickly rushed reinforcements from Tai Tam Gap, such as two Type 94 Tankettes. These tankettes were fired upon by a British machine gun on Bridge Hill, and the tankettes retreated to Tai Tam Gap. Even with this success, by 17:00 all the officers in the Commonwealth counterattacking force had been wounded and the force withdrew toward Stanley. On the north shore elements of the 230th Regiment pushed west reaching [[Victoria Park (Hong Kong)|Victoria Park]], while Japanese artillery bombarded HMS Tamar. Maltby ordered a further attack on Wong Nei Chung Gap by a force comprising four platoons, but when the commander saw the IJA forces in the area he cancelled the attack.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=75–76}}

On the 22nd, the 2/229th moved west from Shouson Hill and captured PB14 on the shore of Deepwater Bay from elements of the 1st Middlesex and then proceeded to behead all the prisoners. Two battalions of the 229th attacked the [[Repulse Bay Hotel]] while the 1/229th and 1/230th pushed the remnants of the East Brigade back into the Stanley peninsula. The East Brigade formed three defensive lines: the first line was composed of elements of the 1st Middlesex, three companies of the Royal Rifles and one company of the HKVDC supported by one 2-pounder gun; the second line at Stanley Village comprised two companies of the 1st Middlesex, a company of the HKVDC and the Stanley company of the HKVDC supported by two 18-pounder and 2-pounder guns; and at [[Stanley Fort]] were two HKVDC artillery batteries and two Royal Artillery batteries with two 18-pounder, two 3.7-inch and 9.2-inch and 6-inch coastal guns. On the north shore West Brigade forces struggled to hold the line from Causeway Bay, through [[Leighton Hill]], Happy Valley and Mount Cameron down to Bennett's Hill on the south of the island. At midday the Japanese attacked Stanley Mound and Sugarloaf Hill defended by units of the Royal Rifles, after repulsing several attacks, low ammunition forced the defenders to withdraw. The Japanese began their assault on the southern flank of Mt Cameron inflicting severe losses on B Company, 2/14th Punjab, but the penetration was stopped by a counterattack by B Company, 4/7th Rajputs. In the north, after an intensive artillery bombardment, the Japanese broke through the defensive line south of Leighton Hill at 22:00, forcing the defenders to start abandoning their positions and retreat west to avoid encirclement.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|pp=76–77}}

At 08:00 on the 23rd, the 5/7th Rajputs fell back leaving the 1st Middlesex units on Leighton Hill isolated and the Japanese bombarded them with mortar fire. Meanwhile, the remaining defenders on the north shore retreated west to [[Mount Gough]]. With the main water reservoirs now controlled by the IJA and with artillery damage to pipes, water supplies began to run out.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=77}}

On the 24th, the Royal Rifles were withdrawn to the defensive lines at Stanley. The IJA forces attacked down the Tai Tam Road but were repulsed. A second attack began at 21:00 supported by three [[Type 94 tankette]]s, two of which were destroyed by a 2-pounder fire. The outer defensive line broke and No 2 Company HKVDC was forced back to Stanley Village with heavy losses. At midnight the Japanese penetrated the second defence line and entered the field hospital at [[St. Stephen's College, Stanley|St. Stephen's College]] and in the [[St. Stephen's College massacre]] tortured and killed a large number of injured soldiers, along with the medical staff.{{sfn|Roland|2016|pp=43–61}}{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=78}} On the north shore the 230th Regiment advanced through Wanchai, meeting resistance at the [[China Fleet Club]] but this was soon overcome and the regiment advanced on the dockyard. In Happy Valley, the remnants of the 5/7th Rajputs were pushed back from the [[Happy Valley Racecourse]], off [[Mount Parish]] and out of [[Old Wanchai Market Building|Wanchai Market]].{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=79}}

===Fall of Hong Kong===
[[File:Battle of HK 05.jpg|thumb|right|The surrender of British forces in Hong Kong, 25 December 1941]]

On Christmas morning, Young informed Chan of his intent to surrender. Chan intended to break out and was given command of the five remaining MTBs; 68 men, including Chan, Hsu, and [[David Mercer MacDougall]] were successfully evacuated to [[Mirs Bay]] where they contacted Nationalist guerrillas and were escorted to Huizhou. For this feat, Chan was made an honorary [[Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire]].{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=48}}

By the afternoon of 25 December 1941, it was clear that further resistance would be futile and at 15:30 Governor Young and General Maltby surrendered in person to General Sakai at the Japanese headquarters on the third floor of the [[The Peninsula Hong Kong|Peninsula Hotel]]. At Stanley, Wallis refused to surrender without a written order and this was received by him at 02:30 on the 26th.{{sfn|Lai|Rava|2014|p=79}} Isolated pockets held out even longer, and the [[Central Ordnance Munitions Depot]] (known as "Little Hong Kong") surrendered on 27 December. This was the first occasion on which a British [[Crown Colony]] had surrendered to an invading force.{{sfn|Ko|Wordie|1996|p=41}} The garrison had held out for 17 days. This day is known in Hong Kong as "Black Christmas".<ref name=black>{{cite news|title=Hong Kong's "Black Christmas" |url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/history/1712703/hong-kong-black-christmas-ww2-spt |date=22 December 2022}}</ref>

==Aftermath==

===Casualties===
[[File:HK SaiWanWarCemetery Entrance.JPG|thumb|[[Sai Wan War Cemetery]]]]

The Japanese officially reported 675 men killed and 2,079 wounded; western estimates go as high as 1,895 dead and 6,000 casualties overall. Allied casualties were 1,111 men killed, 1,167 missing and 1,362 wounded{{sfn|Mackenzie|1951|p=214}} (sources vary; other figures given include 1,045 killed, 1,068 missing and 2,300 wounded,{{sfn|Carew|1960|p=227}} as well as 1,560 killed or missing{{sfn|Carroll|2007|p=121}}). Allied dead, including British, Canadian and Indian soldiers, were eventually interred at [[Sai Wan War Cemetery|Sai Wan Military Cemetery]] and the [[Stanley Military Cemetery]]. Total battle casualties of "Indian Other Ranks" is given to be 1,164 out of a total of 3,893 military personnel from India who were garrisoned in Hong Kong. The 5/7 Rajput bore the heaviest losses<ref>{{cite journal |title=Recollections of the Battle of Hong Kong |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch |year=2008 |volume=48 |pages=41 |issn=1991-7295}}</ref>{{sfn|Horne|2004|p=70}} recorded amongst the 6 combat regiments during the battle of Hong Kong: 156 killed in action or died from wounds, 113 missing, and 193 wounded.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Scarce Far East "Prisoner-of-War" B. E. M. Group of Five Awarded to Company Havildar-Major Amir A. |url=https://www.the-saleroom.com/en-us/auction-catalogues/dixnoonanwebb/catalogue-id-dix-no10000/lot-22200137-fb01-4489-b46d-a43600c1a08e |website=the-saleroom.com |date=25 February 2015 |access-date=20 June 2017 |language=en-us}}</ref> The 2/14 Punjab had 55 killed in action or died from wounds, 69 missing, and 161 wounded.{{sfn|Banham|2005|page=316}} C Force casualties in the battle were 23 officers and 267 other ranks killed or died of wounds, including five officers and 16 other ranks of the brigade headquarters, seven officers and 123 men of the Royal Rifles and 11 officers and 128 men of the Winnipeg Grenadiers. C Force also had 28 officers and 465 men wounded. Some of the dead were murdered by Japanese soldiers during or after surrender. Japanese soldiers committed a number of atrocities on 19 December, when the aid post at the Salesian Mission near Sau Ki Wan was overrun.{{sfn|Stacey|1956|p=488}} A total of 1,528 soldiers, mainly Commonwealth (predominantly Indians and Canadians), are either buried or commemorated there. There are also graves of other Allied combatants who died in the region during the war, including some Dutch sailors who were re-interred in Hong Kong after the war.

At the end of February 1942, the Japanese government stated that numbers of [[prisoners of war]] in Hong Kong were: British 5,072, Canadian 1,689, Indian 3,829, others 357, a total of 10,947.<ref name="CACasualties">[https://books.google.com/books?id=L-VXAAAAYAAJ&q=%225072+Canadian+1689+Indian+3829+others+357%22 Official Report of the Debates of The House of Commons of The Dominion Of Canada (Volume 2) 1942 (page 1168)]</ref> They were sent to:
* [[Sham Shui Po Barracks|Sham Shui Po POW Camp]]
* [[Argyle Street Camp]] for officers
* [[North Point Camp]] primarily for Canadians and Royal Navy
* [[Ma Tau Chung Camp]]<ref>[[Antiquities Advisory Board]]. [https://www.aab.gov.hk/form/154meeting/AAB154-14-Annex%20D.pdf List of Internment Camps in Hong Kong during the Japanese Occupation (1941 – 1945)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918175723/https://www.aab.gov.hk/form/154meeting/AAB154-14-Annex%20D.pdf |date=18 September 2021 }}</ref> for Indian soldiers
* [[Yokohama Camp]] in Japan
* [[Fukuoka Camp]] in Japan
* [[Osaka Camp]] in Japan

Of the Canadians captured during the battle, 267 subsequently perished in Japanese prisoner of war camps, mainly due to neglect and abuse. In December 2011, [[Toshiyuki Kato]], Japan's parliamentary vice-minister for foreign affairs, apologised for the mistreatment to a group of Canadian veterans of the Battle of Hong Kong.{{sfn|AP|2011|p=2}}

Civilians were interned at the [[Stanley Internment Camp]]. Initially, there were 2,400 internees although this number was reduced, by repatriations during the war. Interned persons who died and prisoners executed by the Japanese are buried in Stanley Military Cemetery.

===Massacres and other war crimes===
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2020}}
[[File:Pillbox JLO1 ph1.jpg|thumb|A British [[Pillbox (military)|pillbox]] near [[Jardine's Lookout]]]]

The 23rd Army's conduct in Hong Kong was characterized by brutality, numerous and widespread war crimes were reported against both Allied servicemen, nurses, and civilians.<ref name="HKU">{{Cite web |title=Hong Kong's War Crimes Trials Collection |url=https://hkwctc.lib.hku.hk/exhibits/show/hkwctc/documents/item/67 |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=[[Hong Kong University]] Libraries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Collapse in the East: The Battle of Hong Kong remembered |url=https://www.cwgc.org/our-work/blog/collapse-in-the-east-the-battle-of-hong-kong-remembered/ |website=[[Commonwealth War Graves]]}}</ref> An estimated 10,000 Hong Kong civilians were executed during the three years and eight months of occupation, while many others were tortured, raped, or mutilated.{{sfn|Carroll|2007|p=123}} Like other prisoners of war captured by the Japanese, the 10,947 prisoners of war captured in Hong Kong were subjected to murder, torture (both physical and psychological), beatings, extrajudicial punishment, slavery, starvation rations and poor medical treatment.<ref name="HKU"/>

====Hong Kong Island====
* Three captured persons were executed at Quarry Bay, including a female air raid warden named Ada Baldwin who was with the local [[Air Raid Precautions]] (ARP).
* After the fall of the medical station near the West Brigade command post, ten stretcher bearers of the St. John Ambulance within the station were killed, as well as a policeman and a medic from the Royal Army Medical Corps.
*Four men of A Company Winnipeg Grenadiers were bayoneted after the battle at Jardine's Lookout.{{sfn|Roland|2001|pp=41-2}} One grenadier, Private Kilfoyle, was killed on the forced march to North Point, according to witnesses.
* Four men were killed in the so-called "Black Hole of Hong Kong", a mess hut at the Wongneichong AA Battery, including two Canadian officers.
* In the evening of 18–19 December 1941, surrendered gunners of the 5th Battery, Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Corps (HKVDC) and 5th Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment at Sai Wan AA Battery were murdered by Japanese soldiers of No. 6 Company, the 2nd Battalion, 229th Infantry Regiment. In total 28 are killed, some may have died in the fight for the position.{{sfn|Kwong|2021|loc=War Crime-Sai Wan AA Battery}}
* In the morning of 19 December 1941, Japanese soldiers of the 2nd Battalion or 3rd Battalion, 229th Infantry Regiment murdered medical personnel and wounded soldiers who were captured at Salesian Mission, which was used as an emergency hospital. The Japanese soldiers attempted to kill all male prisoners of wars and released two female nurses. In total 16 were killed.{{Sfn|Kwong|2021|loc=War Crime-Salesian Mission}}
* From 19 to 20 December 1941, surrendered British and Commonwealth soldiers from various units were kept in a small shed near the anti-aircraft gun battery without food, water, and medical assistance. They were hit by shells and some were killed as the result in Wong Nai Chung Gap. The Japanese troops responsible for this probably came from the 230th and 229th regiments. In total at least 16 were killed.{{sfn|Kwong|2021|loc=War Crime-Wong Nai Chung Gap}}
* Around thirty civilians of different ethnicities were massacred at No. 42 Blue Pool Road on 22 December.{{sfn|Banham|2005|p=115}} When the soldiers of the 230th Infantry Regiment entered Blue Pool Road from the south, they murdered civilians, including local businessmen Lam Ming-fan and three male relatives of his family, as well a number of Ministry of Finance officials of the Nationalist Chinese government who took refuge in the houses along the road. [[Tang Shiu-kin]], a prominent businessman and philanthropist who was at the same spot, survived the massacre.{{sfn|Kwong|2021|loc=War Crime-Blue Pool Road}}
* On 23 December 1941, British and Commonwealth soldiers from various units, led by Lt. Col. Robert MacPherson, attempted to surrender but were killed by Japanese soldiers of the No. 6 Company, 2nd Battalion of the 229th Infantry Regiment at the Ridge in Repulse Bay. At least 47 were killed and most of the killed prisoners of war were wounded soldiers.{{sfn|Kwong|2021|loc=War Crime-The Ridge}} Among the dead was Major Charles Sydney Clarke of China Command HQ, two men of the 12th and 20th Coastal Regiments of the [[Royal Artillery]] (RA), six men of the [[Royal Army Service Corps]] (RASC) and two of the [[Royal Canadian Army Service Corps]] (RCASC), nineteen men of the [[Royal Army Ordnance Corps]] (RAOC) and three of the [[Royal Canadian Ordnance Corps]] (RCOC) and fourteen men of the RASC Company of the HKVDC.
* On 23 December 1941, wounded soldiers from various units were bayoneted at Overbays by Japanese soldiers of the 3rd Battalion, 229th Infantry Regiment; the Japanese troops also set fire on the building.{{sfn|Kwong|2021|loc=War Crime-Overbays}} The Japanese executed at least fourteen captives, men of the same units as at The Ridge but also including three Royal Rifles of Canada and an officer of the 1st Middlesex.{{sfn|Banham|2005|p=220}}
* Ride, who was present at the surrender, stated later that he saw fifty bodies lying by the road, including six Middlesex men among them. These men may have been some of those attached to the Hong Kong Chinese Regiment.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://hkwctc.lib.hku.hk/exhibits/show/hkwctc/documents/item/67|title=Hong Kong's War Crimes Trial Collections Case No. WO235/1030 Major General Tanaka Ryosaburo|publisher=HKU Libraries|access-date=5 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hkwctc.lib.hku.hk/exhibits/show/hkwctc/documents/item/82|title=Hong Kong's War Crimes Trial Collections Case No. WO235/1107 Lt. Gen. Ito Takeo|publisher=HKU Libraries|access-date=5 July 2021}}</ref> The [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]] report also states that five men of the [[Royal Air Force]] went missing near The Ridge on 20 December, perhaps captured and killed.
* On 23 December 1941, Canadian troops from A Company, Royal Rifles and troops from various units were murdered at Eucliff by soldiers of the 3rd Battalion, 229th Infantry Regiment after surrender. At least 7 were killed.{{sfn|Kwong|2021|loc=War Crime-Eucliff}}
* Six men of the Middlesex were killed defending [[Pillbox (military)|PB]] 14 at Deepwater Bay Ride (Lyon Light). Most of them were killed after capture via beheading.
* Another 36 known victims cannot be placed precisely at one of the three locations (Ridge, Overbays, Eucliffe).
* In the evening of 24 December, Japanese soldiers of the 229th and 230th regiments stormed the Marynoll Mission position; resistance continued until dawn.{{sfn|Kwong|2021|loc=War Crime-Maryknoll Mission}} At least six officers and a number of other men were killed after capture at [[Maryknoll House (Stanley)|Maryknoll Mission]].{{sfn|Banham|2005|p=262}} Four members of the 8th Coastal Regiment RA may have been killed here as well; estimates of the number of men murdered vary from 11 to 16.
* In the evening of 24 December 1941, soldiers of the 1st Battalion, 229th Regiment stormed the field hospital of [[St Stephen's College (Hong Kong)|St. Stephen's College]], murdering the medical personnel and the wounded soldiers. Nurses were raped and then murdered. This was the largest-scale war crime against the garrison during the battle.{{sfn|Kwong|2021|loc=War Crime-St. Stephen's College}}
* Twelve nurses were raped at the emergency hospital at Happy Valley racecourse on 25 December.{{sfn|Roland|2001|pp=25-6}}
* From 25 to 28 December 1941, Japanese soldiers from various units (possibly include rear-area troops) looted and raped the civilians in Causeway Bay; they were sometimes stopped by Japanese Gendarmerie but there were not enough of them to stop the rampage.{{sfn|Kwong|2021|loc=War Crime-Causeway Bay}}

====Kowloon====
* One private (John Payne) and an Australian was captured by the Japanese in Kowloon on 12 December and executed.

====New Territories====
* From 8–9 December 1941, Japanese soldiers from various units passed through the Fanling Orphanage and looted the place; nurses and [[Amah (occupation)|amahs]] were raped and brutalized. At least one baby was killed during the process. The case, however, was not thoroughly investigated and the perpetuators were not identified and tried.{{sfn|Kwong|2021|loc=War Crime-Fanling Orphange}}

===Subsequent operations===
{{Main|Japanese occupation of Hong Kong}}
{{See also|British Army Aid Group|Hong Kong Volunteer Company|East River Column}}
[[File:Dongjianggu.jpg|thumb|Dongjiang guerillas fighting in [[trench warfare|trenches]]]]

[[Isogai Rensuke]] became the first Japanese governor of Hong Kong. This ushered in the three years and eight months of Imperial Japanese administration.{{sfn|Carroll|2007|p=123}}

The 38th Infantry Division departed Hong Kong in January 1942. The [[Hong Kong Defence Force (Imperial Japanese Army)|Hong Kong Defence Force]] was established during the same month, and was the main Japanese military unit in Hong Kong throughout the occupation.{{sfn|Chi Man|Yiu Lun|2014|p=225}}

During the over three and a half years of occupation by the Japanese, an estimated 10,000 Hong Kong civilians were executed, while many others were tortured, raped, or mutilated.{{sfn|Carroll|2007|p=123}} The [[Indigenous inhabitants of the New Territories (Hong Kong)|local population in the rural New Territories]], a mix of Hakka, Cantonese and other Han Chinese groups, waged a guerrilla war with limited success. The [[Japanese Occupation of Hong Kong#Anti-Japanese resistance|resistance groups]] were known as the Gangjiu and [[East River Column|Dongjiang]] forces. The Japanese razed several villages in reprisal; the guerillas fought until the end of the Japanese occupation. General Takashi Sakai, who led the invasion of Hong Kong and served as governor for some time, was tried as a war criminal and executed by a firing squad in 1946.{{citation needed|date= November 2017}}
[[File:JapaneseWarCriminalsHK.jpg|thumb|Japanese war criminals captured by British forces in Hong Kong]]

===Response by the Canadian government===
Following the fall of Hong Kong, Conservative [[Premier of Ontario]] [[George A. Drew]] accused the federal government under [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] of incompetence for sending Canadian troops that were not sufficiently trained to Hong Kong.<ref name="Bushnell1992">{{Cite book |title=Captive Court: A Study of the Supreme Court of Canada |last=Bushnell |first=Ian |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-7735-0851-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/captivecourtstud0000bush |url-access=registration |pages=263–265}}</ref> [[Minister of Defence (Canada)|Minister of Defence]] [[James Ralston]] conceded that Canadian soldiers were not adequately trained for a combat role, but the government only expected the soldiers to serve in a garrison role.<ref name="Williams1984_p223">{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=David Ricardo |title=Duff: A Life in the Law |date=1984 |publisher=University of British Columbia Press in association with the Osgoode Society |location=Vancouver |isbn=978-0-7748-0203-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/dufflifeinlaw00will |url-access=registration |page=223}}</ref>

King responded by organizing a [[List of Canadian royal commissions|Royal Commission]] into the decision to send Canadian troops to Hong Kong. While King considered Crerar as a commissioner, he was concerned that he may frame the deployment as a political decision.<ref name="Williams1984_p225">{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=David Ricardo |title=Duff: A Life in the Law |date=1984 |publisher=University of British Columbia Press in association with the Osgoode Society |location=Vancouver |isbn=978-0-7748-0203-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/dufflifeinlaw00will |url-access=registration |page=225}}</ref> [[Chief Justice of Canada|Chief Justice]] [[Lyman Duff]] was appointed as the commissioner, who subsequently cleared the government of any fault.<ref name="Bushnell1992"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Duff |first1=Lyman P. |title=Report on the Canadian Expeditionary Force to the Crown Colony of Hong Kong |date=June 4, 1942 |publisher=King's Printer |location=Ottawa |url=https://www.publications.gc.ca/pub?id=9.699935&sl=0}}</ref>

The Royal Commission and its outcome tarnished the reputation of Chief Justice Duff who had two years earlier been granted a bi-partisan extension by Parliament to his term despite being past the mandatory retirement age of 75.<ref name="Bushnell1992"/> The report led to opposition in Parliament to further extensions of his term, and he subsequently retired in January 1943.<ref name="Bushnell1992"/>

In July 1946, Major General [[Christopher Maltby]], the British commander in Hong Kong completed his final report which contradicted Duff's report.<ref name="Williams1984_p255">{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=David Ricardo |title=Duff: A Life in the Law |date=1984 |publisher=University of British Columbia Press in association with the Osgoode Society |location=Vancouver |isbn=978-0-7748-0203-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/dufflifeinlaw00will |url-access=registration |page=255}}</ref> The Canadian government had the report toned down and delayed its publication until January 1948.<ref name="Williams1984_p255"/>

===Awards===
Battalions from both Indian Army regiments earned [[Battle Honour]]s for the defence of Hong Kong.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Rajput Regiment|url=https://www.indianarmy.gov.in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTemp1P2C_1.aspx?MnId=z8FVkjB32hldsN5qbzygjQ==&ParentID=Kd%E7%8A%A1%E5%84%A4%E6%B2%87%E1%BE%8D%E0%B6%97%ED%84%8F%EE%AB%B0=|website=Indian Army NIC|publisher=Official Indian Army Web Portal}}{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=14th PUNJAB REGIMENT|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/aug99/14th-punjab.htm|website=www.defencejournal.com|access-date=21 June 2017|archive-date=25 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425060231/http://www.defencejournal.com/aug99/14th-punjab.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Matthews|editor-first=Clifford|last=Cheung|first=Oswald|title=Dispersal and Renewal: Hong Kong University during the War Years |year=1998 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-962-209-472-7 |pages=195, 231, 314}}</ref> In his despatch, Major-General C. M. Maltby, wrote about the conduct of troops under his command in Hong Kong and mentions the 5/7 Rajput Regiment: "This battalion fought well on the mainland and their repulse of the enemy attack on Devil's Peak was entirely successful. The full force of the enemy's initial attack on the island fell on this battalion and they fought gallantly until they had suffered heavy casualties (100% of British Officers and most senior Indian Officers being lost) and were run over".

* [[Gander (dog)|Gander]] was a [[Newfoundland dog]] posthumously awarded the [[Dickin Medal]], the "animals' Victoria Cross", in 2000 for his deeds in World War II, the first such award in over 50 years. He picked up a thrown Japanese hand grenade and rushed with it toward the enemy, dying in the ensuing explosion but saving the lives of several wounded Canadian soldiers.
* Colonel [[Lance Newnham]], Captain [[Douglas Ford (GC)|Douglas Ford]] and Flight Lieutenant [[Hector Bertram Gray]] were awarded the [[George Cross]] for the gallantry they showed in resisting Japanese torture in the immediate aftermath of the battle. The men had been captured and were in the process of planning a mass escape by British forces. Their plan was discovered but they refused to disclose information under torture and were shot by firing squad.{{sfn|Turner|2010|p=85}}
* Captain [[Mateen Ansari]] of the 5/7th Rajput's was awarded the [[George Cross]] "for most conspicuous gallantry in carrying out hazardous work in a very brave manner". Despite numerous efforts by the Japanese to get him to renounce his allegiance to the British and assist them in spreading subversion amongst the Indian ranks held in Japanese POW camps (after the fall of the Colony), all efforts failed. Ansari was tortured and starved for over five months before being sentenced to death. He was executed by beheading on 20 October 1943.<ref>{{Cite web|date=|publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission|title=Captain Mateen Ahmed Ansari|url=https://www.cwgc.org/find-records/find-war-dead/casualty-details/2815107/ansari,%20matreen%20ahmed/|access-date=11 October 2021|website=CWGC.org}}</ref>

==Commemoration==
The [[The Cenotaph (Hong Kong)|Cenotaph]] in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]] commemorates the defence as well as war-dead from the First World War. The shield in the colonial [[Emblem of Hong Kong]] granted in 1959, featured the battlement design to commemorate the defence of Hong Kong during the Second World War. This Coat of Arms was in place until 1997, when it was replaced by the regional emblem. After the war, Lei Yue Mun Fort became a training ground for the British Forces until 1987, when it was vacated. In view of its historical significance and unique architectural features, the former [[Urban Council]] decided in 1993 to conserve and develop the fort into the [[Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence]].

The memorial garden at [[Hong Kong City Hall]] commemorates those who died in Hong Kong during World War II.

<gallery heights="220px" widths="220px">
File:Hong Kong Park statue.jpg|Statue of an anonymous World War I soldier from statuary collection of [[Eu Tong Sen]]. Also visible is the Battle of Hong Kong memorial plaque dedicated to all the defenders of Hong Kong in December 1941 through [[John Robert Osborn]]
File:HK Central 香港公園 Hong Kong Park memory of John Robert Osborn bronze statue sign Nov-2013.JPG|Memorial plaque dedicated to all the defenders of Hong Kong in December 1941 through John Robert Osborn and to commemorate the British Garrison at Hong Kong
File:Cenotaph, Hong Kong 1.jpg|The [[The Cenotaph (Hong Kong)|Cenotaph in Hong Kong]]
File:HK Edinburgh Place 牌匾 City Hall Memorial Garden and Shrine.JPG|Commemorative plaque at the entrance to ''Memorial Gardens'' at [[Hong Kong City Hall]]
File:The City Hall Memorial Garden Overview 2014.jpg|The memorial garden at Hong Kong City Hall
File:The City Hall Memorial Garden Memorial Shrine 2012.jpg|Shrine to the war dead in the memorial garden at Hong Kong City Hall
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Japanese occupation of Hong Kong]]
* [[Liberation of Hong Kong]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|25em}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin|}}
'''Books'''
* {{cite book|last=Banham|first=Tony|year=2005|title=Not the Slightest Chance: The Defence of Hong Kong, 1941|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|location=Hong Kong|pages=|isbn=9622097804}}
*{{Cite book|last=Carew|first=Tim|title=Fall of Hong Kong|publisher=Anthony Blond Ltd.|year=1960|isbn=|location=London|pages=}}
* {{cite book|series=Critical Issues in History|title=A Concise History of Hong Kong|last=Carroll|first=J. M.|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=Lanham|pages=|year=2007|isbn=978-0-74253-421-6}}
*{{cite book|last1=Chi Man|first1=Kwong|last2=Yiu Lun|first2=Tsoi|title=Eastern Fortress: A Military History of Hong Kong, 1840–1970|date=2014|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|location=Hong Kong|pages=|isbn=9789888208715}}
* {{cite book|last=Fung|first=Chi Ming|title=Reluctant Heroes: Rickshaw Pullers in Hong Kong and Canton, 1874–1954|edition=illus.|location=|pages=|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-962-209-734-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Harris|first=John R.|title=The Battle for Hong Kong 1941–1945|year=2005|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|location=Hong Kong|pages=|isbn=978-962-209-779-7}}
* {{cite book|last1=Horne|first1=Gerald|title=Race war : white supremacy and the Japanese attack on the British Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/racewarwhitesupr00horn|url-access=limited|date=2004|publisher=New York University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0814736418}}
* {{cite book|title=Army Operations in China, December 1941 – December 1943|series=Japanese Monograph|number=71|last=Ishiwari|first=Heizō|date=31 May 1956|publisher=Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army|location=Washington, DC|pages=|url=http://ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Monos/pdfs/JM-71/JM-71.PDF|access-date=30 July 2016|others=IV 17807.71-2|isbn=|oclc=938077822}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ko|first1=Tim Keung|last2=Wordie|first2=Jason|title=Ruins of War A Guide to Hong Kong's Battlefields and Wartime Sites|year=1996|publisher=Joint Publishing (H.K.) Co|isbn=9789620413728}}
* {{cite book|series=Campaign|location=|pages=|issue=263|last1=Lai|first1=Benjamin|last2=Rava|first2=Giuseppe|title=Hong Kong 1941–45: First Strike in the Pacific War|year=2014|publisher=Osprey|isbn=978-1-78200-268-0}}
* {{cite book|first=Compton|last=Mackenzie|author-link=Compton Mackenzie|title=Eastern Epic: September 1939 – March 1943, Defence|volume=I|publisher=Chatto & Windus|location=London|pages=|year=1951|isbn=|oclc=59637091}}
* {{cite book|last=Nicholson|first=Brian|title=Traitor|year=2010|publisher=Trafford|location=Bloomington, IN|pages=|isbn=978-1-4269-4604-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Roland|first=Charles G.|title=Long Night's Journey into Day: Prisoners of War in Hong Kong and Japan, 1941–1945|year=2001|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |location=Waterloo, ON |isbn=0-88920-362-8}}
* {{cite book|series=[[Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War]]|title=Six Year of War: The Army in Canada, Britain and the Pacific|volume=I|last=Stacey|first=C. P.|author-link=Charles Perry Stacey|year=1956|isbn=|orig-year=1955|publisher=By Authority of the Minister of National Defence|location=Ottawa|pages=|edition=2nd rev. online|url=http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/Sixyrs_e.pdf|access-date=12 December 2015|oclc=917731527|archive-date=2 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160802205823/http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/Sixyrs_e.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|first=John Frayn|last=Turner|title=Awards of the George Cross 1940–2009|year=2010|orig-year=2006|publisher=Casemate|location=Havertown, PA|pages=|edition=online, Pen & Sword, Barnsley|isbn=978-1-78340-981-5}}
* {{cite book|last1=White|first1=Barbara-Sue|title=Turbans and Traders : Hong Kong's Indian Communities|date=1994|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195852875}}
* {{cite book|ref={{harvid|Woodburn Kirby|2004}}|series=History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series|title=The War Against Japan: The Loss of Singapore|volume=I|last1=Woodburn Kirby|first1=S.|last2=Addis|first2=C. T.|last3=Meiklejohn|first3=J. F.|last4=Wards|first4=G. T.|last5=Desoer|first5=N. L.|editor-last=Butler|editor-first=J. R. M.|editor-link=James Ramsay Montagu Butler|year=2004|orig-year=1957|publisher=[[HMSO]]|location=London|pages=|edition=Naval & Military Press|isbn=1-84574-060-2|display-authors=1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Vincent |first1=Carl |title=No Reason Why: The Canadian Hong Kong Tragedy, an Examination |date=1981 |publisher=Canada's Wings |location=Stittsville, Ont. |isbn=0-920002-12-9}}

'''Journals'''
* {{cite journal|last1=Macri|first1=David|title=The Fall of Hong Kong: The Condon Report|journal=Canadian Military History|date=2011|volume=20|issue=2|pages=65–80|url=http://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol20/iss2/8/|language=en|issn=1195-8472}}
* {{cite journal|jstor=261075|title=Massacre and Rape in Hong Kong: Two Case Studies Involving Medical Personnel and Patients|url=|first=Charles G.|last=Roland|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|date=26 July 2016|volume=32|issue=1|pages=43–61|doi=10.1177/002200949703200104|s2cid=159971599|issn=0022-0094}}

'''Newspapers'''
* {{cite news|ref={{harvid|AP|2011}}|title=(Associated Press) Japan Apologizes to Canadian POWs from H. K. Battle|work=[[Japan Times]]|last=|first=|date=10 December 2011|pages=2|url=|access-date=|issn=0289-1956}}

'''Websites'''
*{{cite web |ref={{harvid|Kwong|2021}} |last1=Kwong |first1=Chi Man |url=https://digital.lib.hkbu.edu.hk/1941hkbattle/en |title=The Battle of Hong Kong 1941: A Spatial History Project |website=Hong Kong Baptist University Library, History in Data |access-date=18 March 2023 }}
* {{cite web|ref={{harvid|Linton|2017}}|url=https://hkwctc.lib.hku.hk/exhibits/show/hkwctc/documents/listing|date=|title=Hong Kong's War Crimes Trials Collection: Libraries|first=Suzannah|last=Linton|website=The University of Hong Kong|access-date=4 April 2017}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Banham |first=Tony |year=2009 |title=We Shall Suffer There: Hong Kong's Defenders Imprisoned, 1942–1945 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-962-209-960-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Burton |first=John |year=2006 |title=Fortnight of Infamy: The Collapse of Allied Airpower West of Pearl Harbor |publisher=US Naval Institute Press |location=Annapolis, MD |isbn=1-59114-096-X}}
* {{cite book |last=Snow |first=Philip |year=2003 |title=The Fall of Hong Kong: Britain, China and the Japanese Occupation |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |isbn=0-300-10373-5}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Battle of Hong Kong}}
* [https://www.nfb.ca/film/savage_christmas_hong_kong_1941/ Savage Christmas: Hong Kong 1941], Canadian documentary with first-hand testimony distributed by the National Film Board of Canada
* [https://digital.lib.hkbu.edu.hk/1941hkbattle/en/index.php The Battle of Hong Kong 1941: A Spatial History Project]
* [http://www.hkvca.ca Hong Kong Veterans Commemorative Association, Canada]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/categories/c54618/ Hong Kong Category WW2 People's War BBC]
* [http://www.britain-at-war.org.uk/WW2/London_Gazette/hong_kong Official report by Major-General C. M. Maltby, G.O.C. Hong Kong]
* [http://www.wwii.ca/page42.html Canadians at Hong Kong] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124165608/http://www.wwii.ca/page42.html |date=24 January 2012 }}
* {{PDFWayback |date=20080528032100 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824135011/http://arts.uwaterloo.ca/~ghayes/Copp.pdf |title=The Defence of Hong Kong: December 1941 by Terry Copp |size= }} (archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20060824135011/http://arts.uwaterloo.ca/~ghayes/Copp.pdf the original] on 2008-05-28)
* {{PDFWayback |date=20060824135009 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824135009/http://www.forces.gc.ca/dhh/downloads/cmhq/cmhq163.pdf |title=Report No. 163 Canadian Participation in the Defence of Hong Kong, December, 1941 |size=299 KB }} (Archived version as of 24 August 2006)
* [http://www.hongkongwardiary.com/ Hong Kong War Diary – Current research into the Battle]
* [http://www.hkvca.ca/historical/banham.htm Battle of Hong Kong Background and Battlefield Tour Points of Interest] by [[Tony Banham]]
* {{Cite web |url=http://www.geocities.com/rcwpca |title="The detailed story of the actual battle and a tribute to Major Maurice A. Parker, CO "D" Coy, Royal Rifles of Canada." |access-date=21 March 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028162455/http://www.geocities.com/rcwpca |archive-date=28 October 2009 |url-status=dead }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131103091003/http://www.memoriesuninvited.hkvca.ca/ Philip Doddridge, Memories Uninvited – "A fascinating story of a young man who finds himself caught up in the horrific battle for Hong Kong and the years of captivity he lived through after the battle was over on December 25th, 1941."]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20240612152206/https://zolimacitymag.com/hong-kongs-war-ruins-hidden-in-plain-sight/ Hong Kong's War Ruins, Hidden in Plain Sight], Hong Kong's defences in 2019

{{Coord|22|16|57|N|114|09|40|E|display=title}}
{{Dec41attacks}}
{{World War II}}
{{Hong Kong topics}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Battle of Hong Kong| ]]
[[Category:Wars involving Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Military of Hong Kong under British rule]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Canada]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving India]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Japan]]

Nadol

2026-03-19T18:06:35Z

Olympiados:

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{distinguish|text=the beta-blocker [[Nadolol]]}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Nadol
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Census town
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
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| pushpin_map = India Rajasthan#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Rajasthan, India
| coordinates = {{coord|25.367|N|73.45|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Rajasthan]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Pali district|Pali]]
| established_title = 
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| parts_type = [[Taluka]]s
| parts = [[Desuri]]
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| area_rank =
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| elevation_m = 309
| population_total = 9020
| population_as_of = 2001
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi]], [[Marwari language|Marwari]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 306603
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 02934
| registration_plate = RJ-22
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 1033 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Pali (Lok Sabha Constituency)]]
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank3_info_sec1 = [[Rajasthan|Bali]]
| blank4_name_sec1 = Civic agency
| blank4_info_sec1 = Gram Panchayat
| blank1_name_sec2 = Avg. annual temperature
| blank1_info_sec2 = {{convert|30|°C|°F}}
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| blank2_info_sec2 = {{convert|44|°C|°F}}
| blank3_name_sec2 = Avg. winter temperature
| blank3_info_sec2 = {{convert|05|°C|°F}}
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Nadol''' is a [[census town]] in [[Desuri]] tehsil of [[Pali district]], India. [[Ashapura Mata]]ji temple and Shri Nadol Tirth attract pilgrims.

==History==

Nadol was originally called Naddula. The [[Chahamanas of Naddula]] (called Chauhans of Nadol in vernacular legends) ruled the town and its surrounding areas during the 10th-12th century CE. Their founder was [[Lakshmana (Chahamana dynasty)|Lakshmana]], a prince of the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Shakambhari Chahamana]] dynasty. He carved out a principality at Nadol, while his brother [[Simharaja]] ascended the ancestral throne.{{sfn|Singh|1964|pp=233-234}} Nadol was ruled by his descendants until [[Jayatasimha]] was defeated by the [[Ghurids]]. Later, the [[Chahamanas of Javalipura|Jalor Chahamana]] king [[Udayasimha]] (a relative of Jayatasimha) captured Nadol.{{sfn|Singh|1964|p=264}} The area was captured by the [[Delhi Sultanate]] after [[Alauddin Khalji]] defeated Udayasimha's descendant [[Kanhadadeva]] in 1311.

The town is also famous for the temple of [[Ashapura Mata]] which was built by the first chauhan ruler of Nadol [[Lakshmana (Chahamana dynasty)|Lakshmana Chauhan]] in 10th century. She is worshipped as a kuldevi of chaunhans of the region.
[[File:Nadol Ashapura temple.jpg|thumb|'''Nadol Ashapura temple'''|378x378px]]
Recent excavations by Dept. of Archaeology, Rajasthan has revealed that though this area was occupied since Stone age, Nadol was a flourishing town
during 9th-10th century. First excavation was done in 1996, but recent excavation done at Juna Khera has revealed traces of Living rooms, Kitchen, furnaces. Stone blocks of marble and granite were used in construction of buildings, mud mortar was also used in construction. Coins from Chauhan era were also found.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/excavations-reveal-early-medieval-man-lived-in-brick-and-granite-houses-at-juna-khera/articleshow/58722205.cms |title=Excavations reveal early medieval man lived in brick and granite houses at Juna Khera|last=Singh |first=Rachna |publisher=Times of India |date=May 18, 2017 |website=Times of India|access-date=February 3, 2022}}</ref>

== Temple of Ashapura Mata ==
The temple of [[Ashapura Mata]] was built by the first Chauhan king of Nadol, [[Lakshmana (Chahamana dynasty)|Lakshmana]], after establishing his rule over Nadol with the blessings of their Kuldevi [[Shakambhari|Shakambhari devi]] of [[Sambhar Lake Town|Sambhar]]. As he became ruler of Nadol with the blessings obtained from Sakabhari Devi by fulfilling his hope, Sakambhari Devi became famous as "'''Ashapura Mata."''' Since then, it has been the main pilgrimage site for the whole Chauhan clan in the region. Today, the temple is the main attraction for Nadol's tourism.
[[File:Ashapura Maa Nadol.jpg|thumb|680x680px|'''Ashapura Maa Nadol''']]

==Demographics==

According to [[Demographics of India|Census 2001]], Nadol has a population of 9,020, including 4,437 males and 4,583 females.<ref>[http://ourvillageindia.org/Place.aspx?PID=459436 Nadol Population]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book |title=History of the Chāhamānas |first=R. B. |last=Singh |publisher=N. Kishore |year=1964 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKs9AAAAIAAJ }}

{{Pali district}}

[[Category:Villages in Pali district]]

Siriyari

2026-03-16T14:36:07Z

Olympiados: Added a pg initial version

{{Short description|Village in Pali (Rajasthan), India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{more footnotes|date=July 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Siriyari
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_alt =

| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Rajasthan#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Rajasthan, India
| coordinates = {{coord|25.673261|N|73.808352|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Rajasthan]]
| subdivision_name2 = Pali
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =Gram Panchayat
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
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| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 13500
| population_as_of = 2001
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank =
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 306027
| area_code = 02935
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = RJ-22
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 993 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| website =
| footnotes =
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
}}
'''Siriyari''' is a small town situated in State of [[Rajasthan]], District [[Pali district|Pali]]. It is situated on [[State Highway 62 (Rajasthan)|State Highway 62]] connecting [[Sojat]], [[Sojat Road]], Siriyari, [[Phulad]], [[Jojawar]]. This village has a police station connected to nearby Police posts in villages.

It is famous as death place of [[Bhikshu (Jain monk)|Acharya Bhikshu (1726–1803)]] who was the founder and first spiritual head of the Shwatambar Terapanth sect of Jainism.
There is a famous temple on his name, which has been a new landmark.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bhikshu|url=http://www.terapanthonline.com/}}</ref>

== History ==
Siriyari was granted to Khet Singh Solanki, by his father Sawant Singh Solanki of [[Desuri]]. Raja [[Sur Singh]] of Jodhpur married to Khet Singh's daughter Rani Manorath Kanwar on 18th February 1594. <ref>Jodhpur Rajya Ki Khyat, p158</ref> Khet Singh, his son Sanga Singh died fighting for Mewar, in battles against Mughals.

Thakur Mahesh Das, son of Rao Kumpa of Marwar, was father of a son, Thakur Aas Karan, who was granted the estate of Digai in 1616. His eldest son, Thakur Amar Singh succeeded in Digai and won Siriyari from the Solanki Rajputs in a battle in 1635.<ref>{{cite web|last1=History|title=Rajput History|url=http://www.indianrajputs.com/view/siriyari}}</ref>

== Connectivity ==
District Headquarter: [[Pali, Rajasthan|Pali]] (74 km)
Nearest Railway Station: [[Sojat Road]] (24 km) and [[Marwar Junction]]
Buses are available all time from Sojat Road which is best spot for getting via Roads.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
*{{cite book|last=Shashi|first=S. S.|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. Origin and development of Indus civilization (Volume 1)|year=1996|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_n00RqRc0C&dq=Terapanth&pg=PA948|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=81-7041-859-3|ref=Sa}}
* {{cite book|last=Singh |first=Narendra |title=Encyclopaedia of Jainism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JoDUPJpb63UC&dq=Terapanth&pg=PA5188|year=2001|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=81-261-0691-3|chapter=Acahrya Bhikshu and Terapanth|ref=Si}}

{{Pali district}}
[[Category:Villages in Pali district]]

United States dollar

2026-03-14T09:29:21Z

Olympiados: adjusted details per sources and fixed typos

{{Short description|Currency of the United States}}
{{Redirect|USD|other uses|USD (disambiguation)}}
{{For2|the banknote|United States one-dollar bill|the coin|Dollar coin (United States)}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=September 2018}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox currency
| currency_name = United States dollar
| image_1 = USDnotesNew.png
| image_title_1 = [[Federal Reserve Note]]s (obverse)
| image_2 =
| image_title_2 = [[Quarter (United States coin)|Quarter-dollar (25 cents)]] coin (obverse)
| iso_code = USD
| symbol = [[Dollar sign|$]], US$, U$
| nickname = {{collapsible list
| Ace, bean, bill, bone, buck, deuce, dough, dub, ducat, doubloon, fin, frog, [[United States Note|greenback]], large, simoleons, skins, smackeroo, smackers, [[spondulix]], Tom, yard, and eagle
| '''Plural''':|dead presidents, green, bones, clams
| '''Based on denomination''':|[[George Washington|Washingtons]], [[Thomas Jefferson|Jeffersons]], [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincolns]], [[Alexander Hamilton|Hamiltons]], [[Andrew Jackson|Jacksons]], [[Ulysses S. Grant|Grants]], [[Benjamin Franklin|Benjamins]], C-note, grand, [[sawbuck]], single, Bluefaces, Blue Strips
}}
| frequently_used_banknotes = [[United States one-dollar bill|$1]], [[United States five-dollar bill|$5]], [[United States ten-dollar bill|$10]], [[United States twenty-dollar bill|$20]], [[United States fifty-dollar bill|$50]], [[United States one-hundred-dollar bill|$100]]
| rarely_used_banknotes = [[United States two-dollar bill|$2]] (still printed); [[United States five-hundred-dollar bill|$500]], [[United States one-thousand-dollar bill|$1,000]], [[United States five-thousand-dollar bill|$5,000]], [[United States ten-thousand-dollar bill|$10,000]] (discontinued, but still legal tender); [[United States one-hundred-thousand-dollar bill|$100,000]] (discontinued, not legal tender, and only used for specific purposes)
| frequently_used_coins = [[Penny (United States coin)|1¢]] (discontinued, but still legal tender); [[Nickel (United States coin)|5¢]], [[Dime (United States coin)|10¢]], [[Quarter (United States coin)|25¢]]
| rarely_used_coins = [[Half dollar (United States coin)|50¢]], [[Dollar coin (United States)|$1]] (still minted); [[Half cent (United States coin)|{{frac|1|2}}¢]], [[Two-cent piece (United States)|2¢]], [[Three-cent nickel|3¢]], [[Twenty-cent piece (United States coin)|20¢]], [[Quarter eagle|$2.50]], [[Three-dollar piece|$3]], [[Half eagle|$5]], [[Eagle (United States coin)|$10]], [[Double eagle|$20]]
(discontinued, but still legal tender); [[American Gold Eagle|$25]], [[American Gold Eagle|$50]], [[American Liberty high relief gold coin|$100]] (not intended for circulation) 
| superunit_ratio_1 = 10
| superunit_ratio_2 = 100
| superunit_name_2 = [[Union (United States coin)|Union]] ([[Canceled denominations of United States currency|Proposed, never issued]])
| superunit_name_1 = [[Eagle (United States coin)|Eagle]]
| subunit_ratio_1 = {{frac|1|100}}
| subunit_ratio_2 = {{frac|1|20}}
| subunit_ratio_3 = {{frac|1|10}}
| subunit_ratio_4 = {{frac|1|4}}
| subunit_name_1 = [[Penny (United States coin)|Cent]]
| subunit_name_2 = [[Nickel (United States coin)|Nickel]]
| subunit_name_3 = [[Dime (United States coin)|Dime]]
| subunit_name_4 = [[Quarter (United States coin)|Quarter]]

| symbol_subunit_1 = [[Cent sign|¢]]
| banknote_article = Banknotes of the United States dollar
| coin_article = Coins of the United States dollar
| using_countries = See {{nowrap|1={{slink||Official users}} (19)}}, {{nowrap|1={{slink||Unofficial users}} (8)}}
| issuing_authority = [[Federal Reserve]]
| issuing_authority_website = {{URL|https://www.federalreserve.gov/|federalreserve.gov}}
| date_of_introduction = {{Start date and age|1792|4|2}}
| date_of_introduction_source = <ref>{{cite web |title=Coinage Act of 1792 |publisher=[[United States Congress]] |url = http://nesara.org/files/coinage_act_1792.pdf |access-date=April 2, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040407164627/http://nesara.org/files/coinage_act_1792.pdf |archive-date=April 7, 2004 }}</ref>
| replaced_currency = [[Continental currency]] Various foreign currencies, including: [[Pound sterling]] [[Spanish dollar]]
| printer = [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing]]
| printer_website = {{URL|https://www.bep.gov/|bep.gov}}
| mint = [[United States Mint]]
| mint_website = {{URL|https://www.usmint.gov/|usmint.gov}}
| inflation_rate = 2.4% or 2.8%
| inflation_source_date = [https://www.bls.gov/news.release/cpi.nr0.htm BLS] (February 2026) or [https://www.bea.gov/data/personal-consumption-expenditures-price-index BEA] (January 2026)
| inflation_method = [[Consumer price index|CPI]] or [[Personal consumption expenditures price index|PCE]]
| pegged_by = See {{slink||Pegged currencies}}
}}

The '''United States dollar''' ([[Currency symbol|symbol]]: '''[[Dollar sign|$]]'''; [[ISO 4217|currency code]]: '''USD'''{{efn|Also abbreviated '''US$''' to distinguish it from other [[dollar]]-denominated currencies; referred to as the '''dollar''', '''U.S. dollar''', '''American dollar''', or colloquially '''buck'''}}) is the official [[currency]] of the [[United States]] and [[International use of the U.S. dollar|several other countries]]. The [[Coinage Act of 1792]] introduced the U.S. dollar at par with the [[Spanish dollar|Spanish silver dollar]], divided it into 100 [[cent (currency)|cents]], and authorized the [[Mint (facility)|minting]] of coins denominated in dollars and cents. U.S. banknotes are issued in the form of [[Federal Reserve Note]]s, popularly called greenbacks due to their predominantly green color.

The U.S. dollar was originally defined under a [[bimetallism|bimetallic standard]] of {{convert|371.25|gr}} (0.7734375 troy ounces) fine silver or, from [[Coinage Act of 1834|1834]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mises.org/mises-daily/constitutional-dollar |title=A Constitutional Dollar |work=Mises.org |date=March 10, 2010}}</ref> {{convert|23.22|gr}} fine gold, or $20.67 per [[troy ounce]]. The [[Gold Standard Act]] of 1900 linked the dollar solely to gold. From 1934, its equivalence to gold was revised to $35 per [[troy ounce]]. In 1971 all links to gold were repealed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nixon Ends Convertibility of US Dollars to Gold and Announces Wage/Price Controls|url=https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/gold_convertibility_ends|access-date=October 17, 2018|publisher=Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond|archive-date=November 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120035204/https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/gold_convertibility_ends|url-status=live}}</ref> The U.S. dollar became an important international [[reserve currency]] after the [[First World War]], and displaced the [[pound sterling]] as the world's primary reserve currency by the [[Bretton Woods Agreement]] towards the end of the [[Second World War]]. The dollar is the [[Template:Most traded currencies|most widely used currency]] in [[international transactions]],<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.federalreserve.gov/aboutthefed/files/pf_4.pdf |title = The Implementation of Monetary Policy – The Federal Reserve in the International Sphere |access-date = October 17, 2018 |archive-date = April 27, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170427062108/https://www.federalreserve.gov/aboutthefed/files/pf_4.pdf |url-status = live }}</ref> and a [[free-floating currency]]. It is also the official currency in several countries and the [[de facto currency|''de facto'' currency]] in many others,<ref>Cohen, Benjamin J. 2006. ''The Future of Money'', [[Princeton University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-691-11666-0}}.</ref><ref>Agar, Charles. 2006. ''Vietnam'', (''[[Frommer's]]''). {{ISBN|0-471-79816-9}}. p. 17: "the dollar is the de facto currency in Cambodia."</ref> with [[Federal Reserve Notes]] (and, in a few cases, U.S. coins) used in circulation.

The [[monetary policy of the United States]] is conducted by the [[Federal Reserve System]], which acts as the nation's [[central bank]]. As of February 10, 2021, currency in circulation amounted to {{US$|2.10 [[trillion]]}}, {{US$|2.05 trillion|long=no}} of which is in Federal Reserve Notes (the remaining {{US$|50 billion|long=no}} is in the form of [[Coins of the United States dollar|coins]] and older-style [[United States Note]]s).<ref>{{cite web|title=FRB: H.4.1 Release - Factors Affecting Reserve Balances - February 11, 2021|url=https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/h41/20210211/|access-date=January 5, 2026|publisher=Federal Reserve|archive-date=March 5, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305142752/https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/h41/20210211/|url-status=live}}</ref> As of January 1, 2025, the Federal Reserve estimated that the total amount of currency in circulation was approximately {{US$|2.37 [[trillion]]}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/h41/20250102/|title=Federal Reserve Balance Sheet: Factors Affecting Reserve Balances - H.4.1|date=January 2, 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250111104522/https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/h41/20250102/|archive-date=January 11, 2025|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Overview==

===In the Constitution===
[[Article One of the United States Constitution|Article I]], [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Section 8: Powers of Congress|Section 8]] of the [[U.S. Constitution]] provides that [[United States Congress|Congress]] has the power "to [[Coining (mint)|coin money]]".<ref>U.S. Constitution, Article 1, Section 8. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articlei#section8 para. 5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118233715/https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articlei#section8 |date=November 18, 2021 }}.</ref> Laws implementing this power are currently codified in [[Title 31 of the United States Code|Title 31]] of the [[United States Code|U.S. Code]], under Section 5112, which prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued.<ref>''Denominations, specifications, and design of coins''. {{USC|31|5112}}.</ref> These coins are both designated in the section as [[legal tender]] in payment of debts.<ref name=":0">''Denominations, specifications, and design of coins''. {{USC|31|5112}}.</ref> The [[Sacagawea dollar]] is one example of the [[copper alloy]] dollar, in contrast to the [[American Silver Eagle]] which is pure [[silver]]. Section 5112 also provides for the [[Minting coins|minting]] and [[Money creation|issuance]] of other coins, which have values ranging from [[One-cent coin|one cent]] ([[U.S. Penny]]) to 100 dollars.<ref name=":0" /> These other coins are more fully described in [[Coins of the United States dollar]].

[[Article One of the United States Constitution#Section 9: Limits on Congress|Article I, Section 9]] of the Constitution provides that "a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time",<ref>U.S. Constitution, Article 1, Section 9. [https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articlei#section9 para. 7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118233715/https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articlei#section9 |date=November 18, 2021 }}.</ref> which is further specified by Section 331 of Title 31 of the U.S. Code.<ref>''Reports''. {{USC|31|331}}.</ref> The sums of money reported in the "Statements" are currently expressed in U.S. dollars, thus the U.S. dollar may be described as the [[unit of account]] of the United States.<ref>{{cite web|year=2009|title=Financial Report of the United States Government|url=https://www.gao.gov/financial_pdfs/fy2009/09frusg.pdf|access-date=October 17, 2018|publisher=Department of the Treasury|archive-date=November 13, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113005737/https://www.gao.gov/financial_pdfs/fy2009/09frusg.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> "Dollar" is one of the first words of Section 9, in which the term refers to the [[Spanish milled dollar]], or the coin worth eight [[Spanish real]]es.

=== Coinage Act ===
In 1792, the [[2nd United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Coinage Act of 1792|Coinage Act]], of which Section 9 authorized the production of various coins, including:<ref>[[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]]. 1792. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20040407164627/http://nesara.org/files/coinage_act_1792.pdf Coinage Act of 1792]''. [[2nd United States Congress|2nd Congress]], 1st Session. Sec. 9, ch. 16. Retrieved June 6, 2020.</ref>{{Rp|248}}{{blockquote|'''Dollars or Units'''—each to be of the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current, and to contain three hundred and seventy-one [[grain (unit)|grain]]s and four sixteenth parts of a grain of pure, or four hundred and sixteen grains of standard silver.}}Section 20 of the Act designates the United States dollar as the [[currency|unit of currency]] of the United States:<ref name=":1">[[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]]. 1792. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20040407164627/http://nesara.org/files/coinage_act_1792.pdf Coinage Act of 1792]''. [[2nd United States Congress|2nd Congress]], 1st Session. Sec. 9, ch. 16. Retrieved June 6, 2020.</ref>{{Rp|250–1}}{{blockquote|[T]he money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units...and that all accounts in the public offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation.}}

=== Decimal units ===
Unlike the [[Spanish milled dollar]], the [[Continental Congress]] and the Coinage Act prescribed a [[Decimal|decimal system]] of units to go with the unit dollar, as follows:<ref name="contcongress1">{{cite journal |editor-last=Fitzpatrick |editor-first=John C. |date=1934 |title=Tuesday, August 8, 1786 |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(jc0317)) |journal=Journals of the Continental Congress 1774–1789 |volume=XXXI: 1786 |pages=503–505 |access-date=December 5, 2019 |archive-date=May 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507050926/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(jc0317)) |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=1845|editor-last=Peters|editor-first=Richard|title=Second Congress. Sess. I. Ch. 16|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001/llsl001.db&recNum=369|journal=The Public Statutes at Large of the United States of America, Etc. Etc.|volume=1|pages=246–251|access-date=December 5, 2019|archive-date=November 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113041153/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001%2Fllsl001.db&recNum=369|url-status=live}}</ref> the '''mill''', or one-thousandth of a dollar; the '''cent''', or one-hundredth of a dollar; the '''dime''', or one-tenth of a dollar; and the '''eagle''', or ten dollars. The current relevance of these units:
* Only the [[Cent (currency)|'''cent''']] ('''¢''') is used as an everyday division of the dollar, with the ubiquitous exception of vehicle fuel pricing.
* [[Dime (United States coin)|'''Dime''']] is used solely as the name of the [[Dime (United States coin)|coin]] with the value of ten cents.
* The [[mill (currency)|'''mill''']] ('''₥''') is relatively unknown but before the middle of the 20th century was familiar in matters of [[Sales taxes in the United States|sales taxes]]. It is ubiquitous in prices of [[Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing|gasoline and diesel fuels]], which are usually in the form of $''xx.xx''9 per [[gallon]] (e.g., $3.599, commonly written as ${{frac|3.59|9|10}}).<ref>{{cite web|last=Langland|first=Connie|date=May 27, 2015|title=What is a millage rate and how does it affect school funding?|url=https://whyy.org/articles/what-is-a-millage-rate-and-how-does-it-affect-school-funding/|access-date=December 5, 2019|website=WHYY|publisher=PBS and NPR|archive-date=March 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307202059/https://whyy.org/articles/what-is-a-millage-rate-and-how-does-it-affect-school-funding/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2" />
* The [[eagle (United States coin)|'''eagle''']] is also largely unknown to the general public.<ref name=":2">{{cite web|date=September 26, 2018|title=Mills Currency|url=https://pastandpresent.com/2018/09/26/mills-currency/|access-date=December 5, 2019|website=Past & Present|publisher=Stamp and Coin Place Blog|archive-date=May 3, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503090930/https://pastandpresent.com/2018/09/26/mills-currency/|url-status=dead}}</ref> This term was used in the ''Coinage Act of 1792'' for the denomination of ten dollars and subsequently in naming gold coins.

The Spanish peso, or dollar, was historically divided into eight [[Spanish real|'''reales''']] (colloquially, ''bits'') – hence ''pieces of eight''. Americans also learned counting in non-decimal ''bits'' of {{frac|12|1|2}} cents before 1857 when Mexican ''bits'' were more frequently encountered than American cents; in fact this practice survived in [[New York Stock Exchange]] quotations until 2001.<ref name="2bits">{{Cite web|url=https://www.almanac.com/fact/how-much-is-two-bits-and-where|title=How much is "two bits" and where did the phrase|access-date=June 9, 2021|archive-date=August 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814042353/https://www.almanac.com/fact/how-much-is-two-bits-and-where|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/decimal-trading.asp|title=Decimal Trading Definition and History|access-date=June 10, 2021|archive-date=November 18, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118011525/https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/decimal-trading.asp|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1854, [[Secretary of the Treasury]] [[James Guthrie (American politician)|James Guthrie]] proposed creating $100, $50, and $25 gold coins, to be referred to as a ''[[Union (United States coin)|union]]'', ''[[half union]]'', and ''quarter union'', respectively,<ref>Mehl, B. Max. "United States $50.00 Gold Pieces, 1877", in ''Star Rare Coins Encyclopedia and Premium Catalogue'' (20th edition, 1921)</ref> thus implying a denomination of 1 Union = $100. However, no such coins were ever struck, and only patterns for the $50 half union exist.

When currently issued in circulating form, denominations less than or equal to a dollar are emitted as [[U.S. coins]], while denominations greater than or equal to a dollar are emitted as [[Federal Reserve Note]]s, disregarding the following special cases:
* Gold coins issued for [[circulation (currency)|circulation]] until the 1930s, up to the value of $20 (known as the ''[[double eagle]]'')
* Bullion or commemorative [[Gold coin|gold]], [[Silver coin|silver]], [[Platinum coin|platinum]], and [[palladium coin]]s valued up to $100 as legal tender (though worth far more as [[bullion]]).
* Civil War paper currency issue in denominations below $1, i.e. fractional currency, sometimes pejoratively referred to as ''[[shinplaster]]s''.

===Etymology===
{{Further|Dollar}}

In the 16th century, Count [[Hieronymus Schlick]] of [[Bohemia]] began minting coins known as ''joachimstalers'', named for [[Jáchymov|Joachimstal]], the valley in which the silver was mined. In turn, the valley's name is titled after Saint [[Joachim]], whereby ''thal'' or ''tal'', a cognate of the English word {{Wikt-lang|en|dale}}, is [[German language|German]] for 'valley.'<ref name="NatGeo">"Ask US." ''[[National Geographic]]''. June 2002. p. 1.</ref> The ''joachimstaler'' was later shortened to the German ''[[Thaler|taler]]'', a word that eventually found its way into many languages, including:<ref name="NatGeo" />
''tolar'' ([[Czech language|Czech]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]] and [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]); ''daler'' ([[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]); ''talar'' ([[Polish language|Polish]]);
''dalar'' and ''daler'' ([[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]); ''daler'' or ''daalder'' ([[Dutch language|Dutch]]);
''[[Ethiopian talari|talari]]'' ([[Languages of Ethiopia|Ethiopian]]);
''tallér'' ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]);
''tallero'' ([[Italian language|Italian]]);
''دولار'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]); and ''[[dollar]]'' ([[English language|English]]).

