Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

Shiva (Āstraverse)

2023-10-05T17:44:06Z

Nsui Mp: I added all the information about the Character Shiva

{{EngvarB|date=September 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}

{{Infobox character
| first = ''[[Brahmāstra: Part One – Shiva]]'' (2022)
| creator = [[Ayan Mukerji]]
| portrayer = [[Ranbir Kapoor]]
| franchise = ''[[Āstraverse]]''
| significant_other = Isha Chatterjee
| relatives = Dev (father) Amrita (mother)
| nationality = Indian
| weapon = [[Agni|Agniāstra]]
| home = [[Mumbai]]
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| species = Human
| gender = Male
| occupation = [[Disc jockey]] (DJ)
| last = ''Brahmāstra: Part Three'' (2027)
| lbl1 = Born
| data1 = 1992
}}

'''Shiva''' is a fictional character appearing in the ''Brahmāstra'' film series of the ''[[Āstraverse]]'', an Indian [[fantasy]] [[Shared universe|cinematic universe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 September 2022 |title=Brahmastra: Part One – Shiva Review: Ranbir Kapoor and Alia Bhatt's Ayan Mukerji film is a visual spectacle |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/movie-review/brahmastra-part-one-shiva-review-ranbir-kapoor-and-alia-bhatts-ayan-mukerji-film-is-a-visual-spectacle-1189273 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=14 April 2023 |title=EXCLUSIVE: Ayan Mukerji and Jio Studios in talks to ink a multi film deal for Brahmastra with Astra Verse spin offs |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/exclusives/exclusive-ayan-mukerji-and-jio-studios-in-talks-to-ink-a-multi-film-deal-for-brahmastra-with-astra-verse-spin-offs-1216757 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref> He is portrayed by Indian actor [[Ranbir Kapoor]]. The character first appeared in ''[[Brahmāstra: Part One – Shiva]]'' (2022), and will appear again in ''[[Brahmāstra: Part Two – Dev]]'' (2026) and ''Brahmāstra: Part Three'' (2027).<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2023 |title=Ayan Mukerji's Brahmastra Part 2 to release in December 2026; Director reveals timeline for 2nd and 3rd part |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/news/ayan-mukerjis-brahmastra-part-2-to-release-in-december-2026-director-reveals-timeline-for-2nd-and-3rd-part-1215325 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 September 2023 |title=Brahmastra Part 2: Ayan Mukerji unveils stunning 'early concept art' for Ranbir Kapoor-Alia Bhatt sequel |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/news/brahmastra-part-2-ayan-mukerji-unveils-stunning-early-concept-art-for-ranbir-kapoor-alia-bhatt-sequel-1241975 |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref> He gained a cult following from the release of the first film itself.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 September 2022 |title=Brahmastra fan theories claim Shiva and Junoon are twins, Alia Bhatt's Isha is wearing Dev's ring, and Guruji is the villain |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/brahmastra-fan-theories-shiva-junoon-are-twins-isha-is-pawanastra-guruji-is-villain-8149950/ |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

Shiva, a 30 year old orphan [[Disc jockey|DJ]] from [[Mumbai]], who takes care of many orphan kids in his small house, finds out that he is an [[Astra (weapon)|āstra]] (a type of weapon in Indian mythology) himself with [[Pyrokinesis|pyrokinetic powers]] (abilities to control fire) and will have to stop Junoon, a disciple of the antagonist, from joining the 3 pieces of ''[[Brahmastra|Brahmāstra]]'' (a super weapon) together, as it can destroy the world and can bring back the [[dark lord]] from dead.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 October 2022 |title=Shiva was a complex character on paper: Ranbir Kapoor on his role in Brahmāstra |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/life/entertainment-shiva-was-a-complex-character-on-paper-ranbir-kapoor-on-his-role-in-brahmstra-2758990/ |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=Financialexpress |language=en}}</ref>

He is the son of Dev and Amrita, who were part of a group called ''Brahmānsh'', the people who have been protecting all the āstras since many generations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 November 2022 |title=Who Is Dev In 'Brahmastra Part One: Shiva'? What Can We Expect In 'Brahmastra Part Two'? {{!}} Film Fugitives |url=https://fugitives.com/brahmastra-part-one-character-dev-explained-2022-fantasy-action-film/ |access-date=25 September 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref> He meets [[Guruji]] Raghu (portrayed by [[Amitabh Bachchan]]), the leader of the present day ''Brahmānsh'', who gives him training and tells him the story of his parents.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 May 2022 |title=Ranbir Kapoor reveals details of his Brahmastra character Shiva, says he has a 'strange connection with fire' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/ranbir-kapoor-reveals-details-brahmastra-character-shiva-7946116/ |access-date=25 September 2023 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> Shiva can control fire, can conjure weapons out of it, can't get burn from it, and is somehow connected to the dark lord. Isha Chatterjee (portrayed by [[Alia Bhatt]]), a 25 year old [[Non-Resident Indian|NRI]] girl, who joins him in his adventure of āstras, is his love interest and may wield ''[[Vayu|Pawanāstra]]'' in future.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Indian film characters]]
[[Category:Fictional musicians]]
[[Category:Fictional orphans]]
[[Category:Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities]]
[[Category:Hindu mythology in popular culture]]
[[Category:Indian mythology in popular culture]]
[[Category:Fictional Indian people]]
[[Category:Mumbai in fiction]]
[[Category:Film characters introduced in 2022]]

Kabir (Indian spy character)

2023-10-04T14:01:36Z

Nsui Mp: I added all the information about the Character Kabir Dhaliwal

{{Infobox character
| name = Kabir
| franchise = [[YRF Spy Universe]]
| first = ''[[War (2019 film)|War]]'' (2019)
| last = ''[[War 2]]'' (2025)
| creator = [[Siddharth Anand]] Shridhar Raghavan [[Abbas Tyrewala]] [[Aditya Chopra]]
| portrayer = [[Hrithik Roshan]]
| gender = Male
| affiliation = [[Research and Analysis Wing]] (R&AW) [[Indian Army]]
| occupation = R&AW agent [[Indian Army]] Major
| significant_other = Naina Sahni
| nationality = Indian
| home = [[Delhi]]
| full_name = Kabir Dhaliwal
| title = [[Major (India)|Major]]
| children = Ruhi
| lbl1 = Born
| data1 = 1974
}}
[[Major (India)|Major]] '''Kabir Dhaliwal''' is a fictional Indian spy ([[Research and Analysis Wing|RAW]] agent) appearing in the ''War'' film series and other films of the [[YRF Spy Universe]], an Indian [[Shared universe|cinematic universe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-10-02 |title=War Movie (2019) - Release Date, Cast, Trailer and Other Details |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/movie/war |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-07 |title=YRF to unveil new ‘spy universe’ logo with Pathaan trailer |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/news/yrf-to-unveil-new-spy-universe-logo-with-pathaan-trailer-1205785 |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref> He is portrayed by Indian actor [[Hrithik Roshan]]. The character first appeared in [[War (2019 film)|''War'']] (2019), and will appear again in ''[[War 2]]'' (2025) and ''Tiger vs. Pathaan'' (2026).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-17 |title=War 2 EXCLUSIVE: Jr NTR’s character to have negative shades, Deets inside |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/exclusives/war-2-exclusive-jr-ntrs-character-to-have-negative-shades-deets-inside-1221542 |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-02 |title=Tiger, Pathaan, Kabir, Zoya, Rubai could be seen together in future spy films, teases writer Shridhar Raghavan |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/tiger-pathaan-kabir-zoya-rubai-could-be-seen-together-in-future-spy-films-teases-writer-shridhar-raghavan-101675328057002.html |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> Over the years, he has gained cult fan following among the audience.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-29 |title=EXCLUSIVE: Hrithik Roshan to join Salman Khan and Shah Rukh Khan in Spy Universe after War 2 |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/exclusives/exclusive-hrithik-roshan-join-salman-khan-and-shah-rukh-khan-spy-universe-after-war-2-1009047 |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref>

Kabir was born in 1974. He ostensibly remains disconnected from R&AW, posing as a traitor so that he can befriend the real traitors, know their evil plans and stop them from causing threats to his country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-03 |title=EXCLUSIVE: Will Shah Rukh Khan's Pathaan, Hrithik Roshan's Kabir unite in the future? Siddharth Anand reveals |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/exclusives/exclusive-will-shah-rukh-khans-pathaan-hrithik-roshans-kabir-unite-in-the-future-siddharth-anand-reveals-1208090 |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-01 |title=EXCLUSIVE: 'John Abraham’s character warrants a prequel': Siddharth Anand on Pathaan, War 2 and Spy Universe |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/exclusives/exclusive-john-abrahams-character-warrants-a-prequel-siddharth-anand-on-pathaan-war-2-and-spy-universe-1207833 |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-25 |title=Katrina Kaif aka Zoya drops a hint on Pathaan’s ‘Dangerous’ mission; Deepika Padukone REACTS |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/news/katrina-kaif-aka-zoya-drops-a-hint-on-pathaans-dangerous-mission-deepika-padukone-reacts-1207136 |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref> He is unmarried but has a daughter, Ruhi (adopted), from his deceased partner Naina Sahni. He is the colleague and friend of [[Tiger (Indian spy character)|Tiger]] and [[Pathaan (Indian spy character)|Pathaan]], the other fictional Indian spies of the YRF Spy Universe, portrayed by [[Salman Khan]] and [[Shah Rukh Khan]] respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-16 |title=EXCLUSIVE: Shah Rukh Khan and Salman Khan give thumbs up to Tiger vs Pathaan; Filming begins in March 2024 |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/exclusives/exclusive-shah-rukh-khan-and-salman-khan-give-thumbs-up-to-tiger-vs-pathaan-filming-begins-in-march-2024-1243620 |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-09 |title=Tiger 3: Did you know Shah Rukh Khan’s scene with Salman Khan has taken 6 months of planning? |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/news/tiger-3-did-you-know-shah-rukh-khans-scene-with-salman-khan-has-taken-6-months-of-planning-1211905 |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref>He is also the former partner of [[Jim (Indian spy character)|Jim]], a former RAW Agent, portrayed by [[John Abraham]].

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Fictional secret agents and spies in films]]
[[Category:Fictional Indian secret agents]]
[[Category:Research and Analysis Wing in fiction]]
[[Category:Indian film characters]]
[[Category:Indian Army in films]]
[[Category:Films about the Research and Analysis Wing]]
[[Category:Fictional Indian Army personnel]]
[[Category:Delhi in fiction]]
[[Category:Male characters in film]]
[[Category:Action film characters]]
[[Category:Thriller film characters]]
[[Category:Film characters introduced in 2019]]
[[Category:Fictional defectors]]

Zoya (fictional character)

2023-10-04T13:39:37Z

Nsui Mp: I added all the information about the Character Zoya Humaimi

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox character
| name = Zoya
| franchise = [[YRF Spy Universe]]
| first = ''[[Ek Tha Tiger]]'' (2012)
| last = ''[[Tiger 3]]'' (2023)
| creator = [[Aditya Chopra]] [[Kabir Khan (director)|Kabir Khan]] [[Neelesh Misra]]
| portrayer = [[Katrina Kaif]]
| gender = Female
| affiliation = [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI)
| occupation = ISI agent
| significant_other = [[Tiger (Indian spy character)|Avinash Singh Rathore "Tiger"]]
| nationality = Pakistani
| full_name = Zoya Humaimi-Rathore
| children = Hassan, Junior
| alias =
| nickname = Zee
| origin = [[Dublin, Ireland]]
| lbl1 = Born
| data1 = 1985
}}
'''Zoya Humaimi''' is a fictional Pakistani spy ([[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]] agent) appearing in the [[YRF Spy Universe]], an Indian [[Shared universe|cinematic universe]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Ek Tha Tiger Movie (2012) - Release Date, Cast, Trailer and Other Details |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/movie/ek-tha-tiger |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 March 2023 |title=Tiger Zinda Hai Movie (2017) - Release Date, Cast, Trailer and Other Details |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/movie/tiger-zinda-hai |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=7 January 2023 |title=YRF to unveil new 'spy universe' logo with Pathaan trailer |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/news/yrf-to-unveil-new-spy-universe-logo-with-pathaan-trailer-1205785 |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref> She is portrayed by [[Katrina Kaif]]. The character first appeared in ''[[Ek Tha Tiger]]'' (2012), as an undercover ISI agent living in [[Dublin, Ireland]]. Following the events of ''Ek Tha Tiger'', she appeared again in the sequel, ''[[Tiger Zinda Hai]]'' (2017), as the wife of [[Tiger (Indian spy character)|Tiger]]; she will also appear again in ''[[Tiger 3]]'' (2023) and ''Tiger vs. Pathaan'' (2025).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 September 2023 |title=Tiger 3 First Poster OUT: Salman Khan and Katrina Kaif are deadlier than ever; fans can't keep calm |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/news/tiger-3-first-poster-out-salman-khan-and-katrina-kaif-are-deadlier-than-ever-fans-cant-keep-calm-1240414 |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 September 2023 |title=EXCLUSIVE: Shah Rukh Khan and Salman Khan give thumbs up to Tiger vs Pathaan; Filming begins in March 2024 |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/exclusives/exclusive-shah-rukh-khan-and-salman-khan-give-thumbs-up-to-tiger-vs-pathaan-filming-begins-in-march-2024-1243620 |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref>

Zoya was born in 1985. She is disconnected from the ISI, as she had eloped with her love interest turned husband, Tiger, who was an Indian spy ([[Research & Analysis Wing|R&AW]] agent). However, she remains loyal to Pakistan and returns occasionally to save her country from threats.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 January 2023 |title=Katrina Kaif aka Zoya drops a hint on Pathaan's 'Dangerous' mission; Deepika Padukone REACTS |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/news/katrina-kaif-aka-zoya-drops-a-hint-on-pathaans-dangerous-mission-deepika-padukone-reacts-1207136 |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 December 2020 |title=Salman Khan & Katrina Kaif's Tiger Zinda Hai turns 3: Cricket to fun on set, Tiger & Zoya's epic BTS moments |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/news/salman-khan-katrina-kaifs-tiger-zinda-hai-turns-3-cricket-fun-set-tiger-zoyas-epic-bts-moments-585818 |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref>

