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Ranahedi (2019 film)

2023-09-11T09:41:51Z

Nsksks: Just published an enlightening work.

{{Infobox film
| name = Ranahedi
| image =
| caption =
| director = Manu K Shettahalli
| producer = Suresh DM<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reddy |first1=Maheswara |title=Teaser soon |url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/south-masala/teaser-soon/articleshow/102664480.cms |website=Bangalore Mirror |language=en}}</ref>
| writer =
| story =
| screenplay =
| starring = Karna Kumar, [[Shafi (actor)|Shafi]], Aishwarya Rao, [[Achyuth Kumar]], Girish Shivanna
| narrator =
| music = V Manohar
| cinematography = Kumar Gowda
| editing = Nagendra URS
| studio = Srishti Enterprises
| distributor =
| released = 29 November 2019
| runtime = 2h 29 m
| country = India
| language = [[Kannada language|Kannada]]
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''Ranahedi''' is a 2019 [[Kannada language]] tragedy drama film written and directed by Manu K Shettahalli. The film is produced by Suresh DM.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ranahedi official trailer |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/regional/kannada/ranahedi-official-trailer/videoshow/72273050.cms |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>

The film's main cast is Karna Kumar, [[Shafi (actor)|Shafi]], Aishwarya Rao, [[Achyuth Kumar]], and Girish Shivanna. Cinematography is done by Kumar Gowda.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nine Kannada movies set for release this week |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/nine-kannada-movies-set-release-week-113074 |website=The News Minute |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ranahedi movie overview, wiki, cast and crew, reviews |url=https://www.filmytoday.com/movies/38865/overview/ |website=filmytoday.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Ranahedi is the narrative of a farmer who is self-respecting, honest, and committed his reckless son who is impacted by modernity and loses his sense of direction in life and a father attempted to help him get back on track.

== Cast ==
* Karna Kumar
* [[Shafi (actor)|Shafi]]
* Aishwarya Rao
* [[Achyuth Kumar]]
* V Sharanu
* Baby Chaithanya
* Mohan Juneja
* Raghu Pandeshwar
* Girish Shivanna

== Soundtrack ==
The music of the film is composed by V Manohar while Akhilapa Jimannu, Ananya Bhat and Anand Aravindakshan are the singers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ranahedi {{!}} Song - Jagada Niyamadante {{!}} Kannada Video Songs - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/kannada/ranahedi-song-jagada-niyamadante/videoshow/72273131.cms |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=RANAHEDI (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) |url=https://open.spotify.com/album/7naNUYVaXqhxIL3siKOWH2 |website=Spotify |language=en }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! No. !! Title !! Singer(s) !! Length
|-
| 1 || Aja Aja Nodaja || Akhilapa Jimannu || 03:08
|-
| 2 || Huduga Huduga || Ananya Bhat || 03:33
|-
| 3 || Madu Madu Madu || Vyasaraj Sosale || 03:17
|-
| 4 || Kudidu Baluvane || Nagendra || 03:00
|-
| 5 || Jagada Niyamadante || Nagendra || 02:10
|-
| 6 || Goddemme hodkondu || Nagendra || 04:08
|-
| || || Total Length || 19:16
|}

== Reception ==
The Times of India gave it 4.0 ratings out of 5.<ref>{{cite web |title=RanahediUA |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-details/ranahedi/movieshow/72272462.cms |website=The Times of India}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt11274264}}

[[Category:2019 films]]
[[Category:Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Films set in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:2019 drama films]]

Nirmal Singh Khalsa

2023-05-29T03:39:21Z

Nsksks: Created page with '{{subst:AFC submission/submit}} Bhai Nirmal Singh Khalsa is a "Hazoori Ragi" (resp...'

{{short description|Indian priest and singer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix = Bhai
| name = Nirmal Singh Khalsa
| honorific_suffix = Hazoori Ragi Darbar Sahib
| image = Nirmal Singh Khalsa.jpg
| image_upright =
| landscape = 
| alt = 
| caption = Singh Khalsa in September 2011
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| pronunciation =
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1952|04|12}} 
| birth_place = Jandwala Bhimeshah, [[Ferozepur]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], India
| baptised = 
| disappeared_date = 
| disappeared_place =
| disappeared_status =
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2020|04|02|1952|04|12}}
| death_place = [[Amritsar]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], India
| body_discovered =
| resting_place = Fatehgarh Shukarchak
| resting_place_coordinates = 
| burial_place = 
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| monuments =
| nationality =
| other_names =
| siglum =
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| education =
| alma_mater = Shaheed Missionary College
| occupation = {{Plainlist|
* [[Music teacher]]
* [[Ragi (Sikhism)|Ragi]]}}
| years_active =
| era =
| employer =
| organization =
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| title = Hazoori Ragi
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| children = 3
| relatives =
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| callsign =
| awards = [[Padma Shri]] (2009)
| website = {{URL|https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCsGzScPjj4EIlB-EgZL8w4g|Padma Shri Bhai Nirmal Singh Khalsa}} 
| module =
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}}

'''Bhai Nirmal Singh Khalsa''' (12 April 1952 – 2 April 2020) was a Sikh [[Ragi (Sikhism)|Hazoori Ragi]] of [[Golden Temple|Darbar Sahib]] in [[Amritsar]], [[Punjab, India]].

==Early life and career==
Bhai Nirmal Singh was born on 12 April 1952 at Jandwala Bhimeshah in [[Fazilka]], Punjab.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Tur|first=Jatinder Kaur|title=COVID-19: A Padma Shri awardee from the Mazhabi Sikh community was denied cremation spaces in Punjab|url=https://caravanmagazine.in/health/padma-shri-awardee-from-the-mazhabi-sikh-community-denied-cremation-spaces-in-punjab|access-date=2020-06-04|website=The Caravan|language=en}}</ref> In 1976, he graduated with a Diploma in [[Sikh music|Gurmat Sangeet]] from Shaheed Missionary College, Amritsar. In 1977–78, he served as a music teacher at Gurmat College in [[Rishikesh]] and later taught at Shaheed [[Sikh Missionary College]] in [[Sri Ganganagar]], [[Rajasthan]]. From 1979, he started serving as a Hazoori Ragi at [[Golden Temple|Darbar Sahib]]. He had performed [[Kirtan#In Sikhism|Kirtan]] at all [[Panj Takht|five Takhts]], various historical [[Gurdwara]]s across [[South Asia]] and throughout 71 countries. Bhai Sahib was a highly regarded ragi with knowledge of all 31 [[Raga|Raags]] of [[Guru Granth Sahib]].

For services in the field of arts, Bhai Nirmal Singh Khalsa was awarded the [[Padma Shri]],<ref>http://india.gov.in/myindia/myindia_frame.php?id=14, "Padma Awards at the Govt of India Portal".</ref> fourth highest [[Indian honours system|civilian award]] in the [[Republic of India]] in [[List of Padma Shri award recipients (2000–2009)|2009]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090401/jal.htm#1 | title=Bhai Nirmal Singh gets Padma Shree | date=31 March 2009 | newspaper=The Tribune | location=India | access-date=2 April 2020 }}</ref> He was the first Hazoori Ragi to receive this award.

==Death==
On 2 April 2020, Nirmal Singh Khalsa died due to [[cardiac arrest]] after testing positive for [[coronavirus disease 2019]], at Guru Nanak Dev Hospital in Amritsar.<ref>[https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/punjab/former-hazoori-ragi-nirmal-singh-khalsa-dead-had-tested-positive-for-coronavirus-64557 Former Hazoori Ragi Nirmal Singh Khalsa dead due to COVID-19] ''The Tribune''. Retrieved 2 April 2020.</ref> His body was cremated at village Fatehgarh Shukarchak in Amritsar.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Art}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khalsa, Nirmal Singh}}
[[Category:1952 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in India]]
[[Category:Indian Sikh religious leaders]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts]]
[[Category:People from Firozpur]]

Ishtiaq Ahmed (political scientist)

2023-05-29T01:35:06Z

Nsksks: Shared an engaging piece.

{{short description|Swedish political scientist and author (born 1947)}}
{{Other people|Ishtiaq Ahmad}}
{{EngvarB}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Ishtiaq Ahmed
| image = Ishtiaq Ahmed.JPG
| image_size =
| alt = Ishtiaq Ahmed
| caption =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = [[Sweden|Swedish]]
| field = [[Political Science]]
| work_institution = Visiting Professor, Government College University Lahore, [[Pakistan]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Stockholm]]<br />[[University of the Punjab, Lahore]]<br />[[Forman Christian College]]<br />[[St. Anthony's High School, Lahore]]
| prizes =
}}
'''Ishtiaq Ahmed''' ({{lang-ur|{{Nastaliq|اشتیاق احمد}}}};) is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[political scientist]] and author of Pakistani descent. He holds a PhD in Political Science from Stockholm University. He is [[Professor Emeritus]] of [[Political Science]] at [[Stockholm University]].<ref name="UStockholm">[http://www.statsvet.su.se/hemsidor/ishtiaq_ahmed_right.htm Entry at University of Stockholm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705071233/http://www.statsvet.su.se/hemsidor/ishtiaq_ahmed_right.htm }} with the University of Stockholm's homepage</ref><ref name="Bengalis were in majority">{{cite web |last1=Hasan |first1=Shazia |title=Bengalis were in majority, but Bangla was not made national language: Dr Ishtiaq Ahmed |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1741461 |website= |publisher=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |access-date=26 April 2023 |language=en }}</ref><ref name="‘Hindu, Sikh pressure">{{cite news |last1=Thapar |first1=Karan |title='Hindu, Sikh pressure led to Punjab's partition' |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1068421/hindu-sikh-pressure-led-to-punjabs-partition |access-date=26 April 2023 |work=[[The Express Tribune]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life==
Ahmed was born in [[Lahore]], Pakistan, in 1947.<ref name="OUP">{{cite web |title=The Punjab Bloodied, Partitioned and Cleansed |url=https://oup.com.pk/the-punjab-bloodied-partitioned-and-cleansed.html |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |language=en}}</ref> He belongs to the Punjabi [[Arain]] tribe.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ahmed |first=Ishtiaq |title=There is many a slip betwixt cup and lip |work=Daily Times |location=Pakistan |url=http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/editorial/18-Apr-2006/comment-there-is-many-a-slip-betwixt-cup-and-lip-ishtiaq-ahmed |url-status=dead |access-date= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715223745/http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/editorial/18-Apr-2006/comment-there-is-many-a-slip-betwixt-cup-and-lip-ishtiaq-ahmed |archive-date=15 July 2014 |quote=Additionally, the Arain group, to which I belong [...]}}</ref>