Though the [[Dutch people|Dutch]] pioneered in modern-day [[New York (state)|New York]] in the 17th century the use and the counting of money in silver dollars in the form of German-Dutch ''[[reichsthaler]]s'' and native Dutch ''[[leeuwendaalder]]s'' ('lion dollars'), it was the ubiquitous [[Spanish America]]n eight-real coin which became exclusively known as the ''dollar'' since the 18th century.<ref>There is no solid reference on the desirability of liondollars in North America and on 1:1 parity with heavier dollars. A dollar worth $0.80 Spanish is not cheap if priced at $0.50 http://coins.lakdiva.org/netherlands/1644_wes_lion_daalder_ag.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205163340/http://coins.lakdiva.org/netherlands/1644_wes_lion_daalder_ag.html |date=February 5, 2013 }} https://coins.nd.edu/ColCoin/ColCoinIntros/Lion-Dollar.intro.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710214930/https://coins.nd.edu/ColCoin/ColCoinIntros/Lion-Dollar.intro.html |date=July 10, 2018 }}</ref>

===Nicknames===
{{see also|Slang terms for money#United States}}

The [[colloquialism]] ''[[Wikt:buck|'''buck(s)''']]'' (much like the British ''quid'' for the [[pound sterling]]) is often used to refer to dollars of various nations, including the U.S. dollar. This term, dating to the 18th century, may have originated with the colonial [[leather]] trade, or it may also have originated from a [[poker]] term.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Buck |dictionary=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=buck |access-date=October 17, 2018 }}</ref>

[[United States Note|'''''Greenback''''']] is another nickname, originally applied specifically to the 19th-century [[Demand Note]] dollars, which were printed black and green on the backside, created by [[Abraham Lincoln]] to finance the [[Union (American Civil War)|North]] for the [[American Civil War|Civil War]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Paper Money Glossary |publisher=Littleton Coin Company |url=https://www.littletoncoin.com/shop/Glossaries-Paper-Money |access-date=October 17, 2018 |archive-date=October 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018043137/https://www.littletoncoin.com/shop/Glossaries-Paper-Money |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is still used to refer to the U.S. dollar (but not to the dollars of other countries). The term ''greenback'' is also used by the financial press in other countries, such as
[[Australia]],<ref name=BI>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com.au/fx-currency-aud-australia-dollar-fed-trade-war-china-2019-6|title=The Australian dollar is grinding higher as expectations for rate cuts from the US Federal Reserve build|first=David|last=Scutt|website=Business Insider|date=June 3, 2019|access-date=August 7, 2019|archive-date=August 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807004722/https://www.businessinsider.com.au/fx-currency-aud-australia-dollar-fed-trade-war-china-2019-6|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[New Zealand]],<ref name=MW>{{cite web|website=MarketWatch|url=https://www.marketwatch.com/story/dollar-higher-ahead-of-data-new-zealand-currency-at-lowest-since-2016-2018-08-09|title=New Zealand dollar leads G-10 losers as greenback gains strength|first=Anneken|last=Tappe|date=August 9, 2018|access-date=August 7, 2019|archive-date=August 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807004722/https://www.marketwatch.com/story/dollar-higher-ahead-of-data-new-zealand-currency-at-lowest-since-2016-2018-08-09|url-status=live}}</ref> [[South Africa]],<ref name=Reuters>{{cite news |website=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUKL5N22F4S0/|title=South Africa's rand firms against greenback, stocks rise|access-date=August 7, 2019}}</ref> and [[India]].<ref name=BT>{{cite web|url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/story/why-rupee-is-once-again-under-pressure-191471-2019-04-22|website=Business Today|title=Why rupee is once again under pressure|date=April 22, 2019|access-date=August 7, 2019}}</ref>

Other well-known names of the dollar as a whole in denominations include '''''greenmail''''', '''''green''''', and '''''dead presidents''''', the latter of which referring to the deceased presidents pictured on most bills. Dollars in general have also been known as '''''bones''''' (e.g. "twenty bones" = $20). The newer designs, with portraits displayed in the main body of the obverse (rather than in [[Cameo (carving)|cameo]] insets), upon paper color-coded by denomination, are sometimes referred to as '''''bigface''''' notes or '''''[[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]] money'''''.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}

'''''[[Piastre]]''''' was the original French word for the U.S. dollar, used for example in the French text of the [[Louisiana Purchase]]. Though the U.S. dollar is called ''dollar'' in Modern French, the term ''piastre'' is still used among the speakers of [[Cajun French]] and [[New England French]], as well as speakers in [[Haiti]] and other [[French Caribbean]] islands.

Nicknames specific to denomination:
* The [[Quarter (United States coin)|quarter dollar]] coin is known as ''two bits'', alluding the dollar's origins as the "piece of eight" (bits or ''reales'').<ref name="2bits" />
* The [[United States one-dollar bill|$1 bill]] is nicknamed ''buck'' or ''single''.
* The infrequently used [[United States two-dollar bill|$2 bill]] is sometimes called ''deuce'', ''Tom'', or ''Jefferson'' (after [[Thomas Jefferson]]).
* The [[United States five-dollar bill|$5 bill]] is sometimes called ''Lincoln'' (after [[Abraham Lincoln]]), ''fin'', ''fiver'', or ''five-spot''.
* The [[United States ten-dollar bill|$10 bill]] is sometimes called ''sawbuck'', ''ten-spot'', or ''Hamilton'' (after [[Alexander Hamilton]]).
* The [[United States twenty-dollar bill|$20 bill]] is sometimes called ''double sawbuck'', ''Jackson'' (after [[Andrew Jackson]]), or ''[[double eagle]]''.
* The [[United States fifty-dollar bill|$50 bill]] is sometimes called a ''yardstick'', or a ''grant'', after President [[Ulysses S. Grant]].
* The [[United States one-hundred-dollar bill|$100 bill]] is called ''Benjamin'', ''Benji'', ''Ben'', or ''Franklin'', referring to its portrait of [[Benjamin Franklin]]. Other nicknames include ''C-note'' (C being the [[Roman numerals|Roman numeral]] for 100), ''century note'', or ''bill'' (e.g. ''two bills'' = $200).
* Amounts or multiples of $1,000 are sometimes called ''[[1000 (number)#Notation|grand]]'' in colloquial speech, abbreviated in written form to ''G'', ''K'', or ''k'' (from [[kilo-|''kilo'']]; e.g. $10k = $10,000). Likewise, a ''large'' or ''stack'' can also refer to a multiple of $1,000 (e.g. "fifty large" = $50,000).

===Dollar sign===
{{Main|Dollar sign}}
[[File:Potosi Real.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Spanish real|Spanish silver eight-real]] or [[peso]] of 1768]]
The symbol {{Dollar sign|US|lk=on}}, usually written before the numerical amount, is used for the U.S. dollar (as well as for many other currencies). The sign was perhaps the result of a late 18th-century evolution of the [[scribal abbreviation]] '''''ps''''' for the [[peso]], the common name for the Spanish dollars that were in wide circulation in the [[New World]] from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The '''''p''''' and the '''''s''''' eventually came to be written over each other giving rise to '''''$'''''.<ref>[[Florian Cajori|Cajori, Florian]] ([1929]1993). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7juWmvQSTvwC&pg=RA1-PA22#PRA1-PA22,M1 A History of Mathematical Notations]'' (Vol. 2). New York: Dover, 15–29. {{ISBN|0-486-67766-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |at=p. 198 and note 2 on p. 198|jstor = 2506275|title = The First American Mint|journal = The Hispanic American Historical Review|volume = 11|issue = 2|last1 = Aiton|first1 = Arthur S.|last2 = Wheeler|first2 = Benjamin W.|year = 1931|doi = 10.1215/00182168-11.2.198|doi-access = free |issn=0018-2168 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Nussbaum | first = Arthur | author-link = Arthur Nussbaum | title = A History of the Dollar | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofdollar0000nuss | url-access = registration | publisher = Columbia University Press | year = 1957 | location = New York | page = [https://archive.org/details/historyofdollar0000nuss/page/56 56] |quote= The dollar sign, $, is connected with the peso, contrary to popular belief, which considers it to be an abbreviation of 'U.S.' The two parallel lines represented one of the many abbreviations of 'P,' and the 'S' indicated the plural. The abbreviation '$.' was also used for the peso, and is still used in Argentina.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bep.gov/resources/faqs.html|title=U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing – FAQs|website=www.bep.gov|access-date=October 17, 2018|archive-date=October 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018003102/https://www.bep.gov/resources/faqs.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Another popular explanation is that it is derived from the [[Pillars of Hercules]] on the [[Spanish coat of arms]] of the Spanish dollar. These [[Pillars of Hercules]] on the silver Spanish dollar coins take the form of two vertical bars ('''||''') and a swinging cloth band in the shape of an '''''S'''''.<ref>{{cite web |title=From the Spanish dollar to the US dollar |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/culture/spanish-dollar |publisher=Iberdrola |access-date=23 July 2025}}</ref>

Yet another explanation suggests that the dollar sign was formed from the capital letters '''''U''''' and '''''S''''' written or printed one on top of the other. This theory, popularized by novelist [[Ayn Rand]] in ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'',<ref>Rand, Ayn. [1957] 1992. ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''. [[Signet Press|Signet]]. p. 628.</ref> does not consider the fact that the symbol was already in use before the formation of the United States.<ref>{{cite book | last = James | first = James Alton | title = Oliver Pollock: The Life and Times of an Unknown Patriot | publisher = Books for Libraries Press | year = 1970 | orig-year = 1937 | location = Freeport | page = 356 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kht_DEllNccC | isbn = 978-0-8369-5527-9}}</ref>

==History==
{{See also|History of the United States dollar}}

===Origins: the Spanish dollar===
The U.S. dollar was introduced at par with the Spanish-American silver dollar (or ''Spanish peso'', ''Spanish milled dollar'', ''eight-real coin'', ''piece-of-eight''). The latter was produced from the rich silver mine output of [[Spanish America]], was minted in [[Mexico City]], [[Potosí]] (Bolivia), [[Lima]] (Peru), and elsewhere, and was in wide circulation throughout the Americas, Asia, and Europe from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The minting of machine-milled Spanish dollars since 1732 boosted its worldwide reputation as a trade coin and positioned it to be the model for the new currency of the United States.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

Even after the [[United States Mint]] commenced issuing coins in 1792, locally minted ''dollars'' and ''cents'' were less abundant in circulation than [[Spanish America]]n ''pesos'' and ''reales''; hence Spanish, Mexican, and American dollars all remained legal tender in the United States until the [[Coinage Act of 1857]]. In particular, colonists' familiarity with the Spanish two-''real quarter peso'' was the reason for issuing a quasi-decimal [[Quarter (United States coin)|25-cent quarter dollar coin]] rather than a 20-cent coin.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

For the relationship between the [[Spanish dollar]] and the individual state colonial currencies, see [[Connecticut pound]], [[Delaware pound]], [[Georgia pound]], [[Maryland pound]], [[Massachusetts pound]], [[New Hampshire pound]], [[New Jersey pound]], [[New York pound]], [[North Carolina pound]], [[Pennsylvania pound]], [[Rhode Island pound]], [[South Carolina pound]], and [[Virginia pound]].{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

===Coinage Act of 1792===
{{See also|Coinage Act of 1792}}
[[File:Alexander Hamilton portrait by John Trumbull 1806.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alexander Hamilton]] finalized the details of the 1792 Coinage Act and the establishment of the U.S. Mint.]]

On July 6, 1785, the [[Continental Congress]] resolved that the money unit of the United States, the dollar, would contain 375.64 [[Grain (unit)|grains]] of fine silver; on August 8, 1786, the Continental Congress continued that definition and further resolved that the money of account, corresponding with the division of coins, would proceed in a [[Decimalisation|decimal ratio]], with the sub-units being mills at 0.001 of a dollar, cents at 0.010 of a dollar, and dimes at 0.100 of a dollar.<ref name="contcongress1"/>

After the adoption of the [[United States Constitution]], the U.S. dollar was defined by the [[Coinage Act of 1792]]. It specified a "dollar" based on the [[Spanish dollar|Spanish milled dollar]] to contain {{frac|371|4|16}} [[grain (unit)|grain]]s of fine silver, or {{convert|416.0|gr}} of "standard silver" of fineness 371.25/416 = 89.24%; as well as an "eagle" to contain {{frac|247|4|8}} grains of fine gold, or {{convert|270.0|gr}} of 22 [[karat]] or 91.67% fine gold.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coinage Act of 1792|date=April 6, 2017|url=https://www.usmint.gov/learn/history/historical-documents/coinage-act-of-april-2-1792|publisher=U.S. treasury|access-date=October 17, 2018|archive-date=November 8, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108001121/https://www.usmint.gov/learn/history/historical-documents/coinage-act-of-april-2-1792|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Alexander Hamilton]] arrived at these numbers based on a treasury assay of the average fine silver content of a selection of worn [[Spanish dollar]]s, which came out to be 371 grains. Combined with the prevailing gold-silver ratio of 15, the standard for gold was calculated at 371/15 = 24.73 grains fine gold or 26.98 grains 22K gold. Rounding the latter to 27.0 grains finalized the dollar's standard to 24.75 grains of fine gold or 24.75{{nbsp}}×{{nbsp}}15 = 371.25 grains = 24.0566 grams = 0.7735 troy ounces of fine silver.

The same coinage act also set the value of an eagle at 10 dollars, and the dollar at {{frac|1|10}} eagle. It called for silver coins in denominations of 1, {{frac|1|2}}, {{frac|1|4}}, {{frac|1|10}}, and {{frac|1|20}} dollar, as well as gold coins in denominations of 1, {{frac|1|2}} and {{frac|1|4}} eagle. The value of gold or silver contained in the dollar was then converted into relative value in the economy for the buying and selling of goods. This allowed the value of things to remain fairly constant over time, except for the influx and outflux of gold and silver in the nation's economy.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.ecominoes.com/2013/01/the-definitive-inflation-chart.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019050731/https://www.ecominoes.com/2013/01/the-definitive-inflation-chart.html|archive-date=October 19, 2018|url-status = live|website = Ecominoes|title = The Definitive Inflation Chart |date =January 7, 2013|first = Seth|last = Mason}}.</ref>

Though a [[Spanish dollar]] freshly minted after 1772 theoretically contained 417.7 grains of silver of fineness 130/144 (or 377.1 grains fine silver), reliable assays of the period in fact confirmed a fine silver content of {{convert|370.95|gr}} for the average Spanish dollar in circulation.<ref>{{Cite journal |url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/1834139 |jstor= 1834139 |last1= Sumner |first1= W. G.|title = The Spanish Dollar and the Colonial Shilling |journal= The American Historical Review |year= 1898 |volume= 3 |issue= 4 |pages= 607–619 |doi= 10.2307/1834139 |access-date= June 7, 2021 |archive-date= April 9, 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220409153556/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1834139 |url-status= live|url-access= subscription }}</ref>
The new U.S. silver dollar of {{convert|371.25|gr}} therefore compared favorably and was received at par with the Spanish dollar for foreign payments, and after 1803 the [[United States Mint]] had to suspend making this coin out of its limited resources since it failed to stay in domestic circulation. It was only after Mexican independence in 1821 when their peso's fine silver content of 377.1 grains was firmly upheld, which the U.S. later had to compete with using a heavier {{convert|378.0|gr}} [[Trade dollar (United States coin)|Trade dollar coin]].

===Design===
The early currency of the United States did not exhibit faces of presidents, as is the custom now;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oanda.com/currency/iso-currency-codes/USD|title=United States Dollar|publisher=OANDA|access-date=October 17, 2018|archive-date=October 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018003057/https://www.oanda.com/currency/iso-currency-codes/USD|url-status=live}}</ref> although today, by law, only the portrait of a deceased individual may appear on United States currency.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/31/5114|title=Engraving and printing currency and security documents:Article b|publisher=Legal Information Institute|access-date=December 19, 2013|archive-date=December 20, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220073118/http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/31/5114|url-status=live}}</ref> In fact, the newly formed government was against having portraits of leaders on the currency, a practice compared to the policies of European monarchs.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://mentalfloss.com/article/28312/money-everything-you-ever-wanted-know-about-coin-portraits|title=On the Money: Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Coin Portraits|author=Matt Soniak|magazine=Mental Floss|date=July 22, 2011|access-date=October 17, 2018}}</ref> The currency as we know it today did not get the faces they currently have until after the early 20th century; before that "heads" side of coinage used profile faces and striding, seated, and standing figures from Greek and Roman mythology and composite Native Americans. The last coins to be converted to profiles of historic Americans were the dime (1946), the half Dollar (1948), and the Dollar (1971).

===Continental currency===
{{See also|Continental currency}}
[[File:Continental Currency One-Third-Dollar 17-Feb-76 obv.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Continental one third dollar bill (obverse)]]

After the [[American Revolution]], the [[Thirteen Colonies]] became independent. Freed from British monetary regulations, they each issued [[£sd]] paper money to pay for military expenses. The [[Continental Congress]] also began issuing "Continental Currency" denominated in Spanish dollars. For its value relative to states' currencies, see [[Early American currency#Continental currency|Early American currency]].

Continental currency [[depreciation (currency)|depreciated]] badly during the war, giving rise to the famous phrase "not worth a continental".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Newman|first1=Eric P.|title=The Early Paper Money of America|date=1990|publisher=Krause Publications|location=Iola, Wisconsin|isbn=0-87341-120-X|page=17|edition=3}}</ref> A primary problem was that monetary policy was not coordinated between Congress and the states, which continued to issue bills of credit. Additionally, neither Congress nor the governments of the several states had the will or the means to retire the bills from circulation through taxation or the sale of bonds.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wright|first1=Robert E.|title=One Nation Under Debt: Hamilton, Jefferson, and the History of What We Owe|date=2008|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York, New York|isbn=978-0-07-154393-4|pages=50–52}}</ref> The currency was ultimately replaced by the silver dollar at the rate of 1 silver dollar to 1000 continental dollars. This resulted in the clause "No state shall... make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts" being written into the [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Section 10: Limits on the States|United States Constitution article 1, section 10]].

===Silver and gold standards, 19th century===
From implementation of the 1792 [[Mint Act]] to the 1900 implementation of the [[gold standard]], the dollar was on a [[bimetallism|bimetallic]] silver-and-gold standard, defined as either 371.25 [[grain (unit)|grains]] (24.056 g) of fine silver or 24.75 grains of fine gold (gold-silver ratio 15).

Subsequent to the [[Coinage Act of 1834]] the dollar's fine gold equivalent was revised to 23.2 grains; it was slightly adjusted to {{convert|23.22|gr}} in 1837 (gold-silver ratio ≈16). The same act also resolved the difficulty in minting the "standard silver" of 89.24% fineness by revising the dollar's alloy to 412.5 grains, 90% silver, still containing 371.25 grains fine silver. Gold was also revised to 90% fineness: 25.8 grains gross, 23.22 grains fine gold.

Following the rise in the price of silver during the [[California Gold Rush]] and the disappearance of circulating silver coins, the [[Coinage Act of 1853]] reduced the standard for silver coins less than $1 from 412.5 grains to {{convert|384|gr}}, 90% silver per 100 cents (slightly revised to 25.0 g, 90% silver in 1873). The Act also limited the [[free silver]] right of individuals to convert [[bullion]] into only one coin, the silver dollar of 412.5 grains; smaller coins of lower standard can only be produced by the [[United States Mint]] using its own bullion.

Summary and [[Coins of the United States dollar|links to coins]] issued in the 19th century:
* In base metal: [[Half cent (United States coin)|1/2 cent]], [[Penny (United States coin)|1 cent]], [[Nickel (United States coin)|5 cents]].
* In silver: [[half dime]], [[Dime (United States coin)|dime]], [[Quarter (United States coin)|quarter dollar]], [[Half dollar (United States coin)|half dollar]], [[Dollar coin (United States)|silver dollar]].
* In gold: [[Gold dollar|gold $1]], [[Quarter eagle|$2.50 quarter eagle]], [[Half eagle|$5 half eagle]], [[Eagle (United States coin)|$10 eagle]], [[Double eagle|$20 double eagle]].
* Less common denominations: [[Two-cent piece (United States coin)|bronze 2 cents]], [[Three-cent nickel|nickel 3 cents]], [[Three-cent silver|silver 3 cents]], [[Twenty-cent piece (United States coin)|silver 20 cents]], [[Three-dollar piece|gold $3]].

===Note issues, 19th century===
[[File:One US dollar 1917.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Series of 1917 [[United States one-dollar bill|$1 United States Note]]]]

In order to finance the [[War of 1812]], Congress authorized the issuance of [[Treasury Note (19th century)|Treasury Note]]s, interest-bearing short-term debt that could be used to pay public dues. While they were intended to serve as debt, they did function "to a limited extent" as money. Treasury Notes were again printed to help resolve the reduction in public revenues resulting from the [[Panic of 1837]] and the [[Panic of 1857]], as well as to help finance the [[Mexican–American War]] and the [[American Civil War|Civil War]].

Paper money was issued again in 1862 without the backing of precious metals due to the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. In addition to Treasury Notes, Congress in 1861 authorized the Treasury to borrow $50 million in the form of [[Demand Notes]], which did not bear interest but could be redeemed on demand for precious metals. However, by December 1861, the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] government's supply of specie was outstripped by demand for redemption and they were forced to suspend redemption temporarily. In February 1862 Congress passed the [[Legal Tender Cases|Legal Tender Act of 1862]], issuing [[United States Notes]], which were not redeemable on demand and bore no interest, but were [[legal tender]], meaning that creditors had to accept them at face value for any payment except for import tariffs and interest on public debts. However, silver and gold coins continued to be issued, resulting in the depreciation of the newly printed notes through [[Gresham's law]]. In 1869, the Supreme Court ruled in [[Hepburn v. Griswold]] that Congress could not require creditors to accept United States Notes, but overturned that ruling the next year in the [[Legal Tender Cases]]. In 1875, Congress passed the [[Specie Payment Resumption Act]], requiring the Treasury to allow U.S. Notes to be redeemed for gold after January 1, 1879.

===Gold standard, 20th century===
[[File:NNC-US-1907-G$20-Saint Gaudens (Roman, high relief).jpg|thumb|Gold [[double eagle]] ($20 coin), 1907]]

Though the dollar came under the [[gold standard]] de jure only after 1900, the [[bimetallism|bimetallic era]] was ended de facto when the [[Coinage Act of 1873]] suspended the minting of the standard [[Dollar coin (United States)|silver dollar]] of {{convert|412.5|gr|g ozt|lk=in|adj=pre|Troy|disp=x| {{=}} |}}, the only fully legal tender coin that individuals could convert bullion into in unlimited (or [[Free silver]]) quantities,{{efn|Silver bullion can be converted in unlimited quantities of Trade dollars of 420 grains, but these were meant for export and had legal tender limits in the US. See [[Trade dollar (United States coin)]].}} and right at the onset of the [[silver rush]] from the [[Comstock Lode]] in the 1870s. This was the so-called "Crime of '73".

The [[Gold Standard Act]] of 1900 repealed the U.S. dollar's historic link to silver and defined it solely as {{convert|23.22|gr}} of fine gold (or $20.67 per [[troy ounce]] of 480 grains). In 1933, gold coins were confiscated by [[Executive Order 6102]] under [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and in 1934 the standard was changed to $35 per troy ounce fine gold, or {{convert|13.71|gr}} per dollar.

After 1968 a series of revisions to the gold peg was implemented, culminating in the [[Nixon Shock]] of August 15, 1971, which suddenly ended the convertibility of dollars to gold. The U.S. dollar has since floated freely on the [[foreign exchange market]]s.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

===Federal Reserve Notes, 20th century to present===
{{See also|Federal Reserve Note}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 =500 USD note; series of 1934; obverse.jpg
| width1 = 200
| alt1 =
| caption1 = Obverse of a rare 1934 $500 Federal Reserve Note, featuring a portrait of President [[William McKinley]]
| image2 = 500 USD note; series of 1934; reverse.jpg
| width2 = 200
| alt2 =
| caption2 = Reverse of a $500 Federal Reserve Note
| footer =
}}
Congress continued to issue paper money after the Civil War, the latest of which is the [[Federal Reserve Note]] that was authorized by the [[Federal Reserve Act of 1913]]. Since the discontinuation of all other types of notes (Gold Certificates in 1933, Silver Certificates in 1963, and United States Notes in 1971), U.S. dollar notes have since been issued exclusively as [[Federal Reserve Note]]s.

===Emergence as reserve currency===
{{Main|International use of the U.S. dollar}}
[[File:WhiteandKeynes.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Maynard Keynes]] (right) and [[Harry Dexter White]] at the inaugural meeting of the [[International Monetary Fund]] in 1946. They were instrumental in drafting the provisions of the post-war global financial system.]]

The U.S. dollar first emerged as an important international [[reserve currency]] in the 1920s, displacing the British [[pound sterling]] as it emerged from the [[First World War]] relatively unscathed and since the United States was a significant recipient of wartime gold inflows. After the United States emerged as an even stronger global [[superpower]] during the [[Second World War]], the [[Bretton Woods Agreement]] of 1944 established the U.S. dollar as the world's primary reserve currency and the only post-war currency linked to gold. Despite all links to gold being severed in 1971, the dollar continues to be the world's foremost reserve currency for international trade to this day.

The Bretton Woods Agreement of 1944 also defined the post-World War II monetary order and relations among modern-day [[United Nations|independent states]], by setting up a system of rules, institutions, and procedures to regulate the [[international monetary system]]. The agreement founded the [[International Monetary Fund]] and other institutions of the modern-day [[World Bank Group]], establishing the infrastructure for conducting international payments and accessing the global capital markets using the U.S. dollar.

The [[monetary policy of the United States]] is conducted by the [[Federal Reserve System]], which acts as the nation's [[central bank]]. It was founded in 1913 under the [[Federal Reserve Act]] in order to furnish an elastic currency for the United States and to supervise its banking system, particularly in the aftermath of the [[Panic of 1907]].

For most of the post-war period, the [[U.S. government]] has financed its own spending by borrowing heavily from the dollar-lubricated global capital markets, in debts denominated in its own currency and at minimal interest rates. This ability to borrow heavily without facing a significant [[balance of payments crisis]] has been described as the [[United States]]'s [[exorbitant privilege]].

==Coins==
{{Main|Coins of the United States dollar}}

The [[United States Mint]] has issued legal tender coins every year from 1792 to the present. From 1934 to the present, the only denominations produced for circulation have been the familiar penny, nickel, dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" | Denomination
! scope="col" | Common name
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Obverse
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Reverse
! scope="col" | Obverse portrait and design date
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Reverse motif and design date
! scope="col" | Weight
! scope="col" | Diameter
! scope="col" | Material
! scope="col" | Edge
! scope="col" | Circulation
|-
! scope="row" | [[Penny (United States coin)|Cent]] 1¢
| penny
|align="center"| [[File:US One Cent Obv.png|48px]]
|align="center"| [[File:US_union_shield_penny_reverse.png|48px]]
| [[Abraham Lincoln]] (1909)
| Union Shield (2010)
| {{convert|2.5|g|oz|3|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|0.75|in|mm|2|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| 97.5% [[Zinc|Zn]] covered by 2.5% [[Copper|Cu]]
| Plain
| Wide
|-
! scope="row" | [[Nickel (United States coin)|Five cents]] 5¢
| nickel
|align="center"| [[File:Jefferson-Nickel-Unc-Obv.jpg|53px]]
|align="center"| [[File:US Nickel 2013 Rev.png|53px]]
| [[Thomas Jefferson]] (2006)
| [[Monticello]] (1938)
| {{convert|5.0|g|oz|3|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|0.835|in|mm|2|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| 75% Cu 25% [[Nickel|Ni]]
| Plain
| Wide
|-
! scope="row" | [[Dime (United States coin)|Ten cents]] 10¢
| dime
|align="center"| [[File:Dime Obverse 13.png|45px]]
|align="center"| [[File:Dime Reverse 13.png|45px]]
| [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] (1946)
| [[Olive branch]], [[torch]], and [[Oak|oak branch]] (1946)
| {{convert|0.08|oz|g|3|abbr=on|disp=br()|order=flip}}
| {{convert|0.705|in|mm|2|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| 91.67% Cu 8.33% Ni
| 118 reeds
| Wide
|-
! scope="row" | [[Quarter (United States coin)|Quarter dollar]] 25¢
| quarter
|align="center"| [[File:2021-P US Quarter Obverse.jpg|61px]]
|align="center"| [[File:Quarter new.jpg|61px]]
| [[George Washington]] (1932)
| [[American Women quarters|Various]] (5 designs per year)
| {{convert|0.2|oz|g|2|abbr=on|disp=br()|order=flip}}
| {{convert|0.955|in|mm|2|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| 91.67% Cu 8.33% Ni
| 119 reeds
| Wide
|-
! scope="row" | [[Half dollar (United States coin)|Half dollar]] 50¢
| half dollar
|align="center"| [[File:US Half Dollar Obverse 2015.png|77px]]
|align="center"| [[File:US 50 Cent Rev.png|77px]]
| [[John F. Kennedy]] (1964)
| [[Seal of the President of the United States|Presidential Seal]] (1964)
| {{convert|0.4|oz|g|2|abbr=on|disp=br()|order=flip}}
| {{convert|1.205|in|mm|2|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| 91.67% Cu 8.33% Ni
| 150 reeds
| Limited
|-
! scope="row" | [[Dollar coin (United States)|Dollar coin]] $1
| dollar coin, golden dollar
|align="center"| [[File:Sacagawea_dollar_obverse.png|66px]]
|align="center"| [[File:2003 Sacagawea Rev.png|66px]]
| [[Sacagawea]]
(2000)
| [[American Innovation dollars|Various]] (4 designs per year)
| {{convert|8.10|g|oz|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| {{convert|26.50|mm|in|3|abbr=on|disp=br()|order=flip}}
| 88.5% Cu 6% Zn 3.5% [[manganese|Mn]] 2% Ni
| Plain 2000–2006 Lettered 2007–present
| Limited
|-
|colspan="11"|{{Standard coin table notice|standard_scale=Y|BrE=Y}}
|}

Gold and silver coins have been previously minted for general circulation from the 18th to the 20th centuries. The last gold coins were minted in 1933. The last 90% silver coins were minted in 1964, and the last 40% silver half dollar was minted in 1970.

The [[United States Mint]] currently produces circulating coins at the [[Philadelphia Mint|Philadelphia]] and [[Denver Mint]]s, and commemorative and proof coins for collectors at the [[San Francisco Mint|San Francisco]] and [[West Point Mint]]s. Mint mark conventions for these and for past mint branches are discussed in ''[[Coins of the United States dollar#Mint marks]]''.

The [[Dollar coin (United States)|one-dollar coin]] has never been in popular circulation from 1794 to present, despite several attempts to increase their usage since the 1970s, the most important reason of which is the continued production and popularity of the [[United States one-dollar bill|one-dollar bill]]. It has not been produced for circulation since 2012.<ref>Anderson, Gordon T. April 25, 2005. "[https://money.cnn.com/2005/04/27/pf/new_dollar/ Congress tries again for a dollar coin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321162858/https://money.cnn.com/2005/04/27/pf/new_dollar/ |date=March 21, 2022 }}." ''[[CNN Money]].''</ref> [[Half dollar (United States coin)|Half dollar coins]] were commonly used currency since inception in 1794, but has fallen out of use from the mid-1960s when all silver half dollars began to be hoarded.

The [[nickel (United States coin)|nickel]] is the only coin whose size and composition (5 grams, 75% copper, and 25% nickel) is still in use from 1865 to today, except for wartime 1942–1945 [[Jefferson nickel]]s which contained silver.

Due to the [[Penny (United States coin)|penny]]'s low value, [[Penny debate in the United States|debate exists]] over the penny's status as circulating coinage.<ref>{{cite web|author=Christian Zappone|date=July 18, 2006|title=Kill-the-penny bill introduced|url=https://money.cnn.com/2006/07/18/news/penny/index.htm|access-date=October 17, 2018|website=CNN Money|archive-date=July 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728021810/https://money.cnn.com/2006/07/18/news/penny/index.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Weinberg|first=Ali|date=February 19, 2013|title=Penny pinching: Can Obama manage elimination of one-cent coin?|publisher=[[NBC News]]|url=http://firstread.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/02/19/17019470-penny-pinching-can-obama-manage-elimination-of-one-cent-coin?lite|access-date=October 17, 2018|archive-date=October 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018043045/http://firstread.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/02/19/17019470-penny-pinching-can-obama-manage-elimination-of-one-cent-coin?lite|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2025, the Mint halted the production of pennies for circulation, but pennies remain in circulation as only an [[Act of Congress|act of Congress]] can eliminate a currency.<ref name="Mint">{{Cite web |title=United States Mint Hosts Historic Ceremonial Strike for Final Production of the Circulating One-Cent Coin |url=https://www.usmint.gov/news/press-releases/united-states-mint-hosts-historic-ceremonial-strike-for-final-production-of-the-circulating-one-cent-coin |access-date=2025-11-12 |website=www.usmint.gov |language=en}}</ref>

For a discussion of other discontinued and canceled denominations, see ''[[Obsolete denominations of United States currency#Coinage|Obsolete denominations of United States currency]]'' and ''[[Canceled denominations of United States currency#Coinage|Canceled denominations of United States currency]]''.

=== Collector coins ===
Collector coins are technically legal tender at face value but are usually worth far more due to their numismatic value or for their precious metal content. These include:
* [[American Eagle bullion coins]]
**[[American Silver Eagle]] $1 (1 [[troy ounce|troy oz]]) Silver bullion coin 1986–present
**[[American Gold Eagle]] $5 ({{frac|1|10}} troy oz), $10 ({{frac|1|4}} troy oz), $25 ({{frac|1|2}} troy oz), and $50 (1 troy oz) Gold bullion coin 1986–present
**[[American Platinum Eagle]] $10 ({{frac|1|10}} troy oz), $25 ({{frac|1|4}} troy oz), $50 ({{frac|1|2}} troy oz), and $100 (1 troy oz) Platinum bullion coin 1997–present
**[[American Palladium Eagle]] $25 (1 troy oz) Palladium bullion coin 2017–present
* [[United States commemorative coin]]s—special issue coins, among these:
**[[Half union|$50.00 (Half Union)]] minted for the [[Panama-Pacific International Exposition (1915)]]
**Silver proof sets minted since 1992 with dimes, quarters and half-dollars made of silver rather than the standard copper-nickel
**[[Presidential dollar coins]] proof sets minted since 2007

== Banknotes ==
{{Main|Federal Reserve Note}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#2E8B57;"
! Denomination
! class="unsortable" | Obverse
! class="unsortable" | Reverse
! Portrait
! class="unsortable" | Reverse motif
! First series
! Latest series
! Circulation
|-
| [[United States one-dollar bill|One dollar]]
| [[File:Obverse of the series 2021 $1 Federal Reserve Note.jpg|250px]]
| [[File:Reverse of the series 2021 $1 Federal Reserve Note.jpg|250px]]
| [[George Washington]]
| [[Great Seal of the United States]]
| Series 1963{{refn| group = lower-alpha | Obverse}} Series 1935{{refn| group = lower-alpha | Reverse}}
| Series 2021<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.coinworld.com/news/paper-money/series-2021-dollar-notes-now-being-found-in-circulation |title=Series 2021 dollar notes now being found in circulation |date=2023-06-29 |access-date=2024-04-26 |website=Coin World |last=Gibbs |first=William T.}}</ref>
| Wide
|-
| [[United States two-dollar bill|Two dollars]]
| [[File:US $2 obverse.jpg|250px]]
| [[File:US $2 reverse.jpg|250px]]
| [[Thomas Jefferson]]
| ''[[Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)|Declaration of Independence]]'' by [[John Trumbull]]
| Series 1976
| Series 2017A
| Limited<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/17/business/2-dollar-bill-history/index.html |title=Why it's time to start paying with $2 bills |date=September 20, 2022 |access-date=February 6, 2024 |website=CNN |last=Meyersohn |first=Nathaniel}}</ref>
|-
| [[United States five-dollar bill|Five dollars]]
| [[File:Obverse of the series 2021 $5 Federal Reserve Note.jpg|250px]]
| [[File:Reverse of the series 2021 $5 Federal Reserve Note.jpg|250px]]
| [[Abraham Lincoln]]
| [[Lincoln Memorial]]
| Series 2006
| Series 2021<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://en.numista.com/catalogue/note201558.html |website=Numista |title=5 Dollars (Federal Reserve Note; colored) - United States |access-date=June 7, 2023 |archive-date=June 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607080122/https://en.numista.com/catalogue/note201558.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
| Wide
|-
| [[United States ten-dollar bill|Ten dollars]]
| [[File:Obverse of the series 2021 $10 Federal Reserve Note.jpg|250px]]
| [[File:Reverse of the series 2021 $10 Federal Reserve Note.jpg|250px]]
| [[Alexander Hamilton]]
| [[Treasury Building (Washington, D.C.)|Treasury Building]]
| Series 2004A
| Series 2021
| Wide
|-
| [[United States twenty-dollar bill|Twenty dollars]]
| [[File:Obverse of the series 2017A $20 Federal Reserve Note.jpg|250px]]
| [[File:Reverse of the series 2017A $20 Federal Reserve Note.jpg|250px]]
| [[Andrew Jackson]]
| [[White House]]
| Series 2004
| Series 2017A
| Wide
|-
| [[United States fifty-dollar bill|Fifty dollars]]
| [[File:Obverse of the $50 Federal Reserve Note.jpg|250px]]
| [[File:Reverse of the $50 Federal Reserve Note.jpg|250px]]
| [[Ulysses S. Grant]]
| [[United States Capitol]]
| Series 2004
| Series 2021
| Wide
|-
| [[United States one hundred-dollar bill|One hundred dollars]]
| [[File:Obverse of the series 2021 $100 Federal Reserve Note.jpg|250px]]
| [[File:Reverse of the series 2021 $100 Federal Reserve Note.jpg|250px]]
| [[Benjamin Franklin]]
| [[Independence Hall]]
| Series 2009A<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uscurrency.gov/denominations/100|title=$100 Note {{pipe}} U.S. Currency Education Program|access-date=April 22, 2021|archive-date=August 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820044305/https://www.uscurrency.gov/denominations/100|url-status=live}}</ref>
| Series 2021
| Wide
|}

The [[Constitution of the United States|U.S. Constitution]] provides that Congress shall have the power to "borrow money on the credit of the United States."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articlei#section8 |title=Paragraph 2 of Section 8 of Article 1 of the United States Constitution |publisher=Topics.law.cornell.edu |access-date=October 17, 2018 |archive-date=November 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118233715/https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articlei#section8 |url-status= live }}</ref> Congress has exercised that power by authorizing [[Federal Reserve Banks]] to issue [[Federal Reserve Notes]]. Those notes are "obligations of the United States" and "shall be redeemed in lawful money on demand at the Treasury Department of the United States, in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, or at any Federal Reserve bank".<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/12/411 |title=Section 411 of Title 12 of the United States Code |publisher=Law.cornell.edu |date= June 22, 2010 |access-date=October 17, 2018 |archive-date=June 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190627142205/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/12/411 |url-status=live }}</ref> Federal Reserve Notes are designated by law as "[[legal tender]]" for the payment of debts.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/31/5103 |title=Section 5103 of Title 31 of the United States Code |publisher=Law.cornell.edu |date=August 6, 2010 |access-date=October 17, 2018 |archive-date=October 22, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022211409/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/31/5103 |url-status=live }}</ref> Congress has also authorized the issuance of [[Federal Reserve Note|more than 10 other types of banknotes]], including the [[United States Note]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/31/5115 |title=Section 5115 of Title 31 of the United States Code |publisher=Law.cornell.edu |date=August 6, 2010 |access-date=October 17, 2018 |archive-date=June 27, 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190627142206/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/31/5115 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Federal Reserve Bank Note]]. The Federal Reserve Note is the only type that remains in circulation since the 1970s. [[Federal Reserve Notes]] are printed by the [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing]] and are made from [[Cotton paper|cotton fiber paper]] (as opposed to [[Wood fibre|wood fiber]] used to make common paper). The "[[large-sized note]]s" issued before 1928 measured {{convert|7.42 x 3.125|in |mm |abbr= on}}, while [[small-sized note]]s introduced that year measure {{convert|6.14 x 2.61 x 0.0043|in|mm|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qqQuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA105|title=Treasury Department Appropriation Bill for 1929: Hearing Before the Subcommittee of House Committee on Appropriations... Seventieth Congress, First Session|year=1928}}</ref> The dimensions of the modern (small-size) U.S. currency is identical to the size of [[Philippine peso]] banknotes issued under United States administration after 1903, which had proven highly successful.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhRjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT16|title = Standard Guide to Small-Size U.S. Paper Money – 1928-Date|isbn = 9781440225789|last1 = Schwarz|first1 = John|last2 = Lindquist|first2 = Scott |date = September 21, 2009| publisher=Penguin }}</ref> The American large-note bills became known as "horse blankets" or "saddle blankets".<ref name="Orzano">{{cite web |last1=Orzano |first1=Michele |title=What is a horse blanket note? |date = February 25, 2015 |url= https://www.coinworld.com/news/precious-metals/what-is-a-horse-blanket-note.html |website=Coin World |url-status=live |archive-date= November 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129024946/https://www.coinworld.com/news/precious-metals/what-is-a-horse-blanket-note.html }}</ref>

Currently printed denominations are [[United States one-dollar bill|$1]], [[United States two-dollar bill|$2]], [[United States five-dollar bill|$5]], [[United States ten-dollar bill|$10]], [[United States twenty-dollar bill|$20]], [[United States fifty-dollar bill|$50]], and [[United States one hundred-dollar bill|$100]]. Notes above the $100 denomination stopped being printed in 1946 and were officially withdrawn from circulation in 1969. These notes were used primarily in inter-bank transactions or by [[organized crime]]; it was the latter usage that prompted President [[Richard Nixon]] to issue an executive order in 1969 halting their use. With the advent of electronic banking, they became less necessary. Notes in denominations of [[United States five-hundred-dollar bill|$500]], [[United States one-thousand-dollar bill|$1,000]], [[United States five-thousand-dollar bill|$5,000]], [[United States ten-thousand-dollar bill|$10,000]] (discontinued, but still legal tender); [[United States one hundred-thousand-dollar bill|$100,000]] were all produced at one time; see [[large denomination bills in U.S. currency]] for details. With the exception of the $100,000 bill (which was only issued as a Series 1934 Gold Certificate and was never publicly circulated; thus it is illegal to own), these notes are now collector's items and are worth more than their face value to collectors.

Though still predominantly green, the post-2004 series incorporate other colors to better distinguish different denominations. As a result of a 2008 decision in an accessibility lawsuit filed by the [[American Council of the Blind]], the [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing]] is planning to implement a raised tactile feature in the next redesign of each note, except the $1 and the current version of the $100 bill. It also plans larger, higher-contrast numerals, more color differences, and distribution of currency readers to assist the visually impaired during the transition period.{{efn|See {{section link|Federal Reserve Note|Lawsuit over U.S. banknote design}} for details and references.}}

==Countries that use US dollar==
===Official users===
These countries and territories use the US dollar as the official currency:

{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* {{Flagcountry|United States of America}}
** including 5 territories:
*** {{Flagcountry|American Samoa}}
*** {{Flagcountry|Guam}}
*** {{Flagcountry|Northern Mariana Islands}}
*** {{Flagcountry|Puerto Rico}}
*** {{Flagcountry|United States Virgin Islands}}
** [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]]
*[[Compact of Free Association]]
** {{Flagcountry|Marshall Islands}}
** {{Flagcountry|Federated States of Micronesia}}
** {{Flagcountry|Palau}}
* {{Flagcountry|Ecuador}}<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ecuador/ |title = Ecuador |work = [[CIA World Factbook]] |access-date = October 17, 2018 |date = October 18, 2010 |quote = The dollar is legal tender |archive-date = January 10, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210110072816/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ecuador |url-status = dead }}</ref> (alongside [[Ecuadorian centavo coins]])
* {{Flagcountry|El Salvador}}<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/el-salvador/ |title = El Salvador |work = [[CIA World Factbook]] |access-date = October 17, 2018 |date = October 21, 2010 |quote = The US dollar became El Salvador's currency in 2001 |archive-date = May 7, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210507021641/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/el-salvador/ |url-status = dead }}</ref>
* {{Flagcountry|Liberia}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Currency |url=https://cbl.org.lr/general/currency |access-date=January 15, 2023 |website=Central Bank of Liberia |archive-date=January 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115023814/https://cbl.org.lr/general/currency |url-status=live }}</ref> (alongside [[Liberian dollar]])
* {{Flagcountry|Panama}} (alongside [[Panamanian balboa|Panamanian balboa coins]])
* {{Flagcountry|Timor-Leste}}<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.bancocentral.tl/en/go/banknotes-in-circulation |title = Central Bank of Timor-Leste |access-date = March 22, 2017 |quote = The official currency of Timor-Leste is the United States dollar, which is legal tender for all payments made in cash. |archive-date = May 1, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190501173907/https://www.bancocentral.tl/en/go/banknotes-in-circulation |url-status = live }}</ref> (alongside [[Timor-Leste centavo coins]])
* [[British Overseas Territories]]:
** {{flagcountry|British Virgin Islands}}
** {{flagcountry|Turks and Caicos Islands}}
* [[Dutch Caribbean]]:
** {{flagcountry|Bonaire}}
** {{flagcountry|Saba}}
** {{flagcountry|Sint Eustatius}}
{{div col end}}

===Unofficial users===
These countries and territories widely accept the US dollar unofficially as a secondary currency:

* {{flagcountry|Argentina}}, official currency is [[Argentine peso]]
* {{flagcountry|Cambodia}},<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nay Im |first1=Tal |last2=Dabadie |first2=Michel |title=Dollarization in Cambodia |url=https://www.nbc.org.kh/download_files/publication/others_eng/NoteMD117-14_article_dollarization.pdf |website=National Bank of Cambodia |access-date=April 11, 2022 |language=English |date=March 31, 2007 |archive-date=May 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511203155/https://www.nbc.org.kh/download_files/publication/others_eng/NoteMD117-14_article_dollarization.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Nagumo |first1=Jada |title=Cambodia aims to wean off US dollar dependence with digital currency |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Markets/Currencies/Cambodia-aims-to-wean-off-US-dollar-dependence-with-digital-currency#:~:text=Cambodia%20runs%20a%20dual%2Dcurrency,of%20civil%20war%20and%20unrest. |access-date=April 11, 2022 |publisher=Nikkei Asia |date=August 4, 2021 |quote="Cambodia runs a dual-currency system, with the U.S. dollar widely circulating in its economy. The country's dollarization began in the 1980s and 90s, following years of civil war and unrest." |archive-date=April 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415063706/https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Markets/Currencies/Cambodia-aims-to-wean-off-US-dollar-dependence-with-digital-currency#:~:text=Cambodia%20runs%20a%20dual%2Dcurrency,of%20civil%20war%20and%20unrest. |url-status=live }}</ref> official currency is [[Cambodian riel]]
* {{flagcountry|Honduras}}, official currency is [[Honduran lempira]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.laprensa.hn/honduras/honduras-roatan-prefiere-cobrar-dolares-lempiras-no-bitcoin-cirptomonedas-DC16361064 |title=Roatán prefiere cobrar en dólares o lempiras; no bitcóin |trans-title=Roatán prefers to charge in dollars or lempiras; not bitcoin |language=es |website=laprensa.hn |publisher=[[La Prensa (Honduras)|La Prensa]] |last=Rivera |first=Juan Carlos |date=November 23, 2023 |access-date=July 12, 2024}}</ref>
* {{flagcountry|Lebanon}}, official currency is [[Lebanese pound]]<ref>{{Cite news|url= https://apnews.com/article/lebanon-economy-crisis-currency-pound-dollarization-44f8173d75d2e1a37526b3e1252c5a92|title=Lebanon leans on US dollar to cope as currency, economy tank|date=March 6, 2023|work=[[Associated Press]]|access-date=November 1, 2024}}</ref>
* {{flagcountry|Venezuela}}, official currency is [[Venezuelan bolívar]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-11-05/venezuela-is-now-more-than-50-dollarized-study-finds|title=Venezuela Is Now More Than 50% Dollarized, Study Finds|last=Zerpa|first=Fabiola|date=November 5, 2019|website=Bloomberg|access-date=November 9, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-economy/maduro-says-thank-god-for-dollarization-in-venezuela-idUSKBN1XR0RV|title=Maduro says 'thank God' for dollarization in Venezuela|date=November 17, 2019|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=November 18, 2019}}</ref>
* {{flagcountry|Zimbabwe}}, official currency is [[Zimbabwean ZiG]]
* [[British Overseas Territories]]:
** {{flagcountry|British Indian Ocean Territory}}, official currency is the [[Pound sterling]]
* [[Dutch Caribbean]]:
** {{flagcountry|Sint Maarten}}, official currency is [[Caribbean guilder]]
* [[Overseas France]]:
** {{flagcountry|Collectivity of Saint Martin}}, official currency is the [[euro]]

==Monetary policy==
{{See also|Federal Reserve|Monetary policy|Monetary policy of the United States|money supply}}
[[File:Marriner S. Eccles Federal Reserve Board Building.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Eccles Building|Headquarters of the Federal Reserve System]] in Washington, D.C.]]
The [[Federal Reserve Act]] created the [[Federal Reserve System]] in 1913 as the [[central bank]] of the [[United States]]. Its primary task is
to conduct the nation's [[monetary policy]] to promote maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates in the U.S. economy. It is also tasked to promote the stability of the financial system and regulate financial institutions, and to act as [[lender of last resort]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.federalreserve.gov/aboutthefed/pf.htm|title=Federal Reserve Board – Purposes & Functions|access-date=June 11, 2021|archive-date=March 26, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326220219/https://www.federalreserve.gov/aboutthefed/pf.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.federalreserve.gov/aboutthefed/files/pf_3.pdf |title=Conducting Monetary Policy |publisher=United States Federal Reserve |access-date=August 23, 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=August 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811112907/https://www.federalreserve.gov/aboutthefed/files/pf_3.pdf }}</ref>

The [[Monetary policy of the United States]] is conducted by the [[Federal Open Market Committee]], which is composed of the [[Federal Reserve Board of Governors]] and 5 out of the 12 Federal Reserve Bank presidents, and is implemented by all twelve regional [[Federal Reserve Bank]]s.

[[Monetary policy]] refers to actions made by central banks that determine the size and growth rate of the [[money supply]] available in the economy, and which would result in desired objectives like low inflation, low unemployment, and stable financial systems. The economy's aggregate [[money supply]] is the total of
* '''M0 money, or Monetary Base''' – "dollars" in currency and [[bank money]] balances credited to the central bank's depositors, which are backed by the central bank's assets,
* '''plus M1, M2, M3 money''' – "dollars" in the form of [[bank money]] balances credited to banks' depositors, which are backed by the bank's assets and investments.

The FOMC influences the level of money available to the economy by the following means:
* '''Reserve requirements''' – specifies a required minimum percentage of deposits in a [[commercial bank]] that should be held as a reserve (i.e. as deposits with the Federal Reserve), with the rest available to loan or invest. Higher requirements mean less money loaned or invested, helping keep inflation in check. Raising the '''[[federal funds rate]]''' earned on those reserves also helps achieve this objective.
* '''Open market operations''' – the Federal Reserve buys or sells [[United States Treasury security|US Treasury bonds]] and other securities held by banks in exchange for reserves; more reserves increase a bank's capacity to loan or invest elsewhere.
* '''Discount window lending''' – banks can borrow from the Federal Reserve.

[[Monetary policy]] directly affects interest rates; it indirectly affects stock prices, wealth, and currency exchange rates. Through these channels, monetary policy influences spending, investment, production, employment, and inflation in the United States. Effective [[monetary policy]] complements [[fiscal policy]] to support economic growth.

The adjusted monetary base has increased from approximately $400 billion in 1994, to $800 billion in 2005, and to over $3 trillion in 2013.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/BASE/ | title=St. Louis Adjusted Monetary Base | date=February 15, 1984 | publisher=[[Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis]] | access-date=October 17, 2018 | archive-date=October 17, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017105432/https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/BASE/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

When the Federal Reserve makes a purchase, it credits the seller's reserve account (with the Federal Reserve). This money is not transferred from any existing funds—it is at this point that the Federal Reserve has created new [[high-powered money]]. Commercial banks then decide how much money to keep in deposit with the Federal Reserve and how much to hold as physical currency. In the latter case, the Federal Reserve places an order for printed money from the U.S. Treasury Department.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fact Sheets: Currency & Coins |publisher=United States Department of the Treasury |url=https://www.treasury.gov/about/education/Pages/edu_fact-sheets_currency_index.aspx |access-date=October 17, 2018 |archive-date=October 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018003113/https://www.treasury.gov/about/education/Pages/edu_fact-sheets_currency_index.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> The Treasury Department, in turn, sends these requests to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (to print new [[Federal Reserve notes|dollar bills]]) and the Bureau of the Mint (to stamp the coins).

The Federal Reserve's monetary policy objectives to keep prices stable and unemployment low is often called the ''dual mandate''. This replaces past practices under a [[gold standard]] where the main concern is the gold equivalent of the local currency, or under a gold exchange standard where the concern is fixing the exchange rate versus another gold-convertible currency (previously practiced worldwide under the [[Bretton Woods Agreement]] of 1944 via fixed exchange rates to the U.S. dollar).

==International use as reserve currency==
{{See also|Reserve currency|International monetary system|Eurodollar|Exorbitant privilege|Strong dollar policy|Dollarization}}
{{Main|International use of the U.S. dollar}}
[[File:DOLLAR AND EURO IN THE WORLD.svg|right|300px|thumb|Worldwide use of the U.S. dollar:
{{Legend|#099811|United States}}
{{Legend|#99FF9E|External adopters of the US dollar}}
{{Legend|#999909|Currencies pegged to the US dollar}}
{{Legend|#FFFF99|Currencies pegged to the US dollar w/ narrow band}}
Worldwide use of the [[euro]]:
{{Legend|#092D98|[[Eurozone]]}}
{{Legend|#98b3ff|External adopters of the euro}}
{{Legend|#510999|Currencies pegged to the euro}}
{{Legend|#CC99FF|Currencies pegged to the euro w/ narrow band}}]]

===Ascendancy===
The primary currency used for global trade between [[Europe]], [[Asia]], and [[the Americas]] has historically been the Spanish-American [[Spanish dollar|silver dollar]], which created a global [[silver standard]] system from the 16th to 19th centuries, due to abundant silver supplies in [[Spanish America]].<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://nationalinterest.org/feature/the-silver-way-explains-how-the-old-mexican-dollar-changed-20410|title = 'The Silver Way' Explains How the Old Mexican Dollar Changed the World|date = April 30, 2017|access-date = June 8, 2021|archive-date = May 16, 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210516053428/https://nationalinterest.org/feature/the-silver-way-explains-how-the-old-mexican-dollar-changed-20410|url-status = live}}</ref>
The U.S. dollar itself was derived from this coin. The [[Spanish dollar]] was later displaced by the British [[pound sterling]] in the advent of the international [[gold standard]] in the last quarter of the 19th century.

The U.S. dollar began to displace the [[pound sterling]] as international [[reserve currency]] from the 1920s since it emerged from the [[First World War]] relatively unscathed and since the [[United States]] was a significant recipient of wartime gold inflows.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Eichengreen|first1=Barry|last2=Flandreau|first2=Marc|date=2009|title=The rise and fall of the dollar (or when did the dollar replace sterling as the leading reserve currency?)|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-review-of-economic-history/article/abs/rise-and-fall-of-the-dollar-or-when-did-the-dollar-replace-sterling-as-the-leading-reserve-currency/9C78B88EBC0099E26A105DEC90CBE103|journal=European Review of Economic History|language=en|volume=13|issue=3|pages=377–411|doi=10.1017/S1361491609990153|s2cid=154773110|issn=1474-0044|access-date=April 16, 2021|archive-date=January 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107213045/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-review-of-economic-history/article/abs/rise-and-fall-of-the-dollar-or-when-did-the-dollar-replace-sterling-as-the-leading-reserve-currency/9C78B88EBC0099E26A105DEC90CBE103|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
After the U.S. emerged as an even stronger global [[superpower]] during the [[Second World War]], the [[Bretton Woods Agreement]] of 1944 established the post-war international monetary system, with the U.S. dollar ascending to become the world's primary [[reserve currency]] for international trade, and the only post-war currency linked to gold at $35 per [[troy ounce]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thebalance.com/bretton-woods-system-and-1944-agreement-3306133|title=How a 1944 Agreement Created a New World Order|access-date=June 8, 2021|archive-date=May 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520170717/https://www.thebalance.com/bretton-woods-system-and-1944-agreement-3306133|url-status=live}}</ref>

===As international reserve currency===
The U.S. dollar is joined by the world's other major currencies – the [[euro]], [[pound sterling]], [[Japanese yen]] and [[renminbi|Chinese renminbi]] – in the currency basket of the [[special drawing rights]] of the [[International Monetary Fund]]. Central banks worldwide have huge reserves of U.S. dollars in their holdings and are significant buyers of [[United States Treasury security|U.S. treasury bills and notes]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ticdata.treasury.gov/Publish/mfh.txt |title=MAJOR FOREIGN HOLDERS OF TREASURY SECURITIES |date=March 15, 2023 |access-date=May 22, 2023 |website=US Treasury |archive-date=November 23, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123161108/http://www.ustreas.gov/tic/mfh.txt |url-status=live }}</ref>

Foreign companies, entities, and private individuals hold U.S. dollars in foreign deposit accounts called [[eurodollar]]s (not to be confused with the [[euro]]), which are outside the jurisdiction of the [[Federal Reserve System]]. Private individuals also hold dollars outside the banking system mostly in the form of [[United States one-hundred-dollar bill|US$100 bills]], of which 80% of its supply is held overseas.

The [[United States Department of the Treasury]] exercises considerable oversight over the [[SWIFT|SWIFT financial transfers network]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.swift.com/about-us/organisation-governance/swift-oversight|title=SWIFT oversight|access-date=June 8, 2021|archive-date=June 16, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230616122658/https://www.swift.com/about-us/organisation-governance/swift-oversight|url-status=live}}</ref> and consequently has a huge sway on the global [[financial transaction]]s systems, with the ability to impose sanctions on foreign entities and individuals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/financial-sanctions/sanctions-programs-and-country-information|title=Sanctions Programs and Country Information {{pipe}} U.S. Department of the Treasury|access-date=June 8, 2021|archive-date=June 16, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230616122725/https://ofac.treasury.gov/sanctions-programs-and-country-information|url-status=live}}</ref>

===In the global markets===
The U.S. dollar is predominantly the standard currency unit in which goods are quoted and traded, and with which payments are settled, in the global [[commodity markets]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thebalance.com/how-the-dollar-impacts-commodity-prices-809294|title=Impact of the Dollar on Commodity Prices|access-date=June 8, 2021|archive-date=March 1, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301181602/https://www.thebalance.com/how-the-dollar-impacts-commodity-prices-809294|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[U.S. Dollar Index]] is an important indicator of the dollar's strength or weakness versus a basket of six foreign currencies.

The [[United States Government]] is capable of borrowing trillions of dollars from the global capital markets in U.S. dollars issued by the [[Federal Reserve System|Federal Reserve]], which is itself under U.S. government purview, at minimal interest rates, and with virtually zero default risk. In contrast, foreign governments and corporations incapable of raising money in their own local currencies are forced to issue debt denominated in U.S. dollars, along with its consequent higher interest rates and risks of default.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/dollarbond.asp|title=Dollar Bond|access-date=June 8, 2021 |archive-date=June 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608195312/https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/dollarbond.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> The United States's ability to borrow in its own currency without facing a significant balance of payments crisis has been frequently described as its [[exorbitant privilege]].<ref>{{Cite web|first = Ben S.|last = Bernanke|date = January 7, 2016|archive-date = June 8, 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210608195319/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/ben-bernanke/2016/01/07/the-dollars-international-role-an-exorbitant-privilege-2/ |url-status = live |url = https://www.brookings.edu/blog/ben-bernanke/2016/01/07/the-dollars-international-role-an-exorbitant-privilege-2/ |title = The dollar's international role: An "exorbitant privilege"? |access-date = }}</ref>

A frequent topic of debate is whether the [[strong dollar policy]] of the United States is indeed in America's own best interests, as well as in the best interest of the [[United Nations|international community]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/quicktake/almighty-dollar |title=The Strong Dollar |work=Bloomberg |last=Mohsin |first=Saleha |date=January 21, 2021 |access-date=August 23, 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=August 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822140416/https://www.bloomberg.com/quicktake/almighty-dollar |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Currencies fixed to the U.S. dollar===
For a more exhaustive discussion of countries using the U.S. dollar as official or customary currency, or using currencies which are pegged to the U.S. dollar, see ''[[International use of the U.S. dollar#Dollarization and fixed exchange rates]]'' and ''[[Currency substitution#US dollar]]''.

Countries using the U.S. dollar as their official currency include:
* In the Americas: [[Panamanian balboa|Panama]], [[Ecuadorian centavo coins|Ecuador]], [[El Salvador]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Turks and Caicos Islands]], and the [[Caribbean Netherlands]].
* The constituent states of the former [[Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands]]: [[Palau]], the [[Federated States of Micronesia]], and the [[Marshall Islands]].
* Others: [[Timor-Leste centavo coins|Timor-Leste]].

Among the countries using the U.S. dollar together with other foreign currencies and their local currency are [[Cambodian riel|Cambodia]] and [[Zimbabwe]].

Currencies pegged to the U.S. dollar include:
* In the Caribbean: the [[Bahamian dollar]], [[Barbadian dollar]], [[Belize dollar]], [[Bermudian dollar]], [[Cayman Islands dollar]], [[Caribbean guilder]], [[Eastern Caribbean dollar]] and the [[Aruban florin]].
* The currencies of five oil-producing Arab countries: the [[Saudi riyal]], [[United Arab Emirates dirham]], [[Omani rial]], [[Qatari riyal]] and the [[Bahraini dinar]].
* Others: the [[Hong Kong dollar]], [[Macanese pataca]], [[Jordanian dinar]], [[Lebanese pound]].