She is married to Tiger and has two kids, Hassan (adopted) and Junior, 17 and 11 years old in 2022, respectively. She is also a friend of [[Rubina (Fictional character)|Rubina Mohsin]], another fictional Pakistani spy in the YRF Spy Universe, portrayed by [[Deepika Padukone]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Will Rubina from Pathaan and Zoya from the Tiger franchise have a crossover? |url=https://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/will-rubina-from-pathaan-and-zoya-from-the-tiger-franchise-have-a-crossover-56730.html |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=filmfare.com |language=en}}</ref> Over the years, Kaif's portrayal of Zoya has gained a dedicated fanbase.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 March 2023 |title=Rubina Vs Zoya! Deepika Padukone, Katrina Kaif to headline YRF spy universe film? Pathaan writer hints |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/deepika-padukone-katrina-kaif-to-headline-yrf-spy-universe-film-pathaan-writer-shridhar-raghavan-hints-bollywood-news-article-98323641 |access-date=22 September 2023 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 February 2023 |title=Tiger, Pathaan, Kabir, Zoya, Rubai could be seen together in future spy films, teases writer Shridhar Raghavan |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/tiger-pathaan-kabir-zoya-rubai-could-be-seen-together-in-future-spy-films-teases-writer-shridhar-raghavan-101675328057002.html |access-date=23 September 2023 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Fictional Pakistani people]]
[[Category:Fictional secret agents and spies in films]]
[[Category:Inter-Services Intelligence]]
[[Category:Indian film characters]]
[[Category:Fictional Pakistani diaspora]]
[[Category:Dublin (city) in fiction]]
[[Category:Military of Pakistan in films]]
[[Category:Female characters in film]]
[[Category:Action film characters]]
[[Category:Thriller film characters]]
[[Category:India–Pakistan relations in popular culture]]
[[Category:Film characters introduced in 2012]]
[[Category:Fictional defectors]]

Panyam mandal

2023-10-01T18:02:09Z

Nsui Mp: Redirected page to Panyam

{{Infobox settlement
| name =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = te
| other_name =
| settlement_type = [[Mandal]]
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Andhra Pradesh
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Panyam]]
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|15.2411|N|78.6026|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts in India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Nandyal district|Nandyal]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 51,426
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = AP
| website =
| footnotes =
| image_map = {{maplink|frame=yes|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|id=Q60208803|stroke-colour=#C60C30|stroke-width=2|text=Interactive Map Outlining mandal}}
}}

'''Panyam mandal''' is one of the 29 mandals in [[Nandyal district]] of the state of Andhra Pradesh in India.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-08-23 |title=Andhra Pradesh CM lays foundation for three renewable energy projects worth over Rs 25,000 crore |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/renewables/andhra-pradesh-cm-lays-foundation-for-three-renewable-energy-projects-worth-over-rs-25000-crore/articleshow/102991034.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-09-30 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> It is under the administration of [[Nandyal revenue division]], and the headquarters are located at [[Panyam]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mandal {{!}} Nandyal District {{!}} India |url=https://nandyal.ap.gov.in/mandal/ |access-date=2023-09-30 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Visualizations {{!}} Government of India |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/data/data-visualizations/PopulationSearch_PCA_Indicators |access-date=2023-09-30 |website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Mandals in Nandyal district]]

Hrishikesh Kanitkar

2023-09-12T12:58:26Z

Nsui Mp: added Category:Coaches of the India women's national cricket team

{{Short description|Indian cricketer (born 1974)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Hrishikesh Kanitkar
| image =
| country = India
| fullname = Hrishikesh Hemant Kanitkar
| nickname =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1974|11|14|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Pune]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| family = [[Hemant Kanitkar]] (father)
| batting = Left-handed
| bowling = Right-arm offbreak
| role = All-rounder
| international = true
| internationalspan = 1999 - 2000
| testdebutdate = 26 December
| testdebutyear = 1999
| testdebutagainst = Australia
| testcap = 224
| lasttestdate = 2 January
| lasttestyear = 2000
| lasttestagainst = Australia
| odidebutdate = 7 December
| odidebutyear = 1997
| odidebutagainst = Sri Lanka
| odicap = 109
| lastodidate = 30 January
| lastodiyear = 2000
| lastodiagainst = Australia
| odishirt = 14
| columns = 4
| column1 = [[Test cricket|Test]]
| matches1 = 2
| runs1 = 74
| bat avg1 = 18.50
| 100s/50s1 = 0/0
| top score1 = 45
| deliveries1 = 6
| wickets1 = 0
| bowl avg1 = –
| fivefor1 = –
| tenfor1 = –
| best bowling1 = –
| catches/stumpings1 = 0/–
| column2 = [[One Day International|ODI]]
| matches2 = 34
| runs2 = 339
| bat avg2 = 17.84
| 100s/50s2 = 0/1
| top score2 = 57
| deliveries2 = 1,006
| wickets2 = 17
| bowl avg2 = 47.23
| fivefor2 = 0
| tenfor2 = 0
| best bowling2 = 2/22
| catches/stumpings2 = 14/–
| column3 = [[First-class cricket|FC]]
| matches3 = 146
| runs3 = 10,400
| bat avg3 = 52.26
| 100s/50s3 = 33/46
| top score3 = 290
| deliveries3 = 7,753
| wickets3 = 74
| bowl avg3 = 47.91
| fivefor3 = 0
| tenfor3 = 0
| best bowling3 = 3/21
| catches/stumpings3 = 85/–
| column4 = [[List A cricket|LA]]
| matches4 = 128
| runs4 = 3,526
| bat avg4 = 35.26
| 100s/50s4 = 6/21
| top score4 = 133
| deliveries4 = 3,476
| wickets4 = 70
| bowl avg4 = 39.64
| fivefor4 = 0
| tenfor4 = 0
| best bowling4 = 4/35
| catches/stumpings4 = 49/–
| date = 20 February
| year = 2016
| source = http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/ci/content/player/30018.html CricInfo
}}

'''Hrishikesh Hemant Kanitkar''' ({{audio|Hrishikesh_Kanitkar.ogg|pronunciation}}; born 14 November 1974) is a former Indian [[cricket]]er, who played Tests and ODIs.

He is a left-handed batsman and a right-arm offbreak bowler.<ref name="cricinfo_kanitkar">[http://www.cricinfo.com/india/content/player/30018.html Hrishikesh Kanitkar on Cricinfo]</ref> When he retired in 2015, he was one of only three batsmen to have scored 8000-plus runs in the [[Ranji Trophy]] and also the only captain in the Ranji Trophy's history to lift the Elite and Plate league titles.

== Domestic career ==

He made his [[First-class cricket|first-class debut]] against the [[Sanjay Manjrekar]] led [[Mumbai cricket team]] at [[Indira Gandhi Stadium, Solapur]], which was drawn in the [[1994–95 Ranji Trophy]].

He scored prolifically for the [[Maharashtra cricket team]] in the [[Ranji Trophy]] and brought himself into contention for national selection. Although off the international scene for quite some time, Kanitkar joined the [[Brentwood Cricket Club]] in [[Essex]] for the 2006 season. During this season he enjoyed the English conditions, scoring over 1000 runs throughout the season with an average of 76.<ref>[http://www.espncricinfo.com/ranjisuperleague/content/story/325940.html Rookies come to the party]</ref><ref>[http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/story/429552.html Madhya Pradesh welcome back ICL returnees]</ref>

Kanitkar played for the [[Rajasthan cricket team|Rajasthan]] [[Ranji Trophy|Ranji]] team as a senior player.<ref name="RanjiGuest">[http://www.hindustantimes.com/Aakash-Chopra-to-represent-Rajasthan/Article1-612997.aspx Ranji Trophy Guest Players] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101104002242/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Aakash-Chopra-to-represent-Rajasthan/Article1-612997.aspx |date=4 November 2010 }}</ref> In [[2010-11 Ranji Trophy]] season, he captained the Rajasthan Team in the Ranji Trophy and led them to their maiden Ranji Trophy triumph after defeating [[Baroda cricket team|Baroda]] in the finals.<ref name="ranji_win">{{cite web | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-01-26/ranji-trophy/28361409_1_hrishikesh-kanitkar-ranji-trophy-rajasthan | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104205715/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-01-26/ranji-trophy/28361409_1_hrishikesh-kanitkar-ranji-trophy-rajasthan | url-status=dead | archive-date=2012-11-04 | title=Dream comes true for Kanitkar | accessdate=2011-02-20 | work=[[The Times of India]] | date=2011-01-26 }}</ref>

In December 2012, he became the 27th cricketer to play 100 [[Ranji Trophy]] matches.<ref>[http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/502593.html Yes, but is he lucky]</ref><ref>[http://www.espncricinfo.com/ranji-trophy-elite-2011/content/story/549155.html Kanitkar 'humbled' to be in final again]</ref><ref>[http://www.espncricinfo.com/ranjisuperleague2010/content/story/497208.html A triumph to savour for Kanitkar]</ref>

In July 2015 Kanitkar announced his retirement from cricket.<ref name="Retire">{{cite news |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/story/893081.html |title=Hrishikesh Kanitkar retires from cricket |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |date=1 July 2015 |accessdate=1 July 2015 }}</ref>

== International career ==

He is best remembered for hitting a four when India required 3 runs to win from 2 balls in the [[Silver jubilee independence cup 1998|Silver Jubilee Independence Cup]] final at [[Dhaka]], against [[Pakistan cricket team]] in fading light, to complete the Indian victory.<ref name="cricinfo_kanitkar"/> He played only a few ODIs and scored only one half-century in the format (which came in his third ODI innings against the [[Australia cricket team]] in [[Kochi]]).

He only had a brief international test career in which he played in two tests in [[Indian cricket team in Australia in 1999–2000|1999/00]] both against [[Australian cricket team]] at [[Melbourne]] and [[Sydney]]. He scored 11 and 45 in a [[Boxing Day]] Test at [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] as the [[Indian cricket team]] lost by 180 runs. In his second Test, Kanitkar scored 10 and 8 as India was defeated by an innings and 141 runs and Kanitkar never played Test match again.

== Coaching career ==

In 2011, Kanitkar was appointed as an assistant coach of [[Kochi Tuskers Kerala]] but walked out of the contract even before the [[Indian Premier League|IPL]] season began. This was due to disputes with the owners.

Kanitkar was named as head coach of the [[Goa cricket team]] for [[2015–16 Ranji Trophy]] season with a one-year contract.<ref>[http://www.espncricinfo.com/indian-domestic-2015-16/content/story/902921.html Kanitkar joins Goa as coach]</ref>

Kanitkar then became the head coach of the [[Tamil Nadu cricket team]] from 2016 - 2019. He excelled as a coach for Tamil Nadu and was credited with turning around the fortunes of the team.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hrishikesh Kanitkar: The man behind Tamil Nadu's Ranji Trophy turnaround - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/hrishikesh-kanitkar-the-man-behind-tamil-nadus-ranji-trophy-turnaround/articleshow/56170409.cms|access-date=2020-06-14|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> Along with [[Lakshmipathy Balaji|Lakshmipati Balaji]], as the full-time bowling coach, Kanitkar was credited with making a major change in the team.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kumar|first=C. Santosh|date=2017-01-01|title=Hrishikesh Kanitkar's hand in Tamil Nadu transformation|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/sports/cricket/010117/hrishikesh-kanitkars-hand-in-tamil-nadu-transformation.html|access-date=2020-06-14|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref>

In the run-up to [[ICC Women's T20 World Cup]] 2023, Hrishikesh Kanitkar was named the Stand-In Chief Coach of the [[India women's national cricket team]]<ref>https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/sports/cricket/story/richa-ghosh-draws-praise-from-india-stand-in-coach-ahead-of-womens-t20-world-cup-2023-sky-is-the-limit-for-her-2333512-2023-02-11</ref>

== Personal life ==

He is the son of former Indian wicket-keeper [[Hemant Kanitkar]] who also played in two [[Test cricket|Tests]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kanitkar, Hrishikesh}}
[[Category:1974 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian cricketers]]
[[Category:India Test cricketers]]
[[Category:India One Day International cricketers]]
[[Category:West Zone cricketers]]
[[Category:Rajasthan cricketers]]
[[Category:Maharashtra cricketers]]
[[Category:Madhya Pradesh cricketers]]
[[Category:Central Zone cricketers]]
[[Category:Cricketers from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Indian cricket coaches]]
[[Category:Rajasthan cricket captains]]
[[Category:Coaches of the India women's national cricket team]]

Kamaksha temple

2023-07-19T09:06:17Z

Nsui Mp: v2.05b - Bot T20 CW#61 - Fix errors for CW project (Reference before punctuation - <nowiki> tags)

{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Kamaksha temple
| image = File:Kamaksha temple.jpg
| image_upright = yes
| alt =
| caption =
Kamaksha temple
| religious_affiliation =[[Hinduism]]
| deity =[[Kamaksha]] ,[[kamakhya]]
| festival =[[Suket Fair]], [[Navratri]], [[Durga Pooja]]
| location =[[Jaidevi]]
| district =[[Mandi district|Mandi]]
| state =[[Himachal Pradesh]]
| country =[[India]]
| map_type = India Himachal Pradesh
| map_caption =Location In Jaidevi
| coordinates ={{coord|31.50061|76.95657|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| year_completed =12th-21th century
| monument_quantity =4
| inscriptions =
| elevation_m =
| website =https://www.jaidevi.in/
}}

'''Shri Kamaksha Temple''' [[Jaidevi]], also known as the Kul Devi (family deity) of the [[Suket State|Suket royal family]] and the Raj-Rajeshwari and Adhisthatri Devi of the Suket principality, is a historic Hindu temple surrounded by beautiful mountains and nestled in the lap of nature.<ref>{{cite web |title=देवभूमि हिमाचल में इकलौता कामाक्षा माता मंदिर, जहां आए थे भगवान परशुराम |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/himachal-pradesh/mandi-karsog-kamakhsa-mata-temple-hpvk-2677933.html |website=News18 हिंदी |publisher=news 18 |access-date=10 Dec 2019 |language=hi }}</ref>

Kamaksha means "the goddess who fulfills all desires." This place is famous in the region and is known as Jaidevi. The revered deities of this place are Shri Mahunag Ji Jaidevi and Shri Bala Tika Ji Kafla Ji, and the origin of this place is attributed to Goddess Kamaksha.<ref>{{cite web |last1=शर्मा |first1=पियूष |title=करसोग ! पहली बार ममेल कामाक्षा क्षेत्र का दौरा करेंगे छतरी मगरू मानगढ़ के आराध्य नाग चपलांदू ! » Khabar Himachal Se |url=https://khabarhimachalse.com/2020/03/17/9192/ |website=Khabar Himachal Se |publisher=khabar himachal sa |access-date=17 March 2020 }}</ref>

== Kamakhya Saktipeeth ==
The original temple of the goddess Kamakhya Shaktipeeth is located in Assam. In different parts of India, she is known as Kamakhya in the east, [[Kamaksha]] in the north, and Kamakshi in the south.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kamaksha Temple Karsog 10 महाविद्याओं की देवी है मां कामाक्षा अष्टमी पर्व पर मंदिर में होगा जागरण |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/himachal-pradesh/city/mandi/kamaksha-temple-karsog-ashtami-fair-will-be-celebrated-in-karsog/hp20221002173444696696875 |website=ETV Bharat News |publisher=etv |access-date=2 Oct 2022 |language=hi}}</ref>,