==Books==
His books include:
*''People on the Move: Punjabi Colonial and Post-Colonial Migration'' (2004, chapter six, "Forced migration and ethnic cleansing in Lahore in 1947 : some first person accounts").<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=Anne |title=People on the Move: Punjabi Colonial, and Post-Colonial Migration. Edited by Ian Talbot and Shinder Thandi. Subcontinent Divided: New Beginning. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2004. xx, 238 pp. Rs 350 (cloth). |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=240–241 |doi=10.1017/S0021911805000628 |s2cid=162416728 |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021911805000628 |language=en |issn=0021-9118}}</ref>
*''The Politics of Religion in South and Southeast Asia'' (2011, editor)<ref name="Religion-Politics Interface">{{cite journal |last1=GHOSH |first1=PARTHA S |title=Religion-Politics Interface |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=34–36 |jstor=23065604 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23065604 |issn=0012-9976}}</ref>
*''The Punjab Bloodied, Partitioned and Cleansed'' (2012)<ref name="Blood on the tracks of history">{{cite news |last1=Ali |first1=Mahir |title=Blood on the tracks of history |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/711379/blood-on-the-tracks-of-history |access-date=26 April 2023 |publisher=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=White |first1=Jenny |title=Turkey in Turmoil |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-065450-9 |page=306 |url=https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110654509-015 |chapter=Turkey in the 1970s: The Cultural Logic of Factionalism|doi=10.1515/9783110654509-015 |s2cid=241571497 }}</ref> It won a prize for best non-fiction book of 2012 and the Coca Cola Prize at the [[Karachi Literature Festival]] in 2013.<ref>{{cite web |title=klf 2013 {{!}} Karachi Literature Festival |url=https://www.karachiliteraturefestival.com/klf_archive/klf-2013/ |publisher=[[Karachi Literature Festival]] |access-date=26 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Salman |first1=Peerzada |title='Pakistan is open for business' |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/786908/pakistan-is-open-for-business |access-date=26 April 2023 |work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |language=en}}</ref>
*''Jinnah: His Successes, Failures and Role in History'' (2020)<ref name="Watch: 'Jinnah Did Not">{{cite news |last1=Thapar |first1=Karan |title=Watch: 'Jinnah Did Not Just Want Partition, He Wanted to Dismember India' |url=https://thewire.in/history/jinnah-partition-ishtiaq-ahmed|access-date=26 April 2023 |work=[[The Wire (India)]]}}</ref><ref name="How Jinnah Dismissed">{{cite news |last1=Ahmed |first1=Ishtiaq |title=How Jinnah Dismissed Congress's Minority Rights Proposals to Justify Two-Nation Theory |url=https://thewire.in/books/muhammad-ali-jinnah-foundational-two-nation-speech-ishtiaq-ahmed-book-excerpt |access-date=26 April 2023 |work=[[The Wire (India)]] }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{official website|https://www.ishtiaqahmed.se/}}
*[http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/person.jsf?dswid=8420&pid=authority-person%3A91156 Ahmed, Ishtiaq] at [[Stockholm University]]
*[https://www.thefridaytimes.com/author/ishtiaq-ahmed/ Ishtiaq Ahmed], articles at ''[[The Friday Times]]''

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ahmed, Ishtiaq}}
[[Category:1947 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Stockholm University alumni]]
[[Category:Swedish political scientists]]
[[Category:Swedish male writers]]
[[Category:Pakistani emigrants to Sweden]]
[[Category:Writers from Lahore]]
[[Category:Forman Christian College alumni]]
[[Category:University of the Punjab alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Lahore University of Management Sciences]]
[[Category:St. Anthony's High School, Lahore alumni]]

History of Kashmir

2023-01-19T23:23:10Z

Nsksks: Constructed a fresh page format.

{{Short description|none}}

{{EngvarB}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{History of Kashmir}}
The history of [[Kashmir]] is intertwined with the history of the broader [[Indian subcontinent]] in [[South Asia]] with influences from the surrounding regions of [[Central Asia|Central]] and [[East Asia]]. Historically, Kashmir referred to only the [[Kashmir Valley]] of the western [[Himalayas]].<ref name="Snedden2015">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a19eCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT22|title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris|publisher=Hurst|isbn=978-1-84904-622-0|pages=22|author=Christopher Snedden}}</ref> Today, it denotes a larger area that includes the Indian-administered union territories of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] (which consists of [[Jammu division|Jammu]] and the Kashmir Valley) and [[Ladakh]], the Pakistan-administered territories of [[Azad Kashmir]] and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], and the Chinese-administered regions of [[Aksai Chin]] and the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]].

In the first half of the 1st millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of [[Hinduism]] and later—under the [[Mauryan Empire|Maurya]]s and [[Kushana Empire|Kushana]]s—of [[Buddhism]]. Later in the ninth century, during the rule of the [[Karkota Dynasty]], a native tradition of [[Kashmir Shaivism|Shaivism]] arose. It flourished in the seven centuries of Hindu rule, continuing under the [[Utpala Dynasty|Utpala]] and the [[Lohara dynasty|Lohara]] dynasties, ending in mid-14th century.

[[Spread of Islam|Islamization]] in Kashmir began during the 13th century, accelerated under Muslim rule during the 14th and 15th centuries, and led to the eventual decline of the Kashmir Shaivism in Kashmir.

In 1339, [[Shah Mir]] became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the [[Shah Mir dynasty]]. For the next five centuries, Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the [[Mughal Empire]], who ruled from 1586 until 1751, and the Afghan [[Durrani Empire]], which ruled from 1747 until 1819. That year, the [[Sikh Empire|Sikh]]s, under [[Ranjit Singh]], annexed Kashmir. In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]], the [[Treaty of Lahore]] was signed and upon the purchase of the region from the [[British East India Company|British]] under the [[Treaty of Amritsar (1846)|Treaty of Amritsar]], the Raja of [[Jammu]], [[Gulab Singh]], became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former [[princely state]] became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.

==Etymology==
According to [[folk etymology]], the name "Kashmir" means "[[desiccate]]d land" (from the [[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa-Latn|ka}} = water and {{lang|sa-Latn|shimīra}} = desiccate).<ref name="Dhar1986">{{citation|last=Dhar|first=Somnath|title=Jammu and Kashmir folklore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PwM7AAAAMAAJ|year=1986|publisher=Marwah Publications|page=8|isbn=9780836418095}}</ref> In the ''[[Rajatarangini]],'' a history of Kashmir written by [[Kalhana]] in the mid-12th century, it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake.<ref name=EB1911>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Kashmir |volume=15 |page=688 |first=Thomas Hungerford |last=Holdich}}</ref> According to [[Hindu]] mythology, the lake was drained by the great [[rishi]] or sage, [[Kashyapa]], son of Marichi, son of [[Brahma]], by cutting the gap in the hills at [[Baramulla]] (''Varaha-mula'').<ref name=EB1911/> When Kashmir had been drained, Kashyapa asked [[Brahmin]]s to settle there. This is still the local tradition, and in the existing physical condition of the country, we may see some ground for the story which has taken this form.<ref name=EB1911/> The name of Kashyapa is by history and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called ''Kashyapa-pura'', which has been identified with ''Kaspapyros'' of [[Hecataeus of Miletus|Hecataeus]] (''apud'' [[Stephanus of Byzantium]]) and ''Kaspatyros'' of [[Herodotus]] (3.102, 4.44).<ref name=EB1911/><ref name="Daniélou2003">{{citation |last=Daniélou |first=Alain |translator-last=Hurry |translator-first=Kenneth |title=A Brief History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kwnv3I6qIosC&pg=PA65 |publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co |isbn=978-1-59477-794-3 |pages=65– |orig-year=first published in French, ''L'Histoire de l'Inde'', Fayard, 1971}}</ref> Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by [[Ptolemy]]'s ''Kaspeiria''.{{sfn|Houtsma|1993|p=792}} Cashmere is an archaic spelling of Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way.