==Value==
{{Update section|date=April 2024|reason=No new data from the past 12 years (ignoring the difficult to read graphs up to 2021 labeled "Inflation of the dollar"), but prices of many foods along have increased 2–4x or more as one example, but pay isn't increasing at all for most people. The actual inflation numbers would be interesting.}}
{{stack begin|float=right|margin=true}}
Buying power of one U.S. dollar compared to 1775 [[Spanish milled dollar]]:
{{col-float|style=margin-right:5px}}
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:5px 0;"
|-
! Year 
!style="width: 40pt; font-size: 95%;"| Equivalent buying power
|-
|1775|| $1.00
|-
|1780|| $0.59
|-
|1790|| $0.89
|-
|1800|| $0.64
|-
|1810|| $0.66
|-
|1820|| $0.69
|-
|1830|| $0.88
|-
|1840|| $0.94
|-
|1850|| $1.03
|-
|1860|| $0.97
|}
{{col-float-break|style=margin-right:5px}}
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:5px 0;"
|-
! Year 
!style="width: 40pt; font-size: 95%;"| Equivalent buying power
|-
|1870|| $0.62
|-
|1880|| $0.79
|-
|1890|| $0.89
|-
|1900|| $0.96
|-
|1910|| $0.85
|-
|1920|| $0.39
|-
|1930|| $0.47
|-
|1940|| $0.56
|-
|1950|| $0.33
|-
|1960|| $0.26
|}
{{col-float-break|style=margin-right:5px}}
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:5px 0;"
|-
! Year 
!style="width: 40pt; font-size: 95%;"| Equivalent buying power
|-
|1970|| $0.20
|-
|1980|| $0.10
|-
|1990|| $0.06
|-
|2000|| $0.05
|-
|2007|| $0.04
|-
|2008|| $0.04
|-
|2009|| $0.04
|-
|2010|| $0.035
|-
|2011|| $0.034
|-
|2012|| $0.03
|}
{{col-float-end}}
{{stack end}}

[[File:Inflation value of dollar.webp|thumb|400px|Inflation value of dollar]]

The 6th paragraph of [[Coinage clause|Section 8]] of Article 1 of the U.S. Constitution provides that the U.S. Congress shall have the power to "coin money" and to "regulate the value" of domestic and foreign coins. Congress exercised those powers when it enacted the [[Coinage Act of 1792]]. That Act provided for the minting of the [[Flowing Hair Dollar|first U.S. dollar]] and it declared that the U.S. dollar shall have "the value of a [[Spanish milled dollar]] as the same is now current".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001/llsl001.db&recNum=371 |title=Section 9 of the Coinage Act of 1792 |publisher=American Memory - Library of Congress |access-date=August 24, 2010 |archive-date=July 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729031805/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001%2Fllsl001.db&recNum=371 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The table above shows the equivalent amount of goods that, in a particular year, could be purchased with $1. The table shows that from 1774 through 2012 the U.S. dollar has lost about 97.0% of its buying power.<ref name="measuring-worth">{{cite web | title = Measuring Worth – Purchasing Power of Money in the United States from 1774 to 2010 | url = https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/ppowerus/ | access-date = April 22, 2010 | archive-date = June 16, 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230616122744/https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/ppowerus/ | url-status = live }}</ref>

The decline in the value of the U.S. dollar corresponds to [[price inflation]], which is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time.<ref>[[Olivier Blanchard]] (2000). ''Macroeconomics'' (2nd ed.), Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall, {{ISBN|0-13-013306-X}}</ref> A [[consumer price index]] (CPI) is a measure estimating the average price of consumer goods and services purchased by households. The [[United States Consumer Price Index]], published by the [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]], is a measure estimating the average price of consumer goods and services in the United States.<ref>{{cite web | title = Consumer Price Index Frequently Asked Questions | url = https://www.bls.gov/cpi/questions-and-answers.htm#Question_1 | access-date = October 16, 2018 | archive-date = October 18, 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181018015214/https://www.bls.gov/cpi/questions-and-answers.htm#Question_1 | url-status = live }}</ref> It reflects inflation as experienced by consumers in their day-to-day living expenses.<ref>{{cite web | title = Consumer Price Index Frequently Asked Questions | url = https://www.bls.gov/cpi/questions-and-answers.htm#Question_12 | access-date = October 17, 2018 | archive-date = October 18, 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181018015214/https://www.bls.gov/cpi/questions-and-answers.htm#Question_12 | url-status = live }}</ref> A graph showing the U.S. CPI relative to 1982–1984 and the annual year-over-year change in CPI is shown at right.

The value of the U.S. dollar declined significantly during wartime, especially during the [[American Civil War]], World War I, and World War II.<ref>{{cite book | title = [[A Monetary History of the United States|A monetary history of the United States, 1867–1960]] | author = [[Milton Friedman]], [[Anna Jacobson Schwartz]] | date = November 21, 1971 | isbn=978-0691003542 | page=546 | publisher = Princeton University Press }}</ref> The [[Federal Reserve]], which was established in 1913, was designed to furnish an "elastic" currency subject to "substantial changes of quantity over short periods", which differed significantly from previous forms of [[high-powered money]] such as gold, national banknotes, and silver coins.<ref>Friedman 189–190</ref> Over the very long run, the prior gold standard kept prices stable—for instance, the price level and the value of the U.S. dollar in 1914 were not very different from the price level in the 1880s. The Federal Reserve initially succeeded in maintaining the value of the U.S. dollar and price stability, reversing the inflation caused by the First World War and stabilizing the value of the dollar during the 1920s, before presiding over a 30% deflation in U.S. prices in the 1930s.<ref name="central-banking-then-and-now">{{cite web |url=https://www.minneapolisfed.org/publications/the-region/central-bankingthen-and-now |title=Central Banking—Then and Now |first1=J. Alfred |last1=Broaddus Jr. |date=September 1, 1993 |website=Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis |access-date=October 17, 2018 |archive-date=October 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026144515/https://www.minneapolisfed.org/publications/the-region/central-bankingthen-and-now |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Under the [[Bretton Woods system]] established after World War II, the value of gold was fixed to $35 per ounce, and the value of the U.S. dollar was thus anchored to the value of gold. Rising government spending in the 1960s, however, led to doubts about the ability of the United States to maintain this convertibility, gold stocks dwindled as banks and international investors began to convert dollars to gold, and as a result, the value of the dollar began to decline. Facing an emerging [[currency crisis]] and the imminent danger that the United States would no longer be able to redeem dollars for gold, gold convertibility was finally terminated in 1971 by [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]], resulting in the "[[Nixon shock]]".<ref name="inflation-historical-perspective">{{cite web |url=http://www.dallasfed.org/research/swe/1993/swe9304b.pdf |title=Controlling Inflation: A Historical Perspective |first1=Kenneth M. |last1=Emery |publisher=Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas |access-date=July 17, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207041621/http://www.dallasfed.org/research/swe/1993/swe9304b.pdf |archive-date=December 7, 2010 }}</ref>

The value of the U.S. dollar was therefore no longer anchored to gold, and it fell upon the Federal Reserve to maintain the value of the U.S. currency. The Federal Reserve, however, continued to increase the money supply, resulting in [[stagflation]] and a rapidly declining value of the U.S. dollar in the 1970s. This was largely due to the prevailing economic view at the time that inflation and real economic growth were linked (the [[Phillips curve]]), and so inflation was regarded as relatively benign.<ref name="inflation-historical-perspective"/> Between 1965 and 1981, the U.S. dollar lost two thirds of its value.<ref name="measuring-worth"/>

In 1979, [[Jimmy Carter|President Carter]] appointed [[Paul Volcker]] [[Chairman of the Federal Reserve]]. The Federal Reserve tightened the money supply and inflation was substantially lower in the 1980s, and hence the value of the U.S. dollar stabilized.<ref name="inflation-historical-perspective"/>

Over the thirty-year period from 1981 to 2009, the U.S. dollar lost over half its value.<ref name="measuring-worth"/> This is because the Federal Reserve has targeted not zero inflation, but a low, stable rate of inflation—between 1987 and 1997, the rate of inflation was approximately 3.5%, and between 1997 and 2007 it was approximately 2%. The so-called "[[Great Moderation]]" of economic conditions since the 1970s is credited to monetary policy targeting price stability.<ref name="inflation-historical-perspective2">{{cite web |url=https://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/speeches/2005/20051103/default.htm |first1=Roger W. Jr. |last1=Ferguson |date= November 3, 2005 |website=FRB |title=Monetary Credibility, Inflation, and Economic Growth |access-date=July 17, 2010 |archive-date=August 15, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815035725/http://federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/speeches/2005/20051103/default.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

There is an ongoing debate about whether central banks should target zero inflation (which would mean a constant value for the U.S. dollar over time) or low, stable inflation (which would mean a continuously but slowly declining value of the dollar over time, as is the case now). Although some economists are in favor of a zero inflation policy and therefore a constant value for the U.S. dollar,<ref name="central-banking-then-and-now"/> others contend that such a policy limits the ability of the central bank to control [[interest rates]] and stimulate the economy when needed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.frbsf.org/education/teacher-resources/us-monetary-policy-introduction/goals/ |title=What are the goals of U.S. monetary policy? |date=February 6, 2004 |website=Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco |access-date=October 17, 2018 |archive-date=October 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018043148/https://www.frbsf.org/education/teacher-resources/us-monetary-policy-introduction/goals/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Pegged currencies==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Aruban florin]] (lower value)
* [[Azerbaijani manat]] (lower value)
* [[Bahamian dollar]] (at par)
* [[Bahraini dinar]] (higher value)
* [[Barbadian dollar]] (lower value)
* [[Belarusian ruble]] (alongside Euro and Russian ruble in currency basket)
* [[Belize dollar]] (lower value)
* [[Bermudian dollar]] (at par)
* [[Bolivian boliviano]] (lower value)
* [[Cambodian riel]] (lower value)
* [[Caribbean guilder]] (lower value)
* [[Cayman Islands dollar]] (higher value)
* [[Costa Rican colón]] (lower value)
* [[Cuban peso]] (lower value)
* [[Djiboutian franc]] (lower value)
* [[Eastern Caribbean dollar]] (lower value)
* [[Ecuadorian centavo coins]] (at par)
* [[Eritrean nakfa]] (lower value)
* [[Guatemalan quetzal]] (lower value)
* [[Haitian gourde]] (lower value)
* [[Honduran lempira]] (lower value)
* [[Hong Kong dollar]] (narrow band)
* [[Iraqi dinar]] (lower value)
* [[Iranian rial]] (lower value)
* [[Jordanian dinar]] (higher value)
* [[Kuwaiti dinar]] (higher value)
* [[Lebanese pound]] (lower value)
* [[Macanese pataca]] (narrow band)
* [[Nicaraguan córdoba]] (lower value)
* [[Omani rial]] (higher value)
* [[Panamanian balboa]] (at par)
* [[Qatari riyal]] (lower value)
* [[Saudi riyal]] (lower value)
* [[Sierra Leonean leone]] (lower value)
* [[Timor-Leste centavo coins]] (at par)
* [[Trinidad and Tobago dollar]] (lower value)
* [[Turkmen manat]] (lower value)
* [[United Arab Emirates dirham]] (lower value)
* [[Yemeni rial]] (lower value)
{{div col end}}

===Currencies formerly with pegs===
(incomplete list)
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Argentine austral]] (1985–1991: fluctuating peg to USD)<ref name="Rafael M. Di Tella and Ingrid Vogel">{{cite web | title = Argentina's Convertibility Plan | author = Rafael M. Di Tella and Ingrid Vogel | date = December 2001 | url = https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=28699 | publisher = Harvard Business School | accessdate = September 24, 2024}}</ref>
* [[Argentine peso]] (1991–2002: 1/USD)<ref name="Rafael M. Di Tella and Ingrid Vogel"/>
* [[Chinese yuan]] (until 2005: 1/USD)<ref name="UNCG">{{cite web | title = Pegged and Crawling Pegged Rate Systems | url = http://web.uncg.edu/dcl/courses/global/unit5/part4.asp | publisher = UNCG | accessdate = September 24, 2024}}</ref>
* [[Indonesian rupiah]] (until 1997: 1/USD)<ref name="Exchange Rate Systems">{{cite web | title = Exchange Rate Systems | url = https://open.lib.umn.edu/principlesofeconomics/chapter/30-3-exchange-rate-systems/ | publisher = University of Minnesota | accessdate = September 24, 2024}}</ref>
* [[Malaysian ringgit]] (1998–2005: 3.80/USD)<ref name="Exchange Rate Systems"/>
* [[Mexican peso]] (1933–1948: 8.65/USD, 1954–1976: 12.5/USD)<ref>{{cite web | title = The Mexican Peso Crisis: The Foreseeable and the Surprise | author = Nora Lustig | date = June 1, 1995 | url = https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-mexican-peso-crisis-the-foreseeable-and-the-surprise/ | publisher = Brookings Institution | accessdate = September 24, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = What's Behind the Volatility of Mexico's Peso? | date = March 9, 2016 | url = https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/whats-behind-the-volatility-of-mexicos-peso/ | publisher = Knowledge at Wharton | accessdate = September 24, 2024}}</ref>
* [[Nigerian naira]] (1993-1998: 22/USD, 2015-2016: 197/USD, 2017-2023: 487/USD)
* [[Polish złoty]] (1990–1991: 9500/USD)<ref>https://nbp.pl/statystyka-i-sprawozdawczosc/kursy/archiwum-tabela-a-csv-xls/</ref>
* [[South Korean won]] (until 1997: 1/USD)<ref name="Exchange Rate Systems"/>
* [[Thai baht]] (until 1997: 1/USD)<ref name="UNCG"/>
{{div col end}}

===Obsolete currencies with USD peg===
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Netherlands Antillean guilder]] (lower value)
* [[Cuban convertible peso]] (at par)
* [[Hawaiian dollar]]
* [[Salvadoran colón]] (lower value)
* [[Zimbabwean bond coins]] and [[Zimbabwean bond notes|bond notes]] (at par)
{{div col end}}

==Exchange rates==
{{see also|U.S. Dollar Index}}

===Historical exchange rates===

<div style="overflow: auto;">

{|class="wikitable"
|+Currency units per one U.S. dollar, averaged over the year<ref>U.S. Federal Reserve: [https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/current/ Last 4 years] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018003147/https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/current/ |date=October 18, 2018 }}, [https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/20130102/ 2009–2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018003115/https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/20130102/ |date=October 18, 2018 }}, [https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/20090102/ 2005–2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018043036/https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/20090102/ |date=October 18, 2018 }}, [https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/20050103/ 2001–2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018003136/https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/20050103/ |date=October 18, 2018 }}, [https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/20010109/ 1997–2000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018003207/https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/20010109/ |date=October 18, 2018 }}, [https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/19970107/ 1993–1996] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018003152/https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/19970107/ |date=October 18, 2018 }};

Reserve Bank of Australia: [https://www.rba.gov.au/statistics/historical-data.html#exchange-rates 1970–present] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181023015005/https://www.rba.gov.au/statistics/historical-data.html#exchange-rates |date=October 23, 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.x-rates.com/historical/ |title=2004–present |access-date=July 24, 2014 |archive-date=July 23, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723044715/http://www.x-rates.com/historical/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=FRB: Foreign Exchange Rates – G.5A; Release Dates|url=https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/|access-date=July 23, 2014|publisher=Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System|archive-date=August 3, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140803055253/http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Exchange rates |url=https://data.oecd.org/conversion/exchange-rates.htm |website=[[OECD]]}}</ref>
! Currency units !! 1970<ref name=":0" group="lower-roman">Mexican peso values prior to 1993 revaluation</ref>!! 1980<ref name=":0" group="lower-roman" />|| 1985<ref name=":0" group="lower-roman" />!! 1990<ref name=":0" group="lower-roman" />!! 1993 !! 1999 !! 2000 !! 2005 !! 2010 !! 2015 !! 2018<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.transfermate.com/en/currency-converter-historic-exchange-rates.asp |title=Historical Exchange Rates Currency Converter |website=TransferMate.com |access-date=September 10, 2016 |archive-date=September 18, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918044948/https://www.transfermate.com/en/currency-converter-historic-exchange-rates.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> !! 2024
|-
| [[Euro]] || — || — || — ||  — ||  — || 0.9387 || 1.0832 || 0.8033 || 0.6739 || 0.9015 || 0.8504 || 0.9239
|-
| [[Japanese yen]] || 357.6 || 240.45 || 250.35 || 146.25 || 111.08 || 113.73 || 107.80 || 110.11 || 87.78 || 121.05 || 111.130 || 151.4551
|-
| [[Pound sterling]] || 8[[Shilling (British coin)|s]] 4[[Penny (British pre-decimal coin)|d]] =0.4167 || 0.4484<ref name="austats" group="lower-roman">[https://www.rba.gov.au/statistics/historical-data.html 1970–1992] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181023015005/https://www.rba.gov.au/statistics/historical-data.html |date=October 23, 2018 }}. '''1980''' derived from AUD–USD=1.1055 and AUD–GBP=0.4957 at end of Dec 1979: 0.4957/1.1055=0.448394392; '''1985''' derived from AUD–USD=0.8278 and AUD–GBP=0.7130 at end of Dec 1984: 0.7130/0.8278=0.861319159.</ref>|| 0.8613<ref name="austats" group="lower-roman" />|| 0.6207 || 0.6660 || 0.6184 || 0.6598 || 0.5493 || 0.4548 || 0.6544 || 0.7454 || 0.7827
|-
| [[Swiss franc]] || 4.12 ||1.68 || 2.46<ref name="SAmeasuringW">"[https://www.forecast-chart.com/usd-swiss-franc.html Exchange Rates Between the United States Dollar and the Swiss Franc] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330093753/https://www.forecast-chart.com/usd-swiss-franc.html |date=March 30, 2019 }}." Measuring Worth. Retrieved October 17, 2018.</ref>|| 1.39 || 1.48 || 1.50 || 1.69 ||1.15 || 1.03 || 1.00 || 0.98 || 0.8808
|-
| [[Canadian dollar]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150103130811/http://intl.econ.cuhk.edu.hk/exchange_rate_regime/index.php?cid=31 1977–1991]</ref>|| 1.081 || 1.168 || 1.321 || 1.1605 || 1.2902 || 1.4858 || 1.4855 || 1.2115 || 1.0298 || 1.2789 || 1.2842 || 1.3699
|-
| [[Mexican peso]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://intl.econ.cuhk.edu.hk/exchange_rate_regime/index.php?cid=17|title=International Economics - Historial Exchange Rate Regime of Asian Countries|website=intl.econ.cuhk.edu.hk|access-date=July 24, 2014|archive-date=December 30, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230104547/http://intl.econ.cuhk.edu.hk/exchange_rate_regime/index.php?cid=17|url-status=dead}}</ref>|| 0.0195<ref name=":1" group="lower-roman">Value at the start of the year</ref>|| 2.80<ref name=":1" group="lower-roman" />|| 2.67<ref name=":1" group="lower-roman" />|| 2.50<ref name=":1" group="lower-roman" />|| 3.1237 || 9.553 || 9.459 || 10.894 || 12.623 || 15.837 || 19.911 || 18.3062
|-
| [[Soviet ruble|Soviet]]<ref>Soviet ruble until 1991 | {{cite web |title=Archive |url=http://cbr.ru/currency_base/OldDataFiles/USD.xls |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203063808/http://www.cbr.ru/currency_base/OldDataFiles/USD.xls |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-02-03 |website=[[Central Bank of Russia]] |access-date=2012-09-11}}</ref> / [[Russian ruble]]<ref>Russian ruble 1992 onwards | [http://cbr.ru/eng/currency_base/dynamics USD exchange rates in RUB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611223756/http://www.cbr.ru/eng/currency_base/dynamics/ |date=11 June 2018 }}, [[Central Bank of Russia|Bank of Russia]]</ref> || 0.9000 || 0.6395 || 0.9200 || 0.6072 || 1.0037 || 24.6489 || 28.1287 || 28.1910 || 30.3679 || 61.3400 || 62.9502 || 92.6567
|-
| [[Renminbi|Chinese Renminbi]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081003050230/http://intl.econ.cuhk.edu.hk/exchange_rate_regime/index.php?cid=8 1974–1991, 1993–1995]</ref>|| 2.46 || 1.7050 || 2.9366 || 4.7832 || 5.7620 || 8.2783 || 8.2784 || 8.1936 || 6.7696 || 6.2840 || 6.383 || 7.1957
|-
| [[Pakistani rupee]] || 4.761 || 9.9 || 15.9284 || 21.707 || 28.107 || 51.9 || 51.9 || 59.7 || 85.75 || 104.763 || 139.850 ||278.390
|-
| [[Singapore dollar]] || — || — || 2.179 || 1.903 || 1.6158 || 1.6951 || 1.7361 || 1.6639 || 1.24586 || 1.3748 || 1.343 ||1.3363
|-
|[[South Korean won]] ||310.556 ||607.717 ||870.020 ||707.766 ||802.538 ||1189.439 ||1130.362 ||1024.328 ||1156.460 ||1130.953 ||1100.163 ||1363.438
|-
|}
</div>

{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = horizontal
| width = 300
| footer = US dollar exchange rates graphs against [[Euro]] (from 1999), [[Pound sterling]] and [[Japanese yen]] (both from 1990) (on the first two - the amount of dollars per one euro and pound, on the third - the amount of yens per one dollar)
| image1 = EUR-USD v2.svg
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = GBP-USD v2.svg
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| image3 = JPY-USD v2.svg
| alt3 =
| caption3 =
}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = horizontal
| width = 300
| footer = US dollar exchange rates graphs against [[Canadian dollar]] (from 1990), [[Mexican peso]] (from 1994) and [[Renminbi|Chinese Renminbi]] (from 1990) (the amount of Canadian dollars, pesos and renminbi per one dollar)
| image1 = CAD-USD v2.svg
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = MXN-USD v2.svg
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| image3 = CNY-USD v2.svg
| alt3 =
| caption3 =
}}
{{-}}

=== Current exchange rates ===
{{Exchange Rate|USD|CAD|TWD|KRW|JPY|style=navbox}}

==See also==
* [[Counterfeit United States currency]]
* [[Dedollarisation]]
* [[Currency substitution]]
* [[International use of the U.S. dollar]]
* [[List of the largest trading partners of the United States]]
* [[Monetary policy of the United States]]
* [[Petrodollar recycling]]
* [[Strong dollar policy]]
* [[U.S. Dollar Index]]
* [[Virtual currency]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
{{Reflist|35em|group=lower-roman}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last= Prasad |first= Eswar S. |year= 2014 |title= The Dollar Trap: How the U.S. Dollar Tightened Its Grip on Global Finance |location= Princeton, NJ |publisher= [[Princeton University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-691-16112-9 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |collapsible = true }}
* [https://www.bep.treas.gov/ U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970530190833/http://www.bep.treas.gov/ |date=May 30, 1997 }}
* [https://www.fiscal.treasury.gov/fsreports/rpt/treasBulletin/treasBulletin_home.htm U.S. Currency and Coin Outstanding and in Circulation]
* [https://www.frbsf.org/education/teacher-resources/american-currency-exhibit/ American Currency Exhibit at the San Francisco Federal Reserve Bank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607130449/https://www.frbsf.org/education/teacher-resources/american-currency-exhibit/ |date=June 7, 2023 }}
* [https://www.measuringworth.com/uscompare/ Relative values of the U.S. dollar, from 1774 to present]
* [http://www.historicalstatistics.org/Currencyconverter.html Historical Currency Converter]
* [http://www.uspapermoney.info/ Summary of BEP Production Statistics]
* [https://www.uscurrency.gov The U.S. Currency Education Program]

===Images of U.S. currency and coins===
* [https://www.uscurrency.gov/denominations U.S. Currency Education Program page with images of all current banknotes]
* [https://www.usmint.gov/news/image-library U.S. Mint: Image Library]
* [http://www.bis-ans-ende-der-welt.net/USA-B-En.htm Historical and current banknotes of the United States] {{in lang|en|de}}

{{Clear}}
{{Coinage (United States coin)}}
{{US currency and coinage}}
{{Money and central banking within the contemporary United States (pre–1913)}}
{{Obsolete U.S. currency and coinage|state = collapsed}}
{{Currencies of Africa}}
{{Currencies of Asia}}
{{Currencies of the Americas}}
{{Currencies of Oceania}}
{{Dollar}}
{{Canceled United States currency and coinage|state = collapsed}}
{{Economy of the United States}}
{{United States topics}}
{{Portal bar|Money|North America|Numismatics|Politics|United States}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:United States Dollar}}
[[Category:United States dollar| ]]
[[Category:Currencies introduced in 1792]]
[[Category:Currencies of dependent territories of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Currencies of Ecuador|Dollar]]
[[Category:Currencies of El Salvador]]
[[Category:Currencies of Panama]]
[[Category:Currencies of Timor-Leste]]
[[Category:Currencies of the Kingdom of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Currencies of the United States|Dollar]]
[[Category:Historical currencies of the United States]]
[[Category:1792 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:Currencies of Africa]]
[[Category:Circulating currencies]]
[[Category:Dollar]]
[[Category:Currencies of Oceania]]
[[Category:Currencies of Asia]]

Monica Chinnakotla

2026-03-13T17:36:53Z

Olympiados:

{{short description|Indian actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Monica Chinnakotla
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
| other_names =
| occupation = Actress, model
| years_active = 2014–present
| imagesize =
| homepage =
}}

'''Monica Chinnakotla''' is an Indian actress who has appeared in [[Tamil films]]. After making her debut in the Tamil film ''[[Jeeva (2014 film)|Jeeva]]'' (2014), she has been seen in films including ''[[Jiivi]]'' (2019) and ''[[Bachelor (2021 film)|Bachelor]]'' (2021).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/290619/monica-chinnakotla-has-a-meaty-role-in-thottu-vidum.html |title=Monica Chinnakotla has a meaty role in Thottu Vidum |first=Anupama |last=Subramanian |date=29 June 2019 |website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref>

==Career==
Monica made her acting debut in a supporting role as [[Sri Divya]]'s sister in [[Suseenthiran]]'s cricket drama ''[[Jeeva (2014 film)|Jeeva]]'' (2014), before first playing the lead female character in ''[[Pagadi Aattam]]'' (2017). She continued to associate with Suseenthiran, by hosting the press event of ''[[Nenjil Thunivirundhal]]'' (2017) and then appearing in a pivotal role in ''[[Genius (2018 Tamil film)|Genius]]'' (2018).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://m.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-16/monica-chinnakotla-says-that-she-wants-to-act-with-vijay.html |title=Monica Chinnakotla says that she wants to act with Vijay |date=24 November 2017 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref>

In 2019, she starred in ''[[Jiivi]]'' and ''[[Thozhar Venkatesan]]'', directed by Suseethiran's assistant Mahashivan, with both films winning her acclaim.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2019/jul/10/thozhar-venkatesan-inspired-by-true-events-12882.html |title=Thozhar Venkatesan, inspired by true events |website=[[Cinema Express]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/kgf-villain-roped-jiivi-actor-vetri-s-next-113768 |title='KGF' villain roped in for 'Jiivi' actor Vetri's next |date=9 December 2019 |website=The News Minute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2019/jul/11/thozhar-venkatesan-brings-out-hardship-faced-by-a-family-mahashivan-2002134.html |title='Thozhar Venkatesan' brings out hardship faced by a family: Mahashivan |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

==Filmography==
;Films
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Film !! Role !! Notes
|-
|rowspan="1"|2014 || ''[[Jeeva (2014 film)|Jeeva]]'' || Ebbie ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|2017 || ''[[Pagadi Aattam]]'' || Kausalya ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|2018 || ''[[Genius (2018 Tamil film)|Genius]]'' || Priscilla ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|2019 || ''[[Jiivi]]'' || Anandhi ||
|-
| ''[[Thozhar Venkatesan]]'' || Kamali ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|2020 || ''Thottu Vidum Thooram'' || ||
|-
| ''Time Up'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|2021 || ''[[Bachelor (2021 film)|Bachelor]]'' || Rumi ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|2022 || ''[[Jiivi 2]]'' || Anandhi ||
|-
| ''[[College Road (film)|College Road]]'' || Kiran ||
|-
|2023 || ''[[Sync (film)|Sync]]'' || ||
|-
|2024 || ''[[Nanban Oruvan Vantha Piragu]]'' || Shailu
|
|-
| 2026 || ''[[Mustafa Mustafa (film)|Mustafa Mustafa]]'' || Stephie || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/mustafa-mustafa/movie-review/129135962.cms|title=Mustafa Mustafa Movie Review: Buddy comedy that runs on fumes|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
|-
|}

;Television
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Channel !! Notes
|-
|rowspan="1"|2019 || ''Police Diary 2.0'' || [[ZEE5]] || ||
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|11915524}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chinnakotla, Monica}}
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Tamil actresses]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Aaru (film)

2026-03-08T17:59:32Z

Olympiados:

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Aaru (film).jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Hari (director)|Hari]]
| writer = Hari
| producer = [[Saran (director)|Saran]]
| starring = [[Suriya]] [[Trisha Krishnan|Trisha]]
| cinematography = [[Priyan]]
| editing = [[V. T. Vijayan]]
| music = [[Devi Sri Prasad]]
| studio = Gemini Productions
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2005|12|09}}
| runtime = 168 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Aaru''''' ({{translation|Six}}) is a 2005 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[action film]] written and directed by [[Hari (director)|Hari]] and produced by [[Saran (director)|Saran]]. It stars [[Suriya]] in the main lead role as Aarumugam (Aaru). [[Trisha Krishnan|Trisha]], [[Vadivelu]], [[Kalabhavan Mani]] and [[Ashish Vidyarthi]] play supporting roles. The music was composed by [[Devi Sri Prasad]], while the cinematography and editing were handled by [[Priyan]] and [[V. T. Vijayan]] respectively.

''Aaru'' was released on 9 December 2005. It received mixed reviews by critics but became a commercial success.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 December 2005 |title=Suriya power! |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/suriya-power-news-tamil-kkfvxcbgjgg.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130108004042/http://www.sify.com/movies/suriya-power-news-tamil-kkfvxcbgjgg.html |archive-date=8 January 2013 |access-date=22 February 2023 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=9 December 2020 |title=Suriya fans celebrate #15YearsofAaru on social media |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/suriya-fans-celebrate-15yearsofaaru-on-social-media/articleshow/79641244.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250822005650/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/suriya-fans-celebrate-15yearsofaaru-on-social-media/articleshow/79641244.cms |archive-date=22 August 2025 |access-date=1 May 2025 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Aarumugam alias Aaru is raised by the sister of Vishwanathan, a gangster. Aaru respects Vishwanathan as his brother and is ready to go miles to keep him as the influential person in [[Chennai]]. When Vishwanathan declares war on his rival Kothanda Rama Reddy, Aaru assists him and Reddy's goons attack him, but Aaru overpowers them. Vishwanathan organises a protest and plots to kill Aaru's friends, but Aaru leaves the protest midway and proposes to his girlfriend Mahalakshmi, but she declines and gives him two months to change and orders him to stay away from her to test his loyalty and love. Aaru reluctantly accepts her decision.

Meanwhile, Aaru's friends are burnt alive during the protest as the [[kerosene]] was mixed with [[gasoline]], even though Aaru had only requested kerosene. Filled with regret, Aaru vows to take exact vengeance. One day, Lingam tells that Vishwanathan's assistant Bhaskar had set fire to the petrol and kerosene. Immediately suspicious, Aaru tries to confront Vishwanthan, who claims that Reddy was behind this. However, Vishwanathan and Reddy made a deal to finish off Aaru in exchange for Reddy to have free rein over parts of Chennai as well as kidnapping and killing young girls. Aaru confronts Reddy and almost kills him until Reddy tells him the truthband also about Vishwanathan's true nature.

Betrayed, Aaru slices Reddy's neck and vows to destroy Vishwanathan's power. Aaru kidnaps Vishwanathan's third younger brother, Jaganathan and slices his hand, where he challenges Vishwanathan to save his near ones as he will not spare anyone. Rajavelu, a corrupt cop and Vishwanathan's brother-in-law, obtains a [[Encounter killing|shooting order to shoot]] Aaru, where he swears to murder Aaru due to a conflict. Aaru plans to attack Vishwanathan's first younger brother, Bhoominathan, who insulted and degraded Aaru several times. During a property registration, Aaru and his men wears masks and break into the registrar's office, where Aaru and his men hacks Bhoominathan and escapes.

Rajavelu fires a bullet into Aaru's shoulder, but Aaru manages to escape. With many hospitals on alert, Maha's friend treats Aaru at her house, where Maha realises Aaru's love and accepts his feelings. Aaru calls Vishwanathan and torments him regarding Bhoominathan's plight, causing Vishwanathan to kill Bhoominathan by unplugging the machine providing life to Bhoominathan. Vishwanathan kills many of Aaru's allies, while Rajavelu arrests Maha and a female officer harasses her in the station for helping Aaru, hoping for Aaru to surrender in order to save Maha's dignity. An enraged Aaru breaks into the police station and takes Maha to safety.

Vishwanathan's second younger brother Loganathan and Bhaskar follow behind to finish Aaru, but Aaru sends her safely in a boat to [[Sri Lanka]]. Loganathan and Bhaskar fight Aaru, but Aaru overpowers them and nearly burns them until Loganathan begs Aaru to spare them. Aaru tells Loganathan to kill Bhaskar and Bhaskar hesitates due to their many years of friendship. Loganathan burns Bhaskar alive, but Bhaskar angrily runs into Loganathan, making him catch on fire and leading to their deaths. Rajavelu pretends to arrest Aaru with other officers and thrashes him.

Aaru, still nearly unconscious, overhears Rajavelu telling Vishwanathan he can come and kill Aaru. Realising that Rajavelu is tricking everyone, Aaru wakes up and beats Rajavelu, tying him to a tree and punching him unconscious. Vishwanathan arrives and engages in combat with Aaru, but Aaru overpowers him and cuts off Vishwanathan's arms. He tells him that Vishwanathan should realise the pain felt by his friends, who were burnt and betrayed. Realising that Aaru is right, Rajavelu surrenders to him. Aaru serves his prison term and gets released, where he reunites with Maha and the two leave for [[Pune]] to start their new lives.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Suriya]] as Aarumugam<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 December 2005 |title=Audio release – Aaru |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/news/functions/audio-aaru.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115011754/http://www.idlebrain.com/news/functions/audio-aaru.html |archive-date=15 November 2021 |access-date=15 November 2021 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref>
* [[Trisha Krishnan|Trisha]] as Mahalakshmi
* [[Vadivelu]] as Sundi Mothiram (Sumo)
* [[Ashish Vidyarthi]] as Vishwanathan
* [[Kalabhavan Mani]] as Rajavelu
* [[Jaya Prakash Reddy]] as Kothanda Rama Reddy
* [[Delhi Ganesh]] as Poongavanam, Aarumugam's father
* [[Nizhalgal Ravi]] as Sundaram, Mahalakshmi's father
* [[Raj Kapoor (Tamil film director)|Raj Kapoor]] as Bhoominathan
* [[Aishwariyaa Bhaskaran|Aishwarya]] as 'Sound' Saroja, Aarumugam's area mate
* [[Malavika Avinash|Malavika]] as Vimala, Rajavelu's wife
* [[Tharika]] as Chitra, Mahalakshmi's friend
* [[Crane Manohar]] as Suggu, Aarumugam's friend
* [[Madhan Bob]] as Eknath
* [[Thambi Ramaiah]] as Shanmugam, Sumo's sidekick
* [[Singamuthu]] as Rangarajan Iyer, Aarumugam's area mate
* [[Aryan (Tamil actor)|Aryan Rajesh]] as Jeganathan
* [[Halwa Vasu]] as Raasu
* [[Chaams]] as Rajamani
* Muthalvan Saran as priest
* [[Swaminathan]] as Venugopal Reddy
* [[Citizen Mani]] as cattle herder
* [[Ambani Shankar|Shankar Narayanan]] as Chinna
* [[Bonda Mani]] as Mani
* [[Sampath Ram]] as Reddy's henchman
;Uncredited
*Mohammed Masthan as Loganathan
* [[Sathyan (Tamil actor)|Sathyan]] as Kailash
* Amirthalingam as an aeroplane accident victim<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 February 2022 |title="அந்த ஒரு சீன்ல நான் வர்றதுக்காக வடிவேலுண்ணே அவ்வளவு போராடினார்!"- நெகிழும் அமிர்தலிங்கம் |url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/kollywood/comedy-actor-amirthalingam-interview-about-his-career |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20250430042337/https://cinema.vikatan.com/kollywood/comedy-actor-amirthalingam-interview-about-his-career |archivedate=30 April 2025 |access-date=30 April 2025 |website=[[Ananda Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref>
* [[Kalyan (choreographer)|Kalyan]] (special appearance in the song "Nenjam Enum")<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KLZSL1Qx7L0 |title=Nenjam Enum (Full Song) – Aaru |date=8 April 2013 |publisher=[[Eros Now|Eros Now South]] |access-date=28 October 2015 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211214/KLZSL1Qx7L0 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |url-status=live |via=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
}}

== Production ==
Director [[Saran (director)|Saran]] made his debut as a producer in this film by floating a production house Gemini Productions,<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 January 2006 |title=A temporary trophy for 'Aaru' |url=https://www.nowrunning.com/news/tamil/a-temporary-trophy-for-aaru/5413/story.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250822010325/https://www.nowrunning.com/news/tamil/a-temporary-trophy-for-aaru/5413/story.htm |archive-date=22 August 2025 |access-date=22 August 2025 |website=Nowrunning |language=en |agency=[[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]]}}</ref> named after his 2002 film ''[[Gemini (2002 film)|Gemini]]''.<ref name=":1" />

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Aaru
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Devi Sri Prasad]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2005
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = {{Ubl| 28:42 (Tamil)
| 28:17 (Telugu)}}
| language = {{Ubl| Tamil
| Telugu}}
| label = {{Ubl| Star Music (Tamil)
| [[Aditya Music]] (Telugu)}}
| producer =
| chronology = [[Devi Sri Prasad]]
| prev_title = [[Mazhai]]
| prev_year = 2005
| next_title = [[Pournami (film)|Pournami]]
| next_year = 2006
| misc = {{external media
| audio1 = {{YouTube|K67R5PGbVLk|Aaru – Tamil – Jukebox}}
| audio2 = {{YouTube|3thUr0egxoE|Aaru – Telugu – Jukebox}}}}
}}

The soundtrack was composed by Devi Sri Prasad and released by Star Music in India and Ayngaran in other international territories.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aaru (2005) |url=https://www.raaga.com/tamil/movie/Aaru-songs-T0000753 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240903205621/https://www.raaga.com/tamil/movie/aaru-songs-T0000753 |archive-date=3 September 2024 |access-date=15 May 2019 |website=[[Raaga.com]]}}</ref> The audio was launched in 11 November 2005 in a soft manner.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 November 2005 |title='Aaru' audio launched! |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/aaru-audio-launched-news-tamil-kkfvywfhgeg.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212031743/http://www.sify.com/movies/aaru-audio-launched-news-tamil-kkfvywfhgeg.html |archive-date=12 December 2013 |access-date=23 August 2012 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref>

{{track listing
| headline = Track listing – Tamil
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Soda Bottle
| length1 = 5:26
| lyrics1 = [[Na. Muthukumar]]
| extra1 = [[Shankar Mahadevan]], [[Mukesh Mohamed]]
| title2 = Paakatha
| length2 = 4:25
| lyrics2 = Na. Muthukumar
| extra2 = [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]], Sumangali
| title3 = Freeya Vudu
| length3 = 4:34
| lyrics3 = Na. Muthukumar
| extra3 = [[Jassie Gift]], [[Vadivelu]], Mukesh Mohamed, M. L. R. Karthikeyan, [[Grace Karunas]]
| title4 = Thottutea
| length4 = 4:30
| lyrics4 = [[Pa. Vijay]]
| extra4 = [[Sunitha Sarathy]], [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]]
| title5 = Nenjam Enum (Bit)
| length5 = 1:40
| lyrics5 = [[Hari (director)|Hari]]
| extra5 = [[Gopika Poornima]]
| title6 = Dhrogam
| length6 = 3:40
| lyrics6 = Na. Muthukumar
| extra6 = [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]]
| title7 = Nenjam Enum
| length7 = 4:27
| lyrics7 = Na. Muthukumar
| extra7 = [[Srinivas (singer)|Srinivas]], [[Kalpana Raghavendar|Kalpana]]
| total_length = 28:42
}}
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing – Telugu<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aaru |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/aaru/jP5iDMIjWTw_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118003304/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/aaru/jP5iDMIjWTw_ |archive-date=18 January 2024 |access-date=22 October 2024 |website=[[JioSaavn]]}}</ref>
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Soda Bottle
| length1 = 5:23
| lyrics1 = Sahithi
| extra1 = Devi Sri Prasad, Saaki, Mukesh
| title2 = Choododde Nannu
| length2 = 4:22
| lyrics2 = [[Chandrabose (lyricist)|Chandrabose]]
| extra2 = Sumangali
| title3 = Tension Vaddu Mama
| length3 = 4:30
| lyrics3 = Sahithi
| extra3 = [[Jassie Gift]], [[Grace Karunas]], M. L. R. Karthikeyan
| title4 = Puttanata Puttanata
| length4 = 4:28
| lyrics4 = Sahithi
| extra4 = [[Sagar (singer)|Sagar]], [[Sunitha Sarathy]]
| title5 = Hrudayam Anu (Female)
| length5 = 1:36
| lyrics5 = Sahithi
| extra5 = [[Gopika Poornima]]
| title6 = Droham
| length6 = 3:35
| lyrics6 = [[Suddala Ashok Teja]]
| extra6 = Karthikeyan
| title7 = Hrudayam Anu
| length7 = 4:23
| lyrics7 = Sahithi
| extra7 = [[Srinivas (singer)|Srinivas]], [[Srilekha Parthasarathy]]
| total_length = 28:17
}}

== Release ==
''Aaru'' was censored "[[A certificate|A]]" (adults only) by the [[Central Board of Film Certification|censor board]] due to excessive violence. Although Hari and Saran were willing to make cuts to receive a [[U/A certificate]] instead, the board did not agree.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 December 2005 |title='Aaru' gets 'A' certificate! |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/aaru-gets-a-certificate-news-tamil-kkfvx4jibfi.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109024518/http://www.sify.com/movies/aaru-gets-a-certificate-news-tamil-kkfvx4jibfi.html |archive-date=9 January 2014 |access-date=23 August 2012 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> The film was released on 9 December 2005 alongside ''[[Vetrivel Sakthivel]]'' and ''[[Sandakozhi]]''. After the success of'' [[Ghajini (2005 film)|Ghajini]]'', Suriya had a similar opening as ''Aaru'' released with approximately 171 prints in [[Tamil Nadu]]. The opening weekend tickets for the film had been sold out in [[Chennai]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=8 December 2005 |title='Aaru'- Opening big! |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/aaru-opening-big-news-tamil-kkfvxzjbhii.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109033033/http://www.sify.com/movies/aaru-opening-big-news-tamil-kkfvxzjbhii.html |archive-date=9 January 2014 |access-date=23 August 2012 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref>

== Critical reception ==
''[[Sify]]'' wrote "''Aaru'' offers neither insight nor content-just unmitigated violence. This prolonged film is difficult to bear."<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 December 2005 |title=Aaru |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/aaru-review--pclvOpgdacjhc.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120043311/http://www.sify.com/movies/aaru-review--pclvOpgdacjhc.html |archive-date=20 January 2019 |access-date=19 January 2019 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> Lajjavathi of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' wrote that since Suriya is recognised in [[Andhra Pradesh]], it seems that they have tried to satisfy the fans there. The excitement till the end descends to the point of boredom due to the violent scenes.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=லஜ்ஜாவதி |date=1 January 2006 |title=ஆறு |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki2006-01-01/page/n1/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240229125345/https://archive.org/details/kalki2006-01-01/page/n1/mode/2up |archive-date=29 February 2024 |access-date=29 February 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=1 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> Malini Mannath of ''Chennai Online'' wrote "It's director Charan's first production venture and there are no pretensions here. For 'Aaru' is just what it professes to be. A total violent action flick, which may not be an ideal fare for the faint-hearted, but a fitting one for an action lover".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=20 December 2005 |title=Aaru |url=http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Moviereviews/2005/12aaru.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070204001323/http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Moviereviews/2005/12aaru.asp |archive-date=4 February 2007 |access-date=14 August 2024 |website=Chennai Online}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}

{{Saran (director)}}
{{Hari (director)}}

[[Category:2000s masala films]]
[[Category:2005 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2005 action films]]
[[Category:2005 films]]
[[Category:2005 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Hari (director)]]
[[Category:Films scored by Devi Sri Prasad]]
[[Category:Films set in Chennai]]
[[Category:Films set in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Films shot in Chennai]]
[[Category:Films shot in Jordan]]
[[Category:Films shot in Ooty]]
[[Category:Indian action films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language action films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

NISHAD Party

2026-03-07T13:34:41Z

Olympiados: fix references per standard format and corrected details for accuracy

{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian Political Party
|party_name = Nishad Party
|colorcode = {{Party color|NISHAD Party}}
|party_logo =
|leader = [[Sanjay Nishad]]
|secretary =
|loksabha_leader = Pravin Nishad
|rajyasabha_leader =
|colours = {{Colorsample|#BA0005}} Maroon
|foundation = {{Start date and age|2016|08|16|df=yes|br=y}}
|rajyasabha_seats =
|position = [[Centre-left]]{{cn|date=March 2026}}
|ideology = [[Nishad]]s Interest
|alliance = *[[National Democratic Alliance]] (2019–present)
*[[Samajwadi Party|SP+]] (2018–2019)
|headquarters =
|eci = registered unrecognized party
|publication =
|students =
|youth = Nishad Raj Youth
|state_seats_name = [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Uttar Pradesh Vidhan Sabha]]
|state_seats = {{Composition bar|6|403|hex={{Party color|NISHAD Party}}}}
|state2_seats_name = [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council|Uttar Pradesh Vidhan Parishad]]
|state2_seats = {{Composition bar|1|100|hex={{Party color|NISHAD Party}}}}
|electoral_symbol = BHOJAN KI THALI
|flag =
|website = {{URL|nishadparty.com}}
}}

'''Nirbal Indian Shoshit Hamara Aam Dal''' is a [[political party]] in [[India]]. It was founded on 16 August 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-08-11 |title=Nishad party's 'show of strength' on August 16 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/nishad-partys-show-of-strength-on-august-16/articleshow/102631021.cms |access-date=2024-06-06 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The party was formed for empowerment of [[Nishad]], [[Kewat]]s, [[Bind (caste)|Bind]], [[Beldar]], [[Mallaah|Mallah]], Sahani, [[Kashyap (caste)|Kashyap]], and [[Gondi people|Gondi]] communities whose traditional occupations centred on [[rivers]], such as [[boatmen]] or [[fishermen]]. Its founder, Sanjay Nishad, is a former member of the [[Bahujan Samaj Party]] (BSP). According to Nishad, a separate party representing these communities was essential as they had played an integral role in the victories of BSP and [[Samajwadi Party]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/nishad-and-peace-party-alliance-may-spoil-bjp-spbsp-fortunes-in-east-up-1355294.html | title=Nishad and Peace Party Alliance May Spoil BJP, SP, BSP Fortunes in East UP | date=2 March 2017 | publisher=News18 | first=Pranshu | last=Mishra | access-date=8 June 2019 }}</ref><ref name="Hi0228">{{cite news |author=Gupta |first=Smita |date=28 February 2017 |title=Nishad Party's idea of power |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/nishad-partys-idea-of-power/article17379172.ece |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-03-05 |title=UP elections 2017: As polls draw to a close, Nishads may consolidate under 'own party' |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/uttar-pradesh-assembly-elections-2017/up-elections-2017-as-polls-draw-to-a-close-nishads-may-consolidate-under-own-party/ |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nishad Party: Why Gorakhpur's river communities could drown SP, BJP & BSP |url=http://www.catchnews.com/uttar-pradesh-election/nishad-party-why-gorakhpur-s-river-communities-could-drown-sp-bjp-bsp-53390.html |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=CatchNews.com |language=en}}</ref>

The Nishad Party nominated 100 candidates in various constituencies in the [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] in alliance with [[Peace Party of India]], the [[Apna Dal (Soneylal)|Apna Dal]] and the [[Jan Adhikar Party]].<ref name="Hi0228"/> In the election swept by the BJP, the NISHAD party won only the [[Gyanpur (Assembly constituency)|Gyanpur constituency]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2012/Stats_Report_UP2012.pdf|title=STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 2012 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF UTTAR PRADESH|publisher=ELECTION COMMISSION OF INDIA|date=6 March 2012}}</ref> Party leader Sanjay Nishad came third in [[Gorakhpur Rural (Assembly constituency)|Gorakhpur Rural]], polling 35,000 votes, against 83,686 votes by the winner [[Bipin Singh (politician)|Bipin Singh]].<ref name=ET0219>{{cite news|title=Gorakhpur: NISHAD candidate to fight on SP symbol |url = https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/gorakhpur-nishad-candidate-to-fight-on-spF-symbol/articleshow/62977115.cms| publisher= Economic Times| date= 19 February 2018}}</ref>

For the 2018 by-elections to [[Phulpur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Phulpur]] and [[Gorakhpur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Gorakhpur]] Lok Sabha seats, Samajwadi Party united with several smaller parties, including Nishad Party, to extend its social base beyond Yadavs and Muslims. Sanjay Nishad's son, [[Praveen Kumar Nishad]] was selected as the Samajwadi candidate in Gorakhpur, where the Nishad community is the second-largest demographic group.<ref name=ET0219/><ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.thequint.com/news/politics/nishad-vote-consolidation-helped-defeat-bjp-in-gorakhpur| title= UP Bypolls: Consolidating Nishad Vote Key to Winning Gorakhpur| publisher = The Quint| author= Aviral Virk}}</ref> In a major upset, Praveen Nishad wrested the seat from BJP, which had not lost the seat since 1989. The victory margin was 21,000 votes.<ref>{{cite news|title= How 29-year-old Praveen Kumar Nishad shook off 29-year hold of BJP in Gorakhpur| work = Times of India| date = 15 March 2018 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/how-29-year-old-kumar-breached-the-29-year-old-bastion-of-bjp-in-gorakhpur/articleshow/63310186.cms}}</ref>

Nishad party contested the 2022 [[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|UP State Election]] in alliance with [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] and won six seats.<ref>{{Cite web |title=निषाद पार्टी के अध्यक्ष संजय निषाद भी बने मंत्री, हैं विधान परिषद के सदस्य |url=https://www.aajtak.in/india/uttar-pradesh/story/sanjay-nishad-minister-in-up-govt-nishad-party-mlc-gorakhpur-ntc-1434975-2022-03-25 |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Aaj Tak |date=25 March 2022 |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=UP Election Result: भाजपा के साथ से मिली पहचान, मिला चौथे नंबर की पार्टी का मान...जानिए कैसे बदल गई निषाद पार्टी |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/uttar-pradesh/news/nishad-party-success-understand-the-reason-behind-it-an-important-part-in-politics-of-up/articleshow/90178999.cms |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Navbharat Times |language=hi}}</ref>

== Election Performance ==

{{Empty section|date=July 2025}}

== Assembly Elections ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|+
!style="background-color:{{party color|NISHAD Party}};color:white"|Vidhan Sabha Term
!style="background-color:{{party color|NISHAD Party}};color:white"|UP Elections
!style="background-color:{{party color|NISHAD Party}};color:white"|Seats contested
!style="background-color:{{party color|NISHAD Party}};color:white"|Seats won
!style="background-color:{{party color|NISHAD Party}};color:white"|% of votes
!style="background-color:{{party color|NISHAD Party}};color:white"|Party Votes
!style="background-color:{{party color|NISHAD Party}};color:white"|Ref
|-
!Colspan="7"|[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
|-
| 17th Vidhan Sabha
| [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
| 72
| {{Composition bar compact|1|403|{{party color|Samajwadi Party}}}}
| 0.70%
| 9,30,785
|<ref>{{cite web|title=2017 Vidhan Sabha / Assembly election results Uttar Pradesh|url=https://www.indiavotes.com/vidhan-sabha/2017/uttar-pradesh%20[2000%20onwards]/255/60|access-date=24 August 2022|website=IndiaVotes}}</ref>
|-
| 18th Vidhan Sabha
| [[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| 17
| {{Composition bar compact|6|403|{{party color|Samajwadi Party}}}}
| 0.91%
| 8,40,584
|}

== 2022 ==
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Majhawan<ref name="election2022"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = NISHAD Party
|candidate = [[Vinod Kumar Bind]]
|votes = 1,03,235
|percentage = 42.07
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Rohit Shukla
|votes = 69,648
|percentage = 28.38
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Pusplata Bind
|votes = 52,990
|percentage = 21.59
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Shiv Shanker Chaudhary
|votes = 3,399
|percentage = 1.39
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above (India)
|votes = 2,746
|percentage = 1.12
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate = Prakash Chand Tripathi<ref name="AAP 150 list">{{cite news |last1=Bhandari |first1=Shashwat |title=AAP announces 150 candidates for UP elections 2022 {{!}} Check complete list |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/elections/news/aap-releases-150-candidates-for-uttar-pradesh-polls-2022-check-full-list-2022-01-16-754742 |access-date=27 January 2022 |work=indiatvnews.com |date=16 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
|votes = 2,361
|percentage = 0.96
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 33,587
|percentage = 13.69
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 2,45,391
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = NISHAD Party
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==Election results==
=== 2022 ===
NISHAD Party member [[Vipul Dubey]] won in the [[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]], defeating [[Samajwadi Party]] candidate, Ram Kishore Bind, by a margin of 6231 votes.
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Gyanpur<ref name="election2022">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14185-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2022/ |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |title=State Election, 2022 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |website=eci.gov.in |access-date=4 March 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=NISHAD Party|candidate=[[Vipul Dubey]]|votes=73446|percentage=34.12|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Samajwadi Party|candidate=Ram Kishore Bind<ref>{{cite web |url=https://swarnabharat.in/DharmarajBind |title=Dharmaraj Bind}}</ref>|votes=67215|percentage=31.23|change=}}

{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nishadparty.org/ Official Website]
{{Indian political parties}}

[[Category:2016 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Dalit politics]]
[[Category:Member parties of the National Democratic Alliance]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 2016]]
[[Category:Political parties in Uttar Pradesh]]

Thatha-Manavadu

2026-03-03T20:26:40Z

Olympiados: Added a stub added tags.

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Thatha-Manavadu
| image = Tata Manavadu.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Dasari Narayana Rao]]
| producer = K. Raghava
| writer = [[Dasari Narayana Rao]]
| narrator =
| starring = [[S. V. Ranga Rao]] [[Raja Babu (actor)|Raja Babu]] [[Kaikala Satyanarayana]] [[Anjali Devi]] [[Vijaya Nirmala]] [[Rajasulochana]]
| music = [[Ramesh Naidu]]
| cinematography = M. Kannappa
| editing =
| studio =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1973|3|23|ref1=<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 February 2013 |title=Dasari to commence 151st movie next month |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/dasari-to-commence-151st-movie-next-month-news-telugu-ncslRfhhbei.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221013043/http://www.sify.com/movies/dasari-to-commence-151st-movie-next-month-news-telugu-ncslRfhhbei.html |archive-date=21 February 2017 |access-date=19 February 2013 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref>}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Telugu
}}

'''''Thatha-Manavadu''''' ({{Translation|Grandfather-Grandson}}) is a 1973 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language film written and directed by [[Dasari Narayana Rao]] in his debut.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sri |date=5 May 2005 |title=Articles : Movie Retrospect : Tata Manavadu (1973) |url=http://www.telugucinema.com/c/publish/movieretrospect/tatamanavadu1973.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717132602/http://www.telugucinema.com/c/publish/movieretrospect/tatamanavadu1973.php |archive-date=17 July 2012 |access-date=15 March 2010 |website=[[Telugucinema.com]]}}</ref> The film stars [[S. V. Ranga Rao]] and [[Raja Babu (actor)|Raja Babu]] in the [[Title character|titular roles]]. ''Thatha-Manavadu'' featured Raja Babu, who had mostly acted in comic and supporting roles until then, as a [[Leading actor|lead actor]]. He is paired with actress [[Vijaya Nirmala]].

The film was released on 23 March 1973. It ran for 25 weeks in theatres. The film won the [[Nandi Award for Best Feature Film|Nandi Award for Second Best Feature Film]]. It was later remade in Kannada as ''[[Maga Mommaga]]'' (1974) and in Hindi as ''[[Suntan (1976 film)|Suntan]]'' (1976).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suntan |url=http://myswar.co/album/santaan-1976 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907083506/http://myswar.co/album/santaan-1976 |archive-date=7 September 2022 |access-date=2022-09-07 |website=MySwar}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Rangayya (S. V. Ranga Rao) lives with his wife Seetha (Anjali Devi) and his sister's daughter, Suguna (Chandrakala). He is a labourer who toils to fulfill the wish of making his son, Anand (Kaikala Satyanarayana), a doctor, by sending him to the city and hopes to marry Anand to his sister's daughter Suguna (Chandrakala), as promised to his dying sister, after Anand becomes a doctor. However, Anand leads a Casanova lifestyle, conning everyone in the city and his family back home, who as a result of not being privy to what is happening in the city, send him money regularly on demand. This fools even creditors in the city who give him huge loans, using which Anand leads a life of excess. He does this to show that he is from a rich Zamindar's family, to conceal his origin, in order to woo Geetha (Rajasulochana), a rich girl who leads a Page 3 life and detests lower-class people. He intends to use her to pay off his loans and enjoy the rest of her wealth after marrying her. When the debts mount, he resorts to continuous postponement of marriage with Geetha, for fear of being exposed, and runs back home to get money for temporary payment of loans to ensure his plan of marrying Geetha is not jeopardized. When he reaches the village, Anand promises to marry Suguna, makes her pregnant and cheats her into giving her jewellery and runs away for good.

Eventually, this is revealed to Rangayya and Seetha, who in order to save Suguna's honour decide to marry her to Anand as soon as possible. Rangayya sets off to the city to bring back Anand only to find out Anand has married Geeta. Rangayya angrily confronts Anand, but latter claims he doesn't know who Rangayya is and Rangayya is thrown out. Geetha however, confronts Anand on his successful ploy, but decides against taking action, believing it would bring shame to her if this matter became public. Rangayya reaches home a broken man and reveals what happened to his family. Shattered, they decide to leave the city to escape humiliation in the village. Rangayya now toils even harder for the sake of his family. Soon, Suguna gives birth to a daughter, Laxmi, and dies while Geeta gives birth to a son, Giri. Time flies by with Rangayya and Seetha taking solace from despair by tending to Laxmi.

Eventually, circumstances cause Rangayya to work as a labourer, in Anand's mansion construction, and when this fact reaches his knowledge, he suffers an accident at the construction site making him blind. This means that Seetha now has to work as housemaid for the upkeep of the family and circumstances cause even her to reach Anand's home as a housemaid. Soon, Seetha and Anand meet face to face, in shock, Seetha explains to her son what has transpired and remorseless, Anand blames it on fate and refuses to come to her mother's rescue. Seetha, for Rangayya and Laxmi's sake, decides to keep the matter secret and continues to work in the home. She suffers constant humiliation daily, at the hands of Anand and his family, with Giri albeit young the only one shielding Seetha, which does not bode well with Geeta and the rest of the family. Giri ends up meeting Laxmi at school, which leads him to meet Rangayya. He treats him like his own father, but Seetha refuses to reveal any secret, but is forever indebted and proud of her own grandson.

Years later, Giri (now Raja Babu) has become a medical student and falls in love with his college mate Raani (Vijay Nirmala), who is the daughter of Paramatma Rao (Gummadi), Advocate and Solicitor to Geetha's family. Meanwhile, Laxmi also has grown up to become a nurse. Giri, as an adult with the capacity of independence, has grown to love Rangayya's family even more while defending them and helping them at every step. One day, an elderly and tired Seetha, while serving coffee to guests visiting home, faints, spilling coffee on Geetha. She pushes Seetha out of disgust and this injures Seetha. Giri on learning of the incident tends to Seetha. He goes to bring Rangayya to her care. Meanwhile, Geeta makes her family including Anand throw Seetha into the garage. Giri comes back with Rangayya to notice this, yet prevents telling blind Rangayya what transpired, to prevent him from being shattered on the turn of events. He rebels against his family, tends to both and makes them comfortable and leaves for a medical camp. Seeing the opportunity, Rangayya and Seetha leave for their home, where Seetha's condition deteriorates. Giri reaches Rangayya's home with Raani and her brother Kutumba Rao, as on return to his home after camp, he noticed Rangayya and Seetha had left. He brings a specialist doctor who diagnoses Seetha with internal haemorrhage, stating, she will not live long. Circumstances make Seetha reveal to everything to everyone and dies. Giri performs his grandmother's last rites. Completely void of all hope to live life, Ramaiah wanders away from the rites ceremony and meets with an accident and is revealed to have died. Giri reveals everything now to an inconsolable Laxmi and they all gather at Raani's house and decide to teach Anand's family a lesson as a revenge as per Paramata Rao's instruction. The plan is to make them suffer exactly the way Ramaiah and Seetha suffered. The life of excess led by Anand's family was fed by loans from mortgaging property which Geetha's grandfather had willed to Giri when he would be born, but now since Giri was a major he gained Power of Attorney, so, they decide to grab it from him by deceit. He foils their plan, so they plan to marry him to the creditor's daughter itself, which would wipe out the loans for which Giri pretends to marry Raani who now poses as a villager, which infuriates Geetha who detests such people. At wit's end, they try to forge the Power of Attorney papers, for which they go to Paramatma Rao. He pretends to oblige, but later publicizes everything and when confronted by Anand's family, he lies by saying he was threatened by Giri at gunpoint. He then disguises himself as Raani's village father and all of them start to blackmail Anand's family to the brink of breakdown, which makes them realise all their sins. The creditor comes to arrest Anand and Geetha for non-payment of loans, for which they oblige, but they are led as per plan to Paramatma's home. There, a man repays the creditor the loan amount preventing Anand and Geetha's arrest. They wish to know who is the man who saved them, it is revealed to be Rangayya along with the rest. Rangayya survived an apparent accident and was operated upon to get back his vision and cared for in Paramatma Rao's house. He reveals the whole sequence of events to his Anand and Geeta, who were ashamed and apologized for their actions and thus the forgery case was also rested. Rangayya, refused to forgive them, but was ready to forget. He praises his grandson and Rao's family by claiming how they gave him a new lease of life. Paramatma Rao announces the wedding of Raani with Giri and Laxmi with Kutumba Rao. The movie ends on a happy note with the family opening a free hospital named in memory of Seetha as Rangayya wished.