As the Kul Devi of the Suket royal family, Maa Kamaksha is given the foremost position in the Suket fair and the Jatar (religious procession). It is said that the Suket fair is associated with [[Kamrunag Lake|Dev Kamrunag]], Mool Mahunag, and the name of Maa [[Kamaksha]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jaidevi.in/2022/11/Jaidevi.html |url-access= |script-title=hi:राजाओं के काल से जुड़ा है जय देवी नामक स्थान का इतिहास और जय देवी स्थान की उत्पत्ति |last=Sharma |first=Naman |website=Jaidevi |location=Jaidevi |language=hindi |format=DoC}}</ref>

== Kamaksha ==
According to the history of Maa [[Kamaksha]], when the ancient king Shri Shyam Sen of Suket was shifting the capital of his old principality from Pangana to the new capital of Karatarpur, Lohara, and Baned, it was decided to bring the goddess Kamaksha from the old palace to the new palace.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jaidevi.in/2022/07/shri-kulja-bhagwati-kamaksha-mahamaya.html |url-access= |script-title=hi:सुकेत के सेन राजवंश महाराजाओं की कुलदेवी के रूप में जानी जाती है देवी कामाक्षा |last=Sharma |first=Naman|website=Jaidevi |language=Hindi |url-status=live |archive-url= |archive-date= |via=google}}</ref>

It was during this time that the temple of Maa Kamaksha was built at this place ([[Jaidevi]]) and the idol was consecrated. From that moment, the entire earth resounded with the chants of Jaidevi-Jaidevi, and the place came to be known as Jaidevi.<ref>{{cite web |title=कामाक्षा देवी मंदिर में शांतिपूर्वक हुआ बड़ा फेर |url=https://www.amarujala.com/himachal-pradesh/mandi/Mandi-64750-22 |website=Amar Ujala |publisher=amar ujala |language=hi}}</ref>

== History ==
If we talk about the history before this, it is said that the original place of the Suket rulers was [[Bengal]]. When the kings ventured towards the northern direction in ancient times to establish their capital and rule, they brought the magnificent idol of Goddess Kamaksha from Assam (Bengal/Kolkata/Guwahati) to this place.<ref>{{cite web |title=सुंदरनगर के कामाक्षा मंदिर में चोरी:नगदी सहित करीब 4 लाख के गहने ले उड़े चोर, पूजा करने पहुंचा पुजारी तो लगा पता |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/himachal/mandi/sundarnagar/news/mandi-sundarnagar-news-theft-in-kamaksha-temple-shobha-ram-bsl-policestation-130848117.html |website=bhasker |access-date=28 January 2023}}</ref>

In this temple, both the forms of the goddess, Devi Kula and Kali, reside. The construction of Bhagwati [[Kamaksha]] Jaidevi Temple was done by the king of Suket, and it has been restored several times by the temple committee and the local people.<ref>{{cite web |title=मां के घर चोरी: सुंदरनगर में कामाक्षा मंदिर से सोने का छत्र, नथ सहित लाखों के गहने उड़ा ले गए शातिर |url=https://www.divyahimachal.com/2023/01/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87-%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%B0-%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87/ |website=Divya Himachal |publisher=divya hiamchal |access-date=27 Jan 2023 |language=hi}}</ref>

== Suket Fair ==
It has always been a tradition of the Suket royal family that before undertaking any auspicious task, the king would seek the blessings of his Kul Devi. For this purpose, the king would invite his Kul Devi to his palace. In the local language, this invitation is called "Jatra." In ancient times, the king and some officials would personally bring Maa Kamaksha to the fair.<ref>{{cite web |last1=naman |first1=sharma |title=राजाओं के काल से जुड़ा है जय देवी नामक स्थान का इतिहास और जय देवी स्थान की उत्पत्ति |url=https://www.jaidevi.in/2022/11/Jaidevi.html |website=Kamaksha |publisher=jaidevi |access-date=31 January 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

After that, the king would bring the Kul Devi with great pomp and show to his palace and she would reside there along with the priests for a few days. During this time, the fair of the goddess would be organized in the palace. Initially, the fair of the goddess was held in Lohara, then in Karatarpur, and finally in Baned.

After 1900, Devi was brought to the Suket fair by the last king of Suket, Lakshman Sen, along with Raja Mahunag Ji. After 1921, Devi was brought to the fair with [[Mahamaya Temple|Mahamaya]] (the famous deity of Panga, the first capital of Suket, and the Adhisthatri Devi of the Suket royal family). And even today, Devi.
<ref>{{cite web |last1=danik |first1=jagran |title=सुंदरनगर के कामाक्षा मंदिर जयदेवी से नकदी समेत लाखों के गहने चोरी, CCTV की मदद से चोर की तलाश में जुटी पुलिस |url=https://www.jagran.com/himachal-pradesh/mandi-sundernagar-kamaksha-temple-jayadevi-jewelery-lakhs-cash-stolen-police-engaged-search-help-cctv-cameras-23311444.html |website=Dainik Jagran |publisher=jagran |access-date=28 January 2023 |language=hi}}</ref>
== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Kamaksha temple.jpg |Kamaksha mata Temple Jaidevi
Kamakshi mata temple Jaidevi.jpg|Kamakshi mata temple Jaidevi
</gallery>
== External Links ==
* [http://kamaksha.business.site/ kamaksha.business.site/]
* [http://www.Jaidevi.in www.Jaidevi.in]
#REDIRECT [[kamaksha]]
#REDIRECT [[Jaidevi]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Mandi district]]

__INDEX__

Ghore Ghore Zee Bangla

2023-07-15T17:59:11Z

Nsui Mp: Published a valuable publication.

{{Short description|Indian Bengali TV series or program}}

'''''Ghore Ghore Zee Bangla''''' (English: House to House Zee Bangla) is a [[Bengali language|Bengali]] television family game show launched in 2023. The show airs on [[Zee Bangla]] six days in a week and also available on [[ZEE5]] digitally.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bangla |first=TV9 |title=Non-Fiction Show: নতুন বছরে ছোটপর্দার নয়া চমক, ঘরে-ঘরে এবার অপরাজিতা-ইন্দ্রাণী, শুরু নতুন গেমশো |url=https://tv9bangla.com/entertainment/television/zee-bangla-new-reality-show-ghore-ghore-zee-bangla-au60-716292.html |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=TV9 Bangla |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Esselnewsletter |url=http://www.esselnewsletter.com/news/zee-bangla-ushers-in-the-new-year-with-a-fun-filled-family-game-show-ghore-ghore-zee-bangla.html |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=www.esselnewsletter.com}}</ref>
{{Infobox television
| genre = Talk Show/Game Show
| presenter = {{Plainlist|
* [[Indrani Halder]]
* [[Aparajita Auddy]]
* [[Biswanath Basu]]
}}
| starring = People from every sphere
| open_theme = ''Ghore Ghore Zee Bangla... Mone Prane Ghorer Tane''
| country = [[India]]
| language = Bengali
| num_seasons = 1
| location = [[Kolkata]]
| runtime = 30 minutes
| network = [[Zee Bangla]]
| picture_format = {{Plainlist|
* [[576i]] ([[Fullscreen (aspect ratio)|4:3]] [[SDTV]])
* [[1080i]] ([[HDTV]])
}}
| audio_format = [[Dolby Pro Logic|Dolby Surround 5.1]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|2023|01|02|df=yes}}
| last_aired = present
}}

== Anchors ==

* ''[[Indrani Haldar|Indrani Halder]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indrani Halder's New Game Show: এবার দর্শকদের 'ঘরে ঘরে' পৌঁছাবেন ইন্দ্রাণী! আসছে নতুন গেম শো |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/television/story/indrani-halder-new-game-show-ghore-ghore-zee-bangla-goyenda-ginni-actress-host-new-bangla-non-fiction-show-new-format-soc-458906-2022-10-15 |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=Aaj Tak বাংলা |language=bn}}</ref>
* ''[[Aparajita Auddy]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=ইন্দ্রাণীর জায়গায় অপরাজিতা! সঞ্চালক রিপ্লেস নিয়ে টলিপাড়ায় ঠান্ডা লড়াই তুঙ্গে |url=https://bengali.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/indrani-halder-and-aparajita-adhya-cold-war-begins-after-indrani-got-replaced-by-aparajita-in-a-reality-show-of-zee-bangla-tes-971646.html |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=News18 Bengali |language=bn}}</ref>
* ''[[Biswanath Basu]]''<ref>{{Cite web |last=সংবাদদাতা |first=নিজস্ব |title=ছোট পর্দায় সঞ্চালকের ভূমিকায় ফিরছেন বিশ্বনাথ, নতুন দায়িত্ব পেয়ে কী বললেন তিনি? |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/tollywood-actor-biswanath-basu-will-be-hosting-the-game-show-ghore-ghore-zee-bangla-dgtl/cid/1397206 |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=www.anandabazar.com |language=bn}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.zee5.com/tv-shows/details/ghore-ghore-zee-bangla/0-6-4z5246086 Ghore Ghore Zee Bangla] at [[ZEE5]]
{{Zee Bangla}}

[[Category:Bengali-language television programming in India]]
[[Category:Indian reality television series]]
[[Category:Zee Bangla original programming]]

Journal of Contemporary Asia

2023-01-10T06:41:38Z

Nsui Mp: New article layout.

{{Infobox journal
| title = Journal of Contemporary Asia
| cover = Journal of Contemporary Asia.jpg
| editor = Kevin Hewison
| discipline = [[Asian studies]]
| former_names =
| abbreviation = J. Contemp. Asia
| publisher = [[Routledge]]
| country =
| frequency = 5/year
| history = 1970-present
| openaccess =
| license =
| impact = 1.882
| impact-year = 2021
| website = https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=rjoc20
| link1 = https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rjoc20/current
| link1-name = Online access
| link2 = https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjoc20
| link2-name = Online archive
| JSTOR =
| OCLC = 933308253
| LCCN = 78612738
| CODEN =
| ISSN = 0047-2336
| eISSN = 1752-7554
}}
The '''''Journal of Contemporary Asia''''' is a [[peer-reviewed]] [[academic journal]] covering [[Asian studies]]. It was established in 1970 and is published 5 times a year by [[Routledge]]. The [[editor-in-chief]] is Kevin Hewison ([[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]). Previous editors were Malcolm Caldwell, Jonathan Fast, Bruce McFarlane and Peter Limqueco.

==Abstracting and indexing==
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*[[CAB International]]<ref name=CABAB>{{cite web |url=http://www.cabi.org/publishing-products/online-information-resources/cab-abstracts/ |title=Serials cited |work=[[CAB Abstracts]] |publisher=[[CABI (organisation)|CABI]] |accessdate=2018-07-14}}</ref>
*[[Current Contents]]/Social & Behavioral Sciences<ref name=ISI>{{cite web |url=http://mjl.clarivate.com/ |title=Master Journal List |publisher=[[Clarivate Analytics]] |work=Intellectual Property & Science |accessdate=2018-07-14}}</ref>
*[[EBSCO Information Services|EBSCO databases]]
*[[International Political Science Abstracts]]
*[[ProQuest|ProQuest databases]]
*[[Scopus]]<ref name=Scopus>{{cite web |url=https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/16473 |title=Source details: Journal of Contemporary Asia |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |work=Scopus preview |accessdate=2018-07-14}}</ref>
*[[Social Sciences Citation Index]]<ref name=ISI/>
}}
According to the ''[[Journal Citation Reports]]'', the journal has a 2021 [[impact factor]] of 1.882.<ref name=WoS>{{cite book |year=2022 |chapter=Journal of Contemporary Asia |title=2021 Journal Citation Reports |publisher=[[Clarivate Analytics]] |edition=Social Sciences |series=[[Web of Science]]|title-link=Journal Citation Reports }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|1=https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=rjoc20}}

[[Category:Routledge academic journals]]
[[Category:Asian studies journals]]
[[Category:Academic journals established in 1970]]
[[Category:English-language journals]]
[[Category:5 times per year journals]]

Appeasement

2023-01-07T09:18:26Z

Nsui Mp: Wrote an inspiring guide.

{{short description|Diplomatic policy to avoid conflict}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{EngvarB}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1976-063-32, Bad Godesberg, Münchener Abkommen, Vorbereitung.jpg|thumb|right| [[Adolf Hitler]] greets [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Neville Chamberlain]] at the beginning of the [[Bad Godesberg]] meeting on 24 September 1938 in which Hitler demanded annexation of [[Sudetenland|Czech border areas]] without delay, leading to the [[Godesberg Memorandum]]]]
'''Appeasement''', in an international context, is a [[diplomacy|diplomatic]] policy of making political, material, or territorial concessions to an aggressive [[power (international relations)|power]] to avoid conflict.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.co.uk/articles/ww2|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404054019/http://www.history.co.uk/explore-history/ww2/appeasement.html|url-status=dead |title=WW2 | Sky HISTORY UK TV Channel|archivedate=4 April 2013|website=www.history.co.uk}}</ref> The term is most often applied to the [[foreign policy]] of the British governments of [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Ministers]] [[Ramsay MacDonald]] (in office 1929–1935), [[Stanley Baldwin]] (in office 1935–1937) and (most notably) [[Neville Chamberlain]] (in office 1937–1940) towards [[Nazi Germany]] (from 1933) and [[Kingdom of Italy#Fascist regime (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] (from 1922)<ref>Robert Mallett, "The Anglo‐Italian war trade negotiations, contraband control and the failure to appease Mussolini, 1939–40." ''Diplomacy and Statecraft'' 8.1 (1997): 137–67.</ref> between 1935 and 1939. Under [[United Kingdom|British]] pressure, appeasement of Nazism and Fascism also played a role in [[History of French foreign relations|French foreign policy]] of the period but was always much less popular there than in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Hucker
| first1 = Daniel
| year = 2011
| title = Public Opinion and the End of Appeasement in Britain and France
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NEsGDAAAQBAJ
| location = London
| publisher = Routledge
| publication-date = 2016
| isbn = 9781317073543
| access-date = 12 October 2020
}}
</ref>

In the early 1930s, appeasing concessions were widely seen as desirable because of the [[anti-war movement|anti-war]] reaction to the trauma of [[World War I]] (1914–1918), second thoughts about the perceived vindictive treatment by some of [[Weimar Republic|Germany]] during the 1919 [[Treaty of Versailles]], and a perception that [[fascism]] was a useful form of [[anti-communism]]. However, by the time of the [[Munich Agreement]], which was concluded on 30 September 1938 between Germany, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy, the policy was opposed by the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] and by a few [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] dissenters such as future Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]], Secretary of State for War [[Duff Cooper]], and future Prime Minister [[Anthony Eden]]. Appeasement was strongly supported by the [[upper class (UK)|British upper class]], including [[British royal family|royalty]], [[big business]] (based in the [[City of London]]), the [[House of Lords]], and [[mass media in the United Kingdom|media]] such as the [[BBC]] and ''[[The Times]].''<ref>Andrew Roberts, "'Appeasement' Review: What Were They Thinking? Britain's establishment coalesced around appeasement and bared its teeth at those who dared to oppose it", [https://www.wsj.com/articles/appeasement-review-what-were-they-thinking-11572619353 ''Wall Street Journal'' 1 Nov. 2019).]</ref>

As alarm grew about the rise of fascism in Europe, Chamberlain resorted to attempts at news [[censorship]] to control [[public opinion]].<ref>{{cite book|author= Frank McDonough|title= Neville Chamberlain, Appeasement, and the British Road to War|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3tQoAEo9Y6oC&pg=PA114|year= 1998|publisher= Manchester UP|page= 114|isbn= 9780719048326}}Compare: {{cite book|author= Frank McDonough|title= Neville Chamberlain, Appeasement, and the British Road to War|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3tQoAEo9Y6oC|year= 1998|publisher= Manchester UP|page= 124|isbn= 9780719048326 | quote = By and large, the Chamberlain government tried to persuade editors to operate an informal self-censorship. [...] Editors of leading national newspapers were asked to support Chamberlain's efforts to gain a peaceful settlement and to avoid critical comment. Yet the freedom enjoyed by the press ensured that total government control was never feasible and critical comment continued to appear. Government pressure to restrict criticism of appeasement on BBC radio was far more successful. Radio coverage of foreign policy during the inter-war years was severely restricted through a combination of discreet pressure, self-censorship and guidance from Downing Street and the foreign office.}}</ref> He confidently announced after Munich that he had secured "[[peace for our time]]".<ref>Hunt, ''The Makings of the West'' p. 861.</ref>

Academics, politicians and diplomats have intensely debated the 1930s appeasement policies ever since they occurred. Historians' assessments have ranged from condemnation ("[[Lesson of Munich]]") for allowing Hitler's Germany to grow too strong to the judgment that Germany was so strong that it might well win a war and that postponing a showdown was in the best interests of the West.