==Historiography==

''[[Nilamata Purana]]'' (complied c. 500–600 CE){{sfn|Kenoyer|Heuston|2005|p=28}} contains accounts of Kashmir's early history. However, being a Puranic source, it has been argued that it suffers from a degree of inconsistency and unreliability.{{sfn|Sharma|2005|p=74}}{{efn|Puranic genealogy are "incomplete and occasionally inaccurate". The chronology of events described in Puranas often do not tally with historical discoveries of modern era.}} [[Kalhana]]'s ''[[Rajatarangini]]'' (River of Kings), all the 8000 [[Sanskrit]] verses of which were completed by 1150 CE, chronicles the history of Kashmir's dynasties from earlier times to the 12th century.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=13}}{{sfn|Sreedharan|2004|p=330}} It relies upon traditional sources like ''Nilmata Purana'', inscriptions, coins, monuments, and Kalhana's personal observations borne out of political experiences of his family.{{sfn|Sharma|2005|p=73–4}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=13}} Towards the end of the work mythical explanations give way to rational and critical analyses of dramatic events between 11th and 12th centuries, for which Kalhana is often credited as "India's first historian".{{sfn|Sharma|2005|p=74}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=13}}

During the reign of Muslim kings in Kashmir, three supplements to ''Rajatarangini'' were written by [[Jonaraja]] (1411–1463 CE), Srivara, and Prajyabhatta and Suka, which end with [[Akbar]]'s conquest of Kashmir in 1586 CE.{{sfn|Sharma|2005|p=75}} The text was translated into [[Persian language|Persian]] by Muslim scholars such as [[Nizamuddin Ahmad|Nizam Uddin]], [[Farishta]], and [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]].{{sfn|Sharma|2005|p=37}} ''Baharistan-i-Shahi'' and Haidar Mailk's ''Tarikh-i-Kashmir'' (completed in 1621 CE) are the most important texts on the history of Kashmir during the Sultanate period. Both the texts were written in Persian and used Rajatarangini and Persian histories as their sources.{{sfn|Hasan|1983|p=47}}

==Early history==
{{Further|Mauryan Empire|Kushan Empire|Huna people|Buddhism in Kashmir|Karkota Empire|Rajatarangini}}

[[Image:Buddhist tope baramula1868.jpg|thumb|right|This general view of the unexcavated Buddhist stupa near [[Baramulla]], with two figures standing on the summit, and another at the base with measuring scales, was taken by John Burke in 1868. The stupa, which was later excavated, dates to 500 CE.]]
Earliest [[Neolithic]] sites in the flood plains of [[Kashmir valley]] are dated to c. 3000 BCE. Most important of these sites are the settlements at [[Burzahom]], which had two Neolithic and one [[Megalithic]] phases. First phase (c. 2920 BCE) at Burzahom is marked by mud plastered pit dwellings, coarse pottery and stone tools. In the second phase, which lasted till c. 1700 BCE, houses were constructed on ground level and the dead were buried, sometimes with domesticated and wild animals. Hunting and fishing were the primary modes of [[subsistence economy|subsistence]] though evidence of cultivation of wheat, barley, and lentils has also been found in both the phases.{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=111–3}}{{sfn|Kennedy|2000|p=259}} In the megalithic phase, massive circles were constructed and grey or black burnish replaced coarse red ware in pottery.{{sfn|Allchin|Allchin|1982|p=113}} During the later [[Vedic period]], as kingdoms of the [[Rigvedic tribes|Vedic tribes]] expanded, the [[Uttarakuru|Uttara–Kurus]] settled in Kashmir.{{sfn|Rapson|1955|p=118}}{{sfn|Sharma|1985|p=44}}
[[Image:Kanishka-Inaugurates-Mahyana-Buddhism.jpg|thumb|left|Kanishka inaugurates [[Mahayana Buddhism]] in Kashmir.]]
In 326 BCE, [[King Porus|Porus]] asked [[Abisares]], the king of Kashmir,{{efn|Formally, "Abisares" was the ruler of [[Abhisara]]s, the people of the [[Historical Poonch District|Poonch]] and [[Rajouri district|Rajouri]] districts. Historian P. N. K. Bamzai believes his domain included Kashmir.{{sfn|Bamzai|1994|p=68}}}} to aid him against [[Alexander the Great]] in the [[Battle of Hydaspes]]. After Porus lost the battle, Abhisares submitted to Alexander by sending him treasure and elephants.{{sfn|Heckel|2003|p=48}}{{sfn|Green|1970|p=403}}

During the reign of [[Ashoka]] (304–232 BCE), Kashmir became a part of the [[Maurya Empire]] and [[Buddhism]] was introduced in Kashmir. During this period, many [[stupa]]s, some shrines dedicated to [[Shiva]], and the city of Srinagari ([[Srinagar]]) were built.{{sfn|Sastri|1988|p=219}} [[Kanishka]] (127–151 CE), an emperor of the [[Kushan dynasty]], conquered Kashmir and established the new city of Kanishkapur.{{sfn|Chatterjee|1998|p=199}} Buddhist tradition holds that Kanishka held the [[Fourth Buddhist council]] in Kashmir, in which celebrated scholars such as [[Ashvagosha]], [[Nagarjuna]] and [[Vasumitra]] took part.{{sfn|Bamzai|1994|pp=83–4}} By the fourth century, Kashmir became a seat of learning for both Buddhism and Hinduism. Kashmiri Buddhist missionaries helped spread Buddhism to Tibet and China and from the fifth century CE, pilgrims from these countries started visiting Kashmir.{{sfn|Pal|1989|p=51}} [[Kumārajīva]] (343–413 CE) was among the renowned Kashmiri scholars who traveled to China. He influenced the Chinese emperor [[Yao Xing]] and spearheaded translation of many Sanskrit works into Chinese at the [[Chang'an]] monastery.{{sfn|Singh|2008|pp=522–3}}

[[File:MET DP267829 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Portable shrine with image of the Buddha, Jammu and Kashmir, 7-8th century.]]
The [[Alchon Huns]] under [[Toramana]] crossed over the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains and conquered large parts of western India including Kashmir.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=480}} His son [[Mihirakula]] (c. 502–530 CE) led a military campaign to conquer all of [[North India]]. He was opposed by [[Narasimhagupta|Baladitya]] in [[Magadha]] and eventually defeated by [[Yasodharman]] in [[Malwa]]. After the defeat, Mihirakula returned to Kashmir where he led a coup on the king. He then conquered of [[Gandhara]] where he committed many atrocities on Buddhists and destroyed their shrines. Influence of the Huns faded after Mihirakula's death.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=71}}{{sfn|Dani|1999|pp=142–3}}

===Hindu Dynasties===
A succession of Hindu dynasties ruled over the region from the 7th-14th centuries.<ref name="Hindu Dysnaties">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2022-05-09|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent}} Quote: "A succession of Hindu dynasties ruled Kashmir until 1346, when it came under Muslim rule."</ref> After the seventh century, significant developments took place in Kashmiri Hinduism. In the centuries that followed, Kashmir produced many poets, philosophers, and artists who contributed to Sanskrit literature and Hindu religion.{{sfn|Pal|1989|p=52}} Among notable scholars of this period was [[Vasugupta]] (c. 875–925 CE) who wrote the ''[[Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta|Shiva Sutras]]'' which laid the foundation for a [[Monism|monistic]] Shaiva system called [[Kashmir Shaivism]]. Dualistic interpretation of Shaiva scripture was defeated by [[Abhinavagupta]] (c. 975–1025 CE) who wrote many philosophical works on Kashmir Shaivism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=166–7}} Kashmir Shaivism was adopted by the common masses of Kashmir and strongly influenced Shaivism in [[Southern India]].{{sfn|Flood|2008|p=213}}

[[Image:Central edifice of Martand-Sun Temple.jpg|left|250px|thumb|[[Martand Sun Temple]] Central shrine, dedicated to the deity [[Surya]]. The temple complex was built by the third ruler of the [[Karkoṭa Empire|Karkota dynasty]], [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]], in the 8th century CE. It is one of the largest temple complex on the Indian Subcontinent.]]
In the eighth century, the [[Karkota Empire]] established themselves as rulers of Kashmir.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=571}} Kashmir grew as an imperial power under the Karkotas. Chandrapida of this dynasty was recognized by an imperial order of the Chinese emperor as the king of Kashmir. His successor [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]] lead a successful military campaign against the Tibetans. He then defeated [[Yashovarman]] of [[Kanyakubja]] and subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha, [[Kamarupa]], [[Gauḍa (region)|Gauda]], and [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]]. Lalitaditya extended his influence of Malwa and [[Gujarat]] and defeated [[Arabs]] at [[Sindh]].{{sfn|Majumdar|1977|pp=260–3}}{{sfn|Wink|1991|pp=242–5}} After his demise, Kashmir's influence over other kingdoms declined and the dynasty ended in c. 855–856 CE.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=571}}

The Utpala dynasty founded by [[Avanti Varman (Utpala dynasty)|Avantivarman]] followed the Karkotas. His successor Shankaravarman (885–902 CE) led a successful military campaign against [[Gurjara]]s in [[Punjab]].{{sfn|Majumdar|1977|p=356}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=571}} Political instability in the 10th century made the royal body guards (Tantrins) very powerful in Kashmir. Under the Tantrins, civil administration collapsed and chaos reigned in Kashmir till they were defeated by Chakravarman.{{sfn|Majumdar|1977|p=357}} [[Queen Didda]], who descended from the [[Hindu Shahi]]s of [[Udabhandapura]] on her mother's side, took over as the ruler in second half of the 10th century.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=571}} After her death in 1003 CE, the throne passed to the [[Lohara dynasty]].{{sfn|Khan|2008|p=58}} Suhadeva, last king of the Lohara dynasty, fled Kashmir after Zulju (Dulacha), a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]]–[[Mongol]] chief, led a savage raid on Kashmir.{{when}}{{sfn|Chadha|2005|p=38}}{{sfn|Hasan|1959|pp=35–6}} His wife, Queen [[Kota Rani]] ruled until 1339. She is often credited for the construction of a canal, named "''[[Kutte Kol]]''" after her, diverting the waters of the Jhelum to prevent frequent flooding in Srinagar.<ref>Culture and political history of Kashmir, [[Prithivi Nath Kaul Bamzai]], M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1994.</ref>

During the 11th century, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] made two attempts to conquer Kashmir. However, both his campaigns failed because he could not take by siege the fortress at Lohkot.{{sfn|Frye|1975|p=178}}

== Muslim rulers ==
{{Further information|Shah Mir Dynasty|Chak Dynasty|Durrani Empire}}

[[Image:Zeinulabuddin-tomb-srinagar1866.JPG|thumb|left|Gateway of enclosure of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din's Tomb, in Srinagar. 1868. John Burke. Oriental and India Office Collection. British Library.]]