== Cast ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Actor !! Character
|-
| [[S. V. Ranga Rao]] || Rangayya
|-
| [[Anjali Devi]] || Seeta, wife of Rangayya
|-
| [[Raja Babu (actor)|Raja Babu]] || Giri, son of Anand
|-
| [[Kaikala Satyanarayana]] || Anand, son of Rangayya
|-
| [[Rajasulochana]] || Geeta, wife of Anand
|-
| [[Vijaya Nirmala]] || Raani
|-
| [[Allu Ramalingaiah]] ||
|-
| [[Ramaprabha]] ||
|-
| [[Chhaya Devi]] ||
|-
| Chandrakala || Suguna
|-
| [[Gummadi (actor)|Gummadi]] || Paramatma Rao
|-
| [[Rao Gopal Rao]] || Kutumba Rao
|-
| [[Kommineni Seshagiri Rao]] ||
|-
| [[Srividya]] || Dancer
|-
| [[Potti Veerayya]]||
|-
|}

== Songs ==

{{Track listing
| headline = Track list
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Anubandham Athmeeyatha
| lyrics1 = [[C. Narayana Reddy]]
| extra1 = [[V. Ramakrishna]]
| title2 = Eenade Babu Nee Puttinaroju
| lyrics2 = C. Narayana Reddy
| extra2 = [[P. Susheela]]
| title3 = Nookalammanu Nenu
| lyrics3 =
| extra3 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[L. R. Eswari]]
| title4 = Raayanti Naa Mogudu
| lyrics4 =
| extra4 = L. R. Eswari
| title5 = Soma Mangala Budha
| lyrics5 =
| extra5 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, L. R. Eswari
| title6 = Yemito Ee Lokamanta
| lyrics6 =
| extra6 = V. Ramakrishna
}}

== Awards ==
*The film won the [[Nandi Award for Best Feature Film|Nandi Award for Second Best Feature Film – Silver]] (producers K. Raghava and Ekambara Rao)<ref>{{Cite web |title=నంది అవార్డు విజేతల పరంపర (1964–2008) |trans-title=A series of Nandi Award Winners (1964–2008) |url=http://ipr.ap.nic.in/New_Links/Film.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150223135739/http://ipr.ap.nic.in/New_Links/Film.pdf |archive-date=23 February 2015 |access-date=21 August 2020 |publisher=[[Andhra Pradesh (magazine)|Information & Public Relations of Andhra Pradesh]] |language=Telugu}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt0262810|Tata Manavadu}}
* [http://www.raaga.com/channels/telugu/moviedetail.asp?mid=A0002429 Listen to Thatha Manavadu songs at Raaga.com]

{{Dasari Narayana Rao}}

[[Category:1973 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:1973 Indian films]]
[[Category:1973 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:1973 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Dasari Narayana Rao]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ramesh Naidu]]
[[Category:Telugu films remade in other languages]]

Umayyad campaigns in India

2026-02-26T23:51:59Z

Olympiados: Page updated with relevant improvements

{{Short description|Military campaigns of the Arab Umayyad Caliphate in India}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Umayyad campaigns in India
| partof = [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]]
| image =
| image_size = 250px
| caption =
| date = 711–740 CE
| place = [[Rajasthan]] and [[Gujarat]], [[India]]
| result = Victory of Indian kingdoms
| territory = Umayyad expansion restricted to [[Sind (caliphal province)|Sindh]]
| combatant1 = [[Karkota dynasty]] [[Pratihara dynasty]]<ref>{{harvnb|Bhandarkar|1929|pp=30–31}}</ref> [[Mori Kingdom]] [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Sapadalaksha]] [[Guhila dynasty]] [[Gurjaras of Lata]] [[Chalukya dynasty]] [[Rashtrakutas|Rashtrakuta Empire]]<ref name="Altekar 1934 55">{{Cite book |last=Altekar |first=A.S. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57217 |title=Rashtrakuta and their Times |publisher=Oriental Books |year=1934 |pages=55 |language=English}}</ref> {{flagicon image|Valabhi Trident Coat of Arms.png}} [[Kingdom of Valabhi]]{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=189}} [[Chavda dynasty]] [[Saindhava]]<ref name=AKMH>{{cite journal |last=Kumar |first=Amit |year=2012 |title=Maritime History of India: An Overview |journal=Maritime Affairs:Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=93–115 |doi=10.1080/09733159.2012.690562 |s2cid=108648910 |quote="In 776 AD, Arabs tried to invade Sind again but were defeated by the Saindhava naval fleet. A Saindhava inscription provides information about these naval actions."}}</ref><ref name="Sen1999">{{harvnb |Sailendra Nath Sen |1999 |pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA343 343–344]}}</ref>
| combatant2 = [[Umayyad Caliphate]]
| commander1 = Chavotaka king{{KIA}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=K.m. Munshi |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.280113 |title=Glory That Was Gurjara Desa Ad 550 1300 |pages=399}}</ref> [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]] [[Yashovarman]]{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=148}} [[Nagabhata I]] [[Bappa Rawal]] Jayabhata IV<ref name="Blankinship 1994 187">{{harvnb|Blankinship|1994|p=187}}; {{harvnb|Puri|1986|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Chattopadhyaya|1998|p=32}}</ref> [[Vikramaditya II]] [[Chalukyas of Navasarika#Pulakeshin|Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin]] [[Dantidurga]]<ref name="Altekar 1934 55">{{Cite book |last=Altekar |first=A.S. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57217 |title=Rashtrakuta and their Times |publisher=Oriental Books |year=1934 |pages=55 |language=English}}</ref> Pushyadeva
| commander2 = [[Muhammad ibn al-Qasim]] [[Junayd ibn Abd ar-Rahman al-Murri]] [[Tamim ibn Zayd al-Utbi]] [[Al-Hakam ibn Awana]]{{KIA}}
| notes =
}}

During the first half of the 8th century, a series of battles took place in the [[Indian subcontinent]] between the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] and [[Middle kingdoms of India|Indian kingdoms]] situated to the east of the [[Indus River]],<ref name=Crawford>{{cite book |title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam |first=Peter |last=Crawford |publisher=Pen & Sword Books |location=Barnsley, Great Britain |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-84884-612-8 |page=216}}</ref> beginning with the [[Arab conquest of Sindh]] (present day [[Pakistan]]) during 711–713.

The [[Rashidun Caliphate]] (632–661) launched a few raids into India, but no larger campaign took place. The second wave of military expansion of the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliphate]] lasted from 692 to 718. The reign of [[Al-Walid I]] (705–715) saw the most dramatic Umayyad conquests in a period of barely ten years; [[North Africa]], [[Iberian Peninsula|Hispania]], [[Transoxiana]], and [[Sind (caliphal province)|Sindh]] were subdued and conquered by the Arabs.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=29}} Sindh, ruled by King [[Dahir of Aror|Dahir]] of the Brahmin [[Chach dynasty]], was captured by the Umayyad general [[Muhammad ibn al-Qasim]],{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=30}} which became a second-level province of the Caliphate (''iqlim'') and a suitable base for excursions into India, but, after Ibn al-Qasim's departure in 715 most of his captured territories were recaptured by Indian kings.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|pp=19, 41}}

[[Yazid II]] (720–724) launched the third Umayyad expansion along all the warring frontiers, including in India, which resulted in a series of battles between the Arabs and Silluka (725–750) of the [[Pratiharas of Mandavyapura]], [[Nagabhata I]] of the [[Pratihara dynasty|Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty]], Siladitta IV (710-740) of [[Maitraka dynasty]], [[Vikramaditya II]] of the [[Chalukya dynasty]], and other small [[Middle kingdoms of India|Indian kingdoms]] between 724 and 750. [[Junayd ibn Abd ar-Rahman al-Murri|Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri]] (723–726) recaptured Sindh, conquered Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan. However, Arab forces invaded [[Malwa]] and achieved victory.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balocu |first=Nabī Bak̲h̲shu K̲h̲ānu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKPjAAAAMAAJ&q=junayd+malwa+fresh+Victories |title=Lands of Pakistan: Perspectives, Historical and Cultural |date=1995 |publisher=el-Mashriqi Foundation |page=48}}</ref>

The fourth Umayyad campaign was launched after the Arabs lost control of Sindh and the onquered territories of Rajasthan and Gujarat under [[Tamim ibn Zayd al-Utbi]] (726–731). [[Al-Hakam ibn Awana]], assisted by Amr, son of Muhammad ibn Qasim, pacified Sindh, established garrison cities of Al-Mahfuza and [[Mansura, Sindh|Al-Mansura]], then campaigned in Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat. [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]] and [[Yashovarman]] of [[Varman dynasty (Kannauj)|Kannauj]] checked the Arabs in Punjab, although Al-Hakam conquered Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan, the Arabs were decisively defeated at [[Navsari]] in 739 by [[Chalukyas of Navasarika#Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin|Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin]], a general of [[Vikramaditya II]].{{sfn|Majumdar|1977|p=279}} The Arabs lost their conquests in Rajasthan and Gujarat by 743. These events took place during the reign of [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik]] (r. 691–743), the 10th Umayyad caliph, which saw a turn in the fortune of the Umayyads that resulted in eventual defeat on all fronts and a complete halt of Arab expansion. The hiatus from 740 to 750 due to military exhaustion, also saw the advent of the third of a series of civil wars, which resulted in the collapse of the [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]].{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=19}}

==Background==
{{See also|Ali's Eastern Campaigns}}
The first incursion by Arabs in India occurred around 636/7 AD, during the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], long before any Arab Army reached the frontier of India by land.<ref name="Wink, Andre pp201">{{harvnb|Wink|2002|p=201}}</ref> [[Uthman ibn Abi al-As|Uthman ibn Abi al-As al-Thaqafi]], the governor of [[Eastern Arabia|Bahrain]] and [[History of Oman|Oman]], had dispatched the naval expeditions against the ports and positions of the [[Sasanian Empire]], and further east to the borders of India.{{sfn|Hoyland|2015|p=85}} The raided ports in India were [[Thane]], [[Bharuch]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Als1Iy223qkC&q=hakam+thana+arab |title=Proceedings and Transactions of the ... All-India Oriental Conference |date=1947 |publisher=Bihar and Orissa Research Society |pages=551 |language=en}}</ref> and [[Debal]] (in Sindh).<ref name="El Hareir">{{harvnb|El Hareir|M'Baye|2011|pp=594, 601–602}}</ref> These expeditions were not sanctioned by [[Umar|Caliph Umar]] and Uthman escaped punishment only because there weren't any casualties.<ref name="Baladhuri p209">{{harvnb|al-Balādhurī|1924|p=209}}: "'Uthmân ibn-abu-l-'Âși ath-Thaķafi ... sent his brother, al-Hakam, to al-Bahrain, and went himself to 'Umân, and sent an army across to Tânah. When the army returned, he wrote to 'Umar, informing him of this expedition and its result. 'Umar wrote to him in reply, ' ... By Allah, I swear that if they had been smitten, I would exact from thy tribe the equivalent.' Al-Hakam sent an expedition against Barwaș [Broach] also, and sent his brother, al-Mughîrah ibn-abu-l-'Âsi, to the gulf of ad-Daibul, where he met the enemy in battle and won a victory."</ref>

The motivation for these expeditions may have been to seek plunder or to attack pirates to safeguard Arabian trade in the [[Arabian Sea]], not to start the conquest of India.<ref name="Sen1999p346">{{harvnb|Sen|1999|p=346}}</ref> Arabs led by Suhail b. Abdi and Hakam al Taghilbi later defeated a [[Rai dynasty|Sindhi army]] in the [[Battle of Rasil]] in 644 beside the Indian Ocean sea coast, then reached the [[Indus River]].<ref name="WinkIp129">{{harvnb|Wink|2002|p=129}}</ref> Caliph [[Umar]] denied them permission to cross the river or operate in [[Makran]] and the Arabs returned home.<ref>{{harvnb|Crawford|2014|p=192}}</ref>

==Campaign by Muhammad ibn al-Qasim (711–715)==
{{see also|Umayyad conquest of Sindh|Siege of Debal|Battle of Aror}}
[[File:QASIM.PNG|thumb|right|Extent and expansion of [[Umayyad]] rule under Muhammad bin Qasim in [[medieval India]] (modern state boundaries shown in red).]]

[[Muhammad ibn al-Qasim]], after his conquest of Sindh, wrote to `the kings of Hind (India)' calling upon them to surrender and accept the faith of Islam.<ref>{{harvnb|Wink|2002|p=206}}: "And Al-Qasim wrote letters `to the kings of Hind (''bi-mulūk-i-hind'') calling upon them all to surrender and accept the faith of Islam (''bi-muṭāwa`at-o-islām'')'. A detachment of Ten thousand-strong cavalry were sent to Kannauj from Multan, with a decree of the caliph, inviting the people `to share in the blessings of Islam, to submit and do homage and pay tribute'."</ref> He dispatched a force against ''al-Baylaman'' ([[Bhinmal]]), which is said to have offered submission. The ''Mid'' people of ''Surast'' ([[Maitraka dynasty|Maitrakas]] of [[Vallabhi]]) also made peace.{{sfn|Al-Baladhuri|1924|p=223}} Ibn al-Qasim then sent a detachment of 10,000 cavalry to [[Kanauj|Kannauj]] along with a decree from the Caliph. He himself went with an army to the prevailing frontier of Kashmir called ''Panj-Māhīyāt'' (in western [[Punjab]]).{{sfn|Wink|2002|p=206}} Although Arabs were successful in the Kanauj expedition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tandle |first=Dr Sanjeevkumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I6jzBgAAQBAJ&dq=Qasim+kannauj+arab&pg=PA271 |title=INDIAN HISTORY |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=978-1-312-37211-5 |pages=271 |language=en}}</ref> The frontier of Kashmir might be what is referred to as ''al-Kiraj'' in later records (Kira Kingdom in [[Kangra Valley]], [[Himachal Pradesh]]{{sfn|Tripathi|1989|p=218}}), which was apparently subdued.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=132}}

Ibn al-Qasim was recalled in 715 CE and died ''en route''. [[Al-Baladhuri]] writes that, upon his departure, the kings of ''al-Hind'' had come back to their kingdoms. The period of Caliph [[Umar II]] (r. 717–720) was relatively peaceful. Umar invited the kings of "al-Hind" to convert to Islam and become his subjects, in return for which they would continue to remain kings. Hullishah of Sindh and other kings accepted the offer and adopted Arab names.{{sfn|Wink|2002|p=207}}

==Campaign by Al Junayd (723–726)==
[[Image:Arabsumf.png|thumb|325px|right|Arab Campaigns in Indian Subcontinent.
{{legend|yellow|Desert areas ([[Thar Desert]])}}
{{legend|#FFD700|[[Zunbils]]}}
{{legend|#FFDEAD|[[Turk Shahis]]}}
{{legend|#9932CC|[[Karkota dynasty|Kingdom of Kashmir]]}}
{{legend|#DEB887|[[Brahman dynasty of Sindh|Kingdom of Sindh]] ({{Circa|632–711}} CE) then, [[Caliphal province of Sind]] (712-854 CE)}}
{{legend|#E0FFFF|[[Maitraka dynasty|Kingdom of Valabhi]] ({{Circa|475–776}} CE)}}
]]

During the caliphates of [[Yazid II]] (r. 720–724) and [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik|Hisham]] (r. 724–743), the expansion policy was resumed, [[Junayd ibn Abd ar-Rahman al-Murri|Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri]] was appointed the governor of Sindh in 723 CE.

After subduing Sindh, Junayd sent campaigns to various parts of India. The justification was that these parts had previously paid tribute to Ibn al-Qasim but then stopped. The first target was ''al-Kiraj'' (possibly [[Kangra Valley]]), whose conquest effectively put an end to the kingdom. A large campaign was carried out in Rajasthan which included ''Mermad'' (Maru-Mada, in [[Jaisalmer]] and [[Jodhpur]]), ''al-Baylaman'' (Bhillamala or [[Bhinmal]]) and ''Jurz'' ([[Gurjaradesha|Gurjaradesa]]—southern Rajasthan and northern Gujarat). Another force was sent against ''Uzayn'' ([[Ujjain]]), which made incursions into its country (Avanti) and some parts of it were destroyed (the city of ''Baharimad'', unidentified). Ujjain itself was not conquered. A separate force was also sent against ''al-Malibah'' ([[Malwa]], to the east of Ujjain<ref>{{cite book |last=Jain |first=Kailash Chand |title=Malwa through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D. |publisher=Motilal Banarsidas |year=1972 |isbn=9788120808249 |page=10}}</ref>), The Umayyads tried to extend Muslim dominion over interior parts of India. They conquered most of the western India and conquered [[Bhinmal]], ''Juzr'', Marmad, Mandal, Dahnaz, Burwas and Malibah.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jain |first=Kailash Chand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&q=malwa+through+the+ages |title=Malwa Through The Ages |date=1972-12-31 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0824-9 |pages=321 |language=en}}</ref> This means that Umayyad boundaries would have included western and southern [[Rajasthan]], nearly all of [[Gujarat]], and a small part of [[Madhya Pradesh]].{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=133}}

Towards the North, the Umayyads attempted to expand into Punjab but were defeated by [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]] of [[Karkota dynasty|Kashmir]].<ref name="Hasan 1959 30">{{cite book |last=Hasan |first=Mohibbul |year=1959 |title=Kashmir Under the Sultans |location=Delhi |publisher=Aakar Books |page=30 |quote="In the reign of Caliph Hisham (724–43) the Arabs of Sindh under their energetic and ambitious governor Junaid again threatened Kashmir. But Lalitaditya (724–60), who was the ruler of Kashmir at this time, defeated him and overran his kingdom. His victory was, however, not decisive for the Arab aggression did not cease. That is why the Kashmiri ruler, pressed by them from the south and by the Turkish tribes and the Tibetans from the north, had to invoke the help of the Chinese emperor and to place himself under his protection. But, although he did not receive any aid, he was able to stem the tide of Arab advance by his own efforts."}}</ref> Another force was dispatched south. It subdued ''Qassa'' ([[History of Kutch|Kutch]]), ''al-Mandal'' (perhaps [[Okha, India|Okha]]), ''Dahnaj'' (unidentified), ''Surast'' ([[Kathiawar|Saurashtra]]) and ''Barus'' or ''Barwas'' ([[Bharuch]]).<ref name="Bhandarkar 1929 29–30">{{harvnb|Bhandarkar|1929|pp=29–30}}; {{harvnb|Wink|2002|p=208}}; {{harvnb|Blankinship|1994|pp=132–133}}</ref> According to historian [[Dilip Kumar Chakrabarti|Dilip K. Chakrabarti]], [[Yashovarman]] of Kannauj likely defeated Arab forces attempting to invade Kannauj.<ref>{{Citation |last=Chakrabarti |first=Dilip K. |title=The Re-emergence of the Gangetic Orbit and the Regional Power Centres: c. ad 300 to c. ad 800 |date=2010-10-07 |work=The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the Ancient Indian Dynasties |pages=77 |editor-last=Chakrabarti |editor-first=Dilip K. |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198069898.003.0004 |access-date=2025-06-20 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198069898.003.0004 |isbn=978-0-19-806989-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The kingdoms weakened or destroyed included the [[Bhati|Bhattis]] of [[Jaisalmer]], the [[Pratihara dynasty|Gurjaras]] of Bhinmal, the [[Mori Kingdom|Moris]] of [[Chittorgarh|Chittor]], the [[Guhila dynasty|Guhilas]] of [[Kingdom of Mewar|Mewar]], the Kacchelas of Kutch, the [[Maitraka dynasty|Maitrakas]] of Saurashtra and [[Gurjaras of Lata]]. Altogether, Al-Junayd have conquered all of Gujarat, a large part of Rajasthan, and some parts of Madhya Pradesh. [[Khalid Yahya Blankinship|Blankinship]] states that this was a full-scale invasion carried out with the intent of founding a new province of the Caliphate.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=133-134}}

In 726 CE, the Umayyads replaced Al-Junayd by [[Tamim ibn Zayd al-Utbi]] as the governor of Sindh. During the next few years, all of the gains made by Junayd were lost. The Arab records do not explain why, except to state that the Umayyad troops, drawn from distant lands such as [[Syria (region)|Syria]] and [[Greater Yemen|Yemen]], abandoned their posts in India and refused to go back. Blankinship admits the possibility that the Indians must have revolted but thinks it more likely that the problems were internal to the Arab forces.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|pp=147–148}} Tamim is said to have fled Sindh and died ''en route''. The Umayyads appointed [[Al-Hakam ibn Awana|al-Hakam ibn Awana al-Kalbi]] (Al-Hakam) in 731 who governed till 740.

== Al-Hakam and Indian resistance (731–740)==
Al-Hakam restored order to Sindh and Kutch and built secure fortifications at Al-Mahfuzah and Al-Mansur. He then proceeded to retake Indian kingdoms previously conquered by Al-Junayd. The Arab sources are silent on the details of the campaigns. However, several Indian sources record victories over Arab forces.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=187}}

The [[Gurjaras of Lata|Lord of Nandipuri]], Jayabhata IV, documented, in an inscription dated to 736 CE, that he went to the aid of his suzerain, the King of Vallabhi and inflicted a crushing defeat on an Arab army. The Umayyads then overran the feudatory of Jayabhata himself and proceeded on to [[Navsari]] in southern Gujarat.<ref name="Blankinship 1994 187">{{harvnb|Blankinship|1994|p=187}}; {{harvnb|Puri|1986|p=44}}; {{harvnb|Chattopadhyaya|1998|p=32}}</ref> Their intention might have been to make inroads into [[South India]]. However, to the south of the [[Mahi River]] lay the powerful [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya Kingdom]]. In the '''Battle of Navsari''', the Chalukyan general [[Chalukyas of Navasarika#Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin|Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin]] decisively defeated the invading Arab forces as documented in a Navsari grant of 739 CE. The Arab army defeated was, according to the grant, one that had attacked "Kacchella, Saindhava, Saurashtra, Cavotaka, [[Mori Kingdom|Maurya]] and Gurjara" kings. Pulakeshin subsequently received the titles "Solid Pillar of [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]" (''Dakshināpatha-sādhāra'') and the "Repeller of the Unrepellable" (''Anivartaka-nivartayitr''). The [[Rashtrakuta Empire|Rashtrakuta]] prince [[Dantidurga]], who was then a vassal to the Chalukyas, played an important role in the battle.<ref>{{harvnb|Blankinship|1994|p=186}}; {{harvnb|Bhandarkar|1929|pp=29–30}}; {{harvnb|Majumdar|1977|pp=266–267}}; {{harvnb|Puri|1986|p=45}}; {{harvnb|Wink|2002|p=208}}; {{harvnb|Sailendra Nath Sen|1999|p=348}}; {{harvnb|Chattopadhyaya|1998|pp=33–34}}</ref>

The kingdoms recorded in the Navsari grant are interpreted as follows: ''Kacchelas'' were the people of [[History of Kutch|Kutch]]. The ''[[Saindhava]]s'' are thought to have been emigrants from Sindh, who presumably moved to [[Kathiawar]] after the Arab occupation of Sindh in 712 CE. Settling down in the northern tip of Kathiawar, they had a ruler by the name of Pushyadeva. The ''[[Chavda dynasty|Cavotakas]]'' (also called ''Capotaka'' or ''Capa'') were also associated with Kathiawar, with their capital at [[Patan, Gujarat|Anahilapataka]]. ''Saurashtra'' is south Kathiawar. The ''Mauryas'' and ''Gurjaras'' are open to interpretation. Blankinship takes them to be the [[Mori Kingdom|Moris of Chittor]] and [[Pratihara dynasty|Gurjaras of Bhinmal]] whereas [[Baij Nath Puri]] takes them to be a subsidiary line of Mauryas based in [[Vallabhi]] and the [[Gurjaras of Lata|Gurjaras of Bharuch]] under Jayabhata IV. In Puri's interpretation, this invasion of the Arab forces was limited to the southern parts of modern [[Gujarat]] with several small kingdoms, which was halted by the Chalukyan Kingdom.<ref>{{harvnb|Blankinship|1994|p=187}}; {{harvnb|Puri|1986|pp=45–46}}</ref>

Indications are that Al-Hakam was overstretched. An appeal for reinforcements from the Caliphate in 737 is recorded, with men being sent, a surprisingly small 3000 contingent. Even this force was absorbed in its passage through [[Lower Mesopotamia|Iraq]] for quelling a local rebellion.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=188}} The defeat at the hands of Chalukyas is believed to have been a blow to the Arab forces with large costs in men and arms.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=188}}

The weakened Arab forces were driven out by the subsidiaries of the erstwhile kings. [[Bappa Rawal]]. the King of [[Kingdom of Mewar|Mewar]] (r. 734–753) drove out the Arabs who had put an end to the Mori dynasty at Chittor.<ref>{{harvnb|Blankinship|1994|p=188}}; {{harvnb|Sailendra Nath Sen|1999|pp=336–337}}</ref> A [[Jainism|Jain]] ''[[prabandha]]'' mentions a King ''Nahada'', who is said to have been the first ruler of his family at [[Jalore]], near [[Bhinmal]], and who came into conflict with a Muslim ruler whom he defeated.{{sfn|Sanjay Sharma|2006|p=204}} Nahada is identified with [[Nagabhata I]] (r. 730–760), the founder of the [[Pratihara dynasty|Gurjara-Pratihara]] dynasty, which is believed to have started from the Jalore-Bhinmal area and spread to Avanti at [[Ujjain]].{{sfn|Sanjay Sharma|2006|p=187}} The [[Gwalior]] inscription of the [[Pratihara dynasty|Pratihara]] King [[Mihira Bhoja|Bhoja I]], says that Nagabhata, the founder of the dynasty, defeated a powerful army of ''Valacha Mlecchas'' ("[[Baloch people|Baluch]]" [[Mleccha|barbarians]]{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1929|p=30}}) around 725 CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Bhandarkar|1929|pp=30–31}}; {{harvnb|Rāya|1939|p=125}}; {{harvnb|Majumdar|1977|p=267}}; {{harvnb|Puri|1986|p=46}}; {{harvnb|Wink|2002|p=208}}</ref> Even though many historians believe that Nagabhata repulsed Arab forces at Ujjain, there is no authentic information about where precisely he encountered them.

[[Baij Nath Puri]] states that the Arab campaigns to the east of Indus proved ineffective. However, they had the unintended effect of integrating the Indian kingdoms in Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Chalukyas extended their kingdom to the north after fighting off the Arabs successfully. Nagabhata I secured a firm position and laid the foundation for a new dynasty, which would rise to become the principal deterrent against Arab expansion.{{sfn|Puri|1986|p=46}} Blankinship also notes that Hakam's campaigns caused the creation of larger, more powerful kingdoms, which was inimical to the caliphate's interests.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|pp=189–190}} Al-Hakam died in battle in 740 CE while fighting the ''Meds'' of north Saurashtra ([[Maitraka dynasty|Maitrakas]], probably under the vassalage of Chalukyas at this time).{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|p=189}}

==Aftermath==
The death of Al-Hakam effectively ended the Arab presence to the east of Sindh. In the following years, the Arabs were preoccupied with controlling Sindh. They made occasional raids to the seaports of [[Kathiawar]] to protect their trading routes but did not venture inland into Indian kingdoms.{{sfn|Blankinship|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zjP0i6FSfLwC&pg=PA203 203–204]}} Dantidurga, the Rashtrakuta chief of [[Vidarbha|Berar]] turned against his Chalukya overlords in 753 and became independent. The Gurjara-Pratiharas immediately to his north became his foes and the Arabs became his allies, due to the geographic logic as well as the economic interests of sea trade. The Pratiharas extended their influence throughout Gujarat and Rajasthan almost to the edge of the Indus river, but their push to become the central power of north India was repeatedly thwarted by the Rashtrakutas. This uneasy balance of power between the three powers lasted till the end of the caliphate.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} In 756, the [[Sind (caliphal province)#Abbasid period|Abbasid governor of Sindh]] sent a naval fleet against the Saindhavas. This naval attack was repulsed by the Saindhavas as they had a strong navy. Later in 776, another naval expedition by the Arabs was defeated by the Saindhava naval fleet under the command of [[Agguka I]]. After this the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid caliph]] [[Al-Mahdi]] gave up the project of conquering any part of India through the navy.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Kumar|first= Amit|year= 2012|title= Maritime History of India: An Overview|journal= Maritime Affairs:Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India|publisher= Taylor & Francis|volume= 8|issue= 1|pages= 93–115|doi= 10.1080/09733159.2012.690562|s2cid= 108648910|quote= "In 776 AD, Arabs tried to invade Sind again but were defeated by the Saindhava naval fleet. A Saindhava inscription provides information about these naval actions."}}</ref>

==List of major battles==
The table below lists some of the major military conflicts during the Arab expeditions in [[Brahmin dynasty of Sindh|Sindh]], [[Punjab]], [[History of Gujarat|Gujarat]] and [[History of Rajasthan|Rajasthan]].<ref name=Richards>
{{cite journal |last=Richards |first=J.F. |year=1974|title=The Islamic frontier in the east: Expansion into South Asia|journal=Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=4|issue=1|pages=91–109|doi=10.1080/00856407408730690}}</ref>

{| border="1" align="left" style="border:1px solid #ffffff; border-collapse:; font-size: ; width:40%" rules="all" cellpadding="2"
| style="background-color:#FFCCCC" width="10%" | '''Arab victory'''
| style="background-color:#DDDDDD" width="10%" | '''Indian victory'''
|}{{Clear}}

{| class="sortable wikitable"
!Year
!Aggressor
!Location
!Commander
!Details
|-
|-- bgcolor=#FFCCCC
|713
|Arab
|[[Brahmin dynasty of Sindh|Sindh]] and [[Multan]]
|[[Muhammad ibn Qasim]]
|Arab conquest of Sindh completed<ref name=Richards/>
|-
|-- bgcolor=#DDDDDD
|715
|Indian
|[[Aror|Alor]]
|Hullishah, al-Muhallab
|Indian Army retakes major city from Arabs.<ref name=Richards/>
|-
|-- bgcolor=#FFCCCC
|715
|Indian
|Mehran
|Hullishah, al-Muhallab
|Arabs stall the Indian counter-offensive<ref name=Richards/>
|-
|-- bgcolor=#DDDDDD
|718
|Indian
|[[Brahmanabad]]
|Hullishah, al-Muhallab
|Indian attacks resume<ref name=Richards/>
|-
|-- bgcolor=#FFCCCC
|721
|Arab
|Brahmanabadh
|al-Muhallab, Hullishah
|Hullishah surrenders and becomes a Muslim, likely due to military reversals.<ref name=Richards/>
|-
|-- bgcolor=#FFCCCC
|724–740
|Arab
|[[Ujjain]], Mirmad, Dahnaj, others
|Junayd of Sindh
|Raiding India as part of Umayyad policy in India.<ref name=Richards/>
|-
|-- bgcolor=#DDDDDD
|724-743
| Arab
|[[Punjab]]
|Junayd, Lalitaditya Muktapida
| Arab Army destroyed<ref name="Hasan 1959 30"/>
|-
|-- bgcolor=#DDDDDD
|725
|Arab
|Avanti
|Junayd, [[Nagabhata I]]
|Defeat of large Arab expedition against Avanti.<ref name=Richards/>
|-
|-- bgcolor=#DDDDDD
|between 720–730
|Arab
|towards [[Central India]]
|Junayd, Yashovarman, Lalitaditya Muktapida
|Lalitaditya's and Yashovarman's strategic alliance repelled and defeated the Arabs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sampat|first=Vikram|title=Braveheart of Bharat:Vignetts from indian history|publisher=penguin Random House|page=30}}"[[Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri|Junayd]] decided to move menacingly towards [[Central India]], towards [[Ujjain]] that was ruled by the king of [[Varman dynasty (Kannauj)|Kannauj]], Yashovarman. But in a diplomatic checkmate against the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Arabs]], Lalitaditya and Yashovarman joined hands in a strategic alliance to repel and defeat them."</ref>
|-
|-- bgcolor="#FFCCCC"
|735-36
|Arab
|[[Vallabhi]], [[Nandod|Nandipuri]], [[Bharuch]]
|Junayd, Pushyadeva, Siladitya IV, Jayabhata IV
|Maitraka capital sacked in Arab raid. Arabs defeated Kachchelas (of [[History of Kutch|Kutch]]), [[Saindhava]]s, [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] ([[Maitraka]]s), Chavotkata ([[Chavda dynasty|Chavda]]s), [[Mori Kingdom|Moris]] and [[Gurjaras of Lata]].<ref name="Richards" />{{sfn|Virji|1955|p=94–96}}
|-
|-- bgcolor=#DDDDDD
|738-39
|India
|[[Navsari]]
|[[Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin]]
|Arabs were defeated by Chalukya forces in the Battle of Navsari.
|-
|-- bgcolor=#DDDDDD
|740
|Arab
|[[Chittor]]
|[[Mori Rajputs|Mori of Chittor]]
|Indians repulse an Arab siege.<ref name=Richards/>
|-
|-- bgcolor=#FFCCCC
|743?
|Arab
|[[Bhinmal|Bhillamala]], [[Gurjaratra|Gurjaradesa]]
|Hakam
|Annexed by Arabs.<ref name=Richards/>
|-
|-- bgcolor=#FFCCCC
|750
|Arab
|[[Vallabhi]]
|
|[[Maitraka dynasty|Maitraka]] capital sacked in Arab raid
|-
|-- bgcolor=#DDDDDD
|776
|Arab
|[[Arabian Sea]]
|[[Agguka I]]
|Arab Navy defeated by [[Saindhava dynasty|Saindhava Navy]].
|}

==See also==
* [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]]
* [[List of early Hindu–Muslim military conflicts in the Indian subcontinent]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist |30em}}

==Bibliography==
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* {{cite book |last=Virji |first=Krishnakumari Jethabhai |title=Ancient history of Saurashtra: being a study of the Maitrakas of Valabhi V to VIII centuries A. D. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57287 |series=Indian History and Culture Series |year=1955 |publisher=Konkan Institute of Arts and Sciences}}
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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Atherton |first=Cynthia Packert |title=The Sculpture of Early Medieval Rajasthan |publisher=BRILL |year=1997 |isbn=978-9004107892}}
* {{cite book |title=Late classical India |first=Mainak Kumar |last=Bose |year=1988 |publisher=A. Mukherjee & Co. |location=Calcutta |ol=1830998M}}
* {{cite book |last=O'Brien |first=Anthony Gordon |title=The Ancient Chronology of Thar: The Bhattika, Laulika and Sindh Eras |publisher=Oxford University Press India |year=1996 |isbn=978-1582559308}}

{{Umayyad Caliphate topics}}

[[Category:8th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Umayyad Caliphate|India]]
[[Category:Medieval Hinduism]]
[[Category:8th century in India]]
[[Category:Wars involving medieval India]]
[[Category:Military history of the Umayyad Caliphate|India]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Rajputs]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Pratihara Empire]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Rashtrakuta Empire]]

List of tehsils of Uttarakhand

2026-02-18T02:13:53Z

Olympiados:

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2017}}

[[File:Tehsils of Uttarakhand (Schematic).png|thumb|center|1000px|Tehsils of Uttarakhand (Schematic).png]]

The article lists all the 117 [[tehsil]]s in the [[List of districts of Uttarakhand|13 districts]] of [[Uttarakhand]].

{| class="wikitable sortable" width=100%
|-
! Divisions !! Districts !! Tehsils
|-
| rowspan=7 |[[Garhwal division|Garhwal]] || [[Chamoli district|Chamoli]] || {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Adi Badri, Uttarakhand|Adi Badri]]
* [[Chamoli Gopeshwar|Chamoli]]
* [[Gairsain]]
* [[Nandanagar|Ghat]]
* [[Jilasu]]
* [[Joshimath]]
* [[Karnaprayag]]
* [[Nandaprayag]]
* [[Narayanbagar]]
* [[Pokhari, Uttarakhand|Pokhari]]
* [[Tharali]]
}}
|-
|| [[Dehradun district|Dehradun]] || {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Chakrata]]
* [[Dehradun]]
* [[Doiwala]]
* [[Kalsi, Uttarakhand|Kalsi]]
* [[Rishikesh]]
* [[Tyuni]]
* [[Vikasnagar]]
}}
|-
|| [[Haridwar district|Haridwar]] || {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Bhagwanpur, Uttarakhand|Bhagwanpur]]
* [[Haridwar]]
* [[Laksar]]
* [[Roorkee]]
}}
|-
|| [[Pauri Garhwal district|Pauri Garhwal]] || {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Bironkhal]]
* [[Chakisain]]
* [[Chaubattakhal]]
* [[Dhumakot]]
* [[Jakhanikhal]]
* [[Kotdwar]]
* [[Lansdowne, India|Lansdowne]]
* [[Pauri]]
* [[Rikhanikhal]]
* [[Satpuli]]
* [[Srinagar, Uttarakhand|Srinagar]]
* [[Thalisain]]
* [[Yamkeshwar]]
}}
|-
|| [[Rudraprayag district|Rudraprayag]] || {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Basukedar]]
* [[Jakholi]]
* [[Rudraprayag]]
* [[Ukhimath]]
}}
|-
|| [[Tehri Garhwal district|Tehri Garhwal]] || {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Balganga]]
* [[Devprayag]]
* [[Dhanaulti]]
* [[Gaja, Uttarakhand|Gaja]]
* [[Ghansali]]
* [[Jakhanidhar]]
* [[Kandisaur]]
* [[Kirtinagar]]
* [[Madannegi]]
* [[Nainbagh]]
* [[Narendranagar]]
* [[Paoki Devi]]
* [[Pratapnagar, Uttarakhand|Pratapnagar]]
* [[Tehri]]
}}
|-
|| [[Uttarkashi district|Uttarkashi]] || {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Barkot, Uttarakhand|Barkot]]
* [[Bhatwari]]
* [[Chinyalisaur]]
* [[Dhauntari]]
* [[Dunda]]
* [[Joshiyara]]
* [[Mori, Uttarakhand|Mori]]
* [[Purola]]
}}
|-
| rowspan=6 | [[Kumaon division|Kumaon]] || [[Almora district|Almora]] || {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Almora]]
* [[Bagwali Pokhar]]
* [[Bhanoli]]
* [[Bhikiyasain]]
* [[Chaukhutia]]
* [[Dwarahat]]
* [[Jainti]]
* [[Jalali, Uttarakhand|Jalali]]
* [[Lamgara]]
* [[Machhor]]
* [[Ranikhet]]
* [[Salt, Uttarakhand|Salt]]
* [[Someshwar, Uttarakhand|Someshwar]]
* [[Syalde]]
}}
|-
|| [[Bageshwar district|Bageshwar]] || {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Bageshwar]]
* [[Dug Nakuri]]
* [[Garur]]
* [[Kanda, Uttarakhand|Kanda]]
* [[Kaphaligair]]
* [[Kapkot]]
* [[Shama, Uttarakhand|Shama]]
}}
|-
|| [[Champawat district|Champawat]] || {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Barakot, Uttarakhand|Barakot]]
* [[Champawat]]
* [[Lohaghat]]
* [[Pati, Uttarakhand|Pati]]
* [[Purnagiri]]
}}
|-
|| [[Nainital district|Nainital]] || {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Betalghat]]
* [[Dhari, Uttarakhand|Dhari]]
* [[Haldwani]]
* [[Kainchi Dham]]
* [[Kaladhungi]]
* [[Khansyun]]
* [[Lalkuan]]
* [[Nainital]]
* [[Ramnagar, Nainital|Ramnagar]]
}}
|-
|| [[Pithoragarh district|Pithoragarh]] || {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Bangapani]]
* [[Berinag]]
* [[Devalthal]]
* [[Dharchula]]
* [[Didihat]]
* [[Ganai, Uttarakhand|Ganai]]
* [[Gangolihat]]
* [[Kanalichhina]]
* [[Munsiari]]
* [[Pithoragarh]]
* [[Tejam]]
* [[Thal, Uttarakhand|Thal]]
}}
|-
|| [[Udham Singh Nagar district|Udham Singh Nagar]] || {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Bajpur]]
* [[Gadarpur]]
* [[Jaspur]]
* [[Kashipur, Uttarakhand|Kashipur]]
* [[Khatima]]
* [[Kichha]]
* [[Nanakmatta]]
* [[Rudrapur, Uttarakhand|Rudrapur]]
* [[Sitarganj]]
}}
|}

==District-wise details==

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|-style="background:#ffffdd; color:#000;"
! No.
! align=Centre width=150px|Districts
! Tehsils
|- valign=top
| 1
| [[Almora district|Almora]]
| 14
|- valign=top
| 2
| [[Bageshwar district|Bageshwar]]
| 7
|- valign=top
| 3
| [[Chamoli district|Chamoli]]
| 11
|- valign=top
| 4
| [[Champawat district|Champawat]]
| 5
|- valign=top
| 5
| [[Dehradun district|Dehradun]]
| 7
|- valign=top
| 6
| [[Haridwar district|Haridwar]]
| 4
|- valign=top
| 7
| [[Nainital district|Nainital]]
| 9
|- valign=top
| 8
| [[Pauri Garhwal district|Pauri Garhwal]]
| 13
|- valign=top
| 9
| [[Pithoragarh district|Pithoragarh]]
| 12
|- valign=top
| 10
| [[Rudraprayag district|Rudraprayag]]
| 4
|- valign=top
| 11
| [[Tehri Garhwal district|Tehri Garhwal]]
| 14
|- valign=top
| 12
| [[Udham Singh Nagar district|Udham Singh Nagar]]
| 9
|- valign=top
| 13
| [[Uttarkashi district|Uttarkashi]]
| 8
|-
| colspan="2"| '''Total'''
| '''117'''
|}

==See also==
* [[Administrative divisions of Uttarakhand]]
* [[List of districts of Uttarakhand]]
* [[List of parganas of Uttarakhand]]
* [[List of community development blocks of Uttarakhand]]
* [[List of subdistricts in India]]

==References==
* {{cite web|title=District/Tehsil/Block wise Census Details|url=http://des.uk.gov.in/files/pdf/up.pdf|accessdate=9 July 2017}}
* {{cite web|title=Uttarakhand Land Records|url=http://bhulekh.uk.gov.in/Bhulekh/public/public_ror/Public_ROR.jsp|accessdate=9 July 2017}}

{{Tehsils of Uttarakhand}}
{{Uttarakhand}}

[[Category:Uttarakhand-related lists|Tehsils]]
[[Category:Lists of subdistricts in India|Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Geography of Uttarakhand]]

Ghar Waapsi

2026-02-14T04:00:57Z

Olympiados: stub

{{Short description|Indian family drama television series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{For|the Indian program of conversion to Hinduism ran by Hindutva organisations|Ghar Wapsi}}
{{Infobox television
| genre = {{Plainlist|
* [[Family drama]]
* [[Drama (film and television)|Drama]]
}}
| starring = {{Plainlist|
*[[Vishal Vashishtha]]
* Atul Shrivastava
* Vibha Chibber
* Anushka Kaushik
* Saad Bilgrami
* Ajitesh Gupta
* Gyanendra Tripathi
* Ahmad Harhash
}}
| composer = Tusshar Mallik
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 06
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer = Kartik Krishnan
| producer = {{Plainlist|
* Dice Media
}}
| director = Ruchir Arun
| runtime = 40–55 minutes
| company = Dice Media
| network = [[Disney+ Hotstar]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|2022|07|22|df=yes}}
| last_aired =
}}

'''''Ghar Waapsi''''' is an Indian [[Hindi]]-Language [[family drama]] television series created by Dice Media and directed by Ruchir Arun.

'Ghar Waapsi' revolves around Shekhar (Vishal Vashishtha), who returns to his hometown of Indore after he is fired from his job in Bengaluru. However, he decides to keep it a secret from his family. His life changes forever as he finds a road to self-discovery.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 July 2022 |title=Ghar Waapsi was like recreating real-life 'kheench taan' with parents on screen: Director Ruchir Arun |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/ghar-waapsi-was-like-recreating-real-life-kheench-taan-with-parents-on-screen-director-ruchir-arun-8041542/}}</ref>

==Cast==
*[[Vishal Vashishtha]] as Shekhar Dwivedi<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/binge-watch/story/ghar-waapsi-review-vishal-vashishth-s-show-will-make-you-miss-your-family-gupshups-1979087-2022-07-24|title=Ghar Waapsi Review: Vishal Vashishtha's show will make you miss your family gupshups|website=India Today|date=24 July 2022 }}</ref>
*Atul Shrivastava as Shekhar's father, Ratan Lal Dwivedi<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/entertainment/watch-ghar-waapsi-trailer-vibha-chibber-atul-srivastava-play-happy-full-nesters-in-hotstars-slice-of-life-drama|title=Watch Ghar Waapsi Trailer: Vibha Chibber, Atul Srivastava play happy full-nesters in Hotstar's slice-of-life drama|website=Free Press Journal}}</ref>
*[[Vibha Chibber]] as Shekhar's mother, Madhuvanti Dwivedi{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}
*Saad Bilgrami as Shekhar's younger brother, Sanju Dwivedi{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}
*[[Anushka Kaushik]] as Shekhar's younger sister, Suruchi Dwivedi<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/entertainment/akanksha-thakur-and-anushka-kaushik-spill-the-beans-on-their-upcoming-web-series-ghar-waapsi|title=Akanksha Thakur and Anushka Kaushik spill the beans on their upcoming web series Ghar Waapsi|website=Free Press Journal}}</ref>
*Ajitesh Gupta as Shekhar's friend, Darshan Bafna
*Gyanendra Tripathi as a cafe owner and Shekhar's mentor, Manish
*Akanksha Thakur as Shekhar's love interest, Riddhima
* [[Ahmad Harhash]] as Raj Singh Balwant friend, Darahan Bafna

== Episodes==
{{Series overview

| color1 = #C4A574
| link1 = #Season 1 (2023)
| episodes1 = 06
| released1 = {{Start date|2022|07|22|df=yes}}
}}

=== Season 1 (2022) ===
{{Episode table |background=3CB371 |overall= |season=|title= |director= |writer= |airdate= |episodes=
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 1
| EpisodeNumber2 = 1
|Title = Termination
|RTitle =
|DirectedBy = {{ubl| Ruchir Arun}}
|WrittenBy = {{ubl|Tatsat Pandey | Bharat Mishra}}
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2022|07|22|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary = Shekhar is laid off from his job and forced to move back to his hometown. He reconnects with his friends after two years, which leads to some shocking revelation.
|LineColor = 3CB371
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 2
| EpisodeNumber2 = 2
|Title = We’ll get back to you
|RTitle =
|DirectedBy = {{ubl| Ruchir Arun}}
|WrittenBy = {{ubl|Tatsat Pandey | Bharat Mishra}}
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2022|07|22|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary = To distract himself from his slump, Shekhar helps his father to discover Sanju's shenanigans and Suruchi's secrets. In between his problems, he finds solace in a long-lost friend.
|LineColor = 3CB371
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 3
| EpisodeNumber2 = 3
|Title = Work-Life Balance
|RTitle =
|DirectedBy = {{ubl| Ruchir Arun}}
|WrittenBy = {{ubl|Tatsat Pandey | Bharat Mishra}}
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2022|07|22|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary = Shekhar is shocked to learn about the latest developments in the family business and tries hard to stem the seemingly inevitable tide. Meanwhile, all is not well in Sanju's world.
|LineColor = 3CB371
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 4
| EpisodeNumber2 = 4
|Title = Main Kachra Hoon
|RTitle =
|DirectedBy = {{ubl| Ruchir Arun}}
|WrittenBy = {{ubl|Tatsat Pandey | Bharat Mishra}}
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2022|07|22|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary = Shekhar has to find a way to mend few broken hearts. Although he has another shot at his dream job, he has to make a tough choice for a loved one.
|LineColor = 3CB371
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 5
| EpisodeNumber2 = 5
|Title = Lay Off
|RTitle =
|DirectedBy = {{ubl| Ruchir Arun}}
|WrittenBy = {{ubl|Tatsat Pandey | Bharat Mishra}}
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2022|07|22|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary = Despite a business loss, Shekhar sows the seeds of hope in the Dwivedi family. With Sanju turning over a new leaf and Suruchi's secret still hidden, it's all sunny until it's not.
|LineColor = 3CB371
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 6
|| EpisodeNumber2 = 6
|Title = Success
|RTitle =
|DirectedBy = {{ubl| Ruchir Arun}}
|WrittenBy = {{ubl|Tatsat Pandey | Bharat Mishra}}
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2022|07|22|df=yes}}
|ShortSummary = Although Shekhar has found a path to lead his dream life, something seems amiss. On the flip side, strife erupts between the Dwivedis. Can they find their 'happily ever after'?
|LineColor = 3CB371
}}
}}

== Reception ==

=== Critical response ===
Pratik Sur from [[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook India]] said, "The emotional connection that ‘Ghar Waapsi’ manages to bring forth is fantastic. It's this relatability in every young adult's life that audiences would be able to relate to. Leaving aside the technical glitches in the timelines, this Vishal Vashishtha show is definitely a Breezy Weekend Watch. I am going with 3.5 stars."
Arushi Jain from [[Indian Express]] said, "It is a show that will bring you home or will make you take a break from your humdrum work schedule and sit with your parents and siblings for a little gupshup or maybe a game of Ludo."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/-ghar-waapsi-on-disney-hotstar-review-vishal-vashishtha-s-heart-warming-tale-of-big-city-migrant-workers-dice-media-movie_reviews-212698|title='Ghar Waapsi' On Disney+ Hotstar Review: Vishal Vashishtha's Heart-Warming Tale Of Big City Migrant Workers|date=29 July 2022|website=www.outlookindia.com/}}</ref>

Sreeju Sudhakaran from Latestly said, "There are certain movies and show where you start watching as an evaluator but end up being their joyful, smitten fan, looking desperate for the next person to share your opinion on the same.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latestly.com/entertainment/tv/ghar-waapsi-review-vishal-vashishthas-disney-hotstar-series-is-one-of-2022s-most-endearing-offerings-latestly-exclusive-4014356.html|title=Ghar Waapsi Review: Vishal Vashishtha's Disney+ Hotstar Series is One of 2022's Most Endearing Offerings! (LatestLY Exclusive) | 📺 LatestLY|date=29 July 2022|website=LatestLY}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/entertainment/vibha-chibber-and-atul-srivastava-play-happy-full-nesters-in-ghar-waapsi-411681|title=Vibha Chibber and Atul Srivastava play happy full-nesters in Ghar Waapsi|first=Tribune News|last=Service|website=Tribuneindia News Service}}</ref>

Grace Cyril of [[India Today]] stated, "The performances in the series are all noteworthy" and "Ghar Waapsi's relatability in today’s times is what will touch your hearts.".<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt21267694/|title=Ghar Waapsi|date=22 July 2022|via=IMDb}}
* [https://www.hotstar.com/in/tv/ghar-waapsi/1260107280 Ghar Waapsi] at [[Hotstar]]

[[Category:2022 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Indian drama television series]]

Simba Nagpal

2026-02-10T18:16:09Z

Olympiados: Added new post w/ refs.

{{Short description|Indian actor and model (born 1996)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Simba Nagpal
| image = Simba Nagpal snapped during the promotions of his song I Swear.jpg
| caption = Nagpal in 2022
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1996|9|25}}
| birth_place = [[Delhi]], India
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|model|}}
| years_active = 2018–present

| alma mater = {{plainlist|
* [[Sushant School of Art and Architecture]]
* [[Ansal University]]}}
}}

'''Simba Nagpal''' (born 25 September 1996)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/tv/news/happy-birthday-simba-nagpal-5-pics-of-the-naagin-6-actor-that-prove-he-has-good-taste-in-fashion-1191974%3famp|title=Happy Birthday Simba Nagpal: 5 PICS of the Naagin 6 actor that prove he has good taste in fashion|website=Pinkvilla|access-date= 25 September 2022}}</ref> is an [[Indian people|Indian]] actor and model who predominantly works in [[Hindi cinema|Hindi]] television. He is best known for starring as Virat Singh in ''[[Shakti - Astitva Ke Ehsaas Ki|Shakti Astitva Ke Ehsaas Ki]]'' (2020–2021) and Rishabh Gujral in ''[[Naagin (2015 TV series)|Naagin 6]]'' (2022).<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/simba-nagpal-on-naagin-6-co-star-tejasswi-prakash-7767584/lite/|title=Simba Nagpal says Naagin 6 is 'not based on Covid-19 or Omicron': 'Watch before passing judgement'|website=Indianexpress|date=11 February 2022 |access-date= 12 February 2022}}</ref> He also participated in ''[[Bigg Boss (Hindi season 15)|Bigg Boss 15]]'' (2021).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Simba Nagpal Biography: Bigg Boss 15 Contestants, Age, Early Life, Girlfriend, Photo, MTV splitsvilla 11, TV Shows |url=https://www.jagrantv.com/en-show/simba-nagpal-biography-bigg-boss-15-contestants-age-early-life-girlfriend-tv-shows-mtv-splitsvilla-11-roadies-news-and-more-rc1023879 |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=Jagran TV |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Nagpal was born on 25 September 1996 in [[Delhi]], India.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/simba-nagpal-reveals-his-most-heart-touching-memory-on-his-birthday-says-i-love-to-make-her-feel-special-on-this-day/articleshow/94433684.cms|title=Simba Nagpal reveals his most heart-touching memory on his birthday; says, "I love to make her feel special on this day"|newspaper=The Times of India|date=25 September 2022 |access-date= 25 September 2022}}</ref> He completed his secondary education in Sushant School of Art and Architecture. He later completed his bachelor's in Ansal University, Gurgaon.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who is Simba Nagpal: सिंबा नागपाल को सब कहते थे 'सलमान खान', हसीन मॉडल पर आया था दिल |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/tv/bigg-boss/know-all-about-bigg-boss-15-contestant-simba-nagpal/articleshow/86711935.cms |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=Navbharat Times |language=hi}}</ref>

== Career ==
Nagpal made his first appearance in the reality show [[MTV Splitsvilla|''MTV Splitsvilla 11'']] in 2018 as a contestant and finished in 8th place. In 2019, he auditioned for another reality show, ''[[MTV Roadies]]'', but didn't make it through the culling round. Later that same year, Nagpal made his acting debut with a leading role as Virat Singh in [[Colors TV]]'s soap opera ''[[Shakti - Astitva Ke Ehsaas Ki]]'', opposite [[Jigyasa Singh]].<ref name=":1" />

After the show ended in 2021, he participated in [[Colors TV]]'s reality show ''[[Bigg Boss (Hindi season 15)|Bigg Boss 15]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-10-02 |title=Meet Bigg Boss 15 contestant Simba Nagpal |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/meet-bigg-boss-15-contestant-simba-nagpal-7541981/ |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> where he finished in 16th place. However, his instincts in the house were praised by host [[Salman Khan]], who commented, "You're moving ahead with dignity and in a dignified way".<ref>{{Cite news |title=Bigg Boss 15: Simba Nagpal gets praised by Salman Khan; the host calls him the most 'dignified' contestant - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/bigg-boss-15-simba-nagpal-gets-praised-by-salman-khan-the-host-calls-him-the-most-dignified-contestant/articleshow/87077844.cms |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=The Times of India |date=17 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-10-26 |title=Bigg Boss 15: Simba beats Umar Riaz in all three rounds of Sultani Akhada; wins praises on social media |url=https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/television-news/article/bigg-boss-15-simba-nagpal-beats-umar-riaz-in-all-three-rounds-of-sultani-akhada-wins-praises-on-social-media-salman-khan-23198236 |access-date=2022-08-11 |website=Mid-day |language=en}}</ref>

In 2022, Nagpal joined the [[Balaji Telefilms]] thriller supernatural franchise [[Naagin (2015 TV series)|''Naagin'']] for its sixth season,<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 August 2022 |title=Simba Nagpal will return to his army officer avatar in Naagin 6; will be seen sporting the military uniform : Bollywood News |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/simba-nagpal-will-return-army-officer-avatar-naagin-6-will-seen-sporting-military-uniform/ |access-date=2022-08-15 |website=Bollywood Hungama}}</ref> where he portrayed Rishabh Gujral in ''[[Naagin (2015 TV series)|Naagin 6]]'' opposite [[Tejasswi Prakash]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2022-05-31 |title=Naagin 6 actor Simba Nagpal on playing a complex role in the show: 'It challenges the actor in me' |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/tv/news-gossip/naagin-6-actor-simba-nagpal-playing-complex-role-show-it-challenges-actor-me-1133810 |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Initially, the show received criticism because of its storyline, however, it later won hearts, particularly for the chemistry between the lead pair, and gained better ratings.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zoomtventertainment.com/telly-talk/naagin-6s-tejasswi-prakash-and-simba-nagpals-crackling-chemistry-wins-hearts-fans-say-kitne-cute-lag-rahe-hai-dono-article-90193585/amp|title=Naagin 6's Tejasswi Prakash and Simba Nagpal's crackling chemistry wins hearts; fans say, 'Kitne cute lag rahe hai dono'|website=Zoomtventertainment|date=14 March 2022 |access-date= 14 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Exclusive! Simba Nagpal opens up on playing a double role in Naagin 6; talks about drawing inspiration from actor Heath Ledger - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/exclusive-simba-nagpal-opens-up-on-playing-a-double-role-in-naagin-6-talks-about-drawing-inspiration-from-actor-heath-ledger/articleshow/93250219.cms |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=The Times of India |date=31 July 2022 |language=en}}</ref> In December 2022, he quit the show after the leap.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/exclusive-simba-nagpal-i-am-not-disappointed-about-my-exit-from-naagin-6/articleshow/96181342.cms|title=Exclusive! Simba Nagpal: I am not disappointed about my exit from Naagin 6|website=Timesofindia|access-date= 14 December 2022}}</ref>

From September 2023 to February 2024, he was seen as Jay Khurana opposite [[Shivangi Joshi]] in [[Sony TV (India)|Sony TV]]'s ''[[Barsatein – Mausam Pyaar Ka]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-09-18 |title=Exclusive! Simba Nagpal to play the parallel lead in Barsatein - Mausam Pyar Ka |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/exclusive-simba-nagpal-to-play-the-parallel-lead-in-barsatein-mausam-pyar-ka/articleshow/103753414.cms |access-date=2023-11-22 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
=== Television ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
!Notes
! scope="col" | Ref.
|-
|2018
|''[[MTV Splitsvilla|Splitsvilla 11]]''
|Contestant
|8th place
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-25 |title=Happy Birthday Simba Nagpal: Splitsvilla, Bigg Boss to Naagin 6, TV Shows the Actor Appeared in |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/happy-birthday-simba-nagpal-splitsvilla-bigg-boss-to-naagin-6-tv-shows-the-actor-appeared-in-6016447.html |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2020–2021
| ''[[Shakti – Astitva Ke Ehsaas Ki]]''
| Virat Singh
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=Filmymonkey |date=2019-12-11 |title=Generation Leap In 'Shakti'; Ex 'Splitsvilla' Contestant Simba Nagpal Bags Lead Role In The Show? |url=https://news.abplive.com/entertainment/television/shakti-astitva-ke-ehsaas-ki-splitsvilla-11-fame-simba-nagpal-to-play-male-lead-in-rubina-dilaiks-show-post-leap-1122527 |access-date=2022-03-26 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2021
|''[[Bigg Boss (Hindi season 15)|Bigg Boss 15]]''
|Contestant
|16th place
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-25 |title=Simba Nagpal gets evicted from Bigg Boss 15, says 'I chose to be real on the show' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/simba-nagpal-gets-evicted-from-bigg-boss-15-7639856/ |access-date=2022-03-26 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2022
| ''[[Naagin (2015 TV series)|Naagin 6]]''
| Rishabh Gujral/Shakti Gujral
|
| <ref>{{Cite web |last=ABP News Bureau |date=2022-02-03 |title=Naagin 6: Simba Nagpal To Play Male Lead Opposite Tejasswi Prakash |url=https://news.abplive.com/entertainment/naagin-6-simba-nagpal-to-play-male-lead-opposite-tejasswi-prakash-here-s-how-karan-kundrra-reacted-watch-1510627 |access-date=2022-03-26 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Dance Deewane Juniors (season 1)|Dance Deewane Juniors 1]]''
|Himself
|Guest
|
|-
|''[[Saavi Ki Savaari]]''
|Rishabh Gujral
|Special appearance
|
|-
| 2023–2024
| ''[[Barsatein – Mausam Pyaar Ka]]''
| Jay Khurana
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-19 |title=Simba Nagpal To Join Shivangi Joshi-Kushal Tandon's Barsatein As Parallel Lead |url=https://www.news18.com/entertainment/television/simba-nagpal-to-join-shivangi-joshi-kushal-tandons-barsatein-as-parallel-lead-report-8583539.html |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2025
| ''Sajan Ji Ghar Aaye Family Kyun Sharmaye''
| Aman Sinha
|
|
|-
|}

=== Music videos ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Singer
! scope="col" | Ref.
|-
| rowspan="2" |2022
|''I Swear''
|[[Shibani Kashyap]]
|<ref>{{Citation |title=I Swear by Shibani Kashyap featuring Simba Nagpal and Annsh Shekhawat - Zee Music Company | date=16 May 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4quHxatZMb8 |access-date=2023-09-28 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''Sohnea''
|Himanshu Jain
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2023
|''Murshida''
|[[Arijit Singh]]
|<ref>{{Citation |title=Murshida by Arijit Singh featuring Simba Nagpal and Bhagyashree Chauhan - Times Music | date=24 July 2023 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0FdX23vrDhk |access-date=2023-09-28 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''Munda Ho Gaya Pagal''
|[[Dev Negi]]
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-08-19 |title=Naagin 6 actor Simba Nagpal's music video 'Munda Ho Gaya Pagal' opposite Sana Sultan Khan |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/naagin-6-actor-simba-nagpals-music-video-munda-ho-gaya-pagal-opposite-sana-sultan-khan-to-be-out-soon/articleshow/102849482.cms |access-date=2023-09-28 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|2025
|''Ishq Naiyo''
|Prateek Gandhi
|
|}

== See also ==
* [[List of Indian television actors]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{Instagram| simbanagpal}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Indian actors]]
[[Category:Indian male models]]
[[Category:1996 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Long stubs with short prose]]

{{India-tv-actor-stub}}

Harry George Champion

2026-02-07T22:47:33Z

Olympiados: General improvements to article content

{{Short description|British botanist (1891–1979)}}
{{About|the forester|the entertainer|Harry Champion}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Harry George Champion
| honorific_suffix = [[Order of the Indian Empire|CIE]]
| birth_date = 17 August 1891
| death_date = 20 June 1979
| field = [[Botany]]
}}
'''Sir Harry George Champion''' [[Order of the Indian Empire|CIE]] (17 August 1891 – 20 June 1979) was a [[geographer]] and forest officer in British India who created a classification of the forest types of India and Burma.