==History==
===Failure of collective security===
{{Blockquote|quote = Appeasement policy, the policy of appeasing Hitler and Mussolini, operating jointly at that time, during 1937 and 1938 by continuous concessions granted in the hope of reaching a point of saturation when the dictators would be willing to accede to international collaboration.... It came to an end when Hitler seized Czechoslovakia on March 15, 1939, in defiance of his promises given at Munich, and Prime Minister Chamberlain, who had championed appeasement before, decided on a policy of resistance to further German aggression. |source = Walter Theimer (ed.), ''The Penguin Political Dictionary'', 1939}}

Chamberlain's policy of appeasement emerged from the failure of the [[League of Nations]] and the failure of [[collective security]]. The League of Nations was set up in the [[aftermath of World War I]] in the hope that international co-operation and collective resistance to aggression might prevent another war. Members of the League were entitled to the assistance of other members if they came under attack. The policy of collective security ran in parallel with measures to achieve international disarmament and, if possible, was to be based on [[economic sanctions]] against an aggressor. The policy appeared to be ineffectual when confronted by the aggression of dictators, notably Germany's [[Remilitarization of the Rhineland]] and [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]]'s [[Benito Mussolini]]'s [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|invasion]] of [[Ethiopia|Abyssinia]].

====Invasion of Manchuria====
{{main|Japanese invasion of Manchuria}}
In September 1931, the [[Empire of Japan]], a member of the League of Nations, invaded [[Manchuria]], in [[northeast China]], by claiming that the regional population was not only [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] but was multi-ethnic. The [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] appealed to the League of Nations and to the United States for assistance. The [[League of Nations Council]] asked the parties to withdraw to their original positions to permit a peaceful settlement. The United States reminded them of their duty under the [[Kellogg–Briand Pact]] to settle matters peacefully. Japan was undeterred and went on to occupy the whole of Manchuria. The League set up a commission of inquiry that condemned Japan, and the League duly adopted the report in February 1933. In response, Japan resigned from the League and continued its advance into China, with neither the League nor the United States taking any action. However, the U.S. issued the [[Stimson Doctrine]] and refused to recognize Japan's conquest, which played a role in shifting U.S. policy to favour China over Japan during the late 1930s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clauss |first1=E. M. |title=The Roosevelt Administration and Manchukuo, 1933?1941 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.1970.tb00380.x |journal=The Historian |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=595–611 |year=1970}}</ref> Some historians, such as [[David Thomson (historian)|David Thomson]], assert that the League's "inactivity and ineffectualness in the Far East lent every encouragement to European aggressors who planned similar acts of defiance".<ref>[[David Thomson (historian)|Thomson, David]] (1957) ''Europe Since Napoleon'', London: Longans Green & Co. p. 691</ref>

====Anglo-German Naval Agreement====
The 1935 [[Anglo-German Naval Agreement]] had the Britain permit Germany to begin rebuilding the [[Kriegsmarine|German Navy]], including its [[U-boats]], despite Germany having repeatedly violated the [[Treaty of Versailles]].

====Abyssinia crisis====
{{Main|Abyssinia Crisis|Hoare–Laval Pact}}
[[File:Addis Ababa-8e00855u.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Emperor [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie]] of [[Ethiopia]], circa 1942]]
Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini had [[Abyssinian Crisis|imperial ambitions]] in [[Abyssinia]]. Italy was already in possession of the neighbouring [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] and [[Italian Somaliland|Somalia]]. In December 1934, there was a clash between [[Royal Italian Army]] and [[Army of the Ethiopian Empire|Imperial Ethiopian Army]] troops at [[Walwal]], near the border between [[British Somaliland|British]] and [[Italian Somaliland]], in which Italian troops took possession of the disputed territory, and about 150 Abyssinians and 50 Italians were killed. Italy demanded apologies and compensation from Abyssinia, which appealed to the League, with Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] famously appealing in person to the assembly in [[Geneva]]. The League persuaded both sides to seek a settlement under the [[Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1928]], but Italy continued troop movements, and Abyssinia appealed to the League again. In October 1935 Mussolini launched an attack on Abyssinia. The League declared Italy to be the aggressor and imposed sanctions, but coal and oil were not included since blocking them, it was thought, would provoke war. [[Albanian Kingdom (1928–1939)|Albania]], [[Federal State of Austria|Austria]] and [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|Hungary]] refused to apply sanctions, and Germany and the United States were not in the League. Nevertheless, the [[Economy of fascist Italy|Italian economy suffered]]. The League considered closing off the [[Suez Canal]], which would have stopped arms to Abyssinia, but, thinking that would be too harsh a measure, failed to do so.<ref name=Taylor />

Earlier, in April 1935, Italy had joined Britain and France in protest against [[German rearmament]]. France was anxious to placate Mussolini to keep him away from an alliance with Germany. Britain was less hostile to Germany and set the pace in imposing sanctions and moved a naval fleet into the [[Mediterranean]], but in November 1935, British Foreign Secretary [[Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|Sir Samuel Hoare]] and French Prime Minister, [[Pierre Laval]] had secret discussions in which they [[Hoare–Laval Pact|agreed to concede two thirds of Abyssinia to Italy]]. However, the press leaked the content of the discussions, and a public outcry forced Hoare and Laval to resign. In May 1936, undeterred by sanctions, Italy captured [[Addis Ababa]], the Abyssinian capital, and proclaimed [[Victor Emmanuel III]] as Emperor of [[Ethiopia]]. In July the League abandoned sanctions. The episode, in which sanctions were incomplete and appeared to be easily given up, seriously discredited the League.

====Remilitarisation of the Rhineland====
{{Main|Remilitarisation of the Rhineland}}
[[File:Stanley Baldwin 02.jpg|thumb|right|UK Prime Minister [[Stanley Baldwin]]]]
Under the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Versailles Settlement]], the [[Rhineland]] was [[demilitarised]]. Germany accepted that arrangement under the [[Locarno Treaties]] of 1925. Hitler claimed that it threatened Germany and, on 7 March 1936, sent the [[Wehrmacht]] into the [[Rhineland]]. He gambled on Britain not getting involved but was unsure of how France would react. The action was opposed by many of his advisers. His officers had orders to withdraw if they met French resistance. [[French Third Republic|France]] consulted Britain and lodged protests with the League but took no action. Prime Minister [[Stanley Baldwin]] said that Britain lacked the forces to back its guarantees to France and that in any case, public opinion would not allow so. In Britain, it was thought that the Germans were merely walking into "their own backyard". [[Hugh Dalton]], a [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] MP who usually advocated stiff resistance to Germany, said that neither the British people nor Labour would support military or economic sanctions.<ref name=Taylor>Taylor, A.J.P., ''English History, 1914–1945'', 1965</ref> In the Council of the League, only the [[Soviet Union]] proposed sanctions against Germany. Hitler, who was invited to negotiate, proposed a [[non-aggression pact]] with the Western powers. When asked for details, he did not reply. Hitler's occupation of the Rhineland had persuaded him that the international community would not resist him, and it put Germany in a powerful strategic position.{{Citation needed}}

====Spanish Civil War====
{{Main|Non-intervention in the Spanish Civil War}}
Many historians argue that the British policy of non-intervention was a product of the Establishment's anti-communist stance. Scott Ramsay (2019) instead argues that Britain demonstrated "[[benevolent neutrality]]" and was simply hedging its bets by avoiding the favouring of one side or the other. The goal was that in a European war Britain would enjoy the "benevolent neutrality" of whichever side won in Spain.<ref>Scott Ramsay. "Ensuring Benevolent Neutrality: The British Government's Appeasement of General Franco during the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939". ''International History Review'' 41:3 (2019): 604–623. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2018.1428211.</ref>

===Conduct of appeasement, 1937–1939===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 119-5243, Wien, Arthur Seyß-Inquart, Adolf Hitler.jpg|thumb|[[Arthur Seyss-Inquart|Seyss-Inquart]] and [[Hitler]] in Vienna, March 1938]]
In 1937, [[Stanley Baldwin]] resigned as Prime Minister. He was replaced by [[Neville Chamberlain]], who pursued a policy of appeasement and rearmament.<ref>Mujtaba Haider Zaidi "Chamberlain and Hitler vs. Pakistan and Taliban" The Frontier Post Newspaper, 3 July 2013 URL: [https://archive.today/20130704120057/http://www.thefrontierpost.com/article/24108/]</ref> Chamberlain's reputation for appeasement rests in large measure on his negotiations with Hitler over [[German occupation of Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovakia in 1938]].

====Anschluss====
{{Main|Anschluss}}
When the [[German Empire]] and [[Austria-Hungary]] were broken up in 1918, [[Austria]] was left as a [[rump state]] with the temporary adopted name ''Deutschösterreich'' ("[[Republic of German-Austria|German-Austria]]"), with the vast majority of [[Austrians]] wanting to join Germany. However, the victors' agreements of [[World War I]] (the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)|Treaty of Saint-Germain]]) strictly forbade union between Austria and Germany without League consent, as well as the name "German-Austria", which reverted to "Austria" after the emergence of the [[First Republic of Austria]] in September 1919. The constitutions of both the [[Weimar Republic]] and the First Republic of Austria, included the aim of unification, which was supported by democratic parties. However, the rise of Hitler dampened the enthusiasm of the Austrian government for such a plan. Hitler, an Austrian by birth, had been a [[pan-Germanism|pan-German]] from a very young age and had promoted a Pan-German vision of a [[Greater Germanic Reich]] from the beginning of his career in politics. He wrote in ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' (1924) that he would attempt a union of his birth country Austria with Germany by any means possible and by force if necessary. By early 1938, Hitler had consolidated his power in Germany and was ready to implement his long-held plan.

Austrian Chancellor [[Kurt Schuschnigg]] wished to pursue ties with Italy but turned to [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] (the [[Little Entente]]). To that end, Hitler took violent exception. In January 1938, the [[Austrian Nazism|Austrian Nazis]] attempted a [[coup d'état|putsch]] following which some were imprisoned. Hitler summoned Schuschnigg to [[Berchtesgaden]] in February and demanded, with the threat of military action, for him to release imprisoned Austrian Nazis and to allow them to participate in the government. Schuschnigg complied and appointed [[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]], a pro-Nazi lawyer, as [[interior minister]]. To forestall Hitler and to preserve Austria's independence, Schuschnigg scheduled a [[plebiscite]] on the issue for 13 March. Hitler demanded for the plebiscite to be cancelled. The [[Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda|German Propaganda Ministry]] issued press reports that riots had broken out in Austria and that large parts of the Austrian population were calling for German troops to restore order. On 11 March, Hitler sent an ultimatum to Schuschnigg that demanded him to hand over all power to the Austrian Nazis or face an invasion. The British Ambassador in Berlin, [[Nevile Henderson]], registered a protest with the German government against the use of coercion against Austria. Schuschnigg, realising that neither France nor the United Kingdom would actively support him, resigned in favour of Seyss-Inquart, who then appealed to German troops to restore order. On 12 March, the German [[Wehrmacht]] crossed the Austrian border. They met no resistance and were greeted by cheering Austrians. The invasion was the first major test of the Wehrmacht's machinery. Austria became the German province of [[Ostmark (Austria)|Ostmark]], with Seyss-Inquart as governor. A [[1938 Austrian Anschluss referendum|plebiscite was held on 10 April]] and officially recorded the support of 99.73% of the voters for the Anschluss.<ref>Richard J. Evans, ''The Third Reich in Power'' (2006) pp. 646–58</ref>

Although the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] had prohibited the union of Austria and Germany, their reaction to the Anschluss was mild.<ref>Alfred D. Low, ''The Anschluss Movement 1931–1938 and the Great Powers'' (1985)</ref> Even the strongest voices against annexation, particularly those of [[Kingdom of Italy#Fascist regime (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]], [[Third French Republic|France]] and Britain (the "[[Stresa Front]]"), were not backed by force. In the [[British House of Commons]], Chamberlain said, "The hard fact is that nothing could have arrested what has actually happened [in Austria] unless this country and other countries had been prepared to use force".<ref>{{cite book|title=Twentieth Century Journey, Volume 2, The Nightmare Years: 1930–1940|publisher=Little Brown and Company|location=Boston|isbn=0-316-78703-5|year=1984|first=William L.|last=Shirer|pages=[https://archive.org/details/nightmareyears1900shir/page/308 308]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/nightmareyears1900shir}}</ref> The American reaction was similar. The international reaction to the events of 12 March 1938 led Hitler to conclude that he could use even more aggressive tactics in his plan to expand the Third Reich.{{citation needed}} The Anschluss paved the way for Munich in September 1938 because it indicated the likely non-response of Britain and France to future German aggression.