=== Prelude and Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1580s) ===
Historian [[Mohibbul Hasan]] states that the oppressive taxation, corruption, internecine fights and rise of feudal lords (''Damaras'') during the unpopular rule of the [[Lohara dynasty]] (1003–1320 CE) paved the way for foreign invasions of Kashmir.{{sfn|Hasan|1959|pp=32–4}} Rinchana was a [[Tibetan Buddhist]] refugee in Kashmir, who had established himself as the ruler after Zulju.{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=308}}{{sfn|Chadha|2005|p=38}} Rinchana's conversion to Islam is a subject of Kashmiri folklore. He was persuaded to accept Islam by his minister [[Shah Mir]], probably for political reasons. Islam had penetrated into countries outside Kashmir and in absence of the support from Hindus, who were in a majority,{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=309}} Rinchana needed the support of the Kashmiri Muslims.{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=308}} Shah Mir's coup on Rinchana's successor secured Muslim rule and the rule of [[Shah Miri dynasty|his dynasty]] in Kashmir.{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=309}}

In the 14th century, [[Islam]] gradually became the dominant religion in Kashmir.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/explore-the-beauty-of-kashmir-1444056294|title=Explore the Beauty of Kashmir|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|last1=Downey|first1=Tom}}</ref> With the fall of Kashmir, a premier center of Sanskrit literary creativity, Sanskrit literature there disappeared.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hanneder|first=J.|title=On 'The Death of Sanskrit'|journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |volume=45|issue=4|year=2002|pages=293–310|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1021366131934|s2cid=189797805|jstor=24664154|doi=10.1163/000000002124994847}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1017/s001041750100353x|title=The Death of Sanskrit|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|volume=43|issue=2|pages=392–426|year=2001|last1=Pollock|first1=Sheldon|s2cid=35550166}}</ref>{{rp|397–398}} Islamic preacher Sheikh Nooruddin Noorani, who is traditionally revered by Hindus as [[Nund Rishi]], combined elements of Kashmir Shaivism with Sufi mysticism in his discourses.{{sfn|Bose|2005|pp=268–9}} The Sultans between 1354 and 1470 CE were tolerant of other religions with the exception of [[Sikandar Butshikan|Sultan Sikandar]] (1389–1413 CE). Sultan Sikandar imposed taxes on non–Muslims, forced conversions to Islam, and earned the title ''But–Shikan'' for destroying idols.{{sfn|Chadha|2005|p=38}} Sultan [[Zain-ul-Abidin]] (c. 1420–1470 CE) invited artists and craftsmen from [[Central Asia]] and [[Persia]] to train local artists in Kashmir. Under his rule the arts of wood carving, [[papier-mâché]] , shawl and carpet weaving prospered.{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=313}} For a brief period in the 1470s, states of [[Jammu]], [[Poonch district, India|Poonch]] and [[Rajauri]] which paid tributes to Kashmir revolted against the Sultan Hajji Khan. However, they were subjugated by his son Hasan Khan who took over as ruler in 1472 CE.{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=313}} By the mid 16th century, Hindu influence in the courts and role of the [[Brahmin|Hindu priests]] had declined as Muslim missionaries immigrated into Kashmir from Central Asia and Persia, and [[Persian language|Persian]] replaced Sanskrit as the official language. Around the same period, the nobility of [[Chak dynasty|Chaks]] had become powerful enough to unseat the Shah Mir dynasty.{{sfn|Asimov|Bosworth|1998|p=313}}
[[File:Silver coin of Kashmir Sultanate.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Silver sasnu of the Kashmir Sultan Shams al-Din Shah II (ruled 1537–38). During the Sultanate period, the Kashmir sultans issued silver and copper coins. The silver coins were square and followed a weight standard unique to Kashmir of between 6 and 7 gm. This coin weighs 6.16 gm.]]
[[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] general [[Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat]], a member of ruling family in [[Kashgar]], invaded Kashmir in c. 1540 CE on behalf of emperor [[Humayun]].{{sfn|Chadha|2005|p=38}}{{sfn|Houtsma|1993|p=793}} Persecution of [[Shia Islam|Shia]]s, [[Shafi'i]]s and [[Sufism|Sufi]]s and instigation by [[Suri Empire|Suri]] kings led to a revolt which overthrew Dughlat's rule in Kashmir.{{sfn|Hasan|1983|p=48}}{{sfn|Houtsma|1993|p=793}}

=== Mughals (1580s–1750s) ===
Kashmir did not witness direct Mughal rule till the reign of Mughal [[Padishah|badshah]] (emperor) [[Akbar the Great]], who took control of Kashmir and added it to his [[Kabul Subah]] in 1586. [[Shah Jahan]] carved it out as a separate [[subah]] (imperial top-level province), with seat at Srinagar. During successive Mughal emperors many celebrated gardens, mosques and palaces were constructed. Religious intolerance and discriminatory taxation reappeared when Mughal emperor [[Aurangzeb]] ascended to the throne in 1658 CE. After his death, the influence of the Mughal Empire declined.{{sfn|Chadha|2005|p=38}}{{sfn|Houtsma|1993|p=793}}

[[File:Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar.jpg|thumb|left|[[Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar|Shalimar Bagh]] in Srinagar; the Mughals built several [[charbagh]]-style [[Mughal Gardens|gardens]] all over the Kashmir valley]]
In 1700 CE, a servant of a wealthy Kashmir merchant brought ''Mo-i Muqqadas'' (the hair of the Prophet), a relic of [[Muhammad]], to the valley. The relic was housed in the [[Hazratbal Shrine]] on the banks of [[Dal Lake]].{{sfn|Schofield|2010|p=4}} [[Nadir Shah's invasion of India]] in 1738 CE further weakened Mughal control over Kashmir.{{sfn|Schofield|2010|p=4}}

=== Durrani Empire (1752–1819) ===
Taking advantage of the declining Mughal Empire, the Afghan Durrani Empire under [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] took control of Kashmir in 1752.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Snedden|first=Christopher|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ&q=durrani+capture+kashmir&pg=PA43|title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-1-84904-342-7|location=|pages=43, 44|language=en}}</ref> In the mid-1750s the Afghan-appointed governor of Kashmir,<ref name="Banga">{{Cite journal|jstor=44155495|title=Ahmad Shah Abdali's Designs over the Punjab|last1=Banga|first1=Indu|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|year=1967|volume=29|pages=185–190}}</ref> [[Sukh Jiwan Mal]], rebelled against the Durrani Empire before being defeated in 1762.<ref name="Banga" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Dhar|first=Triloki Nath|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kb815NoRRoC&q=Sukhjiwan,+the+Governor+of+Kashmir&pg=PA232|title=Saints and Sages of Kashmir|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-576-0|location=|pages=232|language=en}}</ref> After Mal's defeat, the Durrani engaged in the oppression of the remaining Hindu population through forced conversions, killings, and forced labor.<ref name=":0" /> Repression by the Durrani extended to all classes, regardless of religion, and a heavy tax burden was levied on the Kashmiri populace.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zutshi|first=Chitralekha|url=https://www.zukunftsphilologie.de/fileadmin/pdf/zukunftsphilologie/lecture-cum-seminar/Zutshi_Languages_Belonging.pdf|title=Languages of Belonging; Islam, Regional Identity, and the Making of Kashmir|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=|location=|pages=35}}</ref>

A number of Afghan governors administrated the region on behalf of the Durrani Empire. During the Durrani rule in Kashmir, income from the region constituted a large part of the Durrani Empire's revenue.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.2307/2644508|jstor = 2644508|last1 = Rubin|first1 = Barnett R.|title = Lineages of the State in Afghanistan|journal = Asian Survey|year = 1988|volume = 28|issue = 11|pages = 1188–1209}}</ref> The empire controlled Kashmir until 1819, after which the region was annexed by the [[Sikh Empire]].<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=41394023|title=The Intractable Kashmir Issue: Search for a Rational Solution|last1=Zaidi|first1=S. H.|journal=Pakistan Horizon|year=2003|volume=56|issue=2|pages=53–85}}</ref>

== Sikh rule (1820–1846) ==

[[File:Sheik Imam-Ud-Din, Runjur Sing, and Dewan Dina Nath..jpg|thumb|left|Sheikh Imam-ud-din, governor of Kashmir under the Sikhs, shown along with Ranjur Singh and Dewan Dina Nath.'' 1847. (James Duffield Harding)]]
[[File:A rare book on the period of Sikh-rule over Kashmir 02.jpg|thumb|A rare book on the period of Sikh-rule over Kashmir]]
After four centuries of [[Muslim]] rule, Kashmir fell to the conquering armies of the [[Sikh Kingdom|Sikhs]] under [[Ranjit Singh]] of [[Punjab]] after the [[Battle of Shopian]] in 1819.{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=94–95}} As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers.{{sfn|Schofield|2010|pp=5–6}} However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive,{{sfn|Madan|2008|p=15}} protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore.{{sfn|Zutshi|2003|pp=39–41}} The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws,{{sfn|Zutshi|2003|pp=39–41}} which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter,{{sfn|Schofield|2010|pp=5–6}} closing down the [[Jamia Masjid, Srinagar|Jamia Masjid]] in Srinagar, and banning the ''[[azaan]]'', the public Muslim call to prayer.{{sfn|Zutshi|2003|pp=39–41}} Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs. High taxes, according to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be cultivated.{{sfn|Schofield|2010|pp=5–6}} However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to farmers; Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh empire. During this time [[Pashmina|Kashmiri shawl]]s became known worldwide, attracting many buyers especially in the west.{{sfn|Zutshi|2003|pp=39–41}}

Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was also captured by the Sikhs and made a tributary.{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=94–95}} Ranjit Deo's grandnephew, [[Gulab Singh of Jammu and Kashmir|Gulab Singh]], subsequently sought service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguished himself in later campaigns and got appointed as the Raja of Jammu in 1820. With the help of his officer, [[General Zorawar Singh|Zorawar Singh]], Gulab Singh soon captured for the Sikhs the lands of [[Ladakh]] and [[Baltistan]].{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=94–95}}

== Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (Dogra Rule, 1846–1947) ==
{{Main|Kashmir}}
[[File:Gulab Sing.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Portrait of Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1847, a year after signing the Treaty of Amritsar. (Artist: James Duffield Harding).]]
[[File:Ruined temple, Boniar (Kashmir). 19 May 1876.jpg|thumb|10th century Boniar temple in 1876, cleared during the Dogra rule. Best preserved Kashmir temple.]]
In 1845, the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] broke out, and Gulab Singh "contrived to hold himself aloof till the [[battle of Sobraon]] (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir [[Henry Montgomery Lawrence|Henry Lawrence]]. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (''i.e.'' West [[Punjab region|Punjab]]) handed over to the British, as equivalent for ([[rupees]]) ten million of indemnity, the hill countries between [[Beas River|Beas]] and [[Indus]]; by the second{{sfn|Treaty of Amritsar 1846}} the British made over to Gulab Singh for ([[Rupees]]) 7.5 million all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of [[Indus]] and west of [[Ravi River|Ravi]]" (''i.e.'' the [[Vale of Kashmir]]).{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=94–95}} The [[Treaty of Amritsar, 1846|Treaty of Amritsar]] freed Gulab Singh from obligations towards the Sikhs and made him the [[Maharajah]] of Jammu and Kashmir.{{sfn|Schofield|2010|p=7}} The Dogras' loyalty came in handy to the British during the [[revolt of 1857]] which challenged [[British Raj|British rule]] in India. Dogras refused to provide sanctuary to mutineers, allowed English women and children to seek asylum in Kashmir and sent Kashmiri troops to fight on behalf of the British. British in return rewarded them by securing the succession of Dogra rule in Kashmir.{{sfn|Schofield|2010|p=9}} Soon after Gulab Singh's death in 1857,{{sfn|Schofield|2010|p=7}} his son, [[Ranbir Singh (Maharaja)|Ranbir Singh]], added the emirates of [[Hunza (princely state)|Hunza]], [[Gilgit, Pakistan|Gilgit]] and [[Nagar (princely state)|Nagar]] to the kingdom.{{sfn|Schofield|2010|p=11}}

[[Image:NWFP-Kashmir1909-a.jpg|thumb|left|1909 Map of the [[Kashmir region|Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu]]. The names of different regions, important cities, rivers and mountains are underlined in red.]]
The ''[[Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu]]'' (as it was then called) was constituted between 1820 and 1858 and was "somewhat artificial in composition and it did not develop a fully coherent identity, partly as a result of its disparate origins and partly as a result of the autocratic rule which it experienced on the fringes of Empire."<ref name=bowers>Bowers, Paul. 2004. [http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp2004/rp04-028.pdf "Kashmir." Research Paper 4/28] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326182755/http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp2004/rp04-028.pdf }}, International Affairs and Defence, House of Commons Library, United Kingdom.</ref> It combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly [[Sunni Islam|''Sunni'']] Muslim, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiri [[brahmins]] or [[Kashmiri Pandits|pandits]]; to the northeast, sparsely populated [[Baltistan]] had a population ethnically related to Ladakh, but which practised [[Shia Islam|''Shi'a'' Islam]]; to the north, also sparsely populated, [[Gilgit Agency]], was an area of diverse, mostly ''Shi'a'' groups; and, to the west, [[Poonch district, Jammu and Kashmir|Punch]] was Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.<ref name=bowers/>

Despite being in a majority the Muslims were made to suffer severe oppression under Hindu rule in the form of high taxes, unpaid forced labor and discriminatory laws.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e181?_hi=3&_pos=46|title=Kashmir|publisher=OUP}}</ref> Many Kashmiri Muslims migrated from the Valley to Punjab due to famine and policies of Dogra rulers.<ref name="Sevea2012">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fk8hAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16|title=The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and Nationalism in Late Colonial India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-53639-4|pages=16–|author=Iqbal Singh Sevea}}</ref> The Muslim peasantry was vast, impoverished and ruled by a Hindu elite.<ref name="bose-sumantra-2005-p15-17">{{Harvnb|Bose|2005|pp=15–17}}</ref><ref name="talbot-singh-p54">{{Harvnb|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=54}}</ref>  The Muslim peasants lacked education, awareness of rights and were chronically in debt to landlords and moneylenders,<ref name="bose-sumantra-2005-p15-17" /> and did not organize politically until the 1930s.<ref name="talbot-singh-p54" />



==1947==
{{Further|1947 Poonch Rebellion|1947 Jammu massacres|Indo-Pakistani War of 1947}}
Ranbir Singh's grandson [[Hari Singh]], who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent [[Partition of India|partition]] of the British [[British India|Indian Empire]] into the newly independent [[Dominion of India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan]]. An [[1947 Poonch Rebellion|internal revolt began in the Poonch region]] against oppressive taxation by the Maharaja.<ref>[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_references.htm#fn13 Prem Nath Bazaz, "The Truth About Kashmir"]</ref> In August, Maharaja's forces fired upon demonstrations in favour of Kashmir joining Pakistan, burned whole villages and massacred innocent people.<ref>Official Records of the United Nations Security Council, Meeting No:234, 1948, pp.250–1:[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_references.htm#fn13]</ref> The Poonch rebels declared an independent government of "Azad" Kashmir on 24 October.<ref name="Kashmir during 1947">[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_chapters/1947_detailed.shtml 1947 Kashmir History]</ref> Rulers of Princely States were encouraged to accede their States to either Dominion – India or Pakistan, taking into account factors such as geographical contiguity and the wishes of their people. In 1947, Kashmir's population was "77% Muslim and 20% Hindu".{{sfn|Stein|1998|p=368}} To postpone making a hurried decision, the Maharaja signed a [[standstill agreement (India)|standstill agreement]] with Pakistan, which ensured continuity of trade, travel, communication, and similar services between the two. Such an agreement was pending with India.<ref name="Schofield" /> Following [[1947 Jammu massacres|huge riots in Jammu]], in October 1947, [[Pashtun people|Pashtuns]] from Pakistan's [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North-West Frontier Province]] recruited by the Poonch rebels, invaded [[Kashmir]], along with the Poonch rebels, allegedly incensed by the atrocities against fellow Muslims in Poonch and Jammu. The tribesmen engaged in looting and killing along the way.<ref>{{citation |last=Jamal |first=Arif |title=Shadow War: The Untold Story of Jihad in Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TNO5MAAACAAJ |year=2009 |publisher=Melville House |isbn=978-1-933633-59-6 |pages=52–53}}</ref><ref>[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_references.htm#fn17 Pathan Tribal Invasion into Kashmir]</ref> The ostensible aim of the guerilla campaign was to frighten Hari Singh into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to the Government of India for assistance, and the [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]] [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Mountbatten]]{{efn|Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India, stayed on in independent India from 1947 to 1948, serving as the first Governor-General of an independent India.}} agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p=368}} Once the Maharaja signed the [[Instrument of Accession (Jammu and Kashmir)|Instrument of Accession]], Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. India accepted the accession, regarding it provisional<ref>[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_references.htm#fn19 Govt. of India, White Paper on Jammu & Kashmir , Delhi 1948, p.77]</ref> until such time as the will of the people can be ascertained. Kashmir leader [[Sheikh Abdullah]] endorsed the accession as ad hoc which would be ultimately decided by the people of the State. He was appointed the head of the emergency administration by the Maharaja.<ref>[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_references.htm#fn19 Sheikh Abdullah, Flames of the Chinar, New Delhi 1993, p.97]</ref> The Pakistani government immediately contested the accession, suggesting that it was fraudulent, that the Maharaja acted under duress and that he had no right to sign an agreement with India when the standstill agreement with Pakistan was still in force.

==Post-1947==
{{Further|Timeline of the Kashmir conflict|History of Azad Kashmir}}

In early 1948, India sought a resolution of the [[Kashmir Conflict]] at the [[United Nations]]. Following the set-up of the [[United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan]] (UNCIP), the UN Security Council passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 47|Resolution 47]] on 21{{nbsp}}April 1948. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of people of J&K must be ascertained. The then Indian Prime Minister is reported to have himself urged U.N. to poll Kashmir and on the basis of results Kashmir's accession will be decided.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0A15FC3B5E17738DDDAA0894D9415B8788F1D3 |work=The New York Times |title=NEHRU URGES U.N. TO POLL KASHMIR; Would Have Supervised Ballot to Decide Accession – Bomb Attack by India Reported |access-date=4 May 2010}}</ref> However, India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars.{{sfn|Stein|1998|p=368}}

On 5 January 1949, UNCIP (United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan) resolution stated that the question of the accession of the State of Jammu and Kashmir to India or Pakistan will be decided through a free and impartial plebiscite.{{sfn|UNCIP Resolution, 5 January 1949}} As per the 1948{{sfn|UNCIP Resolution, 13 August 1948}} and 1949 UNCIP Resolutions, both countries accepted the principle, that Pakistan secures the withdrawal of Pakistani intruders followed by withdrawal of Pakistani and Indian forces, as a basis for the formulation of a Truce agreement whose details are to be arrived in future, followed by a plebiscite; However, both countries failed to arrive at a Truce agreement due to differences in interpretation of the procedure for and extent of demilitarisation one of them being whether the Azad Kashmiri army of Pakistan is to be disbanded during the truce stage or the plebiscite stage.{{sfn|UNCIP Resolution, 30 March 1951}}

   
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices; however, since the [[plebiscite]] demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured,{{sfn|Stein|1998|p=368}} and eventually led to three more wars over Kashmir in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965]], 1971 and [[Kargil War|1999]]. India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir; Pakistan controls a third of the region, governing it as [[Gilgit–Baltistan]] and [[Azad Kashmir]]. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was thinly populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in Indian-administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked."<ref name=britannica-kashmir />

[[File:J&K10low.jpg|thumb|left|[[ceasefire|Cease-fire]] line between India and Pakistan after the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|1947 conflict]]]]

The UN Security Council on 20 January 1948 passed Resolution 39 establishing a special commission to investigate the conflict. Subsequent to the commission's recommendation the Security Council, ordered in its Resolution 47, passed on 21 April 1948 that the invading Pakistani army retreat from Jammu & Kashmir and that the accession of Kashmir to either India or Pakistan be determined in accordance with a plebiscite to be supervised by the UN. In a string of subsequent resolutions the Security Council took notice of the continuing failure by India to hold the plebiscite. However, no punitive action against India could be taken by the Security Council because its resolution, requiring India to hold a Plebiscite, was non-binding. Moreover, the Pakistani army never left the part of the Kashmir, they managed to keep occupied at the end of the 1947 war. They were required by the Security Council resolution 47 to remove all armed personnels from the Azad Kashmir before holding the plebiscite.{{sfn|Resolution 47 (1948)}}


The eastern region of the erstwhile princely state of Kashmir has also been beset with a boundary dispute. In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and the official Chinese position did not change with the [[Chinese Revolution (1949)|communist revolution in 1949]]. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.:<ref name=britannica-kashmir>"Kashmir." (2007). In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 27 March 2007, from [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-214222 Encyclopædia Britannica Online].</ref> "By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the [[Aksai Chin]] area to provide better communication between [[Xinjiang]] and western [[Tibet]]. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian war of October 1962."<ref name=britannica-kashmir /> China has occupied Aksai Chin since 1962 and, in addition, an adjoining region, the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] was ceded by Pakistan to China in 1965.