==Early life==

Champion was the son of British [[entomologist]] [[George Charles Champion]]. He studied at [[New College, Oxford]], and obtained a degree in chemistry in 1912 and then studied botany and forestry under [[William Schlich]].<ref name=obit/>

==Career==

He joined the [[Indian Forest Service]] in 1915 and became a [[silviculture|silviculturist]] at the Forest Research Institute at [[Dehradun]] staying there until 1936 before becoming a Conservator in the United Provinces. He left India in 1939 and became a Professor of Forestry at Oxford, succeeding [[Robert Scott Troup]]. Troup had offered him a position at the [[Imperial Forestry Institute]] in 1924 but Champion chose not to join it. He married Troup's secretary Crystal Parsons.<ref name=obit>{{cite journal|author=Jones, EW|title=Obituary: Sir Harry Champion|journal=Forestry |pages=109–112|volume=52|issue=2 |year=1979|doi=10.1093/forestry/52.2.109}}</ref>

==Forest classification ==
{{anchor|Classification}}

Champion published an initial classification of the forest types of India and Burma in 1936. This was revised in 1968 by S K. Seth and this is referred to as the '''Champion and Seth classification of the forest types of India'''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A revised survey of the forest types of India|last=Champion|first=Harry G.|last2=Seth|first2=S. K.|publisher=Manager of Publications, Government of India|year=1968|location=New Delhi|url=https://archive.org/details/revisedsurveyoff0000sirh}}</ref> His younger brother [[F. W. Champion]] was also a forester in India and a pioneer in wildlife photography.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Harry George Champion |sopt=t}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Champion, Harry George}}
[[Category:1891 births]]
[[Category:1979 deaths]]
[[Category:British foresters]]
[[Category:British botanists]]
[[Category:Alumni of New College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing]]
[[Category:Imperial Forestry Service officers]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Oxford]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire]]
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]
[[Category:British people in British India]]

Mewari language

2026-02-07T21:10:27Z

Olympiados: basic correct lead for clarity and fixed typos for consistency

{{Short description|Rajasthanic Language spoken in Sindh and Rajasthan}}
{{Distinguish|text = the [[Marwari language]] and [[Mewati language]] of Rajasthan, or the [[Newar language|Newari language]] of Nepal}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Mewari
| nativename = मेवाड़ी
| image =
| states = [[India]]
| region = [[Mewar]]
| speakers = 4.21 million
| date = 2011 census
| ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language_MTs.html|title=Statement 1: Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|website=www.censusindia.gov.in|access-date=7 July 2018}}</ref>
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam3 = [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
| fam4 = [[Western Indo-Aryan languages|Western]]
| fam5 = [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthanic]]
| script = [[Devanagari]]
| nation =
| iso3 = mtr
| glotto = mewa1249
| glottorefname = Mewari
| ethnicity = [[Rajasthanis]]
}}

[[File:Updated Dialects of Rajasthani.jpg|thumb|Rajasthani language and geographical distribution of its dialects]]

'''Mewari''' is an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]] of the [[Rajasthani languages]] group. It is spoken by about five million speakers in [[Rajsamand district|Rajsamand]], [[Bhilwara district|Bhilwara]], [[Udaipur district|Udaipur]], [[Chittorgarh district|Chittorgarh]] and [[Pratapgarh, Rajasthan|Pratapgarh]] districts of [[Rajasthan]] state and [[Mandsaur district|Mandsaur]], [[Neemuch district|Neemuch]] districts of [[Madhya Pradesh]] state of India.

There are 31 [[consonants]], 10 [[vowels]] and 2 [[diphthongs]] in Mewari. [[Intonation (linguistics)|Intonation]] is prominent. [[Dental fricative]] is replaced by [[glottal stop]] at initial and medial positions. [[Inflection]] and [[Derivation (linguistics)|derivation]] are the forms of [[word formation]]. There are two numbers—singular and plural, two genders—masculine and feminine, and three cases—simple, oblique, and vocative. [[Case marking]] is partly [[inflectional]] and partly [[postposition]]al. [[agreement (linguistics)|Concord]] is of [[nominative–accusative|nominative]] type in the [[imperfective aspect]] but [[Ergative–absolutive|ergative]] in the [[perfective aspect]].<ref>Bahl, KC.(1979). A Structural Grammar of Rajasthani. Chicago: University Press</ref> Nouns are declined according to their endings. [[Pronoun|Pronouns]] are inflected for number, person, and gender. Third person is distinguished not only in gender but also in remote-proximal level. There are three [[Grammatical tense|tenses]]—present, past, and future; and four [[Grammatical mood|moods]]. Adjective are of two types—marked or unmarked. Three [[participles]] are there—present, past, and perfect.<ref>Gusain, Lakhan.(2006). Mewari Grammar (LW/M 431). Munich: Limcom Gmbh.</ref> It has [[Subject–object–verb|SOV word order]].Mewari is a prominent language in [[Mewar]] region of [[Rajasthan]].

==See also==
*[[Rajasthani language]]
*[[List of winners of Sahitya Akademi Awards for writing in Rajasthani language]]
*[[List of Indian poets#Rajasthani|List of Rajasthani poets]]
*[[List of Indian poets#Rajasthani]]

==References==
<references />

== External links==
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20071118185411/http://www.bastigiri.org/crs/ Centre for Rajasthani Studies]}}

{{Rajasthani languages}}
{{Indo-Aryan languages}}
{{Languages of India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mewari Language}}
[[Category:Rajasthani languages]]
[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[Category:Languages of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Mewar]]
[[Category:Languages written in Devanagari]]
[[Category:Languages listed as Hindi dialects in latest census]]

Selvarasa Pathmanathan

2026-01-26T23:22:14Z

Olympiados: further correct citations per standard format further

{{Short description|Sri Lankan criminal (born 1955)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox criminal
| name = Shanmugam Kumaran Tharmalingam
| image_name =
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| birth_name = Shanmugam Kumaran Tharmalingam
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1955|4|6|df=y}}<ref name="ip">{{Cite web |title=Wanted THARMALINGAM, Shanmugam Kumaran |url=http://www.interpol.int/public/Data/Wanted/Notices/Data/1998/43/1998_4743.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090809185703/http://www.interpol.int/public/data/wanted/notices/data/1998/43/1998_4743.asp |archive-date=9 August 2009 |access-date=26 July 2009 |publisher=[[Interpol]]}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Kankesanthurai]], [[Dominion of Ceylon]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| cause =
| alias = Selvarasa Pathmanathan Kumaran Pathmanathan and many others
| motive =
| charge = Criminal conspiracy, arms smuggling and for the violation of the Indian Terrorist Act and the Indian Explosive Act. Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi.
| conviction =
| conviction_penalty =
| conviction_status = Arrested by Sri lankan intelligence agents on 5 August 2009 and brought to Sri Lanka. Released on 17 October 2012.
| spouse =
| parents =
| children =
}}

'''Shanmugam Kumaran Tharmalingam''' ({{langx|ta|ஷண்முகம் குமாரன் தர்மலிங்கம்}}; alias '''Selvarasa Pathmanathan''', '''Kumaran Pathmanathan''', or simply '''KP'''; born 6 April 1955)<ref name="ip" /> is a former prominent member of the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] (LTTE). Pathmanathan was on [[Interpol]]'s most wanted list for various charges including [[arms smuggling]] and [[criminal conspiracy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=- INTERPOL |url=http://www.interpol.int/notice/search/wanted/1998-4743 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140422131526/http://www.interpol.int/notice/search/wanted/1998-4743 |archive-date=2014-04-22 |website=www.interpol.int}}</ref><ref name="ip" /> He is also wanted by [[India]]'s [[Law enforcement in India|law enforcement agencies]] in connection with the [[Rajiv Gandhi assassination|assassination]] of former [[Indian Prime Minister]] [[Rajiv Gandhi]] in 1991 and for violation of the Terrorist Act and the Indian Explosive Act.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WANTED BY INTERPOL, NEW DELHI |url=http://www.cbi.gov.in/rnotice/A-993-9-2003.htm |access-date=26 July 2009 |publisher=[[Central Bureau of Investigation]]}}</ref> He was arrested on 5 August 2009.<ref name="arrested" /> Pathmanathan was released from prison on 17 October 2012, when the complaints against him by Sri Lanka were withdrawn.<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 October 2012 |title=Tamil Tiger leader Selvarasa Pathmanathan a 'free man' |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-19979165}}</ref>

==Early life==
Little information is available on Pathmanthan's early life. He was born '''Shanmugam Kumaran Tharmalingam''' on 6 April 1955 in the town of [[Kankesanthurai]] in the [[Jaffna District]] of [[Dominion of Ceylon|Ceylon]].<ref name="ip" /> Pathmanathan, who can converse in [[Tamil Language|Tamil]], [[English Language|English]], [[French Language|French]] and [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]] is known to have left Sri Lanka in 1983.<ref name="ip" /><ref name="HT110907">{{Cite web |last=Dhaneshi Yatawara |date=11 September 2007 |title=LTTE's top fund manager nabbed in Bangkok |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id=2c07ac18-fd35-46de-916e-0c4e78f94d58&&Headline=LTTE%27s+top+fund+manager+nabbed+in+Bangkok |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130125070614/http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id=2c07ac18-fd35-46de-916e-0c4e78f94d58&&Headline=LTTE's+top+fund+manager+nabbed+in+Bangkok |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 January 2013 |access-date=26 July 2009 |website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref>

==Aliases==
Pathmanathan is known to use more than 23 [[Pseudonym|aliases]] and masks.<ref name="Hindu151003">{{Cite news |last=Iqbal Athas |date=15 October 2003 |title=The LTTE and the 'KP Factor' |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India |url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/10/15/stories/2003101511111000.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=26 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031118135855/http://www.hindu.com/2003/10/15/stories/2003101511111000.htm |archive-date=18 November 2003}}</ref> In addition, his last name can be spelled as '''Padmanadan''' or '''Pathmanaban''' or '''Pathmanadan''' or '''Pathmanathan''', hence there are numerous variations of his name.

==Involvement in LTTE==

===Fund raising activities===
Pathmanathan was one of the top LTTE officials and the chief procurer of arms for the organization. He ran a global network of LTTE offices which were engaged in its weapons procurement, logistics and money laundering operations.<ref name="BP110907">{{Cite web |date=11 September 2007 |title=Top Tamil Tiger arrested in Bangkok |url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/topstories/topstories.php?id=121507 |website=[[Bangkok Post]]}}</ref>

Initially based in [[Malaysia]], where he set up a shipping company in 1987, he was forced to move out after the [[Malaysian Special Branch]] cracked down on LTTE activities in the country in 1990, culminating in the seizure of an LTTE ship the same year.<ref name="HT110907" /> Pathmanathan then moved to [[Thailand]], which became a safe haven for the LTTE.<ref name="AT250902">{{Cite web |last=Rohan Gunaratna |date=25 September 2002 |title=The transformation of terror? |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/DI25Df05.html |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020925034319/http://atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/DI25Df05.html |archive-date=25 September 2002 |access-date=3 August 2009 |website=[[Asia Times]]}}</ref> There he established himself as the head of banking, procurement and shipping for the LTTE. He is believed to have obtained citizenship in Thailand.<ref name="BP110907" />

According to a report by ''[[Jane's Intelligence Review]]'':

{{quotation|"While [[Cambodia]] is the hub of the LTTE East Asia Network, Thailand continues to serve as the most important country for trans-shipment of munitions and coordination of logistics... its excellent communications infrastructure, proximity to former war zones in both Cambodia and [[Burma]] and its western coastline facing the [[Bay of Bengal]] and Sri Lanka beyond have made Thailand the ancient interface between the LTTE's war zone."<ref name="BP110907" />}}

In Thailand Pathmanathann set up and led the "KP Department", the procurement arm of the LTTE, the oldest international wing of the organisation. He was responsible for equipping the rebels with a modern-day arsenal which enabled them to challenge the [[Military of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan Military]] and to fight a high intensity war. He procured modern hardware, paid for them through secret bank accounts, and shipped them to the rebels using a merchant shipping network operated by the "KP Department", known as the "sea pigeons".<ref name="GOSL">{{Cite web |date=5 April 2001 |title=CBI wants 'KP' in connection with Rajiv assassination case |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/news_update/Current_Affairs/CA200104/20010405Rajiv_assassination_case.htm |access-date=3 August 2009 |website=Current Affairs |publisher=[[Government of Sri Lanka]]}}</ref><ref name="NISAT">{{Cite web |last=Brian Wood and Johan Peleman |title=The Arms Fixers: Controlling the Brokers and Shipping Agents |url=http://www.nisat.org/publications/armsfixers/Chapter6.html |publisher=Norwegian Initiative on Small Arms Transfers}}</ref> Apart from setting up a number of lucrative businesses in Thailand, Pathmanathan established a state-of-the-art boatyard in the country, which manufactured over a dozen different boats, including [[submarines|mini-submarines]] and suicide boats.<ref name="AT250902" />

The "KP Department" was complemented by another international wing of the LTTE called the "Aiyanna Group". While the "KP Department" acted as the procurement arm of the LTTE, the Aiyanna Group looked after the fund raising and intelligence operations of the organization. Jane's Intelligence Review estimated in 2007 that the LTTE earns between $200–300 million per year through their fund-raising activities and numerous illegal businesses.<ref name="MOD110907">{{Cite web |date=11 September 2007 |title=LTTE's international terror chief "KP" arrested in Bangkok |url=http://www.defence.lk/new.asp?fname=20070911_01 |access-date=3 August 2009 |publisher=[[Ministry of Defence (Sri Lanka)]]}}</ref>

The heads of both departments operated under the direct guidance of the LTTE leader [[Velupillai Prabhakaran]] and intelligence head [[Pottu Amman (Tamil militant)|Pottu Amman]], both of whom were also on the Interpol most wanted list.<ref name="MOD110907" />

===Rajiv Gandhi assassination===
{{main|Rajiv Gandhi assassination}}
On 21 May 1991, former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated by a [[suicide bomber]] at a public meeting in [[Sriperumbudur]], [[Tamil Nadu]]. The assassination was carried out by the LTTE suicide bomber [[Thenmuli Rajaratnam]], also known as Dhanu, who detonated an [[RDX]] explosive-laden belt tucked below her dress as she bent down to greet him.

Intelligence agencies believe that Pathmanathan had links with the planning of the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi.<ref name="Hindu151003" /><ref name="GOSL" /><ref name="HT191003">{{Cite web |last=PK Balachandran |date=19 October 2003 |title=LTTE trying to rehabilitate its ace arms procurer |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/news_update/features/20031027ltte_rehabilitate_ace_arms_procurer.htm |access-date=3 August 2009 |website=[[The Hindustan Times]] (via the [[Government of Sri Lanka]])}}</ref> The Indian [[Central Bureau of Investigation]] (CBI) approached 23 countries in 2001 requesting information regarding LTTE members who they believed were linked with the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi. [[Sweden]], where Pathmanathan was believed to be hiding at the time, was one of the countries.<ref name="GOSL" />

The [[Interpol]] Headquarters in [[Lyon]], [[France]], also issued a [[red notice]] against Pathmanathan, which requests member states to arrest the suspect and hold him for extradition. The notice stated, "Tharmalingam (Pathmanathan) is alleged to have been involved in the murder of Rajiv Gandhi on 21 May 1991 in Tamil Nadu, India."<ref name="Hindu151003" />

===Intended presence at peace negotiations===
Following the signing of a ceasefire agreement between the [[Politics of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan Government]] and the LTTE in 2002, the LTTE nominated Pathmanathan as a member of its delegation to the Peace Talks scheduled with the government in late 2003. They passed on a request, through [[Norway|Norwegian]] facilitators of the negotiations, to find out whether the Government had any objections to "Shanmugam Kumaran Tharmalingam" being part of the delegation.<ref name="HT191003" /> The Government rejected the request, mainly because he was wanted in India for links with Rajiv Gandhi's assassination, and letting him join the delegation would have ruptured relations between the two nations.<ref name="Hindu151003" />

The LTTE's reasons for nominating Pathmanathan to the delegations are unclear but most likely were linked to him being sought by [[Interpol]], [[CIA]] and [[MI5]]. Being on the list of peace negotiators would have meant, with Sri Lanka's approval, Pathmanathan would no longer be one of the world's most wanted men.<ref name="Hindu151003" /><ref name="HT191003" />

===Department of International Relations===
In January 2009 Pathmanathan was appointed head of the newly created "Department of International Relations".<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 January 2009 |title=LTTE appoints Pathmanathan as head of international relations |url=http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?artid=28224&catid=13 |access-date=26 July 2009 |publisher=[[TamilNet]]}}</ref> He was LTTE's chief international spokesman during the last months of the civil war.
He urged Prabhakaran who was trapped in the No Fire Zone to escape and promised that he could break the naval blockade. Prabhakaran did not directly talk with KP due to suspicions that the military intelligence was monitoring his communications. He also talked to Charles Anthony who instead requested more weapons. KP attempted to hire a helicopter with Ukrainian mercenary pilots but could not arrange the funds from Scandinavian agents. It was also doubted if a rescue of the LTTE leadership was even possible as a previous attempt by the Sea Tigers to break through the naval blockade resulted in a disaster with only two suicide craft making it past the first line of [[Arrow-class patrol boat|Arrow boats]] only to be destroyed by the Dvoras of the second line. Further the land routes were surrounded and constant air patrols monitored the air space.<ref name=":PaulL">{{Cite book |last=Moorcraft, Paul L. |title=Total destruction of the Tamil Tigers : the rare victory of Sri Lanka's long war |date=19 March 2013 |isbn=978-1-78383-074-9 |location=Barnsley, South Yorkshire |chapter=Chapter 13 - The Cage |oclc=865026030}}</ref>

===Leader of the LTTE===
Pathmanathan was left as the most senior LTTE member following the death of most of the LTTE's leadership, including Prabhakaran, in the final stages of the civil war.<ref>{{Cite web |last=D.B.S. Jeyaraj |author-link=David Jeyaraj |date=25 July 2009 |title=LTTE Cabal Opposes "KP"as Leader of Re-structured Tigers |url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/DM_BLOG/Sections/frmNewsDetailView.aspx?ARTID=55788 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090728122445/http://www.dailymirror.lk/DM_BLOG/Sections/frmNewsDetailView.aspx?ARTID=55788 |archive-date=28 July 2009 |access-date=26 July 2009 |publisher=Daily Mirror, Sri Lanka}}</ref> On 21 July 2009 a statement was issued, allegedly from the executive committee of the LTTE, stating that Pathmanathan had been appointed leader of the LTTE.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 July 2009 |title=New political formation of LTTE claimed |url=http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=29822 |access-date=26 July 2009 |publisher=[[TamilNet]]}}</ref>

Pathmanathan claimed to a [[Channel 4]] interview that he has 1500-2000 LTTE members hiding in the jungles of Sri Lanka who had ceased hostilities for now but are awaiting his orders to restart the war.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-05-17 |title=Exclusive interview: leader of the Tamil Tigers |url=https://www.channel4.com/news/exclusive-interview-new-leader-of-the-tamil-tigers |access-date=2020-12-13 |website=Channel 4 News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Fugitive status==
Pathmanathan was the subject of a worldwide manhunt, which involved police from cities including [[Johannesburg]], [[Yangon]], [[Singapore]] and [[Bangkok]]. Some of the world's foremost [[intelligence agencies]], including the American [[CIA]], India [[Research and Analysis Wing|RAW]] and British [[MI5]], were on his trail.<ref name="Hindu151003" /> He was believed to have had bank accounts in [[London]], [[Frankfurt]], [[Denmark]], [[Athens]] and [[Australia]] and over 200 [[passports]] for his use.<ref name="BP110907" /> In May 2011, he alleged that the [[United Nations]] and a "western country" worked to help many [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam|LTTE]] operatives escape from [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>[https://archive.today/20120906201431/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5h2xc9xmw2A--M-HtXo5V7TGEGjkw?docId=CNG.bff3a61b54b0cfb8836bd8ec4e35c6f1.6e1 UN tried 'to help Tamil Tigers flee': report] AFP - 24 May 2011</ref>

Known as an elusive, secretive individual, he helped keep a low profile by having direct contact only with LTTE leader Velupillai Prabhakaran.<ref name="Hindu151003" />

==Arrest==
There were conflicting reports from [[Thailand]] that Pathmanathan had been arrested on 11 September 2007. The reports were preceded by the detention in [[Ranong Province]] of three other LTTE operatives the month before, for trying to buy guns and 45,000 rounds of ammunition.<ref name="BP110907" /><ref name="MOD110907" /> However a number of Thai officials rejected the reports, claiming they had no information about such an arrest.<ref name="Hindu120907">{{Cite news |date=12 September 2007 |title=Thai denies arresting LTTE leader |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/000200709121833.htm |access-date=3 August 2009 |archive-date=18 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918153318/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/000200709121833.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Thai immigration officers claimed that no such person had entered the country in the last two years.<ref name="Hindu120907" />

Pathmanathan was arrested in a South East Asian country on 5 August 2009. Initial reports suggested that he was captured in [[Thailand]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2009-08-07 |title=New chief of LTTE captured, handed over to Sri Lanka |work=Vancouverite |url=http://www.vancouverite.com/2009/08/new-chief-of-ltte-captured-handed-over-to-sri-lanka/ |access-date=2009-08-07}}</ref> but this was denied by Thai authorities.<ref name="arrested">{{Cite news |date=2009-08-07 |title=New Tamil Tiger leader 'arrested' |publisher=BBC |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8188900.stm |access-date=2009-08-07}}</ref> But it was later revealed that he had been arrested by Sri Lankan [[State Intelligence Service (Sri Lanka)|State Intelligence Service]] agents and a [[Covert operation|covert]] Sri Lankan military intelligence unit, with the cooperation of local authorities, in the [[Tune Hotels#Malaysia|Tune Hotel]], downtown [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 August 2009 |title=LTTE New Leader Kumaran Pathmanathan (KP) arrested in Malaysia and transported to Sri Lanka |url=http://www.tamilsydney.com/content/view/2352/37/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929151057/http://www.tamilsydney.com/content/view/2352/37/ |archive-date=29 September 2011 |access-date=28 July 2011 |publisher=Tamil Sydney}}</ref> The [[Sri Lankan Government]] announced on 7 August that he had been brought to [[Colombo]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2009-08-07 |title=Breaking News - KP grilled in Colombo |work=Official Government News Portal of Sri Lanka |url=http://www.news.lk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=10975&Itemid=44 |access-date=2009-08-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2009-08-07 |title=Self proclaimed LTTE leader 'KP' arrested |work=Official Government News Portal of Sri Lanka |url=http://www.news.lk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=10971&Itemid=44 |access-date=2009-08-07}}</ref> Sources have termed him "crucial" to the uncovering of various [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] [[crime]] networks.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121018112640/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/srilanka/No-alliance-with-detained-LTTE-leader-Sri-Lanka-Govt/Article1-567808.aspx No alliance with detained LTTE leader: Sri Lanka Govt] Hindustan Times - 5 July 2010</ref>

After his arrest he began cooperating with the Sri Lanka government.<ref name="dbdj">{{Cite web |last=D. B. S. Jeyaraj |date=July 2010 |title=Ex-LTTE Chief "KP": The Tiger who changed his stripes |url=http://dbsjeyaraj.com/dbsj/archives/1479 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006101415/http://dbsjeyaraj.com/dbsj/archives/1479 |archive-date=6 October 2011  |access-date=2011-08-08}}</ref> On 9 July 2010, Pathmanathan established the [[North-East Rehabilitation and Development Organization]] (NERDO), a [[Non-Governmental Organization]] for the provision of relief to the [[Sri Lankan IDP camps|Internally Displaced Persons]] (IDPs) while upgrading facilities for better physical, mental and living conditions for them.<ref name="dm2">{{Cite web |date=February 2011 |title=KP's NERDO registered |url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/news/9969-kps-nerd-registered.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828131214/http://www.dailymirror.lk/news/9969-kps-nerd-registered.html |archive-date=28 August 2011  |access-date=2011-08-08 |website=Daily Mirror}}</ref> In October 2012, media sources reported that Pathmanathan was being released from custody, quoting the head of Media Center for National Security Lakshman Hulugalle.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yahoo Search - Web Search |url=http://in.news.yahoo.com/lankan-military-authorities-free-ex-top-ltte-commander-142509954.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sri Lanka: Ex- top LTTE commander freed |url=http://news.in.msn.com/international/sri-lanka-ex-top-ltte-commander-freed |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103234634/http://news.in.msn.com/international/sri-lanka-ex-top-ltte-commander-freed |archive-date=3 January 2013}}</ref> Later he rejected the reports by saying Pathmanathan who is under special protection was permitted to engage in his NGO work and has not been released as claimed by media.<ref>[http://adaderana.lk/news.php?nid=20114 KP has not been released - Hulugalle]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090706135613/http://ltteir.org/ LTTE Department of International Relations]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090809185703/http://www.interpol.int/public/data/wanted/notices/data/1998/43/1998_4743.asp Interpol wanted notice]

{{Sri Lankan Civil War graphical timeline}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pathmanathan, Selvarasa}}

[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam members]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Sri Lankan Tamil rebels]]
[[Category:Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi]]
[[Category:Fugitives wanted by India]]
[[Category:Indian Peace Keeping Force]]

Tiparpur

2026-01-26T18:41:08Z

Olympiados: redirect

#REDIRECT [[Dehradun]]
{{R from merge}}{{R from alternative transliteration}}

Kolkata Book Fair

2026-01-25T08:14:40Z

Olympiados:

{{Short description|Annual book fair in Kolkata, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox convention
| name = International Kolkata Book Fair কলকাতা আন্তর্জাতিক বই মেলা
| image = Calbookfair.png
| image_size = 200px
| caption = Logo of International Kolkata Book Fair
| status = Active
| genre = Multi-genre
| frequency = Annually
| venue = [[Central Park (Kolkata)|Central Park Mela Ground]], [[Salt Lake City, Kolkata|Salt Lake, Kolkata]]
| location = [[Kolkata]]
| country = [[India]]
| first = {{start date and age|1976}}
| organizer = Publishers & Booksellers Guild
| attendance =
| website = {{URL|http://www.kolkatabookfair.net/}}
}}

[[File:Entrance façade of the International Kolkata Book Fair 2023 at the Central Park Mela Ground, Salt Lake, Kolkata, West Bengal, India.jpg|thumb|Entrance façade of the International Kolkata Book Fair 2023 at the Central Park Mela Ground, Salt Lake, Kolkata, West Bengal, India.]]
[[File:KBF2009 VISVABHARATI.JPG|thumb|Visvabharati book stall]]
The '''International Kolkata Book Fair''' (formerly '''Calcutta Book Fair''') is a winter fair in [[Kolkata]]. It is a unique book fair in the sense of not being a [[trade fair]]—the book fair is primarily for the general public rather than whole-sale distributors. It is the world's largest non-trade book fair, [[Asia]]'s largest book fair (by publishers) and the most attended book fair in the world.<ref>{{cite news|title=To find the world in books, here's a list of book fairs in the world|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/to-find-the-world-in-books-heres-a-list-of-book-fairs-in-the-world/articleshow/60894462.cms|access-date=7 April 2018|work=[[The Economic Times]]|archive-date=7 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407183629/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/to-find-the-world-in-books-heres-a-list-of-book-fairs-in-the-world/articleshow/60894462.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> It is the world's third-largest annual conglomeration of books after the [[Frankfurt Book Fair]] and the [[London Book Fair]]. Many Kolkatans consider the book fair an inherent part of Kolkata, and instances of people visiting the fair every day during its duration are not uncommon. The fair offers a typical fairground experience with a book flavour—with picnickers, singer-songwriters, and [[candy floss]] vendors. With a total footfall of over 2 million people, it is world's largest book fair by attendance.<ref>{{cite news|title=3 lakh visitors throng book fair on Sunday - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/3-lakh-visitors-throng-book-fair-on-sunday/articleshow/62783858.cms|access-date=24 February 2018|work=The Times of India|archive-date=17 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617204825/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/3-lakh-visitors-throng-book-fair-on-sunday/articleshow/62783858.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Peru pavilion at Kolkata Book Fair 2014.jpg|thumb|The focal theme of 38th Kolkata International Book Fair 2014 was [[Peru]]]]
[[File:Kolkata Book Fair 2011 - India 2011-02-04 0481.JPG|right|250px|thumb|2011 Kolkata book fair theme country United States]]
The success of the Kolkata Book Fair has resulted in many book fairs in smaller cities in [[West Bengal]] like [[Siliguri]], and also in [[Kolkata]] urban region itself. The book fair was inspired, in turn, by the [[Frankfurt Book Fair]]. In the year 2027, the Kolkata Book Fair will become the first Indian book fair to reach 50th edition, making it the oldest annual book fair of India. The [[New Delhi World Book Fair]], though inaugurated in 1972, did not become an annual event till 2012, before which it was biennial.

The popularity of the Kolkata Book Fair was seminal in India being nominated the ''Guest of Honour'' at the [[Frankfurt Book Fair]] in 2006, according to the [[Frankfurt Book Fair]] organizers.{{Citation needed|reason=reliable source needed to verify this fact|date=March 2014}} The book fair has been celebrated in theatre, literature, songs and limericks in Kolkata.

The 44th International Kolkata Book Fair took place between 29 January and 9 February 2020 at the Central Park, [[Bidhannagar]].

The 45th edition was postponed due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-27|title=International Kolkata Book Fair Postponed Till Covid-19 Situation Improves: Guild Official|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/international-kolkata-book-fair-postponed-till-covid-19-situation-improves-guild-official-3219416.html|access-date=2021-08-04|website=News18|language=en|archive-date=4 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804123315/https://www.news18.com/news/india/international-kolkata-book-fair-postponed-till-covid-19-situation-improves-guild-official-3219416.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 45th International Kolkata Book Fair took place between 28 February 2022 and 13 march at the Central Park, [[Bidhannagar]]. The theme was [[Bangladesh]].

The 48th International Kolkata Book Fair took place between 28 January and 9 February 2025 at the [[Boimela Prangan Karunamoyee, Salt Lake]]. Timing for 48th International Kolkata Book Fair is Daily 12 pm to 8 pm.
The theme for 2025 is [[Germany]].

==Inception==
[[File:Guild House - 2B Jhamapukur Lane - Kolkata 2014-01-01 1874.JPG|thumb|150px|'Guild House' is the office of 'The Publishers & Booksellers Guild', Kolkata. Jan. 2014]]

The book fair was started on a small scale in 1976 by the Kolkata Publishers and Booksellers Guild. The book fair was started to meet the growing public demand for books.

==Duration==
The 44th International Kolkata Book fair 2020 started on 29 January 2020 and ended on 9 February 2020. It was to be around a week-long event but popular demand forced authorities to extend the duration. Even though there is usually an extended holiday in [[Calcutta]] during the period of 23 January ([[Subhas Chandra Bose]]'s birthday) to 26 January ([[Republic Day]] of India), the fair is held at the beginning of February to overlap with the payday of most Kolkatans.

The fair typically overlaps with the [[Hindu]] festival of [[Saraswati|Saraswati Puja]]. [[Saraswati]] is the Goddess of Learning, and hence many [[Hindu]] households observe the day by worshiping books on that day and not touching books for any other purpose. This practice causes a lower footfall on the corresponding day in the book fair.

==Venue==


Since year 2009, the fair has been held in its new location at [[Milan Mela]] near [[Science City Kolkata|Science City]] on [[Eastern Metropolitan Bypass|E.M. Bypass]]. The initial apprehension about reduced attendance at the new site has been proven wrong. Millions visited the book fair in 2009.

The fair used to be held on the [[Maidan (Kolkata)|Maidan]], Asia's large urban park. It was being held at the [[Park Street, Kolkata|Park Street]] end of the Maidan, due to a better road and rail network, having moved there from the other end of Maidan in 1991.

During the 1980s and early 1990s, Kolkata played host to two annual book fairs, one by the Kolkata Publishers and Booksellers Guild, and one by the [[Government of West Bengal]] − the ''Grontho Mela'' ('Grontho' is archaic [[Bengali language|Bengali]] word for book). 'Grontho Mela' was held from late December until early January and was the showcase for books published by Government-run publishing houses. While this was initially a rival commercial venture, the unprecedented growth of the 'Kolkata Book Fair' caused the Government of West Bengal to merge the two book fairs in 1992.

Conservation problems for the [[Victoria Memorial (India)|Victoria Memorial]] include high dust pollution, which is often accentuated by public fairs on the Maidan. The [[Kolkata High Court]]'s 2004 decision to move all public fairs to the [[Eastern Metropolitan Bypass]] has not been greeted with enthusiasm by fair organizers due to the present location being in the heart of Kolkata, and being very well serviced by public transport. The book fair and a few other fairs, however, were granted special permission by the Kolkata High Court to continue holding the fair on the Maidan in 2005 and 2006. However, the choice of Maidan as the annual venue for the book fair is no longer certain.

A demand for a permanent round-the-year indoor space for the fair, comprising only some of the stalls, had been given by the fair authorities to the [[Government of West Bengal]]. The former [[Chief Minister]] of [[West Bengal]], Mr. [[Buddhadeb Bhattacharya]], in a statement in 2005, had agreed to this request but no progress has been made on this front.

However, many Kolkatans feel that the fair will lose its ambience if it is held indoors or away from the Maidan, which is a vast stretch of green in the heart of the city. After a yearlong uncertainty, the world's largest non-trade book fair, settled for Park Circus Maidan to host the literary carnival in 2008.

However, organisers of Asia's biggest book fair remained apprehensive, keeping in mind the disgrace in January 2007 when the Kolkata High Court did not allow them to host the fair at the Maidan on environmental grounds. The Publishers and Booksellers Guild had to shift the most-awaited cultural event to Milan Mela ground near Science City in 2007 after the city's green brigade won a legal battle to block the fair at the Maidan. The fair took place over there annually from 2007 to 2017.From 2018 onwards, The fair takes place in Salt Lake Karunamoyee grounds.

== Kolkata Book Fair 2023 ==
[[File:"Muktamancha" in memory of Bengali filmmaker Tarun Majumdar, installed at the 46th International Kolkata Book Fair in Karunamoyee, Salt Lake City, West Bengal, India, photographed by Yogabrata Chakraborty, on February 9, 2023.jpg|thumb|"Muktamancha" in memory of Bengali filmmaker [[Tarun Majumdar]], installed at the 46th International Kolkata Book Fair in Karunamoyee, Salt Lake City, West Bengal, India, February 2023.]]

== Kolkata Book Fair 2022 ==
The 45th International Kolkata Book fair held from 28 February to 13 March at Salt Lake, Central Park. [[Bangladesh]] is the theme country for Book Fair 2022. [[Mamata Banerjee]], Chief Minister of West Bengal and Bangladesh State Minister for Cultural Affairs, [[K. M. Khalid]] inaugurated the fair.<ref>{{Cite magazine |agency=Press Trust of India |date=February 23, 2022 |title=International Kolkata Book Fair 2022 to start from Feb 28 {{!}} Details here |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/cities/kolkata/story/international-kolkata-book-fair-2022-theme-books-1916874-2022-02-23 |access-date=2022-03-02 |magazine=India Today |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223123138/https://www.indiatoday.in/cities/kolkata/story/international-kolkata-book-fair-2022-theme-books-1916874-2022-02-23 |url-status=live }}</ref> In this occasion Banerjee renamed the ground as ''Boimela Prangon''. The 45th Book fair was postponed from 2 years due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite news |agency=PTI |date=2022-01-18 |title=Kolkata book fair postponed by a month, to be held in Feb.-March |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/kolkata-book-fair-postponed-by-a-month-to-be-held-in-feb-march/article38285007.ece |access-date=2022-03-02 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=1 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301032217/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kolkata/kolkata-book-fair-postponed-by-a-month-to-be-held-in-feb-march/article38285007.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-11 |title=International Kolkata Book Fair from February 28 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/books-and-literature/international-kolkata-book-fair-from-february-28-7768097/ |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302065352/https://indianexpress.com/article/books-and-literature/international-kolkata-book-fair-from-february-28-7768097/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Kolkata Book Fair 2021==
The International Kolkata Book fair which was supposed to be held in January–February 2021, was cancelled due to [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID-19 pandemic]].

== Kolkata Book Fair 2020 ==
The 44th International Kolkata Book fair was held from 29 January to 9 February. Russia was the theme country for IKBF 2020, with the Russia Pavilion hosting sessions by various Russian authors and speakers.
The owl 'Tito' was adopted as the mascot for the Kolkata Book Fair 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://kolkatabookfair.net/theme-country-russia/|title=Theme Country – Russia – International Kolkata Book Fair|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-10|archive-date=10 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210121923/http://kolkatabookfair.net/theme-country-russia/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/from-jan-29-to-feb-9-mascot-tyto-to-welcome-book-lovers-at-kolkata-fair-6238729/|title=Mascot Tyto to welcome book lovers at Kolkata fair|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-20|archive-date=1 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301014303/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/from-jan-29-to-feb-9-mascot-tyto-to-welcome-book-lovers-at-kolkata-fair-6238729/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Kolkata Book Fair 2019 ==
The 43rd International Kolkata Book Fair was held from 31 January to 11 February 2019. The book fair was inaugurated by Hon'ble Chief Minister of West Bengal Mamata Banerjee and other distinguished writers were present on the dais as Morales declared the fair open by striking the customary gong at the new venue Central Park ground in Salt Lake. Due to undergoing construction the venue was shifted from Milan Mela ground to Salt lake Central Park. Visitors were allowed from 12 noon to 8 pm every day.

According to an organizer of the event, English books are seen as a status symbol, and are sometimes carried by people who do not even know English. Sometimes parents will encourage their children to read books in English, rather than their native language.<ref>BBC, The World This Week, 9 February 2019</ref>

The theme country for IKBF 2019 was Guatemala.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/cities/kolkata/kolkata-book-fair-2019-dates-venue-map-new-attractions-need-know-1502728258.html|title=Kolkata Book Fair 2019: Dates, venue, timings, special attractions and all you need to know|date=2019-01-28|website=The Statesman|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-10|archive-date=29 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929103709/https://www.thestatesman.com/cities/kolkata/kolkata-book-fair-2019-dates-venue-map-new-attractions-need-know-1502728258.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Keeping the theme in mind the two main gates showcased Guatemala architecture.

== Kolkata Book Fair 2018 ==
The 42nd International Kolkata Book Fair was held from 30 January to 11 February 2018. The opening ceremony was done with the students of AIS(Adamas International School)<ref>{{cite news|title=International Kolkata Book Fair 2018: Date, Venue And Highlights|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/international-kolkata-book-fair-2018-begins-date-venue-and-highlights-1806325|access-date=24 February 2018|work=NDTV.com|archive-date=24 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224232714/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/international-kolkata-book-fair-2018-begins-date-venue-and-highlights-1806325|url-status=live}}</ref> The focal theme was France. The book fair was inaugurated by Honorable Chief Minister of West Bengal, Smt. [[Mamata Banerjee]], in the presence of Special Guest Ms. Francoise Nyssen, Hon'ble Minister of Culture & Communication, France.

== Kolkata Book Fair 2017 ==
The 41st International Kolkata Book Fair was held from 25 January – 5 February 2017. The focal theme was Costa Rica. The book fair was inaugurated by Honorable Chief Minister of West Bengal, Smt. [[Mamata Banerjee]].

==Kolkata Book Fair 2016==
[[File:40th International Kolkata Book Fair - Milan Mela Complex - Kolkata 2016-02-02 0356-0358.tif|thumb|40th International Kolkata Book Fair at Milan Mela fairground.]]
The 40th International Kolkata Book Fair was held from 27 January to 7 February 2016. [[Bolivia]] was the Focal Theme Country in 2016. The year which is coincidentally the 50th year of [[Che Guevara]]'s immortal struggle against imperialism in Bolivia. The book fair was inaugurated by Ms [[Magela Baudoin]], a noted litterateur and novelist of the Focal Theme Country, Bolivia, in the presence of our Honored Chief Guest, Honorable Chief Minister of West Bengal, Smt. [[Mamata Banerjee]] and other dignitaries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kolkatabookfair.net/store-40th-international-kolkata-bookfair/|title=International Kolkata Book Fair|access-date=29 November 2016|archive-date=29 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129210022/http://www.kolkatabookfair.net/store-40th-international-kolkata-bookfair/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Kolkata Book Fair 2015==
[[File:Visitors - 39th International Kolkata Book Fair - Milan Mela Complex - Kolkata 2015-02-06 5838.JPG|thumb|Visitors at Kolkata Book Fair 2015]]
The 39th International Kolkata Book Fair 2015 was inaugurated on 27 January at 4:00 pm, Tuesday by the Honorable Chief Minister of [[West Bengal]] [[Mamata Banarjee]]. The fair is held between 28 January and 8 February from 1 pm to 8 pm.

The focal theme of the 2015 fair is [[Great Britain]].

==Kolkata Book Fair 2014==
[[File:Wikimedia Stall - 38th International Kolkata Book Fair - Milan Mela Complex - Kolkata 2014-02-03 8268.JPG|thumb|The Stall of Wikipedia first time in any bookfair for the first time worldwide.]]
[[File:Inauguration - 38th International Kolkata Book Fair - Milan Mela Complex - Kolkata 2014-01-28 7935.ogv|thumb|Mamata Banerjee is inaugurating the fair by hitting the bell 38 times at Milan Mela complex, Kolkata on 28 January 2014.]]
The 38th International Kolkata Book Fair 2014 was inaugurated on 28 January at 4:30 pm by the Honorable Chief Minister of [[West Bengal]] [[Mamata Banarjee]]. The fair was held between 29 January and 9 February from 1PM to 8PM.

The focal theme of the 2014 fair was [[Peru]]. Wikipedia, world's largest multilingual free Internet encyclopaedia, also made its debut at the 38th International Kolkata Book Fair, where it launched a campaign "to sign up volunteers who can contribute to enrich" the [[Bengali language]] version of Wikipedia.<ref name = "thehinduwikipediadebut">{{Cite web
| title = Wikipedia debut at Kolkata Book Fair
| work = The Hindu
| access-date = 2014-04-03
| date = 2013-12-25
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/books/wikipedia-debut-at-kolkata-book-fair/article5501557.ece
| archive-date = 3 February 2014
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140203233146/http://www.thehindu.com/books/wikipedia-debut-at-kolkata-book-fair/article5501557.ece
| url-status = live
}}</ref> The Book Seller and Publisher Guild introduced the Book Privilege Card in 2014 for the internet-savvy readers. A printout of the mail will serve as the Privilege Card that gives an additional 15% discount on the purchase of books worth 500 and above.<ref>{{cite news|last=Privilege Card|first=Kolkata Book Fair|title=Privilege Card|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/books/Unveiling-Kolkata-Book-Fair-2014/articleshow/29151031.cms|access-date=3 February 2014|newspaper=The Times Of India|archive-date=27 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140127224932/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/books/Unveiling-Kolkata-Book-Fair-2014/articleshow/29151031.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Kolkata Book Fair 2013==
The 37th International Kolkata Book Fair 2013 was inaugurated on 26 January 2013 and stayed operational from 30 January to 10 February 2013. The focal theme this year was "[[Bangladesh]]". Nearly 1.9 million book lovers visited this fair.
The duration of the 2013 Kolkata Book Fair was extended by three days, following a request from West Bengal Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee, to help small and medium-sized publishers.
The 37th edition of the popular fair started on 26 January in the state capital instead of 29 January and ended on 10 February as scheduled earlier.
The fair did a business of over Rs.20 crore.
Besides the focus country of [[Bangladesh]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]], the [[US]], Italy, [[Vietnam]], China, Israel and [[Costa Rica]] set up book pavilions at the fair.
Also, Nobel laureates, writers, dramatists and musicians from various countries took part in the Kolkata Literary Meet to mark the centenary of poet-writer [[Rabindranath Tagore]] winning the [[Nobel Prize]] in [[Literature]] in 1913.
Iconic Bengali writer [[Sunil Gangopadhyay]], who died in October 2013, was remembered at the event through speeches and an award instituted in his memory.
<ref>{{Cite web
| title = Kolkata Book Fair 2013 duration extended
| format = ZeeNews
| access-date = 2014-04-03
| date = 2012-11-30
| url = http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/bookworm/bookworm-s-trail/kolkata-book-fair-2013-duration-extended_2618.htm
| archive-date = 19 February 2014
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140219052132/http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/bookworm/bookworm-s-trail/kolkata-book-fair-2013-duration-extended_2618.htm
| url-status = live
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news
|title = 37th Kolkata Book Fair opened
|work = NewsWala, the Hyderabad Deccan English Daily
|access-date = 2014-04-03
|date = 2013-01-27
|url = http://www.newswala.com/India-National-News/37th-Kolkata-Book-Fair-opened-28454.html
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140219060113/http://www.newswala.com/India-National-News/37th-Kolkata-Book-Fair-opened-28454.html
|archive-date = 19 February 2014
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref>

==Kolkata Book Fair 2012==
The 36th International Kolkata Book Fair 2012 flagged off on 25 January 2012 and was operational till 5 February 2012. The focal theme this year was Italy.
West Bengal's newly appointed Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee inaugurated the Kolkata Book Fair on 24 January 2012 at 4:30 pm.
This year many fire prevention measures were taken, in consideration of recent fire incidents in Kolkata such as the AMRI Hospital tragedy.

===Power cut===
On Monday, 30 January 2012, in a bizarre move, the Kolkata Book Fair authorities switched off power during an interaction of Pakistan cricketer and politician [[Imran Khan]] with the media, claiming that a press meet scheduled to last for five minutes had stretched to nearly 45 minutes. According to TV footage, the Imran's address to the media ended abruptly as the power was switched off. There could have been utter chaos or security problems owing to the action of the Book Fair authorities. "We did switch off power because the next programme could not be started. So we were forced to do so," Kolkata Book Fair organizer's top official [[Tridib Kumar Chattopadhyay]] told a local TV news channel.

===Information about 2012 Bookfair===
36th Kolkata Book Fair 2012 was opened by the famous [[Italian people|Italian]] writer [[Beppe Severgnini]]. Important personages such as [[Vikram Seth]], [[Ruskin Bond]] and [[Chetan Bhagat]] literature were scheduled to participate in a 12-day event, as were many writers from abroad.

Kolkata Book Fair, the world's largest non-trade book fair, had also earned the distinction of being the largest book fair in Asia. "This is the third largest annual conglomeration of books after the Frankfurt Book Fair and Book Fair in London." This Year the Book Fair, with Italy as the theme country, was inaugurated in the presence of Severgnini, [[Chief Minister]] of [[West Bengal]], [[Mamata Banerjee]] and other senior officials from the world of culture and literature. Kolkata Book Fair has become an integral part of the culture of Bengal since its inception in 1976.

The 36th Kolkata Book Fair has a number of "firsts" in her bag. Kolkata's first Literature Meet (KLM), organized by the Fair, in which famous writers such as [[Vikram Seth]], [[Ruskin Bond]], [[Chetan Bhagat]], [[Shashi Tharoor]], [[Mohammed Hanif]], [[Amit Chaudhuri]] and Basu Kuhn were present. Bangladeshi writer [[Tahmima Anam]], French writer Nicholas Savage, graphic novelist [[Nicholas Wilde]], Scottish novelist, essayist and travel writer [[Kapka Kassabova]], Canadian writer [[Craig Taylor (writer)|Craig Taylor]], Italian writer [[Alessandro Baricco]] were also scheduled to participate.

Kolkata Book Fair 2012 was also opened by the Chief Minister on 24 January 2012. After many years, the former Chief Minister Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee was not part of the event, which is close to his heart. This is the first time that a book fair was inaugurated in the presence of a Woman Chief Minister.

Another novelty was the musical performance at the opening ceremony, while signing the song performed by [[Kaushiki Desikan]] and [[Monali Thakur]], [[Shantanu Moitra]] in presence of enthusiastic audience. A concert with emphasis on the effects of the composition of [[Rabindra Nath Tagore]]'s foreign songs provided a melodic end to the program.

Directions to the 2012 fair: Milan Mela Complex, near Science City on E.M. Bypass, Kolkata. Those who want to know the route to follow Book Fair 2012 at Milan Mela are hereby informed that they can take Train route to Bidhannagar Station & from there may take Taxi or Buses towards Science City. The West Bengal Government will run extra buses from different locations of Kolkata to Milan Mela Kolkata Book Fair 2012 Venue at different timings daily.<ref>{{Cite web
|title = Kolkata Book Fair 2012 Timing
|work = Kolkata Information
|access-date = 2014-04-03
|url = http://kolkatainformation.org/2012/01/24/kolkata-book-fair-2012-timing/
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140219044238/http://kolkatainformation.org/2012/01/24/kolkata-book-fair-2012-timing/
|archive-date = 19 February 2014
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref>

==Kolkata Book Fair 2011==
[[File:Kolkata Book Fair 2011 - India 2011-02-04 0494.JPG|thumb|Latin America Stall]]
[[File:Kolkata Book Fair 2011 - India 2011-02-04 0466.JPG|thumb|2011 book fair gate]]
Almost 1.7 million book lovers visited in 12 days in the 35th International Kolkata Book Fair. It was again held at Milan Mela, next to Science City, EM Bypass.
Organized by the Publishers & Booksellers Guild, the 35th edition of the International Kolkata Book Fair 2011 was successfully held from 26 January to 6 February 2011. This year's fair was not only international but also carried an important historical significance. This year, on the occasion of the 150th birth [[anniversary]] of the Nobel Laureate immortal poet [[Rabindranath Tagore]] to whose memory the Fair had been dedicated, there was no entry fee for the visitors. Each and every book lover visiting the fair was given a pocket calendar with a photograph of [[Rabindranath Tagore]] as a memento. Over 1.6 million book lovers gathered in this 12-day book festival, and books worth Rs 16 crore were sold.

Noted Pulitzer Award-winning writer [[Richard Ford]] of US inaugurated the fair. The ex [[chief minister]] of West Bengal, [[Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee]] was the chief guest while the guest of honour was the noted author [[Atin Bandyopadhyay]]. The special guest was the ambassador of US to India, [[Timothy J. Roemer]].

This was the first time that the Little Magazine Publishers in [[little magazine movement|Little Magazine]] enclave had been given space at a prime position in the fairground free of cost. Another first was the [[Solar lamp|solar lighting]] on the fairground. [[Solar vehicle|Solar battery-operated vehicles]] were provided for the benefit of the aged and the disabled visitors to the fair.

The five halls in the fairground had been named after [[Prafulla Chandra Ray|Acharya Prafulla Chandra]], [[Debabrata Biswas]], [[Santidev Ghosh|Shantideb Ghosh]], [[Mother Teresa]] and [[Suchitra Mitra]]. Separate zones set up for the convenience of the discerning readers included religious literature zones, universities and educational institution zones, and [[Hindi literature|Hindi]] and neighbouring literature zones.

Talk shows centered around Rabindranath—AAMAR RABINDRANATH (Tagore in my life) were a major crowd puller. Celebrities from the fields of cinema, music, dance, drama, painting and literature spoke about the influence of the poet in their lives. Among the celebrities present were [[Ranjit Mallick]], Swagatalakshmi, Mamatashankar, [[Lopamudra]], [[Goutam Ghose]], [[Chaiti Ghoshal]], Anindita Kazi and [[Sunil Ganguly]], Sirshendu, Samares, [[Suchitra Bhattacharya]] and others.
Apart from these seminars, International Kolkata Book Fair 2011 had three international lectures: the Asoke Sarkar Memorial Lecture delivered by Richard Ford, a [[Pulitzer Prize for Fiction|Pulitzer Prize]] winning American novelist, the Supriya Sarkar Memorial Lecture delivered by American scientist and bestselling author [[Mani Lal Bhaumik|Mani Bhaumik]], and the Sushil Mukherjea Memorial Lecture delivered by the noted author [[Akhil Sharma]], US. A three-dimensional laser show hosted by US was held each evening in the Fairground where glimpses of American culture were displayed.

Other attractions included the Montemarte (art village) open-air auditorium, the Children's Pavilion 'CHELEBELA', and the Tagore Pavilion. The Theme Pavilion was a replica of the [[United States Capitol|Capitol Building]] in [[Washington D.C.]] The Theme Gate was a replica of the [[Library of Congress]] building, US. The other gates were replicas of Jorasanko Gate, India Gate, Charminar Gate, Gateway of India and the Thakurbari Museum. The Tagore Pavilion was a replica of the Rabindranath Tagore memorial building of Bangladesh — Sahajadpur Kuthibari.
<ref name="+cite">{{cite web|title=kolkata book fair 2011|url=http://www.allaboutbookpublishing.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=459:kolkata-book-fair-celebrated-the-150th-birth-anniversary-of-tagore&catid=74:exhibitions&Itemid=174|publisher=All About Book Publishing|access-date=2 February 2014|archive-date=19 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219155042/http://www.allaboutbookpublishing.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=459:kolkata-book-fair-celebrated-the-150th-birth-anniversary-of-tagore&catid=74:exhibitions&Itemid=174|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Kolkata Book Fair 2010 ==
[[File:Kolkata Book Fair 2010 4411.JPG|thumb|Milan Mela Ground]]
Mexico was selected as the focal theme and partner country for the 2010 Book Fair.
[[File:Kolkata Book Fair 2010 4408.JPG|thumb|Milan Mela Ground]]
The 34th International Kolkata Book Fair 2010 was held from 27 January to 7 February 2010.
The Fair was inaugurated by Mr. [[Jorge Volpi]] on 25 January 2010 at 4:30 pm at Milan Mela Prangan. The Chief Guest Of Honour of 2010 Kolkata Book Fair was Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee, Honourable Chief Minister, West Bengal.

'''Foreign Participants :''' 1. [[Bangladesh]] Complex, 2. Britain, 3. France, 4. Germany, 5. [[The African Union]], 6. Japan, 7. Spain, 8. Italy, 9. [[European Union]], 10. Sweden, 11. [[Romania]], 12. 14 Latin American Countries, 13. [[Vietnam]], 14. [[Cuba]].

'''Other Participating States:'''
[[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Delhi]], [[Gujarat]], [[Haryana]], [[Karnataka]], [[Kashmir]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Tripura]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Jharkhand]].

Apart from the various large and small National and International Book Publishers, the other attractions of the Fair were an IT pavilion, a Little Magazine pavilion, some stalls of local Handicrafts and Arts and also an open area for the [[Foodie]]s paved with a number of stalls of different delicious food items.<ref>{{Cite web
| title = 34th International Kolkata Book Fair 2010 !! - India Travel Forum
| work = IndiaMike.com
| access-date = 2014-02-22
| date = 2010-01-22
| url = http://www.indiamike.com/india/kolkata-calcutta-f21/34th-international-kolkata-book-fair-2010-a-t100677/
| archive-date = 19 February 2014
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140219093745/http://www.indiamike.com/india/kolkata-calcutta-f21/34th-international-kolkata-book-fair-2010-a-t100677/
| url-status = live
}}</ref>

==Kolkata Book Fair 2009==
[[File:KBF2009 THEMEPAV.JPG|thumb|Kolkata book fair, Theme of Kolkata book fair 2009 Scotland]]
Scotland was selected the focal theme country for the 2009 Book Fair. It was the first time that it was held on the Milan Mela exhibition grounds.
This year, for the first time, the Publishers and Booksellers' Guild released a Calcutta Book Fair Theme Song "Oi Daakchey Boi" produced by Cozmik Harmony - a partner of [[Washington Bangla Radio on Internet|Washington Bangla Radio]] pioneering the digital era of Bengali Songs. The lyrics of "Oi Daakchey Boi" are by Sugata Guha, music by the popular percussionist [[Bikram Ghosh]], and performed by Pratik Chowdhury, Ruprekha, [[Rupam Islam]], [[Lopamudra Mitra]], [[Srikanta Acharya]], [[Bikram Ghosh]], Shubhamita, Pulak and [[Rupankar Bagchi]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Washington Bangla Radio|title=Kolkata Book fair 2009|url=http://www.washingtonbanglaradio.com/content/33rd-calcutta-book-fair-2009-kolkata-boimela-2009-exclusive-wbri-audiovisual-video-coverage|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234645/http://www.washingtonbanglaradio.com/content/33rd-calcutta-book-fair-2009-kolkata-boimela-2009-exclusive-wbri-audiovisual-video-coverage|archive-date=2016-03-03|access-date=2 February 2014|publisher=Washington bangla Radio}}</ref>
[[File:KBF2009 ANANDA.JPG|thumb|Ananda publishers]]

==Kolkata Book Fair 2008==
The United States was elected as the focal theme country for the 2008 Book Fair and was given a pavilion to showcase its books and publishers. Also, a US-Kolkata Literary Exchange (USKLE) has been created to organize this event with the [[Consulate General of the United States, Kolkata|Consulate General of the United States of America in Kolkata]]. The Kolkata Book Fair took place 30 January to 10 February 2008.

Pulitzer Prize–winning poet [[Yusef Komunyakaa]] led the delegation to the 2008 Kolkata Book Fair. Joining him on the board of advisers were several US poets laureate, including [[Rita Dove]] and [[Donald Hall]].

Henry V Jardine, the United States Consul General in Kolkata said, "With the United States as the 'Theme Country' this year, the Consulate along with other organizations will work to bring a range of great programs, with prominent authors, artists, and academics. We will have a full schedule of events throughout the Fair time to highlight the life, [[Culture of the United States|culture]], [[American literature|literature]] and [[Visual art of the United States|arts]] of the United States. The Kolkata-based American Library will provide a display of some of its many books, periodicals and electronic media that are available for students, academics, or anyone wanting access to the Library's collection. Also, our office of the US Educational Foundation in India (USEFI) will conduct programs for prospective students interested in studying in the United States. USEFI has done such an impressive job over the last few years in promoting United States schools and universities that [[Indian students abroad|Indian students now represent the largest number of foreign students in the United States]]. ''[[SPAN magazine|SPAN Magazine]]'', which is a popular source of information on the close Indo-US relationship, will also have representatives present and a display to highlight its more fascinating articles about shared Indian and American experiences."

Less than 24 hours before its inauguration, the Kolkata High Court banned the 33rd Kolkata Book Fair from being held on the Park Circus Maidan on environmental grounds. The fair was to be held from 29 January to 10 February. The court verdict was a culmination of a long-drawn battle between the environmentalists and the state on holding fairs at the Maidan, close to Victoria Memorial. In November 2003, the state had assured the court all fairs would be shifted from the Maidan and a permanent complex would come up on the Eastern Metropolitan Bypass.

==Controversy over the 2007 fair==
The 2007 fair attracted a lot of controversy over the [[Kolkata High Court]] decision banning fairs on the Maidan. The court granted the fair special permission for the year of 2005, and permission for "one last time" in the year 2006 to be held at [[Maidan (Kolkata)|Maidan]], which has been the venue of the fair for the last 31 years. The Kolkata Book Fair was the only fair granted special permission in 2006. Despite the two years given to the fair organizers to find alternative venues, no progress was made till 2007, mainly due to the fact that Kolkata lacks a large [[convention center]] with modern facilities. An objection on the grounds of environmental damage was raised for the 2007 fair and it has drawn protest from various independent groups like the "Save the Maidan" campaign. The High Court has forbidden the Guild to hold the fair on Maidan.<ref>Anusuya Basu; [http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070120/asp/calcutta/story_7284316.asp Fair's first pullout] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503212234/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070120/asp/calcutta/story_7284316.asp |date=3 May 2015 }};[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]], 20 January 2007; Kolkata</ref>

A large part of the [[intellectuals]], [[authors]], editors, journalists and book lovers, including [[Sunil Gangopadhyay]], Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay, Samaresh Majumder, [[Suchitra Bhattacharya]], [[Buddhadeb Guha|Buddhadev Guha]], [[Mrinal Sen]], the [[Mayor]] of Kolkata, turned up at the Maidan venue on 31 January, the day of the inauguration of the fair, to protest the [[Kolkata High Court]] order banning the fair, and to symbolically inaugurate the [[Kolkata]] Book Fair. This was to show that the spirit of people supporting the fair cannot be killed.

In 2007 Romania participated for the first time. Romanian jazz artist [[Teodora Enache]] was present with her music.

The rescheduled Book Fair was held in [[Bidhannagar, Kolkata|Salt Lake City]], a place located at the outskirts of Kolkata from 9 February up to 25 February.

With lesser space and lesser footfall, the 2007 fair was a moderate success at best.

The 2009 book fair at Milan Mela Maidan was a gala success, according to the figures published by the organizing committee. In 2010 book fair, the then Honorable Chief Minister of West Bengal Mr. [[Buddhadeb Bhattacharya]] remarked, "Some people are against the Book Fair in the name of environment."<ref>[http://in.news.yahoo.com/20/20100125/1416/tnl-some-people-are-against-kolkata-book.html people are against Kolkata Book Fair: Buddhadeb ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128023401/http://in.news.yahoo.com/20/20100125/1416/tnl-some-people-are-against-kolkata-book.html |date=28 January 2010 }}</ref> The Book Fair is sponsored by the Publishers Guild, a business forum.