====Munich Agreement====
{{Main|Munich Agreement}}
{{blockquote|How horrible, fantastic, incredible it is that we should be digging trenches and trying on gas masks here because of a quarrel in a far-away country between people of whom we know nothing.|
[[Neville Chamberlain]], 27 September 1938, 8 p.m. radio broadcast, on Czechoslovak refusal to accept Nazi demands to cede border areas to Germany.}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R69173, Münchener Abkommen, Staatschefs.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|
From left to right: [[Neville Chamberlain|Chamberlain]], [[Édouard Daladier|Daladier]], [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]], [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] and [[Galeazzo Ciano|Ciano]] pictured before they sign the Munich Agreement, which gave the Czechoslovak border areas to Germany.]]
Under the Versailles Settlement, [[Czechoslovakia]] was created with the territory of the Czech part more or less corresponding to the [[Czech Crown lands]] as they had existed within Austria-Hungary and earlier. The new country included [[Bohemia]], [[Moravia]], and [[Slovakia]] and had border areas with a majority-German population that was known as the [[Sudetenland]] and areas with significant numbers of other ethnic minorities (notably [[Hungarians]], [[Polish people|Poles]] and [[Ruthenians]]). In April 1938, the [[Sudeten German Party]], led by [[Konrad Henlein]], agitated for autonomy and then threatened, in Henlein's words, "direct action to bring the [[Sudeten Germans]] within the frontiers of the Reich".{{sfn|Grant Duff|1938|p=}} An international crisis ensued.

France and Britain advised Czechoslovak acceptance of Sudeten autonomy. The Czechoslovak government refused and ordered a partial mobilisation in expectation of German aggression. [[Lord Runciman]] was sent by Chamberlain to [[Runciman Mission|mediate]] in [[Prague]] and persuaded the Czechoslovak government to grant autonomy. Germany escalated the dispute, with the country's press carrying stories of alleged atrocities against Sudeten Germans, and Hitler ordering 750,000 troops to the [[Czech Republic–Germany border|Czechoslovak border]]. In August, Henlein broke off negotiations with the Czechoslovak authorities. At a [[Nuremberg Rally|Nazi party rally]] in [[Nuremberg]] on 12 September, Hitler made a speech attacking Czechoslovakia<ref>Donald Cameron Watt, ''How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War'' (1989) ch. 2</ref> and there was an increase of violence by Sudeten Nazis against Czechoslovak and Jewish targets.

Chamberlain, faced with the prospect of a German invasion, flew to [[Berchtesgaden]] on 15 September to negotiate directly with Hitler, who now demanded that Chamberlain accept not Sudeten self-government within Czechoslovakia but the absorption of the Sudeten lands into Germany. Chamberlain became convinced that refusal would lead to war. The [[geography of Europe]] was such that Britain and France could forcibly prevent the German occupation of the Sudetenland only by the invasion of Germany.<ref>A. J. P. Taylor, ''English History, 1914–1945'', p. 415</ref> Chamberlain, therefore, returned to Britain and agreed to Hitler's demands. Britain and France told the Czechoslovak President [[Edvard Beneš]] to hand over to Germany all territory with a German majority. Hitler increased his aggression against Czechoslovakia and ordered the establishment of a [[Sudetendeutsches Freikorps|Sudeten German paramilitary organisation]], which proceeded to carry out terrorist attacks on Czechoslovak targets.

====German annexation of Sudetenland====
On 22 September, Chamberlain flew to [[Bad Godesberg]] for his second meeting with Hitler and said that he was willing to accept the cession of the Sudetenland to Germany. He was startled by the response of Hitler that the cession of the Sudetenland was not enough and that Czechoslovakia, which Hitler had described as a "fraudulent state", must be broken up completely. Later in the day, Hitler resiled by saying that he was willing to accept the cession of the Sudetenland by 1 October. On 24 September, Germany issued the [[Godesberg Memorandum]], which demanded cession by 28 September or war. The Czechoslovak government rejected those demands, France ordered mobilisation and Britain mobilised the [[Royal Navy]].

[[File:MunichAgreement.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.35|British Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]], landing at [[Heston Aerodrome]] on 30 September 1938 after his meeting with Hitler at [[Munich]]. In his hand, he holds the peace agreement between Britain and Germany.]]
On 26 September, Hitler made a speech at the [[Sportpalast]] in Berlin in which he claimed that the Sudetenland was "the last territorial demand I have to make in Europe",<ref name=sudetenland1>{{cite book|author1=Domarus, Max|author2=Hitler, Adolf|title=Hitler: Speeches and Proclamations, 1932–1945 : The Chronicle of a Dictatorship|year=1990|page=1393}}</ref> and he gave Czechoslovakia an [[ultimatum]] of 28 September at 2:00pm to cede the territory to Germany or to face war.<ref name="Santi Corvaja 2008. Pp. 73">Corvaja, Santi and Miller, Robert L. (2008) ''Hitler & Mussolini: The Secret Meetings''. New York: Enigma Books. {{ISBN|9781929631421}}. p.73</ref>

In the atmosphere of growing conflict, Mussolini persuaded Hitler to put the dispute to a four-power conference. On 29 September 1938, Hitler, Chamberlain, French Prime Minister [[Édouard Daladier]] and Mussolini met in Munich. Czechoslovakia was not to be a party to these talks, nor was the Soviet Union. The four powers agreed that Germany would complete its occupation of the Sudetenland but that an international commission would consider other disputed areas. Czechoslovakia was told that if it did not submit, it would stand alone. At Chamberlain's request, Hitler readily signed an agreement for between the United Kingdom and Germany. Chamberlain returned to Britain and promised "[[peace for our time]]". Before Munich, U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] had sent a telegram to Chamberlain that said "Good man" and he later told the American ambassador in Rome, [[William Phillips (diplomat)|William Phillips]], "I am not a bit upset over the final result".<ref>The Versailles Treaty and its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision, by Norman A. Graebner, Edward M. Bennett</ref>

====First Vienna Award and German annexation of Bohemia and Moravia====
{{Main|First Vienna Award|Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)}}
As a result of the annexation of the Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia lost 800,000 citizens, much of its industry and its mountain defences in the west. The rest of Czechoslovakia was left weak and powerless to resist subsequent occupation. In the following months, Czechoslovakia was broken up and ceased to exist, as Germany occupied the Sudetenland; Hungary took part of Slovakia, including [[Carpathian Ruthenia]]; and Poland annexed [[Trans-Olza]]. On 15 March 1939, the German ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' moved into the remainder of Czechoslovakia, and from [[Prague Castle]], Hitler proclaimed [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]] to be the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]], completing the [[German occupation of Czechoslovakia]]. Slovakia separated and created under a [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|puppet government of Germany]].

In March 1939, Chamberlain foresaw a possible disarmament conference between himself, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini and [[Stalin]]. [[British Home Secretary]], [[Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|Samuel Hoare]], said, "These five men, working together in Europe and blessed in their efforts by the [[President of the United States|President of the United States of America]], might make themselves eternal benefactors of the human race".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081214212333/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,789498,00.html International: Peace Week], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine, 20 March 1939</ref>

In effect, the British and French had by the Munich negotiations pressured their ally of Czechoslovakia to cede part of its territory to a hostile neighbour in order to preserve peace. Churchill likened the negotiations at [[Berchtesgaden|Berchtesgarten]], [[Bad Godesberg]] and [[Munich]] to a man demanding £1, then, when it is offered, demanding £2, then when it is refused settling for £1.17s.6d.<ref name=Churchill>Winston Churchill, ''The Gathering Storm'', 1948</ref> British leaders committed to the Munich Agreement in spite of their awareness of Hitler's vulnerability at the time. In August 1938, General [[Ludwig Beck]] relayed a message to Lord Halifax to explain that most of the [[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht|German General Staff]] had prepared a [[Oster conspiracy|coup against the Fuhrer]] for if there was "proof that England will fight if Czechoslovakia is attacked". When Chamberlain received the news, he dismissed it out of hand. In September, the British received assurance that the General Staff's offer to launch the coup still stood with key private sector police and army support, even though Beck had resigned his post.<ref name="Nigel Jones Pp. 60-65">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wgj8EWapQYgC&q=chamberlain%2C+beck|title=Countdown to Valkyrie: The July Plot to Assassinate Hitler|first=Nigel|last=Jones|publisher=Casemate Publishers|isbn=9781848325081 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Chamberlain ultimately ceded to all of Hitler's demands at Munich because he believed Britain and Nazi Germany were "the two pillars of European peace and buttresses against communism".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://winstonchurchill.org/publications/finest-hour/finest-hour-162/munich-timeline/|title=Munich Timeline|website=International Churchill Society}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILnFyBpfOOwC&dq=pillars+of+peace%2C+buttresses+against+communism&pg=PA18|title=The British Political Elite and the Soviet Union|first=Louise Grace|last=Shaw|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135761271 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

Czechoslovakia had a modern well-prepared military, and Hitler, on entering [[Prague]], conceded that a war would have cost Germany much blood{{sfn|Grant Duff|1938|p=137}}<ref name=Churchill/> but the decision by France and Britain not to defend Czechoslovakia in the event of war and the exclusion from the equation of the Soviet Union, which Chamberlain distrusted, meant that the outcome would have been uncertain.<ref name=Churchill/> The event forms the main part of what became known as [[Western betrayal|Munich betrayal]] ({{lang-cs|Mnichovská zrada}}) in Czechoslovakia and the rest of Eastern Europe,<ref name="rozhoupaly">[[František Halas]], {{lang|cs|Torzo naděje}} (1938), poem "{{lang|cs|Zpěv úzkosti}}", "{{lang|cs|Zvoní zvoní zrady zvon zrady zvon, Čí ruce ho rozhoupaly, Francie sladká hrdý Albion, a my jsme je milovali}}"</ref> as the Czechoslovak view was that Britain and France had pressured it to cede territory to prevent a major war, which would involve Western Europe. The Western view is that the pressure was done to save Czechoslovakia from total annihilation.

====German annexation of Lithuania's Klaipėda Region====
{{main| 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania}}
Rumours had reached the [[Lithuania]]n government to the effect that Germany had specific plans to take over [[Klaipėda]]. On 12 March 1939, Foreign Minister [[Juosas Urbšys]] represented Lithuania at the coronation of Pope [[Pius XII]] in Rome. On Urbšys's return to Lithuania, he stopped in Berlin with the hope of clarifying the growing rumours.<ref name=eidintas>{{cite book | last=Eidintas | first=Alfonsas |author2=Vytautas Žalys|author3=Alfred Erich Senn | editor=Ed. Edvardas Tuskenis | title=Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918–1940 | edition=Paperback | publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] | location=New York | isbn=0-312-22458-3 | pages=161–166}}</ref> On 20 March, just five days after the [[occupation of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany|German occupation of Prague]], German Foreign Minister [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] agreed to meet Urbšys but not the Lithuanian Ambassador to Berlin, [[Kazys Škirpa]], who was asked to wait in another room. The conversation lasted for about 40 minutes.<ref name=cd117>{{cite book | last=Skirius | first=Juozas | title=Gimtoji istorija. Nuo 7 iki 12 klasės | url=http://mkp.emokykla.lt/gimtoji/ | access-date=14 March 2008 | year=2002 | publisher=Elektroninės leidybos namai | location=Vilnius | isbn=9986-9216-9-4 | chapter=Klaipėdos krašto aneksija 1939–1940 m. | chapter-url=http://mkp.emokykla.lt/gimtoji/?id=10117 | language=lt | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226131025/http://mkp.emokykla.lt/gimtoji/ | archive-date=26 February 2008 | url-status=dead}}</ref> Ribbentrop demanded the return of Klaipėda to Germany and threatened military action. Urbšys relayed the verbal ultimatum to the Lithuanian government. Because the ultimatum was never set down in writing and did not include a formal deadline, some historians downplay its importance and describe it as a "set of demands", rather than as an ultimatum.<ref name=gerutis>{{cite book | last=Gerutis | first=Albertas | editor=Ed. Albertas Gerutis | translator=Algirdas Budreckis | title=Lithuania: 700 Years | year=1984 | edition=6th | publisher=Manyland Books | location=New York |isbn=0-87141-028-1 | pages=247–249 | chapter=Independent Lithuania| lccn=75-80057 }}</ref> However, it was made clear that force would be used should Lithuania resist, and Lithuania was warned not to seek help from other nations. A clear deadline was not given, but Lithuania was told to make a speedy decision and that any clashes or German casualties would inevitably provoke a response from the [[German military]].<ref name=cd117/>

Lithuania secretly informed the signatories of the [[Klaipėda Convention]] about those demands since technically, Lithuania could not transfer Klaipėda without the signatories' approvals.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=Lithuania Agrees to Yield Memel to Reich After Berlin Asks Speed to Avoid "Clashes" |page=2}}</ref> Italy and Japan supported Germany in the matter, and the United Kingdom and France expressed sympathy for Lithuania but chose not to offer any material assistance and followed a well-publicized policy of [[appeasement of Hitler|appeasing Hitler]]. The British treated the issue in the same way as the earlier Sudeten Crisis and made no plans to assist Lithuania or the other [[Baltic States]] if they were attacked by Germany.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Baltic and the Outbreak of the Second World War |first=John |last=Hiden |author2=Thomas Lane |pages=31–32 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HzrpExvg2XgC&pg=PA26 |year=1992 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn=0-521-53120-9| access-date= 28 June 2010 }}</ref> The Soviets supported Lithuania in principle but did not wish to disrupt their relations with Germany since they were contemplating the [[German-Soviet Pact]].<ref name=cd117/> Without any material international support, Lithuania had no choice but to accept the ultimatum. Lithuanian diplomacy characterized the concession as a "necessary evil" to enable Lithuania to preserve its independence, and it maintained the hope that it was merely a temporary retreat.<ref name=eidintas/>

====Outbreak of World War II and Phoney War====
{{Main|Beginning of World War II|German invasion of Poland|Phoney War}}
By August 1939, Hitler was convinced that the democratic nations would never put up any effective opposition to him. He expressed his contempt for them in a speech that he delivered to his Commanders in Chief: "Our enemies have leaders who are below the average. No personalities. No masters, no men of action.... Our enemies are small fry. I saw them in Munich".<ref>[http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=2287&language=english ''Hitler's Speech to the Commanders in Chief (22 August 1939)''], German History in Documents and Images (GHDI), ''germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org''</ref>

On 1 September 1939, German forces started their [[invasion of Poland]]. Britain and France joined the war against Germany but initially averted serious military involvement during the period known as the [[Phoney War]]. After the [[German invasion of Norway]], opinion turned against Chamberlain's conduct of the war. He resigned after the [[Norway Debate]] in the British House of Commons, and on 10 May 1940 [[Winston Churchill]] became Prime Minister. In July, after the [[Fall of France]], when Britain stood almost alone against Germany, Hitler offered peace. Some politicians both inside and outside the government were willing to consider the offer, but Churchill refused to do so.<ref>Richard Overy, ''"Civilians on the front-line"'', ''The Second World War – Day 2: The Blitz'', The Guardian/The Observer, September 2009</ref> Chamberlain died on 9 November the same year. Churchill delivered a tribute to him in which he said, "Whatever else history may or may not say about these terrible, tremendous years, we can be sure that Neville Chamberlain acted with perfect sincerity according to his lights and strove to the utmost of his capacity and authority, which were powerful, to save the world from the awful, devastating struggle in which we are now engaged".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://winstonchurchill.org/resources/speeches/1940-the-finest-hour/neville-chamberlain/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702233910/http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/speeches/speeches-of-winston-churchill/104-neville-chamberlain|url-status=dead |title=Neville Chamberlain|archivedate=2 July 2010|website=International Churchill Society}}</ref>