In 1949, the Indian government obliged Hari Singh to leave Jammu and Kashmir and yield the government to [[Sheikh Abdullah]], the leader of a popular political party, the [[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference|National Conference Party]].<ref name="Schofield">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1762146.stm Schofield, Victoria. 'Kashmir: The origins of the dispute', ''BBC News UK Edition'' (16 January 2002)] Retrieved 20 May 2005</ref> Since then, a bitter enmity has been developed between India and Pakistan and three wars have taken place between them over Kashmir. The growing dispute over Kashmir and the consistent failure of democracy<ref name="Elections in Kashmir">[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_chapters/kashmir-elections.shtml Elections in Kashmir]</ref> also led to the rise of Kashmir nationalism and militancy in the state.

In 1986, the [[1986 Anantnag riots|Anantnag riots]] broke out after the CM Gul Shah ordered the construction of a mosque at the site of a Hindu Temple in Jammu and Gul Shah made an incendiary speech.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Verma |first1=P. S. |title=Jammu and Kashmir at the Political Crossroads |publisher=Vikas Publishing House |isbn=9780706976205 |page=214 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sl5uAAAAMAAJ }}</ref> Hindu-Muslim riots (a reaction to the opening of [[Babri Masjid]] to Hindu worshippers) were a national event, taking place in seven other states as well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hindu-Moslem riots reported in Kashmir, Calcutta |url=https://apnews.com/article/7aace3ff6f33b7ee0fd67aa2cc54b66a |access-date=2022-03-12 |website=AP NEWS |language=en}}</ref> Following the [[1987 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] that were widely perceived to have been rigged, disgruntled Kashmiri youth such as the so-called 'HAJY group' – Abdul Hamid Shaikh, Ashfaq Majid Wani, Javed Ahmed Mir and Mohammed [[Yasin Malik]] – joined the [[Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front]](JKLF) as an alternative to the ineffective democratic setup that was prevalent in Kashmir. This led to gain in the momentum of the popular insurgency in the Kashmir Valley.{{sfn|Puri|1993|p=52}}<ref>[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_chapters/1987-1998_detailed.shtml 1989 Insurgency]</ref> The year 1989 saw the intensification of conflict in Jammu and Kashmir as [[Mujahadeen]]s from Afghanistan slowly infiltrated the region following the end of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] the same year.<ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1989.stm BBC Timeline on Kashmir conflict.]</ref> Pakistan provided arms and training to both indigenous and foreign militants in Kashmir, thus adding fuel to the smouldering fire of discontent in the valley.<ref>[http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_files/hrw_arms.htm Human Rights Watch Report, 1994]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1881669.stm Pakistan admission over Kashmir]</ref><ref>See [[Operation Tupac]]</ref>

In August 2019, the Government of India repealed the special status accorded to Jammu and Kashmir under [[Article 370 of the Constitution of India|Article 370]] of the Indian constitution in 2019, and the Parliament of India passed the [[Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act]], which contained provisions to dissolve the state and reorganise it into two [[Union territory|union territories]] – [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] in the west and [[Ladakh]] in the east.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/article-370-to-be-scrapped-jk-will-ceases-to-be-a-state-2-union-territories-created/articleshow/70531899.cms|title=Jammu Kashmir Article 370: Govt revokes Article 370 from Jammu and Kashmir, bifurcates state into two Union Territories|newspaper=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=5 August 2019|agency=Ist}}</ref> These changes came into effect from 31 October 2019.

==Historical demographics of Kashmir==

In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir was 2,905,578. Of these 2,154,695 were Muslims, 689,073 Hindus, 25,828 Sikhs, and 35,047 Buddhists. The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 50% of the population.{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=99–102}} In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "only 524 in every 10,000 of the population (''i.e.'' 5.24%), and in the frontier ''wazarats'' of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)."{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=99–102}} In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% of the population.{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=99–102}} These percentages have remained fairly stable for the last 100 years.{{sfn|Rai|2004|p=27}} In the 1941 Census of British India, Muslims accounted for 93.6% of the population of the Kashmir Valley and the Hindus constituted 4%.{{sfn|Rai|2004|p=27}} In 2003, the percentage of Muslims in the Kashmir Valley was 95%<ref name=BBC2003>BBC. 2003. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/south_asia/03/kashmir_future/html/default.stm ''The Future of Kashmir? In Depth.'']</ref> and those of Hindus 4%; the same year, in Jammu, the percentage of Hindus was 67% and those of Muslims 27%.<ref name=BBC2003/>

Among the Muslims of the ''Kashmir province'' within the princely state, four divisions were recorded: "Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans. The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the descendants of Hindus, but have retained none of the caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names known as ''krams'' ..."<ref name="imperialgazetteerkashmir">''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 99–102.</ref> It was recorded that these ''kram'' names included "Tantre", "Shaikh", "Bat", "Mantu", "Ganai", "Dar", "Damar", "Lon", etc. The [[Syed#Ibn Battutah on the usage of Sayyid in India|Saiyids]], it was recorded, "could be divided into those who follow the profession of religion and those who have taken to agriculture and other pursuits. Their ''kram'' name is 'Mir.' While a Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir is a prefix; if he has taken to agriculture, Mir is an affix to his name."<ref name="imperialgazetteerkashmir" /> The ''Mughals'' who were not numerous were recorded to have ''kram'' names like "Mir" (a corruption of "Mirza"), "Beg", "Bandi", "Bach" and "Ashaye". Finally, it was recorded that the Pathans "who are more numerous than the Mughals, ... are found chiefly in the south-west of the valley, where [[Pashtun people|Pathan]] colonies have from time to time been founded. The most interesting of these colonies is that of Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who retain all the old customs and speak [[Pashtu]]."<ref name="imperialgazetteerkashmir" /> Among the main tribes of Muslims in the princely state are the Butts, Dar, Lone, Jat, Gujjar, Rajput, Sudhan and Khatri. A small number of Butts, Dar and Lone use the title Khawaja and the Khatri use the title Shaikh the Gujjar use the title of Chaudhary. All these tribes are indigenous of the princely state which converted to Islam from Hinduism during its arrival in region.

Among the Hindus of ''Jammu'' province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "[[brahmin|Brahmans]] (186,000), the [[Rajputs]] (167,000), the [[Khatri|Khattris]] (48,000) and the [[Thakur (Indian title)|Thakkars]] (93,000)."{{sfn|The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Volume 15)|pp=99–102}}

==Gallery==

<gallery>
Image:Horned figure on pottery. Pré-Indus civilization. Kashmir.jpg|Pot, excavated from Burzahom (c. 2700 BCE), depicts horned motifs, which suggest links with sites like Kot-Diji, in [[Sindh]].
Image:Muslim-shawl-makers-kashmir1867.jpg|A Muslim shawl making family in Kashmir. 1867. ''Cashmere shawl manufactory'', chromolith., William Simpson.
Image:Kashmiri-home-life-1890.jpg|Kashmiri home life c. 1890. Photographer unknown.
Image:Muslim papier-mache ornament painters.jpg|Muslim papier-mâché ornament painters in Kashmir. 1895. Photographer: unknown.
Image:Kashmir-hindu-priests.jpg|Three Hindu priests writing religious texts. 1890s, Jammu and Kashmir, photographer: unknown.
Image:Ladakhi-men-kashmir1890.jpg|Full-length portrait of two Ladakhi men. 1895, Ladakh, unknown photographer.
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 47]]
* [[Kashmiriyat]]
* [[Sharada Peeth]]
* [[Buddhism in Kashmir]]
* [[Harsha of Kashmir]]
* [[List of topics on the land and the people of "Jammu and Kashmir"]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

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* {{citation|last=Sreedharan|first=E.|title=A Textbook of Historiography: 500 BC to AD 2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJVoi3PIejwC&pg=PA330|year=2004|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-250-2657-0}}
* {{citation |doi=10.1017/S0026749X11000345|title=Whither Kashmir Studies?: A Review|year=2012|last1=Zutshi|first1=Chitralekha|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=46|issue=4|pages=1033–1048|s2cid=144626260}}
* {{citation |doi=10.1177/0019464613487119|citeseerx=10.1.1.893.7358|title=Past as tradition, past as history: The Rajatarangini narratives in Kashmir's Persian historical tradition|year=2013|last1=Zutshi|first1=Chitralekha|journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review|volume=50|issue=2|pages=201–219|s2cid=143228373}}

==External links==
* [http://history.world-citizenship.org/baharistan-i-shahi Baharistan -i Shahi A Chronicle of Medieval Kashmir translated into English]
* [http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/SSEAL/SouthAsia/kashmir.html ''Conflict in Kashmir: Selected Internet Resources by the Library, University of California, Berkeley, USA''; Bibliographies and Web-Bibliographies list]
* [http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/ Kashmir Website with Historical Timeline]
* [http://coinindia.com/galleries-kashmirsultans.html Coins of the Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1586)]
* {{in lang|ar}} [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4077 "The Great History of the Events of Kashmir"] from 1821

{{History of India by State}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History of Kashmir}}
[[Category:History of Kashmir| ]]
[[Category:History of India by location]]
[[Category:History of Pakistan by location]]
[[Category:History of China by location]]

The Singh Twins

2022-09-25T13:07:12Z

Nsksks: Crafted a new page.