==Kolkata Book Fair 2006==
2006 was the 32nd Kolkata Book Fair. The Court had issued an order the previous year against the holding of any fair or exhibition in the Maidan following a petition against it being converted into a venue for such occasions on grounds of [[environmental degradation]].{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
A bibliophile himself, Mr. Bhattacharjee took up the matter with the [[Ministry of Defence (India)|Defence Ministry]], as the [[Indian Army]] is the custodian of the Maidan and the holding of any event there requires a no objection certificate from it.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}

Mr. Bhattacharjee made a similar appeal, and with success, for the 2006 Book Fair, an event that drew more than 2.5 million people and in the course of which Rs. 22 crores of books and other publications were sold, according to its organisers, the Booksellers and Publishers Guild. The Court then agreed to a one-time waiver in deference to an appeal from the [[Government of West Bengal|State Government]]. Mr. Bhattacharjee had also sought the help of then Defence Minister, [[Pranab Mukherjee]], to get the Army's nod. The latter has been approached to persuade his successor [[A. K. Antony]] to do the same.
Defence sources said the Army authorities have told the [[Government of India|Government]] that an NOC could not be issued without a clearance from the Court.
<ref>{{Cite news
| title = Kolkata Book Fair venue: West Bengal Government to move High Court
| access-date = 2014-04-03
| date = 2006-11-04
| url = http://www.hindu.com/2006/11/04/stories/2006110417691300.htm
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080131103630/http://www.hindu.com/2006/11/04/stories/2006110417691300.htm
| url-status = dead
| work = [[The Hindu]]
| archive-date = 2008-01-31
}}</ref>

==Kolkata Book Fair 2005==
The 30th Kolkata Book Fair got underway in the City of Joy on the [[Republic Day]] at the city's Maidan from 25 January to 6 February 2005.<ref>{{cite web|last=kolkata|first=book fair|title=Kolkata Book Fair Duration|url=http://www.indiamike.com/india/india-travel-news-and-commentary-f80/kolkata-book-fair-t9446/|publisher=India Make|access-date=3 February 2014|archive-date=20 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220183210/http://www.indiamike.com/india/india-travel-news-and-commentary-f80/kolkata-book-fair-t9446/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2005, the [[fair]] housed about 600 stalls, including more than 20 pavilions, and recorded 13 to 14 lakh visitors every year. Kolkata Book Fair 2005 was of special significance as it was technically updated and remodeled to keep pace with international standards. Kolkata Book Fair was ranked at par with its foreign counterpart—World Book Fair, [[Frankfurt]] on the world calendar.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}

For the first time in the fair's history, three big players of the publishing industry -- [[Ananda Publishers]], Mitra & Ghosh and Dey's Publishing— set-up their stalls adjacent to each other. This caused small and medium publishers some concern as they felt the three crowd pullers would tell upon the distribution of buyers in the fair.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}

France was the theme of 2005's fair. French writer and critic [[Daniel Pennac]] inaugurated the event. He shared the dais with West Bengal Chief Minister Buddhadev Bhattacharya.<ref>{{cite web|last=Book Fair|first=Kolkata|title=International Kolkata Book Fair|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/report/book/20050127.htm|work=Rediff.com|access-date=3 February 2014|archive-date=20 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220031424/http://www.rediff.com/news/report/book/20050127.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Green case against Book Fair at High Court 2005===
An eminent environmentalist moved the Calcutta High Court claiming that preparation for the Kolkata Book Fair was leading to pollution of the [[Maidan (Kolkata)|Brigade Parade Ground]] area, considered to be the lung of the metropolis.
Subhas Dutta placed before a division bench, presided by justice Asim Banerjee, 30 photographs which he claimed were proof of the digging and spoiling of the ground by contractors and workers setting up the showrooms and book fair offices. Dutta claimed trenches had been dug to place cables and to prepare service privies, affecting the environmental balance of the ground, and alleged that the State Government had not taken any action in this regard. The High Court directed early that the environmental balance of the brigade parade ground must be kept intact and the greenery maintained for the sake of the people's health. It had also directed that prior permission of the military authorities, which own the ground, was necessary before the State Government granted permission for any usage of the ground by any organisation.<ref>{{cite news|last=book fair|first=kolkata|title=green case kolkata book fair|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=14 January 2005|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/green-case-against-book-fair-at-high-court-105011401042_1.html|publisher=Business Standard|access-date=3 February 2014|archive-date=20 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220174343/http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/green-case-against-book-fair-at-high-court-105011401042_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Focus on IT in Kolkata Book Fair 2005===
Kolkata Book Fair 2005, held at Milan Mela Prangan, highlighted the IT and ITES aspects of the state along with the changing face of West Bengal's infrastructure and talent pool.
The book fair had an information technology park (ITP) where several IT companies displayed and sold IT products relating to education, literature and other projects. On display were IT products suitable for libraries, school education and technical disciplines as well as details of courses, hardware and CDs of books. The stalls of ITES players like the Academy of Animation Arts and Technology focused on the potential of the biotech and animation sectors. One study by a global consulting firm indicated that by 2005, the Indian animation industry could be worth $1.5 billion in a global market of $5–7 billion.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kolkata|first=Book Fair|title=Focus on IT|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/book-fair-2005-to-focus-on-it-105011101025_1.html|access-date=3 February 2014|newspaper=Business Standard|date=11 January 2005|archive-date=20 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220162357/http://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/book-fair-2005-to-focus-on-it-105011101025_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Academy of Animation Arts and Technology set up an animation school to provide training on the fundamentals of animation.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kolkata|first=Book Fair|title=Animation School In Book Fair|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/book-fair-2005-to-focus-on-it-105011101025_1.html|access-date=3 February 2014|newspaper=Business Standard|date=11 January 2005|archive-date=20 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220162357/http://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/book-fair-2005-to-focus-on-it-105011101025_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 2005 Kolkata Book Fair was held over an area of 800,000 sq ft (75,330 sq m), with a stall cover area of 200,000 sq.ft. 535 book stalls took part in the fair. Footfall recorded was over 14 lakhs. Single-day sales on the final day exceeded Rs.2 million.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}

==Kolkata Book Fair 2004==
There was enough police posted at the venue of the 29th Kolkata Book Fair to tackle any eventuality even before it was formally inaugurated on Tuesday by Chilean poet [[Raúl Zurita]]. Although lights seemed to have gotten brighter this year, the 'ground' reality remained unchanged. The handful of visitors on the inaugural day managed to raise enough dust to put a cavalry charge to shame. [[Chile]] being the theme for the fair, the inaugural ceremony had more to do with [[Pablo Neruda]] and Latin American literature than about the event itself.<ref>{{cite web|last=Book Fair|first=International Kolkata|title=2004 Kolkata Book Fair|url=http://www.indiamike.com/india/kolkata-calcutta-f21/kolkata-book-fair-t3215/|publisher=India Mike|access-date=3 February 2014|archive-date=21 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221032848/http://www.indiamike.com/india/kolkata-calcutta-f21/kolkata-book-fair-t3215/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Participants==
[[File:KBF2009 SAHITYASANGSAD.JPG|thumb|Sishu Sahitya Sansad]]
Most bookstalls in the book fair keep English and [[Bengali language|Bengali]] books. Popular book stalls include [[Ananda Publishers]], Dey's Publishing, Deb Sahitya Kutir, and Mitra Ghosh Publishers, Pratibhas, Punashcha, Sishu Sahitya Samsad, Deep Prakashan, Tuli Kalam, Bhasha o Sahitya, Maondol Book House, Saraswato Library - among Bengali language book shops and Timely Books, Seagull Books, [[Rupa & Co.]], [[Penguin Books|Penguin India]], [[Tata Mcgraw-Hill]] - among English language book shops.

Virtually all major [[Europe]]an scientific publishers or corresponding [[franchisee]]s set up shop, including [[Oxford University Press]], [[Cambridge University Press]], [[Kluwer]] and [[Springer Verlag]].

The fair's diplomatic mission stalls display and sell books from their countries. The [[British Council]], [[United States Information Service]], and [[Alliance française]] typically host stalls. The [[European Union]], [[Bangladesh]] and several [[Latin America]]n embassies have hosted stalls in recent years.

Most major news media in Calcutta have stalls, including [[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]] and [[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]].

Calcutta institutions, which have their own press or publishing house typically host stalls - including the [[Indian Museum]], [[Asiatic Society]], survey institutes like [[Zoological Survey of India]], [[Botanical Survey of India]], [[Geological Survey of India]], and universities like [[University of Calcutta]], [[Jadavpur University]] and [[Rabindra Bharati University]].

Other notable annual stalls include:
*The famous [[Santiniketan]]-based used bookseller Subarnarekha
*A stall hosted by [[Kolkata]] artist Rathin Mitra, featuring his famous panoramas of [[Kolkata]]
*The BenFish (Bengal Fisheries) food stall, which typically attracts more customers than most bookshops

The initial rule that only publishers, and not institutions which just sold or distributed books but did not publish any books, can participate in the fair has been waved in the 2000s. This rule often forced small distributors to bring out a token publication just to be able to participate in the fair.

In 2014, Wikipedia made its first appearance at the Kolkata Book fair, launching its campaign to enthuse people to become regular contributors to its site.<ref name = "thehinduwikipediadebut"/>
It booked a stall and lined up an awareness programme to sign up volunteers. Incidentally, Kolkata fares poorly when it comes to contributing to the world's biggest online encyclopedia. As of 2013, the city had only seven senior contributors and some volunteers. [[Wikipedia]] needs people from Kolkata to contribute voluntarily not only to the mother website but also to its [[:bn:প্রধান পাতা|Bengali language]] version of Wikipedia. The Book Fair authorities have already sealed the deal and are looking forward to this heavyweight participant.
<ref>{{Cite news
| title = Wikipedia stall at book fair next year
| work = The Times of India
| access-date = 2014-02-22
| date = 2013-12-21
| url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Wikipedia-stall-at-book-fair-next-year/articleshow/27695829.cms
| archive-date = 23 December 2013
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131223161201/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Wikipedia-stall-at-book-fair-next-year/articleshow/27695829.cms
| url-status = live
}}</ref>

==Themes==
Starting from the 1990s, the book fair has been themed annually, typically on a country - on the lines of the ''Guest of Honour'' at the [[Frankfurt Book Fair]]. The theme country embassy is typically given a stall at the fairground centre, and many book shops theme their collections based on the fair theme. The temporary gates of the fair are designed according to the theme, on the basis of a design competition among [[Kolkata]] students.
{|class="wikitable" align="right" border="5" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2"
|-
! Year
! Theme
|-
| 1991
| [[Assam]]
|-
| 1992
| [[Tripura]]
|-
| 1993
| [[Odisha]]
|-
| 1994
| [[Zimbabwe]]
|-
| 1995
| [[West Bengal]]
|-
| 1996
| [[Bihar]]
|-
| 1997
| [[France]]
|-
| 1998
| [[Great Britain]]
|-
| 1999
| [[Bangladesh]]
|-
| 2000
| [[Brazil]]
|-
| 2001
| [[India]]
|-
| 2002
| [[Netherlands]]
|-
| 2003
| [[Cuba]]
|-
| 2004
| [[Chile]]
|-
| 2005
| France
|-
| 2006
| [[Spain]]
|-
| 2007
| [[Australia]]
|-
| 2008
| [[United States]] (**Fair Postponed)
|-
| 2009
| [[Scotland]]
|-
| 2010
| [[Mexico]]
|-
| 2011
| United States
|-
| 2012
| [[Italy]]
|-
| 2013
| [[Bangladesh]]
|-
| 2014
| [[Peru]]
|-
| 2015
| [[Great Britain]]
|-
| 2016
| [[Bolivia]]
|-
| 2017
| [[Costa Rica]]
|-
| 2018
| France
|-
| 2019
| [[Guatemala]]
|-
|2020
|[[Russia]]
|-
|2021
|[[COVID-19 pandemic|Cancelled for COVID-19 pandemic]]
|-
|2022
|[[Bangladesh]]
|-
|2023
|[[Spain]]
|-
|2024
|[[United Kingdom]]
|-
|2025
|[[Germany]]
|-
|2026
|[[Argentina]]
|}
Typically, the Chief Guest at the fair is from the themed country and have been such noted dignitaries as [[Günter Grass]] and [[Richard Dawkins]].

Starting from 2005, one of the newest participating international pavilions is named the 'guest of honour', and is a kind of secondary theme of the fair. Australia was the guest of honour for 2007.

'Italy' was declared the theme for Kolkata Book Fair 2012, by Publishers and Booksellers Guild, Kolkata.

==Dedicated enclaves==
*All [[first edition]]s of books which are released in the fair are housed in a special release gallery.
*The Book Fair has been the annual show for [[Bengali language|Bengali]] [[little magazine]]s since the inception of the fair. The little magazines are now housed in a special dedicated section in the fair.
*From the 1990s, the Kolkata Book Fair also has a special section for budding artists, authors, poets and painters. It is called ''Montmartre'' after the [[Montmartre]] in [[Paris]]. It typically has poetry recitals, and live face sketching for patrons by upcoming artists.
*The fair also has a special children's section starting from the 2000s.
*Following the devastating fire of 1997, the food stalls have also shared a common enclave.

==Events==
A number of events are held in conjunction with the book fair.
*A number of book signings and book releases with first edition distributions are held in conjunction with the fair, due to the high visibility of the fair
*A series of seminars and talks by literati
*Competitive events for school children like essay writing and trivia sessions
*The ''Walk for Books'' to raise money for child [[literacy]] programs
*Theme country events, including a talk by the Chief Guest
*The ''Asoke Kumar Sarkar Memorial Lecture'', the annual lecture delivered since 1984 by noted publishers and educators like W. Bradford Wiley
*The ''Book Bazaar'', the auction held on the last day of the fair to auction off remainder stock, has been discontinued
[[File:KBF2009 VISVABHARATI.JPG|thumb|bishwabharati stall]]

==Propaganda==
The Kolkata Book Fair attracts a lot of people looking for free propaganda and idea promotion. The fair does have its share of fair and useful propaganda, and relief fund raisers, along the lines of the [[Frankfurt Book Fair]] protest movement against the official German spelling reforms.

==Challenges, problems and solutions==

The biggest problem the book fair faces are the huge crowds which visit the fair - crowd and litter control are a major issue at the fair.

An associated problem is [[dust]] pollution, and resulting dust allergy and depreciation of exhibited books due to shopsoiling. The grass is usually trodden bare in the first few days, leaving the top soil dry and prone to erosion. Watering is typically used to control the problem, but it makes the grounds muddy.

Traffic and parking problems during fair days usually make the visit steeped in logistics. Most Kolkatans prefer to use public transport like the [[Kolkata Metro]] Railway and bus service, which have extended schedules during fair days.

A large fire in 1997 destroyed over one third of the fair, burnt over 100,000 books and caused the death of a visitor (Jiten Seal), who suffered a heart attack brought on by the ensuing stampede. Stricter fire laws, construction laws, and prohibition of open flames in the fair ground were instituted in the wake of the disaster, and insurance for stall holders was made compulsory. A massive downpour in 1998 also resulted in a lot of book damage, but the insurance laws made sure that stall owners did not suffer financial damage. The popularity of the fair has continued to grow despite these two setbacks. In both cases, the fair recovered and continued after a damage repair break.

Another problem due to the huge crowds is shoplifting. Typically, every stall has its own security - who control traffic flow into the stall. Such measures often lead to long and winding queues in front of the more popular stalls.

==Inaugurations==
A renowned person inaugurates the Kolkata Book Fair each year.

{| class="wikitable" align="right" border="5" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2"
|-
! Year
! Inaugurated By
|-
| 1976
| Debdoot Sheet
|-
| 1977
| Mrityunjoy Bandhopadhyay
|-
| 1978
| [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]]
|-
| 1979
| [[Tushar Kanti Ghosh]]
|-
| 1980
| [[Bhabatosh Dutta]]
|-
| 1981
| [[Amartya Sen]]
|-
| 1982
| [[Pratul Chandra Gupta]]
|-
| 1983
| Devipada Bhattacharya
|-
| 1984
| [[Mulk Raj Anand]]
|-
| 1985
| [[Ramaranjan Mukherji]]
|-
| 1986
| [[Nurul Hasan]]
|-
| 1987
| Asin Dasgupta
|-
| 1988
| [[Raja Ramanna]]
|-
| 1989
| [[Andre Lewin]]
|-
| 1990
| [[Asima Chatterjee]]
|-
| 1991
| [[Basanti Dulal Nagchaudhuri]]
|-
| 1992
| [[Amlan Dutta]]
|-
| 1993
| [[Mrinal Sen]]
|-
| 1994
| [[U. R. Ananthamurthy]]
|-
| 1995
| Raghunath Reddy
|-
| 1996
| [[Tapan Raychaudhuri]]
|-
| 1997
| [[Jacques Derrida]]
|-
| 1998
| Alen Gnra
|-
| 1999
| [[Shamsur Rahman (poet)|Shamsur Rahman]]
|-
| 2000
| [[Chintamoni Kar]]
|-
| 2001
| Pere Vesien
|-
| 2002
| Rita Rahaman
|-
| 2003
| Luis Toledo Sande
|-
| 2004
| [[Raúl Zurita]]
|-
| 2005
| [[Daniel Pennac]]
|-
| 2006
| Maria Fernando Santiago
|-
| 2007
| [[Thomas Keneally]]
|-
| 2008
| [[Paul Theroux]]
|-
| 2009
| [[Alexander McCall Smith]]
|-
| 2010
| [[Jorge Volpi]]
|-
| 2011
| [[Richard Ford]]
|-
| 2012
| [[Beppe Severgnini]]
|-
| 2013
| [[Anisuzzaman]]
|-
| 2014
| [[Mamata Banerjee]]
|-
| 2015
| [[Anita Anand (journalist)|Anita Anand]]
|-
| 2016
| [[Magela Baudoin]]
|-
| 2017
| [[Mamata Banerjee]]
|-
| 2018
| [[Mamata Banerjee]]
|-
| 2019
| [[Mamata Banerjee]]
|-
| 2020
| [[Mamata Banerjee]]
|-
| 2022
| [[Mamata Banerjee]] and [[K. M. Khalid]]
|-
| 2023
| [[Mamata Banerjee]]
|-
| 2024
| [[Mamata Banerjee]]
|-
| 2025
| [[Mamata Banerjee]]
|}

==Picture gallery==
<gallery>
File:Kolkata Book Fair 2011 - India 2011-02-04 0484.JPG|2011 kolkata book fair
File:KBF2009 VISVABHARATI.JPG|Kolkata Book Fair, theme [[Bangladesh]]
File:KBF2009 BDPAV.JPG|Kolkata Book Fair 2009, Bangladesh Pavilion
File:Kolkata Book Fair 2010 4377.JPG|Kolkata Book Fair 2010, Mexico Pavilion
File:Kolkata Book Fair 2010 4386.JPG|Kolkata Book Fair 2010
File:Kolkata Book Fair 2010 4354.JPG|Kolkata Book Fair 2010, Little Magazines Stalls
File:Kolkata Book Fair 2010 4411.JPG|Kolkata Book Fair 2010
File:Kolkatabookfair2011USApavilion.jpg|Photo of kolkata book fair
File:38th International Kolkata Book Fair - Milan Mela Complex - Kolkata 2014-01-28 7983.JPG|Milan mela
File:38th International Kolkata Book Fair - Milan Mela Complex - Kolkata 2014-01-28 7977.JPG|Milan mela
File:38th International Kolkata Book Fair - Milan Mela Complex - Kolkata 2014-01-29 8084.JPG|Milan mela
File:38th International Kolkata Book Fair - Milan Mela Complex - Kolkata 2014-01-29 8022-8023.JPG|Milan mela
File:Wikimedia Stall - 38th International Kolkata Book Fair - Milan Mela Complex - Kolkata 2014-01-28 7979.JPG|Wikipedia stall
File:38th International Kolkata Book Fair - Milan Mela Complex - Kolkata 2014-01-31 8189.JPG|38th international book fair
File:Jago bangla 2014 book fair.JPG|38th international book fair Jago Bangla
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Chennai Book Fair]]
* [[Agartala Book Fair]]
* [[Kolkata Poetry Confluence]]
* [[Kolkata Suburban Railway]]
* [[Hyderabad Book Fair]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[http://www.kolkatabookfair.net Official site of the Calcutta Book Fair]
*[http://10times.com/kolkata-book-fair Event Info]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20111231234044/http://latestbookreviews.net/book-fairs-in-india/ Major Book Fairs in India]
{{Kolkata topics}}
{{Books}}
{{coord missing|West Bengal}}

[[Category:Culture of Kolkata]]
[[Category:Indian literature]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Book fairs in India]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Organised events in Kolkata]]

Thiruvazhmarban temple

2026-01-24T03:37:26Z

Olympiados: Added first place initial version.

{{Short description|Hindu temple in Kanyakumari}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Thiruvazhmarban Temple
| image = IUPAISAAM (12).jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| map_type = India Tamil Nadu
| map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu
| coordinates = {{coord|8|12|31|N|77|26|50|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| native_name = Thirupathisaram
| country = [[India]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| district = [[Kanyakumari]]
| location = [[Thiruppathisaram]]
| elevation_m =
| deity = Thiruvazhmarban ([[Vishnu]])
Kamalavalli ([[Lakshmi]])
| Direction_posture =
| Pushakarani =
| Vimanam =
| festivals=
| architecture = [[Dravidian architecture]]
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity=
| inscriptions =
| year_completed =
| creator =
| website =
}}
The '''Thiruvazhmarban Temple''', also known '''as Sri Kuralappa Perumal Temple''' in [[Thiruppathisaram]], a village in [[Kanyakumari district]] in the South Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]], is dedicated to the Hindu god [[Vishnu]]. Thiruvazhmarban Temple is located about 5 km far, north-easterly to Nagercoil, 20 km far, north-westerly to Kanyakumari and 45 km south-west of [[Vanamamalai Perumal temple|Nanguneri Divya Desam]]. Constructed in the [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian style of architecture]], the temple is glorified in the ''[[Divya Prabandha|Nalayira Divya Prabandham]]'', the early medieval [[Tamil literature|Tamil]] canon of the [[Alvars|Alvar]] saints from the 6th–9th centuries CE. It is one of the 108 ''[[Divyadesam|Divya Desams]]'' of malayala nadu divyadesham dedicated to [[Vishnu]], who is worshipped as Thiruvazhmarban and his consort [[Lakshmi]] as Kamalavalli in kerala tantric traditions .<ref>{{cite book|title=108 Vaishnavite Divya Desams: Divya desams in Pandya Nadu|last= M. S. |first=Ramesh|publisher= Tirumalai-Tirupati Devasthanam|year=1993}}</ref> The oldest inscription in the temple is from 1139 CE indicating gifts to the temple. A granite wall surrounds the temple, enclosing all its shrines. The temple tank is located opposite to the temple, outside the main entrance.

Thiruvazhmarban is believed to have appeared to the [[Saptarishi]]s, the seven sages, and to Udayanangai, the mother of [[Nammazhwar|Nammalvar]]. The place is the birthplace of Nammalvar, one of the twelve [[Azhwar|Alvar]] saints in Vaishnava philosophy. The temple follows [[Thenkalai]] tradition of worship. Six daily rituals and many yearly festivals are held at the temple, of which the ten-day Chittirai Brahmotsavam during the [[Tamil calendar|Tamil month]] of ''Chittirai'' (April - May), Aadi Swati festival for Kulasekara Alvar, [[Navrathri|Navaratri]] during September - October and [[Vaikunta Ekadasi]] during ''Margali'' (December - January) being the most prominent. The temple is maintained and administered by Kanyakumari Devasthanam.

==Legend==
[[File:Kulasekhara Alwar.png|200x200px|thumb|left|Image of [[Kulashekhara Alwar]]]]
As per Hindu legend, [[Saptarishi]]s, the seven sages of [[Hindu Mythology]] are believed to have worshipped Vishnu at this place. Vishnu was pleased by their devotion and appeared at this place.

As per another legend, king Kulasekara, who would go on to become [[Kulashekhara Alwar]] came to this place after a conquest. His horse was lost and he was in search of the horse. He found that the horse was grazing peacefully on the banks of Soma Tirtham, the temple tank. After bathing in the tank, he felt rejuvanted worshipping the Vishnu temple in the banks. He is believed to have constructed the temple and named the place Thiruvanparisaram (''pari'' in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] indicates horse). ''Thiru'' indicates respect, ''vazh'' means live and ''marban'' indicates the heart of the person.<ref name=Rao/><ref name="dinamalar">{{cite web|title=Sri Thiru Vazhmarban temple|url=https://temple.dinamalar.com/en/new_en.php?id=81|publisher=Dinamalar|access-date=31 May 2015|year=2014}}</ref>

==History==
The exact history of the temple could not be ascertained from the inscriptions. The oldest inscription is dated from 1139 CE, when a person by name Natesan Chetti from Rajendra Cholapattinam offering donations to the temple. Two other inscriptions from the temple are dated 1613 and 1785 indicating record of offerings to the temple. A local historic account states that famous [[Madurai Nayak|Nayak]] king [[Thirumalai Nayak]] (1623-59 CE) visited the place and constructed the stepped temple tank. The inscriptions in the temple refer the place is Thiruvanparisaram.<ref name=Rao/>

==Architecture==
[[File:IUPAISAAM (6).jpg|200px|left|thumb|The vimanam of the temple]]
Thiruvazhmarban temple covers an area of about {{convert|2|acre|hectare|abbr=on}} and has a five-tiered ''[[gopuram]]'' (gateway tower). The temple in enclosed in a rectangular enclosure surrounded by granite walls. The central shrine houses the image of the presiding deity, Thiruvazhmarban in sitting posture. There is no separate shrine for his consort Lakshmi as she is believed to reside in his chest. Surrounding the presiding deity, the images of Saptharishis are present. The images of [[Rama]], [[Lakshmana]] and [[Sita]] are located to the right of the presiding deity. The image of Thiruvazhmarban is made of a compound of lime and granite. The sanctum also houses the images of [[Vishvaksena|Vishvaksenara]], [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekara Alvar]], [[Nataraja]] and Sivakami.<ref name=Rao>{{cite book|title=Temples of Tamil Nadu|last=Rao|first=A.V.Shankaranarayana|publisher=Vasan Publications|isbn=978-81-8468-112-3|year=2012|pages=66–69|ref=Rao}}</ref> The festival deity is made of [[panchaloha]] and all the ablution related worship practises are done only for festival deity. The shrines of [[Garuda]], [[Anjaneya]], [[Ramanuja]], [[Vedanta Desika]] and [[Azhwars|Alvars]] are found in the second precinct.<ref name="dinamalar"/> The temple tank, Soma Tirtham is located outside the main shrine. A hall named Kalyana Vimana Mandapa located near the tank houses paintings depicting [[Dashavatara]], the ten [[avatar]]s of Vishnu.<ref name=Rao/>

== Legend ==
[[File:IUPAISAAM (11).jpg|200px|thumb|Soma Tirtham, the temple tank]]
As per Hindu legend, [[Nammazhwar|Nammalvar]], the most prominent [[Azhwar|Alvar]] saint from the 9th century was born in Thirupathisaram.<ref name=Rao/><ref name="dinamalar"/> There are other accounts, which place his birthplace as Thirukurukur (modern day [[Alwarthirunagiri]]) in the southernmost region of the Tamil country.<ref name="Sadaranganip28">{{cite book |title=Bhakti Poetry in Medieval India: Its Inception, Cultural Encounter and Impact |first=Neeti M. |last=Sadarangani |publisher=Sarup & Sons |year=2004 |isbn=9788176254366 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WVQrKJbJ2JIC |page=28}}</ref><ref name="Carmanp64">{{cite book |title=Majesty and Meekness: A Comparative Study of Contrast and Harmony in the Concept of God |first=John B. |last=Carman |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1994 |isbn=9780802806932 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyVfKEmEK2QC |pages=64–65}}</ref> Some sources consider his to have been a princely family, although of low caste birth.<ref name="Sadaranganip28" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramaswamy |first=Vijaya |title=Historical dictionary of the Tamils |year=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press, INC|location=United States|isbn=978-0-470-82958-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC&q=nammazhwar&pg=PA211|page=211}}</ref> According to legend he was born fully enlightened and as a baby he never cried or suckled and never opened his eyes. The child did not respond to no external stimuli and his parents carried him in a golden cradle from Tirupathisaaram and left him at the feet of the deity of [[Sri Adhinathar]] in [[Alwarthirunagari Temple|Alwarthirunagari]]. The child got up and climbed into a hole in a [[tamarind]] tree, sat in a [[lotus position]], and began to meditate. He was in this state for sixteen years when a [[Tamil people|Tamil]] poet and scholar, on his trip to North India, named [[Madhurakavi Alvar]] saw a bright light shining to the south, and followed it until he reached the tree where the boy was residing. Madhurakavi asked a divine question on existence to the boy for which he responded that if the soul identifies with the body, it will be the body but if it serves the divine, it will stay in [[vaikunta|Vaikuntha]] and think of God.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Purāṇas| last=Swami |first=Parmeshwaranand|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QxPCBCk3wVIC&q=Encyclopaedic+Dictionary+of+Puranas+%2B+nammalwar&pg=PA908|page=908|publisher=Sarup & Sons|year=2001|isbn=9788176252263}}</ref> The boy was named Nammalvar and he went on to recite verses, which were recorded by Madhurakavi and later went on to be compiled as ''[[Nalayira Divya Prabhandam]]'' along with the works of other Alvars.<ref name=Rao/>

== Festival ==
During the ten-day Chittirai Brahmotsavam during the [[Tamil calendar|Tamil month]] of ''Chittirai'' (April-May), the festival deities of the temple are taken around the streets of the temple in a chariot drawn by hundreds of devotees.<ref>{{cite news|title=Car festival at two temples|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/car-festival-at-two-temples/article1703358.ece|date=17 April 2011|access-date=16 November 2015|publisher=The Hindu|location=Nagercoil}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Thiruvazhimarban Temple}}
{{Famous Vishnu temples|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Divya Desams| ]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Kanyakumari district]]

Soyat Kalan

2026-01-23T15:30:39Z

Olympiados:

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Soyat Kalan
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname = Soyat
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Madhya Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Madhya Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|24|11|19|N|76|10|40|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Agar Malwa district]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| leader_title = Nagar Parishad President

| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 13576
| population_as_of = 2001
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 465449
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 07361
| registration_plate = MP 70
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 1000/944 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Soyat Kalan''', also known as '''Soyat''', is a town and a [[Nagar Parishad]] in the [[Agar Malwa district]] of the [[Indian states and territories|Indian state]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web | title=नगर पालिका {{!}} जिला आगर मालवा, मध्य प्रदेश शासन {{!}} भारत | url=https://agarmalwa.nic.in/public-utility-category/%e0%a4%a8%e0%a4%97%e0%a4%b0-%e0%a4%aa%e0%a4%be%e0%a4%b2%e0%a4%bf%e0%a4%95%e0%a4%be/ | access-date=2025-08-22 | website=agarmalwa.nic.in}}</ref> It also serves as a [[tehsil]] headquarters within the district.<ref>{{Cite web | title=Tehsil {{!}} District Agar Malwa, Government of Madhya Pradesh {{!}} India | url=https://agarmalwa.nic.in/en/tehsil/ | access-date=2025-08-22 | website=agarmalwa.nic.in}}</ref>

The town is situated on the Indore–Kota highway, along the banks of the [[Kanthal River]] and the [[Kali Sindh River]]. Geographically, it is bordered on three sides by the state of [[Rajasthan]], and functions as a regional hub for transportation and trade between Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.

==Demographics==
{{As of|2011}} India [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archivedate=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|accessdate=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Soyat Kalan had a population of 14,781.<ref>{{Cite web | title=Soyatkalan (Shajapur, Madhya Pradesh, India) - Population Statistics, Charts, Map, Location, Weather and Web Information | url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/india/madhyapradesh/shajapur/2342201000__soyatkalan/ | access-date=2025-08-22 | website=www.citypopulation.de}}</ref> Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%. Soyat Kalan has an average literacy rate of 62%: male literacy is 79%, and female literacy is 51%. In Soyat Kalan, 16% of the population is under 6 years of age.

Soyat Kalan is drained by Kanthyal and Kalisindh rivers.

==Educational Institutes==
There are number of educational institutions in Soyat, such as Government College, Soyat, and a Government Boys and Government Girls schools.<ref>{{Cite web | title=कॉलेज / विश्वविद्यालय {{!}} जिला आगर मालवा, मध्य प्रदेश शासन {{!}} भारत | url=https://agarmalwa.nic.in/public-utility-category/%e0%a4%95%e0%a5%89%e0%a4%b2%e0%a5%87%e0%a4%9c-%e0%a4%b5%e0%a4%bf%e0%a4%b6%e0%a5%8d%e0%a4%b5%e0%a4%b5%e0%a4%bf%e0%a4%a6%e0%a5%8d%e0%a4%af%e0%a4%be%e0%a4%b2%e0%a4%af/ | access-date=2025-08-22 | website=agarmalwa.nic.in}}</ref>

==Religion==
With more than a hundred Hindu temples, Soyatkalan has been famous in the local area for many years. Some of the most famous temples in town are Chausath Yogini Mandir, Banke Bihari Temple, Radha Krishna Mandir badi Khedi, Raman Bihari, Shri Ram Temple, Maa Ashapurana Mandir Patti Rawla, Narsingh Mandir, Baba Ramdev Mandir, Bada Ganpati Mandir, Lakhabir Mandir, Bavari Temple, Gayatri Temple, Balaji Temple, Narmadeshwar Temple, Dhola Khedi Temple, Panchmukhi Temple, and Vishwakarma Temple. Chausath Yogini Temple is said to be one of the three oldest Chausath Mata temples of India.{{CN|date=June 2018}} Soyat also has some mosques for its Muslim population, the biggest of which is Jama Masjid on Patti Road.

==Nearby towns and cities ==
* [[Jhalrapatan]] – 41 km
* [[Jhalawar]] – 43 km
*[[Agar, Madhya Pradesh|Agar]] – 60 km
* [[Ujjain]] – 120 km
* [[Kota, Rajasthan|Kota]] – 135 km
* [[Indore]] − 180 km
* [[Jaipur]] – 300 km
* [[Bhopal]] – 225 km

==Nearby villages==
Soyatkalan is surrounded by many cities and villages. There are more than 100 villages around Soyat. The main villages among them are lohariya,Salyakhedi, [[Dongargaon, Agar Malwa|Dongargaon]], Dehriya, Dharonia, Nishania, Khedi, Dhanoda, Jiriyakhedi, Goghatpur, Kanthaliya, Kanthaliya Kheda, [[Soyat Khurd]], and Guradiya.

==Kali Sindh Basin==

The [[Kali Sindh]] Basin stretches between the southern and northern limits of the district. It occupies the major parts of Susner and Shajapur Tehsils and a very small part of Agar Tehsil. The southern part of the region is hilly whereas the northern part is plain. The hills gradually decrease in height from south to north. There are a few scattered hillocks in the central and northern parts also. The altitude of the region varies between 450 and 528 metres above mean sea level. Numerous streams originate from the hilly area and dissect the surface. Kali Sindh is the main river, which traverses the hills and flows further on the eastern border of the district. Lakundar is the main rivulets of Kali Sindh that flows northwards. Geologically, the entire region is a part of the Deccan Trap of the Cretaceous [[Eocene]] period. Its main tributary, Kanthal River, is the largest source of water in Soyatkalan.

==Language==
The main languages spoken in Soyatkalan are [[Hindi]], [[Malwi]], and [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Ujjain Division}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Agar Malwa district]]
[[Category:Shajapur]]

Muhammad Husain Mirza

2026-01-23T04:29:23Z

Olympiados:

[[File:1573-The Battle Between the Imperial Army and Muhammad Husain Mirza near Ahmadabad-Akbarnama.jpg|thumb|Battle between the Imperial Mughal Army and Muhammad Husain Mirza near Ahmadabad in 1573. ''Akbarnama'']]
{{For|the Mongol ruler|Muhammad Husain Mirza Dughlat}}
'''Muhammad Husain Mirza''' (died 1573) was a member of the late [[Timurid dynasty]] who attempted to secure the territory of [[Gujarat]] against the [[Mughal Empire]].{{sfn|Victoria and Albert Museum|2025}} He was the great-grandson of [[Muhammad Sultan Mirza (late Timurid)|Muhammad Sultan Mirza]], and brother of [[:Commons:Category:Ibrahim Husayn Mirza|Ibrahim Husayn Mirza]].

Hindustan had been conquered by [[Timur]] in 1398, which gave justification for later Timurids to claim overlordship in these regions. Several battles took place between the Mughal ruler [[Akbar]] and the various Timurid princes, generally called "Mirza" (a princely title derived from the Persian ''Amirzadeh'', meaning "born of the amir", i.e. Timur).{{sfn|Victoria and Albert Museum|2025}}

[[File:Captured Muhammad Husayn Mirza, 2 September 1573.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Captured Muhammad Husayn Mirza, being remitted to Akbar, 2 September 1573]]
In July 1573, Muhammad Husain Mirza attempted to capture the region of Gujarat after Akbar’s departure from the region. Ibrahim Husayn Mirza, Muhammad Husayn Mīrzā and Shāh Mīrzā finally succeeded in capturing the cities of [[Baroda]], [[Surat]] and [[Champaner]], finally laying siege to [[Ahmedabad]]. Mughal forces were called in by the Governor of the region [[Mirza Aziz Koka|Aziz Koka]], and they eventually defeated Muhammad Husain Mirza on 2 September.{{sfn|Victoria and Albert Museum|2025}}{{sfn|Sheth|2023|p=66}}

After his defeat, Muhammad Husain Mirza found refuge in the Deccan, at the court of [[Ahmadnagar]].{{sfn|Chandra|2005|p=190}} He had to flee following diplomatic action by the Mughals, and arrived in [[Khandesh]]. Akbar threatened Khandesh, and the [[Raja Ali Khan]] surrendered Muhammad Husain Mirza to the Mughals.{{sfn|Chandra|2005|p=190}}

The Mughal conquest of Gujarat against the Mirzas is extensively covered in the ''Akbarnama'', being the subject of twelve paintings.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Satish |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part - II |date=2005 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=978-81-241-1066-9 |page=190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rm9MC4DDrcC&pg=PA190 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sheth |first1=Sudev |title=Bankrolling Empire: Family Fortunes and Political Transformation in Mughal India |date=30 November 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-33026-8 |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4tfbEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 |language=en}}
* {{cite web |last1=Victoria and Albert Museum |title=Husain Mirza |url=https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O9511/painting-the-battle-between-the-imperial/husain-mirza-painting-miskina/ |website=Victoria and Albert Museum |date=2025}}

[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:1573 deaths]]
[[Category:Timurid princes]]

Enna kodumai Saravanan idhu?

2026-01-19T22:12:04Z

Olympiados: stub

{{Short description|Quote from Bollywood Film Chandramukhi}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox movie quote
| name= Enna Kodumai Saravanan Idhu?
| image =
| caption =
| character = Senthilnathan
| actor = [[Prabhu (actor)|Prabhu]]
| creator = [[P. Vasu]]
| firstusedin = ''[[Chandramukhi]]''
| alsousedin =
| moviequotes =
}}

'''Enna kodumai Saravanan idhu?''' ({{translation|What atrocity is this, Saravanan?}}; abbreviated to '''EKSI''') is a quote from the 2005 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film ''[[Chandramukhi]]'' spoken by the character Senthilnathan, played by [[Prabhu (actor)|Prabhu]]. The line has gained popularity<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=Sep 12, 2008 |title=On a different turf |url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2008/09/12/stories/2008091250810100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915011356/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2008/09/12/stories/2008091250810100.htm |archive-date=2008-09-15 |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> as an expression of irony or surprise.<ref name=":0" />

== Origin ==
In the 2005 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film ''[[Chandramukhi]]'', actor [[Prabhu (actor)|Prabhu]]'s character Senthilnathan exclaims this to his friend after learning that his wife, Ganga, has an alternate personality, "Chandramukhi".{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}. It was supposed to be a serious reaction at the end of a major plot reveal. But the way Prabhu expressed it was received had the audience in splits, completely damaging the impact of the scene.

"Enna Kodumai Saravanan Idhu" literally means "What atrocity is this, Saravanan?" Saravanan, originally a name of the Hindu God [[Kartikeya|Murugan]], is also a frequently used [[personal name]] in Tamil.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

== Other usage ==
The line gained notable attention and popularity after being amended slightly to "Enna Kodumai, Sir", used by comedian [[Premgi Amaren|Premji Amaran]] in ''[[Chennai 600028]]'' (2007). The line is reused by Premji in nearly all his subsequent comedy roles and films that he featured in, becoming his catchphrase.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2, 2008 |title=Grill mill |url=https://www.hindu.com/cp/2008/05/02/stories/2008050250341600.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081104203243/http://www.hindu.com/cp/2008/05/02/stories/2008050250341600.htm |archive-date=4 November 2008 |access-date=2025-02-25 |website=The Hindu }}</ref> In the 2007 film ''[[Sivaji: The Boss]]'', actor [[J. Livingston|Livingston]] uses the variant "Enna Kodumai Saravanan Sir." The dialogue was also used in the 2019 film ''[[Thambi (2019 film)|Thambi]]'' by [[Karthi]].<ref>{{cite AV media |title=Thambi |date=20 December 2019 |medium=Motion picture |language=Ta |publisher=[[Viacom18 Studios]] |trans-title= |location= |time=48:36}}</ref> Enna Kodumai Saravanan Ithu is also abbreviated to "EKSI" in chat and [[SMS language]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=31 August 2011 |title=Toeing the comic line |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/movie-details/news-interviews/toeing-the-comic-line/articleshow/9807206.cms |access-date=2021-08-24 |website=The Times of India |archive-date=9 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209045124/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/movie-details/news-interviews/toeing-the-comic-line/articleshow/9807206.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Chat language]]
* [[Text messaging]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Comedy catchphrases]]
[[Category:Quotations from film]]
[[Category:2005 quotations]]
[[Category:Tamil language]]
[[Category:Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Film industry in India]]
[[Category:2005 in Indian cinema]]

Battle of Galwan (film)

2026-01-06T10:38:39Z

Olympiados: new redirect

#REDIRECT [[Battle of Galwan]]

Kuttyedathi Vilasini

2026-01-01T19:37:16Z

Olympiados: starting new page

{{short description|Indian actress}}
{{BLP sources|date=March 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Kuttyedathi Vilasini
| image=
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 
| birth_place = [[Thrissur]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| othername = Kozhikode Vilasini
| yearsactive = 1971–present
| occupation = Actress
| children=
| website =
}}

'''Kuttyedathi Vilasini''' is an Indian actress best known for her work in [[Malayalam cinema]]. She has acted in more than 400 films and 120 TV serials.

==Biography==
{{BLP unreferenced section|date=February 2024}}
Vilasini was born in [[Thrissur, Kerala]]. Her portrayal of Kuttyedathi in the [[Kuttyedathi |movie of same title]], by [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]] won her prefix for her name. She received [[Kerala State Film Awards|Kerala State film award]] for second best actress in 1976{{when?|reason=The film was released in 1977, so 1976 does not seem possible; or do we have the wrong film?|date=February 2024}} for ''[[Dweepu]]''.

==Awards==
* 1976 [[Kerala State Film Award for Second Best Actress]] – Dweepu
* 2011 Nadaka Prathibha Award by United Dramatic Academy (U.D.A)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/mb4eves/online/malayalam/kerala/women/articles/features-article-81901 |title=കുട്ട്യേടത്തി വിലാസിനിക്ക് നാടകപ്രതിഭ അവാര്‍ഡ്‌ - articles, features - Mathrubhumi Eves |access-date=11 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119162203/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/mb4eves/online/malayalam/kerala/women/articles/features-article-81901 |archive-date=19 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 2011 Nilambur Balan award<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/award-for-kuttyedathi-vilasini/article1151714.ece|title=Award for Kuttyedathi Vilasini|newspaper=The Hindu|date=3 February 2011}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Kuttyedathi Vilasini film credits
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 1962 || ''[[Palattu Koman]]'' || ||
|-
| 1964 || ''[[Thacholi Othenan (film)|Thacholi Othenan]]'' || ||
|-
| 1967 || ''[[Kunjali Marakkar (film)|Kunjali Marakkar]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1969 || ''[[Aalmaram]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kadalpalam]]'' || ||
|-
| 1971 || ''[[Kuttyedathi]]'' || Malu ||
|-
| 1972 || ''[[Panimudakku]]'' || Dakshyayani ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1973 || ''[[Chukku]]'' || Mary ||
|-
| ''[[Masappady Mathupillai]]'' || Aalkkoottathil Eliyamma ||
|-
| 1974 || ''[[Poonthenaruvi]]'' || Lakshmi ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1977 || ''[[Dweepu]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Taxi Driver (1977 film)|Taxi Driver]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Choondakkari]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1978 || ''[[Kodiyettam]]'' || Sarojini ||
|-
| ''[[Agni (1978 film)|Agni]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Thanal (1978 film)|Thanal]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=6 | 1979 || ''[[Manninte Maril]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Thenthulli'' || ||
|-
| ''Kanalattam'' || ||
|-
| ''Hridayathil Nee Mathram'' || ||
|-
| ''Ottapettavar'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kummatty]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1980 || ''[[Angadi (film)|Angadi]]'' || Khadeeja ||
|-
| ''[[Ashwaradham]]'' || Ammu ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1981 || ''[[Ahimsa (1981 film)|Ahimsa]]'' || Lakshmi ||
|-
| ''[[Orikkal Koodi]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Thraasam'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 1982 || ''[[Ponmudy (film)|Ponmudy]]'' || Radhamma ||
|-
| ''[[Gaanam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Yavanika]]'' || Ammini ||
|-
| ''[[Vaarikuzhi]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 1983 || ''[[Surumaitta Kannukal]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Father Damien'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Visa (film)|Visa]]'' || Nalini's mother ||
|-
| ''[[Ashtapadi (film)|Astapadi]]'' || Kavamma ||
|-
| rowspan=7 | 1984 || ''[[Swarna Gopuram]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Swantham Sarika (film)|Swantham Sarika]]'' || Basheer's mother ||
|-
| ''Ulppathi'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Athirathram (film)|Athirathram]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Appunni]]'' || Kalyaniyamma ||
|-
| ''[[Ivide Thudangunnu]]'' || Babu's mother ||
|-
| ''Thacholi Thankappan'' || Devu ||
|-
| 1985 || ''Mounanombaram'' || Sathi's mother ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1986 || ''[[Meenamasathile Sooryan]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Neram Pularumbol]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1987 || ''[[Naalkavala]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Chanthayil Choodi Vilkkunna Pennu'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Rithubhedam]]'' || ||
|-
| 1988 || ''[[Ore Thooval Pakshikal]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1990 || ''[[Arhatha]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Vembanad (film)|Vembanad]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kadathanadan Ambadi]]'' || ||
|-
| 1992 || ''Tharavadu'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=4 | 1993 || ''[[Sthalathe Pradhana Payyans]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Mithunam (1993 film)|Mithunam]]'' || Shyama's Kunjamma ||
|-
| ''[[Manichitrathazhu]]'' || Thampi's wife ||
|-
| ''[[Aayirappara]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1994 || ''[[Nandini Oppol]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Sukrutham]]'' || Durga's mother ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 1995 || ''[[Mannar Mathai Speaking]]'' || Sakunthala's mother ||
|-
| ''[[Agnidevan]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1996 || ''[[Oru Abhibhashakante Case Diary]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Mookkilla Rajyathu Murimookkan Rajavu'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kudumbakodathi]]'' || Chandramathi ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1997 || ''Ishtadanam'' || Naani ||
|-
| ''[[Moksham]]'' || ||
|-
| ''Shobhanam'' || ||
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Kottaram Veettile Apputtan]]'' || Kunjulakshmi Amma ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 1999 || ''[[Kannezhuthi Pottum Thottu]]'' || Moosakutty's mother ||
|-
| ''Rushy Vamsam'' || ||
|-
| ''[[The Godman]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2000 || ''Unnimaya'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kinnara Thumbikal]]'' || Janaki ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2001 || ''[[Theerthadanam]]'' || Parukutti ||
|-
| ''Payyan'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2002 || ''Ente Hridayathinte Udama'' || ||
|-
| ''Indraneelakkallu'' || ||
|-
| ''Mayilpeelithalu'' || ||
|-
| 2003 || ''[[Margam (film)|Margam]]'' || Kathreenamma ||
|-
| 2008 || ''[[Bioscope (2008 film)|Bioscope]]'' || Ammini ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2013 || ''Mizhi'' || ||
|-
| ''Vazhiyariyaathe'' || ||
|-
| 2014 || ''Tharangal'' || Herself || photo only
|-
| 2018 || ''Angu Doore Oru Deshathu'' || ||
|-
| 2019 || ''[[Madhaveeyam]]'' || Chechiyamma ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shrijith |first=Sajin |date=2018-11-16 |title=Vineeth is playing a strong character: Madhaveeyam director Thejas Perumanna |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2018/Nov/16/vineeth-is-playing-a-strong-character-madhaveeyam-director-thejas-perumanna-1898733.html |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2024 || ''Krouryam'' || ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-11 |title=പുതുമുഖം സിനോജ് മാക്‌സും അഞ്ചലും നൈറയും പ്രധാനവേഷങ്ങളിൽ; 'ക്രൗര്യം' ഒക്ടോബർ 18-ന് പ്രദർശനത്തിന് |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/malayalam-movie-krouryam-release-on-october-18-1.9978460 |access-date=2025-01-10 |website=Mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| '' Ee Bandham Supera'' || ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-14 |title=Ee Bandham Supera: അച്ഛനമ്മമാരെ ദത്തെടുക്കുന്ന സ്കൂൾ വിദ്യാർത്ഥികളുടെ കഥ; "ഈ ബന്ധം സൂപ്പറാ" തിയേറ്ററുകളിലേക്ക് |url=https://zeenews.india.com/malayalam/movies/ee-bandham-supera-movie-will-start-screening-in-theatres-from-tomorrow-november-15-212911 |access-date=2025-01-10 |website=Zee News Malayalam |language=ml}}</ref>

|}

==Plays==
* Pooja
* Srishti
* Kunthi
* Madangal Garjikkunnu
* Samasya
* Vellakuthirakal
* Kasthooriman
* MLA
* Sthithi
* Samharam (The Annihilation)
* Sakshatkaram (The Fulfillment)
* Samanwayam (The Union)

==TV serials==
*2018-[[Neelakkuyil (TV series)]] ([[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]])
*2017-[[Vanambadi (TV series)]] ([[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]])
* 2016-Aluvayum Mathikkariyum (Asianet Plus)
*2016- [[Athmasakhi]] (Mazhavil Manorama)
*Mayamadhavam (Surya TV)
*2006-Nombarappoovu ([[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]])
*2005-Pavakoothu (Amrita TV)
*2005- [[Kadamattathu Kathanar (TV series)|Kadamattathu Kathanar]] ([[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]])
*2004- Sthree Oru Santhwanam ([[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]])
*2002–2003- Akkarapacha ([[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]])
*Thaali
*Jwalayai
*Pakida Pakida Pambaram
*Angadipattu

==Album==
* Sreekrishna Jyothi

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|1863008}}
*[http://en.msidb.org/displayProfile.php?category=actors&artist=Kuttiyedathi%20Vilasini&limit=30 Kuttiyedathi Vilasini at MSI]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vilasini, Kuttyedathi}}
[[Category:Kerala State Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Thrissur]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam television]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

John Leyden

2026-01-01T06:45:08Z

Olympiados:

{{short description|Scottish orientalist, translator and folklorist (1775–1811)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
[[File:John Leyden, 1775 - 1811. Physician and poet.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Dr. John Leyden by W. and A.K. Johnston, [https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/33787 National Galleries of Scotland]]]

'''John Caspar Leyden'''<ref>{{Cite web|last=Iainthepoet|date=2011-09-08|title=On this day in Scotland: Dr. John Casper Leyden M.D.|url=https://iainthepict.blogspot.com/2011/09/dr-john-casper-leyden-md.html|access-date=2021-10-10|website=On this day in Scotland|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010011131/https://iainthepict.blogspot.com/2011/09/dr-john-casper-leyden-md.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> (8 September 1775 – 28 August 1811) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] poet, [[indologist]] and folklorist.

==Biography==
Leyden was born at [[Denholm]] on the [[River Teviot]], not far from [[Hawick]]. His father, a [[shepherd]], had contrived to send him to [[Edinburgh University]] to study for the [[Christian ministry|ministry]]. Leyden was a diligent but somewhat haphazard student, apparently reading everything except [[theology]], for which he seems to have had no taste. Though he completed his [[Divinity (academic discipline)|divinity]] course, and in 1798 was licensed to preach from the [[presbytery (church polity)|presbytery]] of [[St Andrews]], it soon became clear that the [[pulpit]] was not his [[vocation]].

In 1794, Leyden formed an acquaintance with [[Robert Anderson (author)|Dr Robert Anderson]], editor of ''The British Poets'', and of ''The Literary Magazine''. It was Anderson who later introduced him to [[Alexander Murray (linguist)|Dr Alexander Murray]], and Murray, probably, who led him to the study of Eastern languages. They became warm friends and generous rivals, though Leyden excelled, perhaps, in the rapid acquisition of new tongues and acquaintance with their literature, while Murray was the more scientific [[philologist]].

Through Anderson also he came to know [[Richard Heber]], by whom he came to the notice of [[Walter Scott]], who was then collecting materials for his ''Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border'' (1802).<ref>Young, William A (2022), ''The Ghosts of the Forest: The Lost Mythology of the North'', Inter-Celtic, p. 432, {{isbn|9781399920223}}</ref> Leyden was admirably fitted for helping in this kind of work, for he was a [[Border country|borderer]] himself, and an enthusiastic lover of old [[ballad]]s and [[folklore]]. Scott tells how, on one occasion, Leyden walked 40 miles to get the last two verses of a ballad, and returned at midnight, singing it all the way with his loud, harsh voice, to the wonder and consternation of the poet and his household.

Other work on Scottish customs includes the editing of the 16th-century tract ''[[The Complaynt of Scotland]]'', adding an essay exploring Scottish folk music and customs,<ref name="Grove">{{Cite Grove |last=Johnson |first=David |title=John Leyden}}</ref> printing a volume of Scottish descriptive poems, and nearly finishing his ''Scenes of Infancy'', a diffuse poem based on border scenes and traditions. Leyden meanwhile compiled a work on the ''Discoveries and Settlements of Europeans in Northern and Western Africa'', suggested by [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]]'s travels. He also made some translations from [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] poetry.

At last his friends got him an appointment in [[India]] on the medical staff, for which he qualified by a year's hard work. In 1803, he sailed for [[Chennai|Madras]], and took his place in the general hospital there. He was promoted to be [[natural history|naturalist]] to the commissioners going to survey [[Mysore]]. In 1807, he was appointed Magistrate of the 24 Parganas under the patronage of [[Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 1st Earl of Minto|Lord Minto]], Governor of India. In 1808, his knowledge of the languages of [[India]] procured him an appointment as professor of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] in the [[College of Fort William]] in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]]. He soon after resigned for a judgeship, and that again to be Commissioner of the Court of Requests in 1808, a post which required a familiarity with several Eastern [[language]]s.<ref>Bastin, J. (2002). John Leyden and the Publication of the “Malay Annals” (1821). Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 75(2 (283)), 106. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41493475</ref>

In October 1805, Leyden arrived in [[Penang]] (also known as Prince of Wales Island) to recuperate following an illness.<ref>Brown, T. (1875). The Poetical works of Dr. John Leyden: with Memoir by Thomas Brown. https://archive.org/details/poeticalworksdr00leydgoog/page/n80/mode/2up</ref> It was there that he made the acquaintance of [[Stamford Raffles]], then the Assistant Secretary under the Honorable [[Philip Dundas]], the governor of Penang. For the rest of his stay in Penang, Leyden took up residence in Raffles’ home and was enamoured with [[Olivia Mariamne Raffles|Olivia Raffles]], dedicating his poems “Christmas in Penang”<ref>[https://archive.org/details/poeticalworksdr00leydgoog/page/n316/mode/2up "Christmas in Penang"]</ref> and “Dirge of the Departed Year”<ref>[https://archive.org/details/poeticalworksdr00leydgoog/page/n292/mode/2up "Dirge of the Departed Year"]</ref><ref>Leyden, J. C. (1806, March 22). Dirge of the Departed Year. Prince of Wales Island Gazette.</ref> to her. The latter poem is notable for its early usage of the word "[[British Malaya|Malaya]]" to refer to the [[Malay Peninsula]]. Leyden and Raffles shared a common interest in Eastern languages, and it was during this brief stay that Leyden worked on an English translation of the [[Malay Annals]], which was posthumously published with an introduction by Raffles in 1821.<ref>Leyden, J., & Raffles, T. S. (1821). Malay Annals. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, & Brown.</ref>

He would continue his correspondence with Raffles after leaving the island on 17 January 1806.<ref>Bastin, J. S. (2006). John Leyden and Thomas Stamford Raffles.</ref> While in [[Calcutta]], Leyden recommended Raffles to [[Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 1st Earl of Minto|Lord Minto]], later setting into motion the events of the [[Invasion of Java (1811)|British invasion of Java]] in 1811.{{Citation needed|date=June 2025}} In his letter to [[Olivia Mariamne Raffles|Olivia Raffles]], dated 22 October 1810, he revealed that he had been promoted to the position of [[Assay|Assay Master]] at the [[Calcutta Mint]]. He had also settled with Raffles he would be appointed [[Secretary]] when Raffles was the Governor of [[Java]].<ref>Bastin, J. S. (2002). The Wives of Sir Stamford Raffles: Olivia Mariamne Raffles.</ref>

In 1811, Leyden joined [[Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 1st Earl of Minto|Lord Minto]] and [[Stamford Raffles]] in the expedition to [[Java (island)|Java]]. Having entered a library which was said to contain many Eastern manuscripts, without having the place aired, he was seized with [[Jakarta|Batavian fever]] (possibly [[malaria]] or [[dengue]]) and died, after three days' illness, on 28 August 1811. He was buried on the island, underneath a small firefly colony, which remains as his tombstone to this day.

Leyden has importance for the Punjab and the Sikh community. Recently{{when|date=December 2021}} surfaced manuscripts in the British Library show he translated Punjabi works into English. These have been commented on and discussed by Sikh historian Gurinder Singh Mann from Leicester, UK. The Panjab Cultural Association created the website www.drleyden.co.uk and a booklet regarding the project in November 2011.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.drleyden.co.uk/ |title="The Significance of the Translations of Dr Leyden to the Sikh and Panjabi community" |access-date=21 December 2011 |archive-date=8 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108025318/http://www.drleyden.co.uk/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The manuscript of Leyden's ''Journal of a Tour in the [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] and Western Islands of Scotland in 1800'' was published posthumously in 1903. It was edited, with a comprehensive bibliography of Leyden's works and manuscripts, by the antiquary [[James Sinton]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000323764|title=Journal of a tour in the Highlands and Western Islands of Scotland in 1800, by John Leyden, ed., with a bibliography, by James Sinton|location=Edinburgh|publisher=W. Blackwood & Sons|year=1903}}</ref>

==Works==
*[https://archive.org/details/memoirsofzehired01babuuoft Memoirs of Zehir-Ed-Din Muhammed Babur, emperor of Hindustan]
*[https://d.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/text/leyden-scenes-of-infancy Scenes of Infancy: Descriptive of Teviotdale] (1803)

===Translations===
* {{citation
| last = Leyden
| first = John
| title = Malay Annals (translated from the Malay language)
| publisher = Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown
| year = 1821
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=J9JAAAAAYAAJ
}}
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=bsCGNQEACAAJ&q=malay+annals Malay Annals, Translated from the Malay Language By... John Leyden...]

===Memoirs===
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=f5leAAAAcAAJ&dq=malay+annals+john+leyden&pg=PP7 The Poetical Remains of the Late Dr. John Leyden,: With Memoirs of His Life, By John Leyden, James Morton]
*[https://archive.org/details/poeticalremains01mortgoog The poetical remains of the late Dr. John Leyden, : with memoirs of his life, (1819)]
*[https://archive.org/details/poeticalremains02mortgoog The poetical remains of the late Dr. John Leyden, : with memoirs of his life, (1819)]
*[https://archive.org/details/poeticalworksdr00leydgoog The Poetical Works of Dr. John Leyden (1875)]
*[https://archive.org/details/poeticalremainso00leyd The poetical remains of the late Dr. John Leyden, with memoirs of his life (1819)]

==See also==
*[[List of 18th-century British working-class writers]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=F30MAAAAYAAJ The Poetical Remains of the Late Dr. John Leyden,: With Memoirs of His Life] at Google Books.
* {{EB1911|wstitle=Leyden, John}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{wikisource author-inline}}
* {{librivox author|id=13773}}
* [http://www.denholmvillage.co.uk/LeydenMonument.pdf ''Inauguration of the Leyden Monument'', 19 October 1861] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324180021/http://denholmvillage.co.uk/LeydenMonument.pdf |date=24 March 2015 }}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Leyden, John}}
[[Category:1775 births]]
[[Category:1811 deaths]]
[[Category:People from the Scottish Borders]]
[[Category:Infectious disease deaths in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Scottish orientalists]]
[[Category:Scottish antiquarians]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Deaths from dengue fever]]
[[Category:Deaths from malaria]]

Murder of Kannagi and Murugesan

2025-12-27T02:45:15Z

Olympiados: made new stub - done

{{Short description|2003 honor killings in Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{Orphan|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox event
| date = July 7, 2003
| time =
| Location = Puthukkooraippettai village,[[Cuddalore district]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
| type = [[Murder]], [[Honor killing]]
| cause = [[Inter-caste marriages in India|Inter-caste marriage]]
| title = Murder of Kannagi and Murugesan
| convicted = Maruthupandian, C Duraisamy, 8 others
| convictions = [[Murder]]
| sentence = [[Life imprisonment]]
}}

The '''murder of Kannagi and Murugesan''' took place in the [[South India]]n state of [[Tamil Nadu]]. Kannagi and Murugesan were murdered in an [[honor killing]] as Kannagi, a [[Vanniyar]], had married Murugesan, a [[Dalit]]. The killing was done by Kannagi's relatives.<ref name="The New Indian Express 2022 k918">{{cite web | title=Kannagi-Murugesan case: Death sentence commuted by Madras High Court | website=The New Indian Express | date=9 June 2022 | url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2022/Jun/09/kannagi-murugesan-case-death-sentence-commuted-by-madras-high-court-2463408.html | access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref><ref name="The Hindu 2022 l119">{{cite web | title=HC commutes death sentence of Kannagi-Murugesan honour killing convict | website=The Hindu | date=8 June 2022 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/hc-commutes-death-sentence-of-kannagi-murugesan-honour-killing-convict/article65507094.ece | access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref><ref name="Rajasekaran 2022 v450">{{cite web | last=Rajasekaran | first=Ilangovan | title=Two-member bench of the Madras High Court commutes death sentence to life in 2003 Murugesan-Kannagi honour killing case | website=Frontline | date=8 June 2022 | url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/dispatches/two-member-bench-of-the-madras-high-court-commutes-death-sentence-to-life-in-2003-murugesan-kannagi-honour-killing-case/article65507414.ece | access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref><ref name="Tamilarasu 2022 d378">{{cite web | last=Tamilarasu | first=Prabhakar | title=Kannagi-Murugesan caste killing case: HC commutes death sentence of girl's brother | website=The Federal News | date=8 June 2022 | url=https://thefederal.com/states/south/tamil-nadu/kannagi-murugesan-caste-killing-case-hc-commutes-death-sentence-of-girls-brother/?infinitescroll=1 | access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref><ref name="Sundaram 2021 j855">{{cite web | last=Sundaram | first=Ram | title=Tamil Nadu double murder case: Weeks after verdict, gang assaults mom of caste killing victim | website=The Times of India | date=17 October 2021 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/tamil-nadu-double-murder-case-weeks-after-verdict-gang-assaults-mom-of-caste-killing-victim/articleshow/87076166.cms | access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref>

==Background==
Kannagi and Murugesan both hailed from the Puthukkooraippettai village in [[Cuddalore district]], [[Tamil Nadu]]. Kannagi had done her B.com and Murugesan was a chemical engineer. Kannagi came from the dominant [[Vanniyar]] community while Murugesan belonged to the [[Dalit]] community. Kannagi and Murugesan got married on May 5, 2003, against the wishes of Kannagi's parents.
<ref name="The New Indian Express 2022 k918" />

==Murder==
Kannagi and Murugesan were forced to drink poison in full public view on July 7, 2003, by Kannagi's brother Maruthupandian and other relatives. Later the bodies were burnt.<ref name="The New Indian Express 2022 k918" /><ref name="The Indian Express 2022 j032">{{cite web | title=Tamil Nadu honour killing: Death sentence of woman victim's brother commuted to life | website=The Indian Express | date=9 June 2022 | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chennai/tamil-nadu-kannagi-murugesan-honour-killing-death-sentence-7959956/ | access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref><ref name="BBC News தமிழ் 2021 e603">{{cite web | title=முருகேசன் ஆணவக் கொலை வழக்கில் தீர்ப்பு: ஒருவருக்கு தூக்கு, 12 பேருக்கு ஆயுள் தண்டனை | website=BBC News தமிழ் | date=24 September 2021 | url=https://www.bbc.com/tamil/india-58679087 | language=ta | access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref>[[Madras High Court|Madras High court]] transferred the case to the [[Central Bureau of Investigation]] on appeal from Murugesan's father after the state police botched the case.<ref name="Nath 2021 m205">{{cite web | last=Nath | first=Akshaya | title=Tamil Nadu court announces death sentence to main accused in 18-yr-old honour killing case | website=India Today | date=25 September 2021 | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/law/story/tamil-nadu-court-dalit-honour-killing-case-death-sentence-1857010-2021-09-25 | access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref>

==Court proceedings==
Cuddalore special court sentenced Maruthupandian to death and sentenced life imprisonment to 12 others including a serving inspector and a retired DSP.<ref name="The Wire 2019 t949">{{cite web | title=Tamil Nadu: Court Convicts 13 in 2003 Cuddalore Caste Killing Case | website=The Wire | date=29 June 2019 | url=https://thewire.in/law/tamil-nadu-court-convicts-13-in-2003-cuddalore-caste-killing-case | access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref> Later on appeal the [[Madras High Court|Madras High court]] commuted the death sentence of Maruthupandian to life imprisonment and upheld the convictions and sentences 9 others including Kannagi's father C Duraisamy .<ref name="The Times of India 2022 m033">{{cite web | title=Hc Commutes Death Penalty In Caste Murder Case; Confirms Life For Nine | website=The Times of India | date=9 June 2022 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/hc-commutes-death-penalty-in-caste-murder-case-confirms-life-for-nine/articleshow/92094157.cms | access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref><ref name="BBC News தமிழ் 2022 j988">{{cite web | title=முருகேசன் ஆணவக் கொலை வழக்கு: தூக்கு தண்டனை ஆயுளாக குறைப்பு | website=BBC News தமிழ் | date=8 June 2022 | url=https://www.bbc.com/tamil/61732813 | language=ta | access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref>

The [[Supreme Court of India]] on 28 April 2025 confirmed the convictions in the Kannagi-Murugesan honour killing case from Tamil Nadu.