==Attitudes==
As the policy of appeasement failed to prevent war, those who advocated it were quickly criticised. Appeasement came to be seen as something to be avoided by those with responsibility for the diplomacy of Britain or any other democratic country. By contrast, the few who stood out against appeasement were seen as "voices in the wilderness whose wise counsels were largely ignored, with almost catastrophic consequences for the nation in 1939–40".<ref name=dnb>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/public/themes/95/95646.html|title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography}}</ref> More recently, however, historians have questioned the accuracy of that simple distinction between appeasers and anti-appeasers. "Few appeasers were really prepared to seek peace at any price; few, if any, anti-appeasers were prepared for Britain to make a stand against aggression whatever the circumstances and wherever the location in which it occurred".<ref name=dnb/>

===Avoiding mistakes of First World War===
Chamberlain's policy in many respects continued the policies of MacDonald and Baldwin and was popular until the failure of the Munich Agreement to stop Hitler in Czechoslovakia. "Appeasement" had been a respectable term between 1919 and 1937 to signify the pursuit of peace.<ref>Medlicott, W.N., Review of "The Roots of Appeasement" by M.Gilbert (1966), in ''The English Historical Review'', Vol. 83, No. 327 (Apr. 1968), p. 430</ref> Many believed after the First World War that wars were started by mistake, in which case the [[League of Nations]] could prevent them; or that they were caused by large-scale armaments, in which case [[disarmament]] was the remedy; or that they were caused by national grievances, in which case the grievances should be redressed peacefully.<ref name=Taylor/> Many thought that the [[Versailles Treaty]] had been unjust, that the [[Auslandsdeutsch|German minorities]] were entitled to self-determination, and that Germany was entitled to equality in armaments.{{citation needed}}

===Government views===
Appeasement was accepted by most of those responsible for British foreign policy in the 1930s; by leading journalists and academics; and by members of the [[British royal family]] such as King [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]] and his successor, [[George VI of the United Kingdom|George VI]].<ref name=dnb/> [[Anti-communism]] was sometimes acknowledged as a deciding factor, as mass labour unrest resurfaced in Britain, and news of [[Great Purge|Stalin's bloody purges]] disturbed the West. A common upper-class slogan was "better [[Hitlerism]] than [[Communism]]".<ref name="bbc.co.uk">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/roadwar/appease/revision/2/|title="An evaluation of the reasons for the British policy of appeasement, 1936–1938" BBC History}}</ref> (In France, right-wingers were sometimes accused of believing "Better Hitler than [[Leon Blum|Blum]]" in reference to the [[French Section of the Workers' International|French Socialist]] Prime Minister [[Léon Blum]] at the time.<ref name="vanityfair.com">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/1999/02/hitchens-199902|title=Imagining Hitler|magazine=Vanity Fair}}</ref> Anti-communism was a motiv of a close ally of Chamberlain, [[Lord Halifax]], who said after he had visited [[Göring]] and met Hitler in Germany in 1936 and 1937: "Nationalism and Racialism is a powerful force but I can't feel that it's either unnatural or immoral! I cannot myself doubt that these fellows are genuine haters of Communism, etc.! And I daresay if we were in their position we might feel the same!"<ref>Andrew Roberts, The Holy Fox. The Life of Lord Halifax (Phoenix, 1997), p. 282.</ref>

Most Conservative MPs were also in favour, but Churchill said that their supporters were divided and in 1936 led a delegation of leading Conservative politicians to express to Baldwin their alarm about the speed of German rearmament and the fact that Britain was falling behind.<ref name=Churchill/> Baldwin rejected their sense of urgency and declared that he would not get Britain to war with anybody "for the League of Nations or anybody else" and that if there were to be any fighting in Europe, "I should like to see the Bolshies and Nazis doing it".<ref>{{cite book|last=Gilbert|first=Martin|title=Winston Churchill, The Wilderness Years|year=1981|publisher=Macmillan|page=161|isbn=0-333-32564-8}}</ref> Amongst Conservatives, Churchill was unusual in believing that Germany menaced freedom and democracy, that British rearmament should proceed more rapidly and that Germany should be resisted over Czechoslovakia. His criticism of Hitler began from the start of the decade, but Churchill was slow to attack [[fascism]] overall because of his own vitriolic opposition to communists, "[[Judeo Bolshevishm|international Jews]]" and [[socialism]] generally.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://winstonchurchill.org/publications/finest-hour-extras/the-creeds-of-the-devil-churchill-between-the-two-totalitarianisms-1917-1945-1-of-3/|title="The Creeds of the Devil": Churchill between the Two Totalitarianisms, 1917-1945 (1 of 3)|website=International Churchill Society}}</ref> Churchill's sustained warnings about fascism commenced only in 1938 after [[Francisco Franco]], who was receiving aid from Italy in Germany during the [[Spanish Civil War]], decimated the [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|left]] in [[Spain]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://winstonchurchill.org/publications/finest-hour-extras/the-creeds-of-the-devil-churchill-between-the-two-totalitarianisms-1917-1945-2-of-3/|title="The Creeds of the Devil": Churchill between the Two Totalitarianisms, 1917-1945 (2 of 3)|website=International Churchill Society}}</ref>

The week before Munich, Churchill warned, "The partition of Czechoslovakia under pressure from the UK and France amounts to the complete surrender of the Western Democracies to the Nazi threat of force. Such a collapse will bring peace or security neither to the UK nor to France".<ref name=Churchill/> He and a few other Conservatives who refused to vote for the Munich settlement were attacked by their local constituency parties.<ref name=Churchill/> However, Churchill's subsequent leadership of Britain during the war and his role in creating the [[post-war consensus]] against appeasement have tended to obscure the fact that "his contemporary criticism of totalitarian regimes other than Hitler's Germany was at best muted".<ref name=dnb/> It was not until May 1938 that he began "consistently to withhold his support from the [[National Government (1937–1939)|National Government]]'s conduct of foreign policy in the division lobbies of the House of Commons". He seems "to have been convinced by the Sudeten German leader, Henlein, in the spring of 1938, that a satisfactory settlement could be reached if Britain managed to persuade the Czech government to make concessions to the German minority".<ref name=dnb/>

===Military views===
In Britain, the [[Royal Navy]] generally favoured appeasement although it was during the [[Abyssinia Crisis]] of 1937 that it was confident it could easily defeat the [[Regia Marina|Royal Italian Navy]] in open warfare. However, it favoured appeasement because it did not want to commit a large fraction of its naval power to the [[Mediterranean Sea]], which would weaken its positions against Germany and Japan.<ref>Arthur Marder, "The Royal Navy and the Ethiopian Crisis of 1935–36." ''American Historical Review'' 75.5 (1970): 1327–1356. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1844481 online]</ref> In 1938, the Royal Navy approved appeasement regarding Munich because it calculated that Britain then lacked the political and military resources to intervene and to maintain an imperial defence capability simultaneously.<ref>G. A. H. Gordon, "The admiralty and appeasement." ''Naval History'' 5.2 (1991): 44+.</ref><ref>Joseph Maiolo , ''The Royal Navy and Nazi Germany, 1933–39: A Study in Appeasement and the Origins of the Second World War'' (1998).</ref>

Public opinion in Britain throughout the 1930s was frightened by the prospect of German [[strategic bombing|terror bombing]] of British cities, which had started during the First World War. The media emphasised the dangers, and the general consensus was that defence was impossible and, as Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin had said in 1932, "[[The bomber will always get through]]".<ref>John Terraine, "The Spectre of the Bomber," ''History Today'' (1982) 32#4 pp. 6–9.</ref> However, the [[Royal Air Force]] had two major weapons systems in the works: better [[Interceptor aircraft|interceptors]] ([[Hawker Hurricane|Hurricanes]] and [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfires]]) and especially [[radar in World War II|radar]]. They promised to counter the German bombing offensive but were not yet ready and so appeasement was necessary to cause a delay.<ref>Zara Steiner, ''The triumph of the dark: European international history 1933–1939'' (2011) pp 606–9, 772.</ref><ref>Walter Kaiser, "A case study in the relationship of history of technology and of general history: British radar technology and Neville Chamberlain's appeasement policy." ''Icon'' (1996) 2: 29–52. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23790399 online]</ref> Specifically, regarding the fighters, the RAF warned the government in October 1938 that the German [[Luftwaffe]] bombers would probably get through: "the situation... will be definitely unsatisfactory throughout the next twelve months".<ref>N. H. Gibbs, ''Grand Strategy. Vol. 1'' 1976) p 598.</ref>

In France, the [[history of the Armée de l'Air (1909–1942)|Armée de l'Air]] intelligence section closely examined the strength of the [[Luftwaffe]] and decided the German [[Fighter aircraft|pursuit planes]] and [[bomber]]s were the best in the world and that the Germans were producing 1000 warplanes a month. It perceived decisive German [[air supremacy|air superiority]] and so it was pessimistic about its ability to defend Czechoslovakia in 1938. [[Guy La Chambre]], the civilian air minister, optimistically informed the government that the air force could stop the Luftwaffe. However, General [[Joseph Vuillemin]], air force chief of staff, warned that it was far inferior and consistently opposed war against Germany.<ref>Peter Jackson, 'La perception de la puissance aérienne allemande et son influence sur la politique extérieure française pendant les crises internationales de 1938 à 1939', ''Revue Historique des Armées'', 4 (1994), pp. 76–87</ref>

===Opposition parties===
The [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] opposed the fascist dictators on principle but until the late 1930s also opposed rearmament and had a significant [[pacifist]] wing.<ref name=toye>{{citation |first=Richard |last=Toye |url=https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10036/26952/Rearmament.pdf |title=The Labour Party and the Economics of Rearmament, 1935–1939 |journal=Twentieth Century British History |volume=12 |year=2001 |issue=3 |pages=303–326|doi=10.1093/tcbh/12.3.303 |hdl=10036/26952 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>Rhiannon Vickers, ''The Labour Party and the World: The evolution of Labour's foreign policy'', Manchester University Press, 2003, Chapter 5</ref> In 1935, its pacifist leader, [[George Lansbury]], resigned after a party resolution in favour of sanctions against Italy, which he opposed. He was replaced by [[Clement Attlee]], who at first opposed rearmament by advocating the abolition of national armaments and a world [[peacekeeping]] force under the direction of the League of Nations.<ref>{{cite Hansard |url=http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1935/mar/11/defence |title=Defence |volume=299 |column=35-174 |house=Commons |access-date=20 March 2013}}</ref> However, with the rising threat from [[Nazi Germany]] and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations, that policy eventually lost credibility, and in 1937, [[Ernest Bevin]] and [[Hugh Dalton]] persuaded the party to support rearmament<ref>A.J.Davies, ''To Build A New Jerusalem: The British Labour Party from Keir Hardie to Tony Blair'', Abacus, 1996</ref> and oppose appeasement.<ref>''Clem Attlee: A Biography By Francis Beckett'', Richard Cohen Books, {{ISBN|1-86066-101-7}}</ref>

A few on the left said that Chamberlain looked forward to a war between Germany and the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name=Taylor/> Attlee claimed in one political speech in 1937 that the [[Third National Government 1935–1937|National Government]] had connived at German rearmament "because of its hatred of Russia".<ref name=toye/> British communists, following the party line defined by [[Joseph Stalin]],<ref>Teddy J. Uldricks, "Russian Historians Reevaluate the Origins of World War II," ''History & Memory'' Volume 21, Number 2, Fall/Winter 2009, pp. 60–82 (in Project Muse)</ref> argued that appeasement had been a pro-fascist policy and that the British ruling class preferred fascism to socialism. The [[Communist Party of Great Britain|Communist]] MP [[Willie Gallacher (politician)|Willie Gallacher]] said that "many prominent representatives of the Conservative Party, speaking for powerful landed and financial interests in the country, would welcome Hitler and the German Army if they believed that such was the only alternative to the establishment of Socialism in this country".<ref>Willie Gallacher, ''The Chosen Few'', Lawrence and Wishart, 1940</ref>

===Public opinion===
British public opinion had been strongly opposed to war and rearmament in the early 1930s, but that began to shift by mid-decade. At a [[King and Country debate|debate]] at the [[Oxford Union|Oxford Union Society]] in 1933, a group of undergraduates passed a motion saying that they would not fight for King and country, which persuaded some in Germany that Britain would never go to war.<ref name=Churchill/> Baldwin told the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] that in 1933, he had been unable to pursue a policy of rearmament because of the strong pacifist sentiment in the country.<ref name=Churchill/> In 1935, eleven million responded to the League of Nations "[[Peace Ballot]]" by pledging support for the reduction of armaments by international agreement.<ref name=Churchill/> On the other hand, the same survey also found that 58.7% of British voters favoured "collective military sanctions" against aggressors, and public reaction to the [[Hoare-Laval Pact]] with Mussolini was extremely unfavorable.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f9RmAAAAMAAJ&q=collective+military+sanctions|title=A History of Europe in the Twentieth Century|first=Eric Dorn|last=Brose|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-513571-8 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Even the left wing of the pacifist movement quickly began to turn with the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, and many peace-balloters began signing up for the [[International Brigades in Spain|International Brigades]] to fight Franco. By the height of the Spanish conflict in 1937, the majority of young pacifists had modified their views to accept that war could be a legitimate response to aggression and fascism.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SR40wrSV5IgC&q=fighting+pacifist|title=Crusade of the Left|first=Rosenstone, Robert|last=A|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=9781412820806 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>[https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-205855360/parting-with-pacifism-in-the-mid-1930s-many-millions Richard Overy, "Parting with Pacifism: In the Mid-1930s Many Millions of British People Voted Overwhelmingly against Any Return to Conflict. but Events in Spain Changed Public Opinion" History Today, Vol. 59, No. 8, August 2009]</ref>

Czechoslovakia did not concern most people until mid-September 1938, when they began to object to a small democratic state being bullied.<ref name=Taylor/>{{sfn|Grant Duff|1938|p=}} Nevertheless, the initial response of the British public to the Munich agreement was generally favourable.<ref name=Taylor/> As Chamberlain left for Munich in 1938, the whole House of Commons cheered him noisily. On 30 September, on his return to Britain, Chamberlain delivered his famous "peace for our time" speech to delighted crowds. He was invited by the royal family onto the balcony at [[Buckingham Palace]] before he had reported to Parliament. The agreement was supported by most of the press, with only ''[[Reynold's News]]'' and the ''[[Morning Star (British newspaper)|Daily Worker]]'' dissenting.<ref name=Taylor/> In Parliament, the Labour Party opposed the agreement. Some Conservatives abstained in the vote, but the only MP to advocate war was the Conservative [[Duff Cooper]], who had resigned from the government to protest the agreement.<ref name=Taylor/>