{{Use dmy dates}}
'''The Singh Twins''' (twin sisters '''Amrit Singh''' [[Order of the British Empire (MBE)|MBE]] and '''Rabindra Kaur Singh''' [[Order of the British Empire (MBE)|MBE]]) are British artists who work together on their artworks. Their work draws on both traditional Indian (in particular, [[Sikh art|Sikh]]) tradition, Western medieval illuminated manuscripts and contemporary Western culture, often 'pop culture'. Their work has been shown in galleries and museums such as the [[National Portrait Gallery, London|National Portrait Gallery]] in London.<ref name="NPG">{{cite web |title=Contemporary Connections: The Singh Twins |url=https://www.npg.org.uk/whatson/display/20101/contemporary-connections-the-singh-twins/ |website=www.npg.org.uk |publisher=National Portrait Gallery |accessdate=5 December 2020}}</ref>

==Early life==
Twin sisters Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh are British artists of [[Sikh]] heritage. They were born in Richmond, Surrey, and raised in Birkenhead.<ref name="Independent">{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/seeing-as-one-why-has-the-british-establishment-never-quite-accepted-the-singh-twins-1654135.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220618/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/seeing-as-one-why-has-the-british-establishment-never-quite-accepted-the-singh-twins-1654135.html |archive-date=18 June 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Seeing as one: Why has the British establishment never quite accepted the Singh Twins?|author=Peter Stanford|work=The Independent|access-date=5 December 2020|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name="Guardian">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2010/nov/18/singh-sisters-artists-identity|title=Sister act: the Singh Twins|author=Leo Mirani|work=The Guardian|access-date=5 December 2020|language=en-GB}}</ref> They were the only non-Catholics to attend their Catholic convent school, Holt Hill Convent.<ref name="Guardian"/><ref name="YMLiverpool">{{Cite news|url=https://ymliverpool.com/interview-singh-twins/31555|title=Interview: Renowned Wirral-raised artists The Singh Twins|author=Laurence Saunders|work=Your Magazine Liverpool|access-date=5 December 2020|language=en-GB}}</ref> In the mid 1980s to 1991 they studied art together at University College, Chester, followed by Manchester University.<ref name="Independent"/>

==Work==
They combine traditions from both Eastern and Western art to make provocative and sharply political work.

The sisters' work is always credited to The Singh Twins, even if the sisters have worked alone on a piece.<ref name="Guardian"/> The Singh Twins work from their studio near [[Liverpool]],<ref name="Christies">{{cite web |title=Studio visit: The Singh Twins |url=https://www.christies.com/features/The-Singh-Twins-Studio-Visit-7344-3.aspx |website=www.christies.com |publisher=Christies |accessdate=5 December 2020}}</ref> which is next to the family home they share with their extended family.<ref name="Independent"/>

The Singh Twins' work is influenced by Indian miniature paintings, but deals with British contemporary culture, as well as topics such as globalisation and migration.<ref name="Independent"/><ref name="Guardian"/>

In 2002, their work was the subject of an exhibition at the [[National Gallery of Modern Art]] in [[New Delhi]], making them only the second British-born artists, after [[Henry Moore]], to be accorded such an honour.<ref name="Independent"/>

In 2009 their work was the subject of an exhibition, "The Singh Twins: Art in Motion" at [[Leamington Spa]] Art Gallery.<ref name="Independent"/> The following year the [[National Portrait Gallery, London|National Portrait Gallery]] featured 27 of their works as part of an exhibition, and [[Sunderland Museum and Winter Gardens]] held a retrospective of the previous two decades' worth of their work.<ref name="Guardian"/>

In 2018 they curated the ‘Slaves of Fashion’ exhibition at the [[Walker Art Gallery]] in Liverpool.<ref name="YMLiverpool"/>

In 2020 they were featured in ''[[Grayson's Art Club]]'', hosted by [[Grayson Perry]] on [[Channel 4]], and a work of theirs is in the accompanying exhibition at [[Manchester Art Gallery]].<ref name="MAG">{{cite web |title=Grayson's Art Club |url=https://manchesterartgallery.org/exhibitions-and-events/exhibition/graysons-art-club/|website=manchesterartgallery.org |publisher=Manchester Art Gallery |accessdate=5 December 2020}}</ref> Perry said of the twins, whose work he admires: 'They combine traditions from both Eastern and Western art to make provocative and sharply political work.'<ref name="channel4.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.channel4.com/programmes/graysons-art-club/on-demand/71402-006|title = Grayson's Art Club: Series 1 Episode 6 - All 4}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.singhtwins.co.uk/ The Singh Twins' website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh Twins, The}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from London]]
[[Category:People from Birkenhead]]
[[Category:British artists]]
[[Category:English people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:English Sikhs]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{UK-artist-stub}}

Staggered elections

2022-09-18T00:14:19Z

Nsksks: Page drafted.

{{Short description|Elections where only a part of the body is elected at a time}}
{{Distinguish|Rolling election}}
{{Elections}}

'''Staggered elections''' are elections where only some of the places in an elected body are up for election at the same time. For example, [[United States senators]] have a six-year term, but they are not all elected at the same time. Rather, elections are held every two years for [[Classes of United States Senators|one-third of Senate seats]].

Staggered elections have the effect of limiting control of a representative body by the body being represented, but can also minimize the impact of [[cumulative voting]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.stroock.com/SiteFiles/Pub341.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2016-08-24 |archive-date=2011-07-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717124912/http://www.stroock.com/SiteFiles/Pub341.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Many [[companies]] use staggered elections as a tool to prevent [[takeover]] attempts. Some legislative bodies (most commonly [[upper house]]s) use staggered elections, as do some public bodies, such as the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]].

==Application in business==
A '''staggered board of directors''' or '''classified board''' is a prominent practice in [[US corporate law]] governing the [[board of directors]] of a [[company]], [[corporation]], or other organization, in which only a fraction (often one third) of the members of the board of directors is elected each time instead of en masse (where all directors have one-year terms). Each group of directors falls within a specified "class"—e.g., Class I, Class II, etc.—hence the use of the term "classified" board.<ref>See Faleye,O., 2007, Classified Boards, Firm value, and [[Management entrenchment|Managerial Entrenchment]], Journal of Financial Economics83, 501-529.</ref> The work of the Shareholder Rights Project has had a significant effect on the number of classified boards on the S&P 500.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bebchuk|first1=Lucian A.|last2=Hirst|first2=Scott|last3=Rhee|first3=June|title=Towards the Declassification of S&P 500 Boards|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2400652|language=en|location=Rochester, NY| ssrn=2400652 }}</ref>'''{{rp|159}}'''

In publicly held companies, staggered boards have the effect of making hostile [[takeover]] attempts more difficult; however, they are also associated with lower firm value.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hirst|first1=Scott|last2=Bebchuk|first2=Lucian|title=Private Ordering and the Proxy Access Debate|url=https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/338|journal=The Harvard John M. Olin Discussion Paper Series|volume=No. 653}}</ref>'''{{rp|10}}''' When a board is staggered, hostile bidders must win more than one [[proxy fight]] at successive shareholder meetings in order to exercise control of the target [[Corporation|firm]]. Particularly in combination with a [[Shareholder rights plan|poison pill]], a staggered board that cannot be dismantled or evaded is one of the most potent takeover defenses available to U.S. companies.<ref>See [[Lucian Bebchuk]], John C. Coates IV, and Guhan Subramanian, The Powerful Antitakeover Force of Staggered Boards: Theory, Evidence, and Policy, 54 Stan. L. Rev. 887 (2002).</ref>

In corporate [[cumulative voting]] systems, staggering has two basic effects: it makes it more difficult for a minority group to get directors elected, as the fewer directorships up for election requires a larger percent of the equity to win; and it makes takeover attempts less likely to succeed as it is harder to vote in a majority of new directors.<ref name="corpfinance">{{cite book|last1=Hillier|first1=David|last2=Ross|first2=Stephen|last3=Westerfield|first3=Randolph|last4=Jaffe|first4=Jeffrey|last5=Jordan|first5=Bradford|title=Corporate Finance|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|location=Berkshire|isbn=9780077139148|pages=34–35|edition=2nd European}}</ref> Staggering may also however serve a more beneficial purpose, that is provide "institutional memory" — continuity in the board of directors — which may be significant for corporations with long-range projects and plans.<ref name="corpfinance"/>

Institutional shareholders are increasingly calling for an end to staggered boards of directors—also called "declassifying" the boards. ''The Wall Street Journal'' reported in January 2007 that 2006 marked a key switch in the trend toward declassification or annual votes on all directors: more than half (55%) of the S&P 500 companies have declassified boards, compared with 47% in 2005.<ref>Jared A. Favole, "Big Firms Increasingly Declassify Boards", The Wall Street Journal, Jan. 10, 2007.</ref>