A bench comprising Justice Sudhanshu Dhulia and Justice PK Mishra dismissed the appeals filed by eight convicts challenging the Madras High Court's 2022 judgment, which upheld the sentences of life imprisonment awarded to them.<ref name="r850">{{cite web | author=The Hindu Bureau | title=Supreme Court dismisses convicts' appeals in Kannagi-Murugesan honour killings case | website=The Hindu | date=28 April 2025 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme-court-dismisses-convicts-appeals-in-kannagi-murugesan-honour-killings-case/article69500163.ece | access-date=28 April 2025}}</ref><ref name="i447">{{cite web | last=| first=| title=Supreme Court Upholds Convictions In Kannagi-Murugesan Honour Killing Case Of Tamil Nadu | website=Live Law | date=28 April 2025 | url=https://www.livelaw.in/top-stories/supreme-court-upholds-convictions-in-kannagi-murugesan-honour-killing-case-of-tamil-nadu-290528 | access-date=28 April 2025}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kannagi and Murugesan, Murder of}}
[[Category:Crime in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Honour killing in India]]
[[Category:Caste-related violence in India]]
[[Category:Honor killing victims]]

Mantra

2025-12-26T19:53:05Z

Olympiados: small update formatting as per guidelines and added references

{{short description|Sacred utterance or sound used in meditation, often repeated}}
{{redirect-multi|2|Mantr|Om Shanti|the 2010 film|Om Shanti (film)|other uses|Mantra (disambiguation)}}

{{multiple image|perrow= 2|total_width=260
| image1= Om symbol.svg | alt1=Om
| image2= Carved-in-white-marble7.jpg | alt2=Ṇamōkāra mantra
| image3=Tianjin Temple Sanskrit Ranjana Script.jpeg | alt3= Om mani padme hum
| image4= Kalachakra Mandala Samye Ling.jpg | alt4=Kalacakra E-VAM mantra, the Tenfold Powerful One mantra
| image5=2017 Woodstock 017 Hare Kryszna.jpg | alt5=Hare Krishna mantra
| footer= Clockwise from upper left: [[Om]] (an ancient Vedic mantra used in [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]]); the [[Namokar Mantra|Ṇamōkāra mantra]] (the most important mantra in [[Jainism]]); the [[Vajrayana]] Buddhist E-VAM mantra, known as the [[Kalachakra]] "Tenfold Powerful One"; the [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna mantra]] in a modern concert setting; [[Om mani padme hum]] (a popular Buddhist mantra) in Tianjin Temple ([[Ranjana script]]).}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}

A '''mantra''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|æ|n|t|r|ə|,_|ˈ|m|ʌ|n|-}} {{respell|MAN|trə|,_|MUN|-}};<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Wells |editor-first=John |editor-link=John C. Wells |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |publisher=Pearson Longman |edition=3rd |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref> [[Pali]]: ''mantra'') or '''mantram''' ([[Devanagari]]: मन्त्रम्)<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mantra "mantra"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218014820/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mantra |date=18 December 2014 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> is a sacred utterance, a [[numinous]] sound, a syllable, word or [[phonemes]], or group of words (most often in an [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian language]] like [[Sanskrit]] or [[Avestan]]) believed by practitioners to have religious, magical or spiritual powers.<ref name=jgtim/><ref name=gfeu>[[Georg Feuerstein|Feuerstein, Georg]] (2003), ''The Deeper Dimension of Yoga''. Shambala Publications, Boston, MA</ref> Some mantras have a [[syntactic structure]] and a literal meaning, while others do not.<ref name=jgtim/><ref>James Lochtefeld, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 2, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, pages 422–423</ref>

[[Om|ꣽ, ॐ (Aum, Om)]] serves as an important mantra in various [[Indian religions]]. Specifically, it is an example of a seed syllable mantra ([[Bījamantra|bijamantra]]). It is believed to be the first sound in [[Hinduism]] and as the sonic essence of the absolute divine reality. Longer mantras are phrases with several syllables, names and words. These phrases may have spiritual interpretations such as a name of a deity, a longing for truth, reality, light, immortality, peace, love, knowledge, and action.<ref name="jgtim" /><ref name="halper" /> Examples of longer mantras include the [[Gayatri Mantra]], the [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna mantra]], [[Om Namah Shivaya]], the [[Om mani padme hum|Mani mantra]], the [[Mantra of Light]], the [[Namokar Mantra]], and the [[Mul Mantar|Mūl Mantar]]. Mantras without any actual linguistic meaning are still considered to be musically uplifting and spiritually meaningful.<ref name="staal" />

The use, structure, function, importance, and types of mantras vary according to the school and philosophy of [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and [[Sikhism]].<ref name=gfeu/><ref>Nesbitt, Eleanor M. (2005), Sikhism: a very short introduction, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-280601-7}}</ref> A common practice is [[japa]], the meditative repetition of a mantra, usually with the aid of a [[Japamala|mala]] (prayer beads). Mantras serve a central role in the Indian [[tantra|tantric traditions]], which developed elaborate [[Yoga|yogic]] methods which make use of mantras.<ref name="staal" /><ref name="Teun Goudriaan 1981">{{cite book |last=Goudriaan |first=Teun |title=Hindu tantric and Śākta literature |publisher=Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |year=1981 |isbn=978-3-447-02091-6 |oclc=7743718 |page=Chapter VIII}}</ref> In tantric religions (often called "mantra paths", [[Sanskrit]]: [[Vajrayana|Mantranāya]] or [[Mantra marga|Mantramarga]]), mantric methods are considered to be the most effective path. [[initiation|Ritual initiation]] ([[Abhisheka|abhiseka]]) into a specific mantra and its associated deity is often a requirement for reciting certain mantras in these traditions. However, in some religious traditions, initiation is not always required for certain mantras, which are open to all.<ref name="boyce">Boyce, M. (2001), Zoroastrians: their religious beliefs and practices, Psychology Press</ref><ref name="halper">{{cite book |last=Alper |first=Harvey |title=Understanding mantras |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |year=1991 |isbn=978-81-208-0746-4 |oclc=29867449 }}</ref>

The word ''mantra'' is also used in English to refer to something that is said frequently and is deliberately repeated over and over.

==Etymology and origins==
The earliest mention of [[wiktionary:mantra|mantras]] is found in the [[Vedas]] of [[Vedic period|ancient India]] and the [[Avesta]] of [[Avestan period|ancient Iran]].<ref name=schmitt/> Both [[Sanskrit]] [[wiktionary:मन्त्र#Sanskrit|mántra]] and the [[Mantra (Zoroastrianism)|equivalent]] [[Avestan]] [[wiktionary:𐬨𐬄𐬚𐬭𐬀#Avestan|mąθra]] go back to the common [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-Iranian/mántram|*mantram]], consisting of the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/men-|*men]] "to think" and the instrumental suffix [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/-trom|*trom]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Sanskrit-English dictionary etymologically and philologically arranged with special reference to cognate Indo-European languages; |last=Monier-Williams |first=Monier |author-link=Monier Monier-Williams |orig-year=1899 |publisher=[[The Clarendon Press]] |others=Leumann, Ernst, Cappeller, Carl |year=1992 |isbn=81-215-0200-4 |edition=New |location=Oxford |page=787.1 |oclc=685239912}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mantra |title=Mantra Definition & Meaning |website=Merriam-Webster |access-date=2019-05-04 |archive-date=31 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331082736/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mantra |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Macdonell, Arthur A., ''A Sanskrit Grammar for Students'' § 182.1.b, p. 162 (Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 1927).</ref><ref>Whitney, W. D., ''Sanskrit Grammar'' § 1185.c, p. 449(New York, 2003, {{ISBN|0-486-43136-3}}).</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/mantra |title=Mantra |website=Etymonline |access-date=2019-05-04 |archive-date=4 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504181519/https://www.etymonline.com/word/mantra |url-status=live }}</ref>
Due to the linguistic and functional similarities, they must go back to the common [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian period]], commonly dated to around 2000 BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gonda|first=Jan|author-link=Jan Gonda|year=1963|title=The Indian Mantra|volume=16|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1580265|journal=Oriens|pages=244–297|doi=10.2307/1580265 |jstor=1580265 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sadovski |first=Velizar |date=2009 |title=Ritual formulae and ritual pragmatics in Veda and Avesta |journal=Die Sprache |volume=48 |quote=Thus the comparative evidence of Avestan and Vedic exhibits hidden residues of old mantras and magic actions which can enlarge our knowledge of older (Indo-Iranian) magic formulae and magic rituals in an essential way.}}</ref>

Scholars<ref name=jgtim>{{cite book |last=Jan Gonda |title=The Indian Mantra |publisher=Oriens |volume=16 |date=1963 |pages=244–297}}</ref><ref name=staal>{{cite book |last=[[Frits Staal]] |title=Rituals and Mantras, Rules without meaning |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |date=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CKLxjjXqAsQC |isbn=978-81-208-1412-7 }}</ref> consider the use of mantras to have begun in India before 1000 BC. By the middle [[Vedas|Vedic period]] (1000 BC to 500 BC) – claims [[Frits Staal]] – mantras in Hinduism had developed into a blend of art and science.<ref name=staal/>


The Chinese translation is {{lang-zh |t=真言 |p=zhenyan |l=true words |labels=no}}, the Japanese [[on'yomi]] reading of the Chinese being ''[[shingon]]'' (which is also used as the proper name for the [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon sect]]). According to Alex Wayman and Ryujun Tajima, "Zhenyan" (or "Shingon") means "true speech", has the sense of "an exact mantra which reveals the truth of the dharmas", and is the path of mantras.<ref name="Law1995p173">{{cite book |last=Law |first=Jane Marie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DfgICZVIqkoC |title=Religious Reflections on the Human Body |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |isbn=0-253-11544-2 |pages=173–174 |access-date=16 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715154654/https://books.google.com/books?id=DfgICZVIqkoC |archive-date=15 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Alex Wayman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlhQwTAYR-oC|title=The Enlightenment of Vairocana|author2=Ryujun Tajima|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1992|isbn=978-81-208-0640-5|pages=225, 254, 293–294|access-date=16 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708143514/https://books.google.com/books?id=rlhQwTAYR-oC|archive-date=8 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to Bernfried Schlerath, the concept of ''sātyas mantras'' is found in Indo-Iranian [[Yasna]] 31.6 and the [[Rigveda]], where it is considered structured thought in conformity with the reality or poetic (religious) formulas associated with inherent fulfillment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schlerath |first=Bernfried |year=1987 |chapter="Aša: Avestan Aša" |title=Encyclopaedia Iranica |volume=2 |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |pages=694–696}}</ref>

==Definition==
[[File:Mantras written on a rock in nepal.jpg|thumb|Mantras written on a rock near [[Namche Bazaar]] [[Nepal]]]]

There is no generally accepted definition of mantra.<ref>Harvey Alper (1989), Understanding Mantras, {{ISBN|81-208-0746-4}}, State University of New York, pages 3–7</ref> As a result, there is a long history of scholarly disagreement on the meaning of mantras and whether they are instruments of mind, as implied by the etymological origin of the word ''mantra''. One school suggests mantras are mostly meaningless sound constructs, while the other holds them to be mostly meaningful linguistic instruments of mind.<ref name="halper"/> Both schools agree that mantras have melody and a well designed mathematical precision in their construction and that their influence on the reciter and listener is similar to that is observed in people around the world listening to their beloved music that is devoid of words.<ref name=jgtim/><ref name=staal/>

In Oxford Living Dictionary mantra is defined as a word or sound repeated to aid concentration in meditation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-11-07 |title=mantra - definition of mantra in English {{!}} Oxford Dictionaries |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/mantra |access-date=2025-04-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107170106/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/mantra |archive-date=7 November 2016 }}</ref> Cambridge Dictionary provides two different definitions. The first refers to Hinduism and Buddhism: a word or sound that is believed to have a special spiritual power. The second definition is more general: a word or phrase that is often repeated and expresses a particularly strong belief. For instance, a football team can choose individual words as their own "mantra."<ref>{{Cite web |title=mantra |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/mantra |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205015258/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/mantra |archive-date=2023-02-05 |access-date=2025-04-10 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Louis Renou]] has defined mantra as a thought.<ref>T Renou (1946), ''Littérature Sanskrite'', Paris, page 74</ref> Mantras are structured formulae of thoughts, claims [[Lilian Silburn|Silburn]].<ref>L. Silburn (1955), Instant et cause, Paris, page 25</ref> [[J. N. Farquhar|Farquhar]] concludes that mantras are a religious thought, prayer, sacred utterance, but also believed to be a spell or weapon of supernatural power.<ref>J. Farquhar (1920), An outline of the religious literature of India, Oxford, page 25</ref> [[Heinrich Zimmer|Zimmer]] defines mantra as a verbal instrument to produce something in one's mind.<ref>Heinrich Robert Zimmer (1946), Myths and symbols in Indian art and civilization, {{ISBN|978-0-691-01778-5}}, Washington DC, page 72</ref> [[Agehananda Bharati]] defines mantra, in the context of the Tantric school of Hinduism, to be a combination of mixed genuine and quasi-morphemes arranged in conventional patterns, based on codified esoteric traditions, passed on from a guru to a disciple through prescribed initiation.<ref name=bharati>Agehananda Bharati (1965), The Tantric Tradition, London: Rider and Co., {{ISBN|0-8371-9660-4}}</ref>

[[Jan Gonda]], a widely cited scholar on Indian mantras,<ref>Harvey Alper (1989), Understanding Mantras, {{ISBN|81-208-0746-4}}, State University of New York, page 9</ref> defines mantra as general name for the verses, formulas or sequence of words in prose which contain praise, are believed to have religious, magical or spiritual efficiency, which are meditated upon, recited, muttered or sung in a ritual, and which are collected in the methodically arranged ancient texts of Hinduism.<ref name=jgvl>Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature (Samhitäs and Brähmanas), (HIL I.I) Wiesbaden: OH; also Selected Studies, (4 volumes), Leiden: E. J. Brill</ref> By comparing the [[Vedic period|Old Indic]] [[Vedas|Vedic]] and [[Avestan period|Old Iranian]] [[Avesta]]n traditions, Gonda concludes that in the oldest texts, mantras were "means of creating, conveying, concentrating and realizing intentional and efficient thought, and of coming into touch or identifying oneself with the essence of the divinity".<ref name=jgtim/> In some later schools of Hinduism, Gonda suggests a mantra is sakti (power) to the devotee in the form of formulated and expressed thought.<ref name=jgtim/>
{{Listen
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|description = A Buddhist mantra chant set to Indian classical music (6 minutes 19 seconds)<ref>This is a Buddhist chant. The words in Pali are: Buddham saranam gacchami, Dhammam saranam gacchami, Sangham saranam gacchami. The equivalent words in Sanskrit, according to [[Georg Feuerstein]], are: Buddham saranam gacchâmi, Dharmam saranam gacchâmi, Sangham saranam gacchâmi. The literal meaning: I go for refuge in Buddha, I go for refuge in Buddhist teachings, I go for refuge in Buddhist Monastics.</ref>
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[[Frits Staal]] clarifies that mantras are not rituals, they are what is recited or chanted during a ritual.<ref name=staal/> Staal<ref name=staal/> presents a non-linguistic view of mantras. He suggests that verse mantras are metered and harmonized to mathematical precision (for example, in the ''viharanam'' technique), which resonate, but a lot of them are a hodgepodge of meaningless constructs such as are found in folk music around the world. Staal cautions that there are many mantras that can be translated and do have spiritual meaning and philosophical themes central to Hinduism, but that does not mean all mantras have a literal meaning. He further notes that even when mantras do not have a literal meaning, they do set a tone and ambiance in the ritual as they are recited, and thus have a straightforward and uncontroversial ritualistic meaning.<ref name=staal/> The sounds may lack literal meaning, but they can have an effect. He compares mantras to bird songs, that have the power to communicate, yet do not have a literal meaning.<ref>Frits Staal (1985), Mantras and Bird Songs, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 105, No. 3, Indological Studies, pages 549–558</ref> On that ''saman'' category of Hindu mantras, which Staal described as resembling the arias of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]]'s oratorios and other European classics, he notes that these mantras have musical structure, but they almost always are completely different from anything in the syntax of natural languages. Mantras are literally meaningless, yet musically meaningful to Staal.<ref>Harvey Alper (1989), Understanding Mantras, {{ISBN|81-208-0746-4}}, State University of New York, pages 10–11</ref> The ''saman'' chant mantras were transmitted from one Hindu generation to next verbally for over 1000 years but never written, a feat, suggests Staal, that was made possible by the strict mathematical principles used in constructing the mantras. These ''saman'' chant mantras are also mostly meaningless, cannot be literally translated as Sanskrit or any Indian language, but nevertheless are beautiful in their resonant themes, variations, inversions, and distribution.<ref name=staal/> They draw the devotee in. Staal is not the first person to view Hindu mantras in this manner. The ancient Hindu Vedic ritualist Kautsa was one of the earliest scholars to note that mantras are meaningless; their function is phonetic and syntactic, not semantic.<ref>[[Frits Staal]] (1996), Rituals and Mantras, Rules without meaning, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1412-7}}, Motilal Banarsidass, pages 112–113</ref>

Harvey Alper<ref>Harvey Alper (1989), Understanding Mantras, {{ISBN|81-208-0746-4}}, State University of New York, pages 10–14</ref> and others<ref>Andre Padoux, in Understanding Mantras, {{ISBN|81-208-0746-4}}, State University of New York, pages 295–317; see also Chapter 3 by Wade Wheelock</ref> present mantras from the linguistic point view. They admit Staal's observation that many mantras do contain bits and pieces of meaningless jargon, but they question what language or text doesn't. The presence of an abracadabra bit does not necessarily imply the entire work is meaningless. Alper lists numerous mantras that have philosophical themes, moral principles, a call to virtuous life, and even mundane petitions. He suggests that from a set of millions of mantras, the devotee chooses some mantras voluntarily, thus expressing that speaker's intention, and the audience for that mantra is that speaker's chosen spiritual entity. Mantras deploy the language of spiritual expression, they are religious instruments, and that is what matters to the devotee. A mantra creates a feeling in the practicing person. It has an emotive numinous effect, it mesmerizes, it defies expression, and it creates sensations that are by definition private and at the heart of all religions and spiritual phenomena.<ref name=jgtim/><ref name=bharati/><ref>Harvey Alper (1989), Understanding Mantras, {{ISBN|81-208-0746-4}}, State University of New York, pages 11–13</ref>

== Hinduism ==
{{See also|Category:Hindu mantras}}
{{Hinduism small}}


===History===
During the early [[Vedic period]], Vedic poets became fascinated by the inspirational power of poems, metered verses, and music. They referred to them with the root ''dhi-'', which evolved into the ''[[Dhyāna in Hinduism|dhyana]]'' (meditation) of [[Hinduism]], and the language used to start and assist this process manifested as a mantra.<ref name="staal" /> By the middle vedic period (1000 BC to 500 BC), mantras were derived from all vedic compositions. They included ''ṛc'' (verses from Rigveda for example), ''sāman'' (musical chants from the [[Samaveda|Sāmaveda]] for example), ''yajus'' (a muttered formula from the yajurveda for example), and ''nigada'' (a loudly spoken yajus). During the [[Indian epic poetry|Hindu Epics]] period and after, mantras multiplied in many ways and diversified to meet the needs and passions of various schools of Hinduism.<ref name=":1">[[Frits Staal]] (1996), Rituals and Mantras, Rules without meaning, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1412-7}}, Motilal Banarsidass, Chapter 20</ref> In the ''[[Linga Purana]],'' Mantra is listed as one of the 1,008 names of Lord [[Shiva]].<ref>{{cite book |translator-last=Lal Nagar |translator-first=Shanti |title=Linga Mahapurana |title-link=Linga Purana |publisher=Parimal Publications |year=2011 |isbn=978-81-7110-391-1 |volume=I |location=Delhi, India |chapter=Chapter 65 |page=259 |oclc=753465312 }}</ref>

Numerous ancient mantras are found in the [[Samhita|Saṃhitā]] portion of the [[Vedas]]. The Saṃhitās are the most ancient layer of the Vedas, and contain numerous mantras, hymns, prayers, and [[Litany|litanies]].<ref name="jl">Lochtefeld, James G. "Samhita" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, page 587</ref> The [[Rigveda]] Samhita contains about 10552 Mantras, classified into ten books called [[Mandalas]]. A [[Sukta]] is a group of Mantras.<ref name="vedicheritage-gov-in">{{cite web |title=Vedic Heritage |url=http://vedicheritage.gov.in/introduction/ |access-date=18 February 2021 |website=vedicheritage.gov.in/}}</ref> Mantras come in many forms, including ''ṛc'' (verses from the Rigveda for example) and ''sāman'' (musical chants from the [[Sāmaveda]] for example).<ref name="jgtim" /><ref name="staal" />

In Hindu tradition, Vedas are sacred scriptures which were revealed (and not composed) by the seers ([[Rishis]]). According to the ancient commentator and linguist, [[Yaska]], these ancient sacred revelations were then passed down through an oral tradition and are considered to be the foundation for the Hindu tradition.<ref name="vedicheritage-gov-in" />

Mantras took a center stage in [[Tantra|Tantric]] traditions,<ref name=":1" /> which made extensive ritual and meditative use of mantras, and posited that each mantra is a deity in sonic form.<ref name="Teun Goudriaan 1981" />

===Function and structure===
One function of mantras is to solemnize and ratify rituals.<ref>Jan Gonda (1963), The Indian Mantra, Oriens, Vol. 16, pages 258–259</ref> Each mantra, in Vedic rituals, is coupled with an act. According to ''Apastamba [[Śrauta|Srauta]] Sutra'', each ritual act is accompanied by one mantra, unless the ''Sutra'' explicitly marks that one act corresponds to several mantras. According to Gonda,<ref>Jan Gonda (1980), Vedic Ritual: The non-Solemn Rites, Amsterdam; see also Jan Gonda (1985), The Ritual Functions and Significance of Grasses in the Religion of the Veda, Amsterdam; Jan Gonda (1977), The Ritual Sutras, Wiesbaden</ref> and others,<ref>P.V. Kane (1962), History of Dharmasastra, Volume V, part II</ref> there is a connection and rationale between a Vedic mantra and each Vedic ritual act that accompanies it. In these cases, the function of mantras was to be an instrument of ritual efficacy for the priest, and a tool of instruction for a ritual act for others.

Over time, as the [[Puranas]] and Epics were composed, the concepts of worship, virtues and spirituality evolved in Hinduism and new schools of Hinduism were founded, each continuing to develop and refine its own mantras. In Hinduism, suggests Alper,<ref>Harvey Alper (1989), Understanding Mantras, {{ISBN|81-208-0746-4}}, State University of New York, see Introduction</ref> the function of mantras shifted from the quotidian to redemptive. In other words,<ref name=ha78>Harvey Alper (1989), Understanding Mantras, {{ISBN|81-208-0746-4}}, State University of New York, pages 7–8</ref> in Vedic times, mantras were recited a practical, quotidian goal as intention, such as requesting a deity's help in the discovery of lost cattle, cure of illness, succeeding in competitive sport or journey away from home. The literal translation of Vedic mantras suggests that the function of mantra, in these cases, was to cope with the uncertainties and dilemmas of daily life. In a later period of Hinduism,<ref name=hac10>Harvey Alper (1989), Understanding Mantras, {{ISBN|81-208-0746-4}}, State University of New York, Chapter 10</ref> mantras were recited with a transcendental redemptive goal as intention, such as escape from the cycle of life and rebirth, forgiveness for bad karma, and experiencing a spiritual connection with the god. The function of mantras, in these cases, was to cope with the human condition as a whole. According to Alper,<ref name="halper"/> redemptive spiritual mantras opened the door for mantras where every part need not have a literal meaning, but together their resonance and musical quality assisted the transcendental spiritual process. Overall, explains Alper, using Śivasūtra mantras as an example, Hindu mantras have philosophical themes and are metaphorical with social dimension and meaning; in other words, they are a spiritual language and instrument of thought.<ref name=hac10/>

According to Staal,<ref name=staal/> Hindu mantras may be spoken aloud, ''anirukta'' (not enunciated), ''upamsu'' (inaudible), or ''manasa'' (not spoken, but recited in the mind). In ritual use, mantras are often silent instruments of meditation.

===Invocation===
For almost every mantra, there are six limbs called ''Shadanga''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Swami |first=Om |title=The ancient science of Mantras |publisher=Jaico Publications |year=2017 |isbn=978-93-86348-71-5}}</ref> These six limbs are: Seer (Rishi), ''Deity'' (Devata), ''Seed'' (Beeja), ''Energy'' (Shakti), ''Poetic Meter'' (chanda), and ''Lock'' (Kilaka).

===Methods===
[[File:Hare Krishnas, Bestanddeelnr 933-6435.jpg|thumb|[[Hare Krishna movement|Hare Krishna]] devotees in Amsterdam carrying a poster with the [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna Mantra]]]]
The most basic mantra is ''[[Om]]'', which in Hinduism is known as the "pranava mantra," the source of all mantras. The [[Hindu philosophy]] behind this is the premise that before existence and beyond existence is only One reality, Brahman, and the first manifestation of Brahman expressed as Om. For this reason, Om is considered as a foundational idea and reminder, and thus is prefixed and suffixed to all Hindu [[prayer]]s. While some mantras may invoke individual gods or principles, fundamental mantras such as [[Shanti Mantra]], the [[Gayatri Mantra]] and others ultimately focus on the One reality.

'''Japa'''{{Main|Japa}}
Mantra ''japa'' is a practice of repetitively uttering the same mantra{{Sfn|Stutley|Stutley|2002|p=126}} for an auspicious number of times, the most popular being [[108 (number)|108]], and sometimes just 5, 10, 28 or 1008.<ref name=jgtim/><ref name=mmw>Monier Monier-Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom, Luzac & Co., London, pages 245–246, see text and footnote</ref> ''Japa'' is found in personal prayer or meditative efforts of some Hindus, as well during formal [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] (group prayers). Japa is assisted by [[Japa mala|malas]] (bead necklaces) containing 108 beads and a head bead (sometimes referred to as the '[[Mount Meru (Mythology)|meru]]', or '[[guru]]' bead); the devotee using their fingers to count each bead as they repeat the chosen mantra. Having reached 108 repetitions, if they wish to continue another cycle of mantras, the devotee turns the mala around without crossing the head bead and repeats the cycle.<ref>{{cite book |last=Radha |first=Swami Sivananda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BFfxHiQb3HAC |title=Mantras: Words of Power |publisher=Timeless Books |location=Canada |isbn=978-1-932018-10-3 |page=54 |quote=Mantra Yoga (chanting), Japa Yoga: Vaikhari Japa (speaking), Upamsu Japa (whispering or humming), Manasika Japa (mental repetition), [[RamaKoti|Likhita Japa]] (writing) |date=2005 |access-date=16 October 2016 |archive-date=5 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405001710/http://books.google.com/books?id=BFfxHiQb3HAC |url-status=live }}</ref> Japa-yajna is claimed to be most effective if the mantra is repeated silently in mind (manasah).<ref name=mmw/>

According to this school, any [[shloka]] from holy Hindu texts like the Vedas, [[Upanishads]], [[Bhagavad Gita]], [[Yoga Sutra]], even the [[Mahabharata]], [[Ramayana]], [[Durga saptashati]] or [[Chandi]] is a mantra, thus can be part of the ''japa'', repeated to achieve a numinous effect.<ref>Some very common mantras, called Nama japa, are: "Om Namah ''(name of deity)''"; for example, ''[[Om Namah Shivaya]]'' or ''Om Namo Bhagavate Rudraya Namah'' (Om and salutations to Lord Shiva); ''Om Namo [[Narayana]]ya'' or ''Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevãya'' (Om and salutations to Lord Vishnu); ''Om Shri Ganeshaya Namah'' (Om and salutations to Shri [[Ganesha]])</ref>{{Sfn|Vishnu-Devananda|1981|p=66}}<ref>A Dictionary of Hinduism, p.271; Some of the major books which are used as reference for Mantra Shaastra are: Parasurama Kalpa Sutra; Shaarada Tilakam; Lakshmi Tantra; Prapanchasara</ref> The ''Dharmasāstra'' claims that the [[Gayatri Mantra|Gāyatri mantra]], derived from Rig Veda verse 3.62.10, and the [[Purusha sukta|Purușasūkta]] mantra, from Rig Veda verse 10.90, are the most auspicious mantras for ''japa'' at sunrise and sunset; it is claimed to purify the mind and spirit.<ref name=jgtim/>

==== Kirtan (chanting) ====
[[Kirtan]] is a more musical form of mantric practice. It is a common method in the [[Bhakti movement|bhakti traditions]], such as [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]].<ref name="Lal2009p423">{{cite book |author=Ananda Lal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goELAQAAMAAJ |title=Theatres of India: A Concise Companion |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-569917-3 |pages=423–424}}</ref> Kirtan includes call and response forms of chanting accompanied by various [[List of Indian musical instruments|Indian instruments]] (such as the [[tabla]], [[mrdanga]] and [[Pump organ|harmonium]]), and it may also include dancing and theatrical performance.<ref name="Sara Brown 2012 pages 25-26">Sara Brown (2012), ''Every Word Is a Song, Every Step Is a Dance'', PhD Thesis, Florida State University (Advisor: Michael Bakan), pages 25-26, 87-88, 277</ref><ref name="Alanna Kaivalya 2014 3–17, 34–35">{{cite book |author=Alanna Kaivalya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PkhAwAAQBAJ |title=Sacred Sound: Discovering the Myth and Meaning of Mantra and Kirtan |publisher=New World |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-60868-244-7 |pages=3–17, 34–35}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Manohar Laxman Varadpande |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZrjC24PuDQC&pg=PA95 |title=History of Indian Theatre |publisher=Abhinav |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-7017-278-9 |pages=95–96}}</ref> Kirtan is also common in [[Sikhism]].

'''Tantric'''

[[Tantra|Tantric]] Hindu traditions see the universe as sound.<ref>Spencer, L. (2015). Flotation: A Guide for Sensory Deprivation, Relaxation, & Isolation Tanks. {{ISBN|1-329-17375-9}}, {{ISBN|978-1-329-17375-0}}, p. 57.</ref> The supreme (para) brings forth existence through the Word ([[shabda]]). Creation consists of vibrations at various frequencies and amplitudes giving rise to the phenomena of the world.

Buhnemann notes that deity mantras are an essential part of Tantric compendia. The tantric mantras vary in their structure and length. Mala mantras are those mantras which have an enormous number of syllables. In contrast, bija mantras are one-syllabled, typically ending in [[anusvara]] (a simple nasal sound). These are derived from the name of a deity; for example, [[Durga]] yields ''dum'' and [[Ganesha]] yields ''gam''. Bija mantras are prefixed and appended to other mantras, thereby creating complex mantras. In the tantric school, these mantras are believed to have supernatural powers, and they are transmitted by a preceptor to a disciple in an initiation ritual.<ref>[[Gudrun Bühnemann]], Selecting and perfecting mantras in Hindu tantrism, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies / Volume 54 / Issue 02 / June 1991, pages 292–306</ref> Tantric mantras found a significant audience and adaptations in medieval India, Southeast Asia and numerous other Asian countries with Buddhism.<ref>David Gordon White (2000), Tantra in Practice, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-05779-8}}</ref>

Majumdar and other scholars<ref name="jgtim" /><ref>[[Jean Herbert]], Spiritualite hindoue, Paris 1947, {{ISBN|978-2-226-03298-0}}</ref> suggest mantras are central to the Tantric school, with numerous functions. From initiating and emancipating a tantric devotee to worshiping manifested forms of the divine. From enabling heightened sexual energy in the male and the female to acquiring supernormal psychological and spiritual power. From preventing evil influences to exorcizing demons, and many others.<ref>Bhattāchārya, Majumdar and Majumdar, Principles of Tantra, {{ISBN|978-81-85988-14-6}}, see Introduction by Barada Kanta Majumdar</ref> These claimed functions and other aspects of the tantric mantra are a subject of controversy among scholars.<ref>Brooks (1990), The Secret of the Three Cities: An Introduction to Hindu Sakta Tantrism, University of Chicago Press</ref>

Tantra usage is not unique to Hinduism: it is also found in Buddhism both inside and outside India.<ref>David Gordon White (Editor) (2001), Tantra in practice (Vol. 8), Motilal Banarsidass, Princeton Readings in Religions, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1778-4}}, Chapters 21 and 31</ref>

===Examples===
[[File:Another view of Gayatri Mantra; bazaar art, mid-1900's.jpg|thumb|A personification of the [[Gayatri Mantra]]]]

==== Gayatri ====
{{main|Gayatri Mantra}}
:The [[Gayatri mantra]] is considered one of the most universal of all Hindu mantras, invoking the universal Brahman as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun. The mantra is extracted from the 10th verse of Hymn 62 in Book III of the Rig Veda.<ref name=mmwpage17>Monier Monier-Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom, Luzac & Co., London, page 17</ref>

::ॐ भूर्भुवस्व: |तत्सवितुर्वरेण्यम् |भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि |धियो यो न: प्रचोदयात्

::''Oṁ bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ'' ''tat savitur vareṇyaṃ'' ''bhargo devasya dhīmahi'' ''dhiyo yo naḥ pracodayāt,''<ref>Meditation and Mantras, p.75</ref>

::"Let us meditate on that excellent glory of the divine Light (Vivifier, Sun). May he stimulate our understandings (knowledge, intellectual illumination)."<ref name=mmwpage17/>

==== Pavamana ====
{{main|Pavamana Mantra}}
::{{lang|sa|असतो मा सद्गमय ।}} {{lang|sa|तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय ।}} {{lang|sa|मृत्योर्मामृतं गमय ॥}} {{IAST|asato mā sad-gamaya, tamaso mā jyotir-gamaya, mṛtyor-māmṛtaṃ gamaya}}.
::({{IAST|[[Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad]]}} 1.3.28)<ref>[http://fiindolo.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/4_upa/brup___u.htm Brhadaranyaka-Upanisad (Brhadaranyakopanisad), Kanva recension; GRETIL version, input by members of the Sansknet project (formerly: www.sansknet.org)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719104637/http://fiindolo.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/4_upa/brup___u.htm |date=19 July 2011 }}</ref>

::"from the unreal lead me to the [[sat (Sanskrit)|real]], from the dark lead me to the light, from death lead me to immortality."

==== Shanti ====
{{main|Shanti Mantra}}
:''Oṁ Sahanā vavatu'' ''sahanau bhunaktu'' ''sahavīryam karavāvahai'' ''tejasvi nāvadhītamastu''
:''Mā vidviṣāvahai''
:''Oṁ Shāntiḥ, Shāntiḥ, Shāntiḥ.''

::"Om! Let the Studies that we together undertake be effulgent;
::Let there be no Animosity amongst us;
::Om! Peace, Peace, Peace."
:: ''– [[Taittiriya Upanishad]] 2''.2.2

==== Other ====
Other important Hindu mantras include:

* ''[[Mahamrityunjaya Mantra|Mahāmṛtyuṃjaya-mantra]] (''Great Death Defeating Mantra) - A popular Rigvedic mantra dedicated to [[Rudra]]
* [[Om Namah Shivaya|Om̐ Namah Shivaya]] - one of the main mantras in [[Shaivism]]
* Om̐ kālabhairavāya namaḥ - a key mantra of [[Bhairava]], the fierce form of Shiva
* [[Om Namo Narayanaya|Om̐ Namo Narayanaya]] - the principal mantra of [[Vishnu]] in [[Vaishnavism]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balfour |first=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rj5WAAAAYAAJ&q=om+namo+narayanaya+principal+mantra |title=The Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia |date=1968 |publisher=Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt |pages=23 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna Maha Mantra]] - the most important mantra in the Vaishnava [[Bhakti]] tradition of [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]
* [[Saraswati Vandana Mantra|Om̐ aim mahāsarasvatyai namaḥ]] - a mantra of [[Saraswati]]
* Om̐ Śrīm̐ Mahālakṣmyai Namaha - a [[Lakshmi]] mantra
* Om̐ Krim Kali - a [[Kali]] seed (bija) mantra
* Om̐ Śrī Durgāya Namaḥ - one of the principal mantras in [[Shaktism]] and [[Shaivism]] dedicated to [[Durga]]
* Ka E I La Hrim Ha Sa Ka La Ha Hrim Sa Ka La Hrim - the Panchadasi, the main mantra of [[Tripura Sundari|Lalita]] in [[Srividya]]
* Om̐ Śrī Gaṇeśāya Namaḥ - a key mantra of [[Ganesha]]
* Om̐ Śrī Hanumate Namaḥ - the root mantra of [[Hanuman]]
* Om hrim ksaumugram viram mahavivnumjvalantam sarvatomukham Nrsimham bhisanam bhadrammrtyormrtyum namamyaham - [[Narasimha]] mahamantra
* [[Om Namo Bhagavate Vāsudevāya|Om̐ Namo Bhagavate Vāsudevāya]] - the key mantra in [[Bhagavata|Bhagavatism]]
* Om̐ Aim Hreem Kleem Chamundayai Vichche - a mantra of the goddess [[Chamunda]]
* Om̐ Shree Ram Jai Ram Jai Jai Ram - a mantra of [[Rama]]
* Om̐ āim hrīm śrīm klīm - a mantra of the [[Devi|goddess]] in [[Shaktism]]
* The various mantras associated with the yogic [[Sun Salutation|Sūryanamaskāra]] (Sun Salutation) practice
* The various [[Gayatri Mantra#Other Gāyatrī Mantras|versions of the Gayatri]]
* [[Soham (Sanskrit)|So 'haṃ]] (I am He or I am That)

==== In the ''Shiva Sutras'' ====
Apart from [[Shiva Sutras]], which originated from Shiva's [[tandava]] dance, the [[Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Siva Sutras: The Yoga of Supreme Identity, by Vasugupta, translation |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |year=1979 |url=http://bibleoteca.narod.ru/tantra/Jaideva_Singh_Siva_Sutras.pdf |via=bibleoteca.narod.ru |access-date=22 March 2015 |url-status=live |isbn=978-81-208-0406-7 |oclc=597890946 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421033850/http://bibleoteca.narod.ru/tantra/Jaideva_Singh_Siva_Sutras.pdf |archive-date=21 April 2015 }}</ref> are a collection of seventy-seven aphorisms that form the foundation of the tradition of spiritual mysticism known as [[Kashmir Shaivism]]. They are attributed to the sage [[Vasugupta]] of the 9th century C.E. ''Sambhavopaya'' (1–1 to 1–22), ''Saktopaya'' (2–1 to 2–10) and ''Anavopaya'' (3–1 to 3–45) are the main sub-divisions, three means of achieving God consciousness, of which the main technique of ''Saktopaya'' is a mantra. But "mantra" in this context does not mean incantation or muttering of some sacred formula. The word "mantra" is used here in its etymological signification.<ref>Beck, G.L. (1995). ''Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound.'' Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 165.</ref> That which saves one by pondering over the light of Supreme I-consciousness is a mantra. The divine Supreme I-consciousness is the dynamo of all the mantras. ''Deha'' or body has been compared to wood, "mantra" has been compared to ''arani''—a piece of wood used for kindling fire by friction; ''prana'' has been compared to fire. ''Sikha'' or flame has been compared to ''atma'' (Self); ''ambara'' or sky has been compared to Shiva. When prana is kindled by means of mantra used as arani, fire in the form of ''udana'' arises in ''susumna'', and then just as flame arises out of kindled fire and gets dissolved in the sky, so also ''atma'' (Self) like a flame having burnt down the fuel of the body, gets absorbed in Shiva.<ref>Singh, J. (2012). ''Siva Sutras: The Yoga of Supreme Identity.'' {{ISBN|978-81-208-0407-4}}</ref>

== Buddhism ==
[[File:India,_Bihar,_Bodhgaya_-_Votive_Plaque_with_Figure_of_the_Buddha,_Temple_at_Bodhgaya,_and_Stupas_-_1985.219_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif|thumb|Votive plaque with [[Ye Dharma Hetu]] at the bottom.]]

=== In Early Buddhism ===
One of the most ancient Buddhist mantras is the famous ''[[Ye Dharma Hetu|Pratītyasamutpāda-gāthā]]'', also known as the [[Pratītyasamutpāda|dependent origination]] [[Dharani|dhāraṇī]]. This phrase is said to encapsulate the meaning of the [[Buddhism|Buddha's Teaching]]. It was a popular Buddhist verse and was used as a mantra.<ref name=":12">Gergely Hidas (2014). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/two-dharani-prints-in-the-stein-collection-at-the-british-museum1/BDE084CA763014AF98A8493D2FDA30F7 Two dhāranī prints in the Stein Collection at the British Museum. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies], 77, pp 105-117 {{doi|10.1017/S0041977X13001341}}</ref> This mantra is found inscribed on numerous ancient Buddhist statues, [[chaitya]]s, and images.<ref>{{cite journal |date=Oct 1965 |title=A New Document of Indian Painting Pratapaditya Pal |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |pages=103–111 |jstor=25202861 |number=3/4}}</ref><ref>On the miniature chaityas, [[William Henry Sykes|Lieut.-Col. Sykes]], Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume 16, By Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, University Press, 1856</ref>

The Sanskrit version of this mantra is:<blockquote>ye dharmā hetuprabhavā hetuṃ teṣāṃ tathāgato hyavadat, teṣāṃ ca yo nirodha evaṃvādī mahāśramaṇaḥ</blockquote>The phrase can be translated as follows:<blockquote>Of those phenomena which arise from causes: Those causes have been taught by the [[Tathāgata]] ([[Buddha]]), and their cessation too - thus proclaims the Great Ascetic.</blockquote>[[Early Buddhist texts]] also contain various [[Apotropaic magic|apotropaic]] chants which have similar functions to Vedic mantras. These are called [[paritta]]s in Pali (Sanskrit: ''paritrana'') and mean "protection, safeguard". They are still chanted in [[Theravada]] Buddhism to this day as a way to heal, protect from danger and bless.<ref>Anandajoti Bhikkhu (edition, trans.) (2004). ''Safeguard Recitals'', p. v. Kandy: [[Buddhist Publication Society]]. {{ISBN|955-24-0255-7}}.</ref> Some of these are short Buddhist texts, like the ''[[Mangala Sutta]],'' ''[[Ratana Sutta]],'' and the ''[[Karaniya Metta Sutta|Metta Sutta]].''

=== Theravada ===
According to the American Buddhist teacher [[Jack Kornfield]]:<ref>Kornfield, Jack. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7lBDbG0cZAC&dq=%22The+use+of+mantra+or+the+repetition+of+certain+phrases+in+Pali%22&pg=PT343 ''Living Dharma: Teachings and Meditation Instructions from Twelve Theravada Masters'', chapter seventeen.] Shambhala Publications, 12 Oct 2010.</ref>{{blockquote|The use of mantra or the repetition of certain phrases in Pali is a highly common form of meditation in the Theravada tradition. Simple mantras use repetition of the Buddha's name, "Buddho", [as "Buddho" is actually a title rather than a name] or use the "Dhamma", or the "Sangha", the community, as mantra words. Other used mantras are directed toward developing loving kindness. Some mantras direct attention to the process of change by repeating the Pali phrase that means "everything changes", while other mantras are used to develop equanimity with phrases that would be translated, "let go".}}

"In contemporary Theravada practice, mantra practice is often combined with breathing meditation, so that one recites a mantra simultaneously with in-breath and out-breath to help develop tranquility and concentration. Mantra meditation is especially popular among lay people. Like other basic concentration exercises, it can be used simply to the mind, or it can be the basis for an insight practice where the mantra becomes the focus of observation of how life unfolds, or an aid in surrendering and letting go."<ref>Kornfield, j. Modern Buddhist masters, pg 311.</ref>

The "Buddho" mantra is widespread in the [[Thai Forest Tradition]] and was taught by [[Ajahn Chah]] and his students.<ref>Ajahn Chah, Clarity of Insight, {{cite web |title=Clarity Insight |url=http://www.ajahnchah.org/book/Clarity_Insight1.php |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150602022820/http://www.ajahnchah.org/book/Clarity_Insight1.php |archive-date=2 June 2015 |access-date=21 May 2015}}</ref> Another popular mantra in [[Buddhism in Thailand|Thai Buddhism]] is ''Samma-Araham'', referring to the Buddha who has 'perfectly' (''samma'') attained 'perfection in the Buddhist sense' (''[[Arhat|araham]]''), used in [[Dhammakaya meditation]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stede |first1=William |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali |title=The Pali-English dictionary |date=1993 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=81-208-1144-5 |editor1-last=Rhys Davids |editor1-first=T. W. |edition=1. Indian|location=New Delhi|access-date=25 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525143656/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/ |archive-date=25 May 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Desaransi |first=Phra Ajaan Thate |date=2 November 2013|title=Buddho|url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/thai/thate/buddho.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513155117/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/thai/thate/buddho.html |archive-date=13 May 2017 |access-date=25 May 2017 |website=Access to Insight (Legacy Edition) |translator-last=Thanissaro |translator-first=Bhikkhu}}</ref>

In the [[Tantric Theravada]] tradition of Southeast Asia, mantras are central to their method of meditation. Popular mantras in this tradition include ''Namo Buddhaya'' ("Homage to the Buddha") and ''Araham'' ("Worthy One"). There are [[Thai people|Thai]] Buddhist [[amulet]] [[Katha (storytelling format)|katha]]: that is, mantras to be recited while holding an amulet.<ref>{{cite web |title=A mini reference archive library of compiled Buddhist Katha/Katta |url=http://www.mir.com.my/leofoo/Thai-amulets/Chris_Tam_katha_libary/index.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626202226/http://www.mir.com.my/leofoo/Thai-amulets/Chris_Tam_katha_libary/index.htm |archive-date=26 June 2012 |access-date=17 July 2012 |publisher=Mir.com.my}}</ref>

=== Mahayana Buddhism ===
[[File:SIDDHAM_LETTER_A.svg|thumb|Letter A in [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddham]] script, the seed mantra of [[Prajnaparamita|Prajñaparamita]] in Mahayana Buddhism]]

[[File:Asakusa Temple Usnisa Vijaya Dharani Sutra Inscription.png|thumb|A stone inscription of the Buddhist "[[Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra|Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī]]" in [[Siddhaṃ script]] at [[Asakusa Temple]] in [[Tokyo]].]]

The use of mantras became very popular with the rise of [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]]. Many [[Mahayana sutras]] contain mantras, [[Bīja|bijamantras]] ("seed" mantras), [[dharani]]s and other similar phrases which were chanted or used in meditation.

According to [[Edward Conze]], Buddhists initially used mantras as protective spells like the ''[[Ratana Sutta]]'' for [[Apotropaic magic|apotropaic]] reasons. Even at this early stage, there was an idea that these [[Magic (supernatural)|spells]] were somehow connected with the [[Dharma]] in a deep sense. Conze argues that in Mahayana sutras like the ''[[White Lotus Sutra]]'', and the ''[[Lankavatara Sutra]]'', mantras become more important for spiritual reasons and their power increases. For Conze, the final phase of the development of Buddhist mantras is the tantric phase of [[Vajrayana|Mantrayana]]. In this tantric phase, mantras are at the very center of the path to Buddhahood, acting as a part of the supreme method of meditation and spiritual practice.

One popular bija (seed) mantra in Mahayana Buddhism is the Sanskrit letter A (see [[A in Buddhism]]). This seed mantra was equated with Mahayana doctrines like [[Prajnaparamita|Prajñaparamita]] (the Perfection of Wisdom), [[Śūnyatā|emptiness]] and [[Anutpada|non-arising]].<ref>Robert E. Buswell and Donald S. Lopez (2014). ''The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism'', pp. 1, 24. Published by Princeton University Press</ref><ref>Conze, Edward (1975). [http://lirs.ru/lib/conze/The_Large_Sutra_On_Perfect_Wisdom,Conze,1975.pdf ''The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom with the divisions of the Abhisamayālañkāra,''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506185332/http://lirs.ru/lib/conze/The_Large_Sutra_On_Perfect_Wisdom,Conze,1975.pdf|date=2021-05-06}} p. 160. University of California Press.</ref> This seed mantra remains in use in [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon]], [[Dzogchen]] and [[Rinzai school|Rinzai]] Zen. Mahayana Buddhism also adopted the [[Om]] mantra, which is found incorporated into various Mahayana Buddhist mantras (like the popular [[Om mani padme hum|Om Mani Padme Hum]]).

Another early and influential Mahayana "mantra" or [[dharani]] is the Arapacana [[alphabet]] (of non-Sanskrit origin, possibly [[Kharosthi|Karosthi]]) which is used as a contemplative tool in the [[Large Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras|Long Prajñāpāramitā sutras]].<ref name=":2">Jayarava, ''Visible Mantra: Visualising & Writing Buddhist Mantras'', pp. 35-43. 2011.</ref><ref>Ithamar Theodor, Zhihua Yao (2013). ''Brahman and Dao: Comparative Studies of Indian and Chinese Philosophy and Religion,'' pp. 215. Lexington Books</ref> The entire alphabet runs:<ref name=":2" /> <blockquote>a ra pa ca na la da ba ḍa ṣa va ta ya ṣṭa ka sa ma ga stha ja śva dha śa kha kṣa sta jña rta ha bha cha sma hva tsa bha ṭha ṇa pha ska ysa śca ṭa ḍha</blockquote>In this practice, each letter stood for a specific idea (for example, "a" stands for [[Anutpada|non-arising (anutpada)]], and pa stands for "ultimate truth" ([[Paramārtha-satya|paramārtha]]).<ref name=":2" /> As such, this practice was also a kind of [[mnemonic]] technique (''dhāraṇīmukha'') which allowed one to remember the key points of the teaching.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2018-08-29 |title=The forty-two letters of the Arapacana alphabet [Appendix 3] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/buddhism/book/maha-prajnaparamita-sastra/d/doc225898.html |access-date=2023-02-09 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Mahayana sutras]] introduced various mantras into Mahayana Buddhism, such as:

* Mahayana sutras or texts often begin with the mantra: Om̐ namaḥ sarvajñāya (or just: namaḥ sarvajñāya, "Homage to omniscience") <ref>see: [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_ajitasenavyAkaraNa-alt.htm ''Ajitasenavyākaraṇa''], ''[https://www2.hf.uio.no/polyglotta/index.php?page=record&vid=77&level=1&cid=146407 Buddhacarita],''</ref>
* Other Mahayana texts begin with Om̐ namo ratnatrayāya (Homage to the [[Refuge in Buddhism|Three Jewels]]) <ref>see: ''[https://www2.hf.uio.no/polyglotta/index.php?page=record&vid=1123&level=1&cid=843398 Ratnāvalī],'' ''[http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_kAraNDavyUha.htm Kāraṇḍavyūha], [https://www.dsbcproject.org/canon-text/content/772/2900 Maṃjuśrīpārājikā]''</ref>
* [[The Buddha|Shakyamuni Buddha's]] Mantra: Om̐ muni muni mahāmuni śākyamuni svāhā <ref>Conze, Edward. ''Perfect Wisdom: The Short Prajñāpāramitā Texts'', p. 145. Buddhist Publishing Group, 1993.</ref>
* [[Heart Sutra|''Heart sutra'']] (''Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya'') mantra: Gate gate pāragate pārasaṃgate bodhi svāhā
* The mantra of bodhisattva [[Manjushri|Mañjuśrī]]: Om̐ arapacana dhīḥ
* [[Prajñāpāramitā Devi|Prajñaparamita-devi]] mantra from ''The Sutra of Mañjuśrī's Questions'': Nama ārya prajñā pāramitāyāi svāhā <ref>Shōtarō Iida; Goldstone, Jane; McRae, John R. (tr.) ''The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha and His Enlightenment / The Sutra of Manjusri's Questions'', p. 136. Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai America, Incorporated, 2016.</ref>
* ''Kauśikaprajñāpāramitāsutra'' contains many Prajñaparamita mantras including: oṃ hrī śrī dhī [[śruti]] [[Sati (Buddhism)|smṛti]] mati gati vijaye svāhā <ref>{{Cite web |title=Kauśikaprajñāpāramitāsūtram - Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon |url=https://www.dsbcproject.org/canon-text/content/69/589 |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=www.dsbcproject.org}}</ref>
* A protective mantra found in the Sanskrit ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'': agaṇe gaṇe gauri gandhāri caṇḍāli mātaṅgi pukkasi saṃkule vrūsali sisi svāhā <ref>{{Cite web |title=Saddharmapuṇḍarīka - Thesaurus Literaturae Buddhicae - Bibliotheca Polyglotta |url=https://www2.hf.uio.no/polyglotta/index.php?page=fulltext&view=fulltext&vid=483&cid=456868&mid=815650&level=1 |access-date=2023-11-13 |website=www2.hf.uio.no}}</ref>
* [[Bhaisajyaguru|Medicine Guru]] mantra (in the ''Sutra of Medicine Guru''): Om̐ bhaiṣajye bhaiṣajye mahābhaiṣajya-samudgate svāhā
* [[Avalokiteśvara|Avalokiteshvara's]] mantra (the Mani mantra): [[Om mani padme hum|Om̐ maṇi padme hūṃ]], first appearing in the [[Karandavyuha Sutra|''Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra'']] (4th-5th century CE)
* [[Cundi (Buddhism)|Cundī]] dhāraṇī or mantra also first appeared in the ''Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra'': namaḥ saptānāṃ samyaksaṃbuddha koṭīnāṃ tadyathā oṃ cale cule cunde svāhā
* ''[[Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani|Amitabha Sukhavati Dhāraṇī]]'', sometimes called the ''Pure Land Rebirth Mantra''
* ''[[Mantra of Light|Mantra of Light of the Great Consecration]]'' (Ch: 大灌頂光真言): Om̐ Amogha [[Vairocana]] [[Mahamudra|Mahāmudrā]] Maṇipadma Jvalapravartāya Hūṃ

=== East Asian Buddhism ===
[[File:Shurangama Heart Mantra v1 3.svg|thumb|Illustration of the [[Shurangama Mantra|Śūraṅgama Mantra]]'s "Heart Mantra" (''hṛdaya''): Oṃ anale anale viśade viśade vīra vajradhare bandha bandhani vajrapāṇi phaṭ hūṃ phaṭ svāhā.]]

In [[Chinese Buddhism]], various mantras, including the [[Nīlakantha dhāranī|Great Compassion Mantra]], the Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī from the [[Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra|Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sutra]], the [[Mahamayuri|Mahāmāyūrī Vidyārājñī Dhāraṇī]], the [[Heart Sutra]] and [[Nianfo|various forms of Buddha remembrance]] are commonly chanted by both monastics and laymen. In China and Vietnam, a set of mantras known as the [[Ten Small Mantras]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 十小咒; [[Pinyin]]: ''Shíxiǎozhòu'')<ref>{{cite web |date=24 March 2007 |title=Pinyin of ten mantras |url=http://www.amtfamtf.net/nfgy/sxz.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070324051507/http://www.amtfamtf.net/nfgy/sxz.htm |archive-date=24 March 2007 |access-date=17 July 2012}}</ref> was established by the monk Yulin ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 玉琳國師; [[Pinyin]]: ''Yùlín Guóshī''), a teacher of the [[Qing dynasty]] [[Shunzhi Emperor]] (1638 – 1661), for monks, nuns, and laity to chant during morning liturgical services.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Ten Small Mantras |url=http://www.buddhamountain.ca/Ten_Small_Mantras.php |access-date=2021-07-10 |website=www.buddhamountain.ca}}</ref> This set of mantras is still chanted in modern Chinese Buddhism.<ref>Buddhist Text Translation Society (2013), ''Daily Recitation Handbook: Sagely City of 10,000 Buddhas''</ref>

[[Zen|Zen Buddhism]] also makes use of esoteric mantras, a practice which can be traced back to the Tang dynasty. Mantras and dharanis are recited in all Zen traditions, including [[Japanese Zen]], [[Korean Seon]], [[Chan Buddhism|Chinese Chan]] and [[Thiền|Vietnamese Thien]]. One of these is the ''[[Shurangama Mantra|Śūraṅgama Dharani]],'' which has been taught by various modern Chan and Zen monks, such as Venerable [[Hsuan Hua]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Keyworth |first=George A. |date=2016 |title=Zen and the "Hero's March Spell" of the Shoulengyan jing |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26799795 |journal=The Eastern Buddhist |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=81–120 |issn=0012-8708 |jstor=26799795}}</ref> This long dharani is associated with the protective deity [[Sitatapatra|Sitatpatra]]. The short heart mantra of this dharani is also popular in East Asian Buddhism.

[[Shaolin Monastery|Shaolin temple]] monks also made use of esoteric mantras and dharani.{{sfn|Orzech|Sørensen|Payne|2011|p=589}}

==== Chinese Mantrayana and Japanese Shingon ====
[[File:Mandala of Mantra of Light (cropped).jpg|thumb|Japanese Mandala of the [[Mantra of Light]], an important mantra of the Shingon and Kegon sects]]
[[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism]] also known as ''Zhēnyán'' ({{lang-zh|c=真言}}'','' lit. "true word", which is the translation for "mantra") draws extensively on mantras. This tradition was established during the Tang dynasty by Indian tantric masters like [[Śubhakarasiṃha]], [[Vajrabodhi]] and [[Amoghavajra]]. Chinese esoteric Buddhist practice was based on [[deity yoga]] and the "three mysteries": mantra, [[mudra]] and [[mandala]]. These three mysteries allow the Buddhist yogi to tap into the body, speech and mind of the Buddhas.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Orzech |first1=Charles |last2=Sørensen |first2=Henrik |last3=Payne |first3=Richard Karl |title=Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia |date=2011 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-20401-0 |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004184916.i-1200 |oclc=731667667}}</ref>

This tradition was transmitted to Japan by [[Kūkai]] (774–835), who founded the Japanese Shingon (Japanese for ''Zhēnyán'') mantra vehicle. Kūkai saw a mantra as a manifestation of the true nature of [[reality]] which is saturated with meaning. For Kūkai, a mantra is nothing but the speech of the Buddha [[Vairocana|Mahavairocana]], the "[[Adi-Buddha|ground dharmakaya]]" which is the ultimate source of all reality. According to Kūkai, Shingon mantras contain the entire meaning of all the scriptures and indeed the entire universe (which is itself the sermon of the Dharmakaya).<ref>Hakeda, Yoshito S., transl. (1972). ''Kukai: Major Works, Translated, With an Account of His Life and a Study of His Thought'', pp. 78-79. New York: Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|0-231-03627-2}}.</ref> Kūkai argues that mantras are effective because: "a mantra is suprarational; It eliminates ignorance when meditated upon and recited. A single word contains a thousand truths; One can realize Suchness here and now."<ref>Hakeda, Yoshito S., transl. (1972). ''Kukai: Major Works, Translated, With an Account of His Life and a Study of His Thought'', p. 79. New York: Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|0-231-03627-2}}.</ref>

One of Kūkai's distinctive contributions was to take this symbolic association even further by saying that there is no essential difference between the syllables of mantras and [[sacred text]]s, and those of ordinary language. If one understood the workings of mantra, then any sounds could be a representative of ultimate reality. This emphasis on sounds was one of the drivers for Kūkai's championing of the phonetic writing system, the [[kana]], which was adopted in Japan around the time of Kūkai. He is generally credited with the invention of the kana, but there is apparently some doubt about this story amongst [[scholar]]s.

This mantra-based theory of language had a powerful effect on Japanese thought and society which up until Kūkai's time had been dominated by imported [[China|Chinese]] culture of thought, particularly in the form of the Classical Chinese language which was used in the court and amongst the literati, and [[Confucianism]] which was the dominant political [[ideology]]. In particular, Kūkai was able to use this new theory of [[language]] to create links between indigenous Japanese culture and Buddhism. For instance, he made a link between the Buddha Mahavairocana and the [[Shinto]] sun Goddess [[Amaterasu]]. Since the emperors were thought to be descended form Amaterasu, Kūkai had found a powerful connection here that linked the emperors with the Buddha, and also in finding a way to integrate [[Shinto]] with Buddhism, something that had not happened with Confucianism. Buddhism then became essentially an indigenous religion in a way that Confucianism had not. And it was through language and mantra that this connection was made. Kūkai helped to elucidate what mantra is in a way that had not been done before: he addresses the fundamental questions of what a text is, how signs function, and above all, what language is. In this, he covers some of the same ground as modern day [[Structuralism|Structuralists]] and others scholars of language, although he comes to very different conclusions.