===Role of media===
Positive opinion of appeasement was shaped partly by [[media manipulation]]. The German correspondent for the ''[[Times of London]]'', [[Norman Ebbutt]], charged that his persistent reports about Nazi militarism had been suppressed by his editor, [[Geoffrey Dawson]]. Historians such as [[Richard Cockett]], [[William L. Shirer|William Shirer]] and [[Frank McDonough]] have confirmed the claim<ref>{{Cite thesis|url=https://open.library.ubc.ca/soa/cIRcle/collections/ubctheses/831/items/1.0094711|title="Public opinion," appeasement, and The Times : manipulating consent in the 1930s|first=David J.|last=Gossen|publisher=University of British Columbia |doi=10.14288/1.0094711 |via=open.library.ubc.ca}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://richardcockett.co.uk/book/twilight-of-truth-chamberlain-appeasement-and-the-manipulation-of-the-press/|title=Twilight of Truth: Chamberlain, Appeasement and The Manipulation of the Press {{!}} Richard Cockett|work=Richard Cockett|access-date=2 November 2017}}</ref> and have also noted the links between ''[[The Observer]]'' The results of an October 1938 [[Gallup (company)|Gallup poll]], which showed 86% of the public believed Hitler was lying about his future territorial ambitions, was censored from the ''[[News Chronicle]]'' at the last minute by the publisher, who was loyal to Chamberlain.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bl86p8IbAt0C&q=media&pg=PA5|title=Troublesome Young Men: The Rebels Who Brought Churchill to Power and Helped Save England|first=Lynne|last=Olson|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|isbn=9781429923644 |via=Google Books}}</ref> For the few journalists who were asking challenging questions about appeasement, primarily members of the foreign press, Chamberlain often froze them out or intimidated them. When asked at press conferences about Hitler's abuse of Jews and other minority groups, he went so far as to denounce these reports as "Jewish-Communist [[propaganda]]".<ref>Olson, Lynne (2008) [https://books.google.com/books?id=bl86p8IbAt0C&q=jewish-communist&pg=PA5 ''Troublesome Young Men: The Rebels Who Brought Churchill to Power and Helped Save England''] New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 120–22]</ref>

Chamberlain's direct manipulation of the BBC was sustained and egregious.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/journal_contribution/A_quietening_effect_The_BBC_and_the_Spanish_Civil_War_1936-1939_/9473972/1|title=A quietening effect ? The BBC and the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)|first=David|last=Deacon|journal=Media History|via=repository.lboro.ac.uk|doi=10.1080/13688804.2012.663866|s2cid=142206339}}</ref> For example, Lord Halifax told radio producers not to offend Hitler and Mussolini, and they complied by censoring [[anti-fascist]] commentary made by Labour and [[Popular Front (UK)|Popular Front]] MPs. The BBC also suppressed the fact that 15,000 people protested the prime minister in [[Trafalgar Square]] as he returned from Munich in 1938 (10,000 more than welcomed him at [[10 Downing Street]]).<ref>McDonough, Frank (1998). [https://books.google.com/books?id=3tQoAEo9Y6oC&dq=appeasement%2C+public+opinion&pg=PA114 ''Neville Chamberlain, Appeasement, and the British Road to War''.] Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 124–33.]</ref> The BBC radio producers continued to censor news of [[Holocaust|persecution of Jews]] even after the war broken out, as Chamberlain still held out [[Phoney War|hopes of a quick armistice]] and did not want to inflame the atmosphere.<ref>Olson, Lynne (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=bl86p8IbAt0C&q=media&pg=PA5 ''Troublesome Young Men: The Rebels Who Brought Churchill to Power and Helped Save England''.] New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 258.</ref> As [[Richard Cockett]] noted:

<blockquote>[Chamberlain] had successfully demonstrated how a government in a democracy could influence and control the press to a remarkable degree. The danger in this for Chamberlain was that he preferred to forget that he exercised such influence, and so increasingly mistook his pliant press for real public opinion... the truth of the matter was that by controlling the press he was merely ensuring that the press was unable to reflect public opinion.<ref>Cited in Caputi, Robert J. (2000). [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWQcos95hHsC&q=public+opinion ''Neville Chamberlain and Appeasement''.] Susquehanna University Press, pp. 168–69.</ref></blockquote>

The journalist [[Shiela Grant Duff]]'s [[Penguin Group|Penguin]] Special, ''[[Europe and the Czechs]]'', was published and distributed to every MP on the day that Chamberlain returned from Munich. Her book was a spirited defence of the Czech nation and a detailed criticism of British policy and confronted the need for war if necessary. It was influential and widely read. Although she argued against the policy of "peace at almost any price",{{sfn|Grant Duff|1938|p=201}} she did not take a personal tone, unlike ''[[Guilty Men]]'' two years later.

===At start of World War II===
Once Germany invaded Poland and so ignited [[World War II]], consensus was that appeasement was responsible. The Labour MP [[Hugh Dalton]] identified the policy with wealthy people in the [[City of London]], Conservatives and members of the [[peerage]] who were soft on Hitler.<ref>Dalton, H. ''Hitler's War'', London, Penguin Books, 1940</ref> The appointment of Churchill as Prime Minister after the [[Norway Debate]] hardened opinion against appeasement and encouraged the search for those responsible. Three British journalists, [[Michael Foot]], [[Frank Owen (politician)|Frank Owen]] and [[Peter Howard (journalist)|Peter Howard]], writing under the name of "Cato" in their book ''[[Guilty Men]]'', called for the removal from office of 15 public figures they held accountable, including Chamberlain. The book defined appeasement as the "deliberate surrender of small nations in the face of Hitler's blatant bullying". It was hastily written and has few claims to historical scholarship,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/public/themes/70/70401.html|title=''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''}}</ref> but ''Guilty Men'' shaped subsequent thinking about appeasement, and it is said<ref>David Willets and Richard Forsdyke, ''After the Landslide'', London: Centre For Policy Studies, 1999</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://spectator.org/archives/2010/03/08/epitaph-for-a-liar|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017233251/http://spectator.org/archives/2010/03/08/epitaph-for-a-liar|url-status=dead |title=Hal G.P. Colebatch, "Epitaph for a Liar", ''American Spectator'', 3.8.10|archivedate=17 October 2011}}</ref> that it contributed to the defeat of the Conservatives in the [[1945 United Kingdom general election|1945 general election]].

The change in the meaning of "appeasement" after Munich was summarised later by the historian [[David Dilks]]: "The word in its normal meaning connotes the pacific settlement of disputes; in the meaning usually applied to the period of Neville Chamberlain['s] premiership, it has come to indicate something sinister, the granting from fear or cowardice of unwarranted concessions in order to buy temporary peace at someone else's expense."<ref>Dilks, D. N. (1972). "Appeasement Revisited", ''Journal of Contemporary History''.</ref>{{clear left}}

===Postwar historians===
Churchill's book ''[[The Second World War (book series)|The Gathering Storm]]'', published in 1948, made a similar judgment to ''Guilty Men'' though in moderate tones. The book and Churchill's authority confirmed the orthodox view.{{citation needed}}

Historians have subsequently explained Chamberlain's policies in various ways. It could be said that he believed sincerely that the objectives of Hitler and Mussolini were limited and that the settlement of their grievances would protect the world from war since for safety, military and air power should be strengthened. Many have judged that belief to be fallacious since the dictators' demands were not limited, and appeasement merely gave them time to gain greater strength.

One of the first dissents to the prevailing criticism of appeasement was made by [[John F. Kennedy]] in his 1940 [[Harvard College]] thesis, ''[[Why England Slept]]'', in which he argued that appeasement had been necessary because the United Kingdom and France were unprepared for a world war.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kennedy|first=John F.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/929588770|title=Why England slept|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4408-4990-9|oclc=929588770}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite web|last=Shachtman|first=Tom|title=It's Time to Abandon 'Munich'|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/09/29/its-time-to-abandon-munich/|access-date=1 May 2021|website=Foreign Policy}}</ref>

In 1961, the view of appeasement as avoidable error and cowardice was similarly set on its head by [[A.J.P. Taylor]] in his book ''[[The Origins of the Second World War]]''. Taylor argued that Hitler did not have a blueprint for war and behaved much as any other German leader might have. Appeasement was an active policy, not a passive one, and allowing Hitler to consolidate was a policy implemented by "men confronted with real problems, doing their best in the circumstances of their time". Taylor said that appeasement ought to be seen as a rational response to an unpredictable leader that was both diplomatically and politically appropriate to the time.

His view has been shared by other historians. For example [[Paul Kennedy]], who says of the choices facing politicians at the time, "Each course brought its share of disadvantages: there was only a choice of evils. The crisis in the British global position by this time was such that it was, in the last resort, insoluble, in the sense that there was no good or proper solution".<ref name=Kennedy>{{cite book|last=Kennedy|first=Paul M.|author-link=Paul Kennedy|title=Strategy and Diplomacy, 1870–1945: Eight Studies|publisher=George Allen & Unwin|year=1983|location=London|isbn=0-00-686165-2}}</ref> [[Martin Gilbert]] expressed a similar view: "At bottom, the old appeasement was a mood of hope, [[Victorian era|Victorian]] in its optimism, [[Edmund Burke|Burkean]] in its belief that societies evolved from bad to good and that [[progress]] could only be for the better. The new appeasement was a mood of fear, [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbesian]] in its insistence upon swallowing the bad in order to preserve some remnant of the good, pessimistic in its belief that Nazism was there to stay and, however horrible it might be, should be accepted as a way of life with which Britain ought to deal".<ref>Gilbert, M., ''The Roots of Appeasement'', 1968</ref>

The arguments in Taylor's ''Origins of the Second World War'', which have sometimes been described as "[[Historical revisionism|revisionist]]",<ref name=Taylor/><ref name=Dimuccio>Dimuccio, R.A.B. (March 1998). "The Study of Appeasement in International Relations: Polemics, Paradigms, and Problems", ''Journal of Peace Research'', Vol. 35, No. 2.</ref> were rejected by many historians at the time, and reviews of his book in Britain and the United States were generally critical. Nevertheless, he was praised for some of his insights. By showing that appeasement was a popular policy and that there was a continuity in British foreign policy after 1933, he shattered the common view of the appeasers as a small degenerate clique that had mysteriously hijacked the British government sometime in the 1930s that had carried out their policies in the face of massive public resistance. Also, by portraying the leaders of the 1930s as real people attempting to deal with real problems, he made the first strides towards explaining the actions of the appeasers, rather than merely condemning them.

In the early 1990s a new theory of appeasement, sometimes called "counter-revisionist",<ref name=Dimuccio/> emerged as historians argued that appeasement was probably the only choice for the British government in the 1930s but that it was poorly implemented, carried out too late and not enforced strongly enough to constrain Hitler. Appeasement was considered a viable policy because of the strains that the British Empire faced in recuperating from World War I, and Chamberlain was said to have adopted a policy suitable to Britain's cultural and political needs. [[Frank McDonough]] is a leading proponent of that view of appeasement, which was described his book ''Neville Chamberlain, Appeasement and the British Road to War''<ref>McDonough, Frank (1998). ''Neville Chamberlain, Appeasement and the British Road to War'', Manchester University Press.</ref> as a "post revisionist" study.<ref>See, for example, McDonough, F., Brown, R., and Smith, D., ''Hitler, Chamberlain and Appeasement'', 2002</ref> Appeasement was a crisis management strategy seeking a peaceful settlement of Hitler's grievances. "Chamberlain's worst error", says McDonough, "was to believe that he could march Hitler on the yellow brick road to peace when in reality Hitler was marching very firmly on the road to war". He criticised revisionist historians for concentrating on Chamberlain's motivations, rather than how appeasement worked in practice, as a "usable policy" to deal with Hitler. [[James P. Levy]] argues against the outright condemnation of appeasement. "Knowing what Hitler did later", he writes, "the critics of Appeasement condemn the men who tried to keep the peace in the 1930s, men who could not know what would come later.... The political leaders responsible for Appeasement made many errors. They were not blameless. But what they attempted was logical, rational, and humane".<ref name=levy>Levy, James P. (2006). ''Appeasement and rearmament: Britain, 1936–1939'', Rowman and Littlefield.</ref>

The view of Chamberlain colluding with Hitler to attack the Soviet Union has persisted, however, particularly on the far left.<ref>See, for example, Clement Leibovitz and Alvin Finkel, ''In Our Time: The Chamberlain–Hitler Collusion'', [[Monthly Review Press]], 1997 {{ISBN|0-85345-999-1}}</ref> In 1999, [[Christopher Hitchens]] wrote that Chamberlain "had made a cold calculation that Hitler should be re-armed... partly to encourage his 'tough-minded' solution to the [[Bolshevik]] problem in the East".<ref name="vanityfair.com"/> Consciously encouraging war with Stalin is not widely accepted to be a motive of the [[Downing Street]] appeasers, but there is a historical consensus that anti-communism was central to appeasement's appeal for the conservative elite.<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/> As [[Antony Beevor]] writes, "The policy of appeasement was not Neville Chamberlin's invention. Its roots lay in a fear of bolshevism. The [[General Strike of 1926|general strike of 1926]] and the depression made the possibility of revolution a very real concern to conservative politicians. As a result, they had mixed feelings towards the German and Italian regimes which had crushed the communists and socialists in their own countries".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-mayoYS6eIC&dq=Its+roots+lay+in+a+fear+of+bolshevism.+beevor&pg=PA133|title=The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936-1939|first=Antony|last=Beevor|publisher=Penguin|isbn=9781101201206 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

===Postwar politicians===
{{Main|Lesson of Munich}}
Statesmen in the postwar years have often referred to their opposition to appeasement as a justification for firm, sometimes armed, action in international relations.