==Use in legislative bodies==
===National===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="2" |Chamber
! rowspan="2" |Type
!Classes
! colspan="3" |% of seats up per election
! rowspan="2" |Method of Staggering
|-
!Total
!1
!2
!3
|-
|[[Argentine Chamber of Deputies]]
|[[Lower house]]
|2
|{{Composition bar|130|257}}
|{{Composition bar|127|257}}
|
|Every constituency has seats in both classes, with roughly half of the seats contested in each class individually
|-
|[[Argentine Senate]]
|[[Upper house]]
|3
|{{Composition bar|24|72}}
|{{Composition bar|24|72}}
|{{Composition bar|24|72}}
|Each constituency has all its seats in one class only
|-
|[[Australian Senate]]
|[[Upper house]]
|2
|{{Composition bar|40|76}}
|{{Composition bar|40|76}}
|
|Most constituencies have seats in both classes, with half of the seats contested in each class individually<br>Some constituencies have all of their seats contested in each and every class
|-
|[[Brazilian Senate]]
|[[Upper house]]
|2
|{{Composition bar|54|81}}
|{{Composition bar|27|81}}
|
|Every constituency has seats in both classes, with two-thirds of the seats contested in class 1 and the remaining one-third in class 2
|-
|[[Senate of Chile]]
|[[Upper house]]
|2
|{{Composition bar|23|43}}
|{{Composition bar|20|43}}
|
|Each constituency has all its seats in one class only
|-
|[[Senate of the Czech Republic]]
|[[Upper house]]
|3
|{{Composition bar|27|81}}
|{{Composition bar|27|81}}
|{{Composition bar|27|81}}
|Each constituency has all its seats in one class only
|-
|[[Senate (France)]]
|[[Upper house]]
|2
|{{Composition bar|174|348}}
|{{Composition bar|174|348}}
|
|Each constituency has all its seats in one class only
|-
|[[Rajya Sabha]] (India)
|[[Upper house]]
|3
|{{Composition bar|77|245}}
|{{Composition bar|78|245}}
|{{Composition bar|78|245}}
|
|-
|[[House of Councillors (Japan)]]
|[[Upper house]]
|2
|{{Composition bar|124|248}}
|{{Composition bar|124|248}}
|
|Every constituency has seats in both classes, with half of the seats contested in each class individually
|-
|[[Senate of Liberia]]
|[[Upper house]]
|2
|{{Composition bar|15|30}}
|{{Composition bar|15|30}}
|
|Every constituency has seats in both classes, with half of the seats contested in each class individually
|-
|[[National Assembly (Nepal)]]
|[[Upper house]]
|3
|{{Composition bar|19|59}}
|{{Composition bar|20|59}}
|{{Composition bar|20|59}}
|Every constituency has seats in all three classes, with roughly a third of the seats contested in each class individually
|-
|[[Senate of Pakistan]]
|[[Upper house]]
|2
|{{Composition bar|52|104}}
|{{Composition bar|52|104}}
|
|Every constituency has seats in both classes, with half of the seats contested in each class individually
|-
|[[Senate of the Philippines]]
|[[Upper house]]
|2
|{{Composition bar|12|24}}
|{{Composition bar|12|24}}
|
|The Senate is elected nationwide [[at-large]], with half of the seats contested in each class individually
|-
|[[United States Senate]]
|[[Upper house]]
|3
|{{Composition bar|33|100}}
|{{Composition bar|33|100}}
|{{Composition bar|34|100}}
|Every constituency has seats in two out of the three classes, with half of the seats contested in each of those classes individually
|}
* In the [[Australian Senate]], a [[double dissolution]] election can happen, where all seats are contested. The 4 Territory seats are contested at each election.
* Some chambers do not have all of its seats elected, such as in the [[Rajya Sabha]] where 12 seats are appointed by the president.
* [[By-election]]s (special elections) can be held concurrently with general elections, increasing the number of seats up in an election.

===State===

====Argentina====
12 of the 24 provincial legislatures have staggered elections:

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Buenos Aires Province|Buenos Aires]]: [[Buenos Aires Province Chamber of Deputies|Chamber of Deputies]] and [[Buenos Aires Province Senate|Senate]]
*[[Buenos Aires City]]: [[Buenos Aires City Legislature|Unicameral legislature]]
*[[Catamarca Province|Catamarca]]: Chamber of Deputies and Senate
*[[Chaco Province|Chaco]]: [[Chamber of Deputies of Chaco|Unicameral legislature]]
*[[Corrientes Province|Corrientes]]: Chamber of Deputies and Senate
*[[Formosa Province|Formosa]]: [[Chamber of Deputies of Formosa|Unicameral legislature]]
*[[Jujuy Province|Jujuy]]: [[Legislature of Jujuy|Unicameral legislature]]
*[[La Rioja Province, Argentina|La Rioja]]: [[Legislature of La Rioja|Unicameral legislature]]
*[[Mendoza Province|Mendoza]]: Chamber of Deputies and Senate
*[[Misiones Province|Misiones]]: [[Chamber of Representatives of Misiones|Unicameral legislature]]
*[[Salta Province|Salta]]: Chamber of Deputies and Senate
*[[San Luis Province|San Luis]]: Chamber of Deputies and Senate
{{div col end}}

====Australia====
In the federal [[Australian Senate|Senate]], half of the Senate's 76 members are eligible for re-election every 3 years. All members elected from states have a six-year term staggered over two election cycles; senators elected from the [[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]] and the [[Northern Territory|NT]] have 3 year terms only. These half-Senate elections are usually held in conjunction with an [[Elections in Australia|election]] of all members for the [[Australian House of Representatives|Federal House of Representatives]]. There are rare instances in which a Federal election is held for the all members of the House of Representatives and all the members of the Senate at once, this is called a [[double dissolution]] election.

Three of Australia's five State Legislative Councils use staggered elections:
* [[New South Wales Legislative Council]]
* [[South Australian Legislative Council]]
* [[Tasmanian Legislative Council]]

[[Local government in Western Australia|Local councils in Western Australia]] also have staggered elections.<ref>[https://www.elections.wa.gov.au/elections/local "Local Government Elections"], ''[[Western Australian Electoral Commission]]''.</ref>

====India====
All six Legislative councils of states have staggered elections:

*[[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council]]
*[[Bihar Legislative Council]]
*[[Karnataka Legislative Council]]
*[[Maharashtra Legislative Council]]
*[[Telangana Legislative Council]]
*[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council]]

====United States====
27 of the State Senates in the United States have staggered elections:<ref>[https://ballotpedia.org/Length_of_terms_of_state_senators "Length of terms of state senators"], Ballotpedia, Accessed 24 August 2016.</ref>

{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Alaska State Senate]]
* [[Arkansas State Senate]]
* [[California State Senate]]
* [[Colorado State Senate]]
* [[Delaware State Senate]]
* [[Florida State Senate]]
* [[Hawaii State Senate]]
* [[Illinois State Senate]]
* [[Indiana State Senate]]
* [[Iowa Senate]]
* [[Kentucky State Senate]]
* [[Missouri State Senate]]
* [[Montana State Senate]]
* [[Nebraska Legislature]]
* [[Nevada State Senate]]
* [[North Dakota State Senate]]
* [[Ohio State Senate]]
* [[Oklahoma State Senate]]
* [[Oregon State Senate]]
* [[Pennsylvania State Senate]]
* [[Tennessee State Senate]]
* [[Texas State Senate]]
* [[Utah State Senate]]
* [[Washington State Senate]]
* [[West Virginia State Senate]]
* [[Wisconsin State Senate]]
* [[Wyoming State Senate]]
{{div col end}}

===Local===
* Some local councils in the [[United Kingdom]]

==Historical usage==

===National===
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[General Council of Andorra]] (1867–1979)<ref name='andorra'>[http://www.consellgeneral.ad/fitxers/documents/dia-de-la-democracia-2016/labstencio-al-principat-dandorra Consell General - L'abstenció al Principat d'Andorra]</ref>
* [[Chamber of Representatives (Belgium)|Chamber of Representatives]] and [[Senate of Belgium]] (1835–1919)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.elections.fgov.be/index.php?id=2101|title= Direction des élections - Evolution de la législation électorale|website=elections.fgov.be}}</ref>
* [[Senate of Bolivia|Senate]] and [[Chamber of Deputies of Bolivia]] (1944–1964)
* [[Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica]] (1913–1948)
* Senate and Chamber of Representatives of [[Cuba]] (1902–1950)
* [[Landstinget (Denmark)|Landsting of Denmark]] (1915–1953)<ref>[http://www.dst.dk/Site/Dst/Udgivelser/GetPubFile.aspx?id=20213&sid=rigsvalg Danmarks Statistik - Rigsdagsvalgene og folkeafstemningerne i april og maj 1953, p. 182]</ref>
* [[National Assembly (Ecuador)|National Assembly of Ecuador]] (1945–1970, 1984–1998)
* [[National Congress of Honduras]] (until 1942)
* [[Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg)|Chamber of Deputies of Luxembourg]] (1922–1951)
* [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|House of Representatives]] (1849–1888)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.parlement.com/id/vglrdyd9plkn/negentiende_eeuws_districtenstelsel_in |title=Negentiende-eeuws districtenstelsel in Nederland |website=Parlement.com |language=nl |access-date=18 February 2019}}</ref> and [[Senate (Netherlands)|Senate]] (1848–1983)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.parlement.com/id/vhnnmt7mlkw5/geschiedenis_kiesstelsel_eerste_kamer |title=Geschiedenis kiesstelsel Eerste Kamer |website=Parlement.com |language=nl |access-date=18 February 2019}}</ref> of the [[Netherlands]]
* [[National Congress of Nicaragua|National Congress]] of [[Nicaragua]] (1912–1932)
* [[Första kammaren|First Chamber of Sweden]] (1867–1970)
{{div col end}}

===Local===
* [[Andorra]]: [[Parishes of Andorra|communal councils]] (1867–1979)<ref name='andorra'/>
* [[Belgium]]: [[Municipalities of Belgium|municipal councils]] and [[Provinces of Belgium|provincial councils]] (1836–1914)
* [[Spain]]: [[Municipalities of Spain|municipal councils]] and [[Provinces of Spain|provincial deputations]] (until 1923)
* [[Japan]]: [[Prefectures of Japan|prefectural]] assemblies (1878–1890s)<ref>Akio Kamiko (2010, bilingual): [http://www3.grips.ac.jp/~coslog/activity/01/05/file/Seiritsu-1_jp.pdf 近代地方行政の黎明期(1868-1880年)], pp. 7–8: 府県会規則 /[http://www3.grips.ac.jp/~coslog/activity/01/05/file/Seiritsu-1_en.pdf The Start of Modern Local Government (1868 – 1880)], pp. 10–11: Prefectural Assembly Law (Fukenkai Kisoku)</ref>

==See also==
*[[Industrial organization]]
*[[Mergers and acquisitions]]
*[[Takeover]], including [[Takeover#Hostile|hostile takeover]]
*[[United Kingdom company law]]
*[[United States corporate law]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{voting systems}}
{{corporate finance and investment banking}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Staggered Elections}}
[[Category:Corporate law]]
[[Category:Elections]]