In this system of thought, all sounds are said to originate from "a". For esoteric Buddhism "a" has a special function because it is associated with Shunyata or the idea that no thing exists in its own right, but is contingent upon causes and conditions. (See [[Dependent origination]]) In Sanskrit "a" is a prefix which changes the meaning of a word into its opposite, so "vidya" is understanding, and "avidya" is ignorance (the same arrangement is also found in many [[Greek language|Greek]] words, like e.g. "atheism" vs. "theism" and "apathy" vs. "pathos"). The letter a is both visualised in the [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddham]] script and pronounced in rituals and [[meditation]] practices. In the [[Mahavairocana Sutra]] which is central to [[Shingon Buddhism]] it says: "Thanks to the original vows of the Buddhas and [[Bodhisattva]]s, a [[Miracle|miraculous]] force resides in the mantras, so that by pronouncing them one acquires merit without limits". [in Conze, p. 183]

A mantra is [[Kuji-kiri]] in [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon]] as well as in [[Shugendo]]. The practice of writing mantras, and copying texts as a spiritual practice, became very refined in Japan, and some of these are written in the Japanese script and [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddham]] script of Sanskrit, recited in either language.

===== Main Shingon Mantras =====
[[File:種字阿弥陀三尊像-Amida_Triad_in_the_Form_of_Sacred_Sanskrit_Syllables_MET_DP221030_(cropped).jpg|thumb|A Japanese depiction of the [[Amitābha|Amida Triad]] as Seed Syllables (in [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddham Script]]). Visualizing deities in the form of seed mantras is a common Vajrayana meditation. In Shingon, one of the most common practices is ''Ajikan'' (阿字觀), meditating on the mantric syllable A.]]
There are thirteen mantras used in [[Shingon Buddhism]], each dedicated to a major deity (the "[[thirteen Buddhas]]" - ''jūsanbutsu -'' of Shingon). The mantras are drawn from the ''[[Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra]]''. The mantra for each deity name in Japanese, its equivalent name in Sanskrit, the Sanskrit mantra, and the Japanese version in the Shingon tradition are as follows:<ref>[http://www.shingon.org/ritual/daily.html The Koyasan Shingon-shu Lay Practitioner's Daily Service] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060502064538/http://www.shingon.org/ritual/daily.html|date=2 May 2006}}, Shingon Buddhist International Institute (1999)</ref>
# '''Fudōmyōō''' ({{lang|ja|不動明王}}, [[Acala]]): Sanskrit: namaḥ samanta vajrāṇāṃ caṇḍa mahāroṣaṇa sphoṭaya hūṃ traṭ hāṃ māṃ (Shingon transliteration: nōmaku samanda bazaratan senda makaroshada sowataya untarata kanman)
# '''Shaka nyorai''' ({{lang|ja|釈迦如来}}, [[Siddhartha Gautama|Sakyamuni]]): namaḥ samanta buddhānāṃ bhaḥ (nōmaku sanmanda bodanan baku)
# '''Monju bosatsu''' ({{lang|ja|文殊菩薩}}, [[Manjushri]]): oṃ a ra pa ca na (on arahashanō)
# '''Fugen bosatsu''' ({{lang|ja|普賢菩薩}}, [[Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)|Samantabhadra]]): oṃ samayas tvaṃ (on sanmaya satoban)
# '''Jizō bosatsu''' ({{lang|ja|地蔵菩薩}}, [[Ksitigarbha]]): oṃ ha ha ha vismaye svāhā (on kakaka bisanmaei sowaka)
# '''Miroku bosatsu''' ({{lang|ja|弥勒菩薩}}, [[Maitreya]]): oṃ maitreya svāhā (on maitareiya sowaka)
# '''Yakushi nyorai''' ({{lang|ja|薬師如来}}, [[Bhaisajyaguru]]): oṃ huru huru caṇḍāli mātangi svāhā (on korokoro sendari matōgi sowaka)
# '''Kanzeon bosatsu''' ({{lang|ja|観世音菩薩}}, [[Avalokitesvara]]): oṃ ārolik svāhā (on arorikya sowaka)
# '''Seishi bosatsu''' ({{lang|ja|勢至菩薩}}, [[Mahasthamaprapta]]): oṃ saṃ jaṃ jaṃ saḥ svāhā (on san zan saku sowaka)
# '''Amida nyorai''' ({{lang|ja|阿弥陀如来}}, [[Amitabha]]): oṃ amṛta teje hara hūṃ (on amirita teisei kara un)
# '''Ashuku nyorai''' ({{lang|ja|阿閦如来}}, [[Akshobhya]]): oṃ akṣobhya hūṃ (on akishubiya un)
# '''Dainichi nyorai''' ({{lang|ja|大日如来}}, [[Adibuddha|Vairocana]]): oṃ a vi ra hūṃ khaṃ vajradhātu vaṃ (on abiraunken basara datoban)
# '''Kokūzō bosatsu''' ({{lang|ja|虚空蔵菩薩}}, [[Akashagarbha]]): namo ākāśagarbhāya oṃ ārya kāmāri mauli svāhā (nōbō akyashakyarabaya on arikya mari bori sowaka)

==== Other Japanese Buddhist traditions ====
Mantras are also an important element of other Japanese Buddhist traditions. The [[Tendai]] school includes extensive repertoire of Esoteric Buddhist practices, which include the use of mantras.

[[Nichiren Buddhism|Nichiren Buddhist]] practice focuses on the chanting of one single mantra or phrase: ''[[Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō|Nam Myōhō Renge Kyō]]'' (南無妙法蓮華経, which means "Homage to the [[Lotus Sutra]]").

[[Japanese Zen]] also makes use of mantras. One example is the [[Mantra of Light]] (''kōmyō shingon''), which is common in Japanese [[Sōtō|Soto Zen]] and was derived from the [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon]] sect.<ref>Unno, Mark, ''Shingon Refractions: Myoe and the Mantra of Light,'' Ch. 1.</ref> The use of esoteric practices (such as mantra) within Zen is sometimes termed "mixed Zen" (''kenshū zen'' 兼修禪). [[Keizan|Keizan Jōkin]] (1264–1325) is seen as a key figure that introduced this practice into the [[Sōtō|Soto school]].{{sfn|Orzech|Sørensen|Payne|2011|pp=924–925}}<ref>[[D. T. Suzuki]] discusses what he calls "the Shingon elements of Chinese Zen" in his ''Manual of Zen Buddhism'' (1960, 21) and "the Chinese Shingon element" in ''The Training of the Zen Buddhist Monk'' (1965, 80).</ref> A common mantra used in Soto Zen is the [[Śūraṅgama Sūtra#White Parasol Crown Dhāraṇī|Śūraṅgama mantra]] (''Ryōgon shu'' 楞嚴呪; T. 944A).

=== In Northern Vajrayana Buddhism ===
[[Mantrayana]] (Sanskrit), which may be translated as "way of the mantra", was the original self-identifying name of those that have come to be determined '[[Nyingmapa]]'.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Griffiths|first=Paul J.|date=November 1994|title=The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals and History. Dudjom Rinpoche , Gyurme Dorje , Matthew Kapstein|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/463389|journal=History of Religions|volume=34|issue=2|pages=192–194|doi=10.1086/463389|issn=0018-2710|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The Nyingmapa which may be rendered as "those of the ancient way", a name constructed due to the genesis of the [[Sarma (Tibetan Buddhism)|Sarma]] "fresh", "new" traditions. Mantrayana has developed into a synonym of Vajrayana.

According to the important Mantrayana Buddhist text called the [[Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa|''Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa'']], mantras are efficacious because they are manifestations of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. As such, a mantra is coextensive with the [[Trikaya|bodies of the Buddhas]] and bodhisattvas. When one recites a mantra, one's mind is coextensive with the mantras, and thus, one's mind makes a connection with the mantra's deity and their meditative power (samadhi-bala).

==== Om mani padme hum ====
{{Main|Om mani padme hum}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 135-S-15-22-23, Tibetexpedition, Berghang mit tibetischer Schrift.jpg|thumb|[[Om mani padme hum]] on the [[Yarlung Valley|Gangpori]] (photo [[1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet]].]]
[[File:Vajra Guru Mantra.svg|thumb|The mantra of Padmasambhava (Om Āḥ Hūṁ Vajra Guru Padma Siddhi Hūṁ), in Lanydza ([[Ranjana script|Ranjana]]) and Tibetan script.]]

Probably the most famous mantra of Buddhism is [[Om mani padme hum]], the six syllable mantra of the [[Bodhisattva]] of compassion [[Avalokiteśvara]] (Tibetan: ''[[Chenrezig]]'', Chinese: ''[[Guanyin]]''). This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armed Shadakshari form of Avalokiteśvara. The [[Dalai Lama]] is said to be an incarnation of Avalokiteshvara, and so the mantra is especially revered by his devotees.

The book ''Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism'' by [[Lama Anagarika Govinda]], gives a classic example of how such a mantra can contain many levels of symbolic meaning.

==== Other ====
The following list of mantras is from ''[[Kailash: A Journal of Himalayan Studies]]'', Volume 1, Number 2, 1973. (pp. 168–169) (augmented by other contributors). The mantras used in Tibetan Buddhist practice are in [[Sanskrit]], to preserve the original mantras. Visualizations and other practices are usually done in the [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan language]].

*''Om vagishvara hum'' This is the mantra of the Mahabodhisattva [[Manjusri]], Tibetan: Jampelyang ([[Wylie transliteration|Wylie]] "'jam dpal dbyangs")... The Buddha in his wisdom aspect.
*''Om vajrasattva hum'' The short mantra for White [[Vajrasattva]], there is also a full 100-syllable mantra for [[Vajrasattva]].
*''Om vajrapani namo hum'' The mantra of the Buddha as Protector of the Secret Teachings. i.e.: as the Mahabodhisattva [[Channa Dorje]] ([[Vajrapani]]).
*''Om ah hum vajra guru padma siddhi hum'' The mantra of the Vajraguru [[Padmasambhava|Guru Padma Sambhava]] who established [[Mahayana]] Buddhism and Tantra in Tibet.
*''Om tare tuttare ture mama ayurjnana punye pushting svaha'' The mantra of [[Dölkar]] or [[White Tara]], the emanation of Arya Tara [Chittamani Tara]. Variants: ''Om tare tuttare ture mama ayurjnana punye pushting kuru swaha'' ([[Drikung Kagyu]]), ''Om tare tuttare ture mama ayu punye jnana puktrim kuru soha'' ([[Karma Kagyu]]).
[[File:Om Tare Tutare Ture Soha.vorb.oga|thumb|right|Om Tare Tutare Ture Soha.]]
*''Om tare tuttare ture svaha'', mantra of Green Arya Tara—[[Jetsun Dolma]] or [[Tara (Buddhist)|Tara]], the Mother of the Buddhas: om represents Tara's sacred body, speech, and mind. Tare means liberating from all discontent. Tutare means liberating from the eight fears, the external dangers, but mainly from the internal dangers, the delusions. Ture means liberating from duality; it shows the "true" cessation of confusion. Soha means "may the meaning of the mantra take root in my mind."

According to Tibetan Buddhism, this mantra (Om tare tutare ture soha) can not only eliminate disease, troubles, disasters, and karma, but will also bring believers blessings, longer life, and even the wisdom to transcend one's circle of reincarnation.
[[Tara (Buddhist)|Tara]] representing long life and health.
*''Oṃ amaraṇi jīvantaye svāhā'' (Tibetan version: oṃ ā ma ra ṇi dzi wan te ye svā hā) The mantra of the Buddha of limitless life: the Buddha [[Amitayus]] (Tibetan Tsépagmed) in celestial form.
*''Om dhrung svaha'' The purification mantra of the [[mother]] [[Usnisavijaya|Namgyalma]].
*''Om ami dhewa hri'' The mantra of the Buddha [[Amitabha]] (Opagme(d) in Tibetan) of the Western Pureland, his skin the color of the setting sun.
*''Om ah ra pa ca na dhih'' The mantra of the "sweet-voiced one", [[Jampelyang]] ([[Wylie transliteration|Wylie]] "'jam dpal dbyangs") or [[Manjusri]], the Bodhisattva of wisdom.
*''Om muni muni maha muniye sakyamuni swaha'' The mantra of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha Sakyamuni]], the historical Buddha
*''Om gate gate paragate parasamgate bodhi svaha'' The mantra of the Heart of the [[Perfection of Wisdom]] Sutra ([[Heart Sutra]])
*''Namo bhagavate Bhaishajya-guru vaidurya-praba-rajaya tathagataya arhate samyak-sambuddhaya tadyata *Tadyata OM bhaishajye bhaishajye maha bhaishajya raja-samudgate svaha'' The mantra of the 'Medicine Buddha', [[Bhaisajyaguru|Bhaiṣajya-guru]] (or Bhaishajyaguru), from Chinese translations of the Master of Healing Sutra.

=== In Bon ===
There are also numerous mantras in the [[Bön]] religion such as ''Om Ma Tri Mu Ye Sa Le Du''.<ref>[http://bonshenling.org/audio/ Audio |Bon Shen Ling Audio |A Tibetan Bon Education Fund] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226063638/http://bonshenling.org/audio/|date=26 February 2014}}</ref>

== Zoroastrianism ==
{{Main|Manthra (Zoroastrianism)}}
In [[Zoroastrianism]], the use of mantras, commonly called manthra ({{Langx|ae|{{Transliteration|ae|mąθra}}}}), goes back to [[Zarathustra]] himself, who describes his role as a prophet of the creator deity [[Ahura Mazda]] explicitly as a knower of mantras ({{Langx|ae|{{transliteration|ae|mąθran}}}}; {{Langx|sa|{{transliteration|sa|mántrin}}}}). In the Zoroastrian tradition, a mantra is usually a shorter inspired utterance that accompanies religious rituals. They differ from the longer, often eight-syllable praise songs (called [[Yasht]] in the [[Avesta]]) as well as the often eleven-syllable songs (called [[Gatha (Zoroaster)|Gathas]] in the Avesta as well as in the [[Gatha (India)|Vedas]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Boyce |first=Mary |title=A History Of Zoroastrianism: The Early Period |publisher=Brill |year=1996 |pages=8–9 |author-link=Mary Boyce}}</ref>

[[File:0-Or-8212-84-R-1-Recto-0-0.jpg|thumb|[[Dunhuang manuscripts|Dunhuang manuscript]] from the 9th century CE, containing the [[Ashem Vohu]] mantra in [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]].]]
The four most important Zoroastrian mantras are the [[Ahuna Vairya]], the [[Ashem Vohu]], the [[Yenghe hatam]], and the [[Airyaman ishya]]. The ''Ashem Vohu'' states:

{{Text and translation
| <poem>
aṣ̌əm vohū vahištəm astī
uštā astī uštā ahmāi
hyat̰ aṣ̌āi vahištāi aṣ̌əm
</poem>
| <poem>
Holiness ([[Asha]]) is the best of all good:
it is also happiness.
Happy the man who is holy with perfect holiness!
</poem>
| Ashem Vohu.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AVESTA: KHORDA AVESTA: Part 1 |url=http://www.avesta.org/ka/ka_part1.htm#ashem |access-date=2019-07-16 |website=www.avesta.org}}</ref>
}}

Both Vedic and Avestan mantras have a number of functional similarities. One of these is the idea that truth, when properly expressed in the mantra, can compel a deity to grant the speaker's request (compare [[Sacca-kiriya]]). Another similarity is the Vedic and Avestic association of mantras with paths, so that a properly formulated mantra can open a path to the deity addressed.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kotwal |first1=Firoze M. |title=The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism |last2=Kreyenbroek |first2=Philip G. |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2015 |editor-last=Stausberg |editor-first=Michael |pages=335 |chapter=Chapter 20 - Prayer |editor-last2=Vevaina |editor-first2=Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw}}</ref> Because of the etymological and conceptual similarity, such religious utterances must therefore have already been known during the common [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] period, when the [[Arya (Iran)|people of the Avesta]] and of the Vedas formed a [[Aryan|single people]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Spiegel |first=Friedrich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQI_AQAAMAAJ&pg=PR2 |title=Die arische Periode und ihre Zustände |publisher=Verlag von Wilhelm Friedrich |year=1887 |page=230 |author-link=Friedrich von Spiegel}}</ref> They are, therefore, not derived from the Vedic tradition, but represent an independent development of ancient Iran, corresponding to that in ancient India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin |title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |location=Oxford |pages=131}}</ref> The study of their commonalities is therefore important for understanding the poetic and religious traditions of the early [[Indo-Iranians]].<ref name=schmitt>{{cite book |last=Schmitt |first=Rüdiger |title=Encyclopædia Iranica |publisher=Iranica Foundation |date=16 August 2011 |orig-date=15 December 1987 |volume=II |pages=684–687 |chapter=Aryans |author-link=Rüdiger Schmitt |chapter-url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/aryans |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613191407/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/aryans |archive-date= 13 Jun 2024 }}</ref>

== Jainism ==
[[file:Namokar Mantra JCNJ.jpg|thumb|Namokar Mantra shrine at a Jain center in New Jersey]]
In [[Jainism]] mantras are mainly used for praising the omniscient enlightened ones ([[Arihant (Jainism)|Arihant]]s), or praising the five supreme types of beings ([[Pañca-Parameṣṭhi]]). Some mantras are also used for seeking forgiveness, or to enhance intellect, prosperity, wealth or fame. There are many mantras in [[Jainism]]; most of them are in [[Sanskrit]] or [[Prakrit]], but in the last few centuries, some have been composed in [[Hindi]] or [[Gujarati language|Gujrati]] languages. Mantras, couplets, are either chanted or sung, either aloud or by merely moving lips or in silence by thought.<ref>[http://www.jaina.org jaina.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516203809/http://www.jaina.org/ |date=16 May 2016 }}</ref>

===Namokar===
Some examples of Jain mantras are [[Bhaktamara Stotra]], [[Uvasagharam Stotra]] and Rishi Mandal Mantra. The greatest is the Namokar or [[Namokar Mantra]].<ref><The Song of the Soul, An Introduction to the Namokar Mantra and the Science of Sound, Acharya Sushil Kumar, Siddhachalam Publishers, 1987.</ref> [[Acharya Sushil Kumar]], a self-realized master of the secrets of the Mantra, wrote in 1987: "There is a deep, secret science to the combination of sounds. Specific syllables are seeds for the awakening of latent powers. Only a person who has been initiated into the vibrational realms, who has actually experienced this level of reality, can fully understand the Science of Letters...the Nomokar Mantra is a treasured gift to humanity of unestimable (sic) worth for the purification, upliftment and spiritual evolution of everyone.".<ref><Id., at 23.</ref> His book, The Song of the Soul, is a practical manual to unlock the secrets of the mantra. "Chanting with Guruji" is a compilation of well-known Jain mantras, including the Rishi Mandal Mantra.<ref><Chanting with Guruji, Siddhachalam Publishers, 1983.</ref>

The Navkar Mantra (literally, "Nine Line Mantra") is the central mantra of [[Jainism]]. "It is the essence of the gospel of the Tirthankars."<ref>Id., at 22.</ref>
The initial 5 lines consist of salutations to various purified souls, and the latter 4 lines are explanatory in nature, highlighting the benefits and greatness of this mantra.

According to the timeperiods of this world or the Kaals, we are living in the era of Pancham Kaal or Fifth Kaal. It started 4 months after the Nirvana of the last tirthankar of Jainism, Mahaveer Swami. In the Pancham Kaal we are only eligible to know these basic 5 lines and the concluding 4 lines of the Namokar Mantra, but it is believed that the mantra exceeds till infinity. If it is chanted with complete faith, it could even do or undo the impossible. Jains also believe that it is the elementary form of all other Mantras. It is renowned as the King of all Mantras . It is also held that even the Mantras of other ancient religions like Hinduism & Buddhism are also derived from the Navkar Mantra. Indeed, it is held that 8.4 million Mantras have been derived from the Navkar Mantra.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}<blockquote>The Mantra is as follows (Prakrit, English):{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|''Namo Arihantânam''
|I bow to the Arihantâs (Conquerors who showed the path of liberation).
|-
|''Namo Siddhânam''
|I bow to the Siddhâs (Liberated Souls).
|-
|''Namo Âyariyânam''
|I bow to the Âchâryas (Preceptors or Spiritual Leaders).
|-
|''Namo Uvajjhâyanam''
|I bow to the Upadhyâya (Teachers).
|-
|''Namo Loe Savva Sahûnam''
|I bow to all the Sadhûs in the world (Saints or Sages).
|-
|''Eso Panch Namokkaro,'' ''Savva Pâvappanâsano,'' ''Mangalanam Cha Savvesim,'' ''Padhamam Havai Mangalam.''
|This fivefold salutation (mantra) destroys all sins and of all auspicious mantras, (it) is the foremost.
|}
One of the best approach to chant the Namokar Mantra while keeping in mind the flow of the chakras is to focus on each chakra as you recite each phrase of the mantra . Here is a suggested sequence :

1. Begin by taking a few deep breaths and focusing your attention on the base of your spine, where the first chakra (Muladhara) is located. As you inhale, imagine energy flowing up from the earth and into your root chakra.

2. As you recite '''"Namo Arihantanam,"''' visualize a bright white light at the base of your spine and feel the energy rising up through your body while bowing to all Arihants at the Same Time.

3. As you recite '''"Namo Siddhanam,"''' focus on your second chakra (Svadhisthana), located in the lower abdomen. Visualize a warm orange light here, and feel the energy of creativity while bowing to all Siddhas.

4. As you recite '''"Namo Ayariyanam,"''' bring your attention to your third chakra (Manipura), located in the solar plexus. Imagine a bright yellow light here, representing personal power and will while bowing to all Arihants at the same Time.

5. As you recite '''"Namo Uvajhayanam,"''' focus on your fourth chakra (Anahata), located in the center of your chest. Visualize a green light here, representing love and compassion while bowing to all Upadhayas at the Same time.

6. As you recite '''"Namo Loye Savva Sahunam,"''' bring your attention to your fifth chakra (Vishuddha), located in the throat. Imagine a blue light here representing communication and self- expression while bowing to all Sadhus in the Dhai Dweep.

7. As you recite '''"Eso Panch Namukaro,"''' focus on your sixth chakra (Ajna), located in the center of your forehead Visualize a deep purple light here representing intuition and spiritual insight.

8. Finally, as you recite '''"Savva Pavappanasano,"''' bring your attention to your seventh chakra (Sahasrara), located at the crown of your head. Imagine a bright white light here, representing spiritual enlightenment and connection to the divine entity.

Repeat the mantra several times, moving

your awareness up through each chakra

with each phrase. This can help to

balance and activate your energy centers.</blockquote>

===Universal compassion===
''[[Pratikraman]]'' also contains the following prayer:<ref>{{cite book |last =Jaini |first =Padmanabh |title =Collected Papers on Jaina Studies |publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |year =2000 |location =Delhi |isbn=81-208-1691-9 }} p.18 and 224</ref>
<blockquote>
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|''Khāmemi savva-jīve savvë jive khamantu me''
|I ask pardon of all creatures, may all creatures pardon me.
|-
|''Mitti me savva-bhūesu, veraṃ mejjha na keṇavi''
|May I have a friendship with all beings and enemy with none.
|}
</blockquote>

===Forgiveness===
[[Forgiveness]] is one of the main virtues Jains cultivate. ''Kṣamāpanā'', or supreme forgiveness, forms part of one of the ten characteristics of ''[[Dharma (Jainism)|dharma]]''.<ref>Varni, Jinendra; Ed. Prof. Sagarmal Jain, Translated Justice T.K. Tukol and Dr. K.K. Dixit (1993). Samaṇ Suttaṁ. New Delhi: Bhagwan Mahavir memorial Samiti. verse 84</ref> In the ''[[pratikramana]]'' prayer, Jains repeatedly seek forgiveness from various creatures—even from ''ekindriyas'' or single sensed beings like plants and microorganisms that they may have harmed while eating and doing routine activities.<ref>{{cite book |last =Jaini |first =Padmanabh |title =Collected Papers on Jaina Studies |publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |year =2000 |location =Delhi |isbn=81-208-1691-9 }} p. 285</ref> Forgiveness is asked by uttering the phrase, ''Micchāmi dukkaḍaṃ.'' ''Micchāmi dukkaḍaṃ'' is a Prakrit phrase literally meaning "may all the evil that has been done be fruitless."<ref>Chapple. C.K. (2006) ''Jainism and Ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of Life'' Delhi:Motilal Banarasidas Publ. {{ISBN|978-81-208-2045-6}} p.46</ref>

In their daily prayers and [[samayika]], Jains recite the following ''Iryavahi sutra'' in Prakrit, seeking forgiveness from literally all creatures while involved in routine activities:<ref>Translated from Prakrit by Nagin J. shah and Madhu Sen (1993) ''Concept of Pratikramana'' Ahmedabad: Gujarat Vidyapith pp.25–26</ref>
<blockquote>
May you, O Revered One, voluntarily permit me. I would like to confess my sinful acts committed while walking. I honour your permission. I desire to absolve myself of the sinful acts by confessing them. I seek forgiveness from all those living beings which I may have tortured while walking, coming and going, treading on a living organism, seeds, green grass, dew drops, ant hills, moss, live water, live earth, spider web and others. I seek forgiveness from all these living beings, be they one sensed, two sensed, three sensed, four sensed or five sensed, which I may have kicked, covered with dust, rubbed with earth, collided with other, turned upside down, tormented, frightened, shifted from one place to another or killed and deprived them of their lives. (By confessing) may I be absolved of all these sins.
</blockquote>

==Sikhism==
[[File:Sri_Guru_Granth_Sahib_Nishan.jpg|right|thumb|285x285px|Illuminated [[Adi Granth]] folio with Mūl Mantar of [[Guru Gobind Singh]]]]
In the [[Sikh]] religion, a ''mantar'' or ''mantra'' is a [[Shabad (hymn)|Shabad]] (Word or [[hymn]]) from the [[Adi Granth]] to concentrate the mind on God. Through repetition of the mantra, and listening to one's own voice, thoughts are reduced and the mind rises above materialism to tune into the voice of God.

Mantras in Sikhism are fundamentally different from the secret mantras used in other religions.<ref name="Tālib 1992">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.advancedcentrepunjabi.org/eos/MUL%20MANTRA.html|title=MŪL MANTRA|last=Tālib|first=Gurbachan Siṅgh|year=1992|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Sikhism|publisher=Punjabi University|access-date=19 September 2010|location=Patiala|archive-date=3 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903103044/http://www.advancedcentrepunjabi.org/eos/MUL%20MANTRA.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Unlike in other religions, Sikh mantras are open for anyone to use. They are used openly and are not taught in secret sessions but are used in front of assemblies of Sikhs.<ref name="Tālib 1992"/>

The [[Mool Mantar]], the first composition of [[Guru Nanak]], is the second most widely known Sikh mantra.

The most widely known mantra in the Sikh faith is "Wahe Guru." According to the Sikh poet Bhai Gurdas, the word "Wahe Guru" is the Gurmantra, or the mantra given by the Guru, and eliminates ego.<ref name="Bhai Gurdas">{{cite web|url=https://www.sikhitothemax.org/shabad?id=40293&q=vghjh&type=1&source=all&highlight=202491|title=GUR MANTRA|work=SikhiTotheMax|last=Gurdas|first=Bhai|access-date=9 September 2018|archive-date=7 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907110435/https://www.sikhitothemax.org/shabad?id=40293&q=vghjh&type=1&source=all&highlight=202491|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the 10th Sikh Master, Guru Gobind Singh, the "Wahe Guru" mantra was given by God to the Order of the Khalsa, and reforms the apostate into the purified.

== Chinese religions ==
The influence of [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism]] during the [[Six Dynasties]] period and the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] led to the widespread use of Buddhist esoteric practices in other Chinese religions such as [[Taoism]]. This included the use of mantras.<ref>Kirkland, Russell (2004). ''Taoism: The Enduring'' ''Tradition''. pp. 203-204. Presbyterian Publishing Corp.</ref> Mantras are often still used in Chinese [[Taoism]], such as the words in ''Dàfàn yǐnyǔ wúliàng yīn'' (大梵隱語無量音), the recitation of a deity's name. Another example of a Taoist mantra is found in one of the most popular liturgies in Taoism (dating from the Tang dynasty), the ''Pei-tou yen-sheng ching'' (''The North Star Scripture of Longevity''), which contains a long mantra called the "North Star Mantra." The text claims that this mantra "can deliver you from disaster," "ward off evil and give you prosperity and longevity," "help you accumulate good deeds" and give you peace of mind.<ref>Wong, Eva (1996). ''Teachings of the Tao,'' pp. 59-63. Shambhala Publications.</ref>

The Indian syllable ''[[om]]'' (唵) is also used in Taoist esotericism. After the arrival of Buddhism many Taoist sects started to use Sanskrit syllables in their mantras or talismans, as well as creating some of their own mantras based on Sanskrit to enhance one's spiritual power aside from the traditional [[Han Chinese|Han]] incantations. One example of this is the "heart mantra" of Pu Hua Tian Zun (普化天尊), a Taoist deity manifested from the first thunder and head of the "36 thunder gods" in orthodox religious Taoism. His mantra is "Ǎn hōng zhā lì sà mó luō - 唵吽吒唎薩嚩囉". Taoist believe this incantation to be the heart mantra of Pu Hua Tian Zun which will protect them from bad [[qi]] and calm down emotions. Taoist mantra recitation may also be practiced along with extensive visualization exercises.<ref>Yin Shih Tzu (2012). ''Tranquil Sitting: A Taoist Journal on Meditation and Chinese Medical Qigong,'' p. 82. Singing Dragon.</ref>

There are also mantras in [[Cheondoism]], [[Daesun Jinrihoe]], [[Jeung San Do]] and [[Onmyōdō]].<ref>{{cite web |title=口遊 |url=http://www2s.biglobe.ne.jp/~Taiju/970_kuchizusami.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914180456/http://www2s.biglobe.ne.jp/~Taiju/970_kuchizusami.htm |archive-date=14 September 2012 |access-date=18 July 2012 |publisher=S.biglobe.ne.jp}}</ref>

Other Chinese religions have also adopted the use of mantras.<ref>{{cite web |title=雪域佛教 |url=http://www.yzbj.com/doc/hcy_01_txt.txt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712025546/http://www.yzbj.com/doc/hcy_01_txt.txt |archive-date=12 July 2012 |access-date=17 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=普傳各種本尊神咒 |url=http://www.buddhasun.net/descript/utf_8/infotext1.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315040019/http://www.buddhasun.net/descript/utf_8/infotext1.php |archive-date=15 March 2012 |access-date=17 July 2012 |publisher=Buddhasun.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=27 February 2010 |title=Mantra – 真佛蓮花小棧(True Buddha Lotus Place) |url=http://lotushouse.weebly.com/mantra.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313141049/http://lotushouse.weebly.com/mantra.html |archive-date=13 March 2012 |access-date=17 July 2012 |publisher=Lotushouse.weebly.com}}</ref> These include:
*''Námó Tiānyuán Tàibǎo Āmítuófó'' (南無天元太保阿彌陀佛) The mantra of [[Xiantiandao]] and [[Shengdao]] in Chinese.
*''Wútàifó Mílè'' (無太佛彌勒) The mantra of [[Yiguandao]]<ref>{{cite journal |year=1989 |title=An "Emperor" and a "Lord Buddha" of the Yi Guan Dao Are Executed |journal=Chinese Sociology & Anthropology |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=35–36 |doi=10.2753/CSA0009-4625210435}}</ref> in Chinese.
*''[[Guanyin|Guānshìyīn]] [[Bodhisattva|Púsà]]'' (觀世音菩薩) The mantra of the [[Li-ism]]<ref>[http://www.saohua.com/shuku/zhongguolishi/mydoc095.htm 第094卷民国宗教史] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222060036/http://www.saohua.com/shuku/zhongguolishi/mydoc095.htm|date=22 February 2014}}</ref><ref>[http://www.quanxue.cn/CT_NanHuaiJin/DaXue/DaXue10.html 《原本大学微言》09、中原文化的精品|南怀瑾 – 劝学网] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129075701/http://www.quanxue.cn/CT_NanHuaiJin/DaXue/DaXue10.html|date=29 November 2014}}</ref> in Chinese.
*''Zhēnkōng jiāxiàng, wúshēng fùmǔ'' (真空家鄉，無生父母) The mantra of the [[Luojiao]]<ref>{{cite web |title=畫符念咒：清代民間秘密宗教的符咒療法 |url=http://www2.nutn.edu.tw/randd/post/40-2/humanistic/2-29-2.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301080824/http://www2.nutn.edu.tw/randd/post/40-2/humanistic/2-29-2.pdf |archive-date=1 March 2012 |access-date=17 July 2012}}</ref><ref>[http://jds.cass.cn/Item/8362.aspx 清代的民间宗教] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219042548/http://jds.cass.cn/Item/8362.aspx|date=19 February 2014}}</ref> in Chinese.
*''Zhōng Shù Lián Míng Dé, Zhèng Yì Xìn Rěn Gōng, Bó Xiào Rén Cí Jiào, Jié Jiǎn Zhēn Lǐ Hé'' (忠恕廉明德，正義信忍公，博孝仁慈覺，節儉真禮和) The mantra of the [[Tiender]] and the [[Lord of Universe Church]]<ref>{{cite web |title=人生守則廿字真言感恩、知足、惜福，天帝教祝福您！ |url=http://tienti.info/v2/precepts |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301081243/http://tienti.info/v2/precepts/ |archive-date=1 March 2012 |access-date=17 July 2012 |publisher=Tienti.info}}</ref> in Chinese.
*''Qīngjìng Guāngmíng Dàlì Zhìhuì Wúshàng Zhìzhēn Móní Guāngfó'' (清淨光明大力智慧無上至真摩尼光佛) The mantra of the [[Manichaeism]] in Chinese.

==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=35em}}
* [[Buddhist chant]]
* [[Jesus Prayer]]
* [[Khadgamala]]
* [[Kirtan]]
* [[Kotodama]]
* [[Kuji-in]]
* [[Pranava yoga]]
* [[Prayer beads]]
* [[Sandhyavandanam]]
* [[Dhikr]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin|40em}}
*Gelongma Karma Khechong Palmo. ''Mantras on the Prayer Flag''. ''[[Kailash: A Journal of Himalayan Studies]]'', Volume 1, Number 2, 1973. (pp. 168–169).
*''The Rider Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and religion''. (London : Rider, 1986).
*Durgananda, Swami. ''Meditation Revolution''. (Agama Press, 1997). {{ISBN|0-9654096-0-0}}
*{{citation|last=Vishnu-Devananda|first=Swami|author-link=Swami Vishnu-devananda|title=Meditation and Mantras|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|year=1981|isbn=81-208-1615-3}}
*{{citation|last1=Stutley|first1=Margaret|last2=Stutley|first2=James|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers|year=2002|isbn=81-215-1074-0|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhind0000stut/page/126/mode/2up}}
{{refend}}

==External links==

{{Prone to spam|date=July 2012}}

{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Mantras}}

{{Worship in Hinduism}}
{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Meditation}}
{{Yoga}}

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[[Category:Mantras| ]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Indian poetics]]
[[Category:Meditation]]
[[Category:Puja (Hinduism)]]
[[Category:Spiritual practice]]
[[Category:Religious formulas]]

Goindwal

2025-12-23T18:58:05Z

Olympiados:

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Goindwal Sahib
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline =
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| pushpin_map = India Punjab#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in [[Punjab, India]]
| coordinates = {{coord|31|22|N|75|9|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of Punjab, India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Tarn Taran district|Tarn Taran]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Doab#The Punjab Doabs|Region]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Majha]]
| established_title = 
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| population_total = 7772
| population_as_of = 2010
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
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| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 143422
| area_code_type = STD code
| area_code = 01859
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
[[File:Gurudwara Goindwal Sahib.jpg|thumbnail|[[Gurdwara Sri Goindwal Sahib|The Baoli Sahib]]]]

'''Goindwal''' ({{langx|pa|ਗੋਇੰਦਵਾਲ}}, pronunciation: {{IPA|pa|ɡoɪnd̪ʋäːl|}}, meaning ‘City of Govind’, an epithet of God),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Pashaura |date=2021-04-03 |title=Ideological basis in the formation of the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee and the Shiromani Akali Dal: exploring the concept of Guru-Panth |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17448727.2021.1873656 |journal=Sikh Formations |language=en |volume=17 |issue=1–2 |pages=16–33 |doi=10.1080/17448727.2021.1873656 |s2cid=234146387 |issn=1744-8727|url-access=subscription }}</ref> also known as Goindwal Sahib and alternatively transliterated as '''Goindval''', is located in the [[Taran Taran district]] of the [[Majha]] region of [[Punjab, India]] about {{cvt|23|km}} from [[Tarn Taran Sahib]]. In the 16th century it became an important center for the Sikh religion during the Guruship of the [[Guru Amar Das Ji]]. Goindwal is on the banks of the [[Beas River]] and is one of the focal points of small scale industries of [[Tarn Taran district]].

[[Guru Amar Das Ji|Guru Amar Das]] (the third Guru or the third Nanak) stayed in Goindwal for 33 years where he established a new centre for preaching Sikhism. A ''[[Gurdwara Sri Goindwal Sahib|Baoli]]'' ([[stepwell]]), paved with 84 steps was constructed there. Sikh’s believe that by reciting [[Japji Sahib]], the divine ''Word'' revealed to Guru Nanak, at each of the 84 steps after taking a bath in the Baoli provides [[Moksha]], liberation from 84,00,000 [[Saṃsāra|cycles]] of life of this world and unity with God (mukhti). Goindval is where Guru Amar Das Ji met Guru Ram Das Ji, the next Guru. [[Guru Arjan Dev Ji|Guru Arjan Dev]] was also born there on 15 April 1563. It is called axis of Sikhism as it was the first center of Sikhism.

Today the [[Gurdwara]] and Goindwal Baoli is visited as a prime pilgrimage destination and the massive langar or the community kitchen provides food to a large number of pilgrims every day.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Prithi Pal|title=The History of Sikh Gurus|year=2006|publisher=Lotus Press|isbn=9788183820752|page=185}}</ref>

== History ==
According to [[Gurinder Singh Mann]], Guru Amar Das founded Goindwal in 1551.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Mann |first=Gurinder Singh |title=The Making of Sikh Scripture |date=May 3, 2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198029878 |pages=9 |chapter=Table 1. Towns Associated with the Sikh Gurus}}</ref>

=== The origin of the Goindwal name ===
The location of the town was an ancient east-west highway that crossed the river [[Beas]] connecting [[Delhi]] and [[Lahore]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Surinderjit|title=The Masters & The Word Divine|year=1999|publisher=B. Chattar Singh Jiwan Singh|location=Amritsar|isbn=8176013129|page=73}}</ref> and the head of the most important ferries on the Beas River.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Trilochan|title=Guru Tegh Bahadur, prophet and martyr: a biography|year=1967|publisher=Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee|page=107}}</ref> With the renovation of the highway by [[Sher Shah Suri]], the [[Pashtuns|Afghan]] ruler of [[north India]] (1540–45), this ferry site became an important transit point.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bloom|first=Jonathan|title=The Grove encyclopedia of Islamic art and architecture, Volume 2|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195309911|page=258}}</ref>

This led one Goinda or Gonda, a Marvaha Khatri trader,<ref>{{cite book|last=Agnihotri|first=Harbans|title=The Liberated Soul: The Life and Bani of Guru Angad Dev|year=2002|publisher=Gopal Prakashan|isbn=9788187436058|page=65}}</ref> to plan establishing an habitation at the western end of the ferry.<ref>{{cite book|title=Census of India, 1991: Punjab, Volume 1|year=1992|publisher=Controller of Publications|location=the University of Michigan|page=28}}</ref> Thwarted in his endeavour by natural calamities which Goinda attributed to evil spirits which nobody settled there, Goinda went to Khadur to seek [[Guru Angad Dev Ji|Guru Angad]]'s blessing and asked if anyone of the two Guru's sons of the Guru starts living there, the superstition of the people regarding the evil spirits will vanish and the village will be inhabited.<ref>{{cite book|title=Journal of Sikh Studies, Volume 9|year=1982|publisher=Department of Guru Nanak Studies|location=the University of California|page=93}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Surinderjit|title=The Masters & The Word Divine|year=1999|publisher=B. Chattar Singh Jiwan Singh|location=Amritsar|isbn=8176013129|page=72}}</ref>

The Guru agreed to help Goinda but none of the Guru's sons agreed to this proposal so the Guru asked his devoted disciple, Bhai [[Guru Amar Das|Amar Das]] (he would later become the ''guru''), to help Goinda. Bhai Amar Das, who knew that tract very well as he had been carrying river water from this place to Khadur daily for his Master`s ablutions,<ref>{{cite book|last=Agnihotri|first=Harbans|title=The Liberated Soul: The Life and Bani of Guru Angad Dev|year=2002|publisher=Gopal Prakashan|isbn=9788187436058|page=65}}</ref> laid the foundation of Goinda's village which then was named after Goinda, Goindwal. The trader Goinda had a special place built in Goindwal to honor People.

=== Amar Das's daily seva of bringing water for Guru Angad ===

The Guru requested Amar Das to make Goindwal his home. During the night Amar Das slept in Goindwal and during the day he resumed his duties and carried water from the river Beas to Khadur for Guru Angad Dev Ji’s morning bath.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hansra|first=Harkirat|title=Liberty at Stake|year=2007|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=9780595875634|page=21}}</ref> Along the way Bhai Amar Das Ji recited "[[Japji Sahib]]", the Sikh's morning prayer. Gurdwara Damdama Sahib was built in commemoration of the place where Guru Amar Das Ji took rest under a tree about one and a half miles from Goindwal, the historic tree which is also still preserved today. Guru Amardas Ji stayed in Khadur to hear the hymn of "[[Asa di Var]]", a composition of Guru Angad Dev Ji, interspersed with hymns of Nanak. He then returned to Goindwal to fetch more water for the Guru’s communal kitchen and carried it back to Khadur where Guru Angad Dev Ji, and his followers resided.

=== Sikh Development in Goindwal ===
{{Multiple image
| image1 = Photograph of Gurdwara Baoli Sahib, Goindwal, circa late 19th or early 20th century.jpg
| caption1 = Photograph of Boali Sahib, Goindwal, circa 1880-1900.
| image2 = Photograph of Boali Sahib, Goindwal, circa 1931.jpg
| caption2 = Photograph of Boali Sahib, Goindwal, circa 1931.
}}
Guru Angad asked his faithful follower, Amar Das, to oversee the project of building Goindwal. The Guru gave Amar Das a staff<ref>{{cite book|title=Calcutta Review, Volumes 32-33|year=1859|publisher=University of Calcutta|page=98|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RqkbAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> with instructions that it should be used for the removal of any obstacles. Guru Angad selected Amar Das as the most faithful of his Sikhs and appointed him to be his successor. Guru Amar Das shifted the Sikh headquarters from [[Khadur Sahib|Khadur]] to Goindwal with his family and followers after his anointment as Guru in 1552 at the age of 73.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jawandha|first=Nahar|title=Glimpses of Sikhism|year=2010|publisher=Sanbun Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=9789380213255|page=25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Pashaura |date=2021-04-03 |title=Ideological basis in the formation of the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee and the Shiromani Akali Dal: exploring the concept of Guru-Panth |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17448727.2021.1873656 |journal=Sikh Formations |language=en |volume=17 |issue=1–2 |pages=3–4 |doi=10.1080/17448727.2021.1873656 |s2cid=234146387 |issn=1744-8727 |quote=The second Guru, Angad (1504–1552), established a new Sikh center at his native village Khadur because Guru Nanak’s sons made the legal claim as rightful heirs of their father’s properties at Kartarpur. It confirmed an organizational principle – that the communal establishment at Kartarpur should not be considered a unique institution, but rather a model that could be cloned and imitated elsewhere. Similarly, the sons of Guru Angad inherited the establishment at Khadur, forcing his successor to move to Goindval (‘City of Govind’, an epithet of God) on the right bank of the river Beas.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> That year Guru Amar Das commenced the digging in Goindwal of a Baoli, i.e. a well with steps descending down to water level which, when completed, attracted pilgrims from far and near.<ref>{{cite book|last=H. S. Singha|title=The Encyclopedia of Sikhism|year=2000|publisher=Hemkunt Press|isbn=9788170103011|page=81}}</ref>

Goindwal also became in the time of Guru Amar Das the centre of an annual fair on the occasion of [[Vaisakhi]] festival which Guru Amar Das started in Goindval.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Fauja|title=Guru Amar Das, life and teachings|year=1979|publisher=Sterling|page=120}}</ref> Guru Amar Das also made [[Langar (Sikhism)|Langar]] an integral activity of the Sikh community and he insisted that anyone who wanted to see him had to first partake of food at the Langar creating the proverb 'Pehlay Pangat tay picchhay Sangat'<ref>{{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Surjit|title=A Historian's Approach to Guru Gobind Singh|year=2004|publisher=Singh Bros.|isbn=9788172053062|page=27}}</ref> - First sit in the 'Community of Feet', and then join the 'Company of Singers'. Guru Amar Das developed the new system of propagating the new faith in far off places known as the Manji System,<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Devendra|title=Beyond Boundaries : A Search for Unlimited Powers of Mind Along the Path of Guru Nanak|year=2009|publisher=Hemkunt Press|isbn=9788170103813|page=83}}</ref> stopped the practice of [[Sati (practice)|Sati]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Prasoon|first=Shrikant|title=Knowing Guru Nanak|year=2007|publisher=Pustak Mahal|isbn=9788122309805}}</ref> and wrote the [[Anand Sahib]] [[Gurbani|bani]] at Goindwal. [[Bhai Gurdas]], a prominent Sikh poet, was born in Goindwal in 1551.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Pritam|title=Bhai Gurdas|year=1992|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=9788172012182|page=16}}</ref> [[Guru Arjan]] came to Goindwal to get the first 4 Guru's hymns from Baba Mohan to compile into the [[Adi Granth]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Cole|first=William|title=The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices|year=1995|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=9781898723134|page=46}}</ref>

=== Guru Amar Das leaves Goindwal ===

After Gurgaddi of Guru Amar Das people visited in large crowds for a spiritual glimpse of the third Guru. This angered the jealous Dattu, the younger son of Guru Angad. Dattu come to Goindwal and found the Guru who was surrounded by his disciples.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jawandha|first=Nahar|title=Glimpses of Sikhism|year=2010|publisher=Sanbun Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=9789380213255|page=26}}</ref> In rage he kicked the Guru; the Guru immediately touched his foot and feeling sorry said his foot might have been hurt by his aged bones.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Surjit|title=History Of Sikh Gurus Retold 1469-1606 C.e. Vol# 1|year=2007|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|isbn=9788126908578|page=249}}</ref> This event and the overall dislike that Dattu had for Guru Amar Das was the cause for Guru Amar Das to decide to briefly leave Goindwal.<ref>{{cite book|last=H. S. Singha|title=The Encyclopedia of Sikhism|year=2000|publisher=Hemkunt Press|isbn=9788170103011|page=55}}</ref> Guru Amar Das shifted himself to his native village Basarke and closeted himself in a secluded place. The guru had written on the outside door that whosoever opens the door will not be his Sikh and he will not be his Guru.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Prithi Pal|title=The History of Sikh Gurus|year=2006|publisher=Lotus Press|isbn=9788183820752|page=43}}</ref> However, when the devotees became impatient to have a glimpse of the Guru, [[Baba Buddha|Baba Budha]], instead of opening the front door, broke open the back wall and enabled the devotees to reach the Guru.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Prithi Pal|title=The History of Sikh Gurus|year=2006|publisher=Lotus Press|isbn=9788183820752|page=43}}</ref> The devotees led by Baba Budha requested the Guru come back to Goindwal and then took him there. Gurdwara Sann Sahib commemorates this incident.

=== Emperor Akbar's visit ===

According to the historians, Emperor [[Akbar]] once visited the Guru in Goindwal in 1569<ref>{{cite book|last=Dhillon|first=Dalbir|title=Sikhism Origin and Development|year=1988|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|page=106}}</ref> and took lunch in the [[Langar (Sikhism)|Langar]] while he was going from Delhi to Lahore. Akbar was highly impressed by the tradition of Langar<ref>{{cite book|last=Pruthi|first=Raj|title=Sikhism And Indian Civilization|year=2004|publisher=Discovery Publishing House|isbn=9788171418794|page=64}}</ref> that he granted land in the name of Bibi Bhani, the daughter of the Guru. The Guru directed his son in law, [[Guru Ram Das]] to found [[Amritsar]] upon that newly granted land.<ref>{{cite book|last=Johar|first=Surinder|title=Holy Sikh Shrines|year=1998|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=9788175330733|page=21}}</ref>

=== Bhai Jetha (Guru Ram Das) at Goindwal ===
[[Guru Ram Das]], whose original name before becoming the Guru was Jetha, arrived at Goindwal to remain in contact with Guru Amar Das who he had seen previously at Khadur. Jetha started earning his bread by selling cooked beans<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Surinderjit|title=The Masters & The Word Divine|year=1999|publisher=B. Chattar Singh Jiwan Singh|location=Amritsar|isbn=8176013129|page=65}}</ref> however he spent most of his time in the service for the construction of the [[Baoli]] and in the [[Langar (Sikhism)|community kitchen]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Surinderjit|title=The Masters & The Word Divine|year=1999|publisher=B. Chattar Singh Jiwan Singh|location=Amritsar|isbn=8176013129|page=73}}</ref> Guru Amar Das and his wife Mata Mansa Devi recognized Bhai Jetha's upright character and steadfast service and decided to get their daughter, Bibi Bhani married to him, they married on 1 February 1554.<ref>{{cite book|last=Harjeet|first=Singh|title=Faith and Philosophy of Sikhism|year=2009|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=9788178357218|page=162}}</ref> The couple stayed in Goindwal to remain in the service of the Guru. They had three sons, [[Prithi Chand]], Mahadev, and Arjun Dev (later known as [[Guru Arjan Dev]]). After Guru Amar Das`s successor, Guru Ram Das, had built up Amritsar and made it his permanent seat but devotees still continued to visit Goindval to have a dip in the sacred Baoli and pay homage at other local shrines.

=== Emperor Akbar's visit ===
In Akbarnama, Abu'l Fazl has reported Emperor Akbar's visit to Guru Arjan on his final departure from Lahore in 1598.

"On 13 Azar [ 4 November, 1598] His Majesty crossed the river Beas on an elephant near Gobindwal, while the troops crossed over by a [boat] bridge. On this day, the house of Arjan Guru [spelt 'Gor'] received fresh lustre through His Majesty alighting there."<ref>{{Cite book |last=J S Grewal |title=Sikh History From Persian Sources |date=2001 |publisher=Published by Thlika |isbn=81-85229-17-1 |location=35A/I (third floor), Shahpur Jat, New Delhi 110 049, India |publication-date=2001 |pages=55 |translator-last=Habib |translator-first=lrfan}}</ref>

=== Guru Hargobind and Guru Tegh Bahadur's visit ===
[[Guru Hargobind]] with his family travelled from Jhabal to Goindwal. As they reached Goindwal, Guru Hargobind, his family, and his Sikhs made ablutions in the Goindwal Baoli built by Guru Amar Das. Bhai Tegh Bahadur, then barely two, was bathed with the holy water. Ablutions were repeated the following morning before Guru Hargobind left for [[Kartarpur, Pakistan|Kartarpur]]. The family were left in Goindwal on the persuasion of Baba Sundar, great-grandson of Guru Amar Das. Upon his return to Amritsar, Guru Hargobind recalled the family from Goindwal. Guru Tegh Bahadur also visited Goindwal again in 1664 after first halt during this journey was at Amritsar, followed by halts at Tarn Taran, and Khadur Sahib.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gandhi|first=Surjit|title=History Of Sikh Gurus Retold 1606-1708 C.e. Vol# 2|year=2007|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|isbn=9788126908585|page=556}}</ref>

=== Guru Har Rai's visit ===
When the Mughal emperor [[Shah Jahan]]'s eldest son [[Dara Shikoh]] was seriously ill [[Guru Har Rai]] sent a herbal medicine which cured him.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pruthi|first=Raj|title=Sikhism And Indian Civilization|year=2004|publisher=Discovery Publishing House|isbn=9788171418794|page=83}}</ref> Thus Sikh-Mughals relations remained on a good footing for a short time. There was eventual instability in the Delhi royal court when Shah Jehan fell ill and his second son [[Aurangzeb]] aligned himself with his youngest brother Murad against their eldest brother Dara Shikoh,<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Prithi Pal|title=The History of Sikh Gurus|year=2006|publisher=Lotus Press|isbn=9788183820752|page=105}}</ref> Shah Jehan's approved successor. Aurangzeb imprisoned his father in Agra and his soldiers as well as those of his youngest brother Murad forced Dara Shikoh to flee towards Punjab. Guru Har Rai was visiting Goindwal in June 1558<ref>{{cite book|last=Pruthi|first=Raj|title=Sikhism And Indian Civilization|year=2004|publisher=Discovery Publishing House|isbn=9788171418794|page=84}}</ref> along with 2200 horse riders and here he met Dara Shikoh who had come to receive his blessings.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Teja|title=Highroads of Sikh History, Volumes 1-3|page=33}}</ref> Dara Shikoh remembered that the Guru had been responsible for saving his life when he was sick. Dara Shikoh was both an intellectual and liberally tolerant towards other religions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pruthi|first=Raj|title=Sikhism And Indian Civilization|year=2004|publisher=Discovery Publishing House|isbn=9788171418794|page=84}}</ref> He was a great admirer of the Muslim [[Sufi]] Saint [[Mian Mir]] who was in turn a great admirer of the Gurus. Guru Har Rai granted Dara Shikoh an audience and received the prince with due courtesy. After some time Dara Shikoh was eventually captured by the forces of Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb had Dara Shikoh executed, then killed his own youngest brother Murad and appointed himself as the emperor.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thackeray|first=Frank|title=Events That Formed the Modern World|year=2012|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781598849011|page=241}}</ref>

== Architecture ==
{{See also|Sikh architecture}}
The entrance of Goindwal is decorated with murals describing significant scenes of the [[Sikh history]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Gurmukh|title=Historical Sikh Shrines|year=1995|publisher=Singh Bros.|isbn=9788172051518|page=109}}</ref> The main gurdwara, standing next to the Baoli, white against the chequerboard of the courtyard. The Gurdwara is an example of typical [[Sikh architecture]] with a large dome tipped with a gold pinnacle - four [[cupola]]s echoing the main dome in shape and the ubiquitous facade of [[Turret (architecture)|turrets]], elliptical cornices and projected windows.

Goindwal Baoli, the well of Goindwal Guru Amar Das had a Baoli, or covered step-well, constructed in Goindwal. The step-well spans about 25 feet or 8 meters. The well has a few resting places between the 84 steps providing the Sikhs a place to get together and have spiritual discussion.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Surinderjit|title=The Masters & The Word Divine|year=1999|publisher=B. Chattar Singh Jiwan Singh|location=Amritsar|isbn=8176013129|page=75}}</ref> An arched access opens to a domed entrance decorated with frescoes depicting the life of Guru Amar Das. A divided underground staircase with 84 covered steps descends beneath the earth to Goindwal's [[sacred waters]]. The Baoli is entered through a wide, pointed archway and the structure is surmounted by a large fluted dome. There are projected eaves on all sides, while the front face also has a row of small turrets. The cornice under the dome is multi-coloured with [[floral]] designs.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Gurmukh|title=Historical Sikh Shrines|year=1995|publisher=Singh Bros.|isbn=9788172051518|page=109}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Fresco of Guru Nanak from above the entrance of the Baoli Sahib located in Goindwal.jpg|Fresco of [[Guru Nanak]] from Baoli Sahib, Goindwal.
File:Fresco of Guru Angad from Goindwal Baoli Sahib.jpg|Fresco of [[Guru Angad]] from Baoli Sahib, Goindwal.
File:Fresco of Guru Amar Das from above the entrance of the Baoli Sahib located in Goindwal.png|Fresco of [[Guru Amar Das]] from Baoli Sahib, Goindwal.
File:Fresco of Guru Ram Das from Goindwal Baoli Sahib.jpg|Fresco of [[Guru Ram Das]] from Baoli Sahib, Goindwal.
File:Fresco of Guru Arjan from above the entrance of the Baoli Sahib located in Goindwal.jpg|Fresco of [[Guru Arjan|Guru Arjan Dev]] from Baoli Sahib, Goindwal.
File:Fresco of Guru Hargobind from above the entrance of the Baoli Sahib located in Goindwal.jpg|Fresco of [[Guru Hargobind]] from Baoli Sahib, Goindwal.
File:Fresco of Guru Har Rai from above the entrance of the Baoli Sahib located in Goindwal.jpg|Fresco of [[Guru Har Rai]] from Baoli Sahib, Goindwal.
File:Fresco of Guru Har Krishan from Goindwal Baoli Sahib.jpg|Fresco of [[Guru Har Krishan]] from Baoli Sahib, Goindwal.
File:Fresco of Guru Tegh Bahadur from above the entrance of the Baoli Sahib located in Goindwal.jpg|Fresco of [[Guru Tegh Bahadur]] from Baoli Sahib, Goindwal.
File:Fresco of Guru Gobind Singh from above the entrance of the Baoli Sahib located in Goindwal.jpg|Fresco of [[Guru Gobind Singh]] from Baoli Sahib, Goindwal.
File:Fresco of Baba Mohan (son of Guru Amar Das) from above the entrance of the Baoli Sahib located in Goindwal.jpg|Fresco of Baba Mohan from above the entrance of the Baoli Sahib in Goindwal (repainted in the 2010s)
File:Fresco of Baba Mohri (son of Guru Amar Das) from above the entrance of the Baoli Sahib located in Goindwal.jpg|Fresco of Baba Mohri from above the entrance of the Baoli Sahib in Goindwal (repainted in the 2010s)
File:Fresco of Baba Anand (grandson of Guru Amar Das) from above the entrance of the Baoli Sahib located in Goindwal.jpg|Fresco of Baba Anand from above the entrance of the Baoli Sahib in Goindwal (repainted in the 2010s)
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Sikh places]]
[[Category:Amritsar district]]
[[Category:Tarn Taran district]]
[[Category:Gurdwaras in Punjab, India]]

Settipeta

2025-12-03T23:15:18Z

Olympiados: Added basic stub first draft

{{Short description|Village in Andhra Pradesh, India}}
{{Orphan|date=March 2024}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Settipeta
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = te
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Village]]
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Andhra Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|16.8712|N|81.6706|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts in India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[East Godavari district|East Godavari]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[East Godavari district|Mandal]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Nidadavole mandal]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =Gramapanchayath
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =<ref name=census>{{cite web|title=District Census Handbook - West Godavari|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2815_PART_B_DCHB_WEST%20GODAVARI.pdf|website=Census of India|access-date=18 January 2015|pages=22–23|format=PDF}}</ref>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 8.43
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 18
| population_total = 4,360
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 534 301
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}

'''Settipeta''' is a small village in [[Andhra Pradesh]] state of [[India]]. It comes under [[Nidadavolu|Nidadavole]] mandal, [[East Godavari district]]. It is located in between [[Tanuku]] and [[Nidadavole]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Settipeta,+Andhra+Pradesh+534301/@16.859342,81.674999,14.18z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x3a37b092e9da3aa3:0x91edfed6cfd554d8!8m2!3d16.8711662!4d81.6706223?ucbcb=1|title=settipeta_map|publisher=}}</ref>
People speak [[Telugu language|Telugu]] language here.
* The nearest railway stations are [[Kaldhari]] and [[Nidadavolu|Nidadavole]].
* Nearest Airport is [[Rajahmundry Airport|Rajahmundry airport]].
[[Velivennu]] is the neighboring village of Settipeta.
The nearest town is [[Nidadavolu|Nidadavole]].

== Demographics ==

{{As of|2011}} [[Census of India]], Settipeta has population of 4,360 of which 2,187 are males while 2,173 are females. Average Sex Ratio of Settipeta village is 994. Population of children with age 0-6 is 438 which makes up 10.05% of total population of village. Literacy rate of Settipeta village was 75.52%.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{East Godavari district}}

[[Category:Villages in East Godavari district]]

{{AndhraPradesh-geo-stub}}

Parhana Mau railway station

2025-10-23T03:48:12Z

Olympiados: adding a post w/ refs

{{Short description|Railway station in Madhya Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Parhana Mau
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| style = Indian Railways
| type = [[Passenger train]] station
| image =
| caption =
| address = [[National Highway 52 (India)|National Highway 52]], Chatru Khedi, [[Rajgarh district]], [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| country = [[India]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|23.626636|N|76.555607|E|format=dms}}
| elevation = {{cvt|440|m}}
| owned = [[Indian Railways]]
| operator = West Central Railway
| line = [[Indore–Gwalior line]]
| platform = 1
| tracks = 1
| other =
| accessible =
| parking =
| structure = Standard (on ground station)
| code = {{Indian railway code
| code = PQU
| zone = [[West Central Railway zone]]
| division = {{rwd|Bhopal}}
}}
| status = Active
| closed =
| former = [[Gwalior Light Railway]]
| opened = 1899
| rebuilt =
| electrified = Yes
| pass_system =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| services = {{Adjacent stations|system=Indian Railways|line=West Central Railway zone|left=Udyan Kheri|right=Sarangpur|type=[[Indore–Gwalior line]]}}
| map_locator =
}}
'''Parhana Mau railway station''' is a railway station on [[Indore–Gwalior line]] under the [[Bhopal railway division]] of [[West Central Railway zone]]. This is situated beside [[National Highway 52 (India)|National Highway 52]] at Chatru Khedi in [[Rajgarh district]] of the Indian state of [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=TTI|title=PQU / Parhana Mau Railway Station {{!}} Train Arrival / Departure Timings at Parhana Mau|url=https://www.totaltraininfo.com/station/pqu/|access-date=2021-07-28|website=www.totaltraininfo.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sarkar|first=Anupam Enosh|title=Parhana Mau Railway Station Map/Atlas WCR/West Central Zone - Railway Enquiry|url=https://indiarailinfo.com/station/map/parhana-mau-pqu/6359|access-date=2021-07-28|website=indiarailinfo.com}}</ref>

==References==
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[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 1899]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Rajgarh district]]
[[Category:Bhopal railway division]]

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National Highway 34 (India, old numbering)

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#REDIRECT [[National Highway 12 (India)]]

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