U.S. President [[Harry S. Truman]] thus explained his decision to enter the [[Korean War]] in 1950, British Prime Minister [[Anthony Eden]] in his confrontation of [[Egypt]]ian [[President of Egypt|President]] [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] in the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956, U.S. President [[John F. Kennedy]] his "[[Cuban Missile Crisis|quarantine]]" of [[Cuba]] in 1962, U.S. President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in [[Vietnam War|his resistance]] to [[communism]] in [[Indochina]] in the 1960s, U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] in his [[1986 United States bombing of Libya|his air strike]] on [[Libya]] in 1986, and U.S. President [[Donald Trump]] in the [[drone strike]] that led to the [[Assassination of Qasem Soleimani|assassination]] of [[Qasem Soleimani]] in 2020.<ref>Beck, R.J., "Munich's Lessons Reconsidered", ''International Security'', Vol. 14, No. 2, (Autumn, 1989), pp. 161–91</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web|last=Cummings|first=William|title=Secretary of State Pompeo blames current tension with Iran on 'Obama administration's appeasement'|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/01/05/pompeo-blames-obama-iran-situation/2818151001/|access-date=18 October 2020|website=USA TODAY}}</ref>

After the [[Viet Minh]] won the [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu]] in 1954, U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] wrote in a letter to British Prime Minister Churchill, "We failed to halt Hirohito, Mussolini and Hitler by not acting in unity and in time. That marked the beginning of many years of stark tragedy and desperate peril. May it not be that our nations have learned something from that lesson?" Similarly, President Lyndon Johnson said to defend the Vietnam War, "Everything I knew about history told me that if I got out of Vietnam and let [[Ho Chi Minh]] run through the streets of [[Ho Chi Minh City|Saigon]], then I'd be doing exactly what Chamberlain did in World War II. I'd be giving a big fat reward to aggression".<ref name=":1" />

During the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]], U.S. Air Force Chief of Staff [[Curtis LeMay]] and various hawks within the [[Kennedy administration]] for an air strike on Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba compared Kennedy's hesitance to do so to appeasement. That was partially a jab at Kennedy's father [[Joseph P. Kennedy Sr.]], who had supported appeasement while he was [[list of ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom|U.S. Ambassador to the United Kingdom]] and later supported a negotiated surrender to Germany during the [[War cabinet crisis, May 1940|May 1940 War Cabinet Crisis]] and the [[Battle of Britain]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Dobbs|first=Michael |title=One minute to midnight: Kennedy, Khrushchev, and Castro on the brink of nuclear war|isbn=978-1-4000-4358-3|edition=1st |location=New York|oclc=176951842}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

During the [[Cold War]], the "lessons" of appeasement were cited by prominent conservative allies of Reagan, who urged him to be assertive in "[[rollback|rolling back]]" Soviet-backed regimes throughout the world. [[The Heritage Foundation]]'s [[Michael Johns (policy analyst)|Michael Johns]], for instance, wrote in 1987 that "seven years after Ronald Reagan's arrival in Washington, the United States government and its allies are still dominated by the culture of appeasement that drove Neville Chamberlain to Munich in 1938."<ref>Johns, Michael (Summer 1987). "Peace in Our Time: The Spirit of Munich Lives On", ''Policy Review''.</ref> Some conservatives even compared Reagan to Chamberlain after his withdrawal of the [[Multinational Force in Lebanon]] because of the [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing]].<ref name=":1" />

British Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] invoked the example of Churchill during the [[Falklands War]] of 1982: "When the [[United States Secretary of State|American Secretary of State]], [[Alexander Haig]], urged her to reach a compromise with the [[Argentina|Argentines]] she rapped sharply on the table and told him, pointedly, 'that this was the table at which Neville Chamberlain sat in 1938 and spoke of the [[Czechs]] as a faraway people about whom we know so little'".<ref>{{cite book|title=Thatcher|first=Kenneth|last=Harris|isbn=0-00-637457-3|page=135|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|year=1988}}</ref> Thatcher, along with U.S. National Security Advisor [[Brent Scowcroft]], made similar arguments after the [[Invasion of Kuwait|1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait]] and the planning for the [[Gulf War]].<ref name=":1" /> The spectre of appeasement was raised in discussions of the [[Yugoslav wars]] of the 1990s.<ref>Vuilliamy, E. (1998). "Bosnia: The Crime of Appeasement", ''International Affairs '', 1998, pp. 73–91.</ref>

U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] and British Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] also cited Churchill's warnings about German rearmament to justify their action in the run-up to the 2003 [[Iraq War]].<ref name=ChurchillCollege>{{cite web| title=Appeasement: The Gathering Storm (Teachers Exercises)|url=http://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/archives/churchill_era/exercises/appeasement/|publisher=Churchill College Cambridge}}</ref>

In 2013, [[Obama|Obama administration]] officials such as Secretary of State [[John Kerry]] and Secretary of Defense [[Chuck Hagel]] claimed that a failure of the United States to intervene in the [[Syrian Civil War]] after the [[Ghouta chemical attack]] would be an act of appeasement towards [[Bashar al-Assad]].<ref name=":1" />

In May 2008, U.S. President George W. Bush cautioned against "the false comfort of appeasement" when dealing with [[Iran]] and
[[Iranian President]] [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]].<ref>Thomas, E. (23 June 2008). "The Mythology of Munich", ''Newsweek'', Vol. 151, issue 25, pp. 22–26.</ref> Opponents of President [[Barack Obama]] later criticized the [[Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action]] as an act of appeasement with Iran.<ref>{{cite web|last=Loyola|first=Mario|title=Obama Should Never Have Appeased Iran|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/01/obama-should-never-have-appeased-iran/604744/|access-date=18 October 2020|website=The Atlantic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Picard|first=Joe|title=Appeasing Iran?|url=https://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/foreign-policy/251828-appeasing-iran|access-date=18 October 2020|website=TheHill}}</ref> U.S. Secretary of State [[Mike Pompeo]] later stated that the [[Foreign policy of the Donald Trump administration|Trump administration's foreign policy]] was "trying to correct for what was the Obama administration's appeasement of Iran."<ref name=":0" />

The Dutch politician [[Ayaan Hirsi Ali]] demands a confrontational policy at the European level to meet the threat of [[Islamic extremism|radical Islam]] and compares policies of non-confrontation to [[Neville Chamberlain's European Policy|Neville Chamberlain's appeasement]] of Hitler.<ref>{{in lang|nl}} ''[http://zoek.volkskrant.nl/artikel?text=bawer&ADOC=18 Confrontatie, geen verzoening]'', [[de Volkskrant]], 8 April 2006, [http://ayaanhirsiali.web-log.nl/ayaanhirsiali/2006/04/ayaan_confronta.html copy here]</ref>

[[Tibetan independence movement|Tibetan separatists]] consider the policy of the West towards [[China]] with regard to [[Tibet]] as appeasement.<ref> McRae, Penny (15 September 2009). "West appeasing China on Tibet, says PM-in-exile", AFP.</ref>

Some commentators have suggested that some [[NATO]] countries are following the policy of appeasement towards [[Vladimir Putin]]'s [[Russia]] by rejecting the support of [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] democracy through military operations during the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Appeasing Putin in Ukraine would be disastrous for European security|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/ukrainealert/appeasing-putin-in-ukraine-would-be-disastrous-for-european-security/|website=Atlantic Council|accessdate=5 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=NATO rejects Ukraine no-fly zone, unhappy Zelenskiy says this means more bombing|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/nato-meets-ukraine-calls-no-fly-zone-hinder-russia-2022-03-04/|work=Reuters|accessdate=5 March 2022|first1=Simon|last1=Lewis|first2=Ingrid|last2=Melander}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The west knows the cost of appeasement. We can't rule out any option for stopping Putin {{!}} Ian Bond|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/feb/22/west-appeasement-putin-russia-ukraine|website=The Guardian|date=22 February 2022|accessdate=5 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Bella |first=Timothy |title=Kissinger says Ukraine should cede territory to Russia to end war |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/05/24/henry-kissinger-ukraine-russia-territory-davos/}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
* [[Confidence and security-building measures]]
* [[Containment]]
* [[Danegeld]]
* [[Détente]]
* [[Deterrence theory]]
* [[International relations (1919–1939)]]
* [[Mutual Assured Destruction]]
* [[Peace through strength]]
* ''[[Realpolitik]]''
* ''[[Why Die for Danzig?]]''
* ''[[Why England Slept]]''

{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |last1=Grant Duff |first1=Sheila |title=Europe and the Czechs |year=1938 |ref={{harvid|Grant Duff|1938}} |publisher=Penguin |location=London }}

==Further reading==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[R.J.Q. Adams|Adams, R.J.Q.]], ''British Politics and Foreign Policy in the Age of Appeasement, 1935–1939'' (1993)
* Alexandroff A. and Rosecrance R., "Deterrence in 1939," ''World Politics'' 29#3 (1977), pp. 404–24.
* Beck R.J., "Munich's Lessons Reconsidered" in ''International Security'', 14, 1989
* Bouverie, Tim. ''Appeasement: Chamberlain, Hitler, Churchill, and the Road to War'' (2019) [https://www.wsj.com/articles/appeasement-review-what-were-they-thinking-11572619353 online review]
* Cameron Watt, Donald. '' How War Came: Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938–39'' (1990)
* Doer P.W., ''British Foreign Policy 1919–39'' (1988)
* Duroselle, Jean-Baptiste. ''France and the Nazi Threat: The Collapse of French Diplomacy 1932–1939'' (2004); translation of his highly influential ''La décadence, 1932–1939'' (1979)
* Dutton D., ''Neville Chamberlain''
* Faber, David. ''Munich, 1938: Appeasement and World War II'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Munich-1938-Appeasement-World-War/dp/143913233X/ excerpt and text search]
* Farmer Alan. ''British Foreign and Imperial Affairs 1919–39'' (2000), textbook
* Feiling, Keith. ''The Life of Neville Chamberlain'' (1947) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.176384 online]
* Gilbert, Martin, ''Winston Churchill, The Wilderness Years.'' (Macmillan, 1981).
* Goddard, Stacie E. "The rhetoric of appeasement: Hitler's legitimation and British foreign policy, 1938–39." ''Security Studies'' 24.1 (2015): 95–130.
* Hill C., ''Cabinet Decisions on Foreign Policy: The British Experience, October 1938 – June 1941'', (1991).
* Hucker, Daniel. ''Public Opinion and the End of Appeasement in Britain and France.'' (Routledge, 2016).
* Jenkins Roy, ''Baldwin'' New York: HarperCollins (1987)
* Johns, Michael, "Peace in Our Time: The Spirit of Munich Lives On", ''Policy Review'' magazine, Summer 1987
* Levy J., ''Appeasement and Rearmament: Britain, 1936–1939'', 2006
* McDonough, F., ''Neville Chamberlain, appeasement, and the British road to war'' (Manchester UP, 1998)
* [[W. J. Mommsen|Mommsen W.J.]] and Kettenacker L. (eds), ''The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement'', London, George Allen & Unwin, 1983 {{ISBN|0-04-940068-1}}.
* Murray, Williamson. "Munich, 1938: The military confrontation." ''Journal of Strategic Studies'' (1979) 2#3 pp. 282–302.
* Neville P., ''Hitler and Appeasement: The British Attempt to Prevent the Second World War'', 2005
* [http://www.oxforddnb.com/public/themes/95/95646.html Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Proponents and Critics of Appeasement]
* Parker, R.A.C. ''Chamberlain and appeasement: British policy and the coming of the Second World War'' (Macmillan, 1993)
* Peden G. C., "A Matter of Timing: The Economic Background to British Foreign Policy, 1937–1939," ''History'', 69, 1984
* Post G., ''Dilemmas of Appeasement: British Deterrence and Defense, 1934–1937'', Cornell UP, 1993.
* Ramsay, Scott. "Ensuring Benevolent Neutrality: The British Government's Appeasement of General Franco during the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939". ''International History Review'' 41:3 (2019): 604–623. DOI: [https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2018.1428211 Ensuring Benevolent Neutrality: The British Government's Appeasement of General Franco during the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939]. [https://issforum.org/reviews/PDF/AR930.pdf online review in H-DIPLO]
* Record, Jeffrey. ''Making War, Thinking History: Munich, Vietnam, and Presidential Uses of Force from Korea to Kosovo'' (Naval Institute Press, 2002).
* Riggs, Bruce Timothy. [https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc278388/m2/1/high_res_d/1002720956-riggs.pdf "Geoffrey Dawson, editor of "The Times" (London), and his contribution to the appeasement movement" (PhD dissertation, U of North Texas, 1993) online], bibliography pp. 229–33.
* Roberts, Andrew. '' 'The Holy Fox’: A Biography of Lord Halifax'' (1991) [https://archive.org/details/holyfoxlifeoflor0000robe online]
* Rock S.R., ''Appeasement in International Politics'', 2000
* Rock W.R., ''British Appeasement in the 1930s''
* Shay R.P., ''British Rearmament in the Thirties: Politics and Profits'', Princeton University Press, 1977.
* Sontag, Raymond J. "Appeasement, 1937" ''Catholic Historical Review'' 38#4 (1953), pp. 385–396 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25015482 online]
* {{cite thesis |last=Stedman |first=A. D. |title='Then what could Chamberlain do, other than what Chamberlain did'? A Synthesis and Analysis of the Alternatives to Chamberlain's Policy of Appeasing Germany, 1936–1939 |type=PhD |url=http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.440347 |year=2007 |publisher=Kingston University |access-date=24 October 2016 |docket=uk.bl.ethos.440347 |oclc=500402799}}
* Wheeler-Bennett J., ''Munich: Prologue to Tragedy'', New York, Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1948
{{div col end}}

===Historiography===
* Barros, Andrew, Talbot C. Imlay, Evan Resnick, Norrin M. Ripsman, and Jack S. Levy. "Debating British Decision-making toward Nazi Germany in the 1930s." ''International Security'' 34#1 (2009): 173–98. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40389189. online].
* Cole, Robert A. "Appeasing Hitler: The Munich Crisis of 1938: A Teaching and Learning Resource," ''New England Journal of History'' (2010) 66#2 pp. 1–30.
* Dimuccio, Ralph BA. "The study of appeasement in international relations: Polemics, paradigms, and problems." ''Journal of peace research'' 35.2 (1998): 245–259.
* Finney, Patrick. "The romance of decline: The historiography of appeasement and British national identity." ''Electronic Journal of International History'' 1 (2000). [http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/3385/1/Journal_of_International_History_2000-06_Finney.pdf online]; comprehensive evaluation of the scholarship
* Hughes, R. Gerald. "The Ghosts of Appeasement: Britain and the Legacy of the Munich Agreement." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' (2013) 48#4 pp. 688–716.
* Record, Jeffrey. "Appeasement Reconsidered – Investigating the Mythology of the 1930s" (Strategic Studies Institute, 2005) [https://archive.org/details/Appeasement-Reconsidered-Investigating-the-Mythology-of-the-1930s-2005/page/n3 online]
* Roi, Michael. "Introduction: Appeasement: Rethinking the Policy and the Policy-Makers." ''Diplomacy and Statecraft'' 19.3 (2008): 383–390.
* Strang, G. Bruce. "The spirit of Ulysses? Ideology and british appeasement in the 1930s." ''Diplomacy and Statecraft'' 19.3 (2008): 481–526.
* Van Tol, David. "History extension 2019: Constructing history case study: Appeasement." ''Teaching History'' 51.3 (2017): 35+.
* Walker, Stephen G. "Solving the Appeasement Puzzle: Contending Historical Interpretations of British Diplomacy during the 1930s." ''British Journal of International Studies'' 6#3 (1980): 219–46. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/20096892 online].
* Watt, D. C. "The Historiography of Appeasement", in ''Crisis and Controversy: Essays in Honour of A. J. P. Taylor'', ed. A. Sked and C. Cook (London, 1976)

==External links==



{{Munich Agreement|state=collapsed}}
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{{Stanley Baldwin}}
{{International relations}}